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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Picquart%27s%20investigations%20of%20the%20Dreyfus%20affair
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Georges Picquart's investigations of the Dreyfus affair
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While Alfred Dreyfus was serving his sentence on Devil's Island, in France a number of people began to question his guilt. The most notable of these was Major Georges Picquart.
Colonel Picquart
Not long after the condemnation of Alfred Dreyfus, the military counter-intelligence section at the French War Ministry had a change of leadership. Lt Col Jean Conrad Sandherr, incapacitated by illness, resigned from the post simultaneously with his assistant, Cordier on 1 July 1895. Georges Picquart, who had been in charge of reporting the proceedings of the Dreyfus case to the War Minister and to his chief of staff, received the appointment to fill Sandherr's position. Picquart was a young and brilliant officer, of Alsatian origin, hard-working and well-informed, with a clear intellect. He had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel on 6 April 1896, the youngest officer of that grade in the army.
Immediately upon his arrival, he reorganized the service, which had been neglected during the prolonged illness of Sandherr. He required that the paper bags Madame Marie Bastian used to collect the waste papers from the German embassy (which she had previously brought to Major Henry) to pass through his hands before being given to Captain Lauth, whose work it was to review them. These bags, however, never brought anything of importance to light, except that the leakage of secret information had not ceased since the condemnation of Dreyfus.
The "petit bleu"
The chief of the staff, Raoul Le Mouton de Boisdeffre, told Picquart that in his opinion the Dreyfus affair was not definitively settled. They believed that they must be on the lookout for a counter-attack from the Jews. In 1894, they had not been able to discover a motive for the treason; there was therefore every reason for continuing the search to "strengthen the dossier."
In March 1896, Commandant Henry made only short and infrequent visits to Paris. One day he sent Madame Bastian's paper bag, particularly bulky on this occasion, to Picquart without looking at the contents. Picquart, also without inspecting it, passed it on to Lauth. Lauth later brought his chief a pneumatic tube telegram (commonly known as a "petit bleu"), the fragments of which he had found in the bag; pasted together, they contained the following words:
To Major Esterhazy, 27 Rue de la Bienfaisance, Paris.
Sir: I am awaiting first of all a more detailed explanation [than] that which you gave me the other day on the subject in question. Consequently I beg you to send it to me in writing that I may judge whether I can continue my relations with the firm R. or not. C.
The writing of this note was disguised, but the place it came from left no room for doubt that it came from Colonel Max von Schwartzkoppen; the office possessed another document, known to have been written by him, and signed with the same initial "C." The "petit bleu" had not been sent by mail; apparently, after having written or dictated it, Schwartzkoppen decided not to send it and threw it away, taking care to tear it up into more than fifty very small pieces. He had not foreseen the patient industry of the Intelligence Department.
Captain Lauth felt the note might mean that there was another traitor among the officers. Picquart shared his impression; but determined to avoid the indiscretions and blunders which had been committed in 1894, he decided to secretly investigate himself before spreading the news of the discovery. He put the "petit bleu" away in his strong-box, and shortly afterward had photographs of it taken by Lauth.
Major Esterhazy
Picquart began by getting information about the personality of Major Esterhazy, to whom the "petit bleu" was addressed. He spoke to his friend Major Curé, one of Esterhazy's fellow soldiers.
He discovered that Esterhazy had been under suspicion of malversation in Tunis and of espionage; he learned that Major Esterhazy was constantly absent from his garrison. He learned that Esterhazy collected information on confidential military questions, particularly those concerning mobilization and artillery. Esterhazy attended artillery tests, and when he could not succeed in being ordered to attend he went there at his own expense. This is what he had done notably in 1894, the year of the discovery of the bordereau, whose alleged writing cost Dreyfus the condemnation. He also borrowed books and documents, and had them copied by his secretaries.
Picquart's investigations
At first Picquart did not establish any connection in his own mind between the "petit bleu" and the bordereau; he simply thought he was on the track of a fresh traitor, and hoped to catch him in the act. However, Esterhazy had been warned, and not only was it impossible to surprise him in any compromising visit, but he showed himself openly at the German embassy, to which he went to ask for a passport for his colonel. He insisted that he be allowed to return to the War Office, in preference to the Intelligence Department, and was able to attain the post through the highest parliamentary and military influence.
However, a fresh incident occurred to strengthen Picquart's suspicions. The French military attaché at Berlin, Foucault, informed him of a curious conversation he had had with Richard Cuers, a spy who wavered between France and Germany. Cuers told Foucault that Germany had never employed Dreyfus, that the only French officer who was in Germany's pay was a major of infantry who had furnished some sheets from lectures held at the shooting school at Châlons.
The secret dossier
Picquart told General de Boisdeffre about his discovery, and upon the order of the general and of the minister of war, Jean-Baptiste Billot, he was directed to continue his inquiry as quietly as possible. Boisdeffre did not seem to be interested in pursuing the case. If Esterhazy were really a traitor, he would be dismissed from the army quietly; another Dreyfus affair was to be avoided. Picquart now set to work in earnest to get samples of Esterhazy's handwriting, and he succeeded in obtaining two letters which the major had written. On looking at them Picquart discovered that the writing was identical with that of the bordereau attributed to Dreyfus. He wished to make sure of his impression, so he showed some photographs of these letters to Armand du Paty de Clam and Alphonse Bertillon.
Du Paty declared: "They are from Matthew Dreyfus"; Bertillon said: "It is the writing of the bordereau." And when Picquart told him the letters were of recent date, he declared: "The Jews have, for the past year, been training some one to imitate the writing; he has succeeded in making a perfect reproduction."
Picquart realised that if Esterhazy, as the handwriting seemed to indicate, were the author of the bordereau, Dreyfus must be the victim of a judicial error. He obtained the secret dossier communicated to the judges in 1894, and which had been stored since then in Henry's safe. He discovered that the documents in the dossier contained absolutely nothing that applied, or could be made to apply, to Dreyfus. Of the only two papers that were of any importance, one, the document "canaille de D ...," did not in any way concern any officer, but only someone who had assumed the name of Dubois, while the other, the memorandum of Schwartzkoppen, almost certainly pointed to Esterhazy. Du Paty's commentary was a mass of wild suppositions. Later this commentary was claimed by General Mercier as his private property and quietly destroyed by him.
Picquart immediately drew up a report and brought it to Boisdeffre, who ordered Picquart to relate his story to the deputy-chief of the staff, Charles Arthur Gonse. The general received Picquart, listened to his revelations, and concluded that they must "separate the two affairs", that of Dreyfus and that of Esterhazy. These instructions, confirmed by Boisdeffre, seemed absurd to Picquart, since the bordereau established an indissoluble bond between the two cases; he should have understood from that moment that his superiors had determined not to permit the reopening of the Dreyfus affair.
General Billot
Most of the officers involved in the case were afraid that they would lose their positions in the military if they publicly confessed the part they had taken in the mistaken conviction of Dreyfus in 1894 and the subsequent cover-up. General Billot, to whom Picquart, following Boisdeffre's orders, made a complete report of the case, appeared deeply moved. He did not have any reason to defend the judgment of 1894, for he had had nothing to do with it, and learned for the first time the contents of the secret dossier. But he did not act.
Picquart meanwhile was unaware that in his own office he was spied upon, opposed, and deceived by his fellow workers, Henry, Lauth, and the archivist Félix Gribelin. One of them, Henry, had served with Esterhazy at the Intelligence Office, and had been his friend and debtor since 1876, although he pretended to know very little about him. If it is not certain that Henry was Esterhazy's accomplice, it seems very probable that from the end of 1894 he knew him to be the author of the bordereau.
The Castelin interpellation
In September 1896, the false rumor of Dreyfus's escape brought the case abruptly back to public notice. The anti-Jewish press inveighed against the accomplices, the protectors of the traitor; a member of the Chamber, André Castelin, announced that at the opening of the next session he would formally question the ministry on the subject. The Dreyfus family was pursuing an inquiry and was getting ready to publish a pamphlet demanding the revision of the case. Picquart believed Castelin was working for the Dreyfus family.
In early September Picquart came into possession of a strange forgery. It was a letter in a feigned handwriting written in the German style, pretending to be addressed to Dreyfus by a friend named Weiss or Weill, and referring to "interesting documents" written in invisible ink. This was probably the beginning of the plot to discredit Picquart. He insisted to General Gonse that the initiative should come from the Staff Office to investigate. Gonse answered by vaguely advising him to act with prudence, and was opposed to the "expertises" in handwriting that Picquart requested. On 14 September L'Eclair published a retrospective article under the title "The Traitor" which pretended to bring to light the real motives for the judgment of 1894. The article revealed for the first time the fact of the communication to the judges of a secret document, but this document – the letter "canaille de D ..." – now became a "letter in cipher" in which the following phrase was found: "This creature Dreyfus is becoming decidedly too exacting." This article had been brought to "L'Eclair" by a contributor to the Petit Journal. Picquart attributed it to the Dreyfus family, and wanted to investigate, but his superiors would not allow it. This only caused him to insist more firmly that immediate steps should be taken. Then took place between General Gonse and Picquart this dialogue:
"What can it matter to you," said the general, "whether this Jew remains at Devil's Island or not?"
"But he is innocent."
"That is an affair that can not be reopened; General Mercier and General Félix Gustave Saussier are involved in it."
"Still, what would be our position if the family ever found out the real culprit?"
"If you say nothing, nobody will ever know it."
"What you have just said is abominable, General. I do not know yet what course I shall take, but in any case I will not carry this secret with me to the grave."
From that day Picquart's removal was decided. He was authorized for the sake of appearances to continue his investigations concerning Esterhazy, but he was forbidden to take any decisive steps or to have Esterhazy arrested. Picquart found that ordinary measures – secret searches in his rooms, opening of his correspondence, examination of his desks – were of no avail, because Esterhazy had been warned.
Henry's confirmatory letter
Meanwhile, Henry told General Gonse that it would be advisable to put the secret dossier of the Dreyfus case out of the way. Gonse removed the dossier on 30 October. A few days later Henry brought him a letter written in blue pencil from the Italian military attaché Alessandro Panizzardi which, he said, he had just found among some scraps in Madame Bastian's paper bag on 31 October. The letter said:
My dear friend: I have read that a deputy is going to ask several questions on the Dreyfus affair. If they request any new explanations at Rome, I shall say that I never had any dealings with this Jew. That is understood. If they question you make the same reply, for nobody must ever know what has happened to him. Alexandrine.
The writing was apparently Panizzardi's, and in order to compare it Henry produced an earlier letter, supposed to have been taken from the waste of the secret dossier, written with the same pencil, on the same sort of paper ruled in squares, and containing the same signature. In reality, the letter brought for comparison contained fraudulent additions hinting at a Jewish traitor, while the new document was a complete forgery executed by one of Henry's customary forgers named Lemercier-Picard, who later admitted to Count Tornielli that he had written it. Gonse and Boisdeffre believed or pretended to believe in its authenticity, and convinced General Billot. When Colonel Picquart expressed his doubts to Gonse, the latter answered: "When a minister tells me anything I always believe it."
On 6 November, the memoir written by Bernard Lazare on behalf of the Dreyfus family appeared in Brussels. The memoir laid bare the inconclusive character of the incriminating document (without, however, publishing it), and affirmed, in opposition to "L'Eclair," that it bore only the initial "D" and not the name "Dreyfus". The pamphlet, distributed to the members of the Chamber, received a cold welcome from the press.
On 10 November, Le Matin published a facsimile of the bordereau attributed to Dreyfus. It had been obtained from the handwriting expert Teyssonnières, who had kept a photograph of the document. The publication of the facsimile allowed handwriting experts all over the world to prove the differences that existed between the writing of the bordereau and that of Dreyfus. Moreover, Esterhazy's handwriting was recognized, particularly by Schwartzkoppen, by Maurice Weil, and by a solicitor's clerk, the son of the chief rabbi Zadoc Kahn. Maurice Weil, one of Esterhazy's intimate friends, sent to the minister of war an anonymous letter which he had just received and which warned him that Castelin intended to denounce Esterhazy and Weil as accomplices of Dreyfus.
The Staff Office blamed Picquart for these embarrassing facts coming into the open, and decided that his departure from the service should be arranged. Boisdeffre went with him to the minister, who rebuked Picquart soundly for having let information leak out and for having seized Esterhazy's correspondence without authorization. In recognition of his past services he was not disgraced, but was ordered to set out immediately to inspect the intelligence service in the east of France, and to resign his position to General Gonse. He left on 16 November without protesting. Two days later Castelin's interpellation was made, but it failed in its purpose. Castelin demanded that proceedings should be instituted against the accomplices of the traitor, among whom he named Dreyfus' father-in-law Hadamard, the naval officer Emile Weyl, and Bernard Lazare. General Billot, who had addressed the Chamber before Castelin, claimed the actions of 1894 had been perfectly legitimate, and made an appeal to the patriotism of the assembly to terminate a "dangerous debate." After a short and confused argument the Chamber voted an "ordre du jour" of confidence, inviting the government to inquire into the matter and to take proceedings if there were cause. A petition from Madame Dreyfus was put aside by the judicial committee for want of sufficient proof.
Machinations against Picquart
Meanwhile, Picquart was sent from Nancy to Marseille, and later on to Tunis, where he was attached to the Fourth Regiment of sharpshooters in garrison at Sousse. General Gonse wrote to him upon the question of money, as if to suggest purchasing his silence. Picquart recorded the history of his discovery in a codicil to his will, which he intended for the president of the republic; in this way he was sure "not to take his secret with him to the grave".
References
Dreyfus affair
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404801
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other%20investigations%20of%20the%20Dreyfus%20affair
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Other investigations of the Dreyfus affair
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After Major Georges Picquart's exile to Tunisia others took up the cause of the Alfred Dreyfus.
Henry's forgeries
Major Henry, though under the nominal direction of Gonse, had become the real head of the Intelligence Office, where he quietly prepared a whole series of forgeries, designed, when the opportunity presented itself, to crush Picquart if he ever attempted to cause trouble. After having put at rest the mistrust of his former chief by pretended protestations of devotion, in June, 1897, he suddenly flung off his mask. Picquart, irritated at continually receiving missives from the agents of his former service, wrote a rather hasty note to Henry, in which he denounced "the lies and the mysteries" with which his pretended mission had been surrounded during the past six months. Henry, after having consulted his superiors, answered, declaring that as far as "mysteries" were concerned he knew only that the following facts had been established against Picquart by an "inquiry":
The opening of correspondence unconnected with the service.
A proposal to two officers to testify, should such action be necessary, that a paper, registered as belonging to the service, and emanating from a well-known person, had been seized in the mails – a reference to a remark made by Lauth to Picquart, that the "petit bleu" addressed to Esterhazy was lacking the regular stamp of the post-office.
The opening of a secret dossier, followed by disclosures.
This letter, to which Picquart replied by a brief protest, opened his eyes; he understood the plot that was being hatched against him, the dangers which threatened him for having been too discerning. He asked for leave, went to Paris, and disclosed his affair to his old friend and comrade Leblois, a lawyer. Without revealing to Leblois any secret document, even the "petit bleu," he told him that he had discovered Esterhazy's crime and the innocence of Dreyfus; he authorized him, in case of necessity, to inform the government, but absolutely forbade him to apprise either the brother or the lawyer of Dreyfus. Leblois did not long remain the only recipient of the secret. A few days later chance brought him in contact with one of the few statesmen who had shown any sympathy with the researches of Matthew Dreyfus – the Alsatian Scheurer-Kestner, former member of the Chamber of Deputies for Alsace and coworker with Gambetta, and now vice-president of the Senate and one of the most justly esteemed men of the Republican party. Since 1895 Scheurer-Kestner, induced by the deputy Ranc and by Matthew Dreyfus, had made some inquiries. In 1897 the friends of Dreyfus returned to the charge. Scheurer-Kestner was surprised to find that all the so-called moral proofs, the tales that were brought forward to explain the crime of Dreyfus, did not bear investigation. The expert Teyssonnières, sent to him by his friend and colleague Trarieux, former minister of justice, did not succeed in convincing him that the bordereau was in the writing of Dreyfus. In great distress, he went to tell his old comrade Billot of his suspicions; the general reassured him: a secret document discovered since the condemnation, at the moment of Castelin's interpellation, had removed all doubts; Billot related the substance of it to him without letting him see it. This "crushing blow," which he kept in reserve for the partisans of Dreyfus, was Major Henry's forgery.
Scheurer-Kestner's inquiries
Scheurer-Kestner was at this point of his inquiry when Leblois, who had met him at dinner one evening, conceived the idea of having recourse to him as the medium by which to save Dreyfus and, through Dreyfus, Picquart. Going to Scheurer-Kestner's house, Leblois told all he knew, and showed him Gonse's letters. Scheurer-Kestner was finally convinced, and swore to devote himself to the defense of the innocent (July 13, 1897). But he was much puzzled as to what course to pursue. Leblois had forbidden him to mention Picquart's name, and Picquart had forbidden that the Dreyfus family should be told. In this perplexity, born of the initial mistake of Picquart, Scheurer-Kestner pursued the most unlucky tactics imaginable; instead of quietly gathering together all his documents and uniting his forces with those of Matthew Dreyfus, he allowed the rumor of his convictions to be spread abroad, and thus put the Staff Office on the alert, gave them time to prepare themselves, and allowed the hostile press to bring discredit upon him and to weaken beforehand by premature and mutilated revelations the force of his arguments.
Tactics of the Staff Office
Billot soon began to feel uneasy; he conjured his "old friend" to do nothing without having seen him; that is to say, until the end of the parliamentary recess. Scheurer-Kestner, without suspecting anything, gave him his word, leaving a clear field to Esterhazy's protectors. In the meantime this personage had been quietly dismissed from active service. Billot, who it is claimed looked upon him as "a scoundrel, a vagabond," perhaps even as the accomplice of Dreyfus, had indignantly opposed his readmission into the War Office. On 17 August Esterhazy was put on the retired list "for temporary infirmities"; but, that done, there remained the prevention of his being "substituted" for Dreyfus. That it was Scheurer-Kestner's plan to demand this substitution, the Staff Office did not doubt for a moment, for Henry's secret police had followed Picquart to Leblois' house, and then Leblois to Scheurer-Kestner's. It was even fancied that Scheurer-Kestner was much more fully informed than was really the case.
Toward the middle of October a meeting was held at the War Office, in anticipation of Scheurer-Kestner's impending campaign. Gonse, Henry, Lauth, Du Paty de Clam, were all present; the last, although having nothing to do with the Intelligence Office, had been summoned to it as the principal worker in the condemnation of Dreyfus, and as interested therefore more than any one in maintaining it. Gonse set forth the plot "of the Jews" to substitute for Dreyfus Esterhazy, an officer of doubtful character, but whom a minute inquiry had cleared of all suspicion of treachery: who was, however, a nervous man, and who, under the blow of a sudden denunciation, might lose his head and take flight or even kill himself; and that would mean catastrophe, war, and disaster. Esterhazy must then be warned, to prevent him from going quite mad. But how was it to be done? It was decided to send him an anonymous letter in order that he might take courage. Billot objected to this proceeding; it seems, however, that somebody disregarded the objection, for Esterhazy received (or pretended to have received) a letter signed Espérance, warning him that the Dreyfus family, informed by a certain Colonel Picquart, intended to accuse him of treason. One fact is certain – that he settled in Paris, went to see Schwartzkoppen, and told him that all was lost if he (Schwartzkoppen) did not go and declare to Madame Dreyfus that her husband was guilty; on the indignant refusal of Schwartzkoppen he threatened to blow his brains out.
At the Staff Office Henry and Du Paty, understanding at once the wishes of Boisdeffre and of Gonse, resolved to join forces with Esterhazy. The keeper of the records, Gribelin, went in disguise to take a letter to Esterhazy fixing a rendezvous in the park of Montsouris. There, while Henry (fearing, as he said, recognition by his former comrade) kept watch, Du Paty, who was also disguised, told Esterhazy that he was known to be innocent, and that he would be defended on condition that he conformed rigorously to the instructions that would be given to him. After this interview, Esterhazy went to Schwartzkoppen quite cheered up, and told him that the staff was entering into a campaign for his defense. A week later Schwartzkoppen had himself recalled to Berlin; it was the discreet but significant avowal that "his man was taken." Meanwhile, Esterhazy, as agreed upon, was receiving his daily instructions from the Staff Office. Every evening from this time on Gribelin brought to him at the Military Club the program for the next day; Du Paty and Henry, whose connection with the affair Esterhazy soon knew, saw him several times, sometimes at the Montmartre cemetery, sometimes on the Pont d'Alexandre III. Later on, when these meetings were considered too dangerous, they corresponded with him through the medium of his mistress, of his lawyer, or of his cousin Christian.
Following instructions, Esterhazy wrote to Billot, ending his letter with the threat that if he were not defended he would apply to the German emperor. He wrote in the same strain to the president of the republic, claiming that a lady, afterward mysteriously referred to as the "veiled lady", had given him a photograph of a very important document which Picquart had acquired from an embassy and which seriously compromised persons of high diplomatic rank. This braggadocio was taken so seriously that General Leclerc received an order at Tunis to question Picquart on having given to an outsider – the "veiled lady" – the "document of deliverance." Receiving no answer, Esterhazy, in his third letter (5 November), virtually held the knife at the president's throat: the stolen document proved the rascality of Dreyfus; if he should publish it, it would be war or humiliation for France. This time they made up their minds to listen to him. General Saussier was charged with interrogating Esterhazy in regard to the "document of deliverance"; he obtained no details from him, but made him promise to send back the document to the minister. On 15 November (the day when Matthew Dreyfus wrote his denunciation) it was "restored" to Saussier in a triple envelope, sealed with Esterhazy's arms: the "document of deliverance," as Esterhazy called it, was a photograph of the document "canaille de D . . ." There is nothing to prove that Esterhazy had ever had it in his hands. Billot acknowledged the receipt by the hand of his "chef de cabinet," General Torcy. By these barefaced stratagems Esterhazy and his defenders on the staff made certain of the complicity of the minister and of the president of the republic, while they compromised Picquart more deeply.
The "Speranza" and "Blanche" telegrams
With the latter they proceeded to further measures. At the end of October Boisdeffre had ordered General Leclerc, commanding the corps of occupation in Tunis, to send Picquart to reconnoitre on the frontier of Tripoli, from which quarter pretended gatherings of the local tribes were reported. It was a dangerous region, where Morès had met his death; General Leclerc was astonished at the order, and, having heard from Picquart the cause of his disgrace, forbade him to go farther than Gabes. Some days later Picquart had to clear himself of the accusation of allowing a woman to purloin the "document of deliverance" of Esterhazy. Then, on 11 November and 12 November, he received one after the other two telegrams worded: (1) "Arrest the demigod; all is discovered; very serious affair. Speranza." (2) "It has been proved that the 'bleu' was forged by Georges. Blanche." The obscure allusions and the names in these forgeries were derived from Picquart's private correspondence, which had been looked through, and were intended to produce the impression that Picquart was in some plot to release Dreyfus; the "demigod," it was pretended, referred to Scheurer-Kestner. The two telegrams, copied before they left Paris, had convinced the Séreté Générale that Picquart was the moving spirit in the plot. On receiving them, and afterward an anonymous letter in the same style, Picquart sent a complaint to General Billot, and asked that inquiries be made regarding the author of these forgeries.
During this time Scheurer-Kestner was being deceived by his "old friend" Billot. On 30 October he had a long conference with Billot, at which he accused Esterhazy. Billot declared that in spite of persistent investigations nobody had been able to find any proofs against Esterhazy, but that there were positive proofs against Dreyfus. Scheurer-Kestner implored him to distrust suspicious documents, and finally gave him a fortnight in which to make an honest and thorough investigation, promising that he himself would not speak during that time.
Silence of Scheurer-Kestner
He kept his word; Billot did not. During the fortnight not only was the collusion between the staff and the traitor fully organized, but the press, furnished with more or less news by the War Office, spoke openly of Scheurer-Kestner's futile visit to Billot and launched a veritable tempest against the "Jewish syndicate," which had bought a "man of straw" as a substitute for Dreyfus in order to dishonor the army. Scheurer-Kestner, patient but much distressed by the tempest, persisted in his fixed idea of acting only through the government. He saw Méline, the president of the council, several times, but Méline would have nothing to do with his dossier, and advised him to address to the minister of justice a direct petition for revision. This was not bad advice. According to the new law of 1895, a petition for revision founded on a new fact (discovered after the sentence) could only be submitted to the Court of Cassation by the keeper of the seals, after the latter had taken the advice of a special commission. The disposition of the minister (Darlan) was not unfavorable to the adoption of this course; and it is worthy of note that the new facts which were allowed later by the court were at that moment easy to establish; namely, the resemblance between Esterhazy's writing and that of the bordereau and the communication of the secret dossier to the judges.
Conjunction of Matthew Dreyfus and Scheurer-Kestner
The pursuit of such a course would also have had the advantage of taking the matter out of the hands of military justice and of placing it in those of the civil judges, who were less prejudiced. However, Scheurer-Kestner did not dare to pursue this course; he thought his documents not sufficiently complete. Official notes from the ministry (6 November and 9 November) stated the attitude which the government was resolved to take – it determined to respect the "chose jugée" (res judicata, the matter adjudicated). As for the legal proceedings to secure revision, the notice added that Captain Dreyfus had been "regularly and justly" condemned – a formula which soon became the burden of General Billot's song. Matters might still have dragged on had it not been for chance. At the instance of the Dreyfus family, Bernard Lazare had prepared a second and more detailed pamphlet, in which had been gathered the opinions of a large number of French and foreign experts upon the writing of the bordereau as compared with that of Dreyfus. The unanimous conclusion of these experts was that the handwritings were not identical; but while some of them maintained that the writing of the bordereau was natural, others saw in it a forgery. At the same time that this brochure was published, Matthew Dreyfus ordered handbills reproducing in facsimile the bordereau and a letter of his brother's, which were offered for sale. One of these handbills fell into the hands of a stockbroker, Castro, who had had business relations with Esterhazy; he immediately recognized the bordereau as the writing of his former client, and informed Matthew Dreyfus of the fact. The latter hastened to Scheurer-Kestner and asked him: "Is that the same name?" "Yes," the latter replied (11 November).
For four days they hesitated as to the course to pursue, Scheurer-Kestner still persisting in keeping the fortnight's silence promised to Billot on 31 October. In the interim, by means of the press the public mind had been influenced by indications as to the real traitor and by counter-declarations by Esterhazy in "La Libre Parole" concerning the conspiracy of the Jews and of "X. Y." (Picquart).
On the night of 15 November, in a letter to the minister of war which was published at once, Matthew Dreyfus denounced "Count" Walsin Esterhazy as the writer of the bordereau and as the author of the treason for which his brother had been condemned.
Trial of Esterhazy
The hasty denunciation of Esterhazy by Matthew Dreyfus was a tactical though perhaps an unavoidable blunder. To accuse Esterhazy formally of the treason imputed to Dreyfus and not simply of having written the bordereau (perhaps as a hoax or a swindle) was to subject the revision of the case of 1894 to the preliminary condemnation of Esterhazy. With the staff and the War Office fully enlisted against Dreyfus, the court martial which Esterhazy himself at once demanded was of necessity a veritable comedy. Not only was the accused allowed his liberty until the last day but one, not only did his protectors in the Staff Office continue to communicate indirectly with him and to dictate the answers he should make, but the general entrusted with the preliminary as well as with the judicial inquiry, Georges-Gabriel de Pellieux, showed him an unchanging friendliness and accepted without examination all his inventions.
Convinced of the guilt of Dreyfus through the assurances of the staff, and before long by Henry's forged documents, Pellieux refused at the outset to examine the bordereau, on the subject of which there was "chose jugée." Even after the formal order to prosecute, an interpellation of Scheurer-Kestner to the Senate (7 December) was necessary to induce General Billot to promise that all the documents, including the famous bordereau, should be produced for examination. On this occasion also, as he had done some days before in the Chamber of Deputies (4 December), the minister did not fail to proclaim on his soul and conscience the guilt of Dreyfus, thus bringing to bear the whole weight of his high office on the verdict of the future judges of Esterhazy. Premier Méline, on his part, gained applause for declaring "that there was no Dreyfus affair," and the Chamber in its "ordre du jour" stigmatized "the ringleaders of the odious campaign which troubled the public conscience."
References
Dreyfus affair
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20Times
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Radio Times
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Radio Times (currently styled as RadioTimes) is a British weekly listings magazine devoted to television and radio programme schedules, with other features such as interviews, film reviews and lifestyle items. Founded in May 1923 by John Reith, then general manager of the British Broadcasting Company (from 1 January 1927, the British Broadcasting Corporation), it was the world's first broadcast listings magazine.
It was published entirely in-house by BBC Magazines from 8 January 1937 until 16 August 2011, when the division was merged into Immediate Media Company. On 12 January 2017, Immediate Media was bought by the German media group Hubert Burda.
The magazine is published on Tuesdays and carries listings for the week from Saturday to Friday. Originally, listings ran from Sunday to Saturday: the changeover meant 8 October 1960 was listed twice, in successive issues. Since Christmas 1969, a 14-day double-duration issue has been published each December containing schedules for two weeks of programmes. Originally this covered Christmas Day and New Year's Day, but on some occasions those have each appeared in separate editions due to the two-week period ending just before the New Year.
History and profile
Publication
The Radio Times was first issued on 28 September 1923 for the price of 2d, carrying details of programmes for six BBC wireless stations (2LO, 5IT, 2ZY, 5NO, 5WA and 5SC); newspapers at the time boycotted radio listings fearing that increased listenership might decrease their sales. It included a message to "listeners" by the BBC's chairman, Lord Pease. Initially, The Radio Times was a combined enterprise between the British Broadcasting Company and publishers George Newnes Ltd within the latter typeset, printed and distributed the magazine. In 1925, the BBC assumed full editorial control, but printing and distribution could not begin in-house until 1937. The Radio Times established a reputation for using leading writers and illustrators, and the covers from the special editions are now collectable design classics. By 26 September 1926, the narrow columns of BBC's wireless programme schedules were broken up by the insertion of a photograph or two – relevant to or depicting subjects of the broadcasts. On 1 May 1927, The Radio Times produced an experimental Braille edition under the auspices of the National Institute for the Blind with its success led to a regular weekly version publication costing one penny. From 15 January 1933, the introduction of a weekly crossword puzzle heralded as popular as ever within the pubilcation making its first-ever appearance.
From 5 January 1934, the three-column programme pages were expanded to include a fourth column with the BBC's television programmes given a new section layout (on 8 January), and The Radio Times announced a regular series of "experimental television transmissions by the Baird process" for half an hour every night at 11.00pm. The launch of the first regular 405-line television service by the BBC was reflected with television listings in The Radio Times London edition of 23 October 1936. Thus, Radio Times became the first-ever television listings magazine in the world. Initially, only two pages in each edition were devoted to television, which ran from Monday to Saturday and remained off-air on Sundays.
After 14 years, from issue 693 (cover date 8 January 1937), that definitive article word "The" was no longer used on the masthead within the magazine, and the publication became simply known as Radio Times; they also published a lavish photogravure supplement in the same issue. Prior to the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, the BBC radio listings provided a National Programme for the whole of the United Kingdom, and the Regional Programme appeared in seven different versions (London, Midlands, North, West, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland) each with a combination of various transmitters respectively before the two stations merged into a single service, and included three pages of television listings.
When Britain declared war with Germany on 3 September 1939 and the television broadcasting ceased, radio listings continued throughout the war with a reduced service. From 23 June 1944, the Allied Expeditionary Forces edition carried details of all the programmes for the Home Service and General Forces Programme. The same year, paper rationing meant editions were only 20 pages of tiny print on thin paper. Radio Times expanded with regional editions introduced from 29 July 1945, and television resumed once again on 7 June 1946. On 4 March 1948, the weekend listing schedules for three BBC radio networks were doubled together with daytime and evening sections in additional four pages a week, as well as weekday billings also used by the same layout which adds 12 extra pages of more articles and detailed programmes bringing up to 40 (or 44 for the television edition) on 1 July 1949.
From 18 January 1953, the television listing schedules, which had been in the back of the magazine, were placed alongside daily radio schedules. On 17 February 1957 (shortly after the abolition of "Toddlers' Truce", in which transmissions terminated between 6.00 and 7.00pm), television listings were moved to a separate section at the front with radio listings relegated to the back; a day's listings were sometimes spread over up to three double-page spreads mixed with advertisements, but this format was phased out when independent publishers were allowed to publish television schedules. The new layout was structured thusly:
From 8 October 1960, BBC television and radio schedules were re-integrated; the programmes included a new 'pick of the week' with a single third page for previews, before each day's listings; these came before the two pages of television and the four pages of radio. A new bolder masthead was designed by Abram Games (who created graphical designs such as the 'Festival Star' on the cover of the 1951 Festival of Britain and the 1953 'Bat's Wings' ident) and containing the words "BBC TV and Sound" on the left side, was introduced with this revamp; it became one of the shortest-used designs in the magazine's history. On 4 August 1962, when Radio Times was again revamped, the masthead was replaced with one incorporating the words in the Clarendon typeface; while the main change was the reduction of BBC radio schedules for three stations to a double-page spread brought down into size, the magazine now generally had between 60 and 68 pages, as compared to the relaunched format from two years earlier, which contained only 52 pages.
From 30 September 1967, Radio Times introduced the all-new colour pages of the magazine's feature sections, including "star stories", Percy Thrower's gardening, Zena Skinner's cookery, Bill Hartley's motoring and Jeffery Boswall's birdwatching, as well as 'Round and About' with up-to-the-minute stories in both television and radio from around the world. At the same time, the four new BBC radio stations (replacing the Home Service, the Light Programme and the Third Programme) were launched within the schedule listing pages:
The layouts of programme page headings have now restyled as well as the three radio pages had been rearranged with schedule billings for Radio 1 and Radio 2 on the first, Radio 3 on the second and Radio 4 on the third. In future weeks, it would boast another revised masthead although the same typeface simply a bold symbol "BBC TV" to the right of the title – within the price, date and regional edition being overprinted in letterpress at the top of the front page, but the letters section and the crossword were placed inside the back page.
On 6 September 1969, Radio Times was given another radical makeover, as they switched the date format from 'month-day-year' to 'day-month-year' and ceased carrying cigarette advertisements after 46 years. The new format inside with the first three pages were devoted to an abbreviated listing of all the week's BBC television and radio programmes in a simple condensed form, within major changes were noticeable on the feature pages as well as the colour ones were spread out to accompany rather than the centre page. The look of the magazine initially became far more restrained, with less white space between columns and headings. More significantly, the lifestyle section (which covered motoring, gardening and cookery) and the crossword were completely dropped, and the highlights section was scrapped. The front cover was surrounded by a black border and italicised its masthead (now in the Caslon typeface with swash capitals; this logo remained until April 2001), in an attempt to emphasize the "R" for radio and "T" for television. From 5 July 1975, the magazine was given a refreshed layout which consisted of horizontal black bars from top to bottom with the familiar darker-shaded look; by this time, the BBC's television schedules included a 'colour' annotation which was dropped eight years later, as well as programmes in black and white were never indicated with the exception of feature films originally made for the cinema.
Another major change occurred on 18 November 1978, in response to wavelength changes (took place on 23 November) that enabled Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland to receive their own separate domestic services in addition to Radio 4 (also known as the national 'Radio 4 UK' service remained until 29 September 1984), the arrival of these services on the pages forced all BBC radio stations into a six-column grid. On 30 August 1980, Radio Times developed a new double-page spread of Robert Ottaway's highlights from the week ahead, often used for both BBC radio and television programmes. The regular inside back page section for younger listeners and viewers featured content from Newsround presenter John Craven and a selection of new puzzles created by the television producer Clive Doig, such as the trackword (which consisted of nine squares in one word), as well as backstage stories and a comic strip of Peter Lord's Morph at the bottom of the page.
Between March and December 1983, Radio Times had severe industrial disputes when the British Printing & Communications Corporation and the union SOGAT 82 joined forces, and production was affected due to printing problems:
23 March – The BBC regrets that the printers for next week's edition are in short supply, but copies will be available in the South West, the West of England, North East, and many parts of South and the North of England.
7 April – The BBC expects copies of the magazine will be available in Scotland, Northern Ireland and North of England from 16 April, following the print workers in East Kilbride and near Bristol returning to work.
4 June – The general election special issue with the combined England edition, as well as the three constituent nations (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) across throughout the country was used for one week only.
16 July – The magazine was finally returned to the fully-regionalised form with complete details of all BBC television channels and radio stations for national, regional and local.
10 December – The magazine was printed and published as the single national edition once again, due to a print workers' strike from the previous week.
On 23 June 1984, the radio listings were redesigned again to improve their legibility and paving the way for a new printing technology. That same year (1 September), web-offset printing was used for the first time, meaning the magazine became brighter and more colourful. Newsprint and sheets of gravure gave way to black ink and white paper, Helvetica replaced Franklin Gothic for a larger character style, and the television listings were also redesigned including the new film icon and the 'today at a glance' sidebar on the far right of pages were added. Starting from 11 October 1986, the new family viewing policy warned readers that BBC Television does not broadcast programmes before 9.00pm which it believed to be unsuitable for children. On 5 September 1987, Radio Times introduces an innovative title called 'Upfront This Week' devoting the first three pages of illustrated snippets to provide the latest programme highlights from all BBC television and radio networks.
On 19 November 1988, Radio Times launched a new weekly back page section called 'My Kind of Day', which was devoted to the latest star interviews with various special guests. Also on the same year (17 December), its popularity climaxed when the Christmas edition sold an astounding 11,220,666 copies, and the Guinness Book of Records certified it as the biggest-selling edition of any British magazine in history. On 25 March 1989 (during Easter), a general overhaul of page layout and design took place, with a major makeover for the programme schedules and the channel headings being visible in greater clarity; BBC1 and BBC2 were once again separated, with the return of the late 1950s/early 1960s layout – television at the front and radio at the back. The week's Radio 1 schedules occupied a single page, followed by Radio 2 (with a facing pair of pages), then several pages of Radio 3 (five pages) and Radio 4 (six pages), and finally the BBC Local Radio listings; regional features, which had absent from the English editions since the late 1960s, resumed with a localised page. Later on 25 November of that year, the radio schedules were restored to two pages for each day; some of the English editions now had daily editorial features on radio as well.
From 2 June 1990, the entire magazine was published in colour for the first time, and another layout began usage; the day's listings began with a single page of highlights that included 'at a glance', followed by the double-page spreads of BBC television channels (BBC1 always occupied the left page and BBC2 for the right page, without advertisements interrupting the listings) and BBC radio stations, now enlivened with colour logos at the top of the pages. This layout only lasted for six months, when a new refreshed format debuted in the Christmas edition (22 December); while the programme listing pages were largely the same, the colour-coded days of the week were now at the top of the page headings.
On 16 February 1991 (the same date for the debut of the new BBC1 and BBC2 idents), the deregulation of television listings began, and Radio Times started to cover all services that include ITV, Channel 4 and satellite networks, an alphabetical list of the commercial radio stations available with the frequency and a two or three-word summary of that station's output which was added to the local radio page. Full complete listings of the four main channels and satellite began on Friday 1 March.
Prior to deregulation, the five weekly listings magazines were as follows:
Radio Times carried the programme schedule listings for BBC radio and television channels, including the new Radio 5 launched on 27 August 1990.
The ITV-published magazine TV Times, launched on 22 September 1955, carried programme listings for ITV, and Channel 4 from 2 November 1982. The regional ITV companies produced their own listings magazines – Look Westward (WTV), The Viewer (Tyne Tees), TV Guide (STV), TV Post (Ulster), Television Weekly (TWW/ITSWW/Harlech), Wales TV/Teledu Cymru (WWN) and TV World (ATV/ABC) – were published before TV Times went national on 21 September 1968.
Sbec, a pull-out weekly listings supplement (first published on 1 November 1982) which is distributed free with the Wales edition of TV Times, containing the full details of S4C's schedules in both Welsh and English, as well as Channel 4's programmes were also included.
Rupert Murdoch's new publication TV Guide launches on 19 March 1989, carried the 28 pages of Astra satellite (1A) television listings for various Sky channels (including Sky One, Sky News, Sky Movies, Eurosport, and from 15 December 1990, Sky Arts, Movie Channel, Power Station and Sports Channel were added after the BSB merger on the Marcopolo system), MTV, RTL Véronique (for English programmes), Screensport, Children's Channel, Lifestyle with a highlights of BBC, ITV and Channel 4 listings.
In the Republic of Ireland, Raidió Teilifís Éireann published the RTÉ Guide (formerly the RTV Guide) launched on 1 December 1961, it offered detailed programme listings for RTÉ's television and radio channels. From 8 January 1977, they switched from tabloid format to a compact magazine size and also changes from monochrome into colour, while listings were carried for Radio Luxembourg, AFN and BBC Northern Ireland were later dropped on 8 July 1966, but only the RTÉ programme schedules up until 13 April 1991.
Today, both publications carry listings for all major terrestrial, cable and satellite television channels in the United Kingdom and following deregulation, new listings magazines such as Mirror Group's TV First, IPC Media's What's on TV, Bauer Media Group's TV Quick and Hamfield Publications' TV Plus began to be published; several newspapers were also allowed to print television schedules for the entire forthcoming week on a Saturday (or a Sunday), where previously they had only been able to list each day's programmes in that edition.
With another major refresh on 31 August 1991, the four extra pages of satellite television listings and one page of the highlights section were scrapped and replaced by a number of ten satellite networks (with two more includes Comedy Channel and CNN International were added) from top to bottom; the daytime schedules for BBC1 and BBC2 flanked the satellite listings on the left, with ITV, Channel 4 and 'at a glance' on the right; the main evening schedules for terrestrial television channels retained the same layout. On 5 September 1992, the daytime listings were slightly tweaked, ITV's programme schedules were now sandwiched between BBC2 and Channel 4 within the centre pages, and there were now two pages of satellite and cable channels for each category making up six pages of television listings every day:
During 1993, Radio Times used several layouts were altered throughout the year:
1 January – The VideoPlus+ number codes to cover all the terrestrial and satellite television channels were added for the first time, which allowed viewers with suitably equipped video recorders to entering the programme's number would ensure to set its timer from taping it.
2 January – The new 'film premiere' icon appears for terrestrial television listings, replacing the phrase "first showing on network television".
30 April – The second national commercial station Virgin 1215 is launched and appears in the local radio listings page.
5 June – The radio schedules are given a radical makeover, with highlights on the right includes day-by-day Virgin 1215, Classic FM and BBC World Service added to each page; the local radio listings now incorporated the weekly frequency guide, and the television schedule pages saw the introduction of the year of production shown in brackets for film titles.
19 June – The categories for satellite television listings were completely rearranged, with the news section includes Sky One moving to the left and the sport section moving to the right, also adding BSkyB's film classifications at the bottom corner on the left page.
24 July – Two former cable-only services (Bravo and Discovery) appeared in the entertainment section following their launch on satellite, and the cable television listings were relegated to the bottom, meaning the sport section was no longer used.
1 September – With the introduction of Sky Multichannels package on the new Astra 1C system, three new services (UK Living, Family Channel and Nickelodeon) launched as well as CMT Europe; all were added to the previously-unused entertainment category within the sport section (sandwiched between movies and news on the left) is returned and Sky One's schedules has moved back to the right page.
11 September – The satellite television listings is given a redesigned layout, starting with the new movie planner section (providing the latest film titles in alphabetical order on various channels at different times every day); other changes included the new factual section (including Discovery, Sky News and CNN International) that replaced the news category, and the sport section moves back to the right page once again.
18 September – The British versions of TNT and Cartoon Network were added to the movie planner and entertainment sections respectively.
25 September – The daytime listings were changed once again, with 'at a glance' now on the right page and advertisements occupying the left page. The channel heading logos were reduced into smaller horizontal bars on columns adjacent to those used for terrestrial television listings, a new children's television section (with Children's Channel, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network) was added, and the cable listings including Super Channel were moved to the left side next to the movie planner section (with Asia Vision, Wire TV and Learning Channel being removed).
1 October – The British version of QVC launches, appearing at the bottom corner in the entertainment section.
26 December – The final Christmas Sunday listings used both on television and radio for the very last time, this practice has now fallen out of common usage believed to result from the legalisation of Sunday trading in England and Wales for the following year.
Radio Times design was refreshed on 3 September 1994, the television listings now had the day's name written vertically, beginning with the daytime section including 'today's choices' (which replaced 'at a glance' on the left page), followed by the main evening's schedules in an original four-column grid, as well as the highlights section (now occupying the far left page within the satellite listings), and the movie planner is now on the right page. On 29 March 1997, the programme pages in the television section were restyled often include smaller headings and more billing type with several changes in this layout between the narrower columns for regional variations on the left and Channel 5 schedules on the right page. Yet another major revamp took place on 25 September 1999, where all the pages now proceeded in a particular order, starting with the letters section, followed by film reviews, then the seven-day programme guide with six pages for television (including satellite) and two pages for radio, as well as the single-page crossword and local radio listings with frequencies, and finally the 'My Kind of Day' for the back page which was preceded by classified advertisements. The programme page headings were returned to being inside a coloured block, and the primetime television listings went from two narrow columns to one wide column. The warning phrase "contains strong language", used for BBC television programmes from 9.00pm during the hours of watershed broadcasting restrictions was also implemented at this time, lasting until 2009.
This layout lasted until shortly before Easter on 13 April 2001, which saw the new masthead title with the BBC's corporate typeface Gill Sans (used until the end of 2004, being replaced by Interstate in the start of 2005), while the programme pages with eight pages of television listings reverted to having the day running across the top of the page horizontally, and the satellite listings expanded into four pages, while the double-page movie planner section for 18 different film channels was retained. On 26 November 2002, NTL and BBC Worldwide announced a major new agreement that would offer an exclusive, tailored edition of Radio Times to every NTL customer across the United Kingdom every week, it would be delivered directly to subscribers' homes. The special NTL edition of Radio Times replaced the monthly Cable Guide magazine (which ran from September 1986 to December 2002) and contained programme information for NTL channels, including all terrestrial services; Front Row's pay-per-view movies and events were also included. Subscribers were offered the first four weekly issues of the new title for the same price as the existing monthly magazine, delivered free to homes in time for the first programme week of 4 January 2003; both companies actively and jointly marketed the new edition.
From 30 October 2004, the programme schedule pages were revamped again, with the regional variations now at the bottom of the daytime section, as well as the same spread on the five main channels; BBC3, BBC4, ITV2, ITV3 (launched on 1 November) and More4 (from 10 October 2005) now appeared in digital/cable section on the right page, with a children's section in a single page on the left. The category sections for digital, satellite and cable listings also returned after a four-year absence:
On 22 May 2007, two extra pages of television listings per day were added as part of a slight tweak in the publication's format, bringing it up to ten pages of listings per day in total, or five double-page spreads: one page of highlights with daytime listings and regional variations, followed by two pages of evening's terrestrial television listings (with 'at a glance' for nine digital channels until 2010), then six pages of listings for digital, satellite and cable channels. Digital radio listings were integrated into the main radio pages, and three new pages of sport, lifestyle and music were added. By 11 April 2009, the digital, satellite and cable schedules were reshuffled (alongside entertainment, factual and children's sections) preceded by 'today's choices' on the left side, and the sport section moves to the right side as well as the films section having also started on the left within the centre pages horizontally.
10 April 2010 saw major changes as Radio Times went through a overhaul, with two pages of the latest reviews and highlights ('choices') somewhat akin to the TV Times, while the daytime listings moved onto the evening section having the full day's output for the five main channels on one double-page spread to complete the set:
Choices (includes 'pick of the day' and 'film of the day')
Main channels (with daytime listings and regional variations)
Freeview
Satellite and cable (with children's television listings)
Films / Sport
Radio (includes 'radio in your area' section)
Other changes saw the evening listings start at 5.00pm rather than 6.30pm (sometimes earlier than 5.00pm for weekends, bank holidays, Easter, Christmas and New Year), the addition of electronic program guide numbers into the channel headers, and the inclusion of director and year of production details for Film4 throughout the day. For the London 2012 Olympics, the listings for three terrestrial channels (BBC2, ITV and Channel 4) temporarily moved onto the right page and Channel 5 was moved to the next page on the left, as to provide enough space for BBC1 and BBC3/BBC4 as the Olympic broadcasters, which also reminded viewers of using both the red button and online for BBC channels with additional broadcasts.
Following the closure of the BBC3 channel on 20 February 2016, Radio Times started to include BBC4 in the main channels section, with Channel 5 being relegated to the Freeview section. As of 24 March 2020 to coincide the launch of Disney+, Radio Times introduced two new sections for podcasts and six pages devoted to streaming and various catch-up services. That same year (8 September), the rearrangement of Freeview channel listings with Sky Arts moves to the second page, also the three columns in the satellite and cable pages now have on the left side with children's television section, as well as the six film services were also included.
During the Tokyo Olympics (which was delayed due to global COVID-19 pandemic) on 20 July 2021, Radio Times declared its special bumper issue with 212 pages that include 16-day listings of the BBC's coverage and a comprehensive easy-to-use guide preceded by two pages with 'pick of the action' chosen by various pundits, although this layout becoming slightly different whether listings started on the left page with two columns for BBC1 as a dedicated Olympic broadcaster (including BBC Red Button occupies at the bottom) and BBC2 in the single column, as well as ITV, Channel 4 and BBC4 schedules placed on the right page. From 25 January 2022, the Freeview schedules have altered once again starting with the return of BBC3 (launches on 1 February after six years since the television channel has moved online), whether ITV2's listings now occupies at the bottom, as well as the seven remaining services were also placed in the second and third pages respectively.
From 4 October 2022 (three weeks before the BBC's 100th anniversary celebrations), Radio Times refreshed its format:
The 'this week' section which was devoted to the best entertainment reviews with all latest news over the next seven days, as well as other features including the grapevine, ten questions, viewpoint and 'on the box' as fronted by broadcaster Jane Garvey.
The expanded pages of the streaming section provides the best of catch-up services for television and films (include free-to-view, subscription or premium) so you want to watch every day.
The double-page 'highlights' section has given a newly-refreshed layout dedicated to the most comprehensive guide of programmes throughout the week ahead with 'also on today', 'live sport' and 'film of the day' also included.
The third page of the Freeview section includes some of its children's television schedules sandwiched between the top two channels. Food Network and Blaze were added as requested by readers and the number of movie channels was reduced from 18 to eight within the centre pages, with the latest film reviews which also embedded into each day's listings occupied by the right hand side.
The last two pages of satellite/cable schedules followed by the sport section was incorporated into a 'quick and easy' planner with various times by using individual live coverage of other events, as well as channel numbers (include Sky Sports, BT Sport, Eurosport and Premier Sports) were listed in the bottom right corner. Three weeks later (18 October), the mainstream sport listings were reverted back to any channel rather than popular events.
On 4 April 2023, the radio pages had a major refresh to provide listings by adding three services (Boom Radio, Greatest Hits Radio and Times Radio), as well as the restyled podcasts section to improve pick of the best audio on demand.
Circulation
In 1934, Radio Times achieved a circulation of two million and its net profit in that year was more than one quarter of the total BBC licence income. By the 1950s, Radio Times had grown to be the magazine with the largest circulation in Europe, with an average sale of 8.8 million in 1955. Following the 1969 relaunch, circulation indeed dropped by about a quarter of a million, it would take several years to recover but the magazine remained ahead of glossier lifestyle-led competitor, TV Times. In the mid-1970s, it was just over four million; but in 2013 it was just over one million.
During a major revamp in April 2010, Radio Times was the third-biggest-selling magazine in the United Kingdom. However, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, the magazine experienced about 2.2% year-on-year decrease to an average weekly sale of 1,648,000 in the second half of 2009. It averaged a circulation per issue of 497,852 between July and December 2020, versus 1,041,826 for TV Choice and 690,617 for What's on TV.
Advertising
During the deregulation of television listings, there was strong criticism from other magazines that Radio Times was advertised on the BBC (as well as on commercial broadcasting channels), saying that it gave unfair advantage to a publication and includes the tagline: "If it's on, it's in". The case went to court, but the outcome was that, as the Radio Times had close connections with the BBC, it would be allowed to be advertised by the BBC; however, from 1992 until 2004, it had to depict a static picture of the cover, and show a clear disclaimer reading "Other television listings magazines are available", leading to the phrase entering common public usage for a time.
By the early 2000s, advertisements for the publication had become sparse on the BBC. Radio Times has not been promoted on BBC television and radio channels since 2005, following complaints by rival publications that the promotions were unfair competition.
Missing issues
For various reasons, some issues were not printed. These include:
Diminished form
Printing disputes and other operational difficulties have also led to the magazine appearing in a different formats to the standard:
Editors
There have been 20 editors of Radio Times to date (including one uncredited and one returning) since the magazine began publication:
1923–1926: Leonard Crocombe
1926–1927: Walter Fuller
1927–1933: Eric Maschwitz
1933–1941: Maurice Gorham
1941–1944: Gordon Stowell
1944–1954: Tom Henn
1954–1968: Douglas G. Williams
1968–1969: C. J. Campbell Nairne
1969–1979: Geoffrey Cannon
1979–1988: Brian Gearing
1988–1996: Nicholas Brett
1996–2000: Sue Robinson
2000–2001: Nicholas Brett (returned)
2001–April 2002: Nigel Horne
April–July 2002: Liz Vercoe (uncredited)
August 2002–August 2009: Gill Hudson
September 2009 – 2017: Ben Preston
2017–2020: Mark Frith
2020–present: Tom Loxley and Shem Law
Covers
When the magazine was a BBC publication, the covers had a BBC bias (in 2005, 31 of the 51 issues had BBC-related covers) and consisting of a single side of glossy paper, however the magazine often uses double or triple-width covers that open out for several large group photographs.
Each year, Radio Times celebrates those individuals and programmes that are featured at the Covers Party, where framed oversized versions of the covers are presented. Radio Times had several sporting events with more than one of the Home Nations (such as the Six Nations, UEFA European Championship, Commonwealth Games and the Rugby World Cup) taking part are often marked with different covers for each nation, showing their own team.
While the major events (such as Remembrance Day, Crufts, the Oscars/BAFTAs, Eurovision Song Contest, Wimbledon Championships, Glastonbury Festival and the Proms) or new series of popular programmes are marked by producing different covers were actually used for other collectors:
The first person of colour to feature on the front cover was the American singer Paul Robeson, in the 535th issue which dated on 29 December 1933.
Following the invasion of Poland and Britain's declaration of war with Germany, Radio Times published its supplementary edition on 4 September 1939 (issue number 831A) which depicts this cover showing the Broadcasting House headquarters that include the Union Jack flag within the words "Broadcasting carries on" underneath.
Radio Times declared its special 'Coronation Number' issue on 31 May 1953 with a record-breaking 9,012,358 copies sold, as well as Eric Fraser's heraldic cover illustration and also made the back page depicted his lion and the unicorn tucking into an advertisement for Bachelors tinned foods. It was the first artwork cover since before World War II by the presses at Waterlow and Sons couldn't print in full colour but the existing technology allowed a yellowish gold tint between the back and front within a red crown motif running across the magazine. Fraser was the revered illustrator who had worked for the publication between 1926 and 1982, until his death on 15 November 1983 at the age of 81. A similar version to this majestic artwork cover designed by Peter Horridge on 2 May 2023, preparing for the next coronation after more than 70 years which include its updated official emblem of the royal cypher within a year in Roman numerals underneath.
Radio Times celebrated the upcoming Apollo 11 Moon landing on 10 July 1969, with this cover bearing the "TARGET MOON" caption at the top of the Saturn V rocket lifts off from Kennedy Space Center as part of the NASA's Apollo mission.
During BBC Television's 50th anniversary on 1 November 1986, Tony McSweeney's cover illustration depicted a 1930s family living in the shadow of Alexandra Palace somehow watching the opening titles of Nine O'Clock News on a modern colour set.
23 February 1991 saw Radio Times began offering a comprehensive programme schedule guide to BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and various satellite networks (from Friday 1 March) bearing the "If it's on, it's in" tagline, which includes Arnold Schwarzenegger on the cover focusing about the Austrian bodybuilding champion and successfully become the biggest film career in Hollywood. There was also a mixed reaction for the deregulation of television listings had occurred and allow information on all channels to be printed as they showing material by the broadcasters with its other competitors.
On 26 March 1994, to coincide the relaunch of Radio 5 as 'Five Live' (the new rolling news and sport service which took place on 28 March) within the group consists of Nelson Mandela, Bill and Hillary Clinton, Boris Yeltsin, John Major and Benazir Bhutto to appear on the cover wearing in t-shirts that includes the logo was done by Sven Arnstein, as well as Jones Bloom's electronic retouching but we also told that the sportswear came from Lillywhites and the footwear courtesy of John Lewis.
A special issue for the 50th anniversary of BBC television news on 3 July 2004, as well as a fold-out cover with BBC news teams (from left to right: Huw Edwards, Fiona Bruce, Anna Ford, George Alagiah, Sophie Raworth, Dermot Murnaghan, Natasha Kaplinsky, Sian Williams, Darren Jordon and Moira Stuart) was photographed by Andy Earl, and also an accompanying special pull-out supplement within the centre pages.
On 10 February 2007, the second series of Life on Mars, was marked by the Radio Times producing a mock-up of a 1973-style cover promoting the series, placed on page three of the magazine.
Radio Times reaches its 5,000th edition on 9 May 2020 with excellent lead articles from the support staff and workers of the National Health Service front line during the COVID-19 pandemic known as the coronavirus disease, and also granted this cover showing the colours of the rainbow which uses acrylic paint in a plain white background.
Royal specials
Over the past years, Radio Times published special majestic covers (often marked as a 'souvenir' issue) dedicated to royalty which reflects the monarchy of the United Kingdom, as well as other significant events include birthdays, coronations, jubilees, royal weddings, state funerals and various celebrations across the decades.
Between February 1952 and September 2022, Radio Times focuses about Queen Elizabeth II is the nation's longest-serving monarch which represented over eight decades during its 70-year reign:
The informal picture of Prince Charles and Queen Elizabeth II was taken by photographer Joan Williams for the cover in this issue on 21 June 1969, during the making of Richard Cawston's 110-minute documentary film Royal Family which is watched over 30.6 million television viewers almost half the population that includes an estimated global audience of 350 million people. Despite having been repeated ten times in eight years until it was withdrawn from circulation on 11 August 1977, and broadcasters were asked by Buckingham Palace not to be shown again in its entirety. On 28 January 2021, a leaked version of the film and publishes online shortly before taken down due to a copyright claim after the BBC sought to have being removed, it was remained available to view on the video-sharing platform YouTube and the digital library website Internet Archive.
To celebrate Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee on 28 May 1977, Radio Times joined forces with BBC1's Blue Peter in running a competition for children to design a special cover which it led to a staggering 65,000 entrants include Nicola Griffin was the youngest-ever artist talks to Newsround presenter John Craven reported her painting of a jolly guardsman, as well as John Noakes going behind the scenes at the printers to watch the first of its three-and-a-half million copies come off the presses. The following week (4 June), they took its unusual step of commissioning a tapestry made by Candace Bahouth for the artwork cover of this issue, and also been adapted for the 116-page bookazine in 2022.
Royal photographer Lord Snowdon was behind the camera for this special majestic cover with a double portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip to celebrate their 50th wedding anniversary on 15 November 1997.
During Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee on 2 June 2012, as Radio Times celebrated this event with a majestic cover includes the new portrait painting designed by Peter Blake.
Queen Elizabeth II officially opened the BBC's newly rebuilt Broadcasting House on 7 June 2013, and was presented with a collection of 44 majestic covers by the BBC Trust chairman Chris Patten.
Ahead before the 90th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II on 18 April 2016, this jubilant artwork cover was illustrated by Nina Cosford depicts the crowds gathered here at Buckingham Palace. Two months later (11 June), Radio Times deluged with wonderful cover designs from more than 11,000 children across the United Kingdom which include Ayesha Mahmood to become the winner of this competition after her majestic design – showing its vibrant painting of a crown adorned within the purple-riched colour and gold glitter – is picked by our panel of judges that featured Blue Peters Lindsey Russell, Shem Law, Judith Kerr and Ben Preston.
As part of Queen Elizabeth II's Platinum Jubilee celebrations on 4 June 2022, illustrator James Weston Lewis took inspiration for this artwork cover paying homage to King George VI's coronation special issue on 7 May 1937 was designed by the famous war artist C. R. W. Nevinson, with capture some of its classic depiction of the original by adding a few modern elements.
On 13 September 2022, Radio Times declared this emergency issue paying tribute to Queen Elizabeth II who passes peacefully away aged 96, includes a monochrome photograph from the Camera Press with its darker sombre effect and surrounded by black border. A special commemorative edition was published on 20 September of that year containing 30 pages throughout her life and reign which reproduced nine majestic covers to chart of each decade, as well as the striking silhouette portrait also used by permission for kind agreement of the Royal Mint.
Doctor Who
Doctor Who is the most represented programme on the cover, appearing on 29 issues (with 35 separate covers due to multiples) in the 49 years since the programme began on 23 November 1963.
On 30 April 2005, a double-width cover was used to commemorate the return of the Daleks to Doctor Who and the forthcoming general election. This cover recreated a scene from the 1964 serial The Dalek Invasion of Earth in which the Daleks were seen crossing Westminster Bridge with the Houses of Parliament and Big Ben in the background, and also the cover text read "VOTE DALEK!". On 29 September 2008, in a contest sponsored by the Periodical Publishers Association, this cover was voted the best British magazine cover of all time. Five years later (on 17 April 2010) before the next general election, three special covers depicting the Daleks invading the capital once more within showing their true colours of red, blue and yellow as one of several Britain's political parties for Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats were used individually.
Throughout the decades, Radio Times had covers for various television specials and anniversary editions:
On 19 November 1983, the show celebrated its 20th anniversary with a standalone special featuring Tom Baker, Patrick Troughton, Peter Davison, Jon Pertwee, Richard Hurndall (who replaced William Hartnell, who died on 23 April 1975) and Anthony Ainley as The Master. They featured in an illustrated cover by Andrew Skilleter.
On 20 November 1993, as the show marked its 30th anniversary, the surviving actors who had played The Doctor appeared to promote the special television event, a crossover between EastEnders as part of the BBC's annual Children in Need telethon. 3D glasses were sold in aid of the charity enhanced viewing of several programmes broadcast throughout the week, and the first Doctor Who episode to be aired since the series ended on 6 December 1989.
Doctor Who returned to television on 25 May 1996 after a seven-year absence, as Paul McGann starred in a feature-length television special with a corresponding cover, and a 16-page pull-out supplement.
A themed night on BBC2 on 13 November 1999, was marked by a specially commissioned Dalek portrait photographed by Lord Snowdon, which was originally used as a stamp design.
For its 40th anniversary on 22 November 2003, a commemorative cover was photographed by Andy Earl to create a panoramic vista featuring Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy, Tom Baker and Peter Davison, as well as the TARDIS, K-9, a Cyberman and the two Daleks.
The 23 November 2013 issue marked the 50th anniversary of the programme with a selection of 12 different covers.
Christmas
The cover of the 'Christmas Number' (as this issue came to be called) dating from the time when it contained just a single week's listings, usually features a generic festive artwork, atypical for the magazine, which since the 1970s has almost exclusively used photographic covers. In recent years, Radio Times has published and sold packs of reproductions of some of the Christmas covers of the magazine as Christmas cards.
Annuals and guides
An annual was published three times: in 1954, 1955 and 1956.
The Radio Times Film & Video Guide by the magazine's film and video editor Derek Winnert was first published in 1994 featuring more than 18,000 films and an introduction by Barry Norman, former presenter of the BBC's Film programme. A second edition was published the following year. In 2000, a completely new Radio Times Guide to Films was published by BBC Worldwide, edited by Kilmey Fane-Saunders, featuring more than 21,000 film titles. The last edition of Radio Times Guide to Films was published in 2018. In September 2023, Radio Times publishes its own 180-page film guide dedicated to reviews and trivia over 1,000 titles with five different star rating systems which include 250 favourites from the beginning of cinema in 1902 to the present day.
There are also similar publications, the Radio Times Guide to TV Comedy by Mark Lewisohn and the Radio Times Guide to Science-Fiction.
Regional editions
From the first edition of 2023, the regional editions in England were merged into a single edition which includes the times and titles of all of the BBC's local radio stations with any non-news variations of adjoining regions for television and radio contained in the television listings. Local channel London Live is also featured in the Freeview section, with a note stating that it is a local channel. The stations carried were as follows:
Every local television station had its own edition consisting of 15 BBC regional services and 13 ITV companies were also used:
Radio
Since its began on 28 September 1923 (during the interwar period), there was just a single national edition to cover all the BBC wireless services including relay stations from 1924:
From 10 October 1926, the two separate regions – 'Northern' and 'Southern' – were published before Radio Times reverted to one edition and covering all the local stations once again on 7 January 1934:
Between 1930 and 1935, many of the original 21 BBC local stations eventually reduced to six regional services (including Wales from 1937) as well as five national variations with the exceptions of Plymouth, Bournemouth, Aberdeen and Stagshaw were remained until 1939 before the outbreak of World War II:
After the end of World War II in Europe, the seven local variations were resumed on 29 July 1945 which also used by BBC Home Service as they referred similar to its pre-war Regional Programme during the 1930s.
November 1967 saw the introduction of BBC Local Radio whether these regional areas subdivided with individual editions for each English county (except Isle of Man), as well as the national regions and several opt-out services were also used. This continued between February 1981 and January 1983 until each regional edition began to cover three local stations which was previously used by regional news and opt-out programming on Radio 4, apart from the South West (including the Channel Islands) as this is now the only part of England still without any BBC local station. During the mid-1980s and early 1990s, a number of 13 new BBC local stations were added to covering the whole areas throughout the United Kingdom:
Television
In November 1936, Radio Times launches its first television service in the London area only before they closed down on 1 September 1939 by the duration of war for over six years and finally resumed on 7 June 1946. When the second channel began in 1964, there were a number of areas where only certain parts of a region could get receive this service until 1966:
From 1 March 1991, Radio Times started carrying ITV and Channel 4 listings to begin they cover the 14 regional editions (which later reduced to ten areas) across the country:
At the same time, regional editions also included several local television stations used individually as well as the neighbouring countries outside Great Britain where available:
Alterations
The number of regional editions has been altered over the years within gradually being reduced over time due to there being fewer variations in the programme schedules:
The North of England region was separated from Northern Ireland on 4 January 1948 who had their own edition.
The spread of television editions when full listings (with six pages) were not included in all issues between 7 June 1946 and 15 August 1952.
On 8 October 1960, the Midlands region was renamed 'Midlands and East Anglia', and the West of England region was also renamed 'South and West'.
On 9 February 1964, the launch of BBC Cymru Wales television service in the Welsh edition of Radio Times with its own programme schedule pages from the prominent heading (remained until 1982), without detracting from the service they provided to English viewers on the other side of the Severn Estuary.
As from 21 March 1964, the previously unmarked London region was successfully renamed 'London and South East'. It was later dropped on 25 March 1989 when the 'London' name is no longer used, became known as 'South East', and later reverted to its original name on 23 February 1991.
On 29 August 1970, the four English regional editions (along the constituent nations) were separated into ten areas, such as the administrative counties of Cumberland and Westmorland (which included the Furness exclave in Lancashire and the district of Sedburgh in the West Riding of Yorkshire) before the creation of a new non-metropolitan county of Cumbria from 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 in England and Wales.
Between 1 November 1982 and 22 February 1991, S4C listings were included in the Wales edition known as 'Rhaglenni Cymraeg' (Welsh programmes), while its English language programming were simply billed as 'Rhaglenni Saesneg' with no further detail being given. TV Times included a pull-out supplement Sbec which gave full details on all S4C programming in both languages. From the following week, it also took the billing space by cutting down on the detail in the Channel 4's listings in that edition, and allowing S4C to share some of its space.
After the deregulation of television listings on 1 March 1991, they rebranded the Northern Ireland edition as 'Ulster' (named after the historic province), and started including listings for the Irish state broadcaster's two channels – RTÉ1 and Network 2 – were occupied the lower half of the three columns devoted to UTV's schedules.
Radio Times used to have three separate editions for STV, Grampian and Border (also appearing in the North East edition) while just then after a while they merged back into one Scotland edition from 6 July 1991.
No publication of Radio Times in the Channel Islands as their listing schedules were contained within the South West region when it first appeared in the South edition on 30 March 1991. Channel TV published its own listings magazine, the CTV Times (formerly Channel Viewer) until 25 October of that year.
The Yorkshire region was absorbed by the North East region on 25 September 1993 became known as 'Yorkshire/Tyne Tees', and also later added the North West region on 7 April 2007.
The exception to this process of merging is Wales on 31 August 1991, which used to be part of a larger 'Wales/West' (of England), mirroring the HTV area. The region was separated on 16 April 2005 leaving the West of England to join South and South West edition. The two regional editions of London and East Anglia were merged on the same date.
On 5 November 2001, BBC 2W launches as the digital-only service in Wales used for weekday evenings from 8.30pm to 10.00pm, within BBC2's listings in the normal column is mainly split vertically in two to cover both the analogue and digital services. The digital-only service was ceased on 2 January 2009 as part of the digital switchover, and reverts to the normal service with less frequent regional programmes as the arrangement on analogue broadcasts.
On 25 August 2007, the Midlands and London/Anglia regions were merged.
On 24 February 2019, Radio Times introduces the BBC Scotland television channel, a new autonomous service that broadcasts an nightly line-up of entirely Scottish-related programming from 7.00pm to midnight replacing the Scotland's version of BBC2 after 53 years, and the listings were occupied by BBC4 at the bottom on the right page.
From 7 January 2023, regional editions in England ended with the first edition as London's local television channel London Live had always been included in the 'London/Anglia/Midlands' edition and Radio Times continues to list the channel doing so on the second page of the Freeview section, and states that it is a regional service and that other local services air on Freeview channels 7 and 8 in other parts of the country. Other changes saw the three English regions is now combined into one edition which had been already used by several disputes between 5 May 1973 and 27 January 1984.
Online content
Website
The Radio Times website was launched in June 1997, primarily as a listings service. As from 18 August 2011, it relaunches an offering diverse editorial product to accompany its schedules for television, radio and film recommendations.
Digitisation
In December 2012, the BBC completed a digitisation exercise, scanning the listings of all programmes from an entire run of about 4,500 copies of the magazine from 1923 (the first issue) to 2009, the BBC Genome Project, with a view to creating an online database of its output. They identified around five million programmes, involving 8.5 million actors, presenters, writers and technical staff.
The results were made public on 15 October 2014, Corrections to OCR errors and changes to advertised schedules are being crowdsourced. Digitised editions of entire magazines (including front covers, prose articles, advertisements and other non-listings content) were added:
1920s (March 2017)
1930s (December 2017)
1940s (December 2018)
1950s (December 2019)
Several addresses, telephone numbers and email addresses have been removed, to prevent readers from attempting to donate to charity appeals that have closed. Some names and trademark terms have been removed for legal reasons.
Puzzles
On 28 September 2020, Radio Times launched its online puzzle site using brainteasers from their archive. Puzzles include those based on television and radio programmes such as Eggheads, Only Connect, Pointless, Channel 4's Countdown and BBC Radio 2's PopMaster.
Podcast
On 8 September 2021, Radio Times introduces the 40-minute podcast show hosted by Jane Garvey and Rhianna Dhillon, which include interviews with television celebrities.
See also
Most Powerful People – an annual listing charted the three different areas of British media (include TV comedy, TV drama and radio) from January 2003 to June 2005
Radio Times Extra – a digital programme guide which offers full television listings and synopses throughout 14 days provided by Inview Technology
Radio Times's TV 100 - an annual listing featuring television talents.
References
Notes
Renamed BBC TV on 8 October 1960 and later became BBC1 on 20 April 1964, when BBC2 is launched.
All these strands including the Third Programme kept their separate identities (such as music, sports coverage and education) within Radio 3 until 4 April 1970, when there was a further reorganisation following the introduction of the structural changes which had been outlined in the BBC document Broadcasting in the Seventies on 10 July 1969.
The BBC television listing schedules has giving phrases such as 'a film series' used for imported programmes and 'the feature film' were remained until 1 September 1984.
Between June and December 1990, the layout of programme page sections had given its own distinctive colour were used at the top along with deep pink for films, dark blue for television and medium turquoise for radio, as well as each day of the week often include: red for Saturday, orange for Sunday, magenta for Monday, chartreuse for Tuesday, purple for Wednesday, coral for Thursday and green for Friday.
The colours for each day of the week were changed on 22 December 1990, they are: Saturday in red, Sunday in azure blue, Monday in light orange, Tuesday in indigo, Wednesday in dark green, Thursday in cerise, and Friday in medium turquoise. On 30 October 2004, the day's colours were slightly changed once again that includes Tuesday in lavender, Wednesday in mint green, and Friday in navy blue.
The station is rebranded as Radio 5 Live on 28 March 1994, that replaces educational and children's programmes with a new rolling news format, whilst retaining the sports programmes from the old service.
Also known as TV Times Magazine from 3 October 1981; rebranded back to its original TV Times name on 6 October 1984.
From 1956 to 1964, the Midlands originally had their own edition of TV Times carrying ATV and ABC programme listings, but in a separate weekly magazine called TV World on 27 September 1964, for the innovative idea of splitting itself 50:50 with a second cover in the middle allowing for the magazine to be folded over to creating both weekend and weekday sections from one publication, before TV Times went national on 21 September 1968.
Named after the American magazine of the same name that which devoted to latest celebrities and television reviews. It became a monthly publication from 1991, and it was later absorbed by Satellite TV Europe in 1992.
On 1 September 2021, Sky One has now ceased broadcasting with all the entertainment shows to be replaced by two new channels, Sky Showcase and Sky Max.
The service closed on 8 April 1991 and replaced by Sky Movies.
Replaced by Sky Sports on 20 April 1991.
TV Plus launched on 1 March 1991 by Hamfield Publications which combines a hybrid women's magazine and the full complete seven-day television listings (for BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and various British Sky Broadcasting networks) which ran from Friday to Thursday, until the publication was ceased after three issues and it was a shortest-lived weekly listings magazine in British history.
Absorbed by Eurosport on 1 March 1993.
The two consecutive adults-only services – HVC and Adult Channel – were unsuitabled until 19 December 1992.
On 19 August 1994, Sky Sports 2 has launched initially as a weekend-only service, which occupies the listings sandwiched between Sky Sports at the top and Eurosport at the bottom.
Between September 1999 and April 2001, the programme section colours returned once again which was placed halfway throughout the double-page spreads vertically that include royal purple for films, dark orange for television and viridian for radio.
On 1 September 2023, the channel ceased broadcasting within its children's programmes can now be viewed on the streaming service ITVX.
Originally launched on 5 November 1982, TV Choice is the first weekly listings magazine which provide full schedules for all services (BBC1, BBC2, ITV and Channel 4) that the publication breached their copyright forcing to be suspended on 1 January 1983, along with revamped and more detailed programme billings until it was eventually vanished without trace. Bauer Media Group revived the title used as a low-price listings magazine from its own stable on 14 September 1999.
All of four VHF opt-out services from Radio Scotland were ceased broadcasting on 29 January 1993 and the output replaced by local news bulletins throughout each day on 1 February of that year.
Sources
Bibliography
Tony Currie, The Radio Times Story (2001, Kelly Publications)
David Driver, The Art of Radio Times: The First Sixty Years (1981)
Martin Baker, The Art of Radio Times: A Golden Age of British Illustration
R.D. Usherwood, Drawing for Radio Times (1961, Bodley Head)
External links
BBC – History of the Radio Times
Radio programme about cover art with gallery
A selection of Vintage Radio Times covers
BBC Genome - Radio Times listings from 1923 to 2009
Digitized versions of years 1923 to 1930 and 1936 on the website of the Nederlandse Vereniging voor de Historie van de Radio
BBC history
BBC publications
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Listings magazines
Magazines established in 1923
1923 establishments in the United Kingdom
Interwar period
United Kingdom in World War II
Radio during World War II
Radio in the United Kingdom
History of television in the United Kingdom
Television magazines published in the United Kingdom
2011 mergers and acquisitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Islam in the United States
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Islam is the third largest religion in the United States (1%), behind Christianity and Judaism, equaling Buddhism and Hinduism percentage wise. A 2017 study estimated that 3.45 million Muslims were living in the United States, about 1.1 percent of the total U.S. population. In 2017, 20 states which were mostly in the South and Midwest reported Islam being the largest non-Christian religion. In 2020, the U.S. Religion Census found there to be 4.45 million Muslims in the country, making up 1.3% of the population.
While an estimated 10 to 20 percent of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa arrived as Muslims, Islam was suppressed on plantations. Nearly all enslaved Muslims and their descendants converted to Christianity during the 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to the late 19th century, the vast majority of documented non-enslaved Muslims in North America were merchants, travelers and sailors.
From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire and British India. The Muslim population of the U.S. increased dramatically in the second half of the 20th century due to the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished previous immigration quotas. About 72 percent of American Muslims are immigrants or "second generation".
In 2005, more people from Muslim-majority countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than there had been in any other year in the previous two decades. In 2009, more than 115,000 Muslims became legal residents of the United States.
American Muslims come from various backgrounds and, according to a 2009 Gallup poll, are one of the most racially diverse religious groups in the United States. According to a 2017 study done by the Institute for Social Policy, “American Muslims are the only faith community surveyed with no majority race, with 26 percent white, 18 percent Asian, 18 percent Arab, 9 percent black, 7 percent mixed race, and 5 percent Hispanic”. The Pew Research Center estimates about 73% of American Muslims are Sunni, while 16% are Shia; the remainder identify with neither group, and may include movements such as the Nation of Islam, Ahmadiyya or non-denominational Muslims. Conversion to Islam in large cities has also contributed to its growth over the years.
History
Historical overview
The early history of Muslims in the New World is the subject of debate. Historians argue that Muslims first arrived in the Americas in the early 16th century in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. All analysts agree that the first large population of Muslims consisted of African slaves. Most slaves who tried to maintain Islamic religious practices after their arrival were forcibly converted to Christianity. In the mid-seventeenth century, Ottoman Muslims are documented to have immigrated with other European immigrants, such as Anthony Janszoon van Salee a merchant of mixed origin from Morocco. Immigration drastically increased from 1878 to 1924 when Muslims from the Balkans, and Syria settled in modern-day Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, North Dakota and South Dakota. During that era, the Ford Company employed Muslims as well as African-Americans, since they were the most inclined to work in its factories under demanding conditions. By the 1930s and 1940s, Muslims in the US built mosques for their communal religious observance. At present, the number of Muslims in the US is variously estimated at 3-4 million, and Islam is soon predicted to become the second-largest religion in the US.
Early records
One of the earliest accounts of Islam's possible presence in North America dates to 1528, when a Moroccan slave, called Mustafa Azemmouri, was shipwrecked near what is now Galveston, Texas. He and three Spanish survivors subsequently traveled through much of the American southwest and the Mexican interior before reaching Mexico City.
Historian Peter Manseau wrote:
Muslims' presence [in the United States] is affirmed in documents dated more than a century before religious liberty became the law of the land, as in a Virginia statute of 1682 which referred to "negroes, moores, molatoes, and others, born of and in heathenish, idolatrous, pagan, and Mahometan parentage and country" who "heretofore and hereafter may be purchased, procured, or otherwise obtained, as slaves."
American Revolution and thereafter
Records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few likely Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are "Yusuf ben Ali" (a member of the Turks of South Carolina community), "Bampett Muhamed" and possibly Peter Salem.
The first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation was the Sultanate of Morocco, under its ruler Mohammed ben Abdallah, in the year 1777. He maintained several correspondences with President George Washington. On December 9, 1805, President Thomas Jefferson hosted a dinner at the White House for his guest Sidi Soliman Mellimelli, an envoy from Tunis.
Bilali "Ben Ali" Muhammad was a Fula Muslim from Timbo, Futa-Jallon, in present-day Guinea-Conakry, who arrived at Sapelo Island during 1803. While enslaved, he became the religious leader and Imam for a slave community numbering approximately eighty Muslim men residing on his plantation. During the War of 1812, Muhammad and the eighty Muslim men under his leadership protected their master's Sapelo Island property from a British attack. He is known to have fasted during the month of Ramadan, worn a fez and kaftan, and observed the Muslim feasts, in addition to consistently performing the five obligatory prayers. In 1829, Bilali authored a thirteen-page Arabic Risala on Islamic beliefs and the rules for ablution, morning prayer, and the calls to prayer. Known as the Bilali Document, it is currently housed at the University of Georgia in Athens.
Between 1785 and 1815, over a hundred American sailors were held for ransom in Algiers. Several wrote captivity narratives of their experiences that gave most Americans their first view of the Arab World and Muslim ways, and newspapers often commented on them. The views were generally negative. Royall Tyler wrote The Algerine Captive (1797), an early American novel depicting the life of an American doctor employed in the slave trade who himself is captured and enslaved by Barbary pirates. Finally, Presidents Jefferson and Madison sent the American navy to confront the pirates, and ended the threat in 1815 during the First Barbary War.
Nineteenth century
On the morning of April 5, 1865, near the end of the American Civil War, Union troops commanded by Col. Thomas M. Johnston set ablaze the University of Alabama; a copy of the Quran known as The Koran: Commonly Called The Alcoran was saved by one of the university's staff.
Estimates ranging from a dozen to two hundred and ninety-two Muslims served in the Union military during the American Civil War, including Private Mohammed Kahn, who was born in Persia, raised in Afghanistan, and emigrated to the United States. The highest-ranking Muslim officer in the Union Army was Captain Moses Osman. Nicholas Said (born 1836), formerly enslaved to an Arab master, came to the United States in 1860 and found a teaching job in Detroit. In 1863, Said enlisted in the 55th Massachusetts Colored Regiment in the United States Army and rose to the rank of sergeant. He was later granted a transfer to a military hospital, where he gained some knowledge of medicine. His Army records state that he died in Brownsville, Tennessee, in 1882. Another Muslim soldier from the Civil War was Max Hassan, an African who worked for the military as a porter.
A Greek/Syrian convert to Islam, Phillip Tedro (a name he reverted to later in life), born in Smyrna, who renamed himself Hajj Ali, 'Ali who made the pilgrimage to Mecca,' (commonly spelled as "Hi Jolly") was hired by the United States Cavalry in 1856 to tend camels in Arizona and California. He would later become a prospector in Arizona. Hajj Ali died in 1903.
During the American Civil War, the "scorched earth" policy of the North destroyed churches, farms, schools, libraries, colleges, and a great deal of other property. The libraries at the University of Alabama managed to save one book from the debris of their library buildings. On the morning of April 4, 1865, when Federal troops reached the campus with an order to destroy the university, Andre Deloffre, a modern language professor and custodian of the library, appealed to the commanding officer to spare one of the finest libraries in the South. The officer, being sympathetic, sent a courier to Gen. Croxton at his headquarters in Tuscaloosa, Alabama asking permission to save the Rotunda, but the general refused to allow this. The officer reportedly said, "I will save one volume as a memento of this occasion." The volume selected was a rare copy of the Qur'an.
Alexander Russell Webb is considered by historians to be the earliest prominent Anglo-American convert to Islam in 1888. In 1893, he was the sole representative of Islam at the first Parliament of the World's Religions. The Russian-born Muslim scholar and writer Achmed Abdullah (1881–1945) was another prominent early American Muslim.
In the 1891 Supreme Court case In re Ross, the Court referred to “the intense hostility of the people of Muslim faith to all other sects, and particularly to Christians". Scores of Muslim immigrants were turned away at U.S. ports in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Christian immigrants suspected of secretly being Muslims were also excluded.
Slaves
Many enslaved people brought to America from Africa were Muslims from the predominantly-Muslim West African region. Between 1701 and 1800, some 500,000 Africans arrived in what became the United States. Historians estimate that between 15 and 30 percent of all enslaved African men and less than 15 percent of the enslaved African women were Muslims. According to 21st century researchers Donna Meigs-Jaques and R. Kevin Jaques, "[t]hese enslaved Muslims stood out from their compatriots because of their resistance, determination and education."
It is estimated that over 50% of the slaves imported to North America came from areas where Islam was followed by at least a minority population. Thus, no less than 200,000 came from regions influenced by Islam. Substantial numbers originated from Senegambia, a region with an established community of Muslim inhabitants extending to the 11th century.
Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fulani jihad states, about half of the Senegambian Mandinka were converted to Islam, while as many as a third were sold into slavery to the Americas through capture in conflict.
Michael A. Gomez speculated that Muslim slaves may have accounted for "thousands, if not tens of thousands", but does not offer a precise estimate. He also suggests many non-Muslim slaves were acquainted with some tenets of Islam, due to Muslim trading and proselytizing activities.
Historical records indicate many enslaved Muslims conversed in the Arabic language. Some even composed literature (such as autobiographies) and commentaries on the Quran.
Some newly arrived Muslim slaves assembled for communal salat (prayers). Some were provided a private praying area by their owner. The two best documented Muslim slaves were Ayuba Suleiman Diallo and Omar Ibn Said. Suleiman was brought to America in 1731 and returned to Africa in 1734. Like many Muslim slaves, he often encountered impediments when attempting to perform religious rituals and was eventually allotted a private location for prayer by his master.
Omar ibn Said (c. 1770–1864) is among the best documented examples of a practicing-Muslim slave. He lived on a 19th Century North Carolina plantation and wrote many Arabic texts while enslaved. Born in the kingdom of Futa Tooro (modern Senegal), he arrived in America in 1807, one month before the U.S. abolished importation of slaves. Some of his works include the Lords Prayer, the Bismillah, this is How You Pray, Quranic phases, the 23rd Psalm, and an autobiography. In 1857, he produced his last known writing on Surah 110 of the Quran. In 1819, Omar received an Arabic translation of the Christian Bible from his master, James Owen. Omar converted to Christianity in 1820, an episode widely used throughout the South to "prove" the benevolence of slavery. However, many scholars believe he continued to be a practicing Muslim, based on dedications to Muhammad written in his Bible.
Religious freedom
Views of Islam in America affected debates regarding freedom of religion during the drafting of the state constitution of Pennsylvania in 1776. Constitutionalists promoted religious toleration while Anti-constitutionalists called for reliance on Protestant values in the formation of the state's republican government. The former group won out and inserted a clause for religious liberty in the new state constitution. American views of Islam were influenced by favorable Enlightenment writings from Europe, as well as Europeans who had long warned that Islam was a threat to Christianity and republicanism.
In 1776, John Adams published "Thoughts on Government", in which he mentions the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a "sober inquirer after truth" alongside Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, and other thinkers.
In 1785, George Washington stated a willingness to hire "Mahometans", as well as people of any nation or religion, to work on his private estate at Mount Vernon if they were "good workmen".
In 1790, the South Carolina legislative body granted special legal status to a community of Moroccans.
In 1797, President John Adams signed the Treaty of Tripoli, declaring the United States had no "character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen".
In his autobiography, published in 1791, Benjamin Franklin stated that he "did not disapprove" of a meeting place in Pennsylvania that was designed to accommodate preachers of all religions. Franklin wrote that "even if the Mufti of Constantinople were to send a missionary to preach Mohammedanism to us, he would find a pulpit at his service".
President Thomas Jefferson defended religious freedom in America, including those of Muslims. Jefferson explicitly mentioned Muslims when writing about the movement for religious freedom in Virginia. In his autobiography Jefferson wrote "[When] the [Virginia] bill for establishing religious freedom ... was finally passed, ... a singular proposition proved that its protection of opinion was meant to be universal. Where the preamble declares that coercion is a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, an amendment was proposed, by inserting the word 'Jesus Christ', so that it should read 'a departure from the plan of Jesus Christ, the holy author of our religion'. The insertion was rejected by a great majority, in proof that they meant to comprehend within the mantle of its protection the Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Mahometan, the Hindoo and infidel of every denomination." While President, Jefferson also participated in an iftar with the Ambassador of Tunisia in 1809.
However, not all politicians were pleased with the religious neutrality of the Constitution, which prohibited any religious test. Anti-Federalists in the 1788 North Carolina ratifying convention opposed the new constitution; one reason was the fear that some day Catholics or Muslims might be elected president. William Lancaster said:
Let us remember that we form a government for millions not yet in existence ... In the course of four or five hundred years, I do not know how it will work. This is most certain, that Papists may occupy that chair, and Mahometans may take it. I see nothing against it.
In 1788, Americans held inaccurate, and often contradicting, views of the Muslim world, and used that in political arguments. For example, the anti-Federalists compared a strong central government to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the American army to Turkish Janissaries, arguing against a strong central government. On the other hand, Alexander Hamilton argued that despotism in the Middle East was the result of the Sultan not having enough power to protect his people from oppressive local governors; thus he argued for a stronger central government.
20th century
Modern Muslims
Small-scale migration to the U.S. by Muslims began in 1840, with the arrival of Yemenis and Turks, and lasted until World War I. Most of the immigrants, from Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire, came with the purpose of making money and returning to their homeland. However, the economic hardships of 19th-century America prevented them from prospering, and as a result the immigrants settled in the United States permanently. These immigrants settled primarily in Dearborn, Michigan; Paterson, New Jersey; Quincy, Massachusetts; and Ross, North Dakota. Ross, North Dakota is the site of the first documented mosque and Muslim Cemetery, but it was abandoned and later torn down in the mid-1970s. A new mosque was built in its place in 2005. Construction of mosques sped up in the 1920s and 1930s, and by 1952, there were over 20 mosques. Although the first mosque was established in the U.S. in 1915, relatively few mosques were founded before the 1960s.
1893: Alexander Russell Webb starts the first Islamic Mission in the United States called the American Muslim Propagation Movement.
1906: Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) in Chicago, Illinois, started the Džemijetul Hajrije (Jamaat al-Khayriyya) (The Benevolent Society; a social service organization devoted to Bosnian Muslims). This is the longest lasting incorporated Muslim community in the United States. They met in Bosnian coffeehouses and eventually opened the first Islamic Sunday School with curriculum and textbooks under Bosnian scholar Sheikh Kamil Avdich (Ćamil Avdić) (a graduate of al-Azhar and author of Survey of Islamic Doctrines).
1907: Lipka Tatar immigrants from the Podlasie region of Poland founded the first Muslim organization in New York City, the American Mohammedan Society which became the Powers Street Mosque. In 2017 they celebrated the 110 anniversary of their establishment.
1915: What is most likely the first American mosque was founded by Albanian Muslims in Biddeford, Maine. A Muslim cemetery still exists there.
1920: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established by the arrival of Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, an Indian Ahmadi Muslim missionary, he later purchased a building in south Chicago and converted it to what is today known as the Al-Sadiq Mosque which was rebuilt as purpose-built mosque in 1990s.
1921: The Highland Park Mosque was built in Highland Park, Michigan, although closed a few years later.
1929: The Ross Masjid in North Dakota was founded by Syrian Muslims, there is still a cemetery nearby.
1934: The oldest continuously and still standing building built specifically to be a mosque was established in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The mosque is where Abdullah Igram a notable Muslim veteran would teach the Quran, Abdullah Igram later wrote a letter to President Eisenhower persuading him to add the M option (for Muslims) on military dog tags.
1935: The statue of Mohammed was drawn on the north wall of the US Supreme Court building in 1935. Also, statues of Charlemagne and Justinian as one of eighteen great law givers of history are seen around the statue of Mohammed.
1945: A mosque existed in Dearborn, Michigan, home to the largest Arab-American population in the U.S.
"Since the 1950s," many notable political activists and socialites with influence over politicians have come from the American Muslim community.
The Muslim population of the U.S. increased dramatically after President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 into law. The act abolished former immigration quotas, and expanded immigration opportunities from countries with significant Muslim populations.
Approximately 2.78 million people immigrated to the United States from countries with significant Muslim populations between 1966 and 1997, with some estimating 1.1 million people of that population being Muslims. One-third of those immigrants originated from North Africa or the Middle East, one-third originated from South Asian countries, with the remaining third originating from across the entire world. Immigration to the United States post-1965 favored those deemed to have specialized educational and skills, thus impacting the socio-economic makeup of American Muslims. The United States began seeing Muslim immigrants arrive in the late 20th century as refugees due to such reasons as political unrest, war, and famine.
Subgroups of Muslim Americans
According to the Pew Research Center, approximately 55% of Muslims in the United States are Sunni Muslims, with Shia Muslims representing roughly 16% of the American Muslim population. The remainder identify with neither group, including some who consider themselves to be non-denominational Muslims.
African-American Muslim movements
During the first half of the 20th century, a small number of African-Americans established groups based on Islamic and Gnostic teachings. The first of such groups created was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Timothy Drew (Drew Ali) in 1913. Drew taught that black people were of Moorish origin but their Muslim identity was taken away through slavery and racial segregation, advocating the return to Islam of their Moorish ancestry. This is not an unlikely idea, considering the first major Muslim immigrants came through the slave trade. Although practicing Muslims at the time of their arrival, Christian missionaries sought to convert slaves to Christianity and were mostly successful.
Moorish Science Temple of America
The Moorish Science Temple of America is an American organization founded in 1913 by Noble Drew Ali. He stated that the organization practiced the "Old Time Religion" of Islamism, but he also drew inspiration from Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and Taoism. Its significant divergences from mainstream Islam make its classification as an Islamic denomination a matter of debate among Muslims and scholars of religion.
Its primary tenet was the belief that they are the ancient Moabites who inhabited the Northwestern and Southwestern shores of Africa. The organization also believes that their descendants after being conquered in Spain are slaves who were captured and held in slavery from 1779 to 1865 by their slaveholders.
Adherents of the Moorish Science Temple of America believe that the so-called "Asiatics" were the first human inhabitant of the Western Hemisphere. In their religious texts members refer to themselves as "Asiatics", within the teachings of Noble Drew Ali, the members are taught man cannot be a Negro, Colored Folk, Black people, Ethiopians, because these names were given to slaves by slave holders in 1779 and lasted until 1865 during the time of slavery.
The Moorish Science Temple of America's current leader is R. Jones-Bey. It was established in 1913 in New Jersey and incorporated in Illinois in 1926 and then legally changed its name in 1928, The Ahmadiyya Movement was established in 1920 and incorporated in 1948.
Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam (NOI) was created in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad. Fard drew inspiration for NOI doctrines from those of Timothy Drew's Moorish Science Temple of America. He provided three main principles which serve as the foundation of the NOI: "Allah is God, the white man is the devil and the so-called Negroes are the Asiatic Black People, the cream of the planet earth".
In 1934, Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the NOI, he deified Fard, saying that he was an incarnation of God, and taught that he was a prophet who had been taught directly by God in the form of Fard. Two of the most famous people to join the NOI were Malcolm X, who became the face of the NOI in the media, and Muhammad Ali, who, while initially rejected, was accepted into the group shortly after his first world heavyweight championship victory. Both Malcolm X and Ali later became Sunni Muslims.
Malcolm X was one of the most influential leaders of the NOI and, in accordance with NOI doctrine, advocated the complete separation of blacks from whites. He left the NOI after being silenced for 90 days (due to a controversial comment on the John F. Kennedy assassination), and proceeded to form Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity before his pilgrimage to Mecca and conversion to Sunni Islam. He is viewed as the first person to start the movement among African-Americans towards Sunni Islam.
It was estimated that there were at least 20,000 members in 2006. However, today the group has a wide influence in the African-American community. The first Million Man March took place in Washington, D.C. in 1995 and was followed later by another one in 2000 which was smaller in size but more inclusive, welcoming individuals other than just African-American men. The group sponsors cultural and academic education, economic independence, and personal and social responsibility.
The Nation of Islam has received a great deal of criticism for its anti-white, anti-Christian, and anti-semitic teachings, and is listed as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.
Five-Percent Nation
The Five-Percent Nation, sometimes referred to as NGE or NOGE, the Nation of Gods and Earths, or the Five Percenters, is an American organization founded in 1964 in the Harlem section of the borough of Manhattan, New York City, by a former member of the Nation of Islam named Clarence 13X (born Clarence Edward Smith and later known as "Allah the Father"). Clarence 13X, a former student of Malcolm X, left the Nation of Islam after a theological dispute with the Nation's leaders over the nature and identity of God. Specifically, Clarence 13X denied that the Nation's biracial founder Wallace Fard Muhammad was Allah and instead taught that the Black man was himself God personified.
Members of the group call themselves Allah's Five Percenters, which reflects the concept that ten percent of the people in the world know the truth of existence, and those elites and agents opt to keep eighty-five percent of the world in ignorance and under their controlling thumb; the remaining five percent are those who know the truth and are determined to enlighten the rest.
United Nation of Islam
The United Nation of Islam (UNOI) is a group based in Kansas City, Kansas. It was founded circa 1978 by Royall Jenkins, who continues to be the leader of the group and styles himself "Royall, Allah in Person".
Conversion to orthodox Sunni Islam
After the death of Elijah Muhammad, he was succeeded by his son, Warith Deen Mohammed. Mohammed rejected many teachings of his father, such as the divinity of Fard Muhammad, and saw a white person as also a worshiper. As he took control of the organization, he quickly brought in new reforms. He renamed it the World Community of al-Islam in the West; later it became the American Society of Muslims. It was estimated that there were 200,000 followers of W. D. Mohammed at the time.
W. D. Mohammed introduced teachings which were based on orthodox Sunni Islam. He removed the chairs in the organization's temples, and replaced the entire "temple" concept with the traditional Muslim house of worship, the mosque, also teaching how to pray the salat, to observe the fasting of Ramadan, and to attend the pilgrimage to Mecca.
A small number of Black Muslims however rejected these new reforms brought by Imam Mohammed. Louis Farrakhan, who broke away from the organization, re-established the Nation of Islam under the original Fardian doctrines, and remains its leader.
Shia Islam
An estimated 386,000 to 900,000 Shia Muslims live in the United States. They originate from South Asia, Europe, Middle East, and East Africa; and are often from the countries of: Islamic Republic of Pakistan, India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Lebanon, Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Yemen and East Africa; Shiites in the United States also make up about 16 percent of the country's total Muslim population.
The "heart of Shiism in the U.S." is placed in Dearborn, home to the Islamic Center of America. The North American Shia Ithna-Asheri (Twelver Shi'ism) Muslim Communities Organization (NASIMCO) is the largest umbrella group for North American Shias.
Sufism
Some Muslim Americans adhere to the doctrines of Sufism. The Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) is a small body representing Sufi teachings, which, according to adherents, is the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. The ISCA's stated aims include providing practical solutions for American Muslims, based on the traditional Islamic legal rulings of an international advisory board, many of whom are recognized as the highest-ranking Islamic scholars in the world. ISCA aims to integrate traditional scholarship in resolving contemporary issues affecting the maintenance of Islamic beliefs in a modern, secular society. It has been linked to neoconservative thought.
Quranic movement
The largest Quranist movement in the United States is the United Submitters International. This movement was founded by Rashad Khalifa. His movement popularized the phrase: "The Qur'an, the whole Qur'an, and nothing but the Qur'an". Although he was initially well received by many, his subsequent claims of divine inspiration caused friction between him and others, and he was assassinated in 1990. Notable Americans influenced by Rashad Khalifa include his son, Sam Khalifa, a retired professional baseball player, and Ahmad Rashad, a sportscaster and retired football player.
Non-denominational Muslims
Research by Pew in 2011 found that Non-denominational Muslims make up roughly one in seven of all American Muslims, at 15%. Non-denominational Muslims, do not have any specific affiliation with a religious body and usually describe themselves as being "just a Muslim". Muslims who were born in the US are more likely to be non-denominational than immigrant Muslims. 24% or one in four US-born Muslims are non-denominational, versus 10% of immigrant Muslims.
Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadiyya Community was established in 1920 in the United States. Ahmadi Muslims were among the earliest Muslim missionaries in America, the first being Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, who arrived in America on February 15, 1920, and between 1921 and 1925 alone they converted over 1000 people to Islam. Although at first their efforts were broadly concentrated over a large number of racial and ethnic groups, subsequent realization of the deep-seated racial tensions and discrimination made Ahmadi missionaries focus their attention on mainly African Americans and the Muslim immigrant community and became vocal proponents of the civil rights movement. Officially incorporated in Illinois in 1948 as the Ahmadiyya Movement In Islam, Inc. and commonly referred to as the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community since 2006(?). Many Ahmadi Muslims fled countries like Pakistan due to persecution in recent times.
Other Muslims
There are some mosquegoers who adhere to sects and denominations that form very small minorities. Examples of such small branches include progressive Muslims, Mahdavi Muslims, Ibadi Muslims, and Ismaili Muslims.
Conversion to Islam
Some of the earliest Islamic missionary activities were undertaken by Alexander Russell Webb, who in 1893 established a mission in Manhattan, although it faltered due to lack of funding. From 1910 to 1912, Inayat Khan toured major American cities preaching Islam; he attracted large audiences though not as many converts. More successful in converting Americans to Islam was Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, who established a mission in Chicago in 1920. The converts Sadiq attracted tended to be African American. Soon after, indigenous African-American Muslim groups began to form: the Moorish Science Temple was established in Chicago in 1925, and the Nation of Islam formed in 1930.
According to an article in 2001, 25,000 Americans convert to Islam per year.
In more recent years, there has been significant conversion to Islam in the state, federal, and local prisons of the United States. According to J. Michael Waller, Muslim inmates constitute 15–20% of the prison population, or roughly 350,000 inmates in 2003. Waller states that these inmates mostly come into prison as non-Muslims. He also says that 80% of the prisoners who "find faith" while in prison convert to Islam. These converted inmates are mostly African American, with a small but growing Hispanic minority.
Demographics
The U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. Various institutions and organizations have given widely varying estimates about the Muslim population in the U.S. Tom W. Smith, author of "Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States", said that of twenty estimates he reviewed during a five-year period until 2001, none was "based on a scientifically-sound or explicit methodology. All can probably be characterized as guesses or assertions. Nine came from Muslim organizations such as the Islamic Society of North America, the Muslim Student Association, the Council on American-Islamic Relations, the American Muslim Council, and the Harvard Islamic Society or unspecified 'Muslim sources'. None of these sources gave any basis for their figures." In 2005, according to The New York Times, more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than in any year in the previous two decades.
According to CAIR, no scientific count of Muslims in the U.S. has been done and the larger figures should be considered accurate. Some journalists have also alleged that the higher numbers have been inflated for political purposes.
According to a Pew Forum estimate, in 2017 there were 3.45 million Muslims, constituting about 1.1% of the total U.S. population, compared with 70.6% who follow Christianity, 22.8% unaffiliated, 1.9% Judaism, 0.7% Buddhism, and 0.7% Hinduism. A Pew Forum report on American religion found that Muslims accounted for 0.9% of American adults in 2014, up from 0.4% in 2007, due largely to immigration. Retention rates were high, at 77%, similar to Hindus (80%) and Jews (75%); most people who leave these religions become unaffiliated, although ex-Muslims were more likely to be Christians than ex-Hindus or ex-Jews were. Conversely, 23% of American Muslims were converts, including 8% from historically black Protestant traditions, 6% from being unaffiliated, 4% from Catholicism, and 3% from mainline or evangelical Protestantism. By race, in 2014, 38% were non-Hispanic white (including Arabs and Iranians, up from 32% in 2007), 28% were Asian (mostly Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis, up from 20% in 2007), 28% were black (down from 32%), 4% Hispanic (down from 7%), and 3% of mixed or other race (down from 7%). Since 2007, the black proportion had shrunk, while the white and Asian proportions had grown, mainly due to immigration as most black Muslims were native U.S. blacks.
On the other hand, according to data from the General Social Survey in the United States "32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace Islam in adulthood, and 18% hold no religious identification". and according to Pew Research, the number of American converts to Islam is roughly equal to the number of American Muslims who leave the religion.
Race
According to a 2001 study written by Ihsan Bagby, an associate professor of Islamic studies at the University of Kentucky, of Americans who convert to Islam, 64% are African American, 27% are White, 6% are Hispanic of any race, and 3% are other. Around that time increasing numbers of American Hispanics converted to Islam. Many Hispanic converts in Houston said that they often had been mistaken as of being of Pakistani or Middle Eastern descent, due to their religion. Many Hispanic converts were former Christians.
Since the arrival of South Asian and Arab communities during the 1990s there has been divisions with the African Americans due to the racial and cultural differences; however, since September 11, 2001, the two groups joined when the immigrant communities looked towards the African Americans for advice on civil rights.
Religion
According to a 2014 religious survey, 64% of American Muslims believe religion is very important, compared to 58% of American Catholics who believe so. The frequency of receiving answers to prayers among Muslims was, 31% at least once a week and 12% once or twice a month. Nearly a quarter of the Muslims are converts to Islam (23%), mainly native-born. Of the total who have converted, 59% are African American and 34% white. Previous religions of those converted was Protestantism (67%), Roman Catholicism (10%), and 15% no religion.
Mosques are usually explicitly Sunni or Shia although they are over 55 Ahmadiyya mosques as well. There are 2,769 mosques in the United States , and the nation's largest mosque, the Islamic Center of America, is in Dearborn, Michigan. It caters mainly to the Shia Muslim congregation; however, all Muslims may attend this mosque. It was rebuilt in 2005 to accommodate over 3,000 people for the increasing Muslim population in the region. More than half (55%) of the religious affiliations of Muslims is Sunni, 16% Shia, 22% non-affiliated and 16% other/non-response. Muslims of Arab descent are mostly Sunni (56%) with minorities who are Shia (19%). Muslims of South Asian descent including Bangladeshis (90%), Indians (82%) and Pakistanis (72%) are mainly Sunni, other groups such as Iranians are mainly Shia (91%). Of African American Muslims, 48% are Sunni, 34% are unaffiliated (mostly part of the Community of W. Deen Mohammed), 16% other (mostly Nation of Islam and Ahmadiyya) and 2% Shia.
In many areas, a mosque may be dominated by whatever group of immigrants is the largest. Sometimes the Friday sermons, or khutbas, are given in languages like Urdu, Bengali or Arabic along with English. Areas with large Muslim populations may support a number of mosques serving different immigrant groups or varieties of belief within Sunni or Shia traditions. At present, many mosques are served by imams who immigrate from overseas, as only these imams have certificates from Muslim seminaries.
Education and income
The household income levels of American Muslims are about as evenly distributed as the general American population.
When it comes to education, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding reported in 2017 that across the board, American Muslims, Protestants, and Catholics have similar education levels. It has also been found that Muslim women (73%) are more likely than Muslim men (57%) to go on to pursue higher education beyond high school, and they are also more likely to report being in the middle class.
Current estimates show that there are 270 full-time Islamic schools that enrol between 26,000 and 35,500 students in the United States. Islamic k-12 schools typically teach tawhid, or belief that God is the creator and sustainer of the universe; ilm, the imperative to seek knowledge; and ta’lim, and specific teaching about the Qur’an and ahadith. Some private Islamic schools in the United States cater to specific ethnic and/or cultural communities. Others enrol students from diverse backgrounds and ethnicities. Specific subject that are taught include Arabic, Qur’an, and Islamic studies along with academic subjects such as math, science, English, history, civics, and in some schools, art and music. Typically Islamic schools integrate religious knowledge throughout the curricula, incorporate prayer into their daily schedules, require modest dress, and serve halal food.
Among South Asians in the country, the large Pakistani American community stands out as particularly well educated and prosperous, with education and income levels exceeding those of U.S.-born whites. Many are professionals, especially in medicine (they account for 2.7-5% of America's physicians), scientists, engineers, and financial analysts, and there are also a large number of entrepreneurs. There are more than 15,000 medical doctors practicing medicine in the USA who are of Pakistani origin alone and the number of Pakistani American millionaires was reported to be in the thousands. Shahid Khan is a Pakistani-born American multi billionaire businessmen and owner of the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL) making him the first and only ethnic minority member to own one, he also owns English Premier League team Fulham F.C., and automobile parts manufacturer Flex-N-Gate in Urbana, Illinois.
45 percent of immigrant Muslims report annual household income levels of $50,000 or higher. This compares to the national average of 44 percent. Immigrant Muslims are well represented among higher-income earners, with 19 percent having annual household incomes of $100,000 or higher (compared to 16 percent for the Muslim population as a whole and 17 percent for the U.S. average). This is likely due to the strong concentration of Muslims in professional, managerial, and technical fields, especially in information technology, education, medicine, law, and the corporate world.
By state
There were estimated to be about 4.5 million Muslim adherents across the United States in 2020.
Population concentrations
Generally speaking, Muslims are concentrated in the Eastern one-third of the United States, and particularly in the Northeast megalopolis, given the region's relative proximity to the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, and South Asia.
New York City had the largest number of Muslims in the US with approximately 75,000. In 2000, Dearborn, Michigan, ranked second with 29,181, and Los Angeles ranked third with 25,673; although Paterson, New Jersey, in the New York City Metropolitan Area, was estimated to have become home to 25,000 to 30,000 Muslims as of 2011. The Muslim population in the New York metropolitan area approximates 1.5 million, the largest metropolitan Muslim population in the Western hemisphere.
As of 2020, New York was the state home to the highest absolute number of Muslims, by a significant margin, at over 724,000. By percentages of the population, Illinois, the State of New York, New Jersey, and Maryland all hosted population concentrations greater than 3%. Paterson in New Jersey has been nicknamed Little Ramallah and Little Istanbul and contains a neighborhood with the same name, with an Arab American population estimated as high as 20,000 in 2015. Philadelphia was estimated to have 30,000 to 50,000 Muslims as of 2012. Houston was estimated to have 63,000 Muslims as of 2012.
Mosques
In 2020, the US Mosque Survey identified 2,796 Islamic places of worship in the United States, a "31% increase from the 2010 count." The U.S. states with the highest number of mosques were New York (343), California (304), Texas (224), Florida (157), and New Jersey (141), with New York gaining the highest number of mosques compared to 2011 (86 additional). As part of a sampled survey, the US Mosque Survey reports that 6% of mosques self identified as Shi'ite. Pew Research Center notes that 61% of respondents to the survey "say that women have served on the board at some point in the last five years."
Previously, in 2011, the number of mosques in the United States was 2,106. At the time, the six states with the highest numbers of mosques were: New York (257), California (246), Texas (166), Florida (118), Illinois (109), and New Jersey (109).
In the United States in particular, it has been shown in a study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that Muslim Americans who regularly attend mosques are more likely to work with their neighbors to solve community problems (49 vs. 30 percent), be registered to vote (74 vs. 49 percent), and plan to vote (92 vs. 81 percent). The study also states that “there is no correlation between Muslim attitudes toward violence and their frequency of mosque attendance.”
Regarding mosque attendance, data shows that American Muslim women and American Muslim men attend the mosque at similar rates (45% for men and 35% for women). Additionally, when compared to the general public looking at the attendance of religious services, young Muslim Americans attend the mosque at closer rates to older Muslim Americans. A Pew Research study found that women attendance at American mosques increased from 2011 to 2020, as did women participation in mosque administration, including positions on the board of trustees.
Culture
Within the Muslim community in the United States there exist a number of different traditions. As in the rest of the world, the Sunni Muslims are in the majority. Shia Muslims, especially those in the Iranian immigrant community, are also active in community affairs. All four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) are found among the Sunni community.
Muslims in the United States have increasingly made their own culture; there are various Muslim comedy groups, rap groups, Scout troops and magazines, and Muslims have been vocal in other forms of media as well.
Hijab is commonly worn by Muslim women in the United States, and is a very distinctive cultural feature of Muslims in America. According to a Pew Research Center poll from 2011, 36% of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% indicating they wore it most or some of the time, while only 40% indicated that they never wore the headcover. Contrary to popular beliefs about assimilation, the study found that the number of women wearing hijab was in fact higher among native-born Muslim women compared to first-generation Muslim immigrants. In the 1990s, however, hijabs were not commonly seen in the United States, as overt Islamization became more apparent only during the 21st century. Compared to some nations in Western Europe, such as France and the Netherlands, there have been relatively few controversies surrounding the hijab in everyday life, a product of "pro-religious freedom" laws allowing for a wide range of religious accommodations, and also due to greater support for multiculturalism. For these reasons, integration of Muslims has been relatively less controversial in the US compared to Europe.
In his 2008 book Al' America, writer and journalist Jonathan Curiel wrote about the consequences of 9/11 on the perception of Islamic culture in America, stating that it has been difficult for some Americans to "see Arab and Muslim culture as anything other than terrorism and fundamentalism". The Islamic experience in the US is also not well known or researched among mainstream society, with Jewish scholar Lior Sternfeld stating, "Muslim-Americans were a much smaller and more marginalized community, but it's changing."
Politics
To date, four Muslims have served in the United States Congress, all members of the Democratic Party. The first was Keith Ellison, who took office representing Minnesota in 2007.
In the 2000 Presidential election, 78 percent of Muslim Americans supported Republican candidate George W. Bush over Democratic candidate Al Gore. However, due to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq which took place under the Bush Administration, as well as what some call an increased anti-Muslim rhetoric from the Republican Party after the September 11 attacks, support for the Republican Party among American Muslims has declined sharply.
By 2004, Bush's Muslim support had been reduced to under 1%, and Democratic candidate John Kerry's support rose to 93%, with 5% voting for Ralph Nader.
By 2008, Democratic candidate Barack Obama got 67% to 90% of the Muslim vote depending on region. In total, Obama won 89% of the Muslim vote, with his Republican opponent John McCain getting only 2%. Some of his opponents question Obama's religious faith; see Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories.
By 2012, Barack Obama's support slightly falls to 85%, with 4% voting for his Republican opponent, Mitt Romney.
In a 2017 Survey done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, only 15% of American Muslims wanted Donald Trump to win the 2016 presidential election, compared to 54% wanting Hillary Clinton to win. 76% of Muslims ended up voting for Clinton, compared to 13% for Trump.
According to a 2018 poll from the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, American Muslims were as satisfied with the American trajectory as the general public, reporting at around 27%. Regarding the 45th president of the United States, Donald Trump, Muslims are the least likely to approve of him across all faith groups including non affiliated Americans. This compares to, "17% of non-affiliated Americans, 31% of Jews, 36% of Catholics, 41% of Protestants, and 72% of white Evangelicals".
According to the report belongs to a Boston-based organization that works to increase American Muslim education and civic engagement, "at least 145 American Muslims, virtually all of them Democrats, ran for state or national public office in 2018. Of these, 110 were first-time candidates who represent an unprecedented rise for a diverse Muslim community that is typically underrepresented in American politics.".
In 2020, Democratic candidate Joe Biden received 69% of the Muslim vote, whereas Republican candidate Donald Trump received 17% (an increase from 13% in 2016).
American Muslim political engagement is increasing, as 75% of American Muslims surveyed by ISPU reported being registered to vote, an increase of 15% from 2016 data. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County, New Jersey. In June 2022, Republican candidate Mehmet Oz became the first Muslim to be nominated by a major party for the U.S. Senate.
Organizations
One of the largest Islamic organizations is the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) which says that 27% of mosques in U.S. are associated with it. ISNA is an association of immigrant Muslim organizations and individuals that provides a common platform for presenting Islam. It is composed mostly of immigrants. Its membership may have recently exceeded ASM, as many independent mosques throughout the United States are choosing to affiliate with it. ISNA's annual convention is the largest gathering of Muslims in the United States.
The second largest Muslim organization is the community under the leadership of W. Deen Mohammed or the American Society of Muslims with 19% of mosques, mostly African-Americans having an affiliation with it. It was the successor organization to the Nation of Islam, once better-known as the Black Muslims. The association recognizes the leadership of Warith Deen Mohammed. This group evolved from the Black separatist Nation of Islam (1930–1975). The majority of its members are African Americans. This has been a 23-year process of religious reorientation and organizational decentralization, in the course of which the group was known by other names, such as the American Muslim Mission, W.Deen Mohammed guided its members to the practice of mainstream Islam such as salat or fasting, and teaching the basic creed of Islam the shahadah.
The third largest group is the Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA). ICNA describes itself as a non-ethnic, open to all, independent, North America-wide, grass-roots organization. It is composed mostly of immigrants and the children of immigrants. It is growing as various independent mosques throughout the United States join and also may be larger than ASM at the present moment. Its youth division is Young Muslims. Why Islam? is a community outreach project of ICNA; it seeks to provide accurate information about Islam while debunking popular stereotypes and common misconceptions through various services and outreach activities.
The Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) is a small organization representing Sufi teachings, which, according to adherents, is the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. The ISCA's stated aims include providing practical solutions for American Muslims, based on the traditional Islamic legal rulings of an international advisory board, many of whom are recognized as the highest ranking Islamic scholars in the world. ISCA strives to integrate traditional scholarship in resolving contemporary issues affecting the maintenance of Islamic beliefs in a modern, secular society. It has been linked to neoconservative thought.
The Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA) is a leading Muslim organization in the United States. According to its website, among the goals of IANA is to "unify and coordinate the efforts of the different dawah oriented organizations in North America and guide or direct the Muslims of this land to adhere to the proper Islamic methodology." In order to achieve its goals, IANA uses a number of means and methods including conventions, general meetings, dawah-oriented institutions and academies, etc. IANA folded in the aftermath of the attack of September 11, 2001 and they have reorganized under various banners such as Texas Dawah and the Almaghrib Institute.
The Muslim Students' Association (MSA) is a group dedicated, by its own description, to Islamic societies on college campuses in Canada and the United States for the good of Muslim students. The MSA is involved in providing Muslims on various campuses the opportunity to practice their religion and to ease and facilitate such activities. MSA is also involved in social activities, such as fund raisers for the homeless during Ramadan. The founders of MSA would later establish the Islamic Society of North America and Islamic Circle of North America.
The Islamic Information Center (IIC) is a "grass-roots" organization that has been formed for the purpose of informing the public, mainly through the media, about the real image of Islam and Muslims. The IIC is run by chairman (Hojatul-Islam) Imam Syed Rafiq Naqvi, various committees, and supported by volunteers.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established in the U.S. in 1921, before the existence of Nation of Islam, according to its members.
Muslim Congress is another National Muslim Organization. It is primarily a Social Welfare organization and runs many social projects, including Food Distribution to the homeless in their "No More Hunger" project and also provides Scholarship. It is under the leadership of Islamic Scholars.
Political
Muslim political organizations lobby on behalf of various Muslim political interests. Organizations such as the American Muslim Council are actively engaged in upholding human and civil rights for all Americans.
The Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR) is the United States largest Muslim civil rights and advocacy group, originally established to promote a positive image of Islam and Muslims in America. CAIR presents itself as representing mainstream, moderate Islam, and has condemned acts of terrorism and has been working in collaboration with the White House on "issues of safety and foreign policy." The group has been criticized for alleged links to Islamic terrorism and it has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Arab Emirates.
The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC) is an American Muslim public service and policy organization headquartered in Los Angeles and with offices in Washington, D.C. MPAC was founded in 1988. The mission of MPAC "encompasses promoting an American Muslim identity, fostering an effective grassroots organization, and training a future generation of men and women to share our vision. MPAC also works to promote an accurate portrayal of Islam and Muslims in mass media and popular culture, educating the American public (both Muslim and non-Muslim) about Islam, building alliances with diverse communities and cultivating relationships with opinion- and decision-makers."
The American Islamic Congress is a small secular Muslim organization that promotes "religious pluralism". Their official Statement of Principles states that "Muslims have been profoundly influenced by their encounter with America. American Muslims are a minority group, consisting largely of immigrants and children of immigrants, who have prospered in America's climate of religious tolerance and civil rights. The lessons of our unprecedented experience of acceptance and success must be carefully considered by our community." The AIC holds an annual essay writing competition, the Dream Deferred Essay Contest, focusing on civil rights in the Middle East.
The Free Muslims Coalition states it was created to "eliminate broad base support for Islamic extremism and terrorism" and to strengthen secular democratic institutions in the Middle East and the Muslim World by supporting Islamic reformation efforts.
Muslims for Bush was an advocacy group aiming to drum up support from Muslims for President George W. Bush. It was co-founded by Muhammad Ali Hasan and his mother Seeme, who were prominent donors to the Republican Party. In 2010, co-founder Muhammad Ali Hasan left the Republican Party. Muslims for Bush has since been reformed into the bipartisan Muslims for America.
American Muslim Political Action Committee (AMPAC) was created in July 2012 by MD Rabbi Alam, a Bangladeshi-born American politician. This newly created organization is one of America's largest Muslim civil liberties advocacy organizations. It is headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, with two regional offices in New York City and Madison, Wisconsin. AMPAC a bipartisan political platform for Muslim Americans to participate in political races. AMPAC presents an Islamic perspective on issues of importance to the American public, and seeks to empower the American Muslim community and encourage its social and political activism. On September 11, 2013, AMPAC organized the Million Muslim March which took place at the National Mall in Washington, D.C.
The Islamic Center of Passaic County, the American Arab Civic Organization, and the American Muslim Union, all based in Paterson, New Jersey, voice Muslims' opposition to terrorism, including the November 2015 Paris attacks.
In November 2022, Nabeela Syed was elected as the first state legislature. In the Illinois 51st district, she defeated the a republican incumbent. She is also one of the very few Muslim women and youngest political figures at the age of 23.
Charity
Charitable donations within the Muslim American community are impacted by domestic political and social climates. ISPU found in 2017 that, “23% of Muslim Americans increased their giving to organizations associated with their faith community and 18% joined, donated to, or volunteered at a civic organizations for the first time as a result of the 2016 national elections. A 2021 study showed that Muslim Americans donated more to charity than other Americans during 2020. Most of the donations were given to causes supporting poverty relief, COVID-19 relief, civil rights, and religious research.
In addition to the organizations listed above, other Muslim organizations in the United States serve more specific needs. For example, some organizations focus almost exclusively on charity work. As a response to a crackdown on Muslim charity organizations working overseas such as the Holy Land Foundation, more Muslims have begun to focus their charity efforts within the United States.
Inner-City Muslim Action Network (IMAN) is one of the leading Muslim charity organizations in the United States. According to the Inner-City Muslim Action Network, IMAN seeks "to utilize the tremendous possibilities and opportunities that are present in the community to build a dynamic and vibrant alternative to the difficult conditions of inner city life." IMAN sees understanding Islam as part of a larger process to empower individuals and communities to work for the betterment of humanity.
Islamic Relief USA is the American branch of Islamic Relief Worldwide, an international relief and development organization. Its stated goal is "to alleviate the suffering, hunger, illiteracy and diseases worldwide without regard to color, race or creed." They focus on development projects; emergency relief projects, such as providing aid to victims of Hurricane Katrina; orphans projects; and seasonal projects, such as food distributions during the month of Ramadan. They provide aid internationally and in the United States.
Project Downtown is a non profit organization originated in Miami Fl. From what started as two men giving away a few sandwiches eventually turned into an array of chapters all over the United States giving away thousands of packets of food, hygiene bags, clothes, and other necessities of life to those who cannot afford it. The motto of Project Downtown is "We feed you for the sake of God alone, no reward do we seek, nor thanks." (Quran 76:9)
Compassionate Care Network, Chicago, CCNchicago was formed 14 years ago to offer basic health screening for the uninsured population in the community. It offers health screening for obesity, hypertension, diabetes and health awareness for the indigent people. It has formed a network of 200 providers and enrolled several thousand patients. In 2014 CCN's work was recognized with honors from the Governor of Illinois and also by President Obama at the White House. In 2015 CCN was invited to participate in White House policy recommendation discussions with the US Dept of Health and Human Services Office of Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships.
American Muslim Health Professionals is a nonprofit organization, founded in 2004, which aims to unite Muslim health professionals and provide information on health. They also provide information on mental health. Another of their goals is to connect Muslim Americans to affordable insurance and free health clinics.
Museums
There are two museums dedicated to the history of Islamic culture in the U.S. and abroad. The International Museum of Muslim Cultures in Jackson, Mississippi opened in early 2001. America's Islamic Heritage Museum, in Washington, D.C., opened on April 30, 2011.
Research and think tanks
The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, with offices in Dearborn, MI and Washington, DC, is an independent, nonpartisan research organization specializing in addressing the most pressing challenges facing the American Muslim community and in bridging the information gap between the American Muslim community and the wider society.
Views
American populace's views on Islam
A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Research Center and the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life reported that the percentage of Americans with an unfavorable view of Islam increased by one percentage point between 2002 and 2003 to 34%, and then by another two percentage points in 2005 to 36%. At the same time the percentage responding that Islam was more likely than other religion to encourage violence fell from 44% in July 2003 to 36% in July 2005.
The July 2005 Pew survey also showed that 59% of American adults view Islam as "very different from their religion," down one percentage point from 2003. In the same survey 55% had a favorable opinion of Muslim Americans, up four percentage points from 51% in July 2003. A December 2004 Cornell University survey shows that 47% of Americans believe that the Islamic religion is more likely than others to encourage violence among its believers.
A CBS April 2006 poll showed that, in terms of faiths
58% of Americans have favorable attitudes toward Protestantism/Other Christians
48% favorable toward Catholicism
47% favorable toward Judaism
31% favorable toward Christian fundamentalism
20% favorable toward Mormonism
19% favorable toward Islam
8% favorable toward Scientology
The Pew survey shows that, in terms of adherents
77% of Americans have favorable opinions of Jews
73% favorable of Catholics
57% favorable of "evangelical Christians"
55% favorable of Muslims
35% favorable of Atheists
Pew surveys conducted in 2014, 2017, and 2019 continued this trend showing Americans had the least favorable views toward Muslims and Atheists.
A 2011 Gallup poll found that 56% of Protestants, 63% of Catholics, and 70% of Jews believed that American Muslims had no sympathy for Al Qaeda. A 2015 Brookings poll found that 14% Americans believe most Muslims support ISIS and another 44% believe Muslims partially support ISIS. Political party also plays a role in whether Americans believe Islam encourages violence. Over the years, Republicans have become more likely to state they believe Islam encourages violence more than other religions, while Democrats are more likely to say it does not.
A 2016 poll found that on average; Americans believed that 17% of the US population was Muslim and that this number would rise to 23% by 2020.
A 2018 poll by The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that 86% of Americans report wanting to, “live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity.” 95% of American Jews and 78% of white Evangelicals agreed. The study also found that 66% of Americans agree that “the negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country.” Breaking down the results by faith community, 78% of Muslims and non-affiliated Americans agreed, contrasted with only 45% of white Evangelicals. Most Americans oppose banning the building of mosques (79%), the surveillance of U.S. mosques (63%), and a ‘Muslim Ban’ (~63%). Most Americans also take issue with the collective blaming of Muslims for the acts of individuals, and 69% of those surveyed believe Muslims are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else. ISPU writes that, “Though at a lower rate, the majority of Americans (55%) say that most Muslims living in the United States are committed to the well-being of America.”
According to a research by the New America foundation and the American Muslim Initiative found in 2018, 56 percent of Americans believed Islam was compatible with American values and 42 percent said it was not. About 60 percent believed US Muslims were as patriotic as others, while 38 percent they were not.The study also found that a big majority of Americans - 74 percent - accepted there was "a lot" of bigotry against Muslims existed. Researchers also found that Republicans were more likely to hold negative perceptions of Muslims with 71 percent.
A 2021 Pew study found that 78% of Americans believe Muslims face discrimination, which was a higher percentage than for other religions.
American Muslims' views of the United States
In a 2007 survey titled Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream, the Pew Research Center found Muslim Americans to be "largely integrated, happy with their lives, and moderate with respect to many of the issues that have divided Muslims and Westerners around the world."
47% of respondents said they considered themselves Muslims first and Americans second. However, this was compared to 81% of British Muslims and 69% of German Muslims, when asked the equivalent question. A similar disparity exists in income, the percentage of American Muslims living in poverty is 2% higher than the general population, compared to an 18% disparity for French Muslims and 29% difference for Spanish Muslims.
Politically, American Muslims both supported larger government and are socially conservative. Despite their social conservatism, 71% of American Muslims expressed a preference for the Democratic Party. The Pew Research survey also showed that nearly three quarters of respondents believed that American society rewards them for hard work regardless of their religious background.
The same poll also reported that 40% of U.S. Muslims believe that Arab Muslims carried out the 9/11 attacks. Another 28% do not believe it and 32% said they had no opinion. Among the 28% who doubted that Arab Muslims were behind the conspiracy, one-fourth said the U.S. government or President George W. Bush was responsible. 26% of American Muslims believe the U.S.-led "war on terror" is a sincere effort to root out international terrorism. 5% of those surveyed had a "very favorable" or "somewhat favorable" view of Al-Qaeda. 35% of American Muslims stated that the decision for military action in Afghanistan was the right one and 12% supported the use of military force in Iraq.
Although American Muslims do report feeling discriminated against as a religious minority, they are just as likely as the general public (81%) to say they value their American Identity. In fact, a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding asserts that, “a higher religious identity correlates with a higher American identity among all Americans, especially Muslims.”
American Muslims' views on LGBT issues
Similarly to the broader American public, U.S. Muslims have become more accepting of homosexuality in recent years. In a 2007 poll conducted by Pew Research Center, 27% of American Muslims believed that homosexuality should be accepted. In a 2011 poll, that percentage had risen to 39%. In a July 2017 poll, Muslims who say homosexuality should be accepted by society outnumber those who say it should be discouraged (52% of respondents, versus 33%), a level of acceptance similar to U.S. Protestants (52% in 2016). According to research by the Public Religion Research Institute's 2017 American Values Atlas, 51% of American Muslims favor same-sex marriage, while 34% are opposed.
American Muslim life after the September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, America saw an increase in the number of hate crimes committed against people who were perceived to be Muslim, particularly those of Middle Eastern and South Asian descent. More than 20 acts of discrimination and violence were documented in the post 9/11 era by the U.S. Department of Justice. Some of these acts were against Muslims living in America. Other acts were against those accused of being Muslims, such as Sikhs, and people of Arabian and South-Asian backgrounds A publication in Journal of Applied Social Psychology found evidence that the number of anti-Muslim attacks in America in 2001 increased from 354 to 1,501 following 9/11. The same year, the Arab American Institute reported an increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes ranging from discrimination and destruction of private property to violent threats and assaults, some of which resulted in deaths.
In a 2007 survey, 53% of American Muslims reported that it was more difficult to be a Muslim after the 9/11 attacks. Asked to name the most important problem facing them, the options named by more than ten percent of American Muslims were discrimination (19%), being viewed as a terrorist (15%), public's ignorance about Islam (13%), and stereotyping (12%). 54% believe that the U.S. government's anti-terrorism activities single out Muslims. 76% of surveyed Muslim Americans stated that they are very or somewhat concerned about the rise of Islamic extremism around the world, while 61% express a similar concern about the possibility of Islamic extremism in the United States.
On a small number of occasions Muslim women who wore distinctive hijab were harassed, causing some Muslim women to stay at home, while others temporarily abandoned the practice. In November 2009 Amal Abusumayah, a mother of four young girls, had her hijab pulled following derogatory comments while grocery shopping. In 2006, one California woman was shot dead as she walked her child to school; she was wearing a headscarf and relatives and Muslim leaders believe that the killing was religiously motivated. While 51% of American Muslims express worry that women wearing hijab will be treated poorly, 44% of American Muslim women who always wear hijab express a similar concern.
In 2011, The Learning Channel (TLC) broadcast a television series, All-American Muslim, depicting the lives of different American Muslims in Dearborn, Michigan.
Even 16 years after 9/11, studies show that 42% Muslim Americans report bullying of their children in school because of their faith. One in four bullying incidents involving Muslims is rerouted to have involved a teacher or other school official. Policies regarding immigration and airport security have also impacted Muslim American Lives after 9/11, with Muslims being twice as likely as any other faith group surveyed to be stopped at the border for additional screening. 67% of Muslims who were stopped at a US border also reported that they were easily identifiable as a member of their faith group. The climate of the 2016 presidential election and the policies that followed have also affected the lives and sentiments of Muslims Americans when it comes to their own safety. Muslims and Jews are, “most likely to express fear for their personal safety or that of their family from white supremacist groups as a result of the 2016 elections.” Overall, the majority of nonwhite Muslims do report some level of race-based discrimination in the past year. When it comes to religious based discrimination, Muslim Americans as a whole were the most likely faith group to report it.
Controversy
A 2011 Pew poll reported support for extremism among Muslim Americans is negligible. The poll indicated all segments of the Muslim American population were opposed to violence and to a correlation between support for suicide bombing and religiosity measures. A 2007 Pew poll reported that very few Muslim Americans (1%) supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, with 81% reporting that suicide bombings and other forms of violence against civilians are never justified. Favorable views towards Al Qaeda were held by a comparably smaller percentage among Muslim Americans, 2% very favorable and 3% somewhat favorable. 15% of American Muslims under the age of 30 supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, on the other hand, 11% said it could be "rarely justified" in a 2007 Pew poll. Among those over the age of 30, just 6% expressed their support for the same. (9% of Muslims over 30 and 5% under 30 chose not to answer).
Terrorism that involved Muslim perpetrators began in the United States with the 1993 shootings at CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia, followed by the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City. After the September 11 attacks and the start of the Afghanistan war in 2001, there was concern about the potential radicalization of American Muslims.
Between 2001 and the end of 2009, there were 46 publicly reported incidents of "domestic radicalization and recruitment to jihadist terrorism" that involved at least 125 people between 2001 and the end of 2009. There had been an average of six cases per year since 2001, but that rose to 13 in 2009.
While the seeming increase in cases may be alarming, half "involve single individuals, while the rest represent ‘tiny conspiracies,’ " according to Congressional testimony. Furthermore, a 2012 study by the University of North Carolina indicated that the yearly number of cases of alleged plots by Muslim-Americans appears to be declining. The total of 20 indictments for terrorism in 2011 is down from 26 in 2010 and 47 in 2009 (the total since 9/11 is 193). The number of Muslim-Americans indicted for support of terrorism also fell, from 27 individuals in 2010 to just eight in 2011 (the total since 9/11 stands at 462). Also in apparent decline is the number of actual attacks: Of the 20 suspects indicted for terrorism, only one was charged with carrying out a terrorist act. This number is down from the six individuals charged with attacks in 2010.
Muslim Americans are significantly represented among those who tip authorities off to alleged plots having given 52 of the 140 documented tips regarding individuals involved in violent terrorist plots since 9/11 up to 2012.
The Boston Marathon bombing in 2013 caused 280 injuries, and 5 civilian and police deaths. Attempted attacks, like the Curtis Culwell Center attack and 2015 Boston beheading plot have attracted substantial media coverage and inflamed community relations. In 2015 the New America Foundation released information about violent extremist groups in the US. While the Boston Marathon bombing had a high injury toll, only four deaths were counted by the group, and the group's count of only deaths from violent extremism showed that since 9/11, 48 people had been killed by anti-government extremists, compared to 28 by Jihadists.
Some Muslim Americans have been criticized because of perceived conflicts between their religious beliefs and mainstream American value systems. Muslim cab drivers in Minneapolis, Minnesota have been criticized for refusing passengers for carrying alcoholic beverages or dogs. The Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport authority has threatened to revoke the operating authority of any driver caught discriminating in this manner. There are reported incidents in which Muslim cashiers have refused to sell pork products to their clientele.
Jihadist extremism
At least one American not of recent immigrant background, John Walker Lindh, has been imprisoned, convicted on charges of working with the Taliban and carrying weapons against American soldiers. He had converted to Islam while in the United States, moved to Yemen to study Arabic, and then went to Pakistan, where he was recruited by the Taliban.
Another American that was not of recent immigrant background, José Padilla, of Puerto Rican descent and the first Hispanic-American to be imprisoned and convicted on suspicion of plotting a radiological bomb ("dirty bomb") attack. He was detained as a material witness until June 9, 2002, when President George W. Bush designated him an enemy combatant and, arguing that he was not entitled to trial in civilian courts, had him transferred to a military prison. He had converted to Islam while serving his last jail sentence in prison, and went to Pakistan where he was recruited into Al-Qaeda.
In 2015 four U.S. Marines were killed and three injured in Chattanooga, Tennessee by a twenty four-year-old Kuwaiti man, a naturalized US citizen with an engineering degree.
Islamophobia
According to a 2011 Gallup poll, over the preceding decade, there had been an increase in Islamophobia, which it defined as "an exaggerated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims that is perpetuated by negative stereotypes resulting in bias, discrimination, and the marginalization and exclusion of Muslims from social, political, and civic life." Another 2011 poll provided by The Washington Post through the Public Religion Research Institute states that 48 percent of Americans are uncomfortable with Muslim women wearing the burqa. A 2014 Pew Research Center survey found that Muslims were the most disliked religious group in the United States with an average "cold" rating of 40 (out of 100), which is lower than the 41 cold ratings received by atheists. According to a poll in November 2015 by the Public Religion Research Institute 56 percent of Americans believe that the values of Islam are at odds with the American values and ways of life.
Public institutions in the U.S. have also drawn fire for accommodating Islam at the expense of taxpayers. The University of Michigan–Dearborn and a public college in Minnesota have been criticized for accommodating Islamic prayer rituals by constructing footbaths for Muslim students using taxpayer money. Critics said this special accommodation, which is made to satisfy the needs of Muslims alone, is a violation of Constitutional provisions separating church and state. Along the same constitutional lines, a San Diego public elementary school is being criticized for making special accommodations, specifically for American Muslims, by adding Arabic to its curriculum and giving breaks for Muslim prayers. Some critics said exceptions have not been made for any religious group in the past, and they see this as an endorsement of Islam.
The first American Muslim Congressman, Keith Ellison, created controversy when he compared President George W. Bush's actions after the September 11, 2001 attacks to Adolf Hitler's actions after the Nazi-sparked Reichstag fire, saying that Bush was exploiting the aftermath of 9/11 for political gain, as Hitler had exploited the Reichstag fire to suspend constitutional liberties. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and the Anti-Defamation League condemned Ellison's remarks. The congressman later retracted the statement, saying that it was "inappropriate" for him to have made the comparison.
In April 2018, former President Donald Trump instigated a ban on Muslim immigration to America that still reverberates today. America had already some of the lowest percentages (about 1.1% of the total US population) of Muslims among Western nations, and with the ban in 2018, many African Muslims were also barred from traveling to the U.S. or seeking refuge there. The ban had a dramatic impact, but the measure was immediately rescinded in 2021, when Joe Biden took office. Muslim Americans, rights advocates and immigration experts, however, say the policy continues to have a lingering effect on Muslim citizens, as well as on their family members living abroad, unable to join their loved ones in America.
2018 ISPU Poll
In the American Muslim Poll 2018, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding set out "to measure the level of public anti-Muslim sentiment" in the United States.
The following graph shows data across six different faith populations in the United States, and their answers to the two questions below ("W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed):
Question 1: Some people think that for the military to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?
Question 2: Some people think that for an individual or a small group of people to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?
The following graph contains additional data collected by ISPU during their 2018 poll. The following statements were posed to participants and they were asked to answer on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The chart below shows the total percentage from each American faith demographic that agreed with the statements below. (Note: "W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed.)
Question 1: I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity
Question 2: The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country
Question 3: Most Muslims living in the United States are committed to the wellbeing of America
Question 4: Most people associate negative stereotypes with my faith identity
See also
Islam in New York City
Islam in Canada
Ahmadiyya in the United States
List of American Muslims
List of Islamic and Muslim related topics
List of mosques in the United States
Latino Muslims
Religious school
United States military chaplain symbols (including images of U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force Muslim Chaplain insignia)
American Islam (term)
Notes
References
Primary sources
Curtis IV, Edward E., ed. Columbia Sourcebook of Muslims in the United States (2007), 472 pp. table of contents
Further reading
Curtis IV, Edward E. Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History (2010), 715 pp.
Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2013). Sunni-Muslim American Religious Development during Emerging Adulthood, Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(6), 690–714
GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz. A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 416 pp; chronicles the Muslim presence in America across five centuries.
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Jane I. Smith, and Kathleen M. Moore. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today (2006)
Kabir, Nahib . Muslims in Australia: Immigration, Race Relations and Cultural History, London: Routledge (2005)
Kidd, Thomas. S. American Christians and Islam – Evangelical Culture and Muslims from the Colonial Period to the Age of Terrorism, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2008
Koszegi, Michael A., and J. Gordon Melton, eds. Islam In North America (Garland Reference Library of Social Science) (1992)
Naqvi, S. Kaazim. Chicago Muslims and the Transformation of American Islam: Immigrants, African Americans, and the Building of the American Ummah (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
Smith, Jane I; Islam in America (2nd ed. 2009)
External links
The percentage of Muslims in the U.S. (1980 - 2010)
Events
FriendlyCombatant.com
Islam on Capitol Hill (Internet home of Islam affirmation event at Capitol Hill on September 25, 2009)
Islamic Center of Beverly Hills
Muslim American Outreach
Guides and reference listings
GaramChai.com: Mosques (listings of mosques in the United States)
Academia and news
The Muslim Journal
Allied Media Corporation: Muslim American Market: MUSLIM AMERICAN MEDIA
The As-Sunnah Foundation of America: The Islamic Community In The United States: Historical Development
DinarStandard: The Untapped American Muslim Consumer Market
Euro Islam.info: Islam in the United States
Internet Archive: An Oral History of Islam in Pittsburgh (2006)
OnIslam.net: What Goes First for American Muslims: A Guide to A Better-engaged Community
OnIslam.net: Politicking U.S. Muslims: How Can U.S. Muslims Change Realities – Interview with Dr. Salah Soltan
OnIslam.net: US Muslims: The Social Angle – Interview with Dr. Mazen Hashem
Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: How many Muslims are there in the U.S. and the rest of the world?
The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life: Muslims Widely Seen As Facing Discrimination
Pew Research Center: Publications: Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream
The Pluralism Project at Harvard University: Distribution of Muslim Centers in the U.S.
Qantara.de: African-American Muslims: The American Values of Islam
San Francisco State University: Media Guide to Islam: Timeline of Islam in the United States
Social Science Research Network: What Every Political Leader in America and the West should Know about the Arab-Islamic World
Spiegel.de, A Lesson for Europe: American Muslims strive to become model citizens
United States Institute of Peace: The Diversity of Muslims in the United States: Views as Americans
TIME: Muslim in America (photo essay)
Valparaiso University: Muslims as a Percentage of all Residents, 2000
Growing Up in 9/11 Shadow OnIslam.net
In 9/11 Memory, U.S. Faiths Urge Unity OnIslam.net
History
Muslim Legacy in Early Americas
The History of Muslim in America
United States
United States
Religion in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour%20Party%20%28Malta%29
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Labour Party (Malta)
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The Labour Party (, PL), formerly known as the Malta Labour Party (, MLP), is one of the two major political parties in Malta, along with the Nationalist Party. It sits on the centre-left of the political spectrum.
The party was founded in 1921 as the Chamber of Labour by a small group of trade unionists. Ideologically, the party was orientated towards democratic socialism and other left-wing stances until the early 1990s, when it followed the lead of like-minded Western social-democratic parties like Britain's New Labour. The party still claims to be democratic-socialist in their party programme. Under the rule of Joseph Muscat, the party shifted to a more centrist position, adopting Third Way policies. A formerly Eurosceptic party, it claims to hold pro-European stances and is a member of the Party of European Socialists, and was previously a member of the Socialist International until 2014.
Party structure
The party structures are the General Conference, the National Executive, the Leader, and the Deputy Leaders, the Party Congress, the Party Administration, the Parliamentary Group, the Councillors' Section, the District and the Regional Administrations, the Local Committees, and the Branches.
The General Conference is largely made up of delegates from the Party's other constituent structures and is the Party's highest organ. The National Executive brings together the Party Administration as well as elected representatives of other constituent structures and co-ordinators. The Party Congress is made up of all members of the Party and elects the Leader and the two Deputy Leaders (one for Party, the other for Parliamentary affairs) and determines the Party's broad policy outlines. The Party Administration is made of the Party Leader, Deputy Leaders, and Party officials. The Parliamentary Group and the Councillors' Section bring together the Party's elected representatives in parliament and local councils. The Party is organised geographically in the local committees (smallest) and district and regional (largest) administrations. Finally, the Branches of the Party include the women's, youth, senior, and candidates' sections.
Media holdings
Although not formally part of the Party's structures, the PL owns a number of media and communication outlets. The party directly owns the Sunday weekly newspaper Kullħadd and through its holding company ONE Productions the party owns the television station ONE and radio service ONE Radio.
History
Foundation, first years, and first government (1921–1949)
The Labour Party was founded as the Chamber of Labour () in 1921 by one of the union branches affiliated with the Imperial Government Workers Union. Band clubs and other organisations were invited to send delegates to the Party's founding meeting on 15 March 1921, significantly, the 30th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII's Rerum novarum.
Led by Colonel William Savona, the Party contested the general elections held in 1921 and 1924 under the new Constitution that gave the country a measure of self-government. The Labour-Constitutional alliance won the 1927 general elections, but Labour lost ground, gaining 13.9% of votes, three seats in the Legislative Assembly and no representation in the Senate. Strickland became Prime Minister. Labour leader Savona was not elected, and the leadership of the Labour parliamentary group was temporarily entrusted to Colonel Michael Dundon. The Presidency of the Party and leadership of the parliamentary group was taken up by Paul Boffa later that year. In 1930, it adopted a party anthem.
Labour gained nine seats out of ten in the elections held during November 1945, in which, contrarily to previous elections, all men over twenty-one years of age were entitled to vote. The Party's electoral programme, for the first time in Labour's history, did not make any reference to religion. Boffa's Government was supported by the General Workers' Union, and it carried out a number of reforms, such as the abolition of the Senate, the abolition of plural votes, as well as the introduction of women's right to vote. However, Labour deputies resigned from their posts in July 1946 due to mass redundancies at the Dockyards. In the meantime, the 'MacMichael Constitution' had been introduced, granting self-government to the Maltese. Labour's participation in the subsequent October 1947 elections was once again supported by the General Workers' Union. The Party won 59.9% of the vote and twenty-four seats out of the possible forty within the Legislative Assembly. Paul Boffa became Prime Minister whilst Dom Mintoff became Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Reconstruction. The Labour Government introduced Income Tax and Social Services for the first time in Malta.
Re-founding and return to government (1949–1958)
The Labour Party was re-founded in 1949 as a successor to the Labour Party founded in 1921. Paul Boffa, Leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister since 1947, resigned and left the party because of serious disagreements with his Deputy Dom Mintoff which had led to a series of cabinet crises. Boffa formed the Malta Workers Party (MWP) while Mintoff re-organized the Labour Party as the Malta Labour Party. It has also adopted The Internationale as one of its anthems.
The Malta Labour Party contested its first elections for the Malta Legislative Assembly the following year. The old Labour vote was split equally between the MLP and the MWP, giving them eleven members each. This allowed the Nationalist Party (PN) to have a slight edge in the formation of a government, which it did in coalition with the MWP. The government did not last long. Two other elections were held in 1951 and 1953 (the last time a coalition governed in Malta) which both saw short-lived PN-MWP coalitions and the decline in the share of votes to the MWP with increasing support for the Labour Party.
The MWP eventually disintegrated and the MLP formed a government for the first time in 1955. This legislature was dominated by the issue of integration with the United Kingdom. The party, which started its life as an anti-colonial party with the slogan "Integration or self-determination" was now inclined towards the first part of the formula. A referendum was held in 1956 but given the number of abstentions and massive opposition by the Nationalist Party and the Catholic Church, the result was inconclusive. This, together with a number of dismissals at the naval dockyard led to Mintoff's resignation and his call for massive protests in April 1958.
Opposition (1958–1971)
The Governor re-established direct colonial government which lasted until 1962. In the meantime, the Malta Labour Party's connections with Third World Independentist and Socialist movements set it on a collision course with the Maltese Catholic Church, which the Party perceived as being pro-British and the cause of the failure of the Integration project. This led to the party leadership being interdicted from 1961 to 1964, when reading, advertising and distributing Party newspapers was deemed a mortal sin. In the 1962 elections, this led to the defeat of the Party at the polls as well as a split with the creation of the Christian Workers' Party. Peace with the Church would not be made until 1969 by which time the Christian Workers' Party had disintegrated.
The MLP participated in independence talks but disagreed with what was offered, causing them to not participate in the Independence celebrations when independence was actually achieved in 1964. The party made strong gains in the 1966 elections which, however, were not enough to see it in office.
An unimportant split occurred in 1969 when the Communist Party of Malta was founded. This split happened as a result of the truce between the Malta Labour Party and local Catholic authorities. The Communist Party has since only contested the 1987 elections.
Post-independence Mintoff governments (1971–1984)
Labour won the 1971 general election and immediately set out to re-negotiate the post-Independence military and financial agreements with the United Kingdom. The government also undertook socialist-style nationalization programmes, import substitution schemes, and the expansion of the public sector and the welfare state. Employment laws were revised with gender equality being introduced in salary pay. In the case of civil law, civil (non-religious) marriage was introduced and homosexuality and adultery were decriminalised. Through a package of constitutional reforms agreed to with the opposition party, Malta became a republic in 1974.
The Labour Party was confirmed in office in the 1976 elections. In 1981 the Party managed to hold on to a parliamentary majority, even though the opposition Nationalist Party managed an absolute majority of more than 4000 votes. A serious political crisis ensued when Nationalist MPs refused to accept the electoral result and also refused to take their seats in parliament for the first years of the legislature. Premier Dom Mintoff called this action "perverse" but it was not an uncommon one in any parliamentary democracy with disputed election results. He proposed to his parliamentary group that fresh elections be held, but most members of his Parliamentary group rejected his proposal. Mintoff, who had been considering vacating the party leadership position even before the elections, voluntarily resigned as Prime Minister and Party leader in 1984 (although he retained his parliamentary seat). A Party General Conference in that same year appointed Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici who acted uncontested as party leader.
Post-Mintoff era (1984–1992)
The Mifsud Bonnici years were characterised by political tensions and violence. The deadlock was broken when constitutional amendments were made voted and made effective in January 1987 which guaranteed that the party with an absolute majority of votes would be given a majority of parliamentary seats in order to govern. This paved the way for the return of the Nationalist Party to government later that year.
The Labour Party performed very badly in the following election in 1992, losing by nearly 13,000 votes. Mifsud Bonnici resigned due to deteriorating health and on 26 March, Labour elected Alfred Sant as the new leader.
Sant leadership, modernisation, and challenges (1992–2008)
Sant who won the election for party leader, and then modernized the party, secured a victory at the polls in 1996. Under Sant's leadership the party made several changes. The party opened the new Labour Party Headquarters in Hamrun instead of the old Macina in Cottonera. The party also made giant steps in the media by being the first Maltese political party to own its radio and television stations.
Sant managed to win comfortably the 1996 elections held on 26 October by over 8,000 votes on the Nationalist Party. The 1987 constitutional amendments, which secured the necessary additional seats, had to be used for the second time, having been used for the same time in 1987. This same amendment had to be used a third time in 2008.
However, trouble was brewing. Mintoff, for reasons known to him alone (within the MLP), started creating problems in Parliament for the one-seat Labour parliamentary majority. In the summer of 1998, Labour lost a division vote on the proposed Cottonera waterfront project because of Mintoff's renegation on his parliamentary group. This was considered by Prime Minister Sant as a vote of no confidence in his government and informed the then-President of the Republic that he no longer held a parliamentary majority as a result. The President had on various occasions asked Prime Minister Alfred Sant to try to find a solution for the political crisis created, but when all attempts proved futile, he had no other option but to accept Sant and his government's resignation and a call for early elections, which were held on 5 September 1998. The Labour Party was defeated with a wide 13,000 vote margin.
Back in opposition, the party campaigned unsuccessfully against EU membership, and the 'NO' camp lost the referendum for the ascension of Malta in the European Union on 8 March (although Sant claimed victory) and was again defeated in the general election a month later on 14 April 2003, once more with a 12,000 vote margin. Sant resigned but stood again for party leader, where he was re-elected with more than 65% of the votes.
In June 2004 the party succeeded in obtaining a relative majority of votes in the elections held to elect the first five Maltese MEPs for the European Parliament. The party elected three of his candidates: Joseph Muscat (later replaced by Glenn Bedingfield), John Attard Montalto and Louis Grech.
In 2008 the Labour Party lost for the third consecutive time in the 2008 general elections, obtaining 48.79% share of the vote and losing the election to the Nationalist Party by just 1,580 votes or 0.5%. Following the loss of the election, Sant resigned as Labour Party leader on 10 March 2008.
Muscat leadership (2008–2020)
The first round of the election of the new leader were held on 5 June 2008. Five members contested this election as candidates: George Abela (a former Deputy Leader), Evarist Bartolo (a frontbench MP and ex-Minister), Marie Louise Coleiro Preca (a frontbench MP and former Secretary-General of the Party), Michael Falzon (an MP and Deputy Leader of the Party) and Joseph Muscat (an MEP). In the first round neither candidate obtained 50%+1 the majority of the votes. So a run up election had to be held on 6 June between the top two candidates who obtained the most votes, George Abela and Joseph Muscat. Muscat was elected Labour Party leader, gathering 66.36% of the total votes. He was co-opted in Parliament and appointed Leader of the Opposition on 1 October.
During an Extraordinary General Conference, held in November 2008, it was decided that the party's official name would be Partit Laburista instead of its former English name, the Malta Labour Party. The previous emblem was changed, although the symbol of the torch was retained.
In June 2009, the party garnered 55 percent of the first preference votes in the election for the European Parliament, electing three MEPs who sit with the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. This result led to Labour a fourth MEP when the Treaty of Lisbon came into effect and the number of seats allocated to Malta increased from five to six.
Muscat managed to win comfortably the 2013 elections held on 9 March by over 35,000 votes on the Nationalist Party. The Labour Party won a massive 55% of the votes.
In the 2014 MEP elections, the Labour Party retained a majority of 34,000 votes (53%), but lost its fourth seat to the Nationalist Party candidate Therese Comodini Cachia.
In 2015, the party was delisted from the Socialist International for not paying membership fees.
In 2017, Joseph Muscat was re-elected during the general election, with Labour appearing to win with a clear landslide victory for the second consecutive time, merely an hour after the vote counting commenced.
Under Muscat's leadership Malta's national deficit was eliminated, unemployment decreased to historic lows, and an unprecedented period of economic growth occurred. However, he was criticised by figures on both sides of the political spectrum, accused of political opportunism, broken promises on meritocracy and the environment, as well as corruption allegations. On 1 December 2019, Muscat announced his resignation, to take effect after 12 January 2020, due to the 2019 Maltese protests caused by the murder of anti-corruption journalist and government critic Daphne Caruana Galizia. Muscat was accused of impeding the investigation. Robert Abela was elected to replace him, promising continuity with previous policies pursued by the party.
Abela leadership (2020–present)
As the party held a parliamentary majority at the time of Muscat's resignation, Robert Abela would become Prime Minister immediately after, on 13 January 2020. He was recognized as the "continuity" candidate instead of Chris Fearne, emphasizing stability, unity and normality, as opposed to the bolder changes advocated by Fearne.
Abela is considered to be aligned to traditional Labour's values, such as social housing and free medicine for the elderly.
In March 2020, Malta registered its first COVID-19 case. Abela was at first reluctant to close the airport, retail outlets and the schools, but felt compelled to do so a few days later as public pressure mounted.
In April 2020, Prime Minister Abela called for 'national unity' on TVM, the country's national broadcasting television. This has been criticized for being partisan.
In November 2020, Abela stated "that the party will continue to reinvent itself with the introduction of more young people and women at the centre of its decision-making process."
On 18 February 2021, Abela announced plans to introduce a law that would end police arrests for those possessing a small amount of cannabis and plants for personal use. This bill was passed in December 2021, and Malta became the first country in the European Union to legalise cannabis.
Abela's leadership was criticised with the number of co-options that have been put into place since his appointment, being deemed as undemocratic.
in the 2022 general election, The Labour Party retained its majority in parliament, winning a third consecutive election for the first time since 1981 with 55.11% of the popular vote, the largest share since 1955, marginally surpassing the 55.04% it scored in 2017. Voter turnout was 86%. this was mainly because of various reasons including how Labour dealt with the Covid pandemic, the fact that the economy was still booming, and unemployment kept at a minimum low despite the pandemic and the way that Labour reinvented itself by tackling corruption and money laundering by ushered in a raft of rule-of-law reforms to counter claims of government corruption and grey listing of Malta by the FATF.
Electoral history
House of Representatives
European Parliament
Party leadership
Leaders of the Labour Party
Deputy leaders of the Labour Party in the Maltese House of Representatives since 1920
P. Bugelli 1920–1925
Michael Dundon 1925–1929
Paul Boffa 1929–1947
Dom Mintoff 1947–1949
Joseph Flores 1949–1955
Ġużè Ellul Mercer 1955–1961
Anton Buttigieg 1961–1976
Agatha Barbara 1976–1981
Wistin Abela 1981–1982
Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici 1982–1984
Guze Cassar 1984–1987
Joseph Brincat 1987–1992
George William Vella 1992–2003
Charles Mangion 2003–2008
Angelo Farrugia 2008–2012
Louis Grech 2012–2017
Chris Fearne 2017–present
Deputy leaders of the Labour Party Affairs since 1976
Joseph Brincat 1976–1980
Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici 1980–1983
Guze Cassar 1983-1987
Joe Debono Grech 1987–1992
George Abela 1992–1998
Joseph Brincat 1998–2003
Michael Falzon 2003–2008
Toni Abela 2008–2016
Konrad Mizzi 2016
Chris Cardona 2016–2020
Daniel Jose Micallef 2020 – present
See also
Sette Giugno
Interdict (Catholic canon law)
Parliament of Malta
European Parliament
Prime Minister of Malta
References
External links
Political parties in Malta
Social democratic parties
Social democratic parties in Europe
Party of European Socialists member parties
Political parties established in 1921
Socialism in Malta
1921 establishments in Malta
Labour parties
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Pro-European political parties in Malta
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Democratic%20Party%20%28Portugal%29
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Social Democratic Party (Portugal)
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The Social Democratic Party (, ; PSD) is a liberal-conservative political party in Portugal. Commonly known by its colloquial initials PSD, on ballot papers its initials appear as its official form PPD/PSD, with the first three letters coming from the party's original name, the Democratic People's Party (, PPD). A party of the centre-right, the PSD is one of the two major parties in Portuguese politics, its rival being the Socialist Party (PS) on the centre-left.
The PSD was founded in 1974, two weeks after the Carnation Revolution and in 1976 adopted its current name. In 1979, the PSD allied with centre-right parties to form the Democratic Alliance and won that year's election. After the 1983 general election, the party formed a grand coalition with the Socialist Party, known as the Central Bloc, before winning the 1985 general election under new leader Aníbal Cavaco Silva, who shifted the party to the right. Cavaco Silva served as Prime Minister for ten years, instituting major economic liberalisation and winning two landslide victories. After he stepped down, the PSD lost the 1995 election. The party was returned to power under José Manuel Durão Barroso in 2002, but was defeated in the 2005 election. The party was able to return to power after the 2011 elections and four years later was able to win a plurality in the 2015 legislative election, winning 107 seats in the Assembly of the Republic in alliance with the CDS – People's Party, but being unable to form a minority government. The current leader, Luís Montenegro was elected on 28 May 2022.
Originally a social-democratic party, the PSD became the main centre-right, conservative party in Portugal. The PSD is a member of the European People's Party and the Centrist Democrat International. Until 1996, the PSD belonged to the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party and Liberal International. The party publishes the weekly Povo Livre (Free People) newspaper.
History
Foundation
The Social Democratic Party was born on 6 May 1974, when Francisco Sá Carneiro, Francisco Pinto Balsemão and Joaquim Magalhães Mota publicly announced the formation of what was then called the PPD, the Democratic People's Party (). On 15 May, the party's first headquarters were inaugurated in Largo do Rato, Lisbon. This was followed, on 24 June, by the formation of the first Political Committee, consisting of Francisco Sá Carneiro, Francisco Pinto Balsemão, Joaquim Magalhães Mota, Barbosa de Melo, Mota Pinto, Montalvão Machado, Miguel Veiga, Ferreira Júnior, António Carlos Lima, António Salazar Silva, Jorge Correia da Cunha, Jorge Figueiredo Dias and Jorge Sá Borges.
The publication was founded, its first issue being published on 13 July 1974, led by its first two directors, Manuel Alegria and Rui Machete. The PPD's first major meeting was held in the , Lisbon, on 25 October, and a month later the party's first official congress took place.
On 17 January 1975, 6300 signatures were sent to the Supreme Court so that the party could be approved as a legitimate political entity, which happened a mere eight days later.
In 1975, the PPD applied unsuccessfully to join the Socialist International, with its membership attempt vetoed by the Socialist Party.
Alberto João Jardim was the co-founder of the Madeiran branch of the PSD, and governed the autonomous archipelago for decades, running as a member of the party.
Democratic Alliance governments
The Social Democratic Party participated in a number of coalition governments in Portugal between 1974 and 1976, following the Carnation Revolution. This is seen as a transitional period in Portuguese politics, in which political institutions were built and took time to stabilize. In 1979, the PSD formed an electoral alliance, known as the Democratic Alliance (AD), with the Democratic and Social Centre (now called the People's Party, CDS-PP) and a couple of smaller right-wing parties. The AD won the parliamentary elections towards the end of 1979, and the PSD leader, Francisco Sá Carneiro, became Prime Minister. The PSD would be part of all governments until 1995. The AD increased its parliamentary majority in new elections called for 1980, but was devastated by the death of Sá Caneiro in an air crash on 4 December 1980. Francisco Pinto Balsemão took over the leadership of both the Social Democratic Party and the Democratic Alliance, as well as the Prime Ministership, but lacking Sá Carneiro's charisma, he was unable to rally popular support.
The Democratic Alliance was dissolved in 1983, and in parliamentary elections that year, the PSD lost to the Socialist Party (PS). Falling short of a majority, however, the Socialists formed a grand coalition, known as the Central Bloc, with the PSD. Many right-wingers in the PSD, including Aníbal Cavaco Silva, opposed participation in the PS-led government, and so, when Cavaco Silva was elected leader of the party on 2 June 1985, the coalition was doomed.
Cavaco Silva governments (1985–1995)
The PSD won a plurality (but not a majority) in the general election of 1985, and Cavaco Silva became Prime Minister. Economic liberalization and tax cuts ushered in several years of economic growth. After a motion of no confidence was approved, early elections were called for July 1987, which resulted in a landslide victory for the PSD, who captured 50.2 percent of the popular vote and 148 of the 250 parliamentary seats – the first time that any political party in Portugal had mustered an absolute majority in a free election. While the PSD had been very popular going into the election, the size of its victory far exceeded the party's most optimistic projections. A strong economy, growing above 7% in 1988, ushered a big convergence between Portugal and other EU countries.
The PSD won a historic third term in the 1991 election, with a slightly higher vote share than four years earlier. However, continuing high levels of unemployment and a lower economy, after 1993, eroded the popularity of the Cavaco Silva government.
Post-Cavaco Silva
Cavaco Silva stepped down as leader in January 1995. In the following month, in the PSD congress, the party elected Fernando Nogueira as leader. The PSD lost the 1995 election to the PS. In 1996, Cavaco Silva ran for the presidency of the republic, but he failed to defeat former Lisbon Mayor Jorge Sampaio. Sampaio won 53.9% to Cavaco's 46.1%. The party, for the first time in 16 years, was out of government. The party was again defeated in the 1999 elections. The party, however, made a big comeback in the 2001 local elections by winning several cities, like Lisbon, Porto and Sintra, from the PS and, some, against all odds and predictions. This PSD result led the then Prime Minister António Guterres (PS) to resign and the country was led to snap general elections on March 2002.
At the time, the party reviewed its membership database, resulting in a correction from 183,000 in 1996 to 77,000 in 1999.
First PSD/CDS coalition government (2002–2005)
The PSD made a comeback in 2002 by defeating the PS by 40% to 38% margin, however, despite falling short of a majority, the PSD won enough seats to form a coalition with the CDS-PP, and the PSD leader, José Manuel Durão Barroso, became Prime Minister. Durão Barroso later resigned his post to become President of the European Commission, leaving the way for Pedro Santana Lopes, a man with whom he was frequently at odds, to become leader of the party and Prime Minister.
Back in opposition (2005–2011)
In the parliamentary election held on 20 February 2005, Santana Lopes led the PSD to its worst defeat since 1983. With a negative swing of more than 12% percent, the party won only 75 seats, a loss of 30. The rival Socialist Party had won an absolute majority, and remained in government after the 2009 parliamentary election, albeit without an absolute majority, leaving the PSD in opposition.
The PSD-supported candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the Portuguese presidential elections in 2006 and again in 2011. After the 2005 elections, Luís Marques Mendes was elected leader of the party. Internal infighting weakened Marques Mendes and, in September 2007, Marques Mendes was defeated by Luís Filipe Menezes by a 54% to 42% margin. Menezes was also incapable of dealing with his internal opposition and, after just six months in the job, Menezes resigned. On 31 May 2008, Manuela Ferreira Leite became the first female leader of a Portuguese major party. She won 38% of the votes, against the 31% of Pedro Passos Coelho and the 30% of Pedro Santana Lopes.
In the European Parliament election held on 7 June 2009, the PSD defeated the governing socialists, capturing 31.7% of the popular vote and electing eight MEPs, while the Socialist Party only won 26.5% of the popular vote and elected seven MEPs.
Although this was expected to be a "redrawing of the electoral map", the PSD has still defeated later that year, though the PS lost its majority. Pedro Passos Coelho was elected leader in March 2010, with 61% of the votes.
Second PSD/CDS coalition government (2011–2015)
Growing popular disenchantment with the government's handling of the economic crisis coupled with the government's inability to secure the support of other parties to implement the necessary reforms to address the crisis, forced the Socialist Party Prime Minister José Sócrates to resign, leading to a fresh election on 5 June 2011. This resulted in a non-absolute majority for the PSD, leading to a coalition government with the CDS-PP, which served a full term until the 2015 general election. During this term, many austerity policies were put into practice to reduce the budget deficit but, ultimately, created unemployment and a recession that lasted until mid 2013. Since that date, the economy recovered starting to grow between 1 and 2% per trimester.
In the 2015 general election, the PSD and CDS-PP ran in a joint coalition, called Portugal Ahead, led by Pedro Passos Coelho and Paulo Portas. The coalition won the elections by a wide margin over the Socialists, capturing 38.6% of the votes while the Socialists captured only 32%, although the coalition lost 25 MPs and a more than 11% of the votes, thus falling well short of an absolute majority. The PSD/CDS-PP coalition was asked by the then President of the Republic, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, to form a government with Passos Coelho as Prime Minister.
Back in opposition (2015–present)
The 2nd PSD/CDS government was duly formed and took the oath of office on 30 October 2015, but fell after a no-confidence motion was approved two weeks later. Its 11 days of rule make it the shortest-lived government since Portugal has been a democracy holding free elections. After that, the PSD returned to the opposition benches, and the Socialist Party was able to form an agreement with BE and CDU to support a PS minority government led by António Costa. Pedro Passos Coelho continued as party leader, but a weak opposition strategy led to bad polling numbers for the PSD. All of this culminated with the results of the 2017 local elections. In these elections, the PSD achieved their worst results ever, winning just 98 mayors and 30% of the votes. Passos Coelho announced he would not run for another term as PSD leader. On 13 January 2018, Rui Rio defeated Pedro Santana Lopes by a 54% to 46% margin and became the new party leader.
In order to avoid bankruptcy due to mounting debt, in 2017, the party, alongside the Portuguese Socialist Party, the Portuguese Communist Party, BE and the ecologist party PEV, voted in favour of abolishing party fundraising limits, thereby opening all Portuguese parties to private political donorship, that they are not obligated to disclose. The new proposal was reluctantly approved by the Portuguese president Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa.
During his first year in the leadership, Rio faced big internal opposition and, in January 2019, Rio won a motion of confidence presented by Luís Montenegro. In the EP 2019 elections, the PSD achieved their worst result ever in a national election, winning just 22% of the votes. However, the party recovered a lot of ground in the October 2019 general elections, achieving 28% of the votes, against the 36% of the PS. Nonetheless, Rio's leadership was, once again, challenged and he faced, in a two round leadership contest in January 2020, Luís Montenegro and Miguel Pinto Luz. Rio won the 1st round with 49% of the votes and defeated Luís Montenegro in the 2nd round by 53% to 47% margin, thus being re-elected as party leader.
In the Azores 2020 regional elections, the PSD was able to return to power, after 24 years in opposition, by forging a controversial deal with CHEGA, plus CDS, PPM and IL. The PSD won almost 34% of the votes, while the PS fell more than 7 pp, compared with 2016, to 39%, an unexpected result, and overall the right wing parties had a 1-seat majority over all the left. After 2020, the PSD controls the governments of Portugal's only two autonomous regions.
The 2021 local elections were quite positive for the PSD, despite not winning the most mayors in the country as a whole. The party, and its led-coalitions, won a combined 32% of the votes and were able to win, from the PS, several cities like Coimbra, Funchal and Barcelos. The main gain of the PSD was the victory in Lisbon, where Carlos Moedas defeated, against all odds and predictions, the PS incumbent mayor Fernando Medina. In October 2021, disagreements between the PS and BE-CDU led to the rejection of the 2022 budget and the calling of a snap general election for 30 January 2022. Despite a close race predicted by polls, the PSD suffered a big setback by winning just 29% of the votes and seeing the PS gaining a surprise absolute majority, with 41% of the votes. After the election, PSD leader Rui Rio opened the process to elect a new party leader. On 28 May 2022, Luís Montenegro was elected party leader by a landslide, gathering more than 72% of the votes.
Ideology
Historical evolution
The party was founded based on classical social democracy and was a centre to centre-left party, but later it evolved into catch-all centre-right party. The party has been described as liberal-conservative, conservative, or conservative-liberal, with Christian democratic, liberal and economically liberal elements.
Factions
The PSD is frequently referred to as a party that is not ideology-based, but rather a power party (). It frequently adopts a functional big tent party strategy to win elections. Due to this strategy, which most trace to Cavaco Silva's leadership, the party is made up of many factions, mostly centre-right (including liberal democrats, Christian democrats and neoconservatives) as well as quasi-social-democrats and former communists:
The main faction when the party was created, throughout the party's history rightist politicians joined them to have a greater chance of gaining power and influencing the country's politics (see liberals, conservatives, right-wing populists and neoliberals). They do not follow traditional social democracy, but Portuguese social democracy as defined by Francisco Sá Carneiro's actions and writings, which includes a degree of centrist and leftist populism. They followed a kind of anti-class struggle party/cross-class party strategy. All the other members of the party claim to follow this line. Among its representatives were most of the leaders between Francisco Sá Carneiro and Cavaco Silva, Alberto João Jardim (also a founding member and an anti-neoliberal) and to an extent Luís Filipe Menezes (who called the PSD the "moderate left party") identified himself with a centre-left matrix and a united left strategy and defended a more open party on issues like abortion. José Mendes Bota is another left-wing populist. The Portuguese social-democrats are centered around the (Boavista Group).
Follow traditional social democracy. They share with the Portuguese social democrats their presence at the creation of the party and "a non-Marxist progressivist line". Many of them (former party leader António Sousa Franco, party co-founder Magalhães Mota, writer and feminist Natália Correia) supported the (Pressing Options) manifesto, and then left to create the Independent Social Democrat Association (, ASDI) and the Social Democrat Movement (, MSD), forming electoral coalitions (later merging with) the Socialist Party during the 1970s–1980s. Some took part in the Democratic Renovator Party. A later example of a European-style Social democrat leaving the party for the Socialists is activist and politician Helena Roseta. The ones still in the party adapted to its current right-wing outlook or Portuguese social democracy. They today include former communists-turned centre-leftists, like Zita Seabra. Durão Barroso might have moved from Thatcherism to social democracy. Ironically, both Social Democrat factions were represented in the 2008 party elections by Manuela Ferreira Leite, economically neoliberal and socially conservative (often compared to Thatcher).
The other main faction at creation. The PSD was always more successful in the Northern and rural areas of the country. When Sousa Franco and his SPD-inspired social democrats started their break with the rest of the party he referred to a division between "a rural wing, led by Sá Carneiro, and an urban wing, more moderate and truly social democratic, close to the positions of Helmut Schmidt" Due to the electoral influence of ruralism on the PSD's politics they may be seen inside of or influencing most factions.
Due to the Salazarist connotation of the term right-wing and all terms connected (liberal and conservative) after the Carnation Revolution, the little attractiveness of economic liberalism in European politics, no specific liberal or conservative party was formed in post-1974 Portugal, except the experiences of the Catholic Action-monarchist Liberal Party in 1974 and the centrist liberal Democratic Renovator Party, so they started working inside the PSD. This strategy of joining "socialism and liberalism under the same hat" was especially successful during Cavaco Silva's leadership, when the party gave up its candidacy to the Socialist International and became member of the Liberal International and European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party and Liberal and Democratic Reformist Group, leaving the international and the European party and group in 1996 to join the Christian Democrat International (today Centrist Democrat International), the European People's Party and the European People's Party-European Democrats. Since then, the liberal-social democrat rift (or even the liberal-conservative-populist-social democrat rift) has plagued the party's cohesion and actions. Durão Barroso (a former revolutionary Maoist who switched sides in the 1980s) is sometimes referred to as the most pure liberal of the party. In terms of social liberals, some try to link both social democracy and social liberalism to the PSD, to refer to the early PSD as liberal or partly social liberal party and social liberalism is sometimes identified with the social market economy tradition the party traditionally supported. Even members of the Portuguese Social Liberal Movement admit the traditional and current presence of social liberals (and other liberals) on the PSD.
Some claim the PSD as the party from Christian democracy and social Christianity from the beginning, or having these currents as part of its legacy. Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa is one of the main preachers of Social Christianity inside the PSD. As is Paulo Rangel.
Distinct from radical right-wing populists, the populist centre and centre-left social democrats (like João Jardim and Sá Carneiro), the populist overlappers (like Cavaco Silva), and the Eurosceptic populists of the Democratic and Social Centre–People's Party (CDS-PP). They are social-economic liberal conservative/conservative liberal and moderate culturally religious conservatives and internationalist national conservatives. Their main representative is Pedro Santana Lopes. Though the main right-wing populists were present at the founding of the party (like Santana Lopes), they were clearly right-wing, recruited when their abilities were noticed in educated circles and universities, with minor agreements with Sá Carneiro's philosophy. Frequently as the PSD is a bipartisanship party, right-wing populists from the CDS-PP join the party. Luís Filipe Meneses is frequently described as a populist but he tried to lead the party back to a left line, and does not identify or act like the liberal conservative/conservative liberal populists.
With the post-revolutionary opposition to the right (see above in liberal) no specific conservative party was founded in Portugal; conservatives acted inside the CDS-PP and the PSD. Frequently linked with the neoliberals, pure conservatives are rare in the party as the usual partisan or politician of the party is economically moderate, but socially conservative. One of the rare exceptions of a pure conservative in this party was former party member and MP Vasco Pulido Valente, who is highly elitist and a cultural purist (unlike most of the party's partisans, who have various degrees of populism or meritocracy), highly conservative and traditionalist.
Mostly former communists and leftists who supported the policies of the Bush administration and defend similar views in Portuguese politics. The main example is José Pacheco Pereira (though his support of the Bush doctrine on the invasion of Iraq is sometimes challenged. They are frequently referred to as "Cavaco-ists" due to their support of cavacoism's legacy and candidates representative of it, like Cavaco Silva himself and Ferreira Leite, defending the position that they should take a hard stance on the left and its social liberalism).
Neoliberal tendencies were introduced in Portuguese economy by Cavaco Silva, removing socialism from the constitution and finishing the de-collectivization of the economy started with Sá Carneiro. Cavaco (a self-described neo-Keynesian) never employed a totally Reaganite or Thatcherite strategy, maintaining a social democrat matrix and many (right and left-wing) populist and neo-Keynesian policies. Alberto João Jardim described the inconsistent neoliberalism of the PSD as "those Chicago Boys have some funny ideas, but when election time arrives the old Keynesianism is still what counts". Cavaco Silva and Durão Barroso are both sometimes referred to as the closest to neo-liberal leaders of the party. The main pure representative of the streak is Manuela Ferreira Leite, but even she called herself a social democrat and explained "I'm not certainly liberal, I'm also not populist" and lead the social democratic factions during internal party rifts, though she accepts the nickname "Portuguese iron lady" and comparisons to Thatcher if "[it] means [...] an enormous intransigence on values and in principles, of not abdicating from these values and from these principles and of continuing my way independently of the popularity of my actions and the effects on my image". The main group (officially non-partisan) associated with the neoliberal faction of the PSD is the (Lighthouse Project).
The average PSD voter and partisan since Cavaco Silva's leadership. Cavaco himself, though a self-described Neo-Keynesian, an early member of the party since its centre-left days and a man with social-liberal and centrist populist economic policy tendencies, he is personally a social conservative (opposing same-sex marriage and abortion) and a practicing Catholic. As such, Cavacoism should be considered a "hybrid" or a political syncretism. A similar case is Vasco Graça Moura, who claims to be an economic social democrat but opposes gay people serving in the military and is a self-described "centre-left reactionary". The overlappers are mainly represented in the forums gathered by the District of Oporto section of the party, which during the 2009 European elections tried to gather the ideas of all factions.
Not to be confused with overlappers. Still indecisive between (traditional or Portuguese) social democracy, social liberalism or any other kind of centrism.
Are pragmatic although open to privatization and civil society alternatives to the social state, in speech they move closer to the centre-left origins of the party and are generally proud of them. The main representative of this faction is Pedro Passos Coelho, who claims to be neither left nor right, but that "the real issues are between old and new", though his opponents identified him as a liberal (in the conservative-liberal or neoliberal European sense) since the 2008 party election, though he recalled the many meanings of liberal and recalled the left liberalism of the United States Democratic Party, being even called "PSD's Obama" by supporters. Centrists and transversalists inside the party share the think tank (Building Ideas), which Passos Coelho founded and leads. They mix (like the closely allied centrists) calls to privatization with others to more social justice, government regulation and arbitration and strategic governmental involvement in the economy. This faction is in constant rift with the more socially right-wing ones (who have been leading the party for a long time) and also with the overlappers whose hybrid approach they refuse, over the future of the party and its future ideological and philosophical alignments.
Election results
Assembly of the Republic
Seat share in the Portuguese legislative elections
European Parliament
Regional Assemblies
Party leaders
List of leaders
Graphical timeline
List of secretaries-general (second-in-command)
Joaquim Magalhães Mota (31 October 1976 – 29 January 1978; as President)
Sérvulo Correia (29 January 1978 – 2 July 1978; as President)
Amândio de Azevedo (2 July 1978 – 17 June 1979; as President)
António Capucho (17 June 1979 – 25 March 1984; as President until 27 February 1983)
Francisco Antunes da Silva (25 March 1984 – 19 May 1985)
Manuel Dias Loureiro (19 May 1985 – 8 April 1990)
José Falcão e Cunha (8 April 1990 – 15 November 1992)
José Nunes Liberato (15 November 1992 – 19 February 1995)
Eduardo Azevedo Soares (19 February 1995 – 31 March 1996)
Rui Rio (31 March 1996 – 20 June 1997)
Carlos Horta e Costa (20 June 1997 – 19 April 1998)
António Capucho (19 April 1998 – 17 January 1999)
Artur Torres Pereira (17 January 1999 – 2 May 1999)
José Luís Arnaut (2 May 1999 – 23 May 2004)
Miguel Relvas (23 May 2004 – 10 April 2005)
Miguel Macedo (10 April 2005 – 14 October 2007)
José Ribau Esteves (14 October 2007 – 22 June 2008)
Luís Marques Guedes (22 June 2008 – 11 October 2010)
Miguel Relvas (11 April 2010 – 12 June 2011)
José Matos Rosa (12 June 2011 – 18 February 2018)
Feliciano Barreiras Duarte (18 February 2018 – 19 March 2018)
José Silvano (19 March 2018 – 3 July 2022)
Hugo Soares (3 July 2022 – present)
Source:
Prime ministers
Francisco Sá Carneiro: 1979–1980
Francisco Pinto Balsemão: 1981–1983
Aníbal Cavaco Silva: 1985–1995
José Manuel Durão Barroso: 2002–2004
Pedro Santana Lopes: 2004–2005
Pedro Passos Coelho: 2011–2015
Presidents of the Republic
Aníbal Cavaco Silva: 2006–2016
Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa: 2016–present
Symbols
Logos
The orange color is dominant in the PSD symbols since 1974 and the logo is characterized by three arrows, inspired in the Three Arrows political symbol from the German Social Democratic Party during the 1930's against Nazism. In the PSD logo, the three arrows represent freedom, equality and solidarity.
See also
Politics of Portugal
List of political parties in Portugal
Notes
References
External links
Social Democratic Party – official website
Social Democratic Youth – official website
Social Democratic Workers – official website
1974 establishments in Portugal
Conservative parties in Portugal
Liberal conservative parties
Liberal parties in Portugal
Member parties of the European People's Party
Organisations based in Lisbon
Political parties established in 1974
Political parties in Portugal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awami%20League
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Awami League
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The Bangladesh Awami League (), often simply called the Awami League or AL, is one of the major political parties in Bangladesh, being the ruling party of Bangladesh since 2009.
The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was founded in Dhaka, the capital of the Pakistani province of East Bengal, in 1949 by Bengali nationalists Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, Shawkat Ali, Yar Mohammad Khan, and Shamsul Huq, and joined later by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy who went on to become Prime Minister of Pakistan. The Pakistan Awami Muslim League was established as the Bengali alternative to the domination of the Muslim League in Pakistan and over centralisation of the government. The party quickly gained a massive popular support in East Bengal, later named East Pakistan, and eventually led the forces of Bengali nationalism in the struggle against West Pakistan's military and political establishment.
The party under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, led the struggle for independence, first through massive populist and civil disobedience movements, such as the Six Point Movement and 1971 Non-Cooperation Movement, and then during the Bangladesh Liberation War.
After the emergence of independent Bangladesh, the Awami League won the first general elections in 1973 but was overthrown in 1975 after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The party was forced by subsequent military regimes onto the political sidelines, and many of its senior leaders and activists were executed or jailed. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, the Awami League emerged as one of the principal players of Bangladeshi politics. Since 2009, when the Awami League came to power, Bangladesh has experienced democratic backsliding.
Amongst the leaders of the Awami League, five have become the President of Bangladesh, four have become the Prime Minister of Bangladesh and one became the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The incumbent Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, has headed the party since 1981.
The Bangladesh Awami League's modern foreign policy is to maintain good foreign relations with all countries, including the US, the UK, France, and Germany as well as Russia and China.
History
Founding and early Pakistan era (1949–66)
During the post-Mughal era no political parties existed in the area known as Bangla or Bangal. After the British arrived and established government, the system of political representation (though much later) was adopted in the area of Bangla (Bengal) or introduced in Bengal. After the official departure of the British, the area known as East Bengal became a part of Pakistan, and the establishment of the Muslim was led by its founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah and his Muslim League party.
In 1948, there was rising agitation in East Bengal against the omission of Bengali script from coins, stamps and government exams. Thousands of students, mainly from the University of Dhaka, protested in Dhaka and clashed with security forces. Prominent student leaders including Shamsul Huq, Khaleque Nawaz Khan, Shawkat Ali, Kazi Golam Mahboob, Oli Ahad, and Abdul Wahed were arrested and the police were accused of repression while charging protesters. In March, senior Bengali political leaders were attacked whilst leading protests demanding that Bengali be declared an official language in Pakistan. The leaders included A. K. Fazlul Huq, the former Prime Minister of undivided Bengal. Amidst the rising discontent in East Bengal, Jinnah visited Dhaka and announced that Urdu would be sole state language of Pakistan given its significance to Islamic nationalism in South Asia. The announcement caused an emotional uproar in East Bengal, where the native Bengali population resented Jinnah for his attempts to impose a language they hardly understood on the basis of upholding unity. The resentment was further fuelled by rising discrimination against Bengalis in government, industry, bureaucracy and the armed forces and the dominance of the Muslim League. The Bengalis argued that they constituted the ethnic majority of Pakistan's population and Urdu was unknown to the majority in East Bengal. Moreover, the rich literary heritage of the Bengali language and the deep rooted secular culture of Bengali society led to a strong sense of linguistic and cultural nationalism amongst the people of East Bengal. The only significant language in Pakistan not written in the Persian-Arabic script was Bengali. Against this backdrop, Bengali nationalism began to take root within the Muslim League and the party's Bengali members began to take a stand for recognition.
On 23 June 1949, Bengali nationalists from East Bengal broke away from the Muslim League, Pakistan's dominant political party, and established the All Pakistan Awami Muslim League. Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani and Shamsul Huq were elected the first president and general secretary of the party respectively, Ataur Rahman Khan was elected the vice-president, Yar Mohammad Khan was elected as the treasurer, while Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad and A. K. Rafiqul Hussain were elected the party's first joint secretaries. The party was formed to champion the rights of the masses in Pakistan against the powerful feudal establishment led by the Muslim League. However, due to its strength stemming from the discriminated Bengali population of Pakistan's eastern wing, the party eventually became associated and identified with East Bengal.
In 1952, the Awami Muslim League and its student wing played an instrumental role in the Bengali Language Movement, during which Pakistani security forces fired upon thousands of protesting students demanding Bengali be declared an official language of Pakistan, famously killing a number of students including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar. The events of 1952 are widely seen by historians today as a turning point in the history of Pakistan and the Bengali people, as it was the starting point of the Bengali nationalist struggle that eventually culminated in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.
Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy, who had been the AIML-nominated prime minister of Bengal in 1937 and held the same office after 1946 elections, did not agree to 'Muslim League' as the name of AIML in Pakistan. He initiated the thought that the ideal of political representation under religious identity was no longer prudent after independence and the organisation might be named as Pakistan League. Moreover, he claimed that Muslim League's objective of struggling to form a nation state had been achieved therefore political representation should continue focusing on nationalism based on Pakistani sovereignty. Suhrawardy's suggestion was not accepted, thus, he parted ways with the party to be reestablished as the Awami League in 1949. This was to serve the first shock to the country's political structure. In 1953, the party's council meeting voted to drop the word "Muslim". In the run-up to the East Bengal Legislative Assembly Elections in 1954, the Awami League took the lead in negotiations in forming a pan-Bangla political alliance including the Krishak Praja Party, Nizam-e-Islam and Ganatantrik Dal. The alliance was termed the Jukta Front or United Front and formulated the Ekush Dafa, or 21-point Charter, to fight for establishing rights in East Pakistan. The party also took the historic decision to adopt the traditional Bengali boat, which signified the attachment to rural Bengal, as its election symbol.
The election in April 1954 swept the United Front coalition into power in East Bengal with a massive mandate of 223 seats out of 237 seats. The Awami League itself won 143 seats while the Muslim League won only 9 seats. Veteran student leader and language movement stalwart Khaleque Nawaz Khan defeated incumbent prime minister of the then East Bengal Mr. Nurul Amin in a landslide margin. Mr. Nurul Amin was defeated in his home Nandail constituency. Khaleque Nawaz Khan created history at age 27 by defeating sitting prime minister and Muslim League was wiped out from political landscape of the then East Pakistan. A. K. Fazlul Huq assumed the office of Chief Minister of East Bengal and drew up a cabinet containing many of the prominent student activists that were leading movements against the Pakistani state. They included Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from the Awami League, who served as commerce minister.
Leaders of the new provincial government demanded greater provincial autonomy for East Bengal and eventually succeeded in pressuring Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra, himself a Bengali, to endorse the proposed constitutional recognition of Bengali as an official language of Pakistan. The United Front also passed a landmark order for the establishment of the Bangla Academy in Dhaka.
As tensions with the western wing grew due to the demands for greater provincial autonomy in East Bengal, Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad dismissed the United Front government on 29 May 1954 under Article 92/A of the provisional constitution of Pakistan.
In September 1956, the Awami League formed a coalition with the Republican Party to secure a majority in the new National Assembly of Pakistan and took over the central government. Awami League President Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy became the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Suhrawardy pursued a reform agenda to reduce the long-standing economic disparity between East and West Pakistan, greater representation of Bengalis in the Pakistani civil and armed services and he unsuccessfully attempted to alleviate the food shortage in the country.
The Awami League also began deepening relations with the United States. The government moved to join the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO), the two strategic defence alliances in Asia inspired by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Maulana Bhashani, one of the party's founders, condemned the decision of the Suhrawardy government and called a conference in February 1957 at Kagmari, Tangail in East Bengal. He protested the move and the support lent by the Awami League leadership to the government. Bhashani broke away from the Awami League and then formed the leftist National Awami Party (NAP).
Yar Mohammad Khan funded the 5-day Kagmari Conference. He was the treasurer of the kagmari conference committee.
The controversy over One Unit (the division of Pakistan into only two provinces, east and west) and the appropriate electoral system for Pakistan, whether joint or separate, also revived as soon as Suhrawardy became Prime Minister. In West Pakistan, there was strong opposition to the joint electorate by the Muslim League and the religious parties. The Awami League however, strongly supported the joint electorate. These differences over One Unit and the appropriate electorate caused problems for the government.
By early 1957, the movement for the dismemberment of the One Unit had started. Suhrawardy was at the mercy of central bureaucracy fighting to save the One Unit. Many in the business elite in Karachi were lobbying against Suhrawardy's decision to distribute millions of dollars of American aid to East Pakistan and to set up a national shipping corporation. Supported by these lobbyists, President Iskander Mirza demanded the Prime Minister's resignation. Suhrawardy requested to seek a vote of confidence in the National Assembly, but this request was turned down. Suhrawardy resigned under threat of dismissal on 10 October 1957.
On 7 October 1958, President Iskander Mirza declared martial law and appointed army chief General Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Ayub Khan eventually deposed Mirza in a bloodless coup. By promulgating the Political Parties Elected Bodies Disqualified Ordinance, Ayub banned all major political parties in Pakistan. Senior politicians, including the entire top leadership of the Awami League, were arrested and most were kept under detention till 1963.
In 1962, Ayub Khan drafted a new constitution, modelled on indirect election, through an electoral college, and termed it 'Basic Democracy'. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy joined Nurul Amin, Khwaja Nazimuddin, Maulvi Farid Ahmed and Hamidul Haq Chowdhury in forming National Democratic Front against Ayub Khan's military-backed rule and to restore elective democracy. However the alliance failed to obtain any concessions. Instead the electoral colleges appointed a new parliament and the President exercised executive authority.
Widespread discrimination prevailed in Pakistan against Bengalis during the regime of Ayub Khan. The University of Dhaka became a hotbed for student activism advocating greater rights for Bengalis and the restoration of democracy in Pakistan.
On 5 December 1963, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was found dead in his hotel room in Beirut, Lebanon. His sudden death under mysterious circumstances gave rise to speculation within the Awami League and the general population in East Pakistan that he had been poisoned.
Struggle for Independence and Mujib era (1966–75)
The 6-point demands, proposed by Mujib, were widely accepted by the East Pakistani populace, as they proposed greater autonomy for the provinces of Pakistan. After the so-called Agartala Conspiracy Case, and subsequent end of the Ayub Khan's regime in Pakistan, the Awami League and its leader Sheikh Mujib reached the peak of their popularity among the East Pakistani Bengali population. In the elections of 1970, the Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistan seats in the National Assembly but none of West Pakistan's 138 seats. It also won 288 of the 300 provincial assembly seats in East Pakistan. This win gave the Awami League a healthy majority in the 313-seat National Assembly and placed it in a position to establish a national government without a coalition partner. This was not acceptable to the political leaders of West Pakistan who feared the 6 points were a step towards breaking up the country and led directly to the events of the Bangladesh Liberation War. A particular point of disagreement was transferring 6 powers to one province which was unprecedented. The Awami League leaders, taking refuge in India, successfully led the war against the Pakistan Army throughout 1971. Leader Sheikh Mujib was arrested by the Pakistan Army on 25 March 1971, but the Bangladeshi people continued the fight to free themselves for nine months.
After victory on 16 December 1971, the party formed the national government of Bangladesh. In 1972, under Sheikh Mujib, the party name was changed to "Awami League". The new government faced many challenges as they rebuilt the country and carried out mine clearing operations. The party had pro Pakistani newspaper editors arrested and shut down the nations' newspapers leaving only four in operation. Food shortages were also a major concern of the Awami League. War had damaged all forms of farming. The party aligned itself with NAM, and leaned towards the Soviet bloc. The party was accused of corruption by supporters of Pakistan. In 1974 Bangladesh suffered a famine: 70,000 people died, and support for Mujib declined. Bangladesh continued exporting jute to Cuba, violating US economic sanctions, the Nixon government barred grain imports to Bangladesh. This exacerbated famine conditions.
In January 1975, facing violent leftist insurgents Mujib declared a state of emergency and later assumed the presidency, after the Awami League dominated parliament decided to switch from parliamentary to a presidential form of government. Sheikh Mujib renamed the League the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League, and banned all other parties. The consequences lead to a critical political state. BAKSAL was dissolved after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
The move towards a secular form of government caused widespread dissatisfaction among many low ranking military personnel, most of whom received training from Pakistan army. On 15 August 1975 during the time of K M Shafiullah as a Head of the Army Stuffs. some junior members of the armed forces in Dhaka, led by Major Faruk Rahman and Major Rashid, murdered Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and all his family members, including his wife and minor son. Within months, on 3 November 1975, four more of its top leaders, Syed Nazrul Islam, Tajuddin Ahmed, Captain Muhammad Mansur Ali and A. H. M. Qamaruzzaman were killed inside the Dhaka Central Jail as they were on behalf of BAKSAL. Only Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana, two daughters of Mujib, survived the massacre as they were in West Germany as a part of a cultural exchange program. They later claimed political asylum in the United Kingdom. Sheikh Rehana, the younger sister, chose to remain in the UK permanently, while Sheikh Hasina moved to India and lived in self-imposed exile. Her stays abroad helped her gain important political friends in the West and in India that proved to be a valuable asset for the party in the future.
Struggle for democracy and Hasina era (1981–present)
After 1975, the party remained split into several rival factions and fared poorly in the 1979 parliamentary elections held under a military government. In 1981 Sheikh Hasina returned as Ziaur Rahman allowed her to return after the largest party faction, the Awami League elected her its president, and she proceeded to take over the party leadership and unite the factions. As she was under age at the time she could not take part in the 1981 presidential elections that followed the assassination of President Ziaur Rahman. Throughout the following nine years of military rule by General Hussain Muhammad Ershad the Awami League participated in some polls but boycotted most as Ershad did not believe in democracy. On 7 May 1986, Awami League participated in the general election of Bangladesh staged by military ruler Lt Gen Hussain Muhammad Ershad even though the other major political party and the winner of previous elections Bangladesh Nationalist Party boycotted. British observers including a journalists termed the elections a "tragedy for democracy" and a "cynically frustrated exercise".
The Awami League emerged as the largest opposition party in parliament in the elections in 1991, in which Khaleda Zia became the first female prime minister.
AL's second term in office had mixed achievements. Apart from sustaining economic stability during the Asian economic crisis, the government successfully settled Bangladesh's long standing dispute with India over sharing the water of the river Ganges (also known as Padma) in late 1996, and signed a peace treaty with tribal rebels in 1997. In 1998, Bangladesh faced one of the worst floods ever, and the government handled the crisis satisfactorily. It also had significant achievements in containing inflation, and peacefully neutralising a long-running leftist insurgency in south-western districts dating back to the first AL government's time. However, rampant corruption allegations against party office bearers and ministers as well as a deteriorating law and order situation troubled the government. Its pro poor policies achieved wide microeconomic development but that left the country's wealthy business class dissatisfied. The AL's last months in office were marred by sporadic bombing by alleged Islamist militants. Hasina herself escaped several attempts on her life, in one of which two anti-tank mines were planted under her helipad in Gopalganj district. In July 2001, the second AL government stepped down, becoming the first elected government in Bangladesh to serve a full term in office.
The party won only 62 out of 300 parliamentary seats in the elections held in October 2001, despite winning 40% of the votes, up from 36% in 1996 and 33% in 1991. The BNP and its allies won a two-thirds majority in parliament with 46% of the votes cast, with BNP alone winning 41%, up from 33% in 1996 and 30% in 1991.
In its second term in opposition since 1991, the party suffered the assassination of several key members. Popular young leader Ahsanullah Master, a member of parliament from Gazipur, was killed in 2004. This was followed by a grenade attack on Hasina during a public meeting on 21 August 2004, resulting in the death of 22 party supporters, including party women's secretary Ivy Rahman, though Hasina lived. Finally, the party's electoral secretary, ex finance minister, and veteran diplomat Shah M S Kibria, a member of parliament from Habiganj, was killed in a grenade attack in Sylhet later that year.
In June 2005, the Awami League won an important victory when the AL nominated incumbent mayor A.B.M. Mohiuddin Chowdhury won the important mayoral election in Chittagong, by a huge margin, against BNP nominee State Minister of Aviation Mir Mohammad Nasiruddin. This election was seen as a showdown between the Awami League and the BNP. However, the killing of party leaders continued. In December 2005, the AL supported Mayor of Sylhet narrowly escaped the third attempt on his life as a grenade thrown at him failed to explode.
In September 2006, several of the party's top leaders, including Saber Hossain Chowdhury MP and Asaduzzaman Nur MP, were hospitalised after being critically injured by police beatings while they demonstrated in support of electoral-law reforms. Starting in late October 2006, the Awami League led alliance carried out a series of nationwide demonstrations and blockades centring on the selection of the leader of the interim caretaker administration to oversee the 2007 elections. Although an election was scheduled to take place on 22 January 2007 that the Awami League decided to boycott, the country's military intervened on 11 January 2007 and installed an interim government composed of retired bureaucrats and military officers.
Throughout 2007 and 2008, the military backed government tried to root out corruption and remove Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia of the AL and BNP respectively. While these efforts largely failed, they succeeded in producing a credible voter list that was used on 29 December 2008 national election.
The Awami League won the national election held on 29 December 2008 as part of a larger electoral alliance that also included the Jatiya Party led by former military ruler General Hussain Muhammad Ershad as well as some leftist parties. According to the Official Results, Bangladesh Awami League won 230 out of 299 constituencies, and together with its allies, had a total of 262 parliamentary seats. The Awami League and its allies received 57% of the total votes cast. The AL alone got 48%, compared to 36% of the other major alliance led by the BNP which by itself got 33% of the votes. Sheikh Hasina, as party head, became the new Prime Minister. Her term of office began in January 2009. The current cabinet has several new faces, including three women in prominent positions: Dr Dipu Moni (Foreign Minister), Matia Chowdhury (Agriculture Minister) and Sahara Khatun (Home Minister). Younger MPs with a link to assassinated members of the 1972–1975 AL government are Syed Ashraful Islam, son of Syed Nazrul Islam, Sheikh Taposh, son of Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni, and Sohel Taj, son of Tajuddin Ahmad.
Since 2009, the Awami League government faced several major political challenges, including BDR (Bangladesh Rifles) mutiny, power crisis, unrest in garments industry and stock market fluctuations. Judicial achievements for the party included restoring original 1972 constitution, returning secularism to the constitution, beginning of war crimes trials, and guilty verdict in 1975 assassination trial. According to the Nielsen 2-year survey, 50% felt the country was moving in the right direction, and 36% gave the government a favourable rating.
In the 2014 election the Awami League led alliance won a second term of which 154 Members (out of 300) of Parliament were selected where there were no election . Only 5% voter attended in the polling station and cast their votes. The opposition and one of the most popular parties (BNP) boycotted the election for removing the caretaker government (neutral government) system from the constitution after completion of 5 years tenure. With 21 people dead due to the violence during election, along with further human rights abuses and an absence of opposition, this was one of the controversial general elections in Bangladesh's history. This election was further tainted by arrests where dozens of opposition leaders and members were taken into custody.
Name and symbols
The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League () or the East Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed as a breakaway faction of the "All Pakistan Muslim League" in 1949, within two years of the formation of Pakistan. The word Muslim was dropped in 1953 and it became the secular Awami League. During the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, most of the Awami League members joined the Provisional Government of Bangladesh and Mukti Bahini guerrillas to fight against the Pakistani army and the name "Bangladesh Awami League" was eventually settled upon.
The most common mascot and electoral symbol for the party has been the boat, which signified the attachment to rural Bengal. Traditionally the party had no consistent colour identity. After the 1991 election, the colour green became associated with Awami League, while blue has become the identifying colour for rival nationalist party.
The salutation "Joy Bangla" (; meaning Victory to Bengal or "Long live Bengal") is the official slogan of the Awami League. It was the slogan and war cry of the Mukti Bahini that fought for the independence of Bangladesh during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The phrase "Joy Bangla, Joy Bangabandhu" is used by the party members at the end of speeches and communications pertaining to or referring to patriotism towards Bangladesh and Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib.
The Awami League party flag is a green field with four five-rayed red star at its centre, and a vertical red stripe at the hoist side. The flag also bears some resemblance to the flag of Pakistan, showing the ex-Pakistani origin of the Awami League. The four stars on the Flag represent the four fundamental principles of the party: nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.
Ideology
The Bangladesh Awami League styles itself as the leader of the "pro-liberation" forces in Bangladesh and claims to promote secular and social democratic sections of the political establishment in the country. The party constitution states, and in two cases defines the reason for, four fundamental principles in guiding its philosophy and policies. They include:
Democracy
Socialism
Secularism
Nationalism
Before the 2008 general elections in Bangladesh, the Awami League announced in its manifesto, its "Vision 2021" and "Digital Bangladesh" action plans to transform Bangladesh into a fast-developing middle-income country by 2021. The party uses the term "Shonar Bangla", or golden Bengal, to describe its vision for Bangladesh to become a modern developed nation. The term is reminiscent of Bangladesh's national anthem and a utopian vision in Bengali nationalism.
Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina supported calls to remove the Statue of Justice in Bangladesh Supreme Court. Many criticized these calls, saying Sheikh Hasina was bowing down to the pressure of Islamist political hard-liners.
In recent years, the party has begun espousing more economically liberal positions, and has moved closer to the centre of the political spectrum.
It was reported in 2017 that the party in government has been cracking down on the LGBT community. This has included the arrests of those accused of being homosexual.
It has been accused of remaining silent "on the spate of killings of bloggers, secularists, atheists, teachers, free thinkers and activists" that have taken place in the country while it has been in government.
In a 2021 report Human Rights Watch said that in government the party has "doubled down on an authoritarian crackdown on free speech, arresting critics, and censoring media." This followed a prior violent crackdown on those that criticised the party in 2018.
Organization
Constitution
The Constitution of the Bangladesh Awami League () has 24 Articles and includes contents of General Program, Membership, Organization System, Central Organizations, Name, Aims and Objectives, Fundamental Principles, Commitments. In accordance with the changing situation and tasks, revisions were made in some of the articles at the National Conference.
National Conference
The National Conference NC () is the party's highest body, and, since the 1st National Conference in 1949, has been convened every three years (sometimes on an irregular basis). According to the party's constitution, the National Conference may be postponed on except "under extraordinary circumstances." The party constitution gives the NC following responsibilities:
electing the President
electing the general secretary
examining the report of the outgoing Central Working Committee
discussing and enacting party policies
revising the party's constitution
In practice, the party councillors and delegates rarely discuss issues at length at the National Conference. Most substantive discussion takes place before the Conference, in the preparation period, among a group of top party leaders. In between National Conferences, the Central Working Committee is the highest decision-making institution.
Central Working Committee
The Central Working Committee () of the Awami League is a political body that comprises the top leaders of the Party. It is currently composed of 81 full members and 29 alternate members. Members are elected once every three years by the National Conference of the Bangladesh Awami League.
The Central Working Committee is made up of the following:
The Party Presidium:
The Party President
17 Presidium Members
The General Secretary
4 Joint General Secretary
The Treasurer
28 Additional Members
29 Secretaries of the Sub Committee
and
10 Parliamentary Committee member
Advisory Council
Almost 38 Advisory Council () members working as party's think-tank and are not Part of the Central Working Committee The Awami League Advisory Council is the highest governing of Bangladesh Awami League.
Centre for Research and Information
The Centre for Research and Information CRI is the think-tank and research cell of the Awami League. The foundation offers political education, conducts scientific fact-finding research for political projects, grants scholarships to gifted individuals, researches the history of Awami League, and supports and encourages youth, international understanding, and development-policy co-operation.
Activities
Let's Talk
Policy Café
CRI Junction
Young Bangla and CRI: The Young Bangla Programme comprises the several schemes, acting as a flexible space for the youth, thousands of individuals and youth-led organizations, supporting them with resources and capacity enhancement trainings.
Wings
President and general secretary of the AL, 1949–present
State leaders from the AL, 1971–present
Electoral history
Jatiya Sangsad elections
See also
Politics of Bangladesh
List of political parties in Bangladesh
Bangladesh Nationalist Party
List of political parties in Pakistan
National Awami Party
Awami National Party
Suchinta Foundation
References
External links
Awami League web site
1949 establishments in East Pakistan
History of East Pakistan
Political parties established in 1949
Political parties in Bangladesh
Politics of Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Bangladesh
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President of Bangladesh
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The President of Bangladesh ( — ) officially the president of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( —) is the head of state of Bangladesh and commander-in-chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces.
The role of the president has changed three times since Bangladesh achieved independence in 1971. Presidents had been given executive power. In 1991, with the restoration of a democratically elected government, Bangladesh adopted a parliamentary democracy based on a Westminster system. The President is now a largely ceremonial post elected by the Parliament.
In 1996, Parliament passed new laws enhancing the president's executive authority, as laid down in the constitution, after the Parliament is dissolved. The president resides at the Bangabhaban, which is his office and residence. The president is elected by the 350 parliamentarians in an open ballot, and thus generally represents the majority party of the legislature. He continues to hold office after his five-year term expires until a successor is elected to the presidency.
Mohammed Shahabuddin is the current president, he was elected unopposed on 13 February 2023. He took office for a five-year term on Monday, 24 April 2023.
Powers and duties
Currently, although the position of president holds de jure importance, its de facto powers are largely ceremonial. The Constitution allows the president to act only upon the advice of the prime minister and his/her Cabinet.
Appointments powers
The president can appoint the following to office:
By Article 56 (2), the prime minister and his/her Cabinet, with the limitation that the prime minister must be a parliamentarian who holds the confidence of the majority of the House. The president can also dismiss a member of Cabinet upon the request of the prime minister.
By Article 95, the chief justice and other judges of the court.
By Article 118, the Bangladesh Election Commission, including the chief.
Prerogative of mercy
The president has the prerogative of mercy by Article 49 of the Constitution, which allows him to grant a pardon to anybody, overriding any court verdict in Bangladesh.
Legislative powers
By Article 80, the president can refuse to assent to any bill passed by the parliament, sending it back for review. A bill is enacted only after the president assents to it. But when the bill is passed again by the parliament, if the president further fails or refuse to assent a bill, after a certain period of days, the bill will be automatically transformed into law and will be considered as assented by the president.
Chancellor at universities
Chancellor is a titular position at universities in Bangladesh, always held by the incumbent president of Bangladesh under the Private Universities Act 1992. The position in public universities is not fixed for the president under any acts or laws (since the erection of a state university in Bangladesh requires an act to be passed in itself), but it has been the custom so far to name the incumbent president of the country as chancellor of all state universities thus established.
Selection process
Eligibility
The Constitution of Bangladesh sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president.
A person shall not be qualified for election as president if he-
is less than thirty-five years of age; or
is not qualified for election a member of Parliament; or
has been removed from the office of president by impeachment under the Constitution.
Conditions for presidency
Certain conditions, as per Article 27 of the Constitution, debar any eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections.
The conditions are:
No person shall hold office as president for more than two terms, whether or not the terms are consecutive.
The president shall not be a member of Parliament, and if a member of Parliament is elected as president, he shall vacate his seat in Parliament on the day on which he enters upon his office as president.
Election process
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by members of Parliament. Although presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties. The president may be impeached and subsequently removed from office by a two-thirds majority vote of the parliament.
Oath or affirmation
The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, an oath or affirmation that he/she shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution as follows:
Immunity
The president is granted immunity for all his actions by Article 51 of the Constitution and is not answerable to anybody for his actions, and no criminal charges can be brought to the Court against him. The only exception to this immunity is if the Parliament seeks to impeach the President.
Succession
Article 54 of the Constitution of Bangladesh provides for the succession of the president. It states that in case of absence due to illness or other reasons, the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad will act as the president of Bangladesh until the president resumes office. This Article was used during the ascension of Speaker Jamiruddin Sircar as the acting president of the State following the resignation of former president A. Q. M. Badruddoza Chowdhury, and when President Zillur Rahman could not discharge his duties due to his illness, and later, death.
Since Bangladesh is a parliamentary system, it does not have a vice-president. However, during the presidential system of governance, Bangladesh had a vice-president who would assume the president's role in his absence; the post was abolished by the twelfth amendment to the Constitution in 1991.
Removal
A president can resign from office by writing a letter by hand to the Speaker. The president can also be impeached by the Parliament. In case of impeachment, the Parliament must bring specific charges against the president, and investigate it themselves, or refer it to any other body for investigation. The president will have the right to defend himself. Following the proceedings, the president is impeached immediately if two-thirds of the Parliament votes in favour, and the Speaker ascends to power.
Presidential residences and office
The principal Presidential residence at Bangabhaban is located in Dhaka. There is also a Presidential Palace at Uttara Ganabhaban in Natore District.
History of the office
Parliamentary republic (1970–74)
At the beginning of the Bangladesh war of independence in April 1970, Bangladesh Forces and Bangladesh Government in exile were both established. After the oath ceremony was held at Meherpur, Kushtia, the government-in-exile set up its headquarters at 8 Theatre Road, in Kolkata (then Calcutta), India. The first president of Bangladesh was Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the first vice president to take oath of office was Syed Nazrul Islam with Tajuddin Ahmad as the first prime minister. After the war ended, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the prime minister with the election of the first parliament a year later in January, 1972.
Later in 1973 under a new constitution, the set up began under a parliamentary system of government where the president was a nominal head of the state while all the executive powers were vested in the prime minister. In 1974, the government under Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman switched from parliamentary to a single party presidential system banning all press, political parties and activities under the State of Emergency.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the apparent acting president of a state yet to be known as Bangladesh (during the Liberation war of Bangladesh, when it was still called East Pakistan, before he was captured, taken to West Pakistan, and kept in a Pakistani prison. His imprisonment therefore resulted in his absence during the entire war-time, which lasted almost a year. In his absence, Syed Nazrul Islam, vice-president of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh was appointed as acting president). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the founder of Bangladesh and remarked as the 'Father of the Bangladesh Nation'. He headed the Awami League, served as the president from April 1971 to 1972; was the prime minister from 1972 and the president in 1975. He is popularly referred to as Sheikh Mujib, and with the honorary title of Bangabandhu (বঙ্গবন্ধু Bôngobondhu, "Friend of Bengal"). His eldest daughter Sheikh Hasina Wajed is the present leader of the Awami League and the current prime minister of Bangladesh. He introduced the state policy of Bangladesh according to four basic principles: nationalism, secularism, democracy and socialism.
The Awami League won a massive majority in the first parliamentary elections of Bangladesh in March 1973 much due to Mujib's high-profile and as the single large political oppressor. However, the Mujib government faced serious challenges, which included the rehabilitation of millions of people displaced in 1971, organising the supply of food, health aids and other necessities. The effects of the 1970 cyclone had not worn off, and the state's economy had immensely deteriorated by the conflict. Economically, Mujib embarked on a huge nationalisation program. The economy suffered as a result of socialist planning. By the end of the year, thousands of Bengalis arrived from Pakistan, and thousands of non-Bengalis migrated to Pakistan; and yet many thousands remained in refugee camps.
Constitutional Presidential System (1974–1975)
During the aftermath of the 1974 Famine, Mujib proclaimed a State of Emergency to manage the crisis. The lawmakers of the 1st parliament amended the constitution to transition into a strong executive presidential system to better manage emergencies in the country. These changes were remarked as the "Second Revolution," by Sheikh Mujib. Sheikh Mujib assumed the presidency. All politicians were brought together for the unity of the country and a national party was created as the 'National Union Party', with a striking similarity to the Abraham Lincoln's National Union Party during the height of the American Civil War, with all different political members joining the national party for the sake of unity in order to prevent crisis stemming from disunity. It was named as the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), in which all members of parliament, government and semi-autonomous associations and bodies were obliged to join.
After Bangladesh achieved recognition from most countries, Sheikh Mujib helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom and other European nations to obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for the nation. He signed a treaty of friendship with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance and began training Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel. Mujib forged a close friendship with Indira Gandhi, strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and professed admiration and friendship for India. But the Indian government did not remain in close co-operation with Bangladesh during Mujib's lifetime.
He charged the provisional parliament to write a new constitution, and proclaimed the four fundamental principles of nationalism, secularism, democracy and socialism. Mujib nationalised hundreds of industries and companies as well as abandoned land and capital and initiated land reform aimed at helping millions of poor farmers. Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10 million refugees. The economy began recovering and a famine was prevented. A constitution was proclaimed in 1972 and elections were held, which resulted in Sheikh Mujib and his party gaining power with an absolute majority. He further outlined state programmes to expand primary education, sanitation, food, healthcare, water and electric supply across the country. A five-year plan released in 1973 focused state investments into agriculture, rural infrastructure and cottage industries.
Post-Coup Unconstitutional Military Dictatorships (1975–1991)
Assassination of Mujibur Rahman
Soon after the passing of a constitutional amendment, there was a disgruntlement among military generals who lamented the old Pakistani military establishment led state and some close associates of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who were ministers and secretaries, out of bitter bureaucratic rivalry with Bangabandhu and his loyalist ministers and secretaries joined the assassination plot. In August 1975, he was assassinated by some junior and mid-level army officers who had since their arrests and trials given testimonies against General Ziaur Rahman for guiding them and instigating them against the President and the State to cause the coup, and a new government, headed by one of the former associates who was in a bitter bureaucratic rivalry with Bangabandhu loyalists, Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed. Mushtaq's government was removed by a bloodless coup that occurred on 3 November 1975. A counter uprising occurred four days later on 7 November, resulting from a power struggle, with the deaths of several military generals, including General Khaled Mosharraf the leader of the November 3 counter coup, trying to prevent the conspirators and plotters of the Bangabandhu assassination from taking over the state successfully. With the absence of any resistance after the 7 November coup, Maj. Gen. Ziaur Rahman emerged into the political scene returning to the post of Army Chief of Staff. He pledged an army led state while the civilian government headed is by the president, Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem. As the country was in dire situation with no stability and security, with Zia and the rest of the conspirators of the 7 November coup with their armed pressure on the President Sayem who then promulgated martial law, misled Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's use of the State of Emergency to turn it into a tool for a non civilian military takeover of the state and the government, and later replaced President Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem as the Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA).
Ziaur Rahman (Bangladesh Nationalist Party)
With the Ziaur Rahman's military loyalists now running the state from behind, initially as Deputy CMLA, Ziaur Rahman sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's ban on political parties, he sought to bring back Ayub Khan regime's military bureaucratic system of government. A year later in November 1976, Ziaur Rahman became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA). He assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement 5 months later, promising national elections in 1978. After a Yes-No nationwide vote referendum, Ziaur Rahman was elected for president in 1978. His government removed the remaining restrictions on political parties and encouraged all opposition parties to participate in the pending parliamentary elections while putting military generals into politics. He made constitutional changes without approval from the elected parliamentary representatives required by the constitution, and removed the social welfare system that guaranteed many social securities for the elderly people and poor people that was in place prior. More than 30 parties vied in the parliamentary elections of 15 February 1979, and with massive public support, Zia's Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) won 207 of the 300 elected seats.
Drifting away from the Secular State and Liberal Nationalism
Zia moved to lead the nation in a new direction, significantly different from the ideology and agenda of the 1st parliament of Bangladesh. He issued a proclamation order amending the constitution, replacing secularism with increasing the faith of the people in their creator, following the same tactics that was used in Pakistan during the Ayub Khan regime to establish a military rule over civilian democratic rule in the government system. In the preamble, he inserted the salutation "Bismillahir-Rahmaanir-Rahim" (In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful). In Article 8(1) and 8(1A) the statement "absolute trust and faith in Almighty Allah" was added, replacing the commitment to secularism. Socialism was redefined as "economic and social justice." In Article 25(2), Zia introduced the principle that "the state shall endeavour to consolidate, preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity." Zia's edits to the constitution redefined the nature of the republic from the secularism laid out by Sheikh Mujib and his supporters. Islamic religious education was introduced as a compulsory subject in Bangladeshi schools, with provisions for non-Muslim students to learn of their own religions.
In public speeches and policies that he formulated, Zia began expounding "Bangladeshi nationalism," as opposed to Mujib's assertion of a Liberal Nationalism that emphasised on the liberation of Bengalis from Pakistan's autocratic regime. Zia emphasised the national role of Islam (as practised by the majority of Bangladeshis). Claiming to promote an inclusive national identity, Zia reached out to non-Bengali minorities such as the Santals, Garos, Manipuris and Chakmas, as well as the Urdu-speaking peoples of Bihari origin. However, many of these groups were predominantly Hindu and Buddhist and were alienated by Zia's promotion of political Islam. In an effort to promote cultural assimilation and economic development, Zia appointed a Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Commission in 1976, but resisted holding a political dialogue with the representatives of the hill tribes on the issue of autonomy and cultural self-preservation. On 2 July 1977 Ziaur Rahman organised a tribal convention to promote a dialogue between the government and tribal groups. However, most cultural and political issues would remain unresolved and intermittent incidents of inter-community violence and militancy occurred throughout Zia's rule.
Reforms and international relations
Notable mentions of Ziaur Rahman's tenure as a president have been radical reforms both in country's infrastructure and diplomacy. President Zia successfully pointed out the grounds those could be effectively and exclusively decisive for development of Bangladesh and his reforms covered the political, economical, agricultural and military infrastructure of Bangladesh. Reorganisation of Bangladesh's international relations are especially mentionable because it had active influence over both economy and politics. He successfully bailed Bangladesh out of the Indo-Soviet bloc and grabbed the distancing strings to put bar on the gradually deterioration of Bangladeshi relations with the Western world. Zia gave attention to the other Eastern superpower China that later helped Bangladesh hugely to recover from economical setbacks and to enrich the arsenal of her armed forces.
The most notable of Zia's reformed diplomacy was establishing a relationship with the Muslim world as well as the Middle East. The present bulk overseas recruitment of Bangladeshi migrant workers to Middle Eastern countries are direct outcome of Zia's efforts those he put to develop a long-lasting relationship with the Muslim leadership of the world. The purpose of Middle East relations has been largely economical whereas the rapid improvement of relations with China was particularly made to for rapid advancement of the country's armed forces.
Throughout the study of Zia's international relations it could have been suggested that attention to the bigger neighbour India has been largely ignored. But Zia was found to put strong emphasis on regional co-operation particularly for South Asia. It came evident after Zia took initiative to found SAARC. Zia's dream of Bangladesh's involvement in a strong regional co-operation was met after 4 years of his assassination when SAARC got founded on 8 December 1985 with a key role of the then Bangladeshi authority.
Assassination of Ziaur Rahman
In 1981, Zia was assassinated by fractions of the military who were dissatisfied with his non-conventional means of running many state affairs including the military. Vice-President Justice Abdus Sattar was constitutionally sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for elections within 6 months. Sattar was elected president and won. Sattar was ineffective, however, and Army Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982.
Hussain Muhammad Ershad (Jatiya Party)
Like his predecessors, Ershad dissolved parliament, declared martial law, assumed the position of CMLA, suspended the constitution, and banned political activity. Ershad reaffirmed Bangladesh's moderate, non-aligned foreign policy.
In December 1983, he assumed the presidency. Over the ensuing months, Ershad sought a formula for elections while dealing with potential threats to public order.
On 1 January 1986, full political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiyo (People's) Party (JP), designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established. Ershad resigned as chief of army staff, retired from military service, and was elected president in October 1986. (Both the BNP and the AL refused to put up an opposing candidate.)
In July 1987, the opposition parties united for the first time in opposition to government policies. Ershad declared a state of emergency in November, dissolved parliament in December, and scheduled new parliamentary elections for March 1988.
All major opposition parties refused to participate. Ershad's party won 251 of the 300 seats; three other political parties which did participate, as well as a number of independent candidates, shared the remaining seats. This parliament passed a large number of legislative bills, including a controversial amendment making Islam the state religion.
By mid-1990, opposition to Ershad's rule had escalated. November and December 1990 were marked by general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order. Ershad resigned in December 1990.
Restoration of Parliamentary system (1991—present)
It was reverted to democratic parliamentary system in 1991 when Khaleda Zia became the first female prime minister of Bangladesh through parliamentary election.
The president is the head of state, a largely ceremonial post elected by the parliament. However, the president's powers have been substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, which is responsible for the conduct of elections and transfer of power. The officers of the caretaker government must be non-partisan and are given three months to complete their task. This transitional arrangement is an innovation that was pioneered by Bangladesh in its 1991 election and then institutionalised in 1996 through its 13th constitutional amendment.
In the caretaker government, the president has the power to control over the Ministry of Defence, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president's powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role. The Chief Adviser and other advisers to the caretaker government must be appointed within 15 days after the current Parliament expires.
See also
List of presidents of Bangladesh
Prime Minister of Bangladesh
Vice President of Bangladesh
Deputy Prime Minister of Bangladesh
Politics of Bangladesh
Caretaker government
Foreign Minister of Bangladesh
References
Politics of Bangladesh
1971 establishments in Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A8re%20Goriot
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Père Goriot
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Le Père Goriot (, "Old Goriot" or "Father Goriot") is an 1835 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), included in the Scènes de la vie privée section of his novel sequence La Comédie humaine. Set in Paris in 1819, it follows the intertwined lives of three characters: the elderly doting Goriot, a mysterious criminal-in-hiding named Vautrin and a naive law student named Eugène de Rastignac.
Originally published in serial form during the winter of 1834–1835, Le Père Goriot is widely considered Balzac's most important novel. It marks the first serious use by the author of characters who had appeared in other books, a technique that distinguishes Balzac's fiction. The novel is also noted as an example of his realist style, using minute details to create character and subtext.
The novel takes place during the Bourbon Restoration, which brought profound changes to French society; the struggle by individuals to secure a higher social status is a major theme in the book. The city of Paris also impresses itself on the characters – especially young Rastignac, who grew up in the provinces of southern France. Balzac analyzes, through Goriot and others, the nature of family and marriage, providing a pessimistic view of these institutions.
The novel was released to mixed reviews. Some critics praised the author for his complex characters and attention to detail; others condemned him for his many depictions of corruption and greed. A favorite of Balzac's, the book quickly won widespread popularity and has often been adapted for film and the stage. It gave rise to the French expression "Rastignac", a social climber willing to use any means to better his situation.
Background
Historical background
The novel draws on several historical events that shook the French social order in short succession: the French Revolution, which led to the First Republic; Napoleon's rise, the fall and the return of the House of Bourbon. Le Père Goriot begins in June 1819, four years after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo and the Bourbon Restoration. It depicts the mounting tension between the aristocracy, which had returned with King Louis XVIII, and the bourgeoisie produced by the Industrial Revolution. In this period, France saw a tightening of social structures, with a lower class burdened with overwhelming poverty. By one estimate, almost three-quarters of Parisians did not make the 500–600 francs a year necessary for a minimal standard of living. At the same time, this upheaval made possible a social mobility unthinkable during the Ancien Régime. Individuals willing to adapt to the rules of this new society could sometimes ascend into its upper echelons from modest backgrounds, much to the distaste of the established wealthy class.
Literary background
When Balzac began writing Le Père Goriot in 1834, he had written several dozen books, including a stream of pseudonymously published potboiler novels. In 1829 he published Les Chouans, the first novel to which he signed his own name; this was followed by Louis Lambert (1832), Le Colonel Chabert (1832), and La Peau de chagrin (1831). Around this time, Balzac began organizing his work into a sequence of novels that he eventually called La Comédie humaine, divided into sections representing various aspects of life in France during the early 19th century.
One of these aspects which fascinated Balzac was the life of crime. In the winter of 1828–29, a French grifter-turned-policeman named Eugène François Vidocq published a pair of sensationalized memoirs recounting his criminal exploits. Balzac met Vidocq in April 1834, and used him as a model for a character named Vautrin he was planning for an upcoming novel.
Writing and publication
In the summer of 1834 Balzac began to work on a tragic story about a father who is rejected by his daughters. His journal records several undated lines about the plot: "Subject of Old Goriot – A good man – middle-class lodging-house – 600 fr. income – having stripped himself bare for his daughters who both have 50,000 fr. income – dying like a dog." He wrote the first draft of Le Père Goriot in forty autumn days; it was published as a serial in the Revue de Paris between December and February. It was released as a stand-alone volume in March 1835 by Edmond Werdet, who also published the second edition in May. A revised third edition was published in 1839 by Charpentier. As was his custom, Balzac made copious notes and changes on proofs he received from publishers, so that the later editions of his novels were often significantly different from the earliest. In the case of Le Père Goriot, he changed a number of the characters into persons from other novels he had written, and added new passages.
In the first book edition, the novel was divided into seven chapters:
In the first volume:
Une Pension bourgeoise (A Bourgeois Boarding House);
Les Deux Visites (The Two Visits);
L'Entrée dans le Monde (The Entrance into the World);
In the second volume:
L'Entrée dans le Monde (Suite) [The Entrance into the World (Continuation)];
Trompe-la-Mort (Cheat-the-Death, Death-Dodger, or Dare-Devil);
Les Deux Filles (The Two Daughters);
La Mort du Père (The Father's Death).
The character Eugène de Rastignac had appeared as an old man in Balzac's earlier philosophical fantasy novel La Peau de chagrin. While writing the first draft of Le Père Goriot, Balzac named the character "Massiac", but he decided to use the same character from La Peau de chagrin. Other characters were changed in a similar fashion. It was his first structured use of recurring characters, a practice whose depth and rigor came to characterize his novels.
In 1843 Balzac placed Le Père Goriot in the section of La Comédie humaine entitled "Scènes de la vie parisienne" ("Scenes of life in Paris"). Quickly thereafter, he reclassified it – due to its intense focus on the private lives of its characters – as one of the "Scènes de la vie privée" ("Scenes of private life"). These categories and the novels in them were his attempt to create a body of work "depicting all society, sketching it in the immensity of its turmoil". Although he had prepared only a small predecessor for La Comédie humaine, entitled Études de Mœurs, at this time, Balzac carefully considered each work's place in the project and frequently rearranged its structure.
Plot summary
The novel opens with an extended description of the Maison Vauquer, a boarding house in Paris' rue Neuve-Sainte-Geneviève covered with vines, owned by the widow Madame Vauquer. The residents include the law student Eugène de Rastignac, a mysterious agitator named Vautrin, and an elderly retired vermicelli-maker named Jean-Joachim Goriot. The old man is ridiculed frequently by the other boarders, who soon learn that he has bankrupted himself to support his two well-married daughters.
Rastignac, who moved to Paris from the south of France, becomes attracted to the upper class. He has difficulty fitting in, but is tutored by his cousin, Madame de Beauséant, in the ways of high society. Rastignac endears himself to one of Goriot's daughters, Delphine, after extracting money from his own already-poor family. Vautrin, meanwhile, tries to convince Rastignac to pursue an unmarried woman named Victorine, whose family fortune is blocked only by her brother. He offers to clear the way for Rastignac by having the brother killed in a duel.
Rastignac refuses to go along with the plot, balking at the idea of having someone killed to acquire his wealth, but he takes note of Vautrin's machinations. This is a lesson in the harsh realities of high society. Before long, the boarders learn that police are seeking Vautrin, revealed to be a master criminal nicknamed Trompe-la-Mort (Daredevil, literally Cheat-the-Death or Death-Dodger). Vautrin arranges for a friend to kill Victorine's brother, in the meantime, and is captured by the police.
Goriot, supportive of Rastignac's interest in his daughter and furious with her husband's tyrannical control over her, finds himself unable to help. When his other daughter, Anastasie, informs him that she has been selling off her husband's family jewelry to pay her lover's debts, the old man is overcome with grief at his own impotence and suffers a stroke.
Delphine does not visit Goriot as he lies on his deathbed, and Anastasie arrives too late, only once he has lost consciousness. Before dying, Goriot rages about their disrespect toward him. His funeral is attended only by Rastignac, a medical student named Bianchon, a servant named Christophe, and two paid mourners. Goriot's daughters, rather than being present at the funeral, send their empty coaches, each bearing their families' respective coat of arms. After the short ceremony, Rastignac turns to face Paris as the lights of evening begin to appear. He sets out to dine with Delphine, and declares to the city: "À nous deux, maintenant !" ("It's between you and me now!")
Style
Balzac's style in Le Père Goriot is influenced by the American novelist James Fenimore Cooper and Scottish writer Walter Scott. In Cooper's representations of Native Americans, Balzac saw a human barbarism that survived through attempts at civilization. In a preface to the second edition in 1835, Balzac wrote that the title character Goriot – who made his fortune selling vermicelli during a time of widespread hunger – was an "Illinois of the flour trade" and a "Huron of the grain market". Vautrin refers to Paris as "a forest of the New World where twenty varieties of savage tribes clash" – another sign of Cooper's influence.
Scott was also a profound influence on Balzac, particularly in his use of real historical events as the backdrop for his novels. Although history is not central to Le Père Goriot, the post-Napoleonic era serves as an important setting, and Balzac's use of meticulous detail reflects the influence of Scott. In his 1842 introduction to La Comédie humaine, Balzac praises Scott as a "modern troubadour" who "vivified [literature] with the spirit of the past". At the same time, Balzac accused the Scottish writer of romanticizing history, and tried to distinguish his own work with a more balanced view of human nature.
Although the novel is often referred to as "a mystery", it is not an example of whodunit or detective fiction. Instead, the central puzzles are the origins of suffering and the motivations of unusual behavior. Characters appear in fragments, with brief scenes providing small clues about their identity. Vautrin, for example, slips in and out of the story – offering advice to Rastignac, ridiculing Goriot, bribing the housekeeper Christophe to let him in after hours – before he is revealed as a master criminal. This pattern of people moving in and out of view mirrors Balzac's use of characters throughout La Comédie humaine.
Le Père Goriot is also recognized as a bildungsroman, wherein a naive young person matures while learning the ways of the world. Rastignac is tutored by Vautrin, Madame de Beauséant, Goriot, and others about the truth of Parisian society and the coldly dispassionate and brutally realistic strategies required for social success. As an everyman, he is initially repulsed by the gruesome realities beneath society's gilded surfaces; eventually, however, he embraces them. Setting aside his original goal of mastering the law, he pursues money and women as instruments for social climbing. In some ways this mirrors Balzac's own social education, reflecting the distaste he acquired for the law after studying it for three years.
Recurring characters
Le Père Goriot, especially in its revised form, marks an important early instance of Balzac's trademark use of recurring characters: persons from earlier novels appear in later works, usually during significantly different times of life. Pleased with the effect he achieved with the return of Rastignac, Balzac included 23 characters in the first edition of Le Père Goriot that would recur in later works; during his revisions for later editions the number increased to 48. Although Balzac had used this technique before, the characters had always reappeared in minor roles, as nearly identical versions of the same people. Rastignac's appearance shows, for the first time in Balzac's fiction, a novel-length backstory that illuminates and develops a returning character.
Balzac experimented with this method throughout the thirty years he worked on La Comédie humaine. It enabled a depth of characterization that went beyond simple narration or dialogue. "When the characters reappear", notes the critic Samuel Rogers, "they do not step out of nowhere; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which, for an interval, we have not been allowed to see." Although the complexity of these characters' lives inevitably led Balzac to make errors of chronology and consistency, the mistakes are considered minor in the overall scope of the project. Readers are more often troubled by the sheer number of people in Balzac's world, and feel deprived of important context for the characters. Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac, because he "did not know where to begin".
This pattern of character reuse had repercussions for the plot of Le Père Goriot. Baron de Nucingen's reappearance in La Maison Nucingen (1837) reveals that his wife's love affair with Rastignac was planned and coordinated by the baron himself. This new detail sheds considerable light on the actions of all three characters within the pages of Le Père Goriot, complementing the evolution of their stories in the later novel.
Realism
Balzac uses meticulous, abundant detail to describe the Maison Vauquer, its inhabitants, and the world around them; this technique gave rise to his title as the father of the realist novel. The details focus mostly on the penury of the residents of the Maison Vauquer. Much less intricate are the descriptions of wealthier homes; Madame de Beauséant's rooms are given scant attention, and the Nucingen family lives in a house sketched in the briefest detail.
At the start of the novel, Balzac declares (in English): "All is true". Although the characters and situations are fictions, the details employed – and their reflection of the realities of life in Paris at the time – faithfully render the world of the Maison Vauquer. The rue Neuve-Sainte-Geneviève (where the house is located) presents "a grim look about the houses, a suggestion of a jail about those high garden walls". The interiors of the house are painstakingly described, from the shabby sitting room ("Nothing can be more depressing") to the coverings on the walls depicting a feast ("papers that a little suburban tavern would have disdained") – an ironic decoration in a house known for its wretched food. Balzac owed the former detail to the expertise of his friend Hyacinthe de Latouche, who was trained in the practice of hanging wallpaper. The house is even defined by its repulsive smell, unique to the poor boardinghouse.
Themes
Social stratification
One of the main themes in Le Père Goriot is the quest to understand and ascend society's strata. The Charter of 1814 granted by King Louis XVIII had established a "legal country" which allowed only a small group of the nation's most wealthy men to vote. Thus, Rastignac's drive to achieve social status is evidence not only of his personal ambition but also of his desire to participate in the body politic. As with Scott's characters, Rastignac epitomizes, in his words and actions, the Zeitgeist in which he lives.
Through his characters and narration, Balzac lays bare the social Darwinism of this society. In one particularly blunt speech, Madame de Beauséant tells Rastignac:
This attitude is further explored by Vautrin, who tells Rastignac: "The secret of a great success for which you are at a loss to account is a crime that has never been discovered, because it was properly executed." This sentence has been frequently – and somewhat inaccurately – paraphrased as: "Behind every great fortune is a great crime."
Influence of Paris
The novel's representations of social stratification are specific to Paris, perhaps the most densely populated city in Europe at the time. Traveling only a few blocks – as Rastignac does continually – takes the reader into vastly different worlds, distinguished by their architecture and reflecting the class of their inhabitants. Paris in the post-Napoleonic era was split into distinct neighborhoods. Three of these are featured prominently in Le Père Goriot: the aristocratic area of the Faubourg Saint-Germain, the newly upscale quarter of the rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, and the run-down area on the eastern slope of the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève.
These quartiers of the city serve as microcosms which Rastignac seeks to master; Vautrin, meanwhile, operates in stealth, moving among them undetected. Rastignac, as the naive young man from the country, seeks in these worlds a new home. Paris offers him a chance to abandon his far-away family and remake himself in the city's ruthless image. His urban exodus is like that of many people who moved into the French capital, doubling its population between 1800 and 1830. The texture of the novel is thus inextricably linked to the city in which it is set; "Paris", explains critic Peter Brooks, "is the looming presence that gives the novel its particular tone".
It is said that in Le Père Goriot, Paris becomes a character in the same way the city did in The Hunchback of Notre Dame and London becomes in Charles Dickens' works. This is evident in Balzac's portrayal of the Parisian society as mercilessly stratified, corrupt, amoral, and money-obsessed. In addition, the protagonists living in its quarters were presented in perfect harmony with their environment.
Corruption
Rastignac, Vautrin, and Goriot represent individuals corrupted by their desires. In his thirst for advancement, Rastignac has been compared to Faust, with Vautrin as Mephistopheles. Critic Pierre Barbéris calls Vautrin's lecture to Rastignac "one of the great moments of the Comédie humaine, and no doubt of all world literature". France's social upheaval provides Vautrin with a playground for an ideology based solely on personal advancement; he encourages Rastignac to follow suit.
Still, it is the larger social structure that finally overwhelms Rastignac's soul – Vautrin merely explains the methods and causes. Although he rejects Vautrin's offer of murder, Rastignac succumbs to the principles of brutality upon which high society is built. By the end of the novel, he tells Bianchon: "I'm in Hell, and I have no choice but to stay there."
While Rastignac desires wealth and social status, Goriot longs only for the love of his daughters: a longing that borders on idolatry. Because he represents bourgeois wealth acquired through trade – and not aristocratic primitive accumulation – his daughters are happy to take his money, but will see him only in private. Even as he is dying in extreme poverty, at the end of the book, he sells his few remaining possessions to provide for his daughters so that they might look splendid at a ball.
Family relations
The relations between family members follow two patterns: the bonds of marriage serve mostly as Machiavellian means to financial ends, while the obligations of the older generation to the young take the form of sacrifice and deprivation. Delphine is trapped in a loveless marriage to Baron de Nucingen, a money-savvy banker. He is aware of her extramarital affairs, and uses them as a means to extort money from her. Anastasie, meanwhile, is married to the comte de Restaud, who cares less about the illegitimate children she has than the jewels she sells to provide for her lover – who is conning her in a scheme that Rastignac has heard was popular in Paris. This depiction of marriage as a tool of power reflects the harsh reality of the unstable social structures of the time.
Parents, meanwhile, give endlessly to their children; Goriot sacrifices everything for his daughters. Balzac refers to him in the novel as the "Christ of paternity" for his constant suffering on behalf of his children. That they abandon him, lost in their pursuit of social status, only adds to his misery. The end of the book contrasts Goriot's deathbed moments with a festive ball hosted by Madame de Beauséant – attended by his daughters, as well as Rastignac – suggesting a fundamental schism between society and the family.
The betrayal of Goriot's daughters is often compared to that of the characters in Shakespeare's King Lear; Balzac was even accused of plagiarism when the novel was first published. Discussing these similarities, critic George Saintsbury claims that Goriot's daughters are "as surely murderesses of their father as [Lear's daughters] Goneril and Regan". As Herbert J. Hunt points out in Balzac's Comédie humaine, however, Goriot's tale is in some ways more tragic, since "he has a Regan and a Goneril, but no Cordelia".
The narrative of Goriot's painful relations with his children has also been interpreted as a tragicomic parable of Louis XVI's decline. At a crucial moment of filial sentiment in Balzac's novel, Vautrin breaks in singing "O Richard, O mon roi"—the royalist anthem that precipitated the October Days of 1789 and the eventual downfall of Louis XVI—a connection that would have been powerful to Balzac's readers in the 1830s. An ill-founded faith in paternal legitimacy follows both Goriot and Louis XVI into the grave.
Rastignac's family, off-stage, also sacrifices extensively for him. Convinced that he cannot achieve a decent status in Paris without a considerable display of wealth, he writes to his family and asks them to send him money: "Sell some of your old jewelry, my kind mother; I will give you other jewels very soon." They do send him the money he requests, and – although it is not described directly in the novel – endure significant hardship for themselves as a result. His family, absent while he is in Paris, becomes even more distant despite this sacrifice. Although Goriot and Vautrin offer themselves as father figures to him, by the end of the novel they are gone and he is alone.
Reception and legacy
Le Père Goriot is widely considered Balzac's essential novel. Its influence on French literature has been considerable, as shown by novelist Félicien Marceau's remark: "We are all children of Le Père Goriot." Brooks refers to its "perfection of form, its economy of means and ends". Martin Kanes, meanwhile, in his book Le Pére Goriot: Anatomy of a Troubled World, calls it "the keystone of the Comédie humaine". It is the central text of Anthony Pugh's voluminous study Balzac's Recurring Characters, and entire chapters have been written about the detail of the Maison Vauquer. Because it has become such an important novel for the study of French literature, Le Père Goriot has been translated many times into many languages. Thus, says Balzac biographer Graham Robb, "Goriot is one of the novels of La Comédie humaine that can safely be read in English for what it is."
Initial reviews of the book were mixed. Some reviewers accused Balzac of plagiarism or of overwhelming the reader with detail and painting a simplistic picture of Parisian high society. Others attacked the questionable morals of the characters, implying that Balzac was guilty of legitimizing their opinions. He was condemned for not including more individuals of honorable intent in the book. Balzac responded with disdain; in the second preface of 1835, he wrote with regard to Goriot: "Poor man! His daughters refused to recognize him because he had lost his fortune; now the critics have rejected him with the excuse that he was immoral."
Many critics of the time, though, were positive: a review in Le Journal des femmes proclaimed that Balzac's eye "penetrates everywhere, like a cunning serpent, to probe women's most intimate secrets". Another review, in La Revue du théâtre, praised his "admirable technique of details". The many reviews, positive and negative, were evidence of the book's popularity and success. One publisher's critique dismissed Balzac as a " writer", although it predicted for him "a brief career, but a glorious and enviable one".
Balzac himself was extremely proud of the work, declaring even before the final installment was published: "Le Père Goriot is a raging success; my fiercest enemies have had to bend the knee. I have triumphed over everything, over friends as well as the envious." As was his custom, he revised the novel between editions; compared to other novels, however, Le Père Goriot remained largely unchanged from its initial version.
According to the editor of the Norton Critical Edition, Peter Brooks, the book is now seen as "the most endurably popular of Balzac's myriad works" and a "classic of the 19th-century European novel", somewhat ironically in light of the reviews and Balzac's reputation in his own time.
In the years following its release, the novel was often adapted for the stage. Two theatrical productions in 1835 – several months after the book's publication – sustained its popularity and increased the public's regard for Balzac. In the 20th century, a number of film versions were produced, including adaptations directed by Travers Vale (1915), Jacques de Baroncelli (1922), and Paddy Russell (1968). The name of Rastignac, meanwhile, has become an iconic sobriquet in the French language; a "Rastignac" is synonymous with a person willing to climb the social ladder at any cost.
Another well known line of this book by Balzac is when Vautrin tells Eugene, "In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline." This has been reworked by Mario Puzo in the novel The Godfather (1969) and its film adaptation (1972); "I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse". It was ranked as the second most significant cinematic quote in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes (2005) by the American Film Institute.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Adamson, Donald: Old Goriot presented in Everyman Books, 1991.
Auerbach, Erich. Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. . pp. 279–289.
Balzac, Honoré de. "Author's Introduction". La Comédie humaine. The Human Comedy: Introductions and Appendix. 1842. Online at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved on 19 January 2008.
Balzac, Honoré de. Father Goriot. The Works of Honoré de Balzac. Vol. XIII. Philadelphia: Avil Publishing Company, 1901.
Balzac, Honoré de. Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. .
Baran, J. H. "Predators and parasites in Le Père Goriot". Symposium. 47.1 (1993): 3–15. .
Barbéris, Pierre. "The Discovery of Solitude". Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. . pp. 304–314.
Bellos, David. Honoré de Balzac: Old Goriot (Landmarks of World Literature). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. .
Brooks, Peter. "Editor's Introduction". Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. . pp. vii–xiii.
Brooks, Peter. Realist Vision. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005. .
Crawford, Marion Ayton. "Translator's Introduction". Old Goriot. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1951. .
Dedinsky, Brucia L. "Development of the Scheme of the Comédie humaine: Distribution of the Stories". The Evolution of Balzac's Comédie humaine. Ed. E. Preston Dargan and Bernard Weinberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942. .
Douthwaite, Julia V. "The Once and Only Pitiful King," chapter 3 of The Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
Ginsberg, Michal Peled, ed. Approaches to Teaching Balzac's Old Goriot. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2000. .
Hunt, Herbert J. Balzac's Comédie Humaine. London: University of London Athlone Press, 1959. .
Kanes, Martin. Père Goriot: Anatomy of a Troubled World. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993. .
McCarthy, Mary Susan. Balzac and His Reader: A Study in the Creation of Meaning in La Comédie humaine. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1982. .
Mozet, Nicole. "Description and Deciphering: The Maison Vauquer". Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. . pp. 338–353.
Oliver, E. J. Balzac the European. London: Sheed and Ward, 1959.
Petrey, Sandy. "The Father Loses a Name: Constative Identity in Le Père Goriot". Père Goriot. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. . pp. 328–338.
Pugh, Anthony R. Balzac's Recurring Characters. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974. .
Robb, Graham. Balzac: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. .
Rogers, Samuel (1953). Balzac & The Novel. New York: Octagon Books. .
Stowe, William W. Balzac, James, and the Realistic Novel. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. .
External links
(plain text)
Father Goriot at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
Le Père Goriot, audio version
Le Père Goriot (original version) with approx. 1000 English annotations at Tailored Texts
1835 French novels
Books of La Comédie humaine
Novels set in Paris
Fiction set in 1819
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Revue de Paris
Novels by Honoré de Balzac
French novels adapted into films
French novels adapted into plays
Novels involved in plagiarism controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond%20Malone
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Edmond Malone
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Edmond Malone (4 October 174125 May 1812) was an Irish Shakespearean scholar and editor of the works of William Shakespeare.
Assured of an income after the death of his father in 1774, Malone was able to give up his law practice for at first political and then more congenial literary pursuits. He went to London, where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He regularly visited Samuel Johnson and was of great assistance to James Boswell in revising and proofreading his Life, four of the later editions of which he annotated. He was friendly with Sir Joshua Reynolds, and sat for a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery.
He was one of Reynolds' executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798) with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Edmund Burke, George Canning, Oliver Goldsmith, Lord Charlemont, and, at first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by Charlemont and Steevens, he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearean chronology, and the results of his "An Attempt to Ascertain the Order in Which the Plays Attributed to Shakspeare Were Written" (1778), which finally made it conceivable to try to patch together a biography of Shakespeare through the plays themselves, are still largely accepted.
This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's version of Dr Johnson's Shakespeare, partly consisting of observations on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. Malone was also a central figure in the refutation of the claim that the Ireland Shakespeare forgeries were authentic works of the playwright, which many contemporary academics had believed.
Biography
Birth and early life
Edmond Malone was born 4 October 1741 in Dublin to Edmond Malone Sr. (1704–1774)—MP of the Irish House of Commons and judge of the Court of Common Pleas in Ireland—and Catherine Collier, the niece of Robert Knight, 1st Earl of Catherlough. He had two sisters, Henrietta and Catherine, and an older brother, Richard (later Lord Sunderlin). Edmond Malone Sr. was a successful lawyer and politician, educated at Oxford University and the Inner Temple in London, and called to the Bar in England in 1730, where he had a legal practice. But in 1740, a year before Edmond Jr. was born, his practice in England failed and he returned to Ireland. He took up residence with his wife on the family's country estate, Shinglas, in County Westmeath, and began a more successful legal practice there.
According to Peter Martin, Malone's main biographer in the 20th century: "Virtually nothing is known of his childhood and adolescence except that in 1747 he was sent to Dr. Ford's preparatory school in Molesworth Street, Dublin, where his brother Richard had already been enrolled for two years". The next record of his education is 10 years later, in 1757, when he—not yet 16 years old—entered Trinity College Dublin, where his brother went to study two years earlier and where his father had received an honorary LL.D. the year before. Malone excelled at his studies, "an exemplary student, naturally diligent, consistently at the top of his class", and was awarded with books stamped with the College Arms. In the very first examination, of four in the academic year, he shared top honours with James Drought and John Kearney, who later became Fellows of the college.
As an undergraduate he wrote some poetry and literary history. Of the latter, a noteworthy example is a prose translation of Oedipus Rex by Sophocles with annotations and explanatory notes that Martin describes as "surprisingly erudite". The translation is accompanied by a twenty-page “… Essay on the Origin and Progress of Tragedy & on the Office & Advantages of the Antient Chorus" where he provides a brief comparison of Sophocles and Euripides and argues in favour of the restoration of the Chorus in modern drama.
His studies were interrupted when, in the summer of 1759, he and his father accompanied his mother to Highgate in England. Catherine's health had been deteriorating for some time and she now had increasing difficulty walking. After a short stay in Highgate she moved to the Roman Baths at Bath in Somerset, where the waters were supposed to have health-giving properties. Malone and his father returned to Ireland in October, too late to resume the winter term, so he elected to stay at Shinglas until the new year and study on his own. Not wishing to leave his father solitary, he nearly did not return to Trinity, but eventually resumed his studies in January 1760. The expenses for Catherine's stay at Bath put a strain on the family finances, but it was alleviated somewhat when, after a special examination on 2 June, he won a scholarship at Trinity and became a Scholar of the House.
Malone's final examination at Trinity was in the Michaelmas term in 1761, and he received his BA degree at the following Commencement on 23 February 1762. As only one of three, he achieved the top mark (). The decision to study law was an obvious choice: his father, uncle, and grandfather had all been Irish Barristers. He'd received—on payment of £3 6s 8d—admittance to the Inner Temple in London in 1761, but did not begin his law studies until the new year in 1763. The interval was spent in Dublin reading, and he quickly applied to become a Reader of the Trinity College Library. Martin speculates that he spent his time reading "possibly law although probably also literature".
Law school and legal practice
Malone probably entered the Inner Temple in January 1763, but few records survive of his studies there; except that he was "invited to come to the bench table" in the commons—an honour Peter Martin describes as comparable to becoming a Warden in a guild—on 10 May 1763. Outside schoolwork he published satirical articles about the government and on the abuse of the English language, and made corrections to the text in his copy of a new edition of Jonathan Swift's correspondence. He was admitted to the Inner Temple the same year as James Boswell—a coincidence Martin thinks "literary historians cannot fail to wonder at"—but there is nothing to indicate that they ever crossed paths there.
More significantly, in 1764, Malone's close friend Thomas Southwell and his father Edmund introduced Malone to Samuel Johnson, whose quarters on Inner Temple Lane were close to his own lodgings. Martin describes it as “…the most important meeting of Malone's life" and he became an "…ardent follower of Johnson's and, Boswell excepted, the most enthusiastic defender and celebrator of Johnson's writings and life." Malone's friendship with Johnson lasted until the latter's death in 1784. Although Malone failed to write down his conversations with Johnson, and none of his letters on the subject to John Chetwood have been found, Martin speculates that Shakespeare must have been among their topics of conversation, as Johnson was just then finishing up his great edition of Shakespeare that he had begun in 1756. They would have found other common interests in the law and Ireland, as Johnson would soon start work as private secretary to the English statesman and Irish politician William Gerard Hamilton. For Hamilton he compiled notes on the Corn Laws that Malone in 1809 would publish, along with two of Hamilton's speeches in the Irish House of Commons and some other miscellaneous works, under the title Parliamentary Logick.
The Southwells were also his companions when, in the autumn of 1766, he travelled in the south of France. There he visited Paris, Avignon, and Marseille; socialising and relaxing. Around this time he began having doubts about his choice of the law as a career. He was finished at the Inner Temple, but still required further study for the Irish Bar, and his motivation was flagging; particularly since it would mean leaving London and its "coffee-shops, theaters, newspapers, and politics." There was also some tension between him and his father over this, and over a judgeship his father had been promised by Lord Worthington. On hearing that the judgeship might not come to pass, Malone wrote to his father: "It shall be a lesson to me, never to believe in any great man's word, unless coupled with performance, & to aspire by every truest means at the greatest blessing of life, independence." Both issues resolved themselves shortly however, as his father succeeded to the bench as Judge of the Irish Court of Common Pleas while Malone was still in Marseille. Arriving back in London, without the Southwells, in February he announced his fresh determination to proceed with law: "It is my firm resolution to apply as closely as possible till I go to Ireland, to the study of law, & the practice of the Court of Chancery…"
He was called to the Irish bar in 1767, and from 1769 practised law on the Munster circuit with "indifferent rewards". He was not having great success in this field, and he missed London with its "…great literary world of Johnson, coffee-houses, theatre, newspapers, and politics." In the early months of 1769 he also had an intense, but ultimately fruitless, romance with Susanna Spencer. When the relationship failed—for reasons that are unknown but which Martin speculates were related to their families' relative social status—Malone suffered a "nervous collapse" and "[lost] the will to read, to join in family activities, to practice law." He spent the better part of the summer in Spa with his brother, while his sisters, by letter, suggested remedies for his low mood and attempted to cheer him up. He returned some time after September, but his depression lingered on. He worked the Munster circuit and at some point after March in 1772 visited London, perhaps on the suggestion of his exasperated father. How long he remained or what his activities were is not known. He returned to Ireland and the Munster circuit, but, in private letters, complained of his boredom with this occupation.
Literature, theatre, and politics
To relieve his boredom, Malone diverted himself with literary studies. On a visit with Dr. Thomas Wilson, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, in 1774 he discovered several papers by Alexander Pope that Henry St John, the poet's literary executor, had collected. Among them was a manuscript in Pope's handwriting of his unfinished poem One Thousand Seven Hundred and Forty. Malone transcribed a facsimile of the manuscript, including "interlineations, corrections, alterations", but he failed to publish it and the original manuscript has since been lost.
On 4 April 1774, the Irish-born author Oliver Goldsmith died. Malone had known Goldsmith, either in Dublin or in London in the 1760s, and to honour his friend he participated in an amateur production of Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer (1773). The event was held on 27 September 1774 and had strong patriotic overtones: it was staged at the country seat of Sir Hercules Langrishe—a member of the Irish House of Commons—at Knocktopher, and the Irish politicians and patriots Henry Grattan and Henry Flood both played parts. According to Martin's description, "Malone played two parts and wrote an excessively long epilogue of eighty-two lines, with several allusions that suggest his literary tastes. […] It celebrates Shakespeare, touches on Irish politics […], and concludes with a panegyric on the stage […]".
Irish politics seems to have been especially on his mind in this period. In 1772 he contributed to Baratariana, a volume principally by Langrishe, but supplemented with letters by Flood and Grattan. The letters attack the current government in the style of Junius, who had published similar letters in England between 1769 and 1772, and Malone may have contributed "a weakly ironic piece in which he lamented the Irish consumption of millions of eggs every year when a little restraint could yield more substantial food in the form of chickens." His father died unexpectedly on 22 March 1774, leaving the four siblings with a modest income, and Malone free to pursue interests outside the drudgery of his legal practice. His ambition was politics, and that summer he proposed himself as candidate to a seat in Parliament for Trinity College. Objections were raised that his uncle, Anthony Malone, had joined the Townshend government whose autocratic policies the university was firmly against. In his speech to the electors, Malone defended his uncle as a man of principle rather than party, who sought to do his best for his constituents rather than gain advantage for himself and his friends: "no man perhaps ever supported the administration so disinterestedly, or got so few favours from Government either for himself or his connexions." To the charge that the filial association was an impediment to his nomination he protested, later in his speech:
Corruption and self-interest he saw as the great problem of men in elected office, and in his speech he attacked them as opposing reform for fear of losing their advantage:
He won the nomination, but the election was not until May 1776, and, a few days prior, Anthony Malone died, leaving Malone an annual income of £ (roughly equivalent to £ today) and the entire estate at Baronston to his brother, Richard. The legacy left him free to pursue a life of scholarship, and he promptly gave up the nomination in favour of contributing to a new edition of Goldsmith that was being prepared. He travelled to London to interview the people who had known Goldsmith and collect information and anecdotes about him. He spent six months there but apart from a letter from Susanna Spencer, in reply to a letter from Malone that is now lost, we have no information about his activities there. In February 1777, suffering from his first bout of rheumatism, he returned to Ireland, and shortly afterward, Poems and Plays by Oliver Goldsmith was published. Malone had contributed an eight-page memoir of Goldsmith and annotations to the poems and plays. The memoir was based on "Authentic Anecdotes" by Richard Glover—published in The Universal Magazine in May 1774, and Edmund Burke included it in The Annual Register for that year—as well as first-hand information from Dr. Wilson at Trinity.
London and Shakespeare
While in London to do research for his memoir of Goldsmith in 1776, Malone sought out George Steevens, who, by then the inheritor, from Samuel Johnson, of the editor's mantle for the Jacob Tonson edition of Shakespeare's collected works, was then busy preparing a second edition. Steevens invited Malone to help him complete it. To help him get started, Steevens lent Malone his copy of An Account of the English Dramatic Poets (1691) by Gerard Langbaine, into which Steevens had transcribed notes by William Oldys in addition to the notes he had added himself. When Malone returned to Ireland in early 1777, he set about transcribing all the annotations into his own copy. He finished the transcription on 30 March, and on 1 May he left Ireland for good.
Malone moved into a house in Sunninghill, about outside London, and started work. In the following months he sent a steady stream of notes and corrections to Steevens and in January 1778 The Plays of William Shakspeare was published in 10 volumes. Malone's main contribution appeared in the first volume as "An Attempt to Ascertain the Order in Which the Plays Attributed to Shakspeare Were Written". The "Attempt" was well received and garnered him more attention than the notes and corrections he had supplied Steevens with. With his first major contribution to Shakespeare studies published, he left Sunninghill to reside in London; first, briefly, in Marylebone Street and then in a house he rented at 55 Queen Anne Street East in what is now Foley Street in Marylebone.
In late 1778 he visited Ireland for a few months, and in February 1779, shortly after he returned, he began to have his portrait painted by Joshua Reynolds. Reynolds was then much sought after as a portrait painter, and a "face and shoulders" by Reynolds cost 35 guineas (£36.75). His uncle, Anthony Malone, had had his portrait painted by Reynolds in 1774, and Malone himself had good company: during the ten times between 23 February and 10 July that he sat for the portrait, Reynolds's appointment book shows that he sat on the same date as Edward Gibbon, the British historian and MP; George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough; Hester Thrale, author of Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson and a close friend of Johnson; and (28 April and 17 May) George III, then king of England and Ireland. Malone befriended Reynolds and they remained close friends until the latter's death in 1792, when Reynolds named Malone his executor along with Edmund Burke and Philip Metcalfe.
Malone's next scholarly project was an addendum to the Johnson–Steevens Shakespeare. Pleased with Malone's contributions to the edition, Steevens invited him to publish the apocryphal plays that had been included in the second edition of the Third Folio published by Philip Chetwinde in 1664. It was Malone's project—and with only grudging acceptance from Steevens he expanded the work to include the narrative poems and the Sonnets—but he and Steevens worked closely together, and solicited notes from Isaac Reed, William Blackstone, and Thomas Percy. Until this point their relationship had been a cordial and productive one—Steevens having given Malone his first opportunity as an editor of Shakespeare, and in return having benefitted greatly from the younger scholar's work—but while working on the addendum they had a falling-out. Steevens brought up Susanna Spencer and suggested that Malone's work on Shakespeare was a mere device to keep his mind distracted from the unhappy relationship. Malone took umbrage at this, his ambition being a life of professional scholarship, and replied that, to the contrary, he intended to produce a completely new edition of Shakespeare, "more scientifically and methodically edited than the Johnson–Steevens edition was ever likely to become." They settled their differences, but Steevens was now beginning to feel his position as the foremost editor of Shakespeare threatened. Malone was aggressive and arrogant, and his constant stream of corrections grated on the older editor. Despite the strained relationship, in late April 1780, A Supplement to the Edition of Shakespeare, Published in 1778 by Samuel Johnson and George Steevens was published in two volumes. The work met with generally positive reviews, particularly from The Gentleman's Magazine and Monthly Review. But there was also criticism from the St. James's Chronicle, in which Steevens had a financial interest, that Martin describes as consisting of "anonymous and trifling notes […] which niggled at minor points, textual and factual", which were probably written by Steevens or at his behest.
Social rise and "The Club"
When Malone first arrived in England in 1777 he already had a connection to Samuel Johnson and George Steevens, and, through his boyhood friend Robert Jephson, to James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont. Johnson, of course, was among the most esteemed men of letters, and Steevens was then the foremost commentator on Shakespeare and the current inheritor of the editor's mantle for the Tonson editions; but Charlemont also had the connections to introduce Malone to a wide variety of the eminent men of the day. With these recommendations and the fame garnered by his scholarly work he was by the early 1780s often to be found in the company of the greatest literary and theatrical minds of the era. He dined regularly with Johnson, Steevens, Reed, Reynolds, Richard Farmer, Horace Walpole, John Nichols, and John Henderson. But by this time Johnson's advancing age and ill health prevented his socialising as much as in earlier years, and Malone did not often enough get a chance to spend time with him or people like Edmund Burke, James Boswell, Edward Gibbon, Charles Burney, Joseph Banks, William Windham, Charles James Fox, or John Wilkes.
At the same time, membership in "The Club"—founded by Johnson and Reynolds in 1764, and whose membership included several of those people whom Malone longed to see—had become a much sought-after honour. Malone dearly wanted to get in, but even though he had the support of Charlemont and Reynolds, he was thwarted by circumstances. The Club was founded specifically to be exclusive, and to that end limited the number of members, at that time to 35 at any given time. Since members very rarely left, the only openings came when a member died; and after the latest member, David Garrick, had died in 1779, the members resolved to keep his spot open in honour of the great actor and theatre manager. Votes were taken on several occasions, but the candidates were always blackballed.
It was not until 5 February 1782 that "[…] the memory of Garrick having dimmed sufficiently, Malone at last was admitted into this august company […]". He attended his first meeting on 19 February 1782 and quickly became one of The Club's most enthusiastic supporters and, as its treasurer, held the only permanent office associated with it. His motivation for wanting to join The Club was partly to see Johnson more often, but Johnson's health was deteriorating and no longer attended the club's dinners regularly. The first one he attended after Malone was accepted was on 2 April 1782, and in the period until Johnson's death on 13 December 1784, they saw each other at the club only five times; the last time on 22 June 1784, when Johnson "was in obvious pain and had to drag himself to get there." Johnson was also too ill to visit Malone, but he appreciated company at his house at Bolt Court, and Malone visited frequently. He kept notes on their conversations that Boswell later included in his The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. (1791), and the letter to Malone from John Byng, 5th Viscount Torrington is the best account that survives of Johnson's last hours.
Chatterton forgeries
In 1769, the poet Thomas Chatterton, only 17 years old, sent Horace Walpole the first of a series of poems supposedly written by a 15th-century monk named Thomas Rowley but really written by Chatterton himself. Other poems followed, and Walpole was briefly taken in but later reconsidered. When Chatterton committed suicide the following year, there were rumours that Walpole's treatment of the young man had played a part. Despite Walpole's scepticism, in 1777, shortly after Edmond Malone's arrival in London, Thomas Tyrwhitt published Chatterton's forgeries as Poems, Supposed to Have Been Written at Bristol, by Thomas Rowley and Others, in the Fifteenth Century. This created a great controversy, with much debate about their authenticity. For the third edition in 1778 he added an appendix arguing against the poems' antiquity, and Thomas Warton, in his The History of English Poetry (1778), devoted an entire chapter to it. Those favouring the authenticity of the Rowley poems responded in late 1781 when, just days apart, Jacob Bryant, a classical scholar, published Observations upon the Poems of Thomas Rowley; in Which the Authenticity of Those Poems is Ascertained, and Jeremiah Milles, Dean of Exeter and President of the Society of Antiquaries of London, published Poems, Supposed to Have Been Written at Bristol, in the Fifteenth Century, by Thomas Rowley, Priest, &c.; With a Commentary in Which the Antiquity of Them Is Considered and Defended.
The controversy was a perfect match for Malone: steeped in ancient and early modern English literature, by trade a lawyer, and with no patience for literary forgeries or those who entertained them. As Martin puts it he "entered the fray" in December 1781 by "[sending] an anonymous 'brat into the world'" The "brat" was an article in two parts in The Gentleman's Magazine, signed "Misopiclerus". The essay met with success, and by February he published a second edition as Cursory Observations on the Poems Attributed to Thomas Rowley. In the essay he compares the Rowley poems to poetry by actual writers of the era; shows Chatterton's sources to have been later writers like Shakespeare, Pope, and Dryden; picks holes in the arguments put forward by Chatterton's supporters; and ends on an awkward attempt to ridicule Bryant and Milles.
Collections
Before he died, Malone detailed what should be done with his library in his will:
In 1815 Lord Sunderlin announced his intention to donate part of his late brother's library to the Bodleian once the new edition of Malone's Shakespeare (the Variorum Shakespeare) was complete. He reserved c. 800 volumes for the Library, while the rest was sold in 1818 at Sotheby's. In 1821 the collection was received by the Bodleian.
The early editions of Shakespeare in the collection were described by Malone in 1801:
The influence of the Malone collection from its 1821 receipt in the Bodleian is shown by both the donations to and purchases of the Library in the years following: in 1833 Thomas Caldecott donated his poems of Shakespeare, and at the Heber sale in 1834, and afterward, further gaps in the collection were filled. In 1835 B. H. Bright gave Malone's copy of Anthony Wood's Athenae to the Bodleian, in 1836 the Bodleian bought papers relating to Pope, as well as, in 1838, collections for the last edition of Malone's Shakespeare and for the illustration of ancient manners, 76 volumes of eighteenth-century pamphlets, and part of his literary correspondence. In 1851 Malone's letters from Thomas Percy were acquired, in 1858 his Oxford research notes, in 1864 letters from Samuel Johnson, Mrs Siddons, and others, and in 1878 further correspondence, papers, and books. The mention of this purchase in the Athenaeum encouraged Mr. L. Sharpe of the Guildhall Library to present the Bodleian with Malone's letters to his grandfather. In 1881, 76 volumes of pamphlets was also purchased by the Library.
Most of Malone's books are bound with 'E. M.' in an 'interlaced monogram' on the back, with a few featuring a book-plate with his coat-of-arms on.
Works
1778 – "An Attempt to Ascertain the Order in Which the Plays Attributed to Shakspeare Were Written", in The Plays of William Shakespeare in Ten Volumes, Samuel Johnson and George Steevens, eds. (1778), 2nd ed., vol I, pp. 269–346.
1780 – Supplement to Johnson and Steevens's edition of Shakespeare's Plays.
1782 – Cursory Observations on the Poems Attributed to Thomas Rowley
1787 – A Dissertation on the Three Parts of King Henry VI.
1790 – The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare.
1792 – A Letter to the Rev. Richard Farmer; Relative to the Edition of Shakspeare, published in MDCCXC, and some late criticisms on that work. (This is the date of the 2nd edition.)
1796 – An inquiry into the authenticity of certain miscellaneous papers and legal instruments published 24 Dec MDCCXCV and attributed to Shakspeare, Queen Elizabeth and Henry, Earl of Southampton.
1800 – The Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works of John Dryden, Now First Collected: With Notes and Illustrations; an Account of the Life and Writings of the Author Grounded on Original and Authentick Documents. Four volumes.
1801 – The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Knight.
1809 – Parliamentary Logick, the writings of William Gerard Hamilton with notes on the Corn Laws by Samuel Johnson.
1809 – An account of the incidents from which the title and part of the story of Shakspeare's Tempest were derived; and its true date ascertained.
1821 – Life of Shakespeare. In Works of Shakespeare (1821), Volume II.
The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare
The years from 1783 to 1790 were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in multiple volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of Henry VI, were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by Burke, criticised by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the earlier editions.
The Ireland forgeries
Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of the Rowley poems produced by Thomas Chatterton, and in this (1782) as in his branding (1796) of the Ireland manuscripts as forgeries, he was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition of John Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 he received an LL.D. from Trinity College Dublin.
Malone–Boswell Shakespeare
At the time of his death, Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of 1821 generally known as the Third Variorum edition in twenty-one volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738–1816), his elder brother and executor, presented the larger part of Malone's book collection, including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which subsequently bought many of his manuscript notes and his literary correspondence. The British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of Johnson's Dictionary.
A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the prolegomena to the edition of 1821.
Reputation and legacy
The Malone Society, devoted to the study of sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century English drama, was named after him.
See also
Shakespeare's editors
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1741 births
1812 deaths
18th-century Irish people
19th-century Irish people
Irish literary critics
People from County Dublin
People from County Westmeath
Shakespearean scholars
Irish writers
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitty%20Gritty%20Dirt%20Band
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Nitty Gritty Dirt Band
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The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band is an American country rock band formed in 1966. The group has existed in various forms since its founding in Long Beach, California. Between 1976 and 1981, the band performed and recorded as the Dirt Band.
Constant members since the early times are singer-guitarist Jeff Hanna and drummer Jimmie Fadden. Multi-instrumentalist John McEuen was with the band from 1966 to 1986 and returned during 2001, staying 16 years, then departing again in November 2017. Keyboardist Bob Carpenter joined the band in 1977. The band is often cited as instrumental to the progression of contemporary country and roots music.
The band's successes include a version of Jerry Jeff Walker's "Mr. Bojangles". Albums include 1972's Will the Circle be Unbroken, featuring such traditional country artists as Mother Maybelle Carter, Earl Scruggs, Roy Acuff, Doc Watson, Merle Travis, and Jimmy Martin. A follow-up album based on the same concept, Will the Circle Be Unbroken: Volume Two was released in 1989, was certified gold, won two Grammys, and was named Album of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards.
History
1966–1969
The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band was founded around 1966 in Long Beach, California, United States, by singer-guitarist Jeff Hanna and singer-songwriter-guitarist Bruce Kunkel, who had performed as the New Coast Two and later the Illegitimate Jug Band. Trying, in the words of the band's website, to "figure out how not to have to work for a living", Hanna and Kunkel joined informal jam sessions at McCabe's Guitar Shop in Santa Monica. There they met a few other musicians: guitarist-washtub bassist Ralph Barr, guitarist-clarinetist Les Thompson, harmonicist and jug player Jimmie Fadden, and guitarist-vocalist Jackson Browne. As Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, the six men started as a jug band and adopted the burgeoning southern California folk rock musical style, playing in local clubs while wearing pinstripe suits and cowboy boots. Their first paying performance was at the Golden Bear in Huntington Beach, California.
Browne was in the band for only a few months before he left to concentrate on a solo career as a singer-songwriter. He was replaced by John McEuen on banjo, fiddle, mandolin, and steel guitar. McEuen's older brother, William, was the group's manager, and he helped the band get signed with Liberty Records, which released the group's debut album, The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, during 1967. The band's first single, "Buy for Me the Rain", was a Top 45 success, and the band gained exposure on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, as well as concerts with such disparate artists as Jack Benny and The Doors.
A second album, Ricochet, was released later during the year and was less successful than their first. Kunkel wanted the band to "go electric", and include more original material. He left the group to form WordSalad and of the People. He was replaced by multi-instrumentalist Chris Darrow.
By 1968, the band adopted electrical instruments anyway, and added drums. The first electric album, Rare Junk, was a commercial failure, as was their next, Alive.
The band continued to gain publicity, mainly as a novelty act, making an appearance in the 1968 film For Singles Only and a cameo appearance in the 1969 musical western film Paint Your Wagon, performing "Hand Me Down That Can o' Beans". The band also played Carnegie Hall as an opening act for Bill Cosby and played in a jam session with Dizzy Gillespie.
1969–1976
The group was inactive for a six-month period after Paint Your Wagon, then reformed with Jimmy Ibbotson replacing Chris Darrow. With William McEuen as producer and a renegotiated contract that gave the band more artistic freedom, the band recorded and released Uncle Charlie & His Dog Teddy, issued in 1970. Embracing a straight, traditional country and bluegrass sound, the album included the group's best-known singles; a version of Jerry Jeff Walker's "Mr. Bojangles", Michael Nesmith's "Some of Shelly's Blues", and four Kenny Loggins songs including "House at Pooh Corner", the first recordings of Loggins's songs. Their version of "Mr. Bojangles" became the group's first hit, peaking at No. 9 on Billboard's all genre Hot 100 chart, with 36 weeks on the chart.
The next album, All the Good Times, released during early 1972, had a similar style.
The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band next sought to solidify its reputation as a country band when band member John McEuen asked Earl Scruggs and then Doc Watson if they would record with them. Both responded that they would. This set in motion the further addition of other artists, and with the help of Earl and Louise Scruggs, they traveled to Nashville, Tennessee, and recorded what was to become a triple album, Will the Circle Be Unbroken. Nashville stalwarts Roy Acuff, Earl Scruggs, and Jimmy Martin, country pioneer Mother Maybelle Carter, folk-blues guitarist Doc Watson, Merle Travis, Norman Blake, and others appeared on the expansive set. The title is from the song, "Will the Circle Be Unbroken (By and By)", as adapted by A. P. Carter, and reflects the album's theme of trying to tie together three generations of musicians: long-haired boys from California and older veterans of the middle American establishment. The track "I Saw the Light" with Acuff singing, was a success, and the album received two nominations for Grammy Award. Veteran fiddler Vassar Clements was introduced to a wider audience by the album, and a new career. The band also toured Japan twice soon after this period.
After the next album Les Thompson left the group, making the band a foursome. Stars & Stripes Forever was a live album that mixed old successes such as "Buy for Me the Rain" and "Mr. Bojangles" with Circle collaborations (fiddler Vassar Clements was a guest performer) and long storytelling spoken-word monologues. A studio album, Dream, was also released.
During July 1974, the band was among the headline acts at the Ozark Music Festival at the Missouri State Fairgrounds in Sedalia, Missouri. Some estimates put the crowd at 350,000 people, which would make this one of the largest music events in history. At another concert, the band opened for the rock band Aerosmith.
1976–1981: "The Dirt Band"
Jimmy Ibbotson left the band at the end of 1976, leaving Fadden, Hanna, and McEuen to add John Cable and Jackie Clark, brought in on guitar and bass. In May 1977, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band became the first American group allowed to tour the Soviet Union playing 28 sold-out concerts, and a televised appearance that is estimated to have been watched by 145 million people. In 1977, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band first appeared on the second season of the PBS music program Austin City Limits.
The band released its first greatest hits compilation album Dirt, Silver & Gold in 1976. After that release, the band shortened its name to The Dirt Band, and the group's sound became more pop and rock oriented. Saxophonist Al Garth, drummer Merel Bregante, and bassist Richard Hathaway were also added to the lineup in 1978 and Jeff Hanna became the group's producer for a few albums.
Keyboardist Bob Carpenter (who would occasionally sit in with the band from 1975 on) contributed to their 1978 album The Dirt Band and joined the band permanently in 1980.
Albums during this period included The Dirt Band and An American Dream. The single "American Dream" with Linda Ronstadt reached No. 13 on the popular music charts. The band also appeared on Saturday Night Live in their own slot (performing the instrumental penned by McEuen, "White Russia", with Steve Martin accompanying on banjo); and again later, billed as The Toot Uncommons, backing Steve Martin on his million-selling novelty tune, "King Tut." They also played on the commercial version, recorded in Aspen earlier that year.
In 1979, Bregante left the group and drummers Michael Buono and then Michael Gardner replaced Bregante on stage with the group on tour, only to be succeeded by Vic Mastrianni in 1981. Al Garth moved on to Pure Prairie League in 1982 and later joined the Eagles' live lineup.
The albums Make a Little Magic and Jealousy were released in 1980 and 1981, with the single "Make a Little Magic" featuring Nicolette Larson reaching the Top 25 on the pop chart. The group also performed the song on a 1980 Steve Martin television special, All Commercials, with an added comic element in which Martin lip-synced the Larson vocal for the last segment of the song.
1982–1989: Return to "Nitty Gritty"
The band returned to its original name and its country roots in 1982. With the lineup paring down to Hanna, Fadden, McEuen and Ibbotson rejoining in 1982, with Carpenter, who was not touring with the group that year, rejoining for recording sessions in Nashville, Tennessee for the album Let's Go (May 1983), which yielded the success "Dance Little Jean" that became a Top 10 country hit. The next album, 1984's Plain Dirt Fashion had the band's first No. 1 success, "Long Hard Road (The Sharecropper's Dream)".
There were two more country No. 1's: "Modern Day Romance" (1985) and "Fishin' in the Dark" (1987), the latter of which became the band's biggest-selling single, eventually being certified platinum in 2014 despite never reaching the Hot 100. Other successful songs were "Dance Little Jean" (1983); "I Love Only You" (1984); "High Horse" (1985); "Home Again in My Heart", "Partners, Brothers and Friends", and "Stand a Little Rain" (1986); "Fire in the Sky", "Baby's Got a Hold on Me", and "Oh What a Love" (1987); "Workin' Man (Nowhere to Go)" and "I've Been Lookin'" (1988); and "Down That Road Tonight" and "When It's Gone" (1989).
Performances included the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and the inaugural Farm Aid concert in Champaign, Illinois. A 20-year anniversary concert at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado featured such guests as Ricky Skaggs, Emmylou Harris, Doc Watson, and John Prine.
John McEuen left the band at the end of 1986, replaced by Bernie Leadon, formerly of the Eagles. He was with the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band in 1987 and 1988. The band's 19th album, Hold On featured the No. 1 singles "Fishin' in the Dark" and "Baby's Got a Hold on Me." The band appeared on the Today Show and The Tonight Show in the same week, and toured Europe. After contributing to "Workin' Band" as a musician, songwriter and lead singer on the cut "Corduroy Road", Bernie Leadon departed the band.
During 1989, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band again returned to Nashville, to record Will the Circle Be Unbroken: Volume Two. Returnees from the first Circle included Earl Scruggs, Vassar Clements, and Roy Acuff. Johnny Cash and the Carter Family, Emmylou Harris, and Ricky Skaggs joined the sessions, as did John Prine, Levon Helm, John Denver, John Hiatt, Bruce Hornsby, and former Byrds Roger McGuinn and Chris Hillman. This album won two Grammy Awards and was named Album of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards for Best Country Vocal Performance (duo or group) and the Country Music Association's Album of the Year Award in 1989.
1990–2000
As a foursome of Hanna, Fadden, Ibbotson and Carpenter, the band again toured the former Soviet Union, as well as Canada, Europe, and Japan. A 25th anniversary concert was recorded on Live Two Five in Red Deer, Alberta, produced by T-Bone Burnett.
During 1992, the band collaborated with Irish folk music's The Chieftains for the Grammy Award-winning Another Country. Other efforts included the album Acoustic, spotlighting their "wooden" sound, a duet with Karla Bonoff, "You Believed in Me" for the MCA Olympic compilation, One Voice, and a cover version of Buddy Holly's "Maybe Baby" for the Decca tribute album, Not Fade Away. The Christmas Album was released in 1997, followed by Bang! Bang! Bang! in 1999.
2000s
John McEuen rejoined the band in 2001. During 2002, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band celebrated the 30th anniversary of their landmark Will the Circle Be Unbroken with a remastered CD reissue of the 1972 album and a new compilation, Will the Circle Be Unbroken: Volume III. An album of all-new material, Welcome to Woody Creek, was released in 2004. Jimmy Ibbotson again left the band a few years later.
Also during 2004, country group Rascal Flatts released a cover of "Bless the Broken Road," which the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band had recorded on Acoustic, from 1994. Songwriters Jeff Hanna, Marcus Hummon, and Bobby Boyd won a Grammy for Best Country Song for this work in 2005.
During 2005, the band donated use of the song "Soldier's Joy" for the benefit album, Too Many Years to benefit Clear Path International's work with landmine survivors. Also in 2005, the band was recognized by the International Entertainment Buyers Association for 40 years of contributions to the music industry.
In 2009, the band released a new album, Speed of Life. Produced by George Massenburg and Jon Randall Stewart, Speed of Life is composed of a series of live, freewheeling studio recordings that purposefully avoid overproduction and demonstrate the band's collaborative spirit and spontaneity. Of the 13 tracks on Speed of Life, 11 are new songs penned by the band, and two are classic covers: Canned Heat's Woodstock hit "Going Up the Country" and Stealers Wheel's "Stuck in the Middle".
2010s
In September 2015, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band commemorated their 50th anniversary with a sold-out show at Nashville's Ryman Auditorium. Produced for PBS by Todd Squared, the producers of Bluegrass Underground (now re-branded as The Caverns Sessions), the special debuted in March 2016 and included guests John Prine, Sam Bush, Vince Gill, Jerry Jeff Walker, Alison Krauss, Rodney Crowell, Byron House, Jerry Douglas and Jackson Browne in addition to former member Ibbotson. On September 30, 2016, Circlin’ Back: Celebrating 50 Years, a live CD and DVD of the PBS Special was released. In a 2016 review, the Los Angeles Times wrote that the original release "helped knock down barriers then separating the traditional country and rock music communities, setting the stage for the eventual emergence of what came to be known as Americana music". John McEuen announced his departure from the band in December 2017 at the conclusion of their 50th anniversary tour. In 2018, Jaime Hanna (Jeff Hanna's son) and Ross Holmes joined the band on tour, along with Jim Photoglo, who began touring with the band in 2016. Photoglo is the co-author of "Fishin' in the Dark".
2020s
In May 2022, the band released a compilation of Bob Dylan covers, Dirt Does Dylan.
Family
Jeff Hanna's and John McEuen's sons, Jaime Hanna and Jonathan McEuen, recorded for DreamWorks Records in 2005 as Hanna-McEuen.
Awards and nominations
1984 — CMA Nomination for Instrumental Group of the Year
1985 – CMA Nomination for Instrumental Group of the Year; ACM Nomination for Vocal Group of the Year
1986 – CMA Nomination for Vocal Group of the Year
1988 – CMA Nomination for Vocal Group of the Year
1989 – CMA award for Album of the Year; Grammy award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals; Grammy award for Best Bluegrass Recording; Grammy award for Co-producing Best Country Instrumental
1990 – Plaque on the StarWalk in Nashville
2002 – Grammy nominations for Best Country Vocal Performance – Duo or Group and Best Country Collaboration with Vocals
2003 – CMA nomination for Vocal Event of the Year (NGDB with Johnny Cash); IBMA award for Best Recorded Event
2004 – Grammy award for Best Country Instrumental (NGDB with Earl Scruggs, Randy Scruggs, Jerry Douglas and Vassar Clements)
2015 – Colorado Music Hall of Fame induction
Members
Current members
Jeff Hanna – vocals, guitar, washboard, percussion
Jimmie Fadden – drums, harmonica, percussion, vocals
Bob Carpenter – keyboards, accordion, keyboard bass, vocals
Jim Photoglo – bass, acoustic guitar, vocals
Jaime Hanna – guitar, vocals
Ross Holmes – fiddle, mandolin, vocals
Discography
The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band (1967)
Ricochet (1967)
Rare Junk (1968)
Uncle Charlie & His Dog Teddy (1970)
All the Good Times (1972)
Stars & Stripes Forever (1974)
Symphonion Dream (1975)
The Dirt Band (1978)
An American Dream (1979)
Make a Little Magic (1980)
Jealousy (1981)
Let's Go (1983)
Plain Dirt Fashion (1984)
Partners, Brothers and Friends (1985)
Hold On (1987)
Workin' Band (1988)
The Rest of the Dream (1990)
Not Fade Away (1992)
Acoustic (1994)
The Christmas Album (1997)
Bang, Bang, Bang (1999)
Welcome to Woody Creek (2004)
Speed of Life (2009)
Dirt Does Dylan (2022)
References
Further reading
External links
Official site
Listen or Watch from Woodsongs archived show 551
American country rock groups
Country music groups from California
Folk rock groups from California
Grammy Award winners
Musical groups established in 1966
Progressive country musicians
Capitol Records artists
Warner Records artists
United Artists Records artists
MCA Records artists
1966 establishments in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal%20international%20order
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Liberal international order
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In international relations, the liberal international order (LIO), also known as the rules-based international order (RBIO), or the rules-based order (RBO), describes a set of global, rule-based, structured relationships based on political liberalism, economic liberalism and liberal internationalism since the late 1940s. More specifically, it entails international cooperation through multilateral institutions (like the United Nations, World Trade Organization and International Monetary Fund) and is constituted by human equality (freedom, rule of law and human rights), open markets, security cooperation, promotion of liberal democracy, and monetary cooperation. The order was established in the aftermath of World War II, led in large part by the United States.
The nature of the LIO, as well as its very existence, has been debated by scholars. The LIO has been credited with expanding free trade, increasing capital mobility, spreading democracy, promoting human rights, and collectively defending the West from the Soviet Union. The LIO facilitated unprecedented cooperation among the states of North America, Western Europe and Japan. Over time, the LIO facilitated the spread of economic liberalism to the rest of the world, as well as helped consolidate democracy in formerly fascist or communist countries.
Origins of the LIO have commonly been identified as the 1940s, usually starting in 1945, with some scholars pointing to earlier agreements between the WWII-era Allies such as the Atlantic Charter in 1941. John Mearsheimer has dissented with this view, arguing that the LIO only arose after the end of the Cold War. Core founding members of the LIO include the states of North America, Western Europe and Japan; these states form a security community. The characteristics of the LIO have varied over time. Some scholars refer to a Cold War variation of the LIO largely limited to the West, and a post-Cold War variation having a more widespread scope and giving international institutions more powers.
Aspects of the LIO are challenged internally within liberal states by populism, protectionism and nativism. Scholars have argued that embedded liberalism (or the logics inherent in the Double Movement) are key to maintaining public support for the planks of the LIO; some scholars have raised questions whether aspects of embedded liberalism have been undermined, thus leading to a backlash against the LIO.
Externally, the LIO is challenged by authoritarian states, illiberal states, and states that are discontented with their roles in world politics. China, Russia, Iran and North Korea have been characterized as prominent challengers to the LIO. Some scholars have argued that the LIO contains self-undermining aspects that could trigger backlash or collapse.
RBO is usually opposed to an order based on international law
Definition
David Lake, Lisa Martin and Thomas Risse define "order" as "patterned or structured relationships among units". Interactions in the LIO are structured by rules, norms and decision-making procedures. They note that the LIO is not synonymous with a "rule-based international order", as non-liberal rule-based orders may exist (such as the Westphalian order).
They define "liberal" as a belief in the universal equality of individuals, as well as individual and collective freedoms. Political liberalism entails the rule of law, and the sovereign equality of states, as well as protections for human rights, political rights and civil liberties. Economic liberalism entails free market-oriented policies. Liberal internationalism entails principled multilateralism and global governance.
Michael Barnett defines an international order as "patterns of relating and acting" derived from and maintained by rules, institutions, law and norms. International orders have both a material and social component. Legitimacy (the generalized perception that actions are desirable, proper or appropriate) is essential to political orders. George Lawson has defined an international order as "regularized practices of exchange among discrete political units that recognize each other to be independent." John Mearsheimer defines an international order as "an organized group of international institutions that help govern the interactions among the member states."
In After Victory (2001), John Ikenberry defines a political order as "the governing arrangements among a group of states, including its fundamental rules, principles and institutions." Political orders are established when the basic organizing arrangements are set up, and they break down when the basic organizing arrangements are overturned, contested or in disarray. He defines a constitutional international order as a political order "organized around agreed-upon legal and political institutions that operate to allocate rights and limit the exercise of power." There are four main core elements of constitutional orders:
Shared agreement about the rules of the game within the order
Rules and institutions that bind and limit the exercise of power
Institutional autonomy from special interests
The entrenchment of these rules and institutions with a broader, immutable political system.
In 2018, Ikenberry defined the liberal international order as:multilayered, multifaceted, and not simply a political formation imposed by the leading state. International order is not “one thing” that states either join or resist. It is an aggregation of various sorts of ordering rules and institutions. There are the deep rules and norms of sovereignty... There is a sprawling array of international institutions, regimes, treaties, agreements, protocols, and so forth. These governing arrangements cut across diverse realms, including security and arms control, the world economy, the environment and global commons, human rights, and political relations. Some of these domains of governance may have rules and institutions that narrowly reflect the interests of the hegemonic state, but most reflect negotiated outcomes based on a much broader set of interests. Charles Glaser has disputed the analytical value of the concept of the LIO, arguing that the concept is so broad and vague that "almost any international situation qualifies as an international order, so long as its members accept the sovereignty norm." Some critics of the LIO, such as John Mearsheimer, have argued that liberal democracy promotion and hyper-globalization are elements of the LIO.
Jeff Colgan has characterized the liberal international order as the theme that unites multiple subsystems in the international system. These subsystems can experience drastic change without fundamentally changing the liberal international order.
Debates
The debate about liberal international order has grown especially prominent in International Relations. Daniel Deudney and John Ikenberry list five components of this international order: security co-binding, in which great powers demonstrate restraint; the open nature of US hegemony and the dominance of reciprocal transnational relations; the presence of self-limiting powers like Germany and Japan; the availability of mutual gains due to "the political foundations of economic openness"; and the role of Western "civil identity." According to Charles Glaser, there are five key mechanisms in the LIO: "democracy, hierarchy built on legitimate authority, institutional binding, economic interdependence, and political convergence."
The more supportive views of scholars such as Ikenberry have drawn criticism from scholars who have examined the imperial and colonial legacies of liberal international institutions. The contributions of non-Western actors to the formation of the liberal international order have also recently gained attention from scholars advancing global International Relations theory. In the case of Latin America, for example, "From as far back as the 1860s, Latin American jurists have made prominent contributions to international jurisprudence, the ‘mortar’ that binds international order. [...] However, in other ways, historically the LIO has been—and remains—superficial in its reach in Latin America." According to Abrahamsen, Andersen, and Sending, the contemporary liberal international order includes the legacy of "southern actors" in Africa and Asia advocating the process of decolonization.
International organizations play a central role in the liberal order. The World Trade Organization, for example, creates and implements free trade agreements, while the World Bank provides aid to developing countries. The order is also premised on the notion that liberal trade and free markets will contribute to global prosperity and peace. Critics argue that free trade has sometimes led to social problems such as inequality and environmental degradation.
Post-Cold War, some consider international agreements on issues such as climate change, nuclear nonproliferation, and upholding initiatives in maritime law (UNCLOS) to constitute elements of the LIO. The European Union is often considered a major example of the liberal international order put into effect in terms of international agreements between the constituent countries, while the supranational union has been considered a power in its own right that can uphold the liberal international order. This has led to debates about how the European Union's identity will continue forming in the future, as multilateralism is a core part.
Critics also argue that the liberal order tilts the scales in favour of the United States and its Western allies, as seen in voting shares in the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. It is unclear how to relate from RBO point of view to the invasion of the United States and allies in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya and Syria, as well as to the defensive policy against the Chinese high-tech industry.
Others argue that weak states played a central role in shaping the liberal international order. Marcos Tourinho argues that weak states used the three strategies of "resistance", "community" and "norms" to push back on U.S. dominance during the construction of the liberal international order, thus ensuring that the order did not just reflect U.S. interests. Martha Finnemore argues that unipolarity does not just entail a material superiority by the unipole, but also a social structure whereby the unipole maintains its status through legitimation, and institutionalization. In trying to obtain legitimacy from the other actors in the international system, the unipole necessarily gives those actors a degree of power. The unipole also obtains legitimacy and wards off challenges to its power through the creation of institutions, but these institutions also entail a diffusion of power away from the unipole. David Lake has argued along similar lines that legitimacy and authority are key components of international order. Abrahamsen suggested that middle powers also benefit from liberal internationalism. By investing in the maintenance of multilateral institutions, moderate powers can collectively advocate for their self-interest, counterbalancing great power politics. Supporting liberal internationalism is thus a form of realpolitik for middle powers.
Realist critics of the LIO include John Mearsheimer, Patrick Porter and Charles Glaser. Mearsheimer has argued that the LIO is bound to fail due to the pushback it faces internally within liberal states and externally by non-liberal states. Porter has argued that the LIO was actually a coercive order and that it was not liberal. Glaser has argued that the balance of power theory, bargaining theory and neo-institutional theories better explain NATO than mechanisms associated with the LIO.
Aaron McKeil finds realist criticism of liberal order insufficient. He argues that the alternative foreign policies offered by realists as "restraint" and "offshore balancing" would be more generative of proxy wars and would fail to offer the level of institutions required for managing great power competition and international challenges.
Relations with individual countries
According to political scientist Charles A. Ziegler, both China and Russia "reject the political dimension of the liberal international order that favors human rights, humanitarian intervention, and democracy promotion." According to Paul Stronski and Nicole Ng of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "the greatest threat to the West of the Sino-Russian partnership emanates from their efforts to adjust the international system to their advantage". Additionally, "Moscow, particularly since 2014, has mounted a revisionist and offensive challenge to the current order, showing a willingness to take substantial risks to weaken Western power within the international system. In contrast to Russia, China recognizes that it has benefited from the liberal international order. The processes of economic liberalism and globalization have facilitated its rapid economic rise over the past thirty years."
China
Some see China as a potential challenger to the liberal order. According to Darrren Lim and John Ikenberry, China seeks an international order that protects its illiberal domestic political and economic model. Scholars cite initiatives such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and One Belt One Road Initiative as institutions that appear to compete with existing liberal international institutions. Van Niewenhuizen is categorical that Xi Jinping, then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, seeks to supplant the LIO. According to political scientist Thomas Ambrosio, one aim of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation was to ensure that liberal democracy could not gain ground in these countries, promoting authoritarian norms in Central Asia.
Rühlig asks in his March 2018 paper why China under Xi would seek to change a system by which it earns enormous profit, World Economic Forum fellow Anoushiravan Ehteshami says, "China sees Iran as its Western gateway, where not only is it a big market in itself, but it will also be the gateway to the rest of the Middle East and ultimately to Europe for China." Nisha Mary Mathew remarks that the quest for dominance of the Eurasian land mass in which China finds itself causes Iran to be a favourite. In 2017 alone, the Chinese signed deals for Iranian infrastructure projects worth more than US$15 billion. Joint projects include "high-speed rail lines, upgrades to the nation’s electrical grid, and natural gas pipelines". From 2019 to 2025, the two nations seek to increase bilateral trade to US$600 billion.
Russia
Many scholars agree that the Russian Federation under Vladimir Putin seeks to undermine the liberal international order. Various viewpoints have been developed on the subject. The first is that Russia is a "revanchist power" seeking to completely overturn international diplomacy, the second is that Russia is a "defensive power" that seeks to push incremental change in the existing order, and the third is that Russia is an "aggressive isolationist", with Putin playing a "spoiler role" in international affairs to boost legitimacy domestically.
Political sociologist Larry Diamond argues that Putin's assault on liberal democracy is exemplified by the 2008 military intervention for the enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia against independent Georgia, Russian support for Viktor Yanukovych in Ukraine, and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine by troops without insignia in 2014. Putin has been accused of giving financial support to far-right or national populist parties across Europe. For example, the National Front (now National Rally) obtained a 9 million euro loan from a Russian bank in 2014. Larry Diamond argues this influenced the policy of the National Front such as Marine Le Pen's support for the annexation of Crimea.
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and a widespread response against the invasion has led to renewed discussion of the liberal international order. Political scientist Lucan Way writes that Putin's invasion has inadvertently strengthened the liberal international order in opposition, with the full-scale Russian invasion being a more conspicuously imperialistic challenge to sovereignty than smaller-scale frozen conflicts and political interferences. Way says that blocs such as the European Union will have more unified action while being currently pillars in the liberal international order. Samir Saran, head of the Delhi-based Observer Research Foundation, says that a renewed emphasis in the liberal international order offers new opportunities for the international community, but hopes that the LIO should maintain interest in global issues after the security crisis in Europe. Edward Luce says the invasion is a serious threat to the international order because, "should Putin succeed, it would legitimise the law of the jungle, where large countries can annex smaller ones with impunity." At the same time, Luce suggests different terminology should be used besides "liberal international order" due to what he says is the selective nature of diplomacy. Kori Schake argues that the Russian invasion has provoked a Western response which strengthens the transatlantic alliance, a main component of the LIO, yet has also involved a global response, with the largest partner being Japan. Schake suggests that Ukraine's own defense is a new strengthening element to the LIO, by showing a stark contrast between liberalism and authoritarianism.
See also
Cosmopolitan democracy
European Union
European integration
Global citizenship
Hegemony
Institutional liberalism
Liberal democratic basic order
Liberal internationalism
Liberalism (international relations)
Multilateralism
New International Economic Order
Perpetual peace
Polarity
Spheres of influence
Western culture
Further reading
A World Imagined: Nostalgia and Liberal Order By Patrick Porter
There's No Such Thing as 'the' Liberal World Order by Michael Lind
Asia after the liberal international order by Amitav Acharya
Misreading the “Liberal Order” by Paul Staniland
Paeans to the ‘Postwar Order’ Won’t Save Us by Stephen Wertheim
Robert Keohane. 1984. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton University Press.
John Ikenberry. 2001. After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars. Princeton University Press.
Latin America and the liberal international order by Tom Long
Ordering the world? Liberal internationalism in theory and practice, edited by G. John Ikenberry, Inderjeet Parmar, Doug Stokes
Kyle M. Lascurettes and Michael Poznansky. 2021. "International Order in Theory and Practice." in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies.
References
External links
Bound to Fail: The Rise and Fall of the Liberal International Order by John J. Mearsheimer
Will Current World Order Survive Without US Power? by Rajesh Rajagopalan
How do you solve a problem like the liberal international order? by Jeet Heer
The Amnesia of the U.S. Foreign Policy Establishment by John Glaser
Mourning a phantom: the cherished “rules-based order” never existed by Helen Thompson
The ‘Liberal World Order’ Was Built With Blood by Vincent Bevins
International relations
Liberalism
Multilateral relations
International security
International relations terminology
International relations theory
Democracy promotion
Western culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20Rocket%20Forces
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Strategic Rocket Forces
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The Strategic Rocket Forces of the Russian Federation or the Strategic Missile Forces of the Russian Federation (RVSN RF; , lit. 'Strategic Purpose Rocketry Troops of the Russian Federation') is a separate-troops branch of the Russian Armed Forces that controls Russia's land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). It was formerly part of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1959 to 1991.
The Strategic Rocket Forces was created on 17 December 1959 as part of the Soviet Armed Forces as the main force for operating all Soviet nuclear ground-based intercontinental, intermediate-range ballistic missile, and medium-range ballistic missile with ranges over 1,000 kilometers. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, assets of the Strategic Rocket Forces were in the territories of several new states in addition to Russia, with armed nuclear missile silos in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. The three of them transferred their missiles to Russia for dismantling and they all joined the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Complementary strategic forces within Russia include the Russian Aerospace Forces' Long Range Aviation and the Russian Navy's ballistic missile submarines. Together the three bodies form Russia's nuclear triad.
History
The first Soviet rocket study unit was established in June 1946, by redesignating the 92nd Guards Mortar Regiment at Bad Berka in East Germany as the 22nd Brigade for Special Use of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command. On October 18, 1947, the brigade conducted the first launch of the remanufactured former German A-4 ballistic missile, or R-1, from the Kapustin Yar Range. In the early 1950s the 77th and 90th Brigades were formed to operate the R-1 (SS-1a 'Scunner'). The 54th and 56th Brigades were formed to conduct test launches of the R-2 (SS-2 'Sibling') at Kapustin Yar on June 1, 1952.
The 5th Scientific Research Proving Ground was established in 1955 in Kzyl-Orda Oblast at the town of Zarya later Leninsk, and finally in 1995 Baikonur. Also established that year was the 43rd Independent Scientific Experimental Station (Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai) as an outstation of the Baikonur test site. Two years later "Object Angara" was formed at Plesetsk, Arkhangelsk Oblast, which after another name change in 1959 eventually became the 53rd Scientific Research Proving Ground in 1963.
From 1959 the Soviets introduced a number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) into service, including the R-12 (SS-4 'Sandal'), the R-7 (SS-6 'Sapwood'), the R-16 (SS-7 'Saddler'), the R-9 (SS-8 'Sasin'), the R-26 (given the NATO reporting name SS-8 'Sasin' due to incorrect identification as the R-9), the R-36 (SS-9 'Scarp'), and the RT-21 (SS-16 'Sinner'), which was possibly never made fully operational.
By 1990 all early types of missiles had been retired from service. In 1990 the Strategic Missile Forces were officially established as a service branch of the Armed Forces under the direct control of the Defense Ministry. The date of its formal foundation, December 17, is celebrated as Strategic Missile Forces Day.
Two rocket armies were formed in 1960. The 43rd Rocket Army and the 50th Rocket Army were formed from the previous 43rd and 50th Air Armies of the Long Range Aviation.
During a test of the R-16 ICBM on October 24, 1960, the test missile exploded on the pad, killing the first commander of the SRF, Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin. This disaster, the details of which were concealed for decades, became known as the Nedelin catastrophe. He was succeeded by Marshal of the Soviet Union Kirill Moskalenko who was in turn quickly succeeded by Marshal Sergey Biryuzov. Under Marshal Вiryuzov the SRF deployed missiles to Cuba in 1962 as part of Operation Anadyr. 36 R-12 intermediate range ballistic missiles were sent to Cuba, initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 43rd Guards Missile Division of 43rd Rocket Army manned the missiles while in Cuba.
Marshal Nikolai Krylov took over in March 1963 and served until February 1972. During this time French President Charles de Gaulle visited the Strategic Missile Forces in 1966. Together with NI Krylov, he visited a missile division in Novosibirsk, and then at the invitation of Leonid Brezhnev participated in a demonstration missile launch at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh SSR. Chief Marshal of Artillery Vladimir Fedorovich Tolubko commanded the SRF from April 12, 1972, to July 10, 1985. Tolubko emphasised raising the physical fitness standards within the SRF and in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Strategic Rocket Forces began to field the new UR-100 (SS-11 'Sego') and UR-100N (SS-19 'Stilleto') ICBMs beginning with the 43rd Rocket Army in the Ukrainian SSR, providing them with longer range and more accurate missiles. He was succeeded by General of the Army Yury Pavlovich Maksimov, who was in command from July 10, 1985, to August 19, 1992.
According to a 1980 TIME Magazine article citing analysts from RAND Corporation, Soviet non-Slavs were generally barred from joining the Strategic Missile Forces because of suspicions about the loyalty of ethnic minorities to the state. Those who served in the Strategic Rocket Forces had better quality of living, food and also higher salaries than the ones paid to those seving in the Soviet Army. The majority of new recruits has, since its inception, consisted of mainly college and university graduates.
In 1989 the Strategic Missile Forces had over 1,400 ICBMs, 300 launch control centers, and twenty-eight missile bases. The SMT operated RSD-10 (SS-20 'Saber') intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) and R-12 (SS-4 'Sandal') medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs). Two-thirds of the road-mobile Soviet RSD-10 force was based in the western Soviet Union and was aimed at Western Europe.
One-third of the force was located east of the Ural Mountains and was targeted primarily against China. Older R-12 missiles were deployed at fixed sites in the western Soviet Union. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, signed in December 1987, called for the elimination of all 553 Soviet RSD-10 and R-12 missiles within three years. As of mid-1989, over 50% of RSD-10 and R-12 missiles had been eliminated.
By 1990 the Soviet Union had seven types of operational ICBMs. About 50% were heavy R-36M (SS-18 'Satan') and UR-100N (SS-19 'Stiletto') ICBMs, which carried 80% of the country's land-based ICBM warheads. By this time it was producing new mobile, and hence survivable ICBMs, the RT-23 (SS-24 'Scalpel') and RT-2PM (SS-25 'Sickle').
In 1990, with the R-12 apparently fully retired, the IISS reported that there were 350 UR-100s (SS-11 'Sego,' Mod 2/3), 60 RT-2s (SS-13 'Savage') still in service in one missile field, 75 UR-100MRs (SS-17 'Spanker,' Mod 3, with 4 MIRV), 308 R-36Ms (mostly Mod 4 with 10 MIRV), 320 UR-100Ns (mostly Mod 3 with 6 MIRV), some 60 RT-23s (silo and rail-mobile), and some 225 RT-2PMs (mobile).
Composition of the Strategic Missile Forces 1960–1991
RSVN training establishments included:
the Peter the Great Military Academy of the Strategic Missile Forces in Moscow;
the Military Engineering Red Banner Institute imeni A.F. Mozhayskiy (VIKI) in Leningrad;
the Kharkov Higher Military Command Engineering School Missile Forces imeni Marshal of the Soviet Union N.I. Krylov
the Krasnodar Higher Military Command Engineering School Missile Forces (KVVKIU) (1982-1998)
the Perm Higher Military Command Engineering Red Banner School Missile Forces (:ru:Пермский военный институт ракетных войск)
the Riga Higher Military Political Red Banner School imeni Marshal of the Soviet Union S.S. Biryuzov (under the SRF from 1959-1993)
the Rostov Higher Military Command Engineering School Missile Forces (RVVKIU) (1959 onwards)
the Saratov Higher Military Command Engineering Red Banner order of the Red Star School Missile Forces imeni Major-General A.I. Lizyukov (SVVKIU) (1959-2003)
the Serpukhov Higher Military Command Engineering School Missile Forces imeni Leninskiy Komsomol (SVVKU)
Post Soviet Union
Like most of the Russian Armed Forces, the Strategic Missile Forces had limited access to resources for new equipment in the Yeltsin era. However, the Russian government made a priority of ensuring that the Missile Forces received new missiles to phase out older, less-reliable systems, and to incorporate newer capabilities in the face of international threats to the viability of the nuclear deterrent effect provided by their missiles. In particular the development of missile defense systems in the United States.
In 1995, the "Strategic Missile Forces Day" and "Military Space Forces Day" were created. On July 16, 1997, President Boris Yeltsin signed a decree incorporating the Russian Space Forces and the Space Missile Defence Forces (Russian: Ракетно-космической обороны) into the SMT. In doing so, 'nearly 60' military units and establishments were dissolved. However, four years later, on June 1, 2001, the Russian Space Forces were reformed as a separate branch of service from the SMT.
Minister of Defence Marshal of the Russian Federation Igor Sergeev, a former commander of the SMT from August 19, 1992 – May 22, 1997, played a major role in assuring funding for his former service. He was succeeded by General of the Army Vladimir Yakovlev, who commanded the SMT from June 1997 until April 27, 2001. Yakovlev was succeeded by Colonel General Nikolay Solovtsov.
Solovtsov was dismissed in July–August 2009. Speculation over why Solovtsov was dismissed included opposition to further cuts in deployed nuclear ballistic missile warheads below the April 2009 figure of 1,500, the fact that he had reached the retirement age of 60, despite that he had recently been extended another year's service, or the failure of the Navy's Bulava missile).
After only a year, Lieutenant General Andrey Shvaichenko, appointed on August 3, 2009, by President Dmitry Medvedev, was replaced. The current commander of the Strategic Missile Forces, Colonel General Sergei Karakayev, was appointed to the post by a presidential decree of June 22, 2010.
The RVSN headquarters has a special sledgehammer that can be used to gain access to the launch codes if the commander feels the need to use it or if ordered directly, but doesn't have normal access to the safe. In 2020, the Strategic Missile Forces completed switching to digital information transmission technology.
Composition since 2010s
The main RVSN command post is at Kuntsevo in the suburbs of Moscow. The alternate command post is at Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals.
Female cadets have started to join the Peter the Great Strategic Missile Forces Academy. In the past, only men were allowed to serve in the Missile Forces. RVSN institutes also exist at Serpukhov and Rostov-on-Don. An ICBM test impact range is located in the Far East, the Kura Test Range. This has been under Aerospace Defence Forces' command since 2010.
The Strategic Missile Forces operate four distinct missile systems. The oldest system is the silo-based R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan. It carries ten warheads. The last missile will be in service until 2020.
The second system is the silo-based UR-100NUTTH / SS-19 Stiletto. The last Stiletto missiles in service with six warheads each will be removed by 2019. The third system, the single warhead mobile RT-2PM Topol / SS-25 Sickle are planned to be decommissioned by 2019.
A new missile entering service is the RT-2UTTH Topol-M / SS-27 Sickle B with single warhead, of which 60 are silo-based and 18 are mobile. Some new missiles will be added in the future. The first upgraded Topol-M called RS-24 Yars, carrying three warheads, was commissioned in 2010. In July 2011 the first mobile regiment with nine missiles was completed. From 2012 to 2017, about 80 ICBMs were placed in active duty. The RF Defense Minister said in December 2022 that 91.3% of the country's nuclear forces was modern.
Units
The composition of missiles and warheads of the Strategic Missile Forces previously had to be revealed as part of the START I treaty data exchange. The most recently reported (January 2020) order of battle of the forces is as follows:
27th Guards Rocket Army (Military Unit No. 43176) (HQ: Vladimir)
98th Mixed Aviation Squadron
7th Guards Rocket Division (Military Unit No. 14245) at Vypolzovo with 18+ mobile RS-24 Yars
14th Rocket Division (Military Unit No. 34096) at Yoshkar-Ola with 27 mobile RS-24 Yars
28th Guards Rocket Division (Military Unit No. 54055) at Kozelsk with 17 (December 2022) silo-based RS-24
54th Guards Rocket Division (Military Unit No. 34048) at Teykovo with 18 mobile RT-2UTTH Topol-M and 18 (December 2011) mobile RS-24
60th Rocket Division (Military Unit No. 89553) at Tatischevo with 30 silo-based UR-100NUTTH and 60 silo-based RT-2UTTH Topol-M
31st Rocket Army (HQ: Orenburg)
102nd Mixed Aviation Squadron
8th Rocket Division at Pervomaysky, Kirov Oblast
13th Red Banner Rocket Division at Dombarovskiy with 18 silo-based R-36M2 and 8 (December 2022) UR-100NUTTH with Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)s (Project 4202). The R-36s will be replaced with the new RS-28 Sarmat when operational.
42nd Rocket Division at Nizhniy Tagil with 27 mobile RS-24 Yars
33rd Guards Rocket Army (HQ: Omsk)
105th Mixed Aviation Squadron
29th Guards Rocket Division at Irkutsk with 27 mobile RS-24 Yars
35th Rocket Division at Barnaul with mobile RT-2PM Topol and RS-24 Yars
39th Guards Rocket Division at Novosibirsk with 27 mobile RS-24 Yars
62nd Rocket Division at Uzhur with 28 silo-based R-36M2, which will also replaced with the new RS-28 Sarmat when operational.
Numbers of missiles and warheads
The Strategic Missile Forces have:
46 silo-based R-36M2 (SS-18) with up to 10 warheads, to be retired 2022
45 mobile RT-2PM "Topol" (SS-25) with 1 warhead, flagged for future retirement
60 silo-based RT-2UTTH "Topol M" (SS-27) with 1 warhead
18 mobile RT-2UTTH "Topol M" (SS-27) with 1 warhead
17 silo-based RS-24 "Yars" (SS-29) with up to 4 warheads
135+ mobile RS-24 "Yars" (SS-29) with up to 4 warheads
Kristensen and Korda (2020) list the UR-100N (SS-19), as retired from deployment, while noting that UR-100NUTTH being deployed with the Avangard.
Weapons and equipment
Medium-range ballistic missiles
R-12 Dvina, SS-4 Sandel – In service from 1959 to 1993.
Intermediate-range ballistic missiles
R-14 Chusovaya, SS-5 Skean – In service from 1962 to 1984.
RSD-10 Pioneer, SS-20 Sabre, SS-23 Sabre 2 – In service from 1976 to 1988.
Intercontinental-range ballistic missiles
MR-UR-100 Sotka, SS-17 Spanker – In service from 1975 to 1995.
R-7 Semyorka, SS-6 Sapwood – In service from 1959 to 1968.
R-9 Desna, SS-8 Sasin – In service from 1964 to 1976.
R-16, SS-7 Saddler – In service from 1961 to 1976.
RT-2, SS-13 Savage – In service from 1968 to 1976.
RT-20P, SS-15 Scrooge – In service from 1961 to 1962.
RT-21 Temp 2S, SS-16 Sinner – In service from 1976 to 1986.
RT-23 Molodets, SS-24 Scalpel – In service from 1987 to 2005.
UR-100, SS-11 Sego – In service from 1967 to 1974.
UR-200, SS-10 Scrag – In service from 1963 to 1964.
Ranks and rank insignia
Officer ranks
Other ranks
Future
According to the Federation of American Scientists, for the foreseeable future, all new Russian ICBM deployments will be of MIRVed versions of the SS-27 "Topol-M". A “new ICBM” and a “heavy ICBM” are also being developed. By the early 2020s, according to announcements by Russian military officials, all SS-18 and SS-25 ICBMs will be retired from service following the retirements of the SS-19 systems.
This development would leave a Russian ICBM force structure based on five modifications of the solid-fuel SS-27 (silo- and mobile-based SS-27 Mod 1 (Topol-M); silo- and mobile-based SS-27 Mod 2 (RS-24 Yars); and the RS-26 Rubezh) and the liquid-fuel RS-28 Sarmat with a large payload – either MIRV or some advanced payload to evade missile defense systems. Although the future force will be smaller, a greater portion of it will be MIRVed – up from approximately 36 percent in 2014 to roughly 70 percent by 2024.
See also
Dead Hand
Russian Aerospace Defence Forces
Awards and emblems of the Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation
List of states with nuclear weapons
References
Further reading
Дороговоз И. Г. Ракетные войска СССР. — Минск: Харвест, 2007. — 336 с. —
John G. Hines et al. Soviet Intentions 1965–1985. Braddock Dunn & McDonald (BDM), 1995.
Strategic Missile Forces museum
"Владимирская Ракетная Стратегическая" (Vladimirskaya Strategic Missile) by I.V. Vershkov and V.G. Gagarin; Vladimir 2006; 480 pages;
"Оренбургская Стратегическая" (Orenburg Strategic) by Y.N. Feoktistov; Perm 2001; 328 pages; (also a 1997 edition).
"Читинская Ракетная Армия" (Chitinskaya Missile Army) by ??; Chita, 2002; 268 pages
"История 50-й Ракетной Армии I-IV" (History 50th Missile Army, part 1–4) by G.I. Smirnov and A.I. Yasakov; Smolensk 2008; 370+342+387+561 pages
"Стратеги" (Strategic) by V.T. Nosov; Moscow, 2008; 276 pages;
External links
Official Page
CSIS Missile Threat - Russia
Strategic Missile Forces museum Official Website
Russian Nuclear Notebook 2019 - forces and Rocket Divisions
Strategic Rocket Forces
Strategic forces
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Tunny%20%28SS-282%29
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USS Tunny (SS-282)
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USS Tunny (SS/SSG/APSS/LPSS-282) was a which saw service in World War II and in the Vietnam War. Tunny received nine battle stars and two Presidential Unit Citations for her World War II service and five battle stars for her operations during the Vietnam War. Tunny was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the tunny, any of several oceanic fishes resembling the mackerel
Construction
Tunnys keel was laid down on 10 November 1941 at Vallejo, California, by the Mare Island Navy Yard. She was launched on 30 June 1942, sponsored by Mrs. Frederick G. Crisp, wife of Rear Admiral Frederick G. Crisp, manager of the Mare Island Navy Yard, and commissioned on 1 September 1942.
World War II service
September 1942–January 1943
After commissioning, Tunny conducted shakedown training from California ports. On 29 November 1942, at a position in the Pacific Ocean off California which the armed tanker reported as but actually was in the vicinity of , Huguenot mistook Tunny for a Japanese submarine and opened gunfire on her. Tunny was under escort by the submarine chaser , which was about from Tunny on her starboard quarter at the time. Tunny pulled away from at high speed to a range of and avoided damage and casualties.
After completing shakedown, Tunny arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on 12 December 1942. She then engaged in an additional week of training, followed by two weeks repairs.
First war patrol (12 January – 20 February 1943)
she got underway from Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, on 12 January 1943 for her first war patrol. For nearly a week, rough seas hampered the progress of the submarine. Then, as she approached the Ryukyu Islands, sea traffic increased. Sightings of sampans became frequent, and Tunny often dove to avoid detection by suspicious-looking trawlers.
At 05:30 on 26 January, Tunny sighted masts and a stack over the horizon indicating a possible target. During the day, she lessened the distance between herself and her quarry; and, near dusk, she closed a 400-ton trawler. Finding the prey not worth a torpedo, the submarine surfaced and opened fire with her deck gun. Soon, darkness forced her to discontinue the attack, and she continued on her way.
On 29 January, she began patrolling off Formosa. An hour and a half before midnight on 31 January, her periscope at last disclosed a worthwhile target, a freighter approaching Takao Ko. Tunny fired two "fish" from her bow tubes, but the freighter made a radical change of course which enabled her to evade the torpedoes. When her target counterattacked and dropped two depth charges, Tunny broke off the attack and submerged.
On 1 February, Tunny set her course for the China coast, running on the surface. As darkness fell on 2 February, she was only hours from Hong Kong, expecting to make landfall on Tamkan Island by daybreak. At 2130, she made radar contact; and, through the night, drew closer to her as yet unseen quarry.
A light rain was falling and visibility was poor when, half an hour before morning twilight, Tunny began a radar approach. Rapidly shoaling water less than 20 fathoms (37 m) deep and land masses on two sides of the submarine limited her maneuverability. At , the extreme phosphorescence of the water illuminated her wake and betrayed her presence to the enemy ship, which began signaling the unidentified intruder with a blinker light. Despite her detection, Tunny continued the approach until she was only from the target and then launched three torpedoes. The Japanese ship, now discernible as a loaded tanker, began to maneuver radically and opened fire on the submarine. Undeterred, Tunny submerged and continued the attack, firing a second volley from her stern tubes. One of these torpedoes hit the side of the tanker with a thud, but without explosion, and a small column of water erupted just forward of the tanker's bridge. Duds and prematures were a problem for American submarines early in 1943, and verification that this torpedo had indeed hit the tanker, but failed to detonate, was forthcoming when members of the tanker's crew dashed to the spot in question and began examining the impact area with flashlights. Despite continuous fire from the ship and the proximity of land, Tunny managed to stay within firing range of her target by traveling at full speed. After the tanker successfully evaded Tunnys third salvo, the submarine fired a last torpedo from as the intended victim reached the passage into Hong Kong. Following this disappointing conclusion to her attack, Tunny dove in anticipation of search planes which appeared within two hours and continued their surveillance throughout the day.
After dark on 3 February, while patrolling Lema Channel, Tunny made radar contact with a sizable target. On this very dark night, visual identification was impossible; but, at 2005, the submarine approached to and made a three-torpedo attack. The sound of the target's screws ceased immediately, and Tunny claimed to have sunk this unidentified ship which had been seen only on radar. When the submarine surfaced at daybreak the following day, the submariners discovered an unexpected visitor on deck—a six-foot black and yellow striped snake.
On 4 February, Tunny set her course for Swatow, keeping to the shoreline in hopes of intercepting shipping. En route, she passed a large hospital ship well marked and brilliantly lighted. On 6 February and 7 February, Tunny patrolled off Swatow. Numerous junks plying the Formosa and Swatow banks at all hours added to the hazards imposed by shallow water, and an inoperable fathometer (depthmeter) made it impossible for Tunny to approach the shore closer than six miles (10 km).
Early on the morning of 8 February, she went deep to avoid a plane revealed by radar. When she surfaced, she discovered a freighter off her beam. She shadowed the target during the day and, after sunset, made her approach and launched two torpedoes from a distance of . Due to bad runs, neither of these took effect, but they did alert the freighter, which opened fire on Tunny. The submarine fired two shots from her bow tubes, but one torpedo missed, and the other circled around to the right. Tunny then drew ahead for a surface approach and fired three more torpedoes. Two of these found the mark; but one put on an amazing show, veering sharply first to the left and then to the right, before hitting the target. The Kusayama Maru, a heavily laden, 5000-ton cargo ship, sank by the stern in 20 minutes; Tunny had scored her first confirmed kill. As she proceeded on towards Takao harbor, a searchlight suddenly pierced the dark not far ahead, and Tunny dove to avoid detection.
The next day, Tunny sighted a large transport. Undetected by two nearby patrol vessels and a plane, she made her approach and scored two hits on the transport with her remaining torpedoes. However, the ship did not sink and later left the area.
On 11 February, Tunny set her course for Midway Island. En route, she used a combination of 20 millimeter and five-inch (127 mm) gunfire to sink a 100-ton fishing trawler. On 20 February, she made contact with the harbor escort and proceeded to moor at Midway Island, completing her first aggressive and successful patrol. She later continued on to Hawaii, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 24 February 1943.
Second war patrol (24 March – 23 April 1943)
After refitting by tender and three days of training, Tunny departed the Hawaiian Islands on 18 March, paused at Midway Island for replacement of her periscope, and got underway for Wake Island on 24 March. Later, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet, would describe Tunnys second war patrol as belonging "in that exceptional category of one of the outstandingly aggressive patrols of the war."
On 27 March 1943, Tunny arrived off Wake Island and operated within a circle all day, flooding down the decks awash when within of the island. Before dawn the next morning, she closed to within ten miles (16 km) of the Japanese-held island and watched as its awakening occupants turned on their lights. A motor torpedo boat and two patrol boats passed by less than from the submarine without detecting her presence. Trailing these vessels, Tunny came upon a cargo ship, Suwa Maru, and all hands scrambled to battle stations. Shortly after sunrise, the submarine launched her attack, firing two torpedoes from a range of . The first found its mark and blew the stern off the enemy ship, but the buoyancy of the lightly loaded vessel kept it afloat. Tunny was maneuvering at periscope depth to avoid depth charges dropped across her bow at a range of when the first of several aerial bombs fell close aboard. The submarine dove to . When she attempted to surface an hour later, Tunny was again driven down by an aerial adversary. Later in the morning, traveling submerged at , she set her course for her assigned patrol area.
On 31 March, she entered the patrol area in the Caroline Islands, and, on 1 April 1943, she conducted submerged patrols off North Pass Island, Truk, and later in the day on the Japanese naval base's western approaches. Failing to find any action in these areas, she surfaced late in the afternoon on 2 April and set her course for the channel between Puluwat Island and Pulap Island. Later that day, as she patrolled off Alet Island, Tunny made radar contact with a ship dead ahead. Heading in for a flank attack, she sighted a astern of her chosen target. Tunny launched three torpedoes from and noted a hit in the forward hold of the Japanese cargo ship before diving to to avoid the attention of the destroyer. Minutes later, a series of nine depth charges tumbled down in search of the submarine, but exploded at too shallow a depth to achieve their purpose. Some 15 minutes later, as Tunny started up to take a look, she was jolted by a deep-set depth charge which caught her at , but caused only minor damage—a small price to pay for the sinking of Toyo Maru Number 2. Before midnight, the destroyer gave up the search, and the submarine surfaced and set her course for the Namonuito group to the north.
Late on 4 April, Tunny headed west to intercept traffic reported north of McLaughlin Bank. On 7 April, while patrolling in that area, the submarine took advantage of a rain squall to approach within of a radar-tracked target. She then launched two torpedoes at the Kosei Maru, an 8000-ton passenger-cargo ship, scoring a hit amidships and one aft, and dove immediately to escape the inevitable wrath of the escorting Akatsuki-class destroyer which had been patrolling just ahead of the now-stricken transport. The ensuing depth charge counterattack continued until the destroyer lost contact with the submarine in a heavy rain squall. Having added a third cargo ship to her list of kills, Tunny retired from the scene of the attack.
On 8 April, the submarine surfaced in a downpour to continue patrols north of West Fayu Island. Later that day, she set her course to intercept a convoy reported to be southwest of Truk. At 22:28 on 9 April, she made radar contact with a formation less than three miles (5 km) distant and went to four engines to maneuver into position for an attack. In a few minutes, the formation changed course, putting Tunny in position to slow down to two-thirds speed and head in, flooded down to decks awash to avoid detection. As the convoy became visible, Tunnys commanding officer, Commander James A. Scott, could hardly believe his luck. On the starboard bow was a large aircraft carrier, to port two auxiliary carriers, and on each bow of the formation, a destroyer. Given this perfect setup, Tunny maneuvered to swing the bow on twin targets, but her plans were disrupted when three small boats similar to motor torpedo boats appeared only off her port bow. Tunny quickly dove to , turned right, ninety degrees, and launched four torpedoes from her stern tubes at one of the auxiliary carriers from a distance of . As she turned her attention to other targets, four torpedo explosions sounded through the night.
Signaling from her new target gave executive officer Lieutenant Commander Roger Keithly at the conn a final check on the target's bearing, and Tunny released a salvo of six torpedoes from her bow tubes at the large carrier. Her surprise attack completed, Tunny immediately dove amidst the cacophony of depth charges and churning screws. The depth charges rocked the submarine but did no damage; and the crackling and grinding noises heard throughout the ship, as well as on sonar, led those on board the submarine to believe that their "fish" had found their mark. In all this noise and confusion, Tunny unobtrusively slipped away to the north. Later, examination of Japanese records showed that this attack was ruined by prematures and duds, and that damage to the enemy had been minor. However, the skill and daring with which the raid was conducted remained an example of excellence and prompted the Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet, to commend Tunnys commander for his actions on this patrol as "an illustrious example of professional competence and military aggressiveness."
An hour and a half after midnight on 10 April, the submarine surfaced and set her course to return to her patrol area. While approaching North Pass about from Truk on 11 April, Tunny dove when a searchlight suddenly broke the night, ahead on the starboard bow. No depth charges followed, and the source of the light—not sizable enough to be detected on radar—was presumed to be a small boat.
Early on the afternoon of 11 April, a contact, at first thought to be a patrol boat, turned out to be a Japanese submarine. The designation symbol of the enemy submarine was emblazoned on her sail, spelling out I-9 in large white characters. Boldly taking the offensive, Tunny fired her three remaining forward "fish" at the submarine, only to see the vessel turn away and parallel the course of the torpedoes. Tunny then began her own evasive procedures, going deep and away from the Japanese submersible—and none too soon. Minutes later, she tracked two torpedoes which passed harmlessly astern. An enemy plane added bombs to Tunnys immediate concerns, but she rigged for silent running and weathered the attack by remaining submerged until after nightfall.
That same evening, as Tunny lay on the surface in the bright moonlight charging her batteries, she made radar contact with a ship moving at . Within minutes, the contact materialized into an enemy destroyer steaming on the starboard bow. Tunny dove to and began to swing for a stern shot when the belligerent destroyer increased speed to a thundering and headed in from a distance of less than . As the submarine dove for , the explosions of nine depth charges fairly close by pursued her. Silent running and a quick reversal of course eventually shook off the menacing destroyer, and Tunny returned to the surface after the moon set, noting only minor damage from the attack.
In the days that followed, Tunny patrolled off East Fayu Island and north of Mogami Bank before setting her course for Saipan on 15 April. Her surveillance of Magicienne Harbor disclosed that it was not in use. Seeking targets, the submarine passed through Saipan Channel and later discovered two cargo ships in Garapan Harbor. Prevented from attacking by the presence of intervening reefs, Tunny departed the area and moored in the lagoon at Midway Island on 23 April for a welcome rest. So aggressive had been her handling on this eventful patrol that not one of her firing ranges exceeded . She was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for this outstanding patrol.
Third war patrol (27 April – 14 July 1943)
After refitting at Midway Island, Tunny continued on to Hawaii for additional repairs. She departed Pearl Harbor on 25 May 1943 and, after fueling at Johnston Island, got underway on 27 April for Eniwetok. Her first contact with the enemy on this third war patrol came early in the afternoon on 31 May when she dove to avoid a radar contact whose speed identified it as a plane. As Tunny passed , a bomb exploded over her after torpedo room, breaking lights and thermometers, flooding the after torpedo tubes, and causing miscellaneous other damage. An unsatisfactory makeshift repair of the broken bridge speaker prompted a note in the war patrol report that "the only dependable communication system was the open hatch and a powerful set of lungs." Other repairs were completed before nightfall, and Tunny continued on her way. She patrolled off Eniwetok for two days; then moved on to her assigned area, arriving at Truk on 6 June.
As this patrol progressed, Tunny discovered that antisubmarine action by the Japanese at Truk had shifted to aerial detection. On 7 June, her first day of patrol, she was harassed by a single float biplane and an ineffectual Japanese destroyer. Tunny found the enemy biplanes a great nuisance, since her radar detected them late or not at all. Soon she came to regard the aircraft as an arch-enemy which thwarted attacks on convoys by hovering overhead and guiding possible targets around the submarine, out of firing range.
On 14 June, as Tunny cruised on the surface following a submerged patrol east of Murilo Island in the Hall group, one of her lookouts sighted a convoy bearing 090 degrees. Made up of two small freighters and a large transport and accompanied by two destroyers, the convoy was a tempting target. As Tunny made her approach, an unobserved escort vessel suddenly challenged her with a searchlight and several rounds of four-inch (102 mm) fire which fell astern. The submarine dove to but continued her approach. She then surfaced and launched four torpedoes at the transport from a range of . Three explosions and a tremendous cloud of smoke and water over the target indicated that Tunny had damaged the enemy vessel. The submarine dove to avoid the escorts, but no depth charging ensued. Shortly after midnight, as she ran on the surface attempting to intercept the convoy, an undetected vessel fired shots which splashed astern. Tunny dove again.
As June wore on, Tunny continued patrols as far as Saipan without success. On 26 June, she conducted routine and photographic reconnaissance of Saipan Harbor and Tinian Channel and, later that day, surfaced to patrol the Truk-Empire shipping lanes east of Rota Island. Patrolling off Harnum Point and Rota harbor on 28 June, Tunny sighted a converted gunboat zigzagging madly, went to battle stations, and dispatched the enemy vessel with a salvo of three torpedoes from . Sighting an armed trawler bearing down on her, the submarine dove. Those on board felt the concussion of three sharp explosions close aboard, perhaps from aerial bombs, as Tunny went deep and rigged for silent running, maneuvering to avoid the trawler. Seconds later, two heavy explosions marked the death throes of Tunnys most recent victim. Tunny was chased down again by the trawler when she attempted to surface an hour later. Returning to periscope depth some three hours after the attack, her commanding officer at the periscope was relieved to find no sign of the trawler, but his relief quickly turned to alarm when the periscope revealed a close-up of the bomb bay of a Mitsubishi Type 97 at , directly overhead. This time Tunny waited four hours before surfacing again from Guam.
She patrolled off Guam until 4 July when she received orders to leave the area. Early the next day, she set her course for Johnston Island. Japanese aircraft continued to badger the submarine for two days as she proceeded toward Hawaii. After taking on fuel and provisions at Johnston Island on 11 July, she completed her third patrol at Pearl Harbor on 14 July.
Fourth war patrol (10 August – 8 September 1943)
After refitting and three days of training, Tunny departed Hawaii on 5 August for Midway Island. She arrived at Midway Island on 9 August and was again underway on 10 August. On 18 August, she sighted Pagan Island and Alamagan Island; and, on 22 August, she entered her assigned area in the Palau Islands and began patrols. Early in the morning of 24 August, she sighted a six-ship convoy as it emerged from Toagel Mlungui Pass. Tunny trailed the convoy until she could obtain a good firing position and, at moonrise on 25 August, she submerged to and began her approach. At 01:40, she launched three torpedoes and then another two in rapid succession. She then ducked her periscope and dove to avoid being rammed by the first target. The convoy passed overhead as Tunny dove deep in expectation of depth charges. She heard her torpedoes explode at the end of their run, but the absence of depth charges was both welcome and unexpected. Near dawn, Tunny made another attack, launching six torpedoes at ships of the convoy without success. Meanwhile, a destroyer escort had joined the convoy. Alerted to Tunny'''s presence, she now bore down on the submarine. Tunny dove, and, for the next two hours, the enemy ship remained overhead pinging and tracking. The destroyer escort dropped two patterns of six depth charges close by the submarine but finally gave up the search. At noon, Tunny came to periscope depth and, finding no sign of the convoy, set her course for Toagel Mlungui, securing from battle stations after an exhausting 15 hours.
At mid-morning on 26 August, she spotted two vessels escorted by submarine chaser CH-4 approaching Toagel Mlungui Pass and launched a five-torpedo attack. As Tunny dove, the screws of the first ship were heard to stop; and, shortly thereafter, two depth charges exploded overhead. Two minutes later, another pattern of depth charges exploded all around the submarine. A small fire broke out in the maneuvering room, causing main power to be lost momentarily. In order to check the fire, the main motors were stopped for one minute; then started again. Although the fire was small, dense smoke from burning insulating varnish made it difficult at first to assess the damage. Meanwhile, Tunnys bow planes jammed and the submarine climbed to , then went into a steep glide which took her down to before control was regained. Within five minutes, coolly efficient damage control parties had restored operating conditions to nearly normal, and the submarine began her retirement to the southwest. Once again the sound of screws caused tense moments for those on board Tunny, but this time no depth charges fell.
Early that evening, Tunny surfaced and headed away from the heavily traveled lanes she had been patrolling in order to assess her damages and effect repairs. Inspection disclosed considerable damage to the bow, ripped-up plating aft of the torpedo room, and sheared-off rivets and bolts. The torpedo room pressure hull was badly dished in between frames; and this damage in turn immobilized the bow plane tilting gears. The explosions had jammed the gyro spindles in the stern torpedo tubes, impaired the usefulness of sound and radar gear, and caused other damage visible throughout the ship. Sailors inspecting topside found fragments of the destructive depth charges scattered over the deck.
For two days, her crew labored to restore her to order and make the necessary repairs. Having done everything within his means to restore Tunny to normal operating condition, her commanding officer found her still short of combat readiness. Her bow planes, despite all efforts, were still inoperative; her bow buoyancy tank unusable; and various other problems, which could not be remedied at sea, remained. Thus, on 29 August 1943, she departed her patrol area leaving these hunting grounds to other submarines in better condition. The war-scarred submarine moored at Pearl Harbor on 8 September.
Fifth war patrol (27 February – 11 April 1944)
After a preliminary assessment of battle damage, Tunny departed Pearl Harbor on 11 September 1943. She arrived at Hunters Point, San Francisco, California on 17 September for overhaul and repairs and remained there until 2 February 1944. Then, repairs and tests completed, she departed the West Coast. Tunny returned to Hawaii a week later, underwent voyage repairs and training, and departed Pearl Harbor for her fifth war patrol on 27 February.Tunny stopped at Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands on 2 March, got underway the next day for the Palau Islands, and entered her patrol area on 15 March. On 20 March, a persistent observation plane kept Tunny down for three hours off the entrance to Toagel Mlungui and dropped eight light bombs without damaging the submarine. In the following days, the submarine patrolled the northern and western approaches to the islands.
On 22 March, Tunnys radar picked up what proved to be a large convoy. Day was breaking, and Tunny was maneuvering for a position ahead when an escorting destroyer appeared on the radar at . The enemy soon sighted the submarine and challenged her with a blinker. Tunny took advantage of a nearby rain squall for concealment and continued to close the convoy, keeping a watchful eye on the destroyer. Despite bad visibility and the pinging of the escort, Tunny continued her approach and soon found herself in the midst of a group of tankers and cargo ships. Choosing two heavily loaded cargo ships for her targets, she launched a six-torpedo attack and heard or observed hits on both. Immediately, attention on board Tunny was diverted when a small tanker nearly collided with the submarine. Tunny now obtained a setup on a destroyer moving at high speed across her stern, fired four Mark 18 torpedoes, then dove quickly even as depth charges from a nearby trawler exploded on the port quarter. During the next four hours, the Japanese ships dropped 87 depth charges in an effort to finish off the submarine but without effect. Late in the day, Tunny surfaced and began a futile search for stragglers and cripples from the morning's attack. She found only debris and an oil slick.
At 21:19 on 23 March, while patrolling off Angaur Island, Tunny picked up a radar contact which she identified by sight as a large I-class submarine. For nearly an hour and a half, Tunny and the enemy submarine maneuvered for position, each attempting to prevent the other from obtaining a shot. Then, at 2324, Tunny launched four torpedoes from a range of , swung hard to starboard to prevent a collision, and dove to avoid a possible return attack. Before the hatch was closed, two hits were heard and felt and a flash was seen inside Tunnys conning tower. For one terrible moment, observers on board Tunny feared that their own submarine had been hit. As Tunny dove to and began circling the area, the screws of the enemy submarine stopped, and a crackling racket began and continued for an hour. When the noise ceased, Tunny surfaced and cleared the area, but had met her end.Tunny returned to waters off Toagel Mlungui and resumed patrols. On the morning of 29 March, she observed a large number of small vessels leaving Malakal Harbor, none worth an attack. Apparently, the enemy had somehow received word of the Fifth Fleet's impending bombing attack on Japanese installations in the Caroline Islands and made a desperate attempt to clear the area. Late in the afternoon, a larger formation appeared: the 63,000-ton battleship Musashi, the light cruiser , and three destroyers, also fleeing the expected aerial bombardment. After a daring approach, Tunny fired six torpedoes at the battleship from her bow tubes. The torpedoes passed directly under an alert destroyer of the screen which immediately hoisted flags to warn the battleship, swung parallel to the torpedo tracks, and made a run on the submarine. Tunny went deep and ran for the southwest while the destroyer dropped 38 depth charges in a short, but concentrated counterattack. One torpedo had found its mark on the battleship's bow, which caused flooding of the hydrophone compartment and 18 casualties. Toward sunset, the submarine lost contact with the formation. Later that night, she encountered what she thought to be the same force and was held down for two hours by one of the escorting ships. Hits by two of Tunnys torpedoes had damaged but failed to slow the powerful battleship. However, Musashi was still forced to return to port for repairs and upgrades, which kept her out of action for most of April.
At 02:00 on 30 March 1944, Tunny arrived on station to begin lifeguard duties for the Fifth Fleet's air attack on the Palau Islands. At 07:00, a series of explosions followed by the appearance of heavy smoke from the vicinity of the harbor indicated that American planes were finding their mark. During the morning, more than 100 planes passed over the submarine on their return from the strike. Then, as Tunny circled on station shortly after 12:00, two TBF Avenger torpedo bombers of U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 5 (VT-5) from the aircraft carrier mistook her for a Japanese destroyer. and approached. One sheared off for a strafing attack which it did not complete; the other went into a steep glide and released a bomb. from an altitude of . Incredulous watchers on the submarine saw the bomb cross over the deck gun on the bow, pass the bridge at what appeared to be no more than arm's length, and strike the water with a tremendous impact, only to starboard of the forward engine room. The entire ship lifted with a snap as if it had collided with an underwater object, and an explosion followed some seconds later, throwing personnel and gear in all directions in the maneuvering and after torpedo rooms. Damage to the main control cubicle and to Tunnys remaining torpedoes resulted. Tunny completed repairs during the night, and the next morning manned her lifeguard station as before, only a little more wary of "friendly" aircraft.Tunny departed the Palau Islands on 2 April, stopped at Milne Bay on 7 April, and arrived in Australia on 11 April. She received the Presidential Unit Citation for this patrol.
Sixth war patrol (29 April – 29 June 1944)
Following refit, the submarine departed Brisbane on 29 April and set her course for New Guinea. She underwent voyage repairs at Milne Bay, then proceeded via Langemak Bay to her patrol area in the Mariana Islands. She arrived in the patrol area on 11 May and, in the days that followed, encountered many enemy planes as she patrolled off Saipan and Guam.
On 17 May, she received a report from submarine of a convoy in the area and set out to intercept it. Late in the afternoon, she sighted the smoke of her quarry; and, just after sunset, the masts came into view. The convoy consisted of three cargo ships escorted by a like number of destroyers. Racing against fading twilight, Tunny made her approach; launched a spread of three torpedoes at the second ship of the column; then rapidly fired three more at the last cargo ship. Before the converging escorts forced her down, Tunny observed that a hit had left the last ship of the column down by the stern, emitting clouds of dense black smoke. Although the escorting vessels dropped 81 depth charges, none fell close, and Tunny withdrew to the southeast, having scored her sixth kill of the war, a 4900-ton cargo ship, the Nichiwa Maru. Shortly after midnight, Tunny surfaced and saw an ill-fated cargo ship, the victim of Sand Lance, ablaze from stem to stern. Frequent minor explosions punctuated the night as the ship went down in the darkness.
As Tunny continued patrols in the Mariana Islands, she sighted numerous aircraft and noted explosions and burning ships—apparently the work of sister ship . At this time, however, planes attached to enemy convoys seemed effective in detecting Tunny and routing convoys around her, out of range of her torpedoes.
On 8 June, she rendezvoused with submarines and to form a coordinated attack group, the "Blair Blasters." The three submarines formed a scouting line for a patrol across the western Pacific to the South China Sea. Tunny passed through Balintang Channel on 14 June and sighted Luzon the next morning. While returning through Balintang Channel on 16 June, she made a surface approach on a small sampan and sank it with gunfire. She conducted patrols in the Philippine Sea until 22 June when she parted company with the attack group. On 29 June, she fueled at Midway Island; then proceeded to Oahu, having traveled over on her sixth war patrol.
Seventh war patrol (4 August – 17 September 1944)
After refitting, she departed Pearl Harbor on 4 August 1944 as a member of a coordinated attack group or "wolfpack" called "Ed's Eradicators". With wolfpack members and , she set her course, via Midway Island, for the South China Sea. She arrived in her patrol area on 25 August. Her first action came hours after midnight on 31 August when the wolfpack attacked a convoy. Queenfish was the first to score a hit, and Tunny witnessed the explosion of a tanker, the victim of her sister submarine. As Tunny maneuvered in the bright moonlight, she was suddenly startled by gunfire, which seemed to those on board to come from all directions. She dove and avoided damage from the depth charges which soon followed. Later on the same day, a hit by Barb alerted the convoy's air escort to Tunnys presence; and she was forced down again without opportunity to launch her torpedoes. Time after time, the submarine surfaced only to be forced down by escorting planes as the attack on the convoy continued into the evening.
A second disappointing day came on the heels of the first. Tunny patrolled submerged for most of 1 September in order to avoid enemy aircraft. Late in the afternoon, she was advancing westward on a scouting line formed by the wolf pack, when she sighted a plane dead ahead and about six miles (10 km) distant. She immediately began to dive, but 90 seconds later, as she passed , two bombs hit close aboard aft, sending the ship upward at an eight degree angle and causing extensive damage. As the third and fourth bomb exploded, Tunny was already heading for to assess her damages.
Inspection disclosed that the bombs had dished in the hull plating in the vicinity of the after torpedo room and the maneuvering room, causing a leak in a vent riser. Less than ten minutes after the Japanese plane had been sighted, the commanding officer decided to discontinue the patrol. Throughout the ship, sheared off valves and bolts, damaged meters, clocks, and gauges attested to the force of the bomb's explosion. In addition, all three radio antennas were down, a leak in her pressure hull had been aggravated, and Tunnys rudder action indicated possible damage. She set her course for Balintang Channel and surfaced late in the day on 2 September. Tunny continued to sight Japanese airplanes as she made her way to Hawaii. She completed this patrol on 17 September at Pearl Harbor.
Eighth war patrol (3 February – 14 April 1945)Tunny departed Oahu for California on 20 September and on 26 September she arrived at Hunter's Point for battle damage repairs and an overhaul. She returned to Hawaii in January 1945 and, after a training period departed Pearl Harbor on 3 February for her eighth war patrol.
On 14 February, she entered Tanapag Harbor and moored to submarine tender for repairs to her main engine. Later in the month, she conducted sonar tests out of that port. On 5 March, she departed Saipan and, in the days that followed, was slowed by heavy seas as she proceeded to her patrol area in the Ryukyu Islands.
On 13 March and 14 March, she conducted a special reconnaissance mission off the Nansei Shoto in preparation for landings planned for Okinawa on 1 April. On 14 March, Tunny plotted over 230 mines which she detected on sonar as she traveled through the hazardous waters at . On 15 March, all hands breathed a sigh of relief as Tunny got underway for her patrol area, her special mission safely and successfully completed.
Her pursuit of a distant convoy ended in disappointment on 18 March, when a change of course allowed the cargo ships and their escort to slip away from Tunny around sunset. For two days, the submarine patrolled off Amami Ōshima; then, on 23 March, she took up a lifeguard station. Days later, as Tunny searched for a downed flier, a twin-float enemy plane took her by surprise and dropped two bombs. One fell quite close but caused only minor damage to the submarine. As the month drew to its close, Tunny rescued two fliers from aircraft carrier and one from as those ships took part in the assault on Okinawa.
On 1 April, Tunny completed her lifeguard duties and set her course for Midway Island. En route, she sank a 200-ton lugger with her deck gun. After stopping at Midway Island, she arrived at Oahu on 14 April.
Ninth (last) war patrol (14 May – 6 July 1945)
Following refitting and a week of sonar and approach training, Tunny departed Pearl Harbor on 14 May for her ninth war patrol. She stopped at Guam for repairs and additional sonar exercises, then got underway on 28 May. Together with submarines and , Tunny formed the second group of "Hydeman's Hellcats" known as "Pierce's Polecats." On 2 June, Tunny passed through the Nansei Shoto and, as she approached Kyūshū two days later, encountered increasing small boat traffic. On 5 June, Tunny passed through Korea Strait, repeating the hair-raising task of mine detection by sonar, this time in Nishi Suido. She plotted over 80 mines; then continued on to conduct patrols on the western shore of Honshū.
Operating in the supposedly inviolable waters of the Sea of Japan, the wolf pack attacked shipping and made exploratory attempts to enter Japanese harbors. Late on 9 June, Tunny attacked a cargo vessel. One torpedo hit the enemy vessel with a thud but failed to explode, and Tunny discontinued the attack. In the harbor entering phase of the patrol, Tunny closed the breakwater of Etomo Ko to 8,000 yards (7.3 km) shortly before midnight on 12 June. Town and waterfront lights provided illumination, but no suitable target could be found, and the submarine cleared the harbor before midnight. A few minutes later, Tunny approached within of the harbor mouth at Uppuri Wan but discreetly withdrew when searchlights located and then brilliantly illuminated the intruder.
On 16 June, Tunny sighted numerous rafts filled with the Japanese survivors of a successful action by Bonefish and later took prisoner a Japanese chief petty officer who had escaped from the sinking ship. On the following day, as Tunny and Bonefish closed a radar-located target, Tunny suddenly found herself the object of gunfire, with the closest shot falling only off her port beam. She quickly changed course and eluded both the gunfire and the depth charges which followed. On 19 June, shallow coastal water foiled Tunnys attack on a 4,000-ton cargo ship.Tunny rendezvoused with Skate on 23 June to depart the Sea of Japan. She remained off Hokkaidō for two days on the chance that she might be able to aid Bonefish, missing since her request to make a daylight submerged patrol of Toyama Wan some days earlier. On 27 June, Tunny discontinued her vigil; proceeded via the Kuril Islands and Midway Island; and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 6 July.
The submarine then made her way back to the west coast. Tunny was decommissioned on 13 December 1945 and placed in the Mare Island Group, 19th Fleet.
Post-war missile testing and deterrent patrols
Communist aggression in Korea placed new demands on the resources of the Navy and led to Tunnys being placed in commission, in reserve, on 28 February 1952. She saw no service at this time, however, and was decommissioned in April 1952. On 6 March 1953, she was placed in commission for the third time. Converted to carry guided missiles under project SCB 28, she was reclassified as SSG-282 and was armed with the Regulus I nuclear cruise missile for nearly 12 years. In this role, Tunny was equipped with a hangar housing two missiles and a launcher on the after deck. One of the limitations of Regulus was that the firing submarine had to surface, the missile then being rolled out onto the launcher and fired. Regulus I also required guidance from submarines or other platforms after firing. In 1955, a second World War II submarine, , was also converted to fire Regulus I.
For the first four of those years she operated out of Port Hueneme, contributing to the development of the Regulus missile system. Except for a short period of type training, Tunny engaged entirely in the launching and guidance of Regulus missiles for purposes of missile evaluation in the development of the system. In 1957, she shifted her base of operations to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing Regulus to initial operational capability, where she conducted the first submarine deterrent patrols and fired exercise missiles.
Vietnam operations
In May 1965, the Regulus missile system was phased out, having been superseded by the Polaris missile, and Tunny was redesignated with hull classification symbol SS-282. She remained in the Hawaiian operating area until the end of the year, conducting training exercises and providing various other services. In 1966, she was converted to a troop-carrying submarine and redesignated with hull classification symbol APSS-282, being re-equipped with a deck shelter for small amphibious vehicles and other equipment. In February 1967, Tunny began missions in unconventional warfare, operating off the coast of Vietnam. She conducted reconnaissance in preparation for amphibious assault operations and gathered navigational and oceanographic information. Ideally suited for transporting small teams for specialized operations as well as for gathering information, she participated in Operation Deckhouse VI.
On 1 January 1968, the veteran submarine was reclassified LPSS-282'. She was decommissioned on 28 June 1969, and, on 30 June 1969, her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register. She was sunk as a target on 19 June 1970.
Awards
In April 1997, officers and men of Tunny'' and the other four US Navy submarines that conducted strategic deterrent patrols in the Western Pacific between 1959 and 1964 were awarded the right to wear the Navy's SSBN Deterrent Patrol insignia.
References
Further reading
Gato-class submarines
World War II submarines of the United States
Cold War submarines of the United States
Vietnam War submarines of the United States
Ships built in Vallejo, California
1942 ships
Friendly fire incidents of World War II
Maritime incidents in November 1942
Maritime incidents in March 1944
Maritime incidents in 1970
Ships sunk as targets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich%20Eckart
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Dietrich Eckart
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Dietrich Eckart (; 23 March 1868 – 26 December 1923) was a German völkisch poet, playwright, journalist, publicist, and political activist who was one of the founders of the German Workers' Party, the precursor of the Nazi Party. Eckart was a key influence on Adolf Hitler in the early years of the Party, the original publisher of the party newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter ("Völkisch Observer"), and the lyricist of the first party anthem, Sturmlied ("Storming Song"). He was a participant in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 and died on 26 December of that year, shortly after his release from Landsberg Prison, from a heart attack.
Eckart was elevated to the status of a major thinker upon the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933, and was acknowledged by Hitler to be the spiritual co-founder of Nazism, and "a guiding light of the early National Socialist movement."
Early life
Eckart was born on 23 March 1868 in Neumarkt, about southeast of Nuremberg in the Kingdom of Bavaria, the son of Christian Eckart, a royal notary and lawyer, and his wife Anna, a devout Catholic. Eckart's mother died when he was ten years old and he was expelled from several schools. In 1895, his father died, leaving him a considerable amount of money that Eckart soon spent.
Eckart initially studied law at Erlangen, later medicine at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and was an eager member of the fencing and drinking Student Korps. He decided in 1891 to become a poet, playwright, and journalist. Diagnosed with morphine addiction and nearly stranded, he moved to Berlin in 1899. There he wrote a number of plays, often autobiographical, and became the protégé of Count Georg von Hülsen-Haeseler (1858–1922), the artistic director of the Prussian Royal Theatre. After a duel, Eckart was incarcerated at the Passau Oberhaus.
As a playwright Eckart had success with his 1912 adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's Peer Gynt, which played for more than 600 performances in Berlin alone. Although Eckart never had another theatrical success like Peer Gynt, and blamed his numerous failures on the influence of Jews in German culture, that one play not only made him wealthy, it gave him the social contacts that he later used to introduce Hitler to dozens of important German citizens. These introductions proved to be pivotal in Hitler's rise to power. Later on, Eckart developed an ideology of a "genius superman", based on writings by the Völkisch author Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels and by philosopher Otto Weininger. Eckart saw himself following the tradition of Heinrich Heine, Arthur Schopenhauer and Angelus Silesius. He also became fascinated by the Buddhist doctrine of Maya, or illusion.
From 1907 Eckart lived with his brother Wilhelm in the Döberitz mansion colony west of the Berlin city limits. In 1913 he married Rose Marx, an affluent widow from Bad Blankenburg, and returned to Munich.
Eckart's adaptation of Peer Gynt
In Eckart's five-act version of Ibsen's piece, the play became "a powerful dramatisation of nationalist and antisemitic ideas", in which Gynt represents the superior Germanic hero, struggling against implicitly Jewish "trolls". In Ibsen's original play, Peer Gynt leaves Norway to become the "king of the world", but through his selfish and deceptive actions his body and soul are ruined, and he returns to his native village in shame. Eckart, however, sees Gynt as a hero who challenges the trollish, i.e. Jewish, world. His transgressions are therefore noble, and Gynt returns to reclaim the innocence of his youth. This conception of the character was influenced by Eckart's hero, Otto Weininger, who led him to see Gynt as an antisemitic genius. In this racial allegory, the trolls and Dovregubben ("Dovre Giant") represent Weininger's concept of "Jewishness".
Eckart later wrote to Hitler –in a copy of the play he presented to him shortly after Hitler became the Nazi Party Fuhrer– that "[Gynt's] idea of becoming the king of the world should not be taken literally as the 'Will to Power'. Hidden behind this is a spiritual belief that he will ultimately be pardoned for all his sins." He counseled Hitler that in his quest to be the "German Messiah" his ends justified the means he used, so he need not be concerned about employing violence or other transgressions of societal norms because, like Gynt, he would be forgiven for his sins. In his introduction to the play, Eckart wrote "[It is by] German nature, which means, in the broader sense, the capability of self-sacrifice itself, that the world will heal, and find its way back to the pure divine, but only after a bloody war of annihilation against the united army of the 'trolls'; in other words, against the Midgard Serpent encircling the earth, the reptilian incarnation of the lie."
Antisemitism and foundation of the German Workers' Party (DAP)
Eckart was not always an antisemite. In 1898, for instance, Eckart wrote and had published a poem extolling the virtues and beauty of a Jewish girl. Before his conversion to antisemitism, the two people he admired most were the poet Heinrich Heine and Otto Weininger, who were both Jews. Weininger, however, had converted to Protestantism, and has been described as a "self-hating Jew" eventually espousing antisemitic views. Eckart's admiration for Weininger may have played a part in his conversion.
In December 1918, Eckart founded, published and edited the antisemitic weekly Auf gut Deutsch ("In plain German") – with financial support from the Thule Society– working with Alfred Rosenberg, whom he called his "co-warrior against Jerusalem", and Gottfried Feder. A fierce critic of the German Revolution and the Weimar Republic, he vehemently opposed the Treaty of Versailles, which he viewed as treason, and was a proponent of the so-called stab-in-the-back legend (Dolchstoßlegende), according to which the Social Democrats and Jews were to blame for Germany's defeat in the war.
Eckart's antisemitism was influenced by the publication The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which had been brought to Germany by "white Russian" emigrés fleeing the October Revolution. The book purported to outline the international Jewish conspiracy for control of the world, and many right-wing and völkisch political figures believed it to be a true account.
After living in Berlin for many years, Eckart moved to Munich in 1913, the same year that Hitler moved there from Vienna. In January 1919, he, Feder, Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer founded the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (German Workers' Party, or DAP), which to increase its appeal to larger segments of the population, in February 1920 changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers' Party, or NSDAP); more commonly known as the Nazi Party. Eckart was largely responsible for the party buying the Münchener Beobachter in December 1920, when he arranged for the loan which paid for it. The 60,000 Marks came from German Army funds available to General Franz Ritter von Epp, and the loan was secured with Eckart's house and possessions as collateral, and Dr. Gottfried Grandel, an Augsburg chemist and factory owner who was Eckart's friend and a funder of the Party, as guarantor. The newspaper was renamed the Völkischer Beobachter and became the party's official organ, with Eckart as its first editor and publisher. He also created the Nazi slogan Deutschland erwache ("Germany awake"), and wrote the lyrics for the anthem based on it, the Sturm-Lied.
In 1921 Eckart promised 1,000 Marks to everyone who could cite one Jewish family whose sons had served longer than three weeks at the front during the First World War. The Hannover rabbi Samuel Freund named 20 Jewish families who met this condition and sued Eckart when he refused to pay the reward. During the trial, Freund named 50 more Jewish families with up to seven veterans, among whom were several which lost up to three sons in the war. Eckart lost the case and had to pay.
Eckart and Hitler
Eckart was instrumental in creating the persona of Adolf Hitler as one of the future dictator's most important early mentors, and was one of the first propagators of the "Hitler Myth". Their relationship was not simply a political one, as there was a strong emotional and intellectual bond between the two men, an almost symbiotic relationship. It was Eckart who gave to Hitler his philosophy of the necessity of overcoming "soulless Jewishness" as the basis for a true German revolution, unlike the false revolution of 1918. Although the need to present himself as a self-made man prevented him from publicly writing or speaking about the debt he owed to Eckart, in private Hitler acknowledged Eckart as having been his teacher and mentor, and the spiritual co-founder of Nazism.
The two first met when Hitler gave a speech before the DAP membership in the winter of 1919. Hitler immediately impressed Eckart, who said of him "I felt myself attracted by his whole way of being, and very soon I realized that he was exactly the right man for our young movement." It is probably Nazi legend that Eckart said about Hitler on their first meeting "That's Germany's next great man –one day the whole world will talk about him." Although not a member, Eckart was involved at the time with the Thule Society, a secretive group of occultists who believed in the coming of a "German Messiah" who would redeem Germany after its defeat in World War I. He began to see in Hitler the possibility that he was that person.
Eckart, who was 21 years older than Hitler, became the father-figure to a group of younger volkisch men, including Hitler and Hermann Esser, and acted as mediator between the two when they clashed, telling Esser that Hitler, whom he esteemed as the DAP's best speaker, was the far superior man. He became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and helping to establish theories and beliefs of the Party. He lent Hitler books to read, gave him a trench coat to wear, and made corrections to Hitler's style of speaking and writing. Hitler was to say later "Stylistically I was still an infant." Eckart also schooled the provincial Hitler in proper manners, and regarded Hitler as his protégé.
Hitler and Eckart had many things in common, including their interest in art and politics, that both thought of themselves primarily as artists, and both were prone to depression. They also shared that their early influences were Jewish, a fact which both preferred not to speak about. Although, unlike Hitler, Eckart did not believe that Jews were a race apart, by the time the two met, Hitler's goal was "the total removal of the Jews", and Eckart had expressed the opinion that all Jews should be put on a train and driven into the Red Sea. He also espoused that any Jew who married a German woman should be jailed for three years, and executed if he repeated the crime. Paradoxically, Eckart also believed that the existence of humanity depended on the antithesis between Aryans and Jews, that one could not exist without the other. In 1919, Eckart had written that it would be "the end of all times ... if the Jewish people perished."
Eckart provided Hitler with entré into the Munich arts scene. He introduced Hitler to the painter Max Zaeper and his salon of like-minded antisemitic artists, and to the photographer Heinrich Hoffmann. It was Eckart who introduced Alfred Rosenberg to Hitler. Between 1920 and 1923, Eckart and Rosenberg labored tirelessly in the service of Hitler and the party. Through Rosenberg, Hitler was introduced to the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Rosenberg's inspiration. Both Rosenberg and Eckart were influential with Hitler on the subject of Russia. Eckart saw Russia as Germany's natural ally, writing in 1919 that "German politics hardly has another choice than to enter an alliance with a new Russia after the elimination of the Bolshevik regime." He felt strongly that Germany should support the Russian people in their struggle against the "current Jewish regime", by which he meant the Bolsheviks. Rosenberg also counseled Hitler along these lines, with the two men providing Hitler with the intellectual basis for his Eastern policy, which was then made practical by Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter.
In March 1920, at the behest of Karl Mayr –the German General Staff officer who had first introduced Hitler to politics– Hitler and Eckart flew to Berlin to meet Wolfgang Kapp and take part in the Kapp Putsch, as well as to forge a connection between Kapp's forces and Mayr. Kapp and Eckart knew each other - Kapp had donated 1,000 Marks in support of Eckart's weekly magazine. However, the trip was not a success: Hitler, who wore a false beard, was afraid of heights and got airsick on the way –it was his first airplane flight– and when they arrived in Berlin, the putsch was already collapsing. Nor did they create a positive impression with the Berliners: Captain Waldemar Pabst is said to have told them "The way you look and talk –people are going to laugh at you."
Eckart introduced Hitler to wealthy potential donors connected to the völkisch movement. They worked together to raise money for the DAP in Munich, using Eckart's contacts, but did not have great success. In Berlin, however, where Eckart was better connected with the rich and powerful, they raised considerable funds, including from senior officials of the Pan-German League. Together, they made frequent trips to the capital. During one of them, Eckart introduced Hitler to his future etiquette tutor, socialite Helene Bechstein, and it was through her that Hitler began to move among the upper class of Berlin.
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the Nazi Party in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party, so Eckart –who had lobbied the committee not to lose Hitler– was asked by the Party leadership to talk with Hitler and relay the conditions in which Hitler would agree to return to the Party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the conditions that the party headquarters would remain in Munich, and that he would replace Anton Drexler as party chairman and become the party's dictator, its "Fuhrer". The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July 1921.
Eckart would also advise Hitler about the people who had gathered around him and the Party, such as the virulently antisemitic Julius Streicher, the publisher of the quasi-pornographic Der Stürmer. Hitler was repelled by pornography and disapproved of Streicher's sexual activities; he also was distressed by the many intra-party fights that Streicher managed to start. According to Hitler, Eckart told him on multiple occasions "that Streicher was a schoolteacher, and a lunatic to boot, from many points of view. He always added that one could not hope for a triumph of National Socialism without giving one's support to a man like Streicher."
For a time, before Alfred Rosenberg took over the role, Eckart –along with Gottfried Feder– was considered to be the Nazi Party's "philosopher."
Growing apart
The more confidence that Hitler felt in himself, to a large extent due to Eckart's mentoring, the less that he needed Eckart as a mentor, which resulted in the relationship cooling off.
In November 1922, Eckart and the party's chief fund-raiser outside of Germany, Emil Gansser, made a trip to Zurich, Switzerland to see Alfred Schwarzenbach, a rich entrepreneur in the silk industry. The trip was arranged by Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, who used family connections. While no detailed records of the meeting survive, a repeat visit –with Hitler along as well– was made the following year. This trip was not successful. Hitler made a speech to German expatriates, right-wing Swiss officers, and several dozen Swiss businessmen, but it, and the next day's private meeting, was a fiasco. Hitler blamed Eckart's lack of social graces for the failure of the trip.
After publishing a slanderous poem about Friedrich Ebert, the President of Germany at the time, Eckart ducked an arrest warrant by escaping in early 1923 to the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden, close to the German-Austrian border, under the name "Dr. Hoffman". In April, Hitler visited him there at the Pension Moritz in Obersalzberg, and stayed with him for a few days as "Herr Wolf". It was Hitler's introduction to the area where he would later build his mountain retreat, the Berghof.
Hitler had recently replaced Eckart as the publisher of Völkischer Beobachter with Alfred Rosenberg, although he softened the blow by making it clear that he still regarded Eckart highly. "His accomplishments are everlasting!" Hitler said, he just was not constitutionally able to run a big business like a daily newspaper. "I would not be able to do it, either," according to Hitler, "I have been fortunate that I got a few people who know how to do it. ... It would be as if I tried to run a farm! I wouldn't be able to do it." Nevertheless, tensions between Hitler and Eckart began to appear. Not only were there personal disagreements about the behavior of each towards a woman, but Hitler was annoyed that Eckart didn't believe that a putsch launched in Munich could turn into a successful national revolution. "Munich is not Berlin," Eckart said, "It would lead to nothing but ultimate failure."
Despite his own role in promoting Hitler as a genius and messiah, in May 1923 he complained to Ernst "Putzi" Hanfstaengl, another of Hitler's mentors, that Hitler had "megalomania halfway between a Messiah complex and Neroism" after Hitler had compared himself to Jesus throwing the money-changers out of the temple.
Motivated by his temporary annoyance at Eckart, and by Eckart's impracticality in operational matters, Hitler began attempting to run the party without Eckart's assistance, and when forced to use Eckart again as a political operative, the results were disappointing. Hitler began to see Eckart as a political liability due to his disorganization and his increased drinking. Hitler, however, did not discard or sideline him, as he had with other early comrades who had stood in his way. He stayed close to Eckart intellectually and emotionally, and continued to visit him in the mountains. The relationship between the two men was not simply a political one.
On 9 November 1923, Eckart participated in the failed Beer Hall Putsch. He was arrested and placed in Landsberg Prison along with Hitler and other party officials, but was released shortly thereafter due to illness. He then went to Berchtesgaden to recuperate.
Hitler as genius and messiah
Eckart promoted Hitler as Germany's coming savior. Eckart's hero, Otto Weininger, had formulated a dichotomy in which genius and Jews were opposed. Genius, in Weininger's view, was the epitome of masculinity and non-materialism, while Jews were femininity in its purest form. Eckart took upon himself this philosophy, and considered that the role of genius was to rid the world of the baleful influence of Jews. Many parts of German society held similar views, and were looking for a savior, a "German Messiah", a genius to lead them out of the economic and political morass the country had fallen into as a result of the Great Depression and the economic effects of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I.
Under Eckart's tutelage Hitler first began to think of himself as that person, a superior being. Because it was generally believed that geniuses were born and not made, he could not present himself as having been mentored by Eckart and others. Thus in Mein Kampf, Hitler did not mention Eckart or Karl Mayr, or the others who had been instrumental in creating what the world was now meant to see as the natural genius, Adolf Hitler, the German Messiah.
Shortly after the Party purchase of the Völkischer Beobachter in December 1920, and Eckart's installation as editor, with Rosenberg as his assistant, the two men had begun to use the newspaper as a vehicle to disseminate this "Hitler Myth", the notion that Hitler was a superior being, a genius who would be the divine German Messiah – the chosen one. The paper did not refer to Hitler as merely the leader of the Nazi Party; instead, he was "Germany's leader". Other newspapers in Bavaria began to call Hitler "the Bavarian Mussolini." This idea of Hitler's specialness began to spread, so that two years later, in November 1922, the Traunsteiner Wochenblatt newspaper would look ahead to when "the masses of the people will raise [Hitler] up as their leader, and give him their allegiance through thick and thin."
Death
Eckart died in Berchtesgaden on 26 December 1923 of a heart attack. He was buried in Berchtesgaden's old cemetery, not far from the eventual graves of Nazi Party official Hans Lammers and his wife and daughter.
Although Hitler did not mention Eckart in the first volume of Mein Kampf, after Eckart's death he dedicated the second volume to him, writing that Eckart was "one of the best, who devoted his life to the awakening of our people, in his writings and his thoughts and finally in his deeds." In private, he would admit Eckart's role as his mentor and teacher, and said of him in 1942: "We have all moved forward since then, that's why we don't see what [Eckart] used to be back then: a polar star. The writings of all others were filled with platitudes, but if he told you off: such wit! I was a mere infant then in terms of style." Hitler later told one of his secretaries that his friendship with Eckart was "one of the best things he experienced in the 1920s" and that he never again had a friend with whom he felt such "a harmony of thinking and feeling."
Memorials
During the Nazi period, several monuments and memorials were created to Eckart. Hitler named the arena near the Olympic Stadium in Berlin, now known as the Waldbühne (Forest Stage), the "Dietrich-Eckart-Bühne" when it was opened for the 1936 Summer Olympics. The 5th Standarte (regiment) of the SS-Totenkopfverbände was given the honour-title Dietrich Eckart. In 1937 the Realprogymnasium in Emmendingen was expanded and renamed the "Dietrich-Eckart secondary school for boys". Several new roads were named after Eckart. All of these have since been renamed.
Eckart's birthplace in Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz was officially renamed with the added suffix "Dietrich-Eckart-Stadt". In 1934, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in his honour in the city park. It has since been rededicated to Christopher of Bavaria (1416–1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.
In March 1938, when Passau commemorated Eckart's 70th birthday at Oberhaus Castle, the Lord Mayor announced not only the creation of a Dietrich-Eckart-Foundation but also the restoration of the room where Eckart had been imprisoned. In addition, a street was dedicated to Eckart.
Ideas and assessments
Eckart has been called the spiritual father of Nazism, and indeed Hitler acknowledged him as being its spiritual co-founder.
Eckart viewed World War I not as a holy war between Germans and non-Germans, as it was sometime interpreted toward the end of the conflict, but as a holy war between Aryans and Jews, who, according to him, plotted the fall of the Russian and German empires. To describe this apocalyptic struggle, Eckart adopted extensive imagery from the legends of Ragnarok and from the Book of Revelation.
In 1925, Eckart's unfinished essay Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin: Zwiegespräch zwischen Hitler und mir ("Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin: Dialogue Between Hitler and Me") was published posthumously. Margarete Plewnia considered the dialogue between Eckart and Hitler to be an invention by Eckart himself, but Ernst Nolte, Friedrich Heer and Klaus Scholder think that the book – which was completed and published posthumously by Rosenberg, allegedly using Eckart's notes – reflects Hitler's own words. Thus historian Richard Steigmann-Gall believed that "[the] book still remains a reliable indicator of [Eckart's] own views."
Steigmann-Gall quotes from the book:
In Christ, the embodiment of all manliness, we find all that we need. And if we occasionally speak of Baldur (a god in Norse mythology), our words always contain some joy, some satisfaction, that our pagan ancestors were already so Christian as to have an indication of Christ in this ideal figure.
Steigmann-Gall concluded that, "far from advocating a paganism or anti-Christian religion, Eckart held that, in Germany's postwar tailspin, Christ was a leader to be emulated." But historian Ernst Piper dismissed Steigmann-Gall's views about a relationship between the admiration of Christ by early members of the NSDAP and a positive relationship with Christianity; Eckart fervently opposed the political Catholicism of the Bavarian People's Party and its national ally the Centre Party, supporting instead a vaguely defined "positive Christianity". From the pages of Vőlkischer Beobachter, Eckart tried to win over Bavarian Catholics to the Nazi's cause, but that attempt ended with the Beer Hall Putsch, which put Nazis at odds with Bavarian Catholics.
Joseph Howard Tyson writes that Eckart's anti-Old Testament views show a strong resemblance to the early Christian heresy Marcionism.
In 1935 Alfred Rosenberg published the book Dietrich Eckart. Ein Vermächtnis ("Dietrich Eckart. A Legacy") with collected writings by Eckart, including this passage:
To be a genius means to use the soul, to strive for the divine, to escape from the mean; and even if this cannot be totally achieved, there will be no space for the opposite of good. It does not prevent the genius to portray also the wretchedness of being in all shapes and colors, being the great artist that he is; but he does this as an observer, not taking part, sine ira et studio, his heart remains pure. ... The ideal in this, just like in every respect whatsoever is Christ; his words "You judge by human standards; I pass judgment on no one" show the completely divine freedom from the influence of the senses, the overcoming of the earthly world even without art as an intermediary. At the other end you find Heine and his race ... all they do culminates in ... the motive, in subjugating the world, and the less this works, the more hate-filled their work becomes that is to satisfy their motive, the more deceitful and fallacious every try to reach the goal. No trace of true genius, the very opposite of the manliness of genius ...
Personality
Early Nazi adherent Ernst Hanfstaengl remembered Eckart as "a perfect example of an old-fashioned Bavarian with the appearance of a walrus." Eckart was described by journalist Edgar Ansel Mowrer as "a strange drunken genius". His antisemitism supposedly arose from various esoteric schools of mysticism, and he spent hours with Hitler discussing art and the place of the Jews in world history. Samuel W. Mitcham calls Eckart an "eccentric intellectual" and "extreme antisemite" who was also a "man of the world" who liked "wine, women, and pleasures of the flesh." Alan Bullock describes Eckart as having "violent nationalist, anti-democratic, and anti-clerical opinions, a racist with an enthusiasm for Nordic folklore and a taste for Jew-baiting" who "talked well even when he was drunk" and "knew everyone in Munich." According to Richard J. Evans, Eckart, the "failed racist poet and dramatist" blamed his career's failure on Jewish domination of German culture, and defined as "Jewish" anything that was subversive or materialistic. Joachim C. Fest describes Eckart as a "roughhewn and comical figure, with [a] thick round head, [and a] partiality for good wine and crude talk" with a "bluff and uncomplicated manner". His revolutionary goals were to promote "true socialism" and rid the country of "interest slavery". According to Thomas Weber, Eckart had a "jovial but moody nature", while John Toland describes him as "an original raffish man with a touch of genius", and "a tall, bald, burly eccentric who spent much of his time in cafes and beer halls giving equal attention to drink and talk." He was "a born romantic revolutionary ... a master of coffeehouse polemics. A sentimental cynic, a sincere charlatan, constantly on stage, lecturing brilliantly if given the slightest opportunity be it at his own apartment, on the street or in a café."
Works
"Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin: A Dialogue Between Adolf Hitler and Me" English translation (PDF)
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Online books by Dietrich Eckart
Literatur von und über Dietrich Eckart im Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
Daniel Wosnitzka: Tabellarischer Lebenslauf von Dietrich Eckart im LeMO (DHM und HdG)
Bestand: ED 54: Eckart, Dietrich. Im Archiv des Instituts für Zeitgeschichte, München-Berlin (PDF, 42 KB).
German opinion journalists
German male journalists
19th-century German poets
German Roman Catholics
19th-century publishers (people)
20th-century publishers (people)
1868 births
1923 deaths
Christian fascists
People from Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz
Nazis who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch
Nazi Party officials
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Thule Society members
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
German nationalists
German Workers Party members
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers
20th-century German dramatists and playwrights
German duellists
20th-century German poets
Prisoners and detainees of Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20McDermott
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Jim McDermott
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James Adelbert McDermott (born December 28, 1936) is an American politician and psychiatrist who was the U.S. representative for from 1989 to 2017. He is a member of the Democratic Party. The 7th District includes most of Seattle, Vashon Island, Tukwila, Burien, Shoreline, Lake Forest Park, Lynnwood, Mountlake Terrace, Woodway, and Edmonds.
He served on the House Ways and Means Committee and was a member of the House Progressive Caucus. He was formerly the committee chairman, then in 1995, ranking minority member on the House Ethics Committee. On January 4, 2016, he announced that he would not be seeking another congressional term.
Early life, education, and early career
McDermott was born on December 28, 1936, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Roseanna (Wabel) and William McDermott. He was the first member of his family to attend college; he graduated from Wheaton College, Illinois, and then went to medical school, getting an M.D. from the University of Illinois College of Medicine in Chicago in 1963. After completing an internship in 1964 at Buffalo General Hospital in Buffalo, New York, a two-year psychiatry residency at the University of Illinois Research and Educational Hospital (now called University of Illinois Research Hospital), and fellowship training in Child Psychiatry (1966–68) at the University of Washington Medical Center in Seattle, he served in the United States Navy Medical Corps as a psychiatrist in California during the Vietnam War.
Early political career
In 1970, McDermott made his first run for public office and was elected to the Washington state legislature as a representative from the 43rd District. He did not seek re-election in 1972 but instead ran for Governor of Washington losing the primary to former governor Albert Rosellini, who was seeking a return to the governorship after losing a third term bid in 1964. Rosellini would lose that fall. In 1974, he ran for the state senate, and subsequently was re-elected three times, to three successive two year terms. During this time, he crafted and sponsored legislation that would eventually be called the Washington State Basic Health Plan, the first such state program in the country, which offers health insurance to the unemployed and the working poor.
In 1980, while still a state senator, he saw a chance to take on incumbent governor Dixy Lee Ray in the Democratic primary for governor as she sought re-election. U.S. Senator Warren Magnuson endorsed McDermott and persuaded the leaders of the Washington State AFL–CIO to endorse and actively campaign for McDermott. He was successful in the primary, upsetting an incumbent governor by a 57–42% landslide, but lost the general election to Republican John Spellman in the year of the Republican Ronald Reagan landslide. McDermott would lose 57–43% while Magnuson would lose in a narrow upset to Washington attorney general Slade Gorton.
McDermott chose for a third time in 1984 to run for governor. In his third gubernatorial campaign, he carried shiny red apples around the state as he campaigned in a state noted for its apple crops. He has pushed what he's called an "Apple agenda"—his acronym for Affordable health care, Promotion of jobs, Protection of the environment, Life with hope and without fear, and excellence in Education. However, this time in the primary, he faced the Pierce County Executive Booth Gardner, a former state senator as well who ran in the slogan, "Booth Who?!" Gardner ran with a focus on LGBT and the pro-choice issues, and contributed $500,000 of his own funds to the campaign. McDermott ended up losing his third primary to Gardner, who then went on to defeat Spellman in the general election.
In 1987, McDermott briefly left politics to become a Foreign Service medical officer based in Zaire now known as Democratic Republic of the Congo, providing psychiatric services to Foreign Service, USAID, and Peace Corps personnel in sub-Saharan Africa.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1988, the seat for came open when five-term incumbent Mike Lowry gave it up to make an unsuccessful run for the Senate. McDermott returned from Africa to run for the seat and won handily with 71 percent of the vote. He was re-elected 13 times with no substantive opposition. He usually garnered wide support in his district, the most Democratic white-majority district in the nation, even in disastrous years for Democrats nationally. In 1994, for instance, he won with 75% of the vote even as the Republicans won control of Congress and took all but two seats in Washington (his and that of Norm Dicks). He was re-elected in 2010, taking 83 percent of the vote against independent challenger Bob Jeffers-Schroder. No Republican filed to contest the election in 2010. In 2012 McDermott was challenged in the Democratic primary by attorney Andrew Hughes. Despite spending more than $200,000 on his campaign (versus McDermott's primary spending of $387,000), Hughes won just 6 percent of the vote to McDermott's 71 percent. In the general election, McDermott won just under 80% of the vote, against Republican Ron Bemis. McDermott did not seek reelection in 2016 following the announcement of a primary challenge by state representative Brady Walkinshaw.
Tenure
AIDS Housing Opportunity Act of 1990
In his first term, McDermott sponsored the AIDS Housing Opportunity Act, which provides state and local governments with the resources and incentives to devise long-term comprehensive strategies for meeting the housing needs of persons with AIDS and the families of such persons.
The program established, known as HOPWA, has grown to be a $335M line in United States budget, at a cost of $5,432 per recipient in 2010. Despite the long-term focus of the original legislation, according to HUD, 59% of recipients received help with short-term housing.
Cedar River Watershed Land Exchange Act of 1992
This consolidated land in Washington state which allowed the city of Seattle to gain greater control over its primary water source, thus enabling more efficient planning for the future. The bill was one of the last signed by President George H. W. Bush before he left office.
2002 Iraq trip
In the fall of 2002, McDermott and fellow Representatives David Bonior of Michigan, Nick Rahall of West Virginia and Mike Thompson of California visited Iraq; in Baghdad they met with members of parliament and the Iraqi Foreign Minister, and in Basra they met with residents who talked about the effect on them of the Iraq sanctions. American conservatives sharply criticised McDermott for this trip, and for his predictions that President George W. Bush would "mislead the American public" to justify military action and that no WMD would be found in Iraq.
After this trip, McDermott's opponents dubbed him "Baghdad Jim"; his supporters claimed that he had been proven correct on the facts.
According to a disclosure form filed with the clerk of the House of Representatives, the nonprofit organization Life for Relief and Development paid McDermott's $5,510 travel expenses for the Iraq trip. On March 26, 2008, a Bush Administration indictment accused Muthanna Al-Hanooti of arranging for the trip and paying for it with funds from Saddam Hussein's intelligence agency, the IIS. Ultimately these charges were dropped; Al-Hanooti was convicted of attempting to sell Iraqi oil to raise money for humanitarian purposes without permission of the U.S. Treasury.
African Growth and Opportunity Act of 2004
This act lowered tariffs and spurred apparel trade with many African countries. The AGOA has brought approximately 15,000 jobs and $340 million in foreign investment to some of the poorest nations in sub-Saharan Africa. On August 22, 2007, McDermott was knighted by King Letsie III of Lesotho, in recognition of McDermott's leadership on the Act.
Violence Against Women and Justice Department Reauthorization Act of 2005
This piece of legislation strengthened privacy and confidentiality of people already receiving care under the Act and modernized it by prohibiting cyberstalking as defined under the law.
Pledge of Allegiance
On April 28, 2004, Congressman McDermott omitted the phrase "under God" while leading the House in reciting the Pledge of Allegiance. The incident occurred after atheist Michael Newdow lost his court case to have the phrase "under God" dropped from the Pledge, and after McDermott had voted against a congressional resolution that called for overturning a court ruling that declared the phrase unconstitutional. In 1954, during the McCarthy era and communism scare, Congress had passed a bill, which was signed into law, to add the words "under God." McDermott later stated that he had "reverted to the pledge as it was written and taught in the public schools throughout my childhood", as the phrase "under God" was added in 1954, the year in which McDermott graduated from high school; he turned 18 in late December of that year, after graduating.
Boehner v. McDermott
In December 2004, the House Ethics Committee investigated McDermott over the leaking of an illegally recorded telephone conversation during a 1997 committee investigation of then-Speaker Newt Gingrich.
In the conversation, Mr. Gingrich, his lawyer, and several other Republican Congressmen discussed how Gingrich's Congressional allies should deal with the political consequences of his admission that he had violated House ethics rules by giving inaccurate information to the House Ethics Committee for its inquiry into his use of tax-exempt funds. Democrats have described the conversation as evidence that Mr. Gingrich broke an agreement with the Ethics Committee that he would not orchestrate a politically motivated response to those committee findings.
The recording was made by John and Alice Martin, who claimed that they had overheard the conversation on a police scanner, decided to record it for posterity's sake, and then decided that it might be important for the Ethics Committee to hear. The Martins gave the tape to McDermott because he was the senior Democrat on the Ethics Committee. Within two days, reportedly after the Republican Ethics Committee chair Nancy L. Johnson refused to allow a vote on making the tape part of the committee's records, sending the tape to the Justice Department, or taking any action against participants in the conversation, and over the warning of the committee's counsel of possible legal liability, McDermott gave the tape to several media outlets, including the New York Times.
Rep. John Boehner, who was part of the Gingrich conversation, sued McDermott in his capacity as a private citizen, seeking punitive damages for violations of his First Amendment rights. After U.S. District Judge Thomas Hogan ordered McDermott to pay Boehner for "willful and knowing misconduct" that "rises to the level of malice", McDermott appealed, arguing that since he had not created the recording, his actions were allowed under the First Amendment, and that ruling against him would have 'a huge chilling effect' on reporters and newsmakers alike. Eighteen news organizations – including ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, The Associated Press, the New York Times and the Washington Post — filed a brief backing McDermott. On March 29, 2006, the court ruled 2–1 that McDermott violated federal law when he turned over the illegally recorded tape to the media outlets, ordering McDermott to pay Boehner's legal costs (over $600,000) plus $60,000 in damages. On June 26, 2006, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated the judgment, deciding to re-hear the case with all nine judges. However, a split 4 to 1 to 4 en banc decision in Boehner v. McDermott, 484 F.3d 573 (D.C. Cir. 2007) affirmed the three-judge panel, but on different grounds; the Supreme Court declined review.
On March 31, 2008, Chief Judge Thomas Hogan of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ordered McDermott to pay Boehner $1.05 million in attorney's fees, costs and interest. McDermott also paid over $60,000 in fines and close to $600,000 in his own legal fees.
The Ethics Committee formally rebuked McDermott in 2006, writing he had "violated ethics rules by giving reporters access to an illegally taped telephone call involving Republican leaders a decade ago. Rep. McDermott's secretive disclosures to the news media ... risked undermining the ethics process" and that McDermott's actions "were not consistent with the spirit of the committee." Previously, the Martins pleaded guilty to violating the Electronic Communications Privacy Act. In 1997, Gingrich was reprimanded by the House for providing false information to the Ethics Committee and he agreed to reimburse $300,000 in costs.
Depleted Uranium Study Act of 2006
This amendment to the Defense Authorization Act of 2006 directed the Department of Defense to study possible adverse health effects of the use of depleted uranium by the US military on servicemembers, employees and their families.
Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008
A reform in the American foster care system, this legislation addresses needs affecting foster children in the United States; it extends federal foster care payments until children are 21 years old, provides federal support for relatives caring for foster children, increases access to foster care and adoption services by Native American tribes, and improves oversight of the health and education needs of children in foster care.
Unemployment Compensation Extension Acts of 2008–2009
McDermott oversaw the emergency unemployment compensation extensions during the recession that began in 2008 under the George W. Bush administration and continued into the administration of Barack Obama.
Ft. Lawton legislation
H.R. 3174 required the US Army Board for Correction of Military Records to review dozens of convictions that followed the Fort Lawton Riot of 1944. The Board uncovered "egregious error" in the prosecution, overturned the convictions, issued retroactive honorable discharges to the defendants and ordered back pay. H.R. 5130 provided that such payments, which were otherwise of amounts considered nominal, to include interest.
Worker, Home-ownership, and Business Assistance Act of 2009
The purpose of this act was to encourage job creation, strengthen the economic recovery, and assist those unable to find jobs during the serious economic downturn that began in 2008. While the bill had unrelated provisions, the primary focus was on the extension of the $8,000 first-time home buyer tax credit; opinion is divided as to the effectiveness of the program.
Conflict Minerals Trade Act of 2010
This legislation requires publicly traded companies in the United States exercise due diligence to ensure that conflict minerals (gold, tin, tantalum and tungsten) in their products do not come from mines funding civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Originally proposed as a standalone bill, it became section 1502 of the 2010 Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. A United Nations Security Council committee reported that this legislation was a "catalyst" for efforts to save lives by cutting off a key source of funding for armed groups at a cost to American firms of approximately $8 billion per year.
Tax Parity for Health Plan Beneficiaries Act 2010, 2011
McDermott sponsored a bill which would have eliminated the tax burden incurred by married same sex couples, same-sex and opposite-sex domestic partners. The bill also would have ensured that domestic partners of federal civilian employees receive the same health care benefits as married spouses, including retirement, compensation for work injuries, and full life and health insurance benefits. It was eventually folded into and taken out of the House Health Care Bill in 2010, and has been referred to committee both times, where it died. Versions of this bill were co-sponsored under McDermott's leadership since the 106th Congress with Republican Senator Gordon Smith of Oregon. The 2010 (111th Congress) and 2011 (112th Congress) bills were co-sponsored by Democratic Senator Chuck Schumer of New York.
The Internet Gambling Regulation and Tax Enforcement Act
In June 2011, McDermott introduced The Internet Gambling Regulation and Tax Enforcement Act (H.R. 2230) along with John Campbell (R-Calif.) and Barney Frank (D-Mass). This represented McDermott's fifth introduction of such an act, which would offer a tax structure should online gambling become fully legalized and regulated within the United States.
Committee assignments
Committee on Ways and Means
Subcommittee on Health
Committee on the Budget
Formerly ranking majority leader, then, in 1995, as the minority member of the Ethics Committee after Republicans retook control of the House.
Caucus memberships
McDermott belonged to several dozen Congressional caucuses and co-chaired the following caucuses:
Congressional HIV/AIDS Caucus
Congressional Progressive Caucus
Congressional Kidney Caucus
Afterschool Caucuses
Personal life
McDermott has been married twice. He and Virginia Beattie McDermott divorced in 1989. He married Therese Hansen in 1997, divorcing in 2012. In filings for his second divorce, McDermott's and Hansen's joint assets were valued at $2.5 million. He has two children and three grandchildren.
See also
Physicians in US Congress
References
External links
Column archives at The Huffington Post
Articles
Congressman Jim McDermott advocates a Canadian-style system as a simple, cost-effective, humane alternative for the US, Fall 1994
McDermott defends his patriotism, Charles Pope, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 3, 2002
"U.S. Congressman Jim McDermott on the White House's 'Fear Factory'" – interview with McDermott, August 14, 2003
Aide says McDermott wasn't aware of Saddam link, Jim Brunner, Seattle Times, April 17, 2004
A War We Can Win by Rep. Jim McDermott, February 6, 2006
McDermott backs Bush impeachment – Beren says impeachment effort is political ploy by Emily Heffter, Seattle Times, 9/10/08
McDermott faces 5 challengers but no real re-election challenge by Emily Heffter, Seattle Times, 8/14/08
1936 births
Living people
Democratic Party Washington (state) state senators
Democratic Party members of the Washington House of Representatives
American psychiatrists
American Episcopalians
Politicians from Chicago
Wheaton College (Illinois) alumni
United States Navy Medical Corps officers
University of Illinois College of Medicine alumni
Military personnel from Illinois
Military personnel from Seattle
Physicians from Illinois
Physicians from Washington (state)
21st-century American politicians
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Washington (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yumjaagiin%20Tsedenbal
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Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal
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Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (; 17 September 1916 – 20 April 1991) was a Mongolian politician who served as the leader of the Mongolian People's Republic from 1952 to 1984. He served as general secretary of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (the ruling party) from 1940 to 1954 and again from 1958 to 1984, chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government) from 1952 to 1974, and chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Khural (head of state) from 1974 to 1984.
Tsedenbal rose to prominence in the 1940s as a member of leader Khorloogiin Choibalsan's inner circle, and succeeded him as premier after his death in 1952. Tsedenbal resisted de-Stalinization, and ousted and internally exiled several of his rivals in the 1960s. His policies were aimed at making Mongolia a loyal political and economic partner of the Soviet Union. Tsedenbal was the longest-serving leader of modern Mongolia and any Eastern Bloc country, serving until his expulsion with Soviet support in 1984. He retired to Moscow and died in 1991, and has had a controversial legacy since the 1990 democratic revolution.
Early life and education
Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (originally Tserenpil) was born on 17 September 1916 to an unwed Dörbet mother in Bayan Chandamani Uula banner (modern Davst District, Uvs Province). In October 1929, he and 21 other Mongolian students were selected to study at a special rabfak (preparatory school) in Irkutsk in the Soviet Union. In 1931, he joined the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League. After graduating from the rabfak, Tsedenbal attended the Institute of Finance and Economics in Irkutsk, from which he graduated in July 1938. The Mongolian students were invited for sightseeing in Moscow, where Tsedenbal was noticed by the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party. In September 1938, he returned to Mongolia and began working as an instructor at the Ulaanbaatar Financial College, a technical school attached to the Finance Ministry.
Party career and rise
After he was recommended to Mongolia's leader, Khorloogiin Choibalsan, by Soviet intelligence officer and diplomatic representative Ivan Alekseevich Ivanov, in 1939 Tsendenbal joined the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), and became deputy finance minister that March. From July 1939 to March 1940, Tsedenbal was concurrently Mongolia's minister of finance and chairman of the board of the state bank (Bank of Trade and Industry). In December 1939, Tsedenbal joined Choibalsan and Ivanov for a meeting with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow. There, Choibalsan promised to purge sitting MPRP secretary Banzarjavyn Baasanjav to replace him with Tsedenbal, which was done in February 1940.
In March 1940, at age 24, Tsedenbal was elected a member of the Central Committee, member of the Presidium, and general secretary at the MPRP's Tenth Congress, becoming the country's number-two leader. Though he was part of Choibalsan's inner circle, unlike him Tsedenbal was not enthusiastic about pan-Mongolian unification, and around 1950 instead supported the proposal advanced by several young party officials that Mongolia join the Soviet Union in order to achieve socialism. Tsedenbal was responsible for the introduction of the Cyrillic script for writing the Mongolian language, replacing Mongolian script. During World War II in the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1945, Tsedenbal served as head of the Political Directorate and deputy commander-in-chief of the Mongolian People's Army, with the rank of lieutenant general, and was awarded the Soviet Order of Lenin. Mongolia did not declare war on Nazi Germany after its invasion of the USSR, but supported the Soviet war effort by financing a tank regiment and a fighter squadron, and by donating horses, winter clothing, and money. Some Mongolian workers and students under training in the Soviet Union joined the Soviet Red Army. Tsedenbal was appointed chairman of the State Planning Commission in 1945 and deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1948.
Leader of Mongolia
Consolidation of power
Following Choibalsan's death in January 1952, Tsedenbal allied with second secretary Dashiin Damba to defeat a bid for power by hardliner Chimeddorjiyn Sürenjav, who was exiled to Moscow. Tsedenbal was appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier) on 27 May 1952. As premier, he immediately visited Moscow and Beijing (where the People's Republic of China had been established in 1949), and signed agreements which created the Trans-Mongolian Railway and an alliance between the countries. The Mongolian Politburo formally approved joining the Soviet Union. While attending Stalin's funeral in March 1953, Tsedenbal presented the request to the Soviet leadership, which rejected and rebuked it.In 1954, Tsedenbal lost the position of general secretary to Damba (who gained the title of first secretary). The two men split over the Mongolian response to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev's speech criticizing Stalin in April 1956. The Mongolian Politburo initially created a special commission, headed by Bazaryn Shirendev, to re-examine the purges of the Choibalsan period. While Damba supported the commission, Tsedenbal repeatedly blocked its work. In 1958, Tsedenbal ousted and internally exiled Damba, taking over his position (Tsedenbal regained the title of general secretary in 1981). In 1961–1962, as Khrushchev intensified the Soviet de-Stalinization drive, a "Rehabilitation Commission" was appointed, whose work Tsedenbal also criticized. For example, in 1963, the Mongolian Politburo banned the film Tümnii Neg ("A Million in One"), which dealt with the purges. Due to Tsedenbal's stubborn resistance to de-Stalinization, a statue of Stalin stood in front of the Mongolian National Library until 1990.In 1962–1963, Tsedenbal began expelling several rivals and critics from the MPRP on charges of "nationalism". In 1962, Mongolia's Politburo was organizing celebrations for the 800th anniversary of the birth of Genghis Khan when the Soviet Communist Party newspaper Pravda criticized the "Mongol–Tatar yoke" imposed on the Russian people by the "reactionary" Genghis. The politburo canceled the celebrations, and the member in charge of organizing the celebrations, Daramyn Tömör-Ochir, was scapegoated by Tsedenbal, ousted, and internally exiled; he was followed by Luvsantserengiin Tsend. At a central committee meeting in December 1964, three members handling economic issues, Tsogt-Ochiryn Lookhuuz, Baldandorjiin Nyambuu, and Bandiin Surmaajav, argued that living standards were declining, and criticized the party's "petit-bourgeois" attitude. They were named an "anti-party group" by Tsedenbal, expelled from the party, and internally exiled. In 1966, Tsedenbal, the undisputed leader, received Leonid Brezhnev on the first visit of a Soviet leader to Mongolia and presided unchallenged over the Fifteenth Congress.
Domestic policy
Tsedenbal was close to the Soviet leadership and a strong proponent of Soviet political and economic policies, and described the relationship between the countries as an "elder brother–younger brother" (akh düü) one. In 1962, Tsedenbal proposed the slogan that mastering Russian, "the language of Lenin", was "a component of ideological education" (in the late 1970s, an attempt to conduct all higher education in Russian was narrowly defeated). From 1963, Tsedenbal condemned many areas of emerging intellectual endeavor, including abstract art, new appreciation of Buddhist literature, and survey-based sociology, among others. In a note written in 1963, he rejected Chinese suggestions that Mongolia, by being relegated to mining and light industry, was becoming a colony of the Soviet Union. From 1966, Tsedenbal's policies were shaped by a determination to make Mongolia an "industrial-agricultural country". While the USSR prodded the Mongolian government to concentrate its efforts on the development of agriculture and the mineral sector, Tsedenbal and his followers sought to foster rapid industrialization (mostly semi-processing of raw materials for the Soviet market) even in the face of Soviet opposition. Despite stating that "new young forces must be drawn into leadership work", he cemented an aging leadership, and the Politburo changed little between 1966 and 1981. Despite his modest protestations to the contrary, Tsedenbal developed a cult of personality during his tenure. He was awarded the highest distinction of Hero of the Mongolian People's Republic and presented with the Order of Sükhbaatar on his 50th birthday in 1966 for his "special services to the party, state, and Mongolian people", and was made an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences. On his 60th birthday in 1976, he received another Order of Sükhbaatar at a "grand ceremony", an exhibition about him was opened in Ulaanbaatar, and a bronze bust was unveiled in Ulaangom, the center of his home province of Uvs. Brezhnev awarded him another Order of Lenin. Tsedenbal promoted himself to army general, the highest rank in the Mongolian People's Army, and in 1979 created for himself the rank of marshal of the Mongolian People's Republic. On his 65th birthday in 1981, Marshal Tsedenbal was given another Order of Sükhbaatar (he was awarded six altogether).
Foreign policy
In the early years of his rule, Tsedenbal favored balanced relations between Mongolia and China. In 1959, Tsedenbal was in Beijing for the 10th anniversary of the People's Republic of China. At the time of the Sino-Soviet split, Tsedenbal decisively sided with the Soviet Union and incurred China's wrath. Despite this, the two countries managed to sign a border treaty in 1962. In the early 1960s, he signed an order expelling all Chinese citizens from Mongolia. The resolution was met with outrage: "Break off Tsedenbal's dog's head," was written onto the Mongolian embassy, and Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai stated that "Comrade Tsedenbal is trampling on diplomacy." With the intensification of the Sino-Soviet border conflict in the 1960s, the signing of a treaty with the USSR in Ulaanbaatar in early 1966 by Brezhnev and Tsedenbal, allowed the Soviet Union to station troops in Mongolia to ensure mutual defense, being the first time that foreign troops would be stationed in the republic.
In July 1956, he welcomed North Korean leader Kim Il Sung on a state visit. As it relates to the Korean conflict, Tsedenbal, during a 1971 visit of the North Korean deputy premier in honor of the 50th anniversary of the Mongolian People’s Revolution, declared that his nation "strongly support the struggle of the Korean people to unify the motherland by peaceful, democratic means and for the liberation of South Korea." Tsedenbal visited Bucharest on 9 September 1957, becoming the first Mongolian leader to visit Romania. His relationship with President Nicolae Ceaușescu proved to be frosty, being critical of the latter for his more independent foreign policy. Mongolia under Tsedenbal increased its participation in international organizations, attempting first in 1955 to have the MPR join the United Nations (with the request being vetoed by the Republic of China on the island of Taiwan) and being admitted into the UN in 1961. During the Vietnam War, he supported the Soviet position, in part due to the stance of the Chinese in this regard. During a February 1973 visit to New Delhi, an Indo-Mongolian joint declaration was signed by Tsedenbal and Indira Gandhi. Furthermore, he supported India in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, at the expense of relations with Pakistan. Under Tsedenbal, Mongolia established ties with West Germany on January 31, 1974.
Decline and ousting
Around late 1973, Tsedenbal began to experience moments of memory loss and spells of dizziness, which grew increasingly serious from 1975 on. In 1974, Tsendenbal imitated Brezhnev in giving the office of premier to an underling (Jambyn Batmönkh), resigning the office to become chairman of the presidium of the People's Great Khural (head of state). In 1981, at the Eighteenth Party Congress, he was praised as "the best leader of party and state", and again began purging intellectuals and former allies to "root out weeds" in the leadership. In 1982, he dismissed Shirendev, then the president of the Academy of Sciences; in December 1983, he linked Sampilyn Jalan-Aajav, the deputy head of state, to the 1963 "anti-party" group and internally exiled him. By 1984, one-third of the Central Committee and almost half the ministry heads appointed in 1981 had been dismissed by Tsedenbal.
After Brezhnev's death in 1982, the new Soviet leadership decided in November 1983 that Tsedenbal's erratic behavior was becoming a liability. On 9 August 1984, while Tsedenbal was vacationing in Moscow, the Kremlin's doctor diagnosed him as suffering from "overwork", and top Soviet leaders summoned Batmönkh and Tsedenbal's old ally Demchigjabyn Molomjamts, telling them Tsedenbal could no longer serve. On 23 August, the Mongolian Politburo dismissed Tsedenbal from all positions "on account of his state of health, and with his agreement".
Later life and death
After his dismissal, Tsedenbal lived in retirement with his family at their flat in Moscow. In 1986, Batmönkh's position was reinforced by another MPRP Congress and Great Khural election. In 1988, Batmönkh and official media began to blame him by name for the political and economic "stagnation" into which the country had declined. In December 1988, Batmönkh called for greater openness in political and social affairs and the press blamed Tsedenbal and his "administrative command" methods for the country's stagnation, following the line of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika in the Soviet Union. An MPRP Central Committee resolution described Tsedenbal as "willful and unprincipled" and said he "belittled collective leadership". In June 1989, the MPRP revised the Party Rules, Party Program, and procedures for rehabilitation of victims of the personality cult.
Following the resignation of the MPRP Politburo and Secretariat in March 1990 at the height of the democratic revolution, the MPRP Central Committee criticized Tsedenbal's legacy, stripped him of his titles, and expelled him from the party "for not fulfilling his lofty responsibilities". It also rehabilitated his old enemies, including Tömör-Ochir, Lookhuuz, Nyambuu, and Surmaajav. Mongolia's new government planned to try Tsedenbal and other members of the MPRP Politburo on various charges, but by February 1991 he was considered too ill to face trial. Tsedenbal died on 20 April 1991 at a Moscow hospital from "bile duct cancer, purulent poisoning and chronic liver failure." After he died, his body was brought to Mongolia. His funeral was held at the Officers' Palace on April 29, and he was buried (after some debate) with military honors at Altan-Ölgii National Cemetery in Ulaanbaatar.
Legacy
In Mongolia, Tsedenbal is remembered for successfully maintaining a path of relatively moderate socialism during the Cold War. By the decree of President Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat in 1997, the 1990 decree that stripped him of his rank and awards was invalidated. A statue of Tsedenbal was built in 2000 on the plaza in front of the National Drama Academic Theater which has since been renamed to Tsedenbal Square (Цэдэнбалын талбай). The statue and its surroundings were refurbished in 2013. On September 21, 2016, the Erdenet Mining Corporation was named after him.
In 2019, Mongolian filmmakers produced a biographical film of Tsedenbal. His son Zorig founded the Tsedenbal Academy in Mongolia.
Personal life
His Russian wife, Anastasia Filatova, was often said to be the most powerful political figure in Mongolia due to her close relationship with the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. They had two children, Vladislav (7 October 1949 - c. 2000) and Zorig (born 11 March 1957). The sons' surnames were reduplicated from their patronymic in Russian (e.g. Владислав Цэдэнбалович Цэдэнбал). His granddaughter Anastasia Tsedenbal (Анастасия Зоригновна Цэдэнбал), born in 1985, graduated from the Lomonosov Moscow State University as an African researcher.
Awards
:
Hero of the Mongolian People's Republic (1966)
Hero of Labor of the Mongolian People's Republic (1961)
6 Orders of Sukhbaatar
2 Orders of the Red Banner
Order of the Red Banner of Labor
Order of Friendship
Medal "For Victory over Japan"
Medal "30 year anniversary of the Victory over Japan"
Medal "25th Anniversary of Mongolian People's Revolution"
Medal "30 year anniversary of the Battle of Khalkhin Gol"
Medal "40 year anniversary of the Battle of Khalkhin Gol"
Medal "50 years of the Mongolian People's Republic"
Medal "50 years of the Mongolian People's Army"
:
3 Orders of Lenin (1944, 1976, 1986)
Order of the October Revolution
Order of Kutuzov, 1st class
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
Medal "For the Victory over Japan"
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin"
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945"
Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Jubilee Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Other countries:
2 Orders of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria)
Order of Jose Marti (Cuba)
Order of the White Lion, 1st class (Czechoslovakia)
Order of Karl Marx (East Germany)
Order of Friendship of Peoples (East Germany)
Order of the National Flag (Hungary)
Order of the National Flag, 1st class (North Korea)
Order of the Grand Cross of the Rebirth of Poland (Poland)
Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star (Yugoslavia)
Notes
References
Further reading
Batbayar, Tsedendambyn. Modern Mongolia: A Concise History. Ulaanbaatar: 2002.
Nadirov, Sh. G. Tsedenbal and the Events of August 1984. Trans. Baasan Ragchaa. Bloomington (Ind.): Mongolia Society, 2005.
Rupen, Robert. How Mongolia is Really Ruled. A Political History of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1900–1978. Stanford (Cal.): Hoover Institution Press, 1979.
Shinkarev, Leonid. Tsedenbal i Filatova. Liubov’, vlast’, tragedia. Moscow and Irkutsk: Izdatel’ Sapronov, 2004.
1916 births
1991 deaths
Mongolian communists
Mongolian atheists
Mongolian expatriates in the Soviet Union
Mongolian People's Party politicians
Oirats
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–1989)
Recipients of the Order of the White Lion
Finance ministers of Mongolia
Governors of Bank of Mongolia
Chairmen of the State Great Khural
World War II political leaders
Communism in Mongolia
Marshal of the Mongolian People's Republic
People from Uvs Province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20film%20awards
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List of film awards
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This is a list of groups, organizations, and festivals that recognize achievements in cinema, usually by awarding various prizes. The awards sometimes also have popular unofficial names (such as the "Oscar" for Hollywood's Academy Awards), which are mentioned if applicable. Many awards are simply identified by the name of the group presenting the award.
Awards have been divided into four major categories: critics' awards, voted on (usually annually) by a group of critics; festival awards, awards presented to the best film shown in a particular film festival; industry awards, which are selected by professionals working in some branch of the movie industry; and audience awards, which are voted by the general public.
Critics' awards
International
FIPRESCI (Fédération Internationale de la PRESse CInématographique) Awards, given by the International Federation of Film Critics at various film festivals
Cannes Film Festival (Cannes film festival) is one of the most important and selective film festivals with their prestigious prize the Palme d'Or.
OFCS (Online Film Critics Society) Awards
Hollywood Foreign Press Association
Golden Globe Awards
IOFCP (International Online Film Critics' Poll) Awards
Argentina
Asociación de Cronistas Cinematográficos de la Argentina
Premios Cóndor de Plata
Premios Clarín Espectáculos
Konex Awards
Australia
ATOM Awards
Australian Film Critics Association (AFCA)
AWGIE Awards (AWG)
Film Critics Circle of Australia (FCCA)
Inside Film Awards (IF Awards)
South Australian Screen Awards
Western Union Short Film Competition
Bangladesh
Meril Prothom Alo Awards
National Film Awards
Belgium
Belgian Film Critics Association (UCC)
Brazil
Festival de Gramado
Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro
Canada
Toronto Film Critics Association (TFCA)
Vancouver Film Critics Circle (VFCC)
Czech Republic
Czech Film Critics' Awards
Trilobit Awards
Denmark
Bodil Awards from Danish Film Critics Association
Lauritzen Award
France
Etoiles du Parisien
French Syndicate of Cinema Critics
Globes de Cristal Award
Louis Delluc Prize
Germany
Award of the German Film Critics Association ()
Hong Kong
Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards
India
Aravindan Puraskaram
Asianet Film Awards
Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards
Bhojpuri Film Awards
CineMAA Awards
Cinema Express Awards
Edison Tamil Awards
Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Awards East
Filmfare Awards South
Filmfare Marathi Awards
Filmfare Short Film Awards
IIFA Utsavam
International Indian Film Academy Awards
John Abraham Award
Karnataka State Film Award
Kerala Film Critics Association Awards
Kerala State Film Awards
Maharashtra State Film Awards
Nandi Awards
National Film Awards (Directorate of Film Festivals)
Odisha State Film Awards
Padmarajan Award
Prag Cine Awards
Rajasthan Film Festival
RED FM Tulu Film Awards
Santosham Film Awards
SIIMA Short Film Awards
Screen Awards
South Indian International Movie Awards
Stardust Awards
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards
Udaya Film Awards
Vanitha Film Awards
Vijay Awards
West Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards
Zee Cine Awards
Zee Cine Awards Telugu
Indonesia
Citra Awards
Maya Awards
Ireland
Dublin Film Critics' Circle
Italy
Nastro d'Argento
Globo d'oro
David di Donatello
Japan
Japanese Movie Critics Awards
Lebanon
The Lebanese Cinema Movie Guide Awards
Mexico
Ariel Award
Diosas de Plata
Myanmar
Myanmar Motion Picture Academy Awards
Star Awards
Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur Film Critics Council Awards (Malay: Anugerah Majlis Pengkritik Filem Kuala Lumpur)
Nigeria
Africa Magic Viewers' Choice Awards
Africa Movie Academy Awards
Pakistan
ARY Film Awards
Philippines
Gawad Urian
Young Critics Circle Film Desk Awards
Gawad PASADO
Gawad TANGLAW
Gawad Genio Awards
The Entertainment Editors' Choice Awards
Portugal
Golden Globes (Portugal)
South Korea
Korean Association of Film Critics Awards
Busan Film Critics Awards
Spain
CEC Medals
Premios Goya
Feroz Awards
Fotogramas de Plata
Turkey
SIYAD Awards of Turkish Film Critics Association (SİYAD)
Flying Broom International Women's Film Festival (Uçan Süpürge Kadın Filmleri Festivali)
International Adana Golden Boll Film Festival (Adana Altın Koza Film Festivali)
International Adana Film Festival (Uluslararası Adana Film Festivali)
Istanbul Animation Festival (İstanbul Animasyon Festivali)
United Kingdom
ODEON National Youth Film Awards
National Film Awards UK
Evening Standard British Film Awards
London Film Critics Circle
National Movie Awards
Film Critics Association UK
Charity Film Awards
UK Film Critics Association Awards
United States
Alliance of Women Film Journalists
American Film Institute (AFI)
Atlanta Film Critics Circle (AFCC)
Austin Film Critics Association (AFCA)
Black Film Critics Circle (BFCC)
Boston Online Film Critics Association
Boston Society of Film Critics (BSFC)
Broadcast Film Critics Association (BFCA)
Chicago Film Critics Association (CFCA)
Chicago Indie Critics (CIC)
Columbus Film Critics Association
Critics Association Of Central Florida
Critics' Choice Movie Awards
Critics' Choice Super Awards
Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association (DFWFCA)
Denver Film Critics Society
Detroit Film Critics Society
DiscussingFilm Critic Awards (DFCA)
Florida Film Critics Circle (FFCC)
Georgia Film Critics Association (GFCA)
Golden Raspberry Awards (a.k.a. the Razzies)
Gotham Awards
Greater Western New York Film Critics Association (GWNYFCA)
Hawaii Film Critics Society
Houston Film Critics Society (HFCS)
Indiana Film Journalists Association
Iowa Film Critics Association
Kansas City Film Critics Circle
Las Vegas Film Critics Society
LAIFFA Awards(Los Angeles Independent Film Festivals)
Latino Entertainment Journalists Association (LEJA)
Los Angeles Film Critics Association (LAFCA)
Maverick Movie Awards (MMA)
Minnesota Film Critics Alliance (MNFCA)
Music City Film Critics Association
National Society of Film Critics (NSFC)
National Board of Review (NBR)
Nevada Film Critics Society
New Mexico Film Critics
New York Film Critics Circle (NYFCC)
New York Film Critics Online (NYFCO)
New York Film Awards
Nollywood and African Film Critics Awards (NAFCA)
North Carolina Film Critics Association
North Dakota Film Society (NDFS)
North Texas Film Critics Association
NYU Tisch School of the Arts Wasserman Award
Oklahoma Film Critics Circle
Online Association of Female Film Critics
Online Film Critics Society Awards (OFCS)
Online Film & Television Association
Philadelphia Film Critics Circle Awards (PFCC)
Phoenix Critics Circle (PCC)
Phoenix Film Critics Society
Political Film Society (PFS)
Portland Critics Association
Producers Guild of America (PGA)
San Diego Film Critics Society (SDFCS)
San Francisco Film Critics Circle (SFFCC)
Seattle Film Critics Society (SFCS)
Southeastern Film Critics Association (SEFCA)
St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association (SLGFCA)
Sunset Circle Awards (SCA)
Utah Film Critics Association
Village Voice Film Poll
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association (WAFCA)
Women Film Critics Circle
X-Rated Critics Organization (XRCO) Heart-On Awards
Uruguay
Uruguayan Film Critics Association Awards 2001
Vietnam
HCMC Film Association
Significant Festival awards
As of 1998, The Variety Guide to Film Festivals states that "the Triple Crown of international competitive festivals" are Cannes, Venice and Berlin.
Argentina
Festival Internacional de Cine de Mar del Plata
Ástor
BAFICI (Buenos Aires Festival Internacional de Cine Independiente)
Armenia
Golden Apricot Yerevan International Film Festival
Australia
Flickerfest
Bangladesh
Dhaka International Film Festival
Rainbow Award (covering all segments)
Belgium
Flanders International Film Festival Ghent
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sarajevo Film Festival
Heart of Sarajevo
Sarajevo Youth Film Festival
Brazil
Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro
São Paulo International Film Festival
Burkina Faso
Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou (FESPACO)
Canada
Atlantic Film Festival
Cinéfest Sudbury International Film Festival
Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival
Inside Out Film and Video Festival
Montreal World Film Festival
Toronto International Film Festival
Vancouver International Film Festival
Whistler Film Festival
Yorkton Film Festival
China
Shanghai International Film Festival
Beijing International Film Festival
Croatia
Motovun Film Festival
Pula Film Festival
ZagrebDox
Czech Republic
Karlovy Vary International Film Festival
Crystal Globe (best picture)
Special Jury Prize
Egypt
Cairo International Film Festival
Golden Pyramid Award (best picture)
Luxor African Film Festival
Aswan International Women's Film Festival
Alexandria International Film Festival
El Gouna Film Festival
France
Cannes International Film Festival
Palme d'Or (best picture)
Grand Prize (best picture runner up)
Jury Prize
Prize Un Certain Regard
Caméra d'Or (best first picture)
François Chalais Prize
Trophée Chopard
Vulcan Award
Germany
Berlin International Film Festival (Berlinale)
Golden Bear (best picture)
Silver Bear (jury grand prize, director, actor and actress)
Findling Award ()
Greece
International Thessaloniki Film Festival
Golden Alexander (best picture)
Hungary
Hungarian Film and TV Awards
India
International Film Festival of India
Golden Peacock for Best Film
Golden Peacock for Best Short Film
Silver Peacock for Best Film
IFFI Best Director Award
IFFI Best Actor Award (Male)
IFFI Best Actor Award (Female)
IFFI ICFT UNESCO Gandhi Medal
IFFI Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award
IFFI Indian Film Personality of the Year Award
International Film Festival of Kerala
Golden Crow Pheasant
Mumbai International Film Festival
Golden Conch (best fiction and best documentary)
Indonesia
Bali International Film Festival
Bandung Film Festival
Indonesian Film Festival
Jakarta International Film Festival
Jogja-NETPAC Asian Film Festival
Iran
Fajr International Film Festival
Hafez Awards
Italy
Venice International Film Festival
Golden Lion (best picture)
Coppa Volpi (best actor and actress)
Rome Film Festival
Capri Hollywood International Film Festival
Ischia International Film & Music Festival
Taormina Film Fest
Giffoni Film Festival
Japan
Tokyo International Film Festival
Morocco
International Film Festival of Marrakech
Malaysia
Malaysia Film Festival
ASEAN International Film Festival and Awards
Netherlands
Cinekid Festival
Film by the Sea
Netherlands Film Festival
Rembrandt Award
SCENECS International Debut Film Festival
ShortCutz Amsterdam
Nigeria
Africa International Film Festival (AFRIFF)
Abuja International Film Festival (AIFF)
Norway
Norwegian International Film Festival
Amanda (various categories)
Tromsø International Film Festival
Pakistan
Kara Film Festival
Poland
Gdynia Film Festival
Polish Film Academy
International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography CAMERIMAGE
Portugal
Fantasporto
Philippines
Cinemanila International Film Festival
Cinemalaya Philippine Independent Film Festival
Cinema One Originals Film Festival
Metro Manila Film Festival
Russia
Moscow International Film Festival
South Korea
Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival
Busan International Film Festival
Seoul Independent Film Festival
Seoul International Film Festival
Spain
Málaga Spanish Film Festival ('Biznaga')
San Sebastián International Film Festival ('Shell')
Seville European Film Festival ('Giraldillo')
Sitges International Fantastic Film Festival of Catalonia
Valladolid International Film Festival ('Spike')
Sweden
Göteborg Film Festival
Stockholm International Film Festival
Switzerland
Locarno International Film Festival
Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival
Turkey
Adana International Film Festival
Antalya Film Festival
Istanbul Animation Festival
Istanbul Film Festival
Ukraine
Odesa International Film Festival
United Kingdom
BFI London Film Festival
Sheffield Doc/Fest
UK Film Festival
Public Health Film Festival (PHFF)
United States
Chicago International Film Festival
Sundance Film Festival
Hawaii International Film Festival
Vilcek New American Filmmakers Award
Seattle International Film Festival
Golden Space Needle (best picture)
Slamdance Film Festival
Vietnam
Hanoi International Film Festival
Vietnam Film Festival
Golden Lotus (for Best Picture)
Industry awards
International
IDA (International Documentary Association) Awards
Location Managers Guild Awards
Taurus World Stunt Awards
Webby Awards
World Soundtrack Awards
Argentina
AACCA (Academia de las Artes y Ciencias Cinematográficas de la Argentina)
Premios Sur
Australia
AACTA Awards (Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts Awards), replaced the AFI Awards (Australian Film Institute Awards)
Asia Pacific Screen Awards
Australian Production Design Guild
Australian Screen Sound Guild
AWGIE Awards
Casting Guild of Australia (CGA)
TV Week Logie Awards
Austria
Austrian Film Awards
Bangladesh
National Film Awards (Bangladesh)
Meril Prothom Alo Awards
Belgium
Joseph Plateau Awards
Magritte Awards
Ensor Awards
Canada
Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television
Bijou Awards (1981)
Canadian Film Awards (1949-1978)
Canadian Screen Awards (since 2012)
Genie Awards (1980-2012)
Alberta Film and Television Awards
Canadian Society of Cinematographers
Directors Guild of Canada
Feminist Porn Awards
Leo Awards
Prix Iris
Denmark
Robert Awards
Estonia
Estonian Film and Television Awards
Europe
European Film Academy
European Film Awards (formerly the Felix)
Lux Prize (European Parliament LUX Award)
Finland
Jussi Awards
France
César Awards
Lumières Award
Prix Jean Vigo
Prix Lumière
Prix Romy Schneider
Prix Suzanne Bianchetti
René Clair Award
Germany
Bavarian Film Award ()
Bogey Awards
German Film Award ()
Hong Kong
Asian Film Awards
Golden Bauhinia Awards
Hong Kong Film Awards
Ibero-America
Platino Awards
Fénix Awards
India
Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Awards South
IIFA Awards
IIFA Utsavam
Maharashtra State Film Awards
National Film Awards
Nandi Awards (Andhra Pradesh State Film, Music, Television and Arts Awards)
Star Screen Awards
South Indian International Movie Awards
Zee Cine Awards
Zee Cine Awards Telugu
Indonesia
Citra Awards
Indonesian Movie Actors Awards
Maya Awards
Ireland
IFTA Film & Drama Awards
Israel
Israeli Academy of Film and Television
Ophir Awards
Italy
David di Donatello Awards
Japan
Blue Ribbon Awards
Hochi Film Award
Japan Academy Prize
Mainichi Film Awards
Nikkan Sports Film Award
Latvia
Lielais Kristaps
Lithuania
Sidabrinė gervė
Mexico
Ariel Award
Malaysia
Screen Awards (Malay: Anugerah Skrin)
Nigeria
Africa Movie Academy Awards, popularly known as AMAA and the AMA Awards
Nollywood Movies Network
Nollywood Movies Awards (NMA)
Best of Nollywood Awards (BON)
Pakistan
Lux Style Awards
Hum Awards
ARY Film Awards
Philippines
FAMAS Awards
Film Academy of the Philippines
Luna Awards
Star Awards for Movies
Poland
Polish Film Awards
Portugal
Sophia Awards
Romania
Gopo Awards
Russia
Nika Award
Golden Eagle Award
Russian National Movie Awards
South Africa
South African Film and Television Awards
South Korea
Blue Dragon Film Awards
Buil Film Awards
Chunsa Film Art Awards
Director's Cut Awards
Grand Bell Awards
Baeksang Arts Awards
Wildflower Film Awards
Spain
Actors and Actresses Union Awards
Berlanga Awards
Forqué Awards
Gaudí Awards
Goya Awards
Mestre Mateo Awards
Sweden
Guldbagge Awards
Taiwan
Golden Horse Awards
Taipei Film Awards
Thailand
Suphannahong National Film Awards
Turkey
Yeşilçam Award
United Kingdom
British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA)
British Academy Film Awards
British Independent Film Awards
United States
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars
Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films
Saturn Awards
American Choreography Awards
American Cinema Editors Golden Reels
American Society of Cinematographers
Art Directors Guild
ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers) Film and Television Awards
AVN (Adult Video News) Awards
GayVN Awards
BMI Film Music Awards
Cinema Audio Society
Costume Designers Guild
Directors Guild of America Awards
Film Your Issue College Film Awards
Golden Globe Awards
Golden Reel Award for excellence in sound editing in film and television
Gotham Awards – Independent Feature Project
Hollywood Film Awards
Hollywood Makeup and Hairstylist Guild
The Hollywood Reporter Key Art Awards
Independent Spirit Awards
International Animated Film Society / ASIFA-Hollywood
Annie Awards
International Online Cinema Awards
International Press Academy
Satellite Awards
JEIFA Awards
NAACP
Image Awards
Producers Guild of America Awards
Screen Actors Guild Awards
ShoWest/National Association of Theatre Owners Convention
Taurus World Stunt Awards
Visual Effects Society Awards
Writers Guild of America, East & Writers Guild of America, West
Writers Guild of America Award - Link
Young Artist Awards
Vietnam
Kite Awards
Audience awards
International
Webby People's Voice Awards
Austria
Romy Awards
Bangladesh
Meril Prothom Alo Awards
Canada
Constellation Awards
Germany
Jupiter Award
India
Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Awards South
Vijay Awards
South Indian International Movie Awards
Santosham Film Awards
Indonesia
MTV Indonesia Movie Awards
Indonesian Box Office Movie Awards
Indonesian Choice Awards
Indonesian Movie Actors Awards
Malaysia
Popular Star Awards (Malay: Anugerah Bintang Popular)
MeleTOP Era Awards
Blockbuster Awards
Shout! Awards
Nigeria
Africa Magic Viewers' Choice Awards
Pakistan
Lux Style Awards
Poland
Polish Academy Audience Award
Spain
GoldSpirit Awards - Soundtracks and film music
United Kingdom
Empire Awards
ITV
National Film Awards UK
Audience Award for Most Popular Show (now retired)
Public Health Film Festival Audience Award
SHAFTA Awards
United States
E!
Fox
MTV Movie & TV Awards
Independent Lens Audience Award
Nickelodeon
Kids' Choice Awards Includes both film and other media awards.
Teen Choice Awards Includes both film and other media awards.
People's Choice Awards Includes both film and other media awards.
Sources and references
IMDB search page for data on hundreds of awards and festivals
See also
List of television awards
List of film festivals
Lists of films
List of film acting awards
List of film awards for lead actress
List of film awards for lead actor
List of awards for supporting actor
List of pornographic film awards
List of screenwriting awards for film
References
Film awards
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405039
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20754
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IEEE 754
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The IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754) is a technical standard for floating-point arithmetic established in 1985 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The standard addressed many problems found in the diverse floating-point implementations that made them difficult to use reliably and portably. Many hardware floating-point units use the IEEE 754 standard.
The standard defines:
arithmetic formats: sets of binary and decimal floating-point data, which consist of finite numbers (including signed zeros and subnormal numbers), infinities, and special "not a number" values (NaNs)
interchange formats: encodings (bit strings) that may be used to exchange floating-point data in an efficient and compact form
rounding rules: properties to be satisfied when rounding numbers during arithmetic and conversions
operations: arithmetic and other operations (such as trigonometric functions) on arithmetic formats
exception handling: indications of exceptional conditions (such as division by zero, overflow, etc.)
IEEE 754-2008, published in August 2008, includes nearly all of the original IEEE 754-1985 standard, plus the IEEE 854-1987 Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic. The current version, IEEE 754-2019, was published in July 2019. It is a minor revision of the previous version, incorporating mainly clarifications, defect fixes and new recommended operations.
History
The first standard for floating-point arithmetic, IEEE 754-1985, was published in 1985. It covered only binary floating-point arithmetic.
A new version, IEEE 754-2008, was published in August 2008, following a seven-year revision process, chaired by Dan Zuras and edited by Mike Cowlishaw. It replaced both IEEE 754-1985 (binary floating-point arithmetic) and IEEE 854-1987 Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic. The binary formats in the original standard are included in this new standard along with three new basic formats, one binary and two decimal. To conform to the current standard, an implementation must implement at least one of the basic formats as both an arithmetic format and an interchange format.
The international standard ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559:2011 (with content identical to IEEE 754-2008) has been approved for adoption through ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25 under the ISO/IEEE PSDO Agreement and published.
The current version, IEEE 754-2019 published in July 2019, is derived from and replaces IEEE 754-2008, following a revision process started in September 2015, chaired by David G. Hough and edited by Mike Cowlishaw. It incorporates mainly clarifications (e.g. totalOrder) and defect fixes (e.g. minNum), but also includes some new recommended operations (e.g. augmentedAddition).
The international standard ISO/IEC 60559:2020 (with content identical to IEEE 754-2019) has been approved for adoption through ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25 and published.
The next projected revision of the standard is in 2028.
Formats
An IEEE 754 format is a "set of representations of numerical values and symbols". A format may also include how the set is encoded.
A floating-point format is specified by
a base (also called radix) b, which is either 2 (binary) or 10 (decimal) in IEEE 754;
a precision p;
an exponent range from emin to emax, with emin = 1 − emax for all IEEE 754 formats.
A format comprises
Finite numbers, which can be described by three integers: s = a sign (zero or one), c = a significand (or coefficient) having no more than p digits when written in base b (i.e., an integer in the range through 0 to bp − 1), and q = an exponent such that emin ≤ q + p − 1 ≤ emax. The numerical value of such a finite number is . Moreover, there are two zero values, called signed zeros: the sign bit specifies whether a zero is +0 (positive zero) or −0 (negative zero).
Two infinities: +∞ and −∞.
Two kinds of NaN (not-a-number): a quiet NaN (qNaN) and a signaling NaN (sNaN).
For example, if b = 10, p = 7, and emax = 96, then emin = −95, the significand satisfies 0 ≤ c ≤ , and the exponent satisfies . Consequently, the smallest non-zero positive number that can be represented is 1×10−101, and the largest is 9999999×1090 (9.999999×1096), so the full range of numbers is −9.999999×1096 through 9.999999×1096. The numbers −b1−emax and b1−emax (here, −1×10−95 and 1×10−95) are the smallest (in magnitude) normal numbers; non-zero numbers between these smallest numbers are called subnormal numbers.
Representation and encoding in memory
Some numbers may have several possible exponential format representations. For instance, if b = 10, and p = 7, then −12.345 can be represented by −12345×10−3, −123450×10−4, and −1234500×10−5. However, for most operations, such as arithmetic operations, the result (value) does not depend on the representation of the inputs.
For the decimal formats, any representation is valid, and the set of these representations is called a cohort. When a result can have several representations, the standard specifies which member of the cohort is chosen.
For the binary formats, the representation is made unique by choosing the smallest representable exponent allowing the value to be represented exactly. Further, the exponent is not represented directly, but a bias is added so that the smallest representable exponent is represented as 1, with 0 used for subnormal numbers. For numbers with an exponent in the normal range (the exponent field being neither all ones nor all zeros), the leading bit of the significand will always be 1. Consequently, a leading 1 can be implied rather than explicitly present in the memory encoding, and under the standard the explicitly represented part of the significand will lie between 0 and 1. This rule is called leading bit convention, implicit bit convention, or hidden bit convention. This rule allows the binary format to have an extra bit of precision. The leading bit convention cannot be used for the subnormal numbers as they have an exponent outside the normal exponent range and scale by the smallest represented exponent as used for the smallest normal numbers.
Due to the possibility of multiple encodings (at least in formats called interchange formats), a NaN may carry other information: a sign bit (which has no meaning, but may be used by some operations) and a payload, which is intended for diagnostic information indicating the source of the NaN (but the payload may have other uses, such as NaN-boxing).
Basic and interchange formats
The standard defines five basic formats that are named for their numeric base and the number of bits used in their interchange encoding. There are three binary floating-point basic formats (encoded with 32, 64 or 128 bits) and two decimal floating-point basic formats (encoded with 64 or 128 bits). The binary32 and binary64 formats are the single and double formats of IEEE 754-1985 respectively. A conforming implementation must fully implement at least one of the basic formats.
The standard also defines interchange formats, which generalize these basic formats. For the binary formats, the leading bit convention is required. The following table summarizes some of the possible interchange formats (including the basic formats).
In the table above, integer values are exact where as values in decimal notation (e.g. 1.0) are rounded values. The minimum exponents listed are for normal numbers; the special subnormal number representation allows even smaller (in magnitude) numbers to be represented with some loss of precision. For example, the smallest positive number that can be represented in binary64 is 2−1074; contributions to the −1074 figure include the emin value −1022 and all but one of the 53 significand bits (2−1022 − (53 − 1) = 2−1074). The decimal representation does not define subnormal numbers as such, but numbers with a mantissa with leading zero(s) can be interpreted as subnormal as they offer fewer digits available to express precision.
Decimal digits is the precision of the format expressed in terms of an equivalent number of decimal digits. It is computed as digits × log10 base. E.g. binary128 has approximately the same precision as a 34 digit decimal number.
log10 MAXVAL is a measure of the range of the encoding. Its integer part is the largest exponent shown on the output of a value in scientific notation with one leading digit in the significand before the decimal point (e.g. 1.698·1038 is near the largest value in binary32, 9.999999·1096 is the largest value in decimal32).
The binary32 (single) and binary64 (double) formats are two of the most common formats used today. The figure below shows the absolute precision for both formats over a range of values. This figure can be used to select an appropriate format given the expected value of a number and the required precision.
An example of a layout for 32-bit floating point is
and the 64 bit layout is similar.
Extended and extendable precision formats
The standard specifies optional extended and extendable precision formats, which provide greater precision than the basic formats. An extended precision format extends a basic format by using more precision and more exponent range. An extendable precision format allows the user to specify the precision and exponent range. An implementation may use whatever internal representation it chooses for such formats; all that needs to be defined are its parameters (b, p, and emax). These parameters uniquely describe the set of finite numbers (combinations of sign, significand, and exponent for the given radix) that it can represent.
The standard recommends that language standards provide a method of specifying p and emax for each supported base b. The standard recommends that language standards and implementations support an extended format which has a greater precision than the largest basic format supported for each radix b. For an extended format with a precision between two basic formats the exponent range must be as great as that of the next wider basic format. So for instance a 64-bit extended precision binary number must have an 'emax' of at least 16383. The x87 80-bit extended format meets this requirement.
Interchange formats
Interchange formats are intended for the exchange of floating-point data using a bit string of fixed length for a given format.
Binary
For the exchange of binary floating-point numbers, interchange formats of length 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits, and any multiple of 32 bits ≥ 128 are defined. The 16-bit format is intended for the exchange or storage of small numbers (e.g., for graphics).
The encoding scheme for these binary interchange formats is the same as that of IEEE 754-1985: a sign bit, followed by w exponent bits that describe the exponent offset by a bias, and p − 1 bits that describe the significand. The width of the exponent field for a k-bit format is computed as w = round(4 log2(k)) − 13. The existing 64- and 128-bit formats follow this rule, but the 16- and 32-bit formats have more exponent bits (5 and 8 respectively) than this formula would provide (3 and 7 respectively).
As with IEEE 754-1985, the biased-exponent field is filled with all 1 bits to indicate either infinity (trailing significand field = 0) or a NaN (trailing significand field ≠ 0). For NaNs, quiet NaNs and signaling NaNs are distinguished by using the most significant bit of the trailing significand field exclusively, and the payload is carried in the remaining bits.
Decimal
For the exchange of decimal floating-point numbers, interchange formats of any multiple of 32 bits are defined. As with binary interchange, the encoding scheme for the decimal interchange formats encodes the sign, exponent, and significand. Two different bit-level encodings are defined, and interchange is complicated by the fact that some external indicator of the encoding in use may be required.
The two options allow the significand to be encoded as a compressed sequence of decimal digits using densely packed decimal or, alternatively, as a binary integer. The former is more convenient for direct hardware implementation of the standard, while the latter is more suited to software emulation on a binary computer. In either case, the set of numbers (combinations of sign, significand, and exponent) that may be encoded is identical, and special values (±zero with the minimum exponent, ±infinity, quiet NaNs, and signaling NaNs) have identical encodings.
Rounding rules
The standard defines five rounding rules. The first two rules round to a nearest value; the others are called directed roundings:
Roundings to nearest
Round to nearest, ties to even – rounds to the nearest value; if the number falls midway, it is rounded to the nearest value with an even least significant digit.
Round to nearest, ties away from zero (or ties to away) – rounds to the nearest value; if the number falls midway, it is rounded to the nearest value above (for positive numbers) or below (for negative numbers).
At the extremes, a value with a magnitude strictly less than will be rounded to the minimum or maximum finite number (depending on the value's sign). Any numbers with exactly this magnitude are considered ties; this choice of tie may be conceptualized as the midpoint between and , which, were the exponent not limited, would be the next representable floating-point numbers larger in magnitude. Numbers with a magnitude strictly larger than are rounded to the corresponding infinity.
"Round to nearest, ties to even" is the default for binary floating point and the recommended default for decimal. "Round to nearest, ties to away" is only required for decimal implementations.
Directed roundings
Round toward 0 – directed rounding towards zero (also known as truncation).
Round toward +∞ – directed rounding towards positive infinity (also known as rounding up or ceiling).
Round toward −∞ – directed rounding towards negative infinity (also known as rounding down or floor).
Unless specified otherwise, the floating-point result of an operation is determined by applying the rounding function on the infinitely precise (mathematical) result. Such an operation is said to be correctly rounded. This requirement is called correct rounding.
Required operations
Required operations for a supported arithmetic format (including the basic formats) include:
Conversions to and from integer
Previous and next consecutive values
Arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, square root, fused multiply–add, remainder, minimum, maximum)
Conversions (between formats, to and from strings, etc.)
Scaling and (for decimal) quantizing
Copying and manipulating the sign (abs, negate, etc.)
Comparisons and total ordering
Classification of numbers (subnormal, finite, etc.) and testing for NaNs
Testing and setting status flags
Comparison predicates
The standard provides comparison predicates to compare one floating-point datum to another in the supported arithmetic format. Any comparison with a NaN is treated as unordered. −0 and +0 compare as equal.
Total-ordering predicate
The standard provides a predicate totalOrder, which defines a total ordering on canonical members of the supported arithmetic format. The predicate agrees with the comparison predicates when one floating-point number is less than the other. The totalOrder predicate does not impose a total ordering on all encodings in a format. In particular, it does not distinguish among different encodings of the same floating-point representation, as when one or both encodings are non-canonical. IEEE 754-2019 incorporates clarifications of totalOrder.
For the binary interchange formats whose encoding follows the IEEE 754-2008 recommendation on placement of the NaN signaling bit, the comparison is identical to one that type puns the floating-point numbers to a sign–magnitude integer (assuming a payload ordering consistent with this comparison), an old trick for FP comparison without an FPU.
Exception handling
The standard defines five exceptions, each of which returns a default value and has a corresponding status flag that is raised when the exception occurs. No other exception handling is required, but additional non-default alternatives are recommended (see ).
The five possible exceptions are
Invalid operation: mathematically undefined, e.g., the square root of a negative number. By default, returns qNaN.
Division by zero: an operation on finite operands gives an exact infinite result, e.g., 1/0 or log(0). By default, returns ±infinity.
Overflow: a finite result is too large to be represented accurately (i.e., its exponent with an unbounded exponent range would be larger than emax). By default, returns ±infinity for the round-to-nearest modes (and follows the rounding rules for the directed rounding modes).
Underflow: a result is very small (outside the normal range). By default, returns a number less than or equal to the minimum positive normal number in magnitude (following the rounding rules); a subnormal number always implies an underflow exception, but by default, if it is exact, no flag is raised.
Inexact: the exact (i.e., unrounded) result is not representable exactly. By default, returns the correctly rounded result.
These are the same five exceptions as were defined in IEEE 754-1985, but the division by zero exception has been extended to operations other than the division.
Some decimal floating-point implementations define additional exceptions, which are not part of IEEE 754:
Clamped: a result's exponent is too large for the destination format. By default, trailing zeros will be added to the coefficient to reduce the exponent to the largest usable value. If this is not possible (because this would cause the number of digits needed to be more than the destination format) then an overflow exception occurs.
Rounded: a result's coefficient requires more digits than the destination format provides. An inexact exception is signaled if any non-zero digits are discarded.
Additionally, operations like quantize when either operand is infinite, or when the result does not fit the destination format, will also signal invalid operation exception.
Special values
Signed zero
In the IEEE 754 standard, zero is signed, meaning that there exist both a "positive zero" (+0) and a "negative zero" (−0). In most run-time environments, positive zero is usually printed as "0" and the negative zero as "-0". The two values behave as equal in numerical comparisons, but some operations return different results for +0 and −0. For instance, 1/(−0) returns negative infinity, while 1/(+0) returns positive infinity (so that the identity is maintained). Other common functions with a discontinuity at x=0 which might treat +0 and −0 differently include log(x), signum(x), and the principal square root of for any negative number y. As with any approximation scheme, operations involving "negative zero" can occasionally cause confusion. For example, in IEEE 754, does not always imply , as 0 = −0 but 1/0 ≠ 1/(−0).
Subnormal numbers
Subnormal values fill the underflow gap with values where the absolute distance between them is the same as for adjacent values just outside the underflow gap. This is an improvement over the older practice to just have zero in the underflow gap, and where underflowing results were replaced by zero (flush to zero).
Modern floating-point hardware usually handles subnormal values (as well as normal values), and does not require software emulation for subnormals.
Infinities
The infinities of the extended real number line can be represented in IEEE floating-point datatypes, just like ordinary floating-point values like 1, 1.5, etc. They are not error values in any way, though they are often (depends on the rounding) used as replacement values when there is an overflow. Upon a divide-by-zero exception, a positive or negative infinity is returned as an exact result. An infinity can also be introduced as a numeral (like C's "INFINITY" macro, or "" if the programming language allows that syntax).
IEEE 754 requires infinities to be handled in a reasonable way, such as
NaN – there is no meaningful thing to do
NaNs
IEEE 754 specifies a special value called "Not a Number" (NaN) to be returned as the result of certain "invalid" operations, such as 0/0, , or sqrt(−1). In general, NaNs will be propagated, i.e. most operations involving a NaN will result in a NaN, although functions that would give some defined result for any given floating-point value will do so for NaNs as well, e.g. NaN ^ 0 = 1. There are two kinds of NaNs: the default quiet NaNs and, optionally, signaling NaNs. A signaling NaN in any arithmetic operation (including numerical comparisons) will cause an "invalid operation" exception to be signaled.
The representation of NaNs specified by the standard has some unspecified bits that could be used to encode the type or source of error; but there is no standard for that encoding. In theory, signaling NaNs could be used by a runtime system to flag uninitialized variables, or extend the floating-point numbers with other special values without slowing down the computations with ordinary values, although such extensions are not common.
Design rationale
It is a common misconception that the more esoteric features of the IEEE 754 standard discussed here, such as extended formats, NaN, infinities, subnormals etc., are only of interest to numerical analysts, or for advanced numerical applications. In fact the opposite is true: these features are designed to give safe robust defaults for numerically unsophisticated programmers, in addition to supporting sophisticated numerical libraries by experts. The key designer of IEEE 754, William Kahan notes that it is incorrect to "... [deem] features of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic that ...[are] not appreciated to be features usable by none but numerical experts. The facts are quite the opposite. In 1977 those features were designed into the Intel 8087 to serve the widest possible market... Error-analysis tells us how to design floating-point arithmetic, like IEEE Standard 754, moderately tolerant of well-meaning ignorance among programmers".
The special values such as infinity and NaN ensure that the floating-point arithmetic is algebraically complete: every floating-point operation produces a well-defined result and will not—by default—throw a machine interrupt or trap. Moreover, the choices of special values returned in exceptional cases were designed to give the correct answer in many cases. For instance, under IEEE 754 arithmetic, continued fractions such as R(z) := 7 − 3/[z − 2 − 1/(z − 7 + 10/[z − 2 − 2/(z − 3)])] will give the correct answer on all inputs, as the potential divide by zero, e.g. for , is correctly handled by giving +infinity, and so such exceptions can be safely ignored. As noted by Kahan, the unhandled trap consecutive to a floating-point to 16-bit integer conversion overflow that caused the loss of an Ariane 5 rocket would not have happened under the default IEEE 754 floating-point policy.
Subnormal numbers ensure that for finite floating-point numbers x and y, x − y = 0 if and only if x = y, as expected, but which did not hold under earlier floating-point representations.
On the design rationale of the x87 80-bit format, Kahan notes: "This Extended format is designed to be used, with negligible loss of speed, for all but the simplest arithmetic with float and double operands. For example, it should be used for scratch variables in loops that implement recurrences like polynomial evaluation, scalar products, partial and continued fractions. It often averts premature Over/Underflow or severe local cancellation that can spoil simple algorithms". Computing intermediate results in an extended format with high precision and extended exponent has precedents in the historical practice of scientific calculation and in the design of scientific calculators e.g. Hewlett-Packard's financial calculators performed arithmetic and financial functions to three more significant decimals than they stored or displayed. The implementation of extended precision enabled standard elementary function libraries to be readily developed that normally gave double precision results within one unit in the last place (ULP) at high speed.
Correct rounding of values to the nearest representable value avoids systematic biases in calculations and slows the growth of errors. Rounding ties to even removes the statistical bias that can occur in adding similar figures.
Directed rounding was intended as an aid with checking error bounds, for instance in interval arithmetic. It is also used in the implementation of some functions.
The mathematical basis of the operations, in particular correct rounding, allows one to prove mathematical properties and design floating-point algorithms such as 2Sum, Fast2Sum and Kahan summation algorithm, e.g. to improve accuracy or implement multiple-precision arithmetic subroutines relatively easily.
A property of the single- and double-precision formats is that their encoding allows one to easily sort them without using floating-point hardware. Their bits interpreted as a two's-complement integer already sort the positives correctly, with the negatives reversed. With an xor to flip the sign bit for positive values and all bits for negative values, all the values become sortable as unsigned integers (with ). It is unclear whether this property is intended.
Recommendations
Alternate exception handling
The standard recommends optional exception handling in various forms, including presubstitution of user-defined default values, and traps (exceptions that change the flow of control in some way) and other exception handling models that interrupt the flow, such as try/catch. The traps and other exception mechanisms remain optional, as they were in IEEE 754-1985.
Recommended operations
Clause 9 in the standard recommends additional mathematical operations that language standards should define. None are required in order to conform to the standard.
The following are recommended arithmetic operations, which must round correctly:
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, , ,
, , (see also: Multiples of π)
, , , (see also: Multiples of π)
, ,
, ,
The , and functions were not part of the IEEE 754-2008 standard because they were deemed less necessary. , were mentioned, but this was regarded as an error. All three were added in the 2019 revision.
The recommended operations also include setting and accessing dynamic mode rounding direction, and implementation-defined vector reduction operations such as sum, scaled product, and dot product, whose accuracy is unspecified by the standard.
, augmented arithmetic operations for the binary formats are also recommended. These operations, specified for addition, subtraction and multiplication, produce a pair of values consisting of a result correctly rounded to nearest in the format and the error term, which is representable exactly in the format. At the time of publication of the standard, no hardware implementations are known, but very similar operations were already implemented in software using well-known algorithms. The history and motivation for their standardization are explained in a background document.
As of 2019, the formerly required minNum, maxNum, minNumMag, and maxNumMag in IEEE 754-2008 are now deprecated due to their non-associativity. Instead, two sets of new minimum and maximum operations are recommended. The first set contains minimum, minimumNumber, maximum and maximumNumber. The second set contains minimumMagnitude, minimumMagnitudeNumber, maximumMagnitude and maximumMagnitudeNumber. The history and motivation for this change are explained in a background document.
Expression evaluation
The standard recommends how language standards should specify the semantics of sequences of operations, and points out the subtleties of literal meanings and optimizations that change the value of a result. By contrast, the previous 1985 version of the standard left aspects of the language interface unspecified, which led to inconsistent behavior between compilers, or different optimization levels in an optimizing compiler.
Programming languages should allow a user to specify a minimum precision for intermediate calculations of expressions for each radix. This is referred to as preferredWidth in the standard, and it should be possible to set this on a per-block basis. Intermediate calculations within expressions should be calculated, and any temporaries saved, using the maximum of the width of the operands and the preferred width if set. Thus, for instance, a compiler targeting x87 floating-point hardware should have a means of specifying that intermediate calculations must use the double-extended format. The stored value of a variable must always be used when evaluating subsequent expressions, rather than any precursor from before rounding and assigning to the variable.
Reproducibility
The IEEE 754-1985 version of the standard allowed many variations in implementations (such as the encoding of some values and the detection of certain exceptions). IEEE 754-2008 has reduced these allowances, but a few variations still remain (especially for binary formats). The reproducibility clause recommends that language standards should provide a means to write reproducible programs (i.e., programs that will produce the same result in all implementations of a language) and describes what needs to be done to achieve reproducible results.
Character representation
The standard requires operations to convert between basic formats and external character sequence formats. Conversions to and from a decimal character format are required for all formats. Conversion to an external character sequence must be such that conversion back using round to nearest, ties to even will recover the original number. There is no requirement to preserve the payload of a quiet NaN or signaling NaN, and conversion from the external character sequence may turn a signaling NaN into a quiet NaN.
The original binary value will be preserved by converting to decimal and back again using:
5 decimal digits for binary16,
9 decimal digits for binary32,
17 decimal digits for binary64,
36 decimal digits for binary128.
For other binary formats, the required number of decimal digits is
where p is the number of significant bits in the binary format, e.g. 237 bits for binary256.
When using a decimal floating-point format, the decimal representation will be preserved using:
7 decimal digits for decimal32,
16 decimal digits for decimal64,
34 decimal digits for decimal128.
Algorithms, with code, for correctly rounded conversion from binary to decimal and decimal to binary are discussed by Gay, and for testing by Paxson and Kahan.
Hexadecimal literals
The standard recommends providing conversions to and from external hexadecimal-significand character sequences, based on C99's hexadecimal floating point literals. Such a literal consists of an optional sign (+ or -), the indicator "0x", a hexadecimal number with or without a period, an exponent indicator "p", and a decimal exponent with optional sign. The syntax is not case-sensitive. The decimal exponent scales by powers of 2, so for example 0x0.1p-4 is 1/256.
See also
bfloat16 floating-point format
Coprocessor
C99 for code examples demonstrating access and use of IEEE 754 features.
Floating-point arithmetic, for history, design rationale and example usage of IEEE 754 features.
Fixed-point arithmetic, for an alternative approach at computation with rational numbers (especially beneficial when the exponent range is known, fixed, or bound at compile time).
IBM System z9, the first CPU to implement IEEE 754-2008 decimal arithmetic (using hardware microcode).
IBM z10, IBM z196, IBM zEC12, and IBM z13, CPUs that implement IEEE 754-2008 decimal arithmetic fully in hardware.
ISO/IEC 10967, language-independent arithmetic (LIA).
Minifloat, low-precision binary floating-point formats following IEEE 754 principles.
POWER6, POWER7, and POWER8 CPUs that implement IEEE 754-2008 decimal arithmetic fully in hardware.
strictfp, an obsolete keyword in the Java programming language that previously restricted arithmetic to IEEE 754 single and double precision to ensure reproducibility across common hardware platforms (as of Java 17, this behavior is required)
Table-maker's dilemma for more about the correct rounding of functions.
Standard Apple Numerics Environment
Tapered floating point
Posit, an alternative number format
Notes
References
Standards
Secondary references
Decimal floating-point arithmetic, FAQs, bibliography, and links
Comparing binary floats
IEEE 754 Reference Material
IEEE 854-1987 – History and minutes
Supplementary readings for IEEE 754. Includes historical perspectives.
Further reading
(, , )
. (Note: Algorism is not a misspelling of the title; see also algorism.)
: A compendium of non-intuitive behaviours of floating-point on popular architectures, with implications for program verification and testing.
Cleve Moler on Floating Point numbers
External links
Online IEEE 754 binary calculators
Computer arithmetic
IEEE standards
Floating point types
Binary arithmetic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril%20Smith
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Cyril Smith
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Sir Cyril Richard Smith (28 June 1928 – 3 September 2010) was a British Liberal Party politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Rochdale from 1972 to 1992. After his death, allegations of child sexual abuse were made against him, leading authorities to conclude that he was a prolific sex offender.
Smith was first active in local politics as a Liberal in 1945 before switching to Labour in 1950; he served as a Labour councillor in Rochdale, Lancashire, from 1950 and became mayor in 1966. He subsequently switched parties again and entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1972, winning his Rochdale seat on five further occasions. Smith was appointed the Liberal Chief Whip in June 1975 but later resigned on health grounds. In his later years as an MP, Smith opposed an alliance with the Social Democratic Party and did not stand for re-election in 1992; however, he remained loyal to the Liberal Democrats upon the parties' merger. Throughout much of his career, he maintained a high profile in the media and became a well-known public figure.
In later years, Smith's public esteem was considerably marred by the allegation that he had been involved in a cover-up of a health risk at a local asbestos factory. In 2008, there were calls for Smith to be stripped of his knighthood after it was revealed that he had asked the asbestos company Turner & Newall to prepare a speech for him in 1981 in which he declared that "the public at large are not at risk from asbestos". It was later revealed that Smith owned 1,300 shares in the company. In 2008, Smith said that 4,000 asbestos-related deaths a year in the UK was "relatively low".
In 2012, after his death and following allegations of child sexual abuse, the Crown Prosecution Service formally admitted that Smith should have been charged with such abuse during his lifetime. In November 2012, Greater Manchester Police (GMP) Assistant Chief Constable Steve Heywood said there was "overwhelming evidence" that young boys were sexually and physically abused by Smith.
In April 2014, it was reported that there had been 144 complaints against Smith from victims as young as eight years of age. Attempts to prosecute Smith had been blocked. Public authorities—including Rochdale Borough Council, the police, and intelligence services–have been implicated in covering up Smith's alleged crimes. In 2015, it emerged that Smith had been arrested in the early 1980s in relation to some of these offences; however, a high-level cover-up reportedly led to destruction of evidence, Smith's rapid release within hours, and the invocation of the Official Secrets Act to prevent the investigating officers from discussing the matter.
Early years
Cyril Smith was born in Rochdale, Lancashire, a mill town near Manchester that is known as the birthplace of the co-operative movement. Smith described himself as "illegitimate, deprived and poor". Though he never knew the name of his father, he commented, "I suspect I know who he was." Smith lived with his mother Eva, grandmother and two half-siblings, Eunice and Norman, in a one-up one-down cottage (demolished in 1945) on Falinge Road. Eva Smith, was a domestic worker for a local cotton mill–owning family.
Smith was educated at Rochdale Grammar School for Boys. After leaving school, he began work at the Rochdale Inland Revenue Tax Office. In the 1945 general election, aged 16, he gave a public speech in support of Liberal candidate Charles Harvey. Smith said he was given an ultimatum by his manager in the tax office to either choose the civil service or politics. He left his job at the tax office and then worked as an office boy at Fothergill & Harvey's mill in Littleborough. The mill was owned by the Harveys, a notable Liberal family, but Smith claimed the director Charles Harvey knew nothing of his job application.
Smith was a lifelong member of the Rochdale Unitarian Church. Contemporaries remembered him expressing, as a teenager, the desire to be both mayor and Member of Parliament (MP). Smith served in many roles, including as Sunday School superintendent, trustee, and chair of the trustees. His Unitarian faith intersected with his Liberal politics. Smith credited the church with "helping develop his fiercely independent and anti-establishment streak".
Political career
Early career
Smith joined the Liberal Party in 1945 and was a member of the National Executive Committee of the Young Liberals in 1948 and 1949. From 1948 to 1950, he was Liberal agent in Stockport, but after the party suffered poor election results in 1950 and 1951, he was advised by the losing Liberal candidate for Stockport, Reg Hewitt, to join the Labour Party.
In 1952, Smith was elected a Labour councillor for the Falinge ward of Rochdale. By 1954, he was chairman of Rochdale Council's Establishment Committee. In 1963 Smith switched committee roles to be responsible for Estates which included overseeing residential and town centre development. He was appointed the Labour Mayor of Rochdale in 1966, with his mother, Eva, acting as mayoress (she retained her job as a cleaner in Rochdale Town Hall whilst in the post). In her work as a cleaner at the town hall, Smith's mother was banned from entering the police station – likewise based in the building – because she would search through its bins for information to help her son.
Smith's mayoral duties were filmed for the BBC's Man Alive documentary series, in an episode titled "Santa Claus for a Year". In 1966 he was appointed chairman of the Education Committee overseeing the introduction of comprehensive education in the district. In the same year he was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours. According to his autobiography, Smith was found guilty of an offence relating to public lotteries and bound over to keep the peace for twelve months.
In 1966, Smith resigned the Labour whip when the party refused to vote for an increase in council house rents and sat with four other councillors as independents until 1970. His subsequent return to the Liberal Party, and his election as a Liberal MP, caused surprise after his role in opposing Ludovic Kennedy, the Liberal candidate in the 1958 Rochdale by-election. Controversy was sparked by Rochdale Liberals when the parliamentary candidate, Garth Pratt, was deselected to make way for Smith's return to the party.
During the 1960s Smith was active on many Rochdale Council committees regarding youth activities. These included: Rochdale Youth Orchestra, Rochdale Youth Theatre Workshop, governorship of 29 Rochdale schools and chairmanship of the Youth Committee, Youth Employment Committee and the Education Committee.
Member of Parliament
Having been Liberal candidate in Rochdale at the 1970 general election when he took the party to second place, Smith won the seat at the 1972 by-election with a large swing from Labour to the Liberals, and a majority of 5,171.
Smith was appointed as the party Chief Whip in June 1975, and faced pressure from the press in the wake of a scandal involving party leader Jeremy Thorpe. Smith was in hospital when Thorpe sacked him, just before he himself was forced to resign. Speaking to Granada Television in 2003, David Steel reflected on events in the 1970s with the conclusion: "Cyril was not an ideal Chief Whip because he did not handle a crisis well and had a tendency to say anything to a news camera." Smith was the only Liberal MP during his parliamentary career to advocate the return of the death penalty. One of his constituents was jailed for sixteen years for the sexual murder of a child, in what turned out to be a miscarriage of justice. The man's mother repeatedly approached Smith for help, but he declined to take the case on.
In 1978, Smith approached former Conservative Prime Minister Ted Heath to discuss forming a new centrist party. In 1980, Smith described UK unemployment figures of two million jobless people as "a disgrace", stating: "They represent a sick society, and are not acceptable to live with." In 1981, he was involved in moves to create "a party with a new image" but, according to the Rochdale Observer, at the foundation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981 he warned Liberal colleagues to move with caution. Smith was quoted as being "opposed to an alliance at any price". He would later express the view that the Liberal Party would have been "better off" without being "shackled to the SDP". After David Alton's 1988 bill to reduce the time limit for abortions was talked out by MPs, he referred to other members as "murderers in the womb". The speaker of the House of Commons forced Smith to apologise for the comment.
Asbestos
In 2008 the New Statesman accused Smith of improper conduct in his connection with the company Turner & Newall (T&N), which was based in his constituency, and was once the world's largest manufacturer of materials using asbestos. In the summer recess of 1981, Smith wrote to Sydney Marks, head of personnel at T&N, informing him that EEC regulations were coming up for debate in the next parliamentary session. A House of Commons speech Smith delivered was almost identical to one prepared for him by the company. He said "the public at large are not at risk from asbestos" in his speech of a substance then long known as lethal if inhaled. A year later he revealed he owned 1,300 shares in T&N. Interviewed in September 2008 by a local BBC news programme, Smith responded to the claims he had helped cover up the dangers of asbestos as "absolute rubbish". After his death, he was described by journalist Oliver Kamm in his blog in The Times as "a corrupt, mendacious mountain of flesh".
The controversy led in November 2008 to a parliamentary early day motion calling for Smith to be stripped of the knighthood he had been granted in 1988. Kevin Maguire of the Daily Mirror supported the motion.
Later years
After leaving Westminster and the death of his mother Eva in 1994, Smith was invited by a lifelong friend, a public relations manager at the Cunard Line, to become a guest lecturer on the cruise liner Queen Elizabeth 2. Smith liked to spend his holidays at Lytham St Annes, a seaside resort near Blackpool.
In February 2006, Smith was taken to hospital after collapsing at his Rochdale home. He had been weakened by dehydration and low potassium levels.
Smith died of cancer in a Rochdale nursing home on 3 September 2010. He had made detailed plans for his own funeral, which was held in the Great Hall of Rochdale Town Hall and included David Alton, the MEP Chris Davies, and former MP Paul Rowen as speakers. Of all the many tributes, the then-current leader of Rochdale Council summed him up: "He simply was politics for Rochdale." The service was led by the minister of his local Unitarian church, of which he had been a lifelong member.
Smith's younger brother Norman followed him into local politics, as councillor, mayor, and president of the local Liberal Democrat chapter.
Popular image
Smith's large size and capacity for blunt speaking and popular touch made him one of the most recognisable British politicians of the 1970s and 1980s. His nickname, "Big Cyril", was the title of his autobiography. Smith made many popular television appearances: he sang "She's a Lassie from Lancashire" on his friend Jimmy Savile's early-1970s TV show Clunk Click, appeared in an advert for a "greatest hits" album by 1980s pop group Bananarama, and sang a duet with Don Estelle in a 1999 recording of the Laurel and Hardy song "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine". Like several other prominent British MPs in the 1980s, he was regularly parodied in the satirical television show Spitting Image.
Smith is believed to have been the heaviest British MP ever: at 6' 2" (188 cm), he was reported to weigh 29 stone 12 pounds (about 190 kilogrammes or 418 pounds). A common joke on the size of the Parliamentary Liberal Party in the early 1970s was that only one taxi would be needed to transport the entire party; after Smith's election, the party could fill two taxis.
A lifelong bachelor, Smith told You magazine: "I haven't had a lot of time for courting women ... I've tended to be married to politics". Smith was a friend of the mother of broadcasters Andy and Liz Kershaw; she described him as dependent on Valium, but he denied these allegations.
Allegations of child sexual abuse
Early allegations
In May 1979, a local underground magazine, the Rochdale Alternative Press, alleged that in the 1960s Smith had spanked and sexually abused teenage boys in a hostel he co-founded. The matter was investigated by the police, but Smith was not prosecuted. The story was repeated in the same month by the magazine Private Eye. Smith never publicly denied the accusations of abuse or took legal action in response to those accusations. After his death, the allegations were denied by his family. The Press Office of the leader of the Liberal Party, David Steel, commented, "All he seems to have done is spanked a few bare bottoms".
2012
In November 2012, speaking in the House of Commons, Simon Danczuk, the Labour MP for Rochdale, Smith's former seat, called for an inquiry into alleged acts of abuse by Sir Cyril Smith.
Rossendale councillor Alan Neal alleged that at the age of eleven in 1964, during Smith's membership of the Labour Party, he was beaten by Smith at a hostel for boys. Neal said: "I'm speaking now because someone has taken a right decision to raise this issue with the authorities". He added that he told police about the incident in 1968 when he left the school, but that when he did so, "everyone made the same comment that the person in question was a very important, powerful man". Neal said that he lost two front teeth and needed stitches to a head wound after Smith assaulted him for refusing to eat a potted meat sandwich.
Another alleged victim of abuse by Smith waived his right to anonymity in November 2012 to claim that Smith smacked him and stroked his buttocks when he was a teenager at a Rochdale care home in the 1960s. Barry Fitton said he was spanked "very, very hard" by Smith and that he was left in tears by the alleged incident.
On 21 November 2012, Greater Manchester Police (GMP) announced it would investigate allegations that Smith had sexually abused boys at a hostel in Rochdale after 1974, and Lancashire Police would investigate claims dating from before 1974. The police said it would look at whether investigations had taken place into Smith during the 1980s and 1990s.
On 27 November 2012, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) said that Smith should have been charged with crimes of abuse more than 40 years earlier. In a statement, the GMP said Smith had committed "physical and sexual abuse". Smith was never charged, although investigations were undertaken in 1970, 1998, and 1999. The method of assessing the probability of a conviction has changed since 1970, and the decision not to charge Smith then necessitated the outcome of the 1998 investigation. Following the sexual abuse allegations, Rochdale Council removed a blue plaque to Smith from the town hall. GMP Assistant Chief Constable Steve Heywood said: "Although Smith cannot be charged or convicted posthumously, from the overwhelming evidence we have it is right and proper we should publicly recognise that young boys were sexually and physically abused".
On 28 November 2012, an alleged victim waived his right to anonymity in a television interview with Sky News to say that he was sexually abused by Smith at a council-run residential special school. Chris Marshall broke down in tears during his interview when describing the sexual abuse he said took place at Knowl View school in Rochdale in the early 1980s. He said that as a nine-year-old boy he was taken to a room and made to perform oral sex on Smith and one other man. Smith was a governor at the school and allegedly had his own set of keys. Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg said: "I am deeply shocked and horrified by these terrible allegations and my thoughts are with the victims who had the courage to speak out".
In November 2012, Tony Robinson, a former Special Branch officer with Lancashire Police in the 1970s, said that a dossier of sexual abuse allegations against Smith which police claimed was "lost" was actually seized by MI5. Robinson said that he was asked by MI5 to send to London a police dossier that had been kept in a safe in his office which he said was "thick" with allegations from boys claiming they had been abused by Smith.
In December 2012, Rochdale MP Simon Danczuk alleged that Smith raped some of his victims. Danczuk said: "There is no doubt that Cyril Smith seriously sexually abused young boys: why the CPS didn't prosecute more recently is puzzling".
Following claims by MP Tom Watson of "a powerful paedophile network linked to Parliament and No 10", it was reported that Scotland Yard detectives investigating allegations of child abuse at the Elm Guest House were looking into allegations that senior politicians abused children in the 1980s and escaped justice.
2013
In January 2013, The Independent on Sunday reported that police were investigating claims that Smith sexually abused boys at the London guest house. A spokesman for the Metropolitan Police later said: "We can confirm Cyril Smith visited the premises." A 16-year-old boy was allegedly sexually abused by Smith at Elm Guest House. MP Simon Danczuk said he was convinced that there was a "network of paedophiles" operating in the House of Commons who helped to protect Smith.
In September 2013, a Channel 4 Dispatches programme "The Paedophile MP: How Cyril Smith Got Away With It" quoted the Crown Prosecution Service as claiming that they had not prosecuted Smith for crimes of abuse because he had been given an assurance in 1970 that he would not be prosecuted, and that prevented them from subsequently reopening the investigation under the law at the time. Political journalist Francis Wheen said that he found this explanation incomprehensible.
2014
Danczuk, with researcher and campaigner Matthew Baker, published Smile for the Camera: The Double Life of Cyril Smith, an exposé of the child abuse committed by Smith. Danczuk alleged that Smith was part of a high-level paedophile ring and that Smith had used his influence to escape prosecution. Danczuk said: "Once you looked beyond the jolly clown playing for the camera, there was a sickening, dark heart. This wasn't just about abuse, it was about power – and a cover-up that reached from Rochdale all the way to the very top of the Establishment." Danczuk said that in the 1980s police discovered child pornography belonging to Smith, but he escaped justice. Danczuk described Smith as "a predatory paedophile and a prolific offender who would target the most vulnerable boys." He said: "A lot of manpower went into investigating Smith over the years, but the only thing he was ever convicted for was mis-selling a lottery ticket."
In 2014, The Baron Steel of Aikwood, the former Liberal leader, said he had confronted Smith about his "unusual" behaviour with boys at a hostel in Rochdale. Following allegations published in 1979, Lord Steel of Aikwood said that Smith confessed to spanking boys and conducting intimate "medical examinations" on them but was allowed to remain as a Liberal MP. Steel said: "I asked Cyril Smith about it. I was half expecting him to say it was all wrong, and I would have been urging him to sue to save his reputation. To my surprise he said the report was correct." Steel said that Smith had a supervisory role in institutions in Rochdale where he was involved in corporal punishment. Steel said of the abuse allegations: "They had been investigated by the police, as Private Eye stated, and no action had been taken on them. So there was nothing more I could do."
In April 2014, following reports that there had been 144 complaints against Smith and that attempts to prosecute him had always been blocked, the President of the Liberal Democrats, Tim Farron, said that his party needed to answer "serious questions" about who knew that Smith had faced allegations of sexual assault. However, Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg refused to hold an inquiry into what he called the "repugnant" actions of Smith. Clegg said: "My party, the Liberal Democrats, did not know about these actions." Clegg stated that the child abuse allegations were a matter for the police.
In May 2014, it was alleged that Smith had molested an 11-year-old boy at the National Liberal Club in London in 1978. Smith allegedly insisted that the boy remove his underpants before attempting to fondle him. A spokesman for the Liberal Democrats said: "Cyril Smith's acts were vile and repugnant and we have nothing but sympathy for those whose lives he ruined."
In June 2014, Detective Chief Superintendent Russ Jackson of Greater Manchester Police admitted the force's previous investigations into abuse linked to Smith at Rochdale Knowl View residential school "fell well short" of what would be expected today. Allegations were made that a paedophile ring had been operating for decades in the town of Rochdale and that men from as far away as Sheffield were travelling to Rochdale to have sex with Knowl View boys aged between eight and thirteen. Greater Manchester Police said there were 21 suspects, 14 of whom it had identified, including Smith. In July 2014, Rochdale council's inquiry into child abuse linked to Smith at Knowl View residential school was halted at the request of police. Greater Manchester Police asked the authority to suspend their inquiry while detectives investigated claims of an institutional cover-up.
In July 2014, it was reported that Smith had put pressure on the BBC in 1976 by asking the corporation not to investigate the "private lives of certain MPs". According to letters in the National Archives, Smith wrote to BBC Director-General Sir Charles Curran in September 1976 saying he was "deeply concerned about the investigative activities of the BBC", especially relating to "the private lives of certain MPs". Former children's minister Tim Loughton described Smith's letters as "bully-boy tactics". Loughton said: "It was an abuse of position that somebody as an MP was saying, 'You shouldn't look at us, we're above the law.'"
A report released by the Crown Prosecution Service in July 2014 showed that in 1970 a police detective investigating Smith presented evidence to his superior of Smith's abuse of young boys at a care home in Rochdale, but no action was taken.
2015
In March 2015, Cabinet Office papers were released confirming that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was made aware of allegations against Smith before he was knighted in 1988, although she gave him the "benefit of the doubt" because the Director of Public Prosecutions had previously investigated him and had decided not to prosecute him due to lack of evidence. Shortly after, a BBC investigation on Newsnight revealed that Smith had been arrested in the early 1980s in relation to his participation in a paedophile ring, but a high-level cover-up reportedly led to him being released within hours, the evidence destroyed and the investigating officers prevented from discussing the matter under the Official Secrets Act. Theresa May, the Home Secretary, called for immunity for whistle-blowers in the case. Reports also emerged of Smith's arrest by Northamptonshire Police, where he was again released in mysterious circumstances.
In 2015, a retired police officer said that he was threatened with the Official Secrets Act after he found Smith in the home of a known sex offender with two drunk teenage boys and a police sergeant in civilian clothes. The retired officer said that he was summoned to a meeting with a senior officer at Stockport Police Station and told "in no uncertain terms" not to say anything about it. The alleged incident took place in 1988 at a house in Stockport after a complaint that the occupant had committed a lewd act in his window in front of a newspaper boy.
Honours
Cyril Smith was awarded an MBE in 1966.
He was invested as a Serving Brother of the Order of St John in 1976.
He served as Deputy Pro Chancellor of Lancaster University from 1978 to 1985.
He was made a Knight Bachelor in 1988, allowing him to be known as Sir Cyril Smith.
He was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Greater Manchester in 1991, allowing him the Post Nominal Letters "DL" for Life.
He was awarded the Freedom of the Borough of Rochdale in November 1992. After a series of allegations of child sexual abuse, over a span of 30 years, came to light following his death, he was posthumously stripped of this honour by a unanimous vote of Rochdale Borough Council on 18 October 2018.
He was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by Lancaster University in 1993. Owing to the allegations of child sexual abuse this honorary degree was posthumously revoked in May 2021.
See also
Westminster paedophile dossier
References
Bibliography
Reflections from Rochdale: As I Saw it and as I See it (1997) . A later slimmer autobiographical work.
"Cyril Smith", entry by Tim Farron in Brack et al. (eds.) Dictionary of Liberal Biography (Politico's, 1998)
External links
Sir Cyril in fight against assembly
Obituary in The Guardian
Obituary in The Independent
Obituary in The Telegraph
Tribute in Rochdale Online by Chris Davies MEP
1928 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from cancer in England
Child sexual abuse in England
Sexual abuse cover-ups
English autobiographers
Labour Party (UK) councillors
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Liberal Democrats (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
Mayors of Rochdale
Politicians from Rochdale
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Rochdale
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
Deputy Lieutenants of Greater Manchester
Child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom
Violence against men in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B6n%20Mountains
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Rhön Mountains
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The Rhön Mountains () are a group of low mountains (or Mittelgebirge) in central Germany, located around the border area where the states of Hesse, Bavaria and Thuringia come together. These mountains, which are at the extreme southeast end of the East Hesse Highlands (Osthessisches Bergland), are partly a result of ancient volcanic activity. They are separated from the Vogelsberg Mountains by the river Fulda and its valley. The highest mountain in the Rhön is the Wasserkuppe (), which is in Hesse. The Rhön Mountains are a popular tourist destination and walking area.
Origins
The name Rhön is often thought to derive from the Celtic word raino (=hilly), but numerous other interpretations are also possible. Records of the monks at Fulda Abbey from the Middle Ages describe the area around Fulda as well as more distant parts of the Rhön as Buchonia, the land of ancient beech woods. In the Middle Ages beech was an important raw material. Large scale wood clearing resulted in the "land of open spaces" (Land der offenen Fernen), 30% of which, today, is forested.
Geography
Location
Lying within the states of Hesse, Bavaria and Thuringia, the Rhön is bounded by the Knüll to the northwest, the Thuringian Forest to the northeast, the Grabfeld to the southeast, Lower Franconia to the south, the Spessart forest to the southwest and the Vogelsberg mountains to the west.
Division by type of volcanic activity
Based on the effects of ancient volcanic activity, the Rhön can be divided into the "Anterior Rhön" (Vorderrhön), the "Kuppen Rhön" (geographical region 353, Kuppenrhön) and the "High Rhön" (354, Hohe Rhön).
The terms "Anterior Rhön" (Vorderrhön) and "Kuppen Rhön" (Kuppenrhön or Kuppige Rhön) are somewhat misleading, since the "Anterior Rhön" also consists mainly of Kuppen or low mountains with dome-shaped summits. The name has genuine historic origins: the "Anterior Rhön", as viewed from Thuringia, forms the foothills (or anterior part) of the mountain region.
In this gently rolling landscape numerous individual dome-shaped mountains rise on both sides of the border of Hesse and Thuringia and also, in some places, in Bavaria. These Kuppen are the remnants of ancient volcanos or volcanic activity.
Natural regions
Natural region divisions
The Rhön and its immediate declivities are divided by the Handbook of the Natural Region Divisions of Germany into the following natural regions:
(to 35 East Hesse Highlands (Osthessisches Bergland)
353 Anterior and Kuppen Rhön (Vorder- und Kuppenrhön) (with the Landrücken)
353.0 Hessian Landrücken (Hessischer Landrücken)
353.1 Western Rhön Foreland (Westliches Rhönvorland)
353.2 Western and Eastern Kuppen Rhön (Westliche und Östliche Kuppenrhön)
353.20 Brückenau Kuppenrhön (Brückenauer Kuppenrhön, to )
353.21 Milseburg Kuppenrhön (Milseburger Kuppenrhön, to )
353.22 Soisberg Kuppenrhön (Soisberger Kuppenrhön, to )
353.23 Middle Ulster Valley (Mittleres Ulstertal)
353.24 Auersberg Kuppenrhön (Auersberger Kuppenrhön to )
353.25 (?) Middle Felda Valley (Mittleres Feldatal)
353.26 (?) Anterior Rhön (Vordere Rhön, to )
353.3 Eastern Rhön Foreland (Östliches Rhönvorland)
354 High Rhön (Hohe Rhön)
354.0 Southern High Rhön (Südliche Hochrhön)(Umweltatlas Hessen: Südliche Hohe Rhön)
354.00 Dammersfeld Ridge (Dammersfeldrücken, to )
354.01 Black Mountains (Schwarze Berge, to )
354.02 Kreuzberg Group (to )
354.1 Central Rhön (Umweltatlas Hessen: Hochrhön)
354.10 Wasserkuppenrhön (to )
354.11 Long Rhön (to )
354.12 Eastern slope of the Long Rhön (to )
354.13 Upper Ulster Valley
(to 355 Fulda-Haune Tableland)
355.3 Haune Plateau
355.30 Rombach Plateau
355.31 Haune Valley (and Hünfeld Basin)
355.32 Buchenau Plateau
(zu 357 Fulda-Werra Uplands)
357.20 Seulingswald
(to 358 Salzungen Werra Upland)
359.0 Stadtlengsfeld Hills (Stadtlengsfelder Hügelland)
(to 13 Main-Franconian Plateaux (Mainfränkische Platten)
(to 1381 Grabfeld)
1381.0 Western Grabfeld
(to 1382 Werra Gäu Plateaux (Werra-Gäuplatten or Meininger Kalkplatten)
1382.0
1382.00 Mellrichstadt Gäu (Mellrichstädter Gäu)
1382.01 Bibra Saddle
1382.? Dreißigacker-Sülzfeld Rhön Foothills (Dreißigacker-Sülzfelder Rhönabdachung)
(to 14 Odenwald, Spessart and South Rhön)
141 South Rhön (Südrhön)
High Rhön
The High Rhön ( or Hochrhön) is that part of the central Rhön that lies in Hesse, Bavaria, and to a lesser extent in Thuringia; it covers an area of Landscape fact files by the BfN (c.f. section on Natural region division) and is up to and whose highland plateaux with elevations starting at are covered by solid basalt. Its core area in the northeast used to be called the Plattenrhön. The High Rhön is a natural regional major unit in the East Hesse Highlands; see Natural regions.
The High Rhön has five main mountainous regions:
Wasserkuppen Rhön
Long Rhön (Lange Rhön)
Dammersfeld Ridge (Dammerfeldrücken)
Kreuzberg Group
Black Mountains (Schwarze Berge)
At the heart of the Rhön, albeit only the fourth highest summit of these mountains, is the Heidelstein () on the border between Bavaria and Hesse on the Rhine-Weser watershed. It forms the main high point on the plateau of the Long Rhön, which runs northeast over the Stirnberg () as far as the Ellenbogen (Schnitzersberg) () without crossing any significant lower ground. Within the Long Rhön the basalt layer is almost unbroken.
At the Heidelstein, another natural region, the Wasserkuppen Rhön, branches off in a north to northwesterly direction to the Rhön's highest summit, the Wasserkuppe (), whose basalt likewise covers a wide area, but is broken in places by bunter sandstone and muschelkalk – in particular the basalt kuppen of the Weiherberg (, northwest) and Ehrenberg ( northeast) are slightly separated from the rest.
Between the northeastern end of the Wasserkuppen Rhön at the Ehrenberg and the plateau of the Long Rhön from the Heidelstein to just beyond the Stirnberg is the Upper Ulster valley, which cuts into the bunter sandstone by up to about and divides the Plattenrhön in two.
The Long Rhön runs southwest along the main watershed to the Dammersfeld ridge which continues along the watershed via the Hohe Hölle () and Eierhauckberg () to the Dammersfeldkuppe (), the ridge being clearly narrower than the Long Rhön and its basalt layer being interrupted several times. The Großer () and Kleiner Auersberg (about ), separated by the valley of the Schmale Sinn, are also part of this natural region.
South of Heidelstein and Hoher Hölle the narrow head of the Brend valley near Bischofsheim forms the boundary with another mountain group of the High Rhön, the Kreuzberg Group, which contains the Arnsberg () and the Kreuzberg (). In between these two mountains lies the source of the Sinn. This river, which forms a wide and deep valley head flanked by the Dammersfeld ridge, flows to the southwest.
On the other side of the Sinn valley, and southwest of the Kreuzberg Group, are the Black Mountains (), which include the Schwarzenberg (Feuerberg, ) and Totnansberg (). They are separated from the Kreuzberg Group by the narrow valley of the Premich's upper reaches, the Kellersbach.
Clearly different from the aforementioned ridges is the eastern slope of the Long Rhön, which forms the transition zone from the High Rhön to the muschelkalk region of the Mellrichstadt Gäu (Mellrichstädter Gäu), the eastern part of the Werra Gäu Plateaux. Individual domes rise from the descending Triassic beds east of the solid basalt covering of the Long Rhön in the of the tributaries of the Franconian Saale between Brend and Streu, notably the Gangolfsberg () and the Rother Kuppe (). This landscape bears a clear resemblance to the Kuppen Rhön.
The Wildflecken Training Area, which covers an area of , equivalent to almost a quarter of the High Rhön, is not accessible to the public.
Kuppen Rhön
The of the "Kuppen Rhön in its narrow sense", to which the Anterior Rhön also belongs, is the wide outer fringe of markedly different relief, that circles around the High Rhön from the northeast (in Thuringia) through the northwest (in Hesse) to the southwest (with small parts in Bavaria). Numerous dome-shaped isolated mountains and hills rise above the valleys to , whose basalt covering is concentrated around the summit regions and does not blanket the entire landscape, as it does in the High Rhön. The domes or kuppen are the stumps of heavily weathered former volcanoes or volcanic pipes. Between pointed cones and broad domes lie many small plateaux, especially common in the Anterior Rhön.
Over a foundation of Middle Bunter sandstone lie stratigraphic sequences of Upper Bunter (Röt), muschelkalk and keuper, the last two rocks only surviving where they have been protected by an overlying sheet of basalt. Woods cover less than a third of the area and are largely restricted to the summit regions. Five natural regions may be distinguished:
Anterior Rhön
Auersberg Kuppenrhön
Soisberg Kuppenrhön with the Hessian Skittles
Milseburg Kuppenrhön
Brückenau Kuppenrhön
The eastern part of the Kuppen Rhön is the Thuringian Anterior Rhön, which reaches a height of at the huge plateau of the Gebaberg in the southeast. There is hardly any keuper escarpment there at all. The kuppen and plateaux rest directly on a bedrock of muschelkalk. This natural region runs northeast from the wide, pyramidal Pleß, , far into the Bunter sandstone of the Stadlengsfeld Hills that descend to the River Werra. In the west the Middle Felda Valley forms a natural boundary between Kaltensundheim in the south and below Dermbach in the north.
West of the Felda valley is the Auersberg Kuppenrhön (Auersberger Kuppenrhön), which lies mainly in Thuringia, but extends into Hesse in the southwest. This natural region runs from the town of Auersberg in the south, which gives the region its name, to the boundary with the Long Rhön at the Ellenbogen, . In the northeast of the region, the prominent kuppe of the Baier reaches a height of , but its northernmost summit is the popular viewing mountain of Oechsen. The western boundary is the Middle Ulster Valley between Hilders in the south and below Buttlar in the north.
West of the Ulster valley is the Soisberg Kuppenrhön (Soisberger Kuppenrhön), which lies mainly in Hesse, with elements in the southeast also extending into Thuringia. This region reaches a height of at the Soisberg in the north where the countryside is enclosed by the Seulingswald forest. It reaches even greater elevations in the extreme southeast, where the Habelberg () west of Tann stands opposite to and north of the Auersberg. This natural region is well known for the Hessian Skittles, a striking regular array of high, gently rounded, basalt cones up to . North and south of the skittles most of the kuppen in this natural region are also arranged in a row along the watershed between the Werra and the Fulda and between the Ulster and the Haune respectively. To the west they do not quite reach the Haune at the Haune Plateaux; to the south the Nüst valley below Obernüst forms a natural boundary.
The almost entirely Hessian range of the Milseburg Kuppenrhön (Milseburger Kuppenrhön), which bounds the Wasserkuppen Rhön, up to , south of the Nüst valley and west of the Ulster valley. Again the keuper escarpment is missing and even the muschelkalk only appears in islands around individual domes. The majority of the basalt and phonolite cones sit directly on the sandstones of the Middle Bunter. Cutting deeply into the sandstone, the rivers of the Haune and the Fulda flow westwards. The phonolitic cone of the Milseburg () is the only mountain in the Kuppen Rhön that exceeds the 800-metre-mark. Even the height of the Großer Nallenberg () south of the Fulda, is not reached in other parts of the region. To the southwest the area is bounded by the rocky sandstone of the Hoher Kammer (), as it descends from the heights of the Dammersfeld ridge (up to ).
Separated from the Kammer by the upper reaches of the Döllbach, the Döllau, the Große Haube () on the Rhine-Weser watershed opens the Brückenau Kuppenrhön, whose western half is in Hesse and whose eastern half is in Bavaria. The valleys of the Schmaler and Breiter Sinn running southwestwards, divide the natural region, which is clearly more heterogenous than the other ranges of the Kuppen Rhön, into three segments. In the west, the rugged plateaux of dolerite and basalt transition into the Landrücken, whilst the northeast of the Kleiner Auersberg (c. ) leads up to the Dammersfeld ridge. Between the more rugged plateaux and ridges there are gently domed basalt intrusions that rise up, especially in the southeast, left of the Sinn near Bad Brückenau. The Dreistelzberg in the extreme south reaches .
Peaks
The most well-known peaks in the Rhön Mountains include:
Wasserkuppe , Hessian Rhön, highest peak in the High Rhön and in Hesse.
Dammersfeldkuppe , Bavarian-Hessian border, High Rhön.
Kreuzberg , Bavarian Rhön, High Rhön.
Heidelstein , Bavarian-Hessian border, High Rhön.
Himmeldunkberg , Bavarian-Hessian border, High Rhön.
Milseburg , Hessian Rhön, highest peak in the Kuppen Rhön.
Feuerberg , Bavarian Rhön.
Ellenbogen , Thuringian Rhön.
Gebaberg , Hohe Geba, Thuringian Rhön, highest peak in the Anterior Rhön.
Rivers
The following rivers rise in the Rhön Mountains or flow by or through them (length given in brackets):
The Franconian Saale (Fränkische Saale) – rises in Grabfeld, passes the southeast Rhön, flows southwest and into the River Main and therefore belongs to the catchment area of the River Rhine. The valley of the Franconian Saale in the area around Bad Neustadt forms part of the southeast border of the Rhön with the Grabfeld.
Streu – rises in the Rhön on the southern slopes of the Ellenbogen and flows southwards into the Franconian Saale.
The Brend – rises at Oberweißenbrunn in the Rhön, flows southeast into the Franconian Saale
The Premich – rises from numerous springs between the Kreuzberg and the Black Hills, and heads southeast to the Franconian Saale
The Thulba – rises on the Platzer Kuppe in the Rhön and flows southwards into the Franconian Saale
The Schondra – rises in the Rhön and heads south into the Franconian Saale
The Sinn – rises in the Rhön near Wildflecken and flows southwards into the Franconian Saale
The Fulda – rises in the Rhön on the Wasserkuppe and is the left headstream of the Weser. The valley of the Fulda in the area around the town of Fulda separates the Rhön from the Vogelsberg Mountains to the west.
The Haune – rises in the Rhön and flows north into the Fulda
The Lütter – rises below the Wasserkuppe and flows westwards into the Fulda
The Döllau – rises in the Rhön, and flows via the Fliede to the Fulda
The Werra – rises on the boundary between the Thuringian Forest and Thuringian Highlands, runs past the Rhön to the northeast and flows northwards. It is the right headstream of the Weser. The valley of the Werra between Bad Salzungen and Wasungen separates the Rhön from the Thuringian Forest to the east.
The Herpf – rises in the Rhön and flows east into the Werra.
The Ulster – rises in the Rhön and flows north into the Werra.
The Felda – rises in the Rhön and flows north into the Werra.
History
The name Rhön is believed to be of Celtic origin. A regional Celtic presence is well established, with an important Celtic town at Milseburg. Furthermore, there are circular embankments that could be both of Celtic and of Germanic origin in the Kuppenrhön on the Stallberg and the Kleinberg mountains. Many names of places, mountains and meadows in the Rhön likely have their origins in Celtic root words.
Up to the 10th century parts of the Rhön belonged to Altgau Buchonia. This term was coined by the Romans in Late Antiquity and described an ancient beech forest in the Rhön and the neighbouring low mountain ranges of the Spessart and Vogelsberg. Expansive stands of beech still exist today in the area.
Due to the far reaching view from the Rhön mountains, they became sites for hilltop castles in the Middle Ages. One example is Hauneck Castle (Burg Hauneck) on the Stoppelsberg, the ruins of which can still be seen. It served to oversee and protect traffic on the ancient road, the Antsanvia, as well as protecting the villages in the Haune valley.
In the Middle Ages the Würzburg Defences (landwehr) were erected on the Hochrhön for the protection of its farmers.
The Rhön was also home to the Christian Community known as the Bruderhof from 1926 to 1937 when it was dissolved by Nazi persecution.
Biosphere Reserve
In 1991 UNESCO declared parts of the Rhön a Biosphere Reserve on account of its unique high-altitude ecosystem.
Flora and fauna
As a result of its geography and geology the Rhön is an area with higher-than-average number of different habitats and species. But man, too, has generated valuable secondary habitats by creating a rich cultural landscape.
Plant life
Compared with other low mountain regions, the Rhön is particularly rich in plant varieties. Its natural vegetation would probably be dominated by beech woods with scattered groups of other trees, but today beech trees are very much in decline. A few of these ancient woods were identified as core elements of the Rhön biosphere reserve. The higher beech woods are a habitat for rare, sometimes isolated, species of plant such as the Alpine blue-sow-thistle, giant bellflower and annual honesty. The vegetation of the lower-lying beech woods has a mix of mountain and other varieties. In addition to common wildflowers like the martagon lily, lily of the valley, wild chervil and wild garlic, various orchids also flourish here including Cephalanthera orchids, the yellow coralroot, bird's-nest orchid, lady's slipper and lady orchid.
Only small areas of the Rhön landscape are essentially open: the raised bogs (Hochmoore), the rock outcrops and the stone runs. These habitats are home to highly specialised species. The raised bogs of the Long Rhön - the Red Moor (Rotes Moor) and the Black Moor (Schwarzes Moor) are floristically important links between the northern and Alpine raised bogs. Here, for example, can be found sundews, crowberry and cottongrass. Growing amongst the rocks of the volcanic mountains are rare species such as Cheddar pink, sweet william catchfly, oblong woodsia and fir clubmoss.
There are no naturally occurring coniferous forests in the Rhön, but notable species of wild flower such as the lady's slipper orchid, creeping lady's tresses and burning-bush are found in the forests of mixed pine.
The cultural landscape formed by mankind over the centuries also has a great variety of habitats and plants however, today, the extensive grassland areas are amongst the most threatened and heavily cultivated habitats. It is on the semi-arid grasslands and juniper heaths that the silver thistle, symbol of the Rhön region, grows, alongside gentians, pasque flowers and wood anemones, as well as orchids like the early purple, fragrant and fly orchids. Rarer flowers include the various bee orchids and the military, lady, burnt, green-winged, man, pyramidal, frog and lizard orchids. Along the southern fringes of the Rhön, on the so-called slopes of steppe heathland (Steppenheidenhängen) grow warmth-loving plants such as white rock-rose, erect clematis and honewort.
Amongst the most valuable habitats in the Rhön are the mountain meadows and fields of mat grass (Nardetum strictae) on the higher slopes. Characteristic plants here include the monkshood, northern wolfsbane, common moonwort, martagon lily, greater butterfly orchid, perennial cornflower and wig knapweed.
Bog-bean, grass of Parnassus' western marsh orchid and lousewort are found in the wet meadows and low marshes; and the extremely rare large brown clover, hairy stonecrop and Pyrenean scurvygrass in the springwater marshes of the Hohe Rhön.
Wildlife
The wildlife in the Rhön mountains is similar to that of other low mountain ranges, but there are also some unusual species. In addition to the more common mammals such as roe deer, fox, badger, hare and wild boar, there are also smaller mammals such as the dormouse, common water shrew and Miller's water shrew. One unusual regional species is the alpine shrew. Birds occurring here include the black grouse, the capercaillie, the black stork, the eagle owl, the corncrake, the red-backed shrike and the wryneck. There are also two species endemic to the Rhön: the rove beetle and a local snail, the Rhönquellschnecke (Bythinella compressa).
Rhön umbrella brand
The Dachmarke Rhön project (Rhön umbrella brand project) is run by the Rhön working group and its aim is to promote a common identity for the Rhön region and to present a unified view of the area to the outside world and to harmonise the marketing measures of the three participating federal states.
Tourism
These mountains are a popular tourist destination. Hikers come for the nearly of trails, and gliding enthusiasts have been drawn to the area since the early 20th century. More recently, farm holidays have been flourishing in the region.
Attractions
Klaushof Wildlife Park in Bad Kissingen.
Botenlauben Castle Ruins in Bad Kissingen.
Black Moor
Kloster Kreuzberg - the monastery on the Kreuzberg.
Wasserkuppe - the highest mountain.
Observation Post Alpha - a former U.S. OP during the Cold War, now a memorial.
Villages and towns in the Rhön
Bad Brückenau
Bischofsheim an der Rhön
Burkardroth
Dipperz
Dermbach
Ebersburg
Ehrenberg
Eiterfeld
Friedewald
Fladungen
Geisa
Gersfeld (Rhön)
Hausen
Helmershausen
Hilders
Hofbieber
Hünfeld
Kaltennordheim
Nordheim vor der Rhön
Oberleichtersbach
Oechsen
Ostheim vor der Rhön
Poppenhausen
Riedenberg
Tann
Wildflecken
Towns in the vicinity of the Rhön
Towns and larger villages close to the Rhön are:
Bad Hersfeld
Bad Kissingen
Bad Bocklet
Bad Neustadt
Bad Salzungen
Eichenzell
Fulda
Künzell
Hammelburg
Hünfeld
Meiningen
Mellrichstadt
Vacha
Wasungen
Walks and hiking trails
There are well-marked walks and hiking trails in the Rhön which are looked after by the Rhön Club. The Rhön-Höhen-Weg ("Rhön Heights Walk" or RHW) is marked with a horizontal, red teardrop. It is long and runs from Burgsinn in Main-Spessart district through Roßbach, Dreistelz, Würzburger Haus on the Farnsberg, Kissinger Hütte on the Feuerberg, Kreuzberg (monastery), Oberweißenbrunn, through the Red and Black Moors, over the Ellenbogen and the Emberg via Oberalba, past Baier to Stadtlengsfeld and on to its destination at Bad Salzungen on the Werra River.
Other hiking trails are:
The Ortesweg ("Village Way") signposted with a 2/3-full red triangle and running from Kleinheiligkreuz over the Milseburg to Bad Neustadt
The Burgen- und Schlösserweg ("Castle Way") signed with a red triangle from Schlitz via Tann to Wasungen
The Milseburgweg ("Milseburg Way") marked with red triangles from Fulda via the Milseburg to Meiningen
The Wasserkuppenweg ("Wasserkuppen Way"), marked with red triangles, from Giesel over the Wasserkuppe towards Fladungen
The Heidelsteinweg ("Heidelstein Way"), from Neuhof via Gersfeld to Ostheim vor der Rhön
The Klosterweg ("Monastery Way") marked with red triangles from Schlüchtern via Wildflecken to Mellrichstadt
The Kreuzbergweg ("Kreuzberg Way") marked with red triangles from Schwarzenfels over the Kreuzberg to Bad Königshofen
The Jakobusweg ("Jacob's Way") from Fulda to Schweinfurt signed with blue shells
The Jakobusweg from Bremen in Thuringia to Herbstein signed with blue shells
The Abtsweg ("Abbot's Way") from Fulda to Hammelburg signed with a red teardrop
The Rhön-Paulus-Weg ("Rhön Paul Way") from Weilar via Tann to Dermbach marked with a 2/3-full green triangle
The Geological Walk on the Wasserkuppe
The Auersberg Nature Walk near Hilders
The Milseburg Prehistoric Walk
10 circular walks in Thalau; a total of
In addition the following pass through the Rhön:
The Main-Werra Weg ("Main-Werra Way") from Gemünden over the Kreuzberg and Wasserkuppe to Vacha, signed with a red arrowhead
The Rhön-Rennsteig-Weg ("Rhön-Rennsteig Way") from the Wasserkuppe over the Geba to Oberhof , marked with a blue "RR" on a white background
European long-distance trail No. 3 via Fulda to Mellrichstadt, signed with a blue cross
European long-distance trail No. 6 via Hünfeld, Gersfeld to Bad Königshofen, signed with a white cross on a blue background
See also
Bavarian Rhön Nature Park
Rhön Biosphere Reserve
Kreuzberg ski area
References
Sources
Hanswilhelm Haefs: Ortsnamen und Ortsgeschichten aus der Rhön und dem Fuldaer Land. Rhön-Verlag. Hünfeld 2001,
Marco Klüber: Orchideen in der Rhön und ihre Lebensräume. schützen – pflegen – bewahren. Landkreis Fulda, Sachgebiet Biosphärenreservat Rhön (Hrsg.), 2007.
External links
Rhön tourism portal
Rhön Biosphere Reserve website
360° virtual tour through the Hessian Rhön (in German)
Orchids of the Rhön, with much information the local flora (in German)
Mountain ranges of Bavaria
Volcanoes of Germany
Extinct volcanoes of Europe
Mountain ranges of Hesse
Mountain ranges of Thuringia
Biosphere reserves of Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9rotin
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Pérotin
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Pérotin () was a composer associated with the Notre Dame school of polyphony in Paris and the broader musical style of high medieval music. He is credited with developing the polyphonic practices of his predecessor Léonin, with the introduction of three and four-part harmonies.
Other than a brief mention by music theorist Johannes de Garlandia in his De Mensurabili Musica, virtually all information on Pérotin's life comes from Anonymous IV, a pseudonymous English student who probably studied in Paris. Anonymous IV names seven titles from a Magnus Liber—including Viderunt omnes, Sederunt principes and Alleluia Nativitas—that have been identified with surviving works and gives him the title Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master) meaning he was licensed to teach. It is assumed that Perotinus was French and named Pérotin, a diminutive of Peter, but attempts to match him with persons in contemporary documents remain speculative.
Identity and career
Pérotin, about whom little is known, most likely lived around the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century and is presumed to have been French. The closest thing to a contemporary account of his life comes from two much later reporters: a brief mention attributed to the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia () in his De Mensurabili Musica, and four mentions in the works of a late 13c English student known as Anonymous IV. At one stage Anonymous IV was thought to be a pupil of Johannes de Garlandia, but this is unlikely, and the name is a misnomer, derived from the title of notes by Charles-Edmond-Henri de Coussemaker, Anonymus IV. These were probably notes taken by the student in lecture. including this paragraph:
These rules were used in many older books; this was so during and after the time of Perotinus the Great. Nevertheless, they did not know how to distinguish these notes from those which will be presented shortly. This was so even since the time of Leo, because two ligated notes were put for the durational value of a brevis longa, and in a similar manner, three ligated notes were quite often used for a longa brevis, longa. People say Maître Leonin was the best composer of Organum (optimus organista), he composed the Great Organum Book for the gradual and antiphonary in order to prolong the divine service. This book remained in use until the time of the great Perotin who abridged it and composed clausules and sections that were many in number and better because he was the best composer of descant (optimus discantor). This Magister Perotinus made the best quadrupla, such as Viderunt and Sederunt, with an abundance of striking musical embellishments [colores armonicae artis]; likewise, the noblest tripla, such as Alleluia, Posui adiutorium and [Alleluia], Nativitas etc. He also made three-voice conductus, such as Salvatoris hodie, and two-voice conductus, such as Dum sigillum summi Patris, and also, among many others, monophonic conductus, such as Beata viscera etc. The book, that is, the books of Magister Perotinus, were in use in the choir of the Paris cathedral of the Blessed Virgin up to the time of Magister Robertus de Sabilone, and from his time up to the present day.
There have been many speculative attempts to identify Pérotin with members of the Notre Dame administration, but these have not generally been accepted. Of the several people with that name (Petrus) that have been suggested, the commonest are Petrus Cantor (died 1197), who was a theologian, and another Petrus who was Succentor at Notre Dame ca. 1207–1238. Of these two, Petrus Succentor has been suggested as more probable, in part on chronological grounds, and partly because of the succentor's role in overseeing the celebration of the liturgy in the cathedral (whose choir was dedicated 1182), but this is purely speculative, resting on an assumption that the composer held some important rank in the cathedral hierarchy.
Pérotin is considered to be the most important member of the Notre Dame school of polyphony, a group of composers working at or near the cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, creators of the style. The dates of Pérotin's life and works have long been a subject of debate, but are generally thought to be from about 1155/60 (or earlier) to around 1200/05 (or later), based on the evolution of French choral writing during this time (see Works), in particular, his apparent absence from the flowering of the French motet that occurred after 1210.
Pérotin was one of very few composers of his day whose name has been preserved, and can be reliably attached to individual compositions, most of which have been transcribed. Anonymous IV called him Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master). The title, employed also by Johannes de Garlandia, means that Perotinus, like Léonin, earned the degree magister artium, almost certainly in Paris, and that he was licensed to teach. However, only Anonymous IV employed the epithet Perotinus Magnus (Perotinus the Great). The name Perotinus, the Latin diminutive of Petrus, is assumed to be derived from the French name Pérotin, diminutive of Pierre. However "Petrus" was one of the most common names in the Ile de France during the High Middle Ages, making further identification difficult. The diminutive was presumably a mark of respect bestowed by his colleagues. The title Magnus was a mark of the esteem in which he was held, even long after his death.
Historical context
Notre Dame School
The reign of Louis VII (1137–1180) witnessed a period of cultural innovation, in which appeared the Notre Dame school of musical composition, and the contributions of Léonin, who prepared two-part choral settings (organa) for all the major liturgical festivals. This period in musical history has been described as a paradigm shift of lasting consequence in musical notation and rhythmic composition, with the development of the organum, clausula, conductus and motet. The innovative nature of the Notre Dame style stands in contrast to its predecessor, that of the Abbey of St Martial, Limoges, replacing the monodic (monophonic) Gregorian chant with polyphony (more than one voice singing at a time). This was the beginning of polyphonic European church music. Organum at its roots involves simple doubling (organum duplum or organum purum) of a chant at intervals of a fourth or fifth, above or below. This school also marked a transition from music that was essentially performance to a less ephemeral entity that was committed to parchment, preserved and transmitted to history. It is also the beginning of the idea of composers and compositions, the introduction of more than two voices and the treatment of vernacular texts. For the first time, rhythm became as important as pitch, to the extent that the music of this era came to be known as musica mensurabilis (music that can be measured). These developments and the notation that evolved laid the foundations of musical practice for centuries. The surviving manuscripts from the thirteenth century together with the contemporaneous treatises on musical theory constitute the musical era of . The Notre Dame repertory spread throughout Europe. In Paris polyphony was being performed in the late 1190s but later sources imply that some of the compositions date back as far as the 1160s. Although often linked to the construction of the cathedral itself, construction commenced in 1163 and the altar consecrated in 1182. However there was evidence of musical creativity there from the early twelfth century.
Léonin's work was distinguished by two distinctive organum styles, purum and discantus. This early polyphonic organa was still firmly based on Gregorian chant, to which a second voice was added. The chant was called the tenor (cantus firmus or vox principalis), which literally “holds” (Latin: tenere) the melody. The tenor is based on an existing plainsong melody from the liturgical repertoire (such as the Alleluia, Verse or Gradual, from the Mass, or a Responsory or Benedicamus from the Office). This quotation of plainchant melody is a defining characteristic of thirteenth century musical genres. In organum purum the tenor part was drawn out into long pedal points, while the upper part or duplum contrasted with it in a much freer rhythm, consisting of melisms (melismatic or several notes per syllable, compared to syllabic, a single note per syllable). In the second, discantus, style, the tenor was allowed to be melismatic, and the notes were quicker and more regular with the upper part becoming equally rhythmic. These more rhythmic sections were known as clausulae (puncta). Another innovation was the standardization of note forms, and Léonin's new square notes were quickly adopted. Although he developed the discantus style, Léonin's strength was as a writer of organum purum. The singing of organa fell into disuse by the mid thirteenth century. Associated with the Notre Dame school, was Johannes de Garlandia, whose De mensurabili provided a theoretical basis, for Notre Dame polyphony is essentially musica mensurabilis, music that is measured in time. In his treatise, he defines three forms of polyphony, organum in speciali, copula, and discant, which are defined by the relationship of the voices to each other and by the rhythmic flow of each voice.
Magnus liber organi
Léonin compiled his compositions into a book, the Magnus liber organi (Great Organum Book), around 1160. Pérotin's works are preserved in this compilation of early polyphonic church music, which was in the collection of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. The Magnus liber also contains the work of his successors. In addition to two-part organa, this book contains three- and four-part compositions in four distinct forms: organa, clausulae, conducti and motets, and three distinct styles. In the organum style the upper voices are highly mobile over a tenor voice moving in long unmeasured notes. The discant style has the tenor moving in measured notes, but still more slowly than the upper voices. The third style has all voices moving note on note, and is largely limited to conductus. The surviving sources all commence with a four-voice organal setting of the Christmas Gradual, Viderunt omnes fines terrae (), believed to be Pérotin's, as most likely did the original Liber. However, the manuscripts and fragments that survive date well into the thirteenth century, meaning that they are preserved in a form notated by musicians working several generations following Léonin and Pérotin. This collection of music constitutes the earliest known record of polyphony to have the stability and circulation achieved earlier by monophonic Gregorian chant.
Music
Forms and style
Louis VII was succeeded by his son Philip II in 1179 and his reign was marked by integration and revision of the cultural shifts that had transpired under his father. It was during this time that the compositions of Pérotin first appeared, and a shift towards a more predominant discantus style. Pérotin is best known for his composition of both liturgical organa and non-liturgical conducti in which the voices move note on note. He pioneered the styles of organum triplum and organum quadruplum (three and four-part polyphony) and his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes et adversum me loquebantur () Graduals for Christmas and the feast of St Stephen's Day (December 26) respectively are among only a few organa quadrupla known, early polyphony having been restricted to two-part compositions. With the addition of further parts, the compositions became known as motets, the most important form of polyphony of the period. Pérotin's two Graduals for the Christmas season represent the highest point of his style, with a large scale tonal design in which the massive pedal points sustain the swings between consecutive harmonies, and an intricate interplay among the three upper voices. Pérotin also furthered the development of musical notation, moving it further from improvisation. Despite this, we know nothing of how these works came about.
In addition to his own compositions, as noted by Anonymous IV, Pérotin set about revising the Magnus liber organi. Léonin's added duplum required skill, and had to be sung fast with up to 40 notes to one of the underlying chant, as a result of which the actual text progressed very slowly. Pérotin shortened these passages, while adding further voice parts to enrich the harmony. The degree to which he did this has been debated due to the phrase abbreviavit eundem by Anonymous IV. Usually translated as abbreviate, it has been surmised that he shortened the Magnus liber by replacing organum purum with discant clausulae or simply replacing existing clausulae with shorter ones. Some 154 clausulae have been attributed to Pérotin but many other clausulae are elaborate compositions that would actually expand the compositions in the Liber, and these stylistically resemble his known works which are on a much grander scale than those of his predecessor, and hence do not represent "abbreviation". An alternative rendering of abbreviavit is to write down, suggesting that he actually prepared a new edition using his better developed system of rhythmic notation, including mensural notation, as mentioned by Anonymous IV.
Two styles emerged from the organum duplum, the "florid" and "discant" (discantus). The former was more typical of Léonin, the latter of Pérotin, though this indirect attribution has been challenged. Anonymous IV described Léonin as optimus organista (the best composer of organa) but Pérotin, who revised the former's Magnus liber organi (Great Organum Book), as optimus discantor referring to his discant composition., In the original discant organum duplum, the second voice follows the cantus firmus, note on note but at an interval, usually a fourth above. By contrast, in the florid organum, the upper or vox organalis voice wove shorter notes around the longer notes of the lower tenor chant.
Compositions
Anonymous IV mentions a number of compositions which he attributes to Pérotin, including the four-voice Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes, and the three-voice Alleluia "Posui adiutorium" and Alleluia "Nativitas". Johannes de Garlandia states that the Magnus Liber commences with Perotin's four-part organa, and makes specific reference to the notation in the three-part Alleluya, Posui adiutorium. Other works are attributed to him by later scholars, such as Heinrich Husmann, on stylistic grounds, all in the organum style, as well as the two-voice Dum sigillum summi Patris and the monophonic Beata viscera () in the conductus style. (The conductus sets a rhymed Latin poem called a sequence to a repeated melody, much like a contemporary hymn.) By tradition, the four-part pieces of the Notre Dame school have been attributed to Pérotin, leaving the two-part pieces to Léonin. The former include the three-part conductus Salvator hodie. The latter is placed in the Mass for the Circumcision in a 13th century French manuscript. Of these, the best known works are his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes. These have been described as representing the peak of musical development of the time.
Most of Pérotin's works are in polyphonic form of discant, including the quadrupla and tripla. Here the upper voices move in discant, as rhythmic counterpoint above the sustained tenor notes. This is consistent with Anonymous IV's description of him as optimus discantor. However, like Léonin, he is likely to have composed in every musical genre and style known to Notre Dame polyphony.
Pérotin's dates of activity have been approximated from some late 12th century edicts (Statuta et donationes piae) of the Bishop of Paris, Odo (Eudes de Sully) (1196–1208), in 1198 and 1199. Rebuked by Peter of Capua, the papal legate of the time, the bishop sought to reform the rituals around the Christmas season, forbidding the boistrous costumed performances that existed at the time, in particular, the Feast of Fools. His preference was for elaborate music in its stead, calling for performance in organa triplo vel quadruplo for the Responsory and Benedicamus and other settings. The bishop's edicts are quite specific, and suggest that Pérotin's organum quadruplum Viderunt omnes was written for Christmas 1198, and his other organum quadruplum Sederunt Principes was composed for Saint Stephen's Day 1199, for the dedication of a new wing of the Notre Dame Cathedral. If written after this, they could not have been written till late 1200 or 1201, since for most of 1200 France lay under an interdict of Pope Innocent III which suppressed the celebration of church services. Hans Tischler dates the revision of the Magnus Liber to around 1180/90. Between the accounts of Anonymous IV, the episcopal edicts and the arrangements in the Magnus liber, the key compositions appear to be corroborated and assigned to this period.
Pérotin composed music to at least five of the poems of the Chancellor of the cathedral, Philippe le Chancelier (Philip the Chancellor). Philip, also a canon there, held that title at the cathedral from 1218 till his death in 1236, suggesting a possible later date for Pérotin's setting of the former's Beata viscera (ca. 1220), or at least a terminus ante quem. Others believe this poem was written much earlier, and hence place Pérotin's death as no later than 1205, the bishop's edicts implying that Pérotin's work was well before this. Philip appears to have written a number of poems with the intention of them being set to music by Pérotin, and with him is given credit for the development of the motet.
Works
Anonymous IV identified seven works, that he presumably considered worthy of singling out, and these represent the only direct attribution. Subsequent authors have attributed works on stylistic and chronological grounds. These include Friedrich Ludwig (1910), Heinrich Husmann (1940), Hans Tischler (1950) and Ethel Thurston (1970). Husmann added an additional nine three-part organa, and five clausula to which Ludwig added numerous other clausula. Other authors have attributed all the three-part organa in the Magnus Liber to Pérotin, which is unlikely. Nevertheless, two of the only three known four-part organa can be attributed to him.
Key: Anonymous IV (A), Johannes de Garlandia (G), Tischler (Ti), Thurston (Th), Husmann (H). Numbers refer to folios in the F manuscript of the Magnus liber.
Four-part organa
Viderunt omnes, continued with organal motet Homo cum mandato (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F1
Sederunt principes, with organal motet De Stephani roseo (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
Sederunt principes, continued with organal motet Adesse festina (A)(Th)(H)
Three-part organa
Alleluia nativitas (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F31
Alleluia, Posui adiutorium (A)(G)(Ti)(H) F36
Alleluia, Dies sanctificatus (Ti)
Alleluia, Pascha nostrum (Ti)(H)
Alleluia, Dilexit Andream (H)
Stirps Yesse (Ti)
Virgo (Ti)(H)
Sancte Germane(H)
Terribilis(H)
Exiit sermo (H)
Conductus
French conductus motet Se i'ai ame: Ex semine (Th)
3 part Conductus Salvatoris hodie (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F307
2 part Conductus Dum sigillum summi patris (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F344
1 part Conductus Beata viscera Marie virginis (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
5 Benedicamus Domino (Ti) (3 (H))
3 part clausulas
In odorem (H)
Et illuminare (H)
Et gaudebit (H)
Et exaltavi (H)
2 part clausulas (numerous (H))
Doubtful
4 part Clausula Mors (H)
Influence
Pérotin has been described as the first modern composer in the Western tradition, radically transforming the work of his predecessors from a largely improvisatory technique to a distinct musical architecture. Pérotin's music has influenced modern minimalist composers such as Steve Reich, particularly in Reich's work Proverb.
Recordings
for discography, see
(audio and visual)
Gothic Revolution – Sacred Music The Sixteen, Harry Christophers, Simon Russell Beale CORO DVD
Messe de la Nativité de la Vierge. Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès. Harmonia Mundi 901538 (1995).
Perotin. The Hilliard Ensemble, CD ECM New Series, 837–751–2
Sacred Music From Notre-Dame Cathedral, Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts, CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Books
(English trans. Rob C. Wegman)
Historical sources
, see also
, English translation available as,
(full text available on) Internet Archive
(attributed) (full text: Volume 1 Volume 2)
Chapters
, in
, in
. in
, in
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
(subscription access)
reprinted in
Articles
Audiovisual
Websites
, (subscription access) see also Oxford Companion to Music
includes access to complete text of Magnus Liber
(2nd quarter of the 13th century, probably between 1227 and 1234)
Further reading
Books
, also available here on the Internet Archive
(full text on Internet Archive)
, later edition available on line at Oxford Music (subscription access)
, in
see also Musik-Konzepte
, reprinted in
Articles
Audiovisual
Hillier, Paul (1989). "Perotin". program notes to The Hilliard Ensemble: Perotin. CD ECM New Series 1385 (837-751-2). Munich: ECM Records.
Websites
External links
Magnus liber organi
Ars antiqua composers
French classical composers
French male classical composers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
12th-century French composers
13th-century French composers
Medieval male composers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20Airlines%20Flight%20814
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Indian Airlines Flight 814
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Indian Airlines Flight 814, commonly known as IC 814, was an Indian Airlines Airbus A300 en route from Tribhuvan International Airport in Kathmandu, Nepal, to Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi, India, on Friday, 24 December 1999, when it was hijacked and flown to several locations before landing in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
The aircraft was piloted by 37-year-old Captain Devi Sharan and first officer Rajinder Kumar, with 58-year-old flight engineer Anil Kumar Jaggia. The Airbus was hijacked by five masked Pakistani militants of the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (HuM) shortly after it entered Indian airspace at about 17:30 IST. The hijackers ordered the aircraft to be flown to a series of locations: Amritsar, Lahore, and across the Persian Gulf to Dubai. The hijackers finally forced the aircraft to land in Kandahar, Afghanistan, which at the time was controlled by the Taliban. The hijackers released 27 of 176 passengers in Dubai but fatally stabbed one and wounded several others.
At that time, most of Afghanistan, including the Kandahar airport where the hijacked plane landed, was under Taliban control. Taliban militiamen fighters encircled the aircraft to prevent any Indian military intervention, which was found by current National Security Advisor Ajit Doval when he landed there. They also found two Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistan) officers were on the apron and others soon joined them; one was a lieutenant colonel and the other a major. Doval said that if the hijackers did not have ISI support, India could have resolved the crisis.
The motive for the hijacking was to secure the release of Islamist terrorists held in prison in India – fellow HuM members Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh and Masood Azhar, and a Kashmiri militant, Mushtaq Ahmed Zargar. The hostage crisis lasted for seven days and ended after India agreed to release the three terrorists. The three have since been implicated in other terrorist actions, such as the 2001 Indian Parliament attack, 2002 kidnapping and murder of Daniel Pearl, 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, 2016 Pathankot attack and the 2019 Pulwama attack.
The hijacking has been seen as one of the millennium attack plots in late December 1999 and early January 2000 by al-Qaeda-linked terrorists.
Background
Harkat-ul-Mujahideen had already perpetrated several attacks and kidnappings in order to secure the release of their leaders imprisoned in India, including Masood Azhar who had been arrested in 1994. These included the 1994 kidnappings of Western tourists in India by Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, who was captured during the act and was released with Azhar during this hijacking and went on to join the HuM splinter group Jaish-e-Mohammed founded by Azhar in 2000; 1995 kidnapping of Western tourists in Kashmir by Al-Faran (pesudonym of HuM) where most abductees were killed with one beheaded. Amjad Farooqi who was involved in the 1995 kidnapping was also one of the perpetrators of this hijacking under the alias "Mansur Hasnain".
In 1999, Sajjad Afghani, the founder of HuM who had been arrested with Azhar, was killed during a jailbreak which directly led to this hijacking and whose body was one of the hijackers initial demands.
Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden had provided organisational support for the kidnapping in order to have their associate Azhar released.
The identities of the five hijackers have been determined to be Ibrahim Akhtar (from Bahawalpur), Shahid Akhtar Sayeed, Sunny Ahmed Qazi, Zahoor Mistry (all three from Karachi) and Shakir (from Sukkur). They had arrived in Nepal, HuM's contact-hub for attacks in India, and boarded the plane from Kathmandu Airport.
Hijacking
On 24 December 1999, Indian Airlines flight IC 814 took off from Kathmandu, Nepal, with Delhi, India as its intended destination. The flight left with 180 persons on board, including both the crew and the passengers. One of the passengers on board was Roberto Giori, the then-owner of De La Rue Giori, a company which controlled the majority of the world's currency-printing business at the time.
Shortly after the flight left Kathmandu, senior steward Anil Sharma was accosted by a man wearing a ski mask, who told him that the plane was being hijacked and that he was carrying a bomb. The hijackers instructed Captain Devi Sharan to, "fly west", and accordingly the flight entered Pakistani air space, but was refused permission to land in Lahore, Pakistan, by Pakistani Air Traffic Control. On being told that there was insufficient fuel to go further, the hijackers allowed Captain Sharan to land the flight in Amritsar, Punjab, to refuel.
Subsequent intelligence reports indicated that the hijackers had purchased five tickets on the flight in Kathmandu; two first class tickets were bought directly, while three economy seats were bought through a travel agency. Indian intelligence officials believed that Dawood Ibrahim, an Indian gangster/globally wanted terrorist (hiding in Islamabad, Pakistan), had provided assistance in giving the hijackers access to the airport in Kathmandu.
Passenger accounts later stated that the hijackers ordered the crew to take away the lunch that had been served, and separated the men from the women and children, blindfolding them and threatening them with explosives if they did not co-operate.
Landing in Amritsar, India
Air Traffic Control (ATC) in India first received news of the hijacking at 4:40 pm. The Crisis Management Group of the Indian Government, led by Union Secretary Prabhat Kumar, did not convene on receiving the news that the plane had been hijacked, and information concerning the hijacking was not communicated at that time to the Intelligence Bureau or the Research and Analysis Wing. The Prime Minister of India, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, was briefed regarding the incident at 7:00 pm.
At 6:04 pm the Indian ATC made contact with flight IC 814, but had not received any orders on how to proceed. Captain Devi Sharan notified ATC that they were running low on fuel and had not been allowed to land in Lahore by Pakistani ATC. Sharan continued to make contact with ATC, requesting them to reach out to Pakistan and obtain permission to land, as the hijackers did not want to land in India and had already threatened to execute 10 hostages if their demands were not met. At 6:30 pm, the Indian High Commission in Pakistan requested permission for the plane to land there, but was denied.
At 6:44 pm, flight IC 814 began descent over the nearest airport in Amritsar, following a message from Captain Sharan, and was approached by local officials. The Director-General of Police for the state of Punjab, Sarabjeet Singh, later stated that he only received information regarding the hijacking when he saw it on television at 6 pm that evening. The Union Government's Home Minister, L.K. Advani, also stated later that he was informed about the incident via the news, and not by the Crisis Management Group, which had convened since then. Although he had recently stepped down as Inspector-General of Police in the area, J.P. Birdi met up with the plane, since his successor, Bakshi Ram, was on leave when the incident occurred.
On landing, IC 814 requested immediate refuelling for the aircraft. Captain Sharan later stated that he had hoped that with the assistance of Indian government, the hijacking would be prevented and that the plane would not have to take off again from Amritsar. In accordance with hijacking contingency plans prepared by the Crisis Management Group, a local committee consisting of the District Collector, the senior-most police and intelligence officials, and the airport manager had been created; they were instructed to delay the refuelling of the plane for as long as possible. These orders had been received by the committee from the Central Government at 6:40 pm, however, a phone call received with contradictory orders delayed initial response. This phone call was later established to have been an attempted hoax. A note sent to the local committee advised them to ensure the delay by any possible means, including deflating the aircraft tires if necessary.
Between landing and take-off again at 7:50 pm, Captain Sharan made contact with the ATC four times, informing them that the hijackers were armed with Kalashnikov rifles and had begun killing hostages, and requested them to refuel the plane as fast as possible to prevent any additional deaths. The hijackers had refused to communicate with local police officials while the plane was in Amritsar. Later accounts indicated that the hijackers, who were upset by the delay in refuelling, attacked Satnam Singh, a German citizen on board the plane, with a knife, causing him several wounds to the neck.
At 7:45 pm, local Punjab Police Commandos were placed on standby and ordered by the Crisis Management Group to accompany the fuel-reloading vehicles towards the plane, with the intention of deflating the plane tires in order to immobilize the plane. A fuel tanker was sent to block the aircraft's path but was ordered by the ATC to slow down as the driver was approaching the plane at a high speed. On receiving this order, the tanker came to an abrupt halt. Later, it was revealed that this approach caused the hijackers to suspect that the refuelling process would prevent their departure, and they ordered Captain Sharan to take off immediately, resulting in the plane narrowly avoiding hitting the fuel tanker on the runway. Five passengers had been placed in seats towards the front with their hands bound, and the hijackers threatened that these hostages would be executed if the plane did not take off immediately. The plane left Amritsar at 7:49 pm, and Captain Sharan announced the departure to the ATC, stating, "We are all dying." Commandos from the Indian special forces unit, the National Security Guard, arrived at the airport just as IC 814 departed.
Later, it was revealed that there were efforts by ex-RAW chief A. S. Dulat and others to cover up the real motives of why the plane was not immobilised and why there were no commando-operation to neutralise the threat. The RAW officer named Shashi Bhushan Singh Tomar, husband of Sonia Tomar, was boarded on the plane, who was a brother-in-law of N. K. Singh, secretary to then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and he ensured that the plane would be let off and no commando operation would be carried out to ensure his brother-in-law's safety. According to RAW officer, R. K. Yadav, author of Mission RAW, days before the hijacking, U. V. Singh, another RAW operative in Kathmandu informed Tomar that Pakistani terrorists were planning to hijack an Indian plane and he ordered Singh to check the veracity of his report where Singh vouched for its reliability but Tomar rebuked him and told him not to spread rumours. Later, Tomar was found on the same plane which was hijacked and became the cause of failure of the operation. The then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was kept in the dark until around 7:00 pm, a full hour and 40 minutes since the hijacking of IC 814 and he learned of the hijacking only after disembarking from the aircraft in the VIP bay of Palam Technical Area.
Landing in Lahore, Pakistan
On approaching Lahore, Pakistan, Flight IC 814 requested permission to land and was denied by Pakistani ATC, which turned off all lights and navigational aids at the airport to prevent a landing. As the plane had not been refuelled in Amritsar, and was running out of fuel, Captain Sharan attempted to crash-land without navigational aids and lights, nearly landing on a highway. Following this, Pakistani ATC turned on navigational aids and allowed the plane to land in Lahore at 8:07 pm.
India had, on receiving the information that the plane had landed in Lahore in Pakistan, sought a helicopter to transport the Indian High Commissioner, G. Parthasarthy in Islamabad, Pakistan, to Lahore airport, and had requested Pakistani authorities to ensure that the plane did not leave Lahore. Pakistani forces turned off runway lights again to prevent the plane from departing after it had been refuelled, and surrounded the plane with special forces commandos. They also attempted to negotiate with the hijackers to release women and children aboard the flight, but were denied. The Indian High Commissioner, G. Parthasarthy, was provided with a helicopter but only arrived in Lahore after Flight IC 814 had been refuelled and allowed to leave. Indian Foreign Office officials reached out for confirmation of reports that passengers on board had been killed, but did not receive a response from Pakistani authorities regarding this.
Landing in Dubai, UAE
Upon departure from Lahore, the flight was prevented from landing in Oman; the hijackers instead settled for neighboring Dubai, UAE (about 1,250 miles distance from Lahore). After Dubai International Airport denied permission to land, permission was granted instead at Al Minhad Air Base. The hijackers released 27 passengers, including a critically injured 25-year-old male hostage, Rupin Katyal, who had been stabbed by the hijackers multiple times. Rupin had died before the aircraft landed in Al Minhad Air Base. Indian authorities wanted Indian commandos trained in hijack rescue to assault the aircraft but the UAE government refused permission.
Landing in Kandahar, Afghanistan
After the aircraft landed in Kandahar, Taliban authorities offered to mediate between India and the hijackers, which India believed initially. Since India did not recognise the Taliban regime, it dispatched an official from its High Commission in Islamabad to Kandahar. India's lack of previous contact with the Taliban regime complicated the negotiating process.
However, the intention of the Taliban was under doubt after its armed fighters surrounded the aircraft. The Taliban maintained that the forces were deployed in an attempt to dissuade the hijackers from killing or injuring the hostages but some analysts believe it was done to prevent an Indian military operation against the hijackers. IB chief Ajit Doval claimed that the hijackers were getting active ISI support in Kandahar and that the ISI had removed all the pressure the Indians were trying to put on the hijackers, meaning that their safe exit was guaranteed and they had no need to negotiate an escape route. Doval also mentioned that if the hijackers were not getting active ISI support in Kandahar then India could have resolved the hijacking.
While in Kandahar, the plane's engine remained continuously on to protect everyone from the bitterly cold winter nights of Afghanistan.
Negotiations
On December 25 and 26, India discussed their approach to negotiations internally, while passengers on board Flight IC 814 awaited a decision. Passengers later stated that they received irregular meals and had limited access to drinking water and sanitation facilities, and that the hijackers utilised the public announcement system on board the plane to proselytize to the passengers.
On December 25, Indian Airlines provided a special relief plane, which flew back 27 passengers who had been released, as well as the body of Rupin Katyal, who had been killed while the plane was in Dubai, and Satnam Singh, who had been attacked by the hijackers in Amritsar and had suffered knife wounds to the neck.
Home Minister L. K. Advani had opposed exchanging the hostages for release of the hijackers, as this would affect public opinion of the government, while External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh advocated negotiation with the Taliban. On December 27, the Indian government sent a team of negotiators headed by Vivek Katju, Joint-Secretary in the Ministry of Home Affairs, along with Home Ministry official Ajit Doval and S.D. Sahay from the Cabinet Secretariat.
Negotiations did not progress, as Taliban officials initially refused to allow Indian special forces to attempt a covert operation, and declined to allow their own special forces to do so as well. To prevent any military action, Taliban officials surrounded the aircraft with tanks, and on December 27, a Taliban official speaking to a local newspaper stated that the hijackers should either leave Afghanistan or put down their weapons. Indian officials interpreted this statement as an understanding that Taliban officials would arrest the hijackers if they surrendered, and began to negotiate with them concerning their demands. These demands included the release of 36 prisoners, the body of HuM founder Sajjad Afghani and , but was ultimately reduced during negotiations to three prisoners:
Maulana Masood Azhar – who founded Jaish-e-Muhammed in 2000, which gained notoriety for its alleged role in the 2001 Indian Parliament attack and 2008 Mumbai attacks, which led to death of hundreds of people, along with the 2019 Pulwama Attack which led to the death of 44 CRPF personnel.
Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh – who was arrested in 2002 by Pakistani authorities for the abduction and murder of Daniel Pearl. Sheikh, who had been imprisoned in connection with the 1994 Kidnappings of Western tourists in India, went on to murder Daniel Pearl and also allegedly played a significant role in planning the September 11 attacks in the United States.
Mushtaq Ahmed Zargar – who has played an active role since release in training Islamic militants in Pakistan administrated Jammu & Kashmir.
On December 30, Research and Analysis Wing Chief A.S. Dulat communicated with Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister Farooq Abdullah, to convince him to release two prisoners as demanded by the hijacker. These prisoners were currently being held in Kashmiri jails. Abdullah was opposed to releasing the prisoners, warning Dulat of the long-term consequences, but eventually agreed to the demands of the Indian government. Mushtaq Ahmad Zargar was released from a Srinagar prison and flown with Sheikh and Azhar to Kandahar.
By this time, the hostages had been allowed to deboard the plane by the hijackers, and the hijackers had also surrendered their weapons. Passenger accounts indicated that the hijackers asked the passengers to show their gratitude to the Afghanistan government, following which money was collected and handed to one of the passengers, Anuj Sharma, who was instructed to use it to commission a memento of the hijacking for a museum in Kandahar.
However, instead of arresting the hijackers and the three prisoners who had been handed over to them, Taliban authorities drove them to the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, to Quetta in Pakistan.
Meanwhile, the Taliban had given the hijackers ten hours to leave Afghanistan. The five hijackers departed with a Taliban hostage to ensure their safe passage and were reported to have left Afghanistan.
Aftermath
Returned to Indian Airlines in January 2000, the nearly 20-year-old Airbus aircraft was "retired" from flying (pulled out of flying operations) in early 2001, and remained at the Indian Airlines engineering base in Santa Cruz, Mumbai. Bought by Airbus in May 2002, the aircraft was then stored at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport in March 2003. Three and a half years after the hijacking, the hijacked aircraft was later sold as scrap by Indian Airlines in May 2003, subsequently being broken up and scrapped in Mumbai in December 2003. The hull is believed to have fetched 22 lakh. The scrapping was handled via Metal Scrap Trading Corporation (MSTC).
Flight Number
Indian Airlines resumed the Delhi to Kathmandu in 2000, after 6 months of suspension post the hijacking, albeit under the same number; IC 814. The same flight number continued to be in usage even after Indian Airlines announced its merger with Air India in May 2007 until 26 February 2011 when the IC code was retired by Air India.
Trial
The case was investigated by Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), which charged 10 people (out of whom seven, including the five hijackers, were still absconding and are in Pakistan). On February 5, 2008, a special anti-hijacking Patiala House Court sentenced all three accused, namely Abdul Latif, Yusuf Nepali, and Dilip Kumar Bhujel, to life imprisonment. They were charged with helping the hijackers in procuring fake passports and taking weapons on board. However, CBI moved Punjab and Haryana High Court demanding the death penalty (instead of life imprisonment) for Abdul Latif. The case came up for regular hearing in high court in September 2012, but the CBI's application was rejected. Also, Abdul Latif's application for parole was rejected in 2015. On 13 September 2012, the Jammu and Kashmir Police arrested terror suspect Mehrajuddin Dand, who allegedly provided logistical support for the hijacking of IC-814 in 1999. He allegedly provided travel papers to the hijackers. The Punjab and Haryana High Court ultimately convicted two persons for the attack, sentencing them to life imprisonment. They appealed against this sentence to the Supreme Court of India.
On 10 July 2020, one of the accused, Abdul Latif Adam Momin, along with 18 other persons including an employee of the passport office, was acquitted by a Sessions Court in Mumbai of charges relating to the fabrication of passports in connection with the hijacking incident.
The ill-fated hijacked aircraft became the largest piece of evidence involved in the subsequent criminal investigation from the Punjab courts, where the hijack case was being heard, who deemed that the aircraft was vital for investigation. The detectives got fingerprints of the hijackers from it. A model of the plane, complete with seat numbers, was created to be produced in court and a court official was trained to assemble it, as it was unwieldy.
Political aftermath
The incident is seen as a failure of the BJP government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and IB chief Ajit Doval said that India would have had a stronger negotiating hand if the aircraft had not been allowed to leave Indian territory. Doval, the IB chief, who led the four-member negotiating team to Kandahar, described the whole incident as a, "diplomatic failure," of the government in their inability to make the US and the UAE use their influence to help secure a quick release of the passengers.
External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh also received criticism for praising the Taliban for their co-operation after the hostages had been returned.
Relatives of the passengers aboard Flight IC 814 also raised public protests at being denied information about the passengers' health and status, twice entering briefings and meetings of government officials by force, to demand information, and holding press conferences to criticize the government. A message from Kandahar ATC was circulated to the public, stating that the plane was being regularly cleaned, and that the passengers were being provided with food, water, and entertainment; this was later proven to be false, according to passenger accounts.
Support to Northern Alliance and US invasion of Afghanistan
India had started to conduct supply operations to Panjshir in Afghanistan. Arms, ammunition and aircraft were provided to the Northern Alliance. India also provided logistical support to Ahmad Shah Massoud. The leader of the Alliance had visited India on multiple occasions to fine-tune strategies to take on the Taliban. During the US invasion of Afghanistan, Indian government allowed its military facilities to be used for strikes against Afghanistan and provided intelligence information on training camps of Islamic militants in Afghanistan.
In popular culture
Captain Devi Sharan (Commander of IC814) recounted the events in a book titled Flight into Fear – A Captain's Story (2000). The book was written in collaboration with journalist Srinjoy Chowdhury. Flight engineer Anil K. Jaggia also wrote a book specifically depicting the events that unfolded during the hijacking ordeal titled IC 814 Hijacked! The Inside Story. The book was written in collaboration with Saurabh Shukla. The flight purser, Anil Sharma, has also written a detailed report of the hijack based on his experience in his book, IA's Terror Trail. Indian Airlines, India's sole domestic airline up to 1993, was hijacked 16 times, from 1971 to 1999.
The 2003 Bollywood film Zameen is loosely based upon the IC 814 hijacking and also Operation Entebbe of the Israel Defense Forces in Uganda. Hijack is a 2008 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film by Kunal Shivdasani based on the hijacking and stars Shiney Ahuja, Esha Deol and Ishitha Chauhan in the lead roles. Kandahar, a 2010 Indian Malayalam-language war film by Major Ravi is based on the hijacking. The political situation is portrayed from an Indian perspective in the film. Payanam (), a 2011 Indian action thriller film by Radha Mohan is also loosely based on Indian Airlines hijacking but takes place at the Tirupati Airport in Andhra Pradesh.
See also
Amjad Farooqi, suspected hijacker
List of hijackings of Indian aeroplanes
List of aircraft hijackings#1990s
List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by location#India
List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by airline (D–O)#I
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft#1999
1971 Indian Airlines hijacking
1973 Nepal plane hijack
2015 Kandahar Airport attack
Air France Flight 8969
Avianca Flight 9463
Air India Flight 182
Dawson's Field hijackings
Operation Entebbe
Notes
References
External links
Photographs of the hijackers
My experiences aboard IC-814 (Archive)
Indian Airlines Capt. Devi Sharan was awarded the 1999 Safe Skies Award (Archive)
Aziz hand seen in Kandahar hijacking (Archive)
IC-814 hijackers free birds in Pak
IC-814 Captain becomes a celebrity in India (Archive)
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1999
Aviation accidents and incidents in Nepal
Aircraft hijackings in India
Aviation accidents and incidents in India
Aviation accidents and incidents in Afghanistan
Islamic terrorism in India
Terrorist incidents in India in 1999
Hostage taking
814
1999 in India
Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A300
Vajpayee administration
Aircraft hijackings
Terrorist incidents in the United Arab Emirates
December 1999 events in Asia
Islamic terrorist incidents in 1999
2000 millennium attack plots
Aircraft hijackings in Pakistan
1999 murders in India
1999 disasters in Nepal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organum
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Organum
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Organum () is, in general, a plainchant melody with at least one added voice to enhance the harmony, developed in the Middle Ages. Depending on the mode and form of the chant, a supporting bass line (or bourdon) may be sung on the same text, the melody may be followed in parallel motion (parallel organum), or a combination of both of these techniques may be employed. As no real independent second voice exists, this is a form of heterophony. In its earliest stages, organum involved two musical voices: a Gregorian chant melody, and the same melody transposed by a consonant interval, usually a perfect fifth or fourth. In these cases the composition often began and ended on a unison, the added voice keeping to the initial tone until the first part has reached a fifth or fourth, from where both voices proceeded in parallel harmony, with the reverse process at the end. Organum was originally improvised; while one singer performed a notated melody (the vox principalis), another singer—singing "by ear"—provided the unnotated second melody (the vox organalis). Over time, composers began to write added parts that were not just simple transpositions, thus creating true polyphony.
History
Early organum
The first document to describe organum specifically, and give rules for its performance, was the Musica enchiriadis (c. 895), a treatise traditionally (and probably incorrectly) attributed to Hucbald of St. Amand. The oldest methods of teaching organum can be found in the Scolica and the Bamberg Dialogues, along with the Musica enchiriadis. The societies that have developed polyphony usually have several types of it found in their culture. In its original conception, organum was never intended as polyphony in the modern sense; the added voice was intended as a reinforcement or harmonic enhancement of the plainchant at occasions of High Feasts of importance to further the splendour of the liturgy. The analogue evolution of sacred architecture and music is evident: during previous centuries monophonic Mass was celebrated in Abbatial churches, in the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the newly consecrated cathedrals resounded with ever more complex forms of polyphony. Exactly what developments took place where and when in the evolution of polyphony is not always clear, though some landmarks remain visible in the treatises. As in these instances, it is hard to evaluate the relative importance of treatises, whether they describe the 'actual' practice or a deviation of it. As key-concept behind the creative outburst that manifested in the 11th and 12th centuries is the vertical and harmonic expansion of dimension, as the strongly resonant harmony of organum magnified the splendour of the celebration and heightened its solemnity.
The earliest European sources of information concerning organum regard it as a well-known practice. Organum is also known to have been performed in several different rites, but the main wells of information concerning its history come from Gregorian chant. Considering that the trained singers had imbibed an oral tradition that was several centuries old, singing a small part of the chant repertory in straightforward heterophony of parallel harmony or other ways of "singing by the ear" would come naturally. It is made clear in the Musica enchiriadis that octave doubling (magadization) was acceptable, since such doubling was inevitable when men and boys sang together. The 9th-century treatise Scolica enchiriadis treats the subject in greater detail. For parallel singing, the original chant would be the upper voice, vox principalis; the vox organalis was at a parallel perfect interval below, usually a fourth. Thus the melody would be heard as the principal voice, the vox organalis as an accompaniment or harmonic reinforcement. This kind of organum is sometimes called parallel organum, although terms such as sinfonia or diaphonia were used in early treatises.
The history of organum would not be complete without two of its greatest innovators, Léonin and Pérotin. These two men were "the first international composers of polyphonic music". The innovations of Léonin and Pérotin mark the development of the rhythmic modes. These innovations are grounded in the forms of Gregorian chant, and adhere to the theoretical rhythmic systems of St. Augustine. It is the composers' love for cantus firmus that caused the notation of the tenor line to stay the same, even when the methods of penning music were changing. It was the use of modal rhythm, however, that would make these two men great. Modal rhythm is defined clearly as a succession of (usually) unequal notes arranged in a definite pattern. The Notre Dame composers' development of musical rhythm allowed music to be free from its ties to text. While it is well known that Léonin composed a great deal of organum, it was the innovations of Pérotin, who spent much of his time revising the organum purum of Léonin, that caused generations of organum and motet composers to exploit the principles of the rhythmic modes.
Notre-Dame school
Cultural and intellectual life flourished in Paris during the 12th century with the University of the Sorbonne having become a reputed institution that attracted many students, not all of them French. The construction of Notre-Dame Cathedral on the Île de la Cité took place between 1163 and 1238 and this period coincides with the various phases of development of the Paris style of organum. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame and the University of Paris served as the center of musical composition and as a transmitter of musical theory in the 12th and 13th centuries. The presence of Léonin and Pérotin at the Notre-Dame School made Paris the centre of the musical world in the 12th century. Magister Cantus of the Notre Dame, Léonin compiled the 'Magnus Liber Organi de Gradali et Antiphonario'. Léonin wrote organa dupla based on existing chants like the Alleluia and the Gradual of the Mass and Responsory and Benedicamus Domino of Vespers for the major liturgical ceremonies in the yearly cycle. In hindsight, this turned out as a major event, as this was the first large-scale project attributable to a single composer. Not only is it a compilation for practical use during Mass and Office compassing the ecclesiastic year, the first of its kind; it also introduces the use of the rhythmic modes as a creative principle. Thus, when in a discussion of organum of the Paris School the word "modal" or "mode" is used, it refers to the rhythmic modes and specifically not to the musical modes that rule over melody.
In Léonin's organa de gradali et antiphonario two forms of organum technique are evident, organum purum and "discantus". "Benedicamus Domino" is a perfect example of the principles used. "Benedicamus" is usually mixed syllabic—neumatic in that it has mostly one note and maybe two per syllable of text, which is set in florid organum over a sustained tenor. "Domino" is in its Gregorian form set in melismatic style with three or more notes to a syllable and here both tenor and duplum proceed in discantus set in the six rhythmic modes, to be finalized with a florid cadence over a sustained tenor. Thus, in larger texts, depending on how the words were set to music, syllabic parts (no ligatures and is therefore non-modal) end up as organum purum: the tenor sustains each single note of the chant over which the organal voice drapes a new florid line, written mostly in ligatures and compound neumes. Starting from a consonant, mostly the octave, sometimes lead in by 7–8 over 1, the duplum line explores the harmonious interplay with the tenor, building up to a change of harmony at the end of a melisma where another syllable is produced at a different pitch. Where the Gregorian chant is no longer syllabic but uses ligatures and melismas, both voices proceed in a rhythmic mode. This section of discantus is concluded, on the last syllable of a word or phrase, by a copula, in which the tenor sustains either the penultimate or the last tone and the duplum switches back to a florid cadence, to conclude on a consonance. Thus, in organum duplum of Léonin these compositional idioms alternate throughout the complete polyphonic setting, which is concluded in monophonic chant for the last phrase. Thus, recapitulating, three different styles in the organaliter section are alternated and linked according to the text, leaving the last part of the text to be sung choraliter in monophonic chant. The verse of the chant is worked out according to the same principles.
The relevant contemporary authors that write about organum of the Notre-Dame school, Anonymous IV, Johannes de Garlandia, the St. Emmeram Anonymous and Franco of Cologne, to name a few, are not always as clear as could be desired. Nevertheless, a lot of information can be distilled from the comparative research of their writings. Organum purum is one of three styles of organum, which is used in section where the chant is syllabic thus where the tenor can not be modal. As soon as the chant uses ligatures, the tenor becomes modal and it will have become discant, which is the second form. The third form is copula (Lat. coming together) which in the words of Johannes de Garlandia "is between organum and discant". and according to Waite a bridge section between modal and non-modal sections. It seems that for most instances we can take Garlandia literally where he says 'between' organum and discant. In organa dupla, the copula is very similar to a short, cadential organum purum section but in organa tripla or conducti it is seen that irregular notation is used. Either the last notes of ligatures are affixed with a plica which divides the notes in smaller values, or a series of disjunct rests is used in jolting succession in both parts, creating what is also called hocket. These features also can be frequently found in two-part discantus on special cadences or a preparation of a cadence, where they are also referred to as "copulae". Garlandia states simply: "a copula is where are any number of lines are found". referring to the plicae or rest-signs. Thus organum duplum on a texted chant as a Gradual, Responsory or the Verse of an Alleluia can be schematized as follows:
beginning of text set to organum: organaliter:
organum purum >> copula >>
discantus >> copula >>
organum purum >> copula >>
discantus >> copula >>
closing lines of text choraliter
In the Notre-Dame repertory the Alleluia itself is only composed organaliter in the opening section, before the iubilus, the protracted vocalization of the last syllable, which is to be sung choraliter, and as such is absent from all extant original manuscripts. The above stated general principles have been used freely, as in Alleluia V. Dies sanctificatus, where Dies starts off with a little melisma which is judiciously set as a large non-modal florid section over all the notes of the tenor on Di(-es), reserving discantus for 'nò(-bis)' instead of having a short section in discantus right away at the beginning.
Pérotin "is the best composer of Discantus", according to Anonymous IV, an English student, writing ca.1275, who has provided at least a few morsels of factual information on Paris Organum and its composers. Pérotin further developed discantus in three part Organum (Organum Triplum) where both organal voices are in discantus. Note that organum purum is not possible in three-part organa, all three parts are modal and need to be organized according to the rhythmic modes. Pérotin even went as far as composing two four-part organa (quadrupla), "Viderunt omnes" and "Sederunt principes" which were performed in Notre Dame in 1198 on New Year's Day and in 1199 on the feast of St. Stephen (a decree of Odon de Sully, Bishop of Paris, exists which stipulates the performance of 'organa tripla vel quadrupla') Apart from organa, Pérotin extended the form of the Aquitanian Versus which was henceforth called conductus. Any conductus is a new composition on new texts and is always composed in the rhythmic modes. Perotin set several texts by Philippe le Chancelier, while some texts refer to contemporary events. Two-part conductus form the larger part, though conductus exist for one to four voices. Three and four part conductus are, by necessity, composed throughout in discantus style. As in organa tripla, handling three voices (or four) precludes the kind of rhythmic freedom found in dupla. In conductus the distinction is made between 'cum littera' and 'sine litera', texted sections and melismatic sections. The texted parts can sometimes go beyond the modal measure and then fall back into regular mode in the melismatic section. Again according to Anonymous IV, Pérotin wrote a number of replacement clausulae from organa dupla by Léonin. As the tenor in organa dupla in discant sections proceeds always in the 5th mode (all longs in a rhythmic group ordine), Pérotin, who was a generation removed from Léonin, saw fit to improve them by introducing different modes for the tenor and new melodic lines for the dupla, increasing the rhythmic organization and diversity of the section. However, in the largest compilation of Notre-Dame repertoires (F) no less than 462 clausulae exist, many recurrences of the same clausulae (Domino, et gaudebit in variant settings, according to. 'written in a variety of styles and with varying competence' A further innovation was the motellus, to be found in W2, in which the upper part of a discant section is supplied with a new text, so that when the tenor utters a single syllable of chant, the upper part will pronounce several syllables or words. As such it reminds of the prosulae that were composed, replacing a long melisma in a chant with new, additional words. This would have been the first instance of two different texts being sung in harmony. In turn, the motellus gave birth to the motet which is a poly-textual piece in discant, which obviously sparked a lot a creativity as it soon became a prolific form of composition.
The organa that were created in Paris were disseminated throughout Europe. The three main sources are W1, St. Andrews, Wolfenbüttel 677, olim Helmstedt 628; the large and illuminated copy made in Florence, owned by Piero de Medici, the Pluteo 29.1 of the Bibliotheca Mediceo-Laurenziana (F), which is by far the most extensive copy of the repertory. Finally W2, Wolfenbüttel 1206, olim Helmstedt 1099, which was compiled the latest (and contains the greatest number of motets).
There are arguments that support a relative freedom of rhythm in organa dupla but others refute this, saying that the interpretation of the music should always be according to modal or Franconian principles. Willi Apel and William G. Waite insisted upon a rigorously modal interpretation. Though Waite in his dissertation, notably in chapter 4: The notation of organum duplum' acknowledged that in organum duplum and monophonic conducts relative freedom may have been taken, he transcribed a selection of the Magnus Liber Organi of Léonin into strict modal rhythm. Apel argued that the long values for dissonances (in violation of the basic principle of consonance) produced by modal rhythms in Notre Dame organa, can be reconciled by a statement made by several medieval theorists that "the tenor pauses, if a dissonance appears". To this day, as behooves scientists, debates on interpretation proceed as usual. However, Waite published 54 years ago and his point of view has been superseded by ongoing research. "...but [Waite's] view that the entire corpus [of the Magnus Liber Organi] should be transcribed according to the rhythmic modes is no longer accepted" (Peter Jeffery in the Notation Course Medieval Music 1100–1450 (music205), Princeton).
In the range of forms of compositions found in the later two manuscripts that contain the Notre Dame-repertory (F and W2) one class of distinction can be made: that which is (strictly) modal and that which is not. Organum duplum in its organum purum sections of syllabic setting, the cum littera sections in two-part conductus, copulae in general and monophonic conductus would be that part of the repertory which is not strictly modal. In monophonic song, be it chant or a conductus simplex by Perotin, there is no need to vary from the classical standards for declamation that were a rooted tradition at the time, going back to St. Augustine's De Musica. It has been firmly established by extensive research in chant traditions (Gregorian Semiology) that there is a fluency and varyancy in the rhythm of declamatory speech that should also govern chant performance. These principles extend to the not strictly modal sections or compositions, as a contrasting quality with musica mensurabilis.
As Parisian Organum is rooted in Gregorian chant tradition, it is categorized under Ars antiqua which is thus called in contrast to the Ars nova which embarked on new forms that were in every sense original and no longer based on Gregorian chant and as such consisted a breach with the musical practice of the ancients.
See also
Medieval music
Saint Martial school
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Various articles, including "Organum", "Musica enchiriadis", "Hucbald", "St Martial" in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.
"Ad organum faciendum" (ca. 1100) Jay A. Huff, ed. and trans., Ad organum faciendum et Item de organo, Musical Theorists in Translation, vol. 8 Institute of Mediaeval Music, Brooklyn, NY [1963])
An Old St. Andrews Music Book (W1, the earlier ms. of Notre Dame Polyphony) J. H. Baxter, 1931
Magnus Liber Organi, (F) Pluteo 29.1, Bibliotheca Mediceo-Laurenziana, Firenze, facsimile by Institute of Medieval Music. Brooklyn: Medieval Manuscripts in Reproduction. Vols. 10 and 11, ed. Luther Dittmer.
Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1978.
Magnus Liber Organi, Parisian Liturgical Polyphony from the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, 7 vols., general editor Edward H. Roesner. Monaco: Les Éditions de l'Oiseau-Lyre, 1988–1993.
Medieval music genres
Musical techniques
Polyphonic form
European music
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roddy%20Piper
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Roddy Piper
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Roderick George Toombs (April 17, 1954 – July 31, 2015), better known as "Rowdy" Roddy Piper, was a Canadian professional wrestler, amateur wrestler, and actor.
In professional wrestling, Piper was best known to international audiences for his work with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW) between 1984 and 2000. Although he was Canadian, Piper was billed as coming from Glasgow and was known for his signature kilt and bagpipe entrance music; this was because of his Scottish heritage. Piper earned the nicknames "Rowdy" and "Hot Rod" by displaying his trademark "Scottish" short temper, spontaneity, and quick wit. According to The Daily Telegraph, he is "considered by many to be the greatest 'heel' (or villain) wrestler ever".
One of wrestling's most recognizable stars, Piper headlined multiple PPV events, including the WWF and WCW's respective premier annual events, WrestleMania and Starrcade. He accumulated 34 championships and hosted the popular WWF/WWE interview segment "Piper's Pit", which facilitated numerous kayfabe feuds. In 2005, Piper was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by Ric Flair, who dubbed him "the most gifted entertainer in the history of professional wrestling".
Outside of wrestling, Piper acted in dozens of films and TV shows. Most notably, he took the lead role of John Nada in the 1988 cult classic They Live and a recurring role as a deranged professional wrestler called Da' Maniac on the FX comedy series It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia.
Early life
Roderick George Toombs was born in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, on April 17, 1954, the son of Eileen (née Anderson) and Stanley Baird Toombs. He was raised in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and attended Windsor Park Collegiate. His father was an officer with the CN Rail Police (Canadian National Railway) while they lived in The Pas, Manitoba. After being expelled from junior high for having a switchblade in school and falling out with his father, Toombs left home and stayed in youth hostels. Several professional wrestlers hired him to run errands as he picked up odd jobs at nearby gyms. As a young man, he became proficient in playing the bagpipes, though he repeatedly stated that he was unsure exactly where he picked them up. His childhood (and lifelong) best friend was ex-NHL player Cam Connor.
Professional wrestling career
Training and early career (1969–1975)
Piper was an amateur wrestler before he started to become a professional wrestler. He claimed to have won the Golden Gloves boxing championship, though their lists of champions do not include any of his names. He was awarded a black belt in Judo from Gene LeBell. He started wrestling under the care of promoter Al Tomko in Canada, his first match involving "midget wrestlers" in front of a lumberjack audience in Churchill, Manitoba. He soon began earning money wrestling while still going to school. His first match in a famous organization was with Larry Hennig in the American Wrestling Association (AWA). Friends of his played the bagpipes during his entrance while he was handing out dandelions; meanwhile, the ring announcer had to announce something, but all he knew was that Piper's name was Roddy. Subsequently, after seeing the pipe band, he announced, "Ladies and gentlemen, here comes Roddy the piper." This gave birth to the name "Roddy Piper". From 1973 to 1975, Piper was a jobber in the AWA, NWA Central States territory surrounding Kansas City, and Eastern Sports Association in the Maritimes. He also worked in Texas for Paul Boesch's NWA Houston Wrestling promotion, and in Dallas for Fritz Von Erich's Big Time Rasslin.
National Wrestling Alliance territories (1975–1983)
California and Portland (1975–1980)
By late 1975 and early 1976, Piper was a top villain for Mike and Gene LeBell's NWA Hollywood Wrestling. In 1977–78, he also started to work for Roy Shire's NWA San Francisco Wrestling in addition to remaining with the Los Angeles office, where Piper developed his Rowdy character. During this time, he made continuous insults directed at the area's Mexican community; he later promised to repent by playing the Mexican national anthem on his bagpipes only to anger the fans further by playing "La Cucaracha" instead, which in turn caused a riot. Piper also managed a stable of wrestlers in California.
In the Los Angeles area, Piper feuded with Chavo Guerrero Sr., and his father Gory Guerrero. Piper and Chavo Guerrero faced each other in several matches for the Jules Strongbow Memorial Scientific Trophy. Piper also defeated Chavo for the Americas Heavyweight Title. During the feud, Piper lost a hair match and had his head shaved. Piper appeared in several loser leave town matches and was forced to leave the territory. He also appeared in the territory as The Masked Canadian. In his first televised match as The Masked Canadian, Piper teamed with Chavo in a match against Black Gordman and Goliath for the Americas Tag Team Championship. Piper and Guerrero lost the match and faced each other two days later, with Piper defeating Guerrero for the Americas Heavyweight Championship. Piper wrestled as The Masked Canadian for several months until he was unmasked by Hector Guerrero.
By late 1978-early 1979, Piper left the California promotions for even more fame in Don Owen's Portland-based Pacific Northwest territory. He teamed with Killer Tim Brooks and Rick Martel to win the NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship. Piper also won the NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship with victories over both Lord Jonathan Boyd and "Playboy" Buddy Rose.
Georgia and Mid-Atlantic (1980–1983)
In the early 1980s, Piper ventured to the Mid-Atlantic territory where he beat Jack Brisco for the Mid-Atlantic title. He also defeated Ric Flair for the US belt which turned into a feud. From 1981 to 1982, Piper served as a commentator on Georgia Championship Wrestling (GCW) and feuded with the likes of Bob Armstrong, Dick Slater, and Tommy Rich. During the summer of 1982, Piper became a fan favorite after knocking out Don Muraco and Ole Anderson to save broadcast partner Gordon Solie from Muraco, who had grown angry at Solie questioning his tactics. In Wrestling to Rasslin, Gerald W. Morton and George M. O'Brien described the transformation: "the drama finally played itself out on television when one of his [Piper's] hired assassins, Don Muraco, suddenly attacked the commentator Gordon Solie. Seeing Solie hurt, Piper unleashed his Scottish fury on Muraco. In the week that followed, like Achilles avenging Patroklas, he slaughtered villain after villain.... In the arenas fans chanted his name throughout his matches."
In 1982, Piper was fired because of showing up late for a match. He went to Puerto Rico for a month and was booked by Jim Barnett shortly thereafter. Piper returned to the Georgia area in the summer of 1983 to aid Tommy Rich during his rivalry with Buzz Sawyer. Eventually, Piper moved back to Jim Crockett Promotions. As a fan favorite, Piper feuded with Sgt. Slaughter, Ric Flair, and Greg Valentine. Piper's feud with Valentine culminated in a dog collar match at the first Starrcade. Valentine broke Piper's left eardrum during the match with the collar's chain, causing Piper to permanently lose 50–75% percent of his hearing. This became known as "The Year of the Ear".
World Wrestling Federation (1979, 1984–1987)
Early appearances (1979)
Before entering the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) full-time in 1984, Piper wrestled five matches with the WWF under Vince McMahon Sr. in 1979 at Madison Square Garden. His first match in WWF he defeated jobber Frankie Williams on January 22. Before one match, Freddie Blassie stuffed Piper's bagpipes with toilet paper, so they would not play in front of the Garden crowd.
Piper's Pit (1984–1987)
In 1983, WWF owner Vince McMahon contacted Piper, who insisted on serving out his contract with Jim Crockett before starting his WWF run in 1984. Piper debuted in the WWF as a manager, working with "Dr. D" David Schultz and "Mr. Wonderful" Paul Orndorff, but eventually Piper's run as a manager quietly ended and he started wrestling full-time. Focusing on one of his strengths as a wrestler, the microphone, he was given his own interview segment called Piper's Pit on Championship Wrestling and Wrestling at the Chase in 1984, starting a run of the segment that ended in 1987. During one Piper's Pit, Piper insulted Jimmy Snuka's Polynesian heritage and attacked Snuka by smashing him over the head with a coconut. Piper also insulted Bruno Sammartino during a Piper's Pit segment, which led to a feud that ended in a steel cage match on February 8, 1986 at the Boston Garden which Piper lost.
Piper's next major storyline was with Hulk Hogan and also involved pop singer Cyndi Lauper. In 1985, MTV broadcast The War to Settle the Score, which featured a main-event match between Piper and Hogan for the WWF championship. Hogan was accompanied to the ring by Lauper, Captain Lou Albano, and Mr. T. This event set up the very first WrestleMania, which pitted Paul Orndorff and his former manager Piper against Hogan and Mr. T. Orndorff was pinned by Hogan when Piper's bodyguard "Cowboy" Bob Orton interfered and mistakenly struck Orndorff instead of Hogan. In Born to Controversy, Piper recalled how during the match he had to keep Mr. T busy to cover Mr. T's lack of wrestling ability from being seen by the fans. From this situation, Piper and Mr. T's real-life relationship became hostile, leading to the inevitable conclusion that they be put into a feud with one another on-screen. Piper faced Mr. T in a boxing match at WrestleMania 2 in 1986, which Piper lost by disqualification after bodyslamming Mr. T.
Following a leave of absence from the WWF, Piper returned as a face, during a TV taping of Championship Wrestling on August 23, 1986, against A. J. Petrucci. As part of the storyline, the returning Piper was distressed to find his Piper's Pit segment replaced by The Flower Shop, a segment hosted by Adrian Adonis, who had also hired Piper's former bodyguard Orton. Piper spent weeks crashing Adonis' show and trading insults, leading to a "showdown" between the two segments that ended with Piper being assaulted and humiliated by Adonis, Orton, and Don Muraco and the destruction of the original Piper's Pit set, resulting in Piper's face turn and the construction of a more permanent Piper's Pit set. In response, Piper stormed the set of Adonis' show and destroyed it with a baseball bat. This led to their Hair vs. Hair match at WrestleMania III, which was billed as Piper's retirement match from wrestling before he left to become an actor full-time. Piper won the match.
In early 1987, Piper's Pit also served as the backdrop for Andre the Giant's heel turn and challenging Piper's old foe, Hulk Hogan, for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania III, and Hogan ultimately accepting the challenge.
Return to WWF (1989–1996)
In 1989, Piper returned from a two-year hiatus. Although WrestleMania V was billed as his return, he actually made his first appearance on March 19 in Denver, CO at a house show when he hosted a live Piper's Pit and interviewed Brother Love. Two weeks later at WrestleMania V he did make his official return with another live Piper's Pit, where he hosed down a smoking Morton Downey Jr. with a fire extinguisher. He made his return to the ring on May 12, substituting for Jake Roberts and pinning Ted DiBiase on a house show in Los Angeles. Piper would gain several more victories against DiBiase that month, and also against Randy Savage in June.
After this, Piper co-hosted Prime Time Wrestling from July 17, 1989, to December 25, 1989, with Gorilla Monsoon, feuding with Bobby Heenan, "Ravishing" Rick Rude, and Brother Love, he would return to the show in 1991 as well. Piper returned to the ring when he interfered in Rude's Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship defense against The Ultimate Warrior at SummerSlam, costing Rude the title. The feud was heavily promoted on TV and Piper would face Rude in many matches throughout the house show tours, including steel cage and lumberjack matches. The feud was so prominent that a Survivor Series match was built around it which saw both men captain a team and simultaneously be eliminated by countout during their brawl, though Rude's team would go onto win the match. The feud came to a head shortly thereafter on Prime Time Wrestling during an on-air bet between Heenan and Piper, which Piper won, resulting in Heenan having to dress as Santa Claus during the next episode of Prime Time. The feud continued until March 1990 with Piper winning the majority of their matches throughout 89-90 including a win over Bobby Heenan.
He then feuded with Bad News Brown who was upset at being eliminated by Piper at the 1990 Royal Rumble. Brown would go on to mock Piper for wearing a "skirt". At WrestleMania VI in April 1990, Piper cut a promo towards his opponent Bad News Brown before the match with half his face and body painted black, and also wrestled Bad News while painted this way. Bad News would take this display of blackface as being offensive behind the scenes. Subsequently, the match would end in a Double Count Out, with the issue between the two never being resolved despite plans to the contrary. According to a behind the scenes interview, neither man was willing to lose to the other.
In 1991, he supported Virgil in his feud against "The Million Dollar Man" (Ted DiBiase). Later in 1991 Piper was involved in a motorcycle accident, but was still present at their matches at WrestleMania VII and SummerSlam. He renewed his feud with Ric Flair and at the 1992 Royal Rumble defeated The Mountie for his first, and only, Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship. He lost it soon after to Bret Hart at WrestleMania VIII. Following his title loss to Hart, Piper made a handful of appearances at television tapings for Wrestling Challenge and WWF Superstars. Four Piper's Pit segments were recorded - two with Steve Lombardi and two with Shawn Michaels. None aired, and Piper disappeared from the WWF. He made his return playing the bagpipes at SummerSlam.
Return and The Bottom Line (1994–1996)
He reemerged once again in 1994 at WrestleMania X as guest referee for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match between Bret Hart and Yokozuna. During the match, commentator Jerry "The King" Lawler remarked that he hated Piper and continued to taunt Piper on his King's Court segment on Monday Night Raw, eventually culminating with Lawler bringing out a young, skinny impersonator in a Piper T-shirt and kilt and forcing him to kiss his feet. Enraged, Piper agreed to wrestle Lawler at the King of the Ring, where Piper emerged victorious. Piper wrestled as a fan favorite, and adding to the face attitude by donating part of his purse from the fight with Lawler to a children's hospital in Ontario. In spring 1994, Piper began hosting a regular weekly segment on All-American Wrestling called "The Bottom Line" where he commented on various happenings in the WWF, as well as on his feud with Lawler. Piper's segment aired regularly until the Summer of 1994, when Piper would disappear again.
Leaving the WWF again, he briefly returned in 1995 at WrestleMania XI, once again in a referee capacity, for the submission-only match between Hart and Bob Backlund. After this match Piper became the host for the replay editions of WWF pay-per-views for a brief period of time, commenting on the matches that had just happened, before disappearing again a few months later.
President of the WWF (1996)
On the January 29, 1996, episode of Monday Night RAW, Piper returned for another regular role, as he was named as interim WWF President after Gorilla Monsoon had to take a leave of absence due to an attack by Vader. On February 24 at a house show at East Rutherford, New Jersey, he made his first match appearance in almost two years. As a substitute for Razor Ramon, Piper defeated The 1-2-3 Kid after hitting him with a ring bell. He wrestled twice more against the Kid on house shows that month.
As president, one of Piper's first acts was to reinstate The Ultimate Warrior back into the WWF after a letter campaign written in by fans. Piper had become the object of affection for Goldust. Enraged, Piper claimed he would "make a man" out of Goldust at WrestleMania XII. The match, dubbed a "Hollywood Backlot Brawl", began in a pre-taped segment, recorded in an alleyway, but Goldust jumped into his gold Cadillac and ran Piper over, ultimately escaping (allegedly) onto the highways of Anaheim. Piper pursued in his white Ford Bronco, the aerial footage shown was actually that of the O. J. Simpson "low-speed" chase from two years prior. This was made clear by Piper himself, who recalled the event on an episode of Pipers Pit the Podcast. The two eventually arrived at the arena, where Piper disrobed Goldust in the ring, effectively ending the confrontation. With Gorilla Monsoon back in control of the WWF by the end of the night, Piper once again left the company. His final appearance came the September 6, 1996, edition of Monday Night RAW, where footage was shown of him participating with other WWF wrestlers at the CNE "Experience" in Toronto.
World Championship Wrestling (1996–2000)
Feuding with nWo (1996–1998)
Piper joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in the fall of 1996. He made his surprise WCW debut as a fan favorite at the Halloween Havoc pay-per-view in October to insult the nWo leader and the World Heavyweight Champion Hollywood Hogan.
On the November 18 episode of Nitro, Piper revealed that Eric Bischoff was a member of the nWo, which ended with the nWo members attacking him. on the December 9 episode of Nitro, Piper told Flair that he didn't need the Four Horsemen's help in beating Hogan and he was going to do it on his own. Piper defeated Hogan with his signature sleeper hold in the non-title main event of the company's flagship pay-per-view Starrcade, which earned him a title shot against Hogan for the World Heavyweight Championship at SuperBrawl VII, where Piper was defeated. On the March 10, 1997, episode of Nitro, Piper and his family joined forces with Ric Flair and The Four Horsemen in their battle with the nWo. At Uncensored, Piper competed in a triangle elimination match where he captained a team of Horsemen Chris Benoit, Steve McMichael and Jeff Jarrett against the nWo and WCW's team of Lex Luger, Steiner Brothers and The Giant. His team lost the match. On the March 31 episode of Nitro, Piper and Flair agreed to team up and stand side by side to fight. Piper moved on to feud with other members of nWo. At Slamboree, Piper, Flair and Kevin Greene defeated nWo members Scott Hall, Kevin Nash and Syxx in a six-man tag team match. The following month, at The Great American Bash pay-per-view, Piper and Flair unsuccessfully challenged The Outsiders for the World Tag Team Championship. on the June 23 episode of Nitro, Flair and the Four Horsemen turned on Piper and attacked him. This led to a match between Piper and Flair at Bash at the Beach, which Piper won.
Piper took a hiatus from television before making his return to WCW on the September 8 episode of Nitro, where he was appointed the new on-air Commissioner of WCW, which reduced his in-ring work. He briefly resumed his feud with Hulk Hogan, beating him in a steel cage match at Halloween Havoc. on the March 23, 1998, episode of Nitro, Piper and Randy Savage battled to a no contest. On the March 30 episode of Nitro, Piper defeated Hogan by disqualification. At the 1998 Spring Stampede pay-per-view, Piper teamed with The Giant in a loss to Hogan and Nash in a Baseball Bat on a Pole match. At Slamboree, Piper served as the special guest referee in a match between Randy Savage and Bret Hart, which Hart won but the following night on Nitro, Piper changed his decision and declared Savage as the winner by disqualification. At The Great American Bash, Piper and Savage lost to Hogan and Hart in a tag team match by submission. After the match, Piper wrestled Savage in the next match, which Piper defeated Savage by submission. On the September 7 episode of Nitro, Piper and Diamond Dallas Page defeated Sting and Lex Luger by disqualification. Piper teamed with Diamond Dallas Page and The Warrior as Team WCW in a WarGames match at Fall Brawl for an opportunity at the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at the following month's Halloween Havoc. Page won the match for his team. On the September 14 episode of Nitro, Piper confronted Bret Hart.
Various storylines and departure (1999–2000)
On the February 8, 1999, episode of Nitro, Piper defeated Bret Hart to win his third United States Heavyweight Championship; the first two reigns being in JCP. Piper held the title for only two weeks as he lost the title to Scott Hall at SuperBrawl IX. At Slamboree, Piper defeated Flair by disqualification after Eric Bischoff reversed a decision that Flair was disqualified for hitting Piper with a foreign object. 8 days later on the May 17 episode of Nitro, Piper called out Bischoff for what Bischoff did to him in 1996, before Bischoff apologised to him and WCW fans. Piper and Bischoff were interrupted by Randy Savage and his Team Madness, before Savage and Team Madness attacked him and Bischoff until Kevin Nash saved him and Bischoff. The following month later at The Great American Bash, Flair defeated Piper by disqualification for control of WCW after interference from Buff Bagwell. Upset with Bagwell getting him disqualified, Piper knocked Bagwell out and joined Flair as vice president, turning Piper heel for the first time in WCW. At Bash at the Beach, Piper competed against Bagwell in a boxing match with Mills Lane as special guest referee which he lost. In late 1999, Piper returned to WCW programming as a face, in an angle with Vince Russo, who was now portraying himself as the "Powers That Be" (an unseen power that was controlling WCW). At Starrcade, Piper was the special referee in the WCW World Heavyweight Championship match featuring Goldberg and Hart. Forced by Russo, Piper called for the bell when Hart locked in the Sharpshooter on Goldberg, when it was apparent that Goldberg had not submitted. The feud between Piper and the Powers That Be ended shortly after. Piper's last appearance in WCW was at SuperBrawl 2000 in February 2000 where he was a surprise referee in the WCW World Heavyweight Championship match between Sid Vicious, Jeff Jarrett and Scott Hall. In July 2000, WCW terminated Piper's contract.
Xcitement Wrestling Federation (2001–2002)
Before going to the WWE in 2003, Piper served as the commissioner of the Xcitement Wrestling Federation (XWF). On November 5, 2002, Piper's autobiography, In the Pit with Piper: Roddy Gets Rowdy, was released.
Return to WWE (2003)
Piper returned to WWE on March 30, 2003, by conducting a surprise run in during the Hulk Hogan-Vince McMahon match at WrestleMania XIX in Seattle, Washington, where he attacked Hogan with a steel pipe to cement his heel status; Hogan nevertheless eventually won the match. Piper went on to align with Sean O'Haire; at Backlash in April, Rikishi hit Piper with Piper's own coconut, but this led to O'Haire defeating Rikishi.
In May, as Hulk Hogan had been banned in storyline from television by Vince McMahon, Hogan returned under a mask as Mr. America, and continued his feud with Piper, O'Haire and McMahon, who tried to reveal Mr. America's true identity. This storyline also saw Piper tear off the fake leg of one-legged wrestler Zach Gowen, who was playing a Hogan fan. At Judgment Day, Piper argued with Chris Jericho if Piper's Pit was better than Jericho's talk show The Highlight Reel. Later at the event, Piper lost to Mr. America.
Piper and O'Haire then moved on to challenge Tajiri and Eddie Guerrero for the WWE Tag Team Championship, but in June 2003, WWE stopped employing Piper after a controversial interview with HBO's Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel in which Piper discussed the darker side of the wrestling industry. WWE cited that "Piper stated that he used drugs for many years while working in professional wrestling and that he does not like the person that he becomes when he actively performs as a professional wrestler", and dismissed Piper because of "inability to reach agreement on a contract and to assist Piper from engaging in any self-destructive behavior". On his 2006 DVD, Piper claimed that HBO took parts of his interviews out of context to make wrestling look bad.
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2002–2005)
Piper debuted for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) promotion on December 4, 2002, at an NWA-TNA pay-per-view and started a feud with Vince Russo, cutting a promo where he blamed Russo for the death of Owen Hart. From September to December 2003, Piper gave video-tape messages and on the October 8, 2004, episode of Impact!, Piper crashed the Impact Zone and announced his talk segment In the Pit with Piper. In November 2004 at Victory Road, he hosted In the Pit with Piper and interviewed Jimmy Snuka, who refused to accede to Piper's demands of hitting Piper with a coconut. On the December 24 episode of Impact, Piper hosted another In The Pit with Piper and interviewed Hector Garza but was interrupted by Scott Hall and Kevin Nash. At Final Resolution in January 2005, Piper refereed a match between Jeff Hardy and Scott Hall, helping Hardy win. This was Piper's final appearance for TNA.
Second return to WWE (2005–2015)
WWE Hall of Fame and World Tag Team Champion (2005–2006)
On February 21, 2005, it was announced that Piper was to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame. Piper held an episode of Piper's Pit at WrestleMania 21 where he interviewed Stone Cold Steve Austin. On the July 11, 2005, episode of Raw, Piper received a superkick from Shawn Michaels, the guest for Piper's Pit. In October and November 2005, Piper feuded with Cowboy Bob Orton and Randy Orton, after they attacked him during a session of Piper's Pit with Mick Foley. While Piper defeated both Ortons in a handicap match and made Bob submit in a six-man tag match, the feud ended with Randy interfering in a singles match between Piper and Bob, disqualifying Bob, but beating down Piper.
Piper returned to Raw on September 11, 2006, for a six-man tag team match win with The Highlanders against the Spirit Squad. He also appeared on the Raw Family Reunion, along with Money Inc. and Arn Anderson to accompany Ric Flair ringside for a match against Mitch of the Spirit Squad. On November 5, Piper would gain what would be his final championship in WWE, winning the World Tag Team Championship with Flair from The Spirit Squad at Cyber Sunday. On the November 13, 2006, episode of Raw, Piper and Flair lost the title to Rated-RKO (Edge and Randy Orton).
Final feuds and retirement (2007–2011)
In 2007, Piper appeared in February to announce Dusty Rhodes for the WWE Hall of Fame, and also in June for Vince McMahon Appreciation Night. In 2008, Piper made a surprise appearance in the Royal Rumble match by attacking Jimmy Snuka, but was eliminated by Kane. Piper then had a series of confrontations with Santino Marella in 2008, including on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. At Cyber Sunday (2008), Piper was one of three choices to be Santino Marella's opponent for the Intercontinental Championship, with The Honky Tonk Man being chosen. The match ended by disqualification and after the match Piper and Goldust made their way down to the ring confronting and attacking Marella.
On the February 16, 2009 episode of Raw, after Chris Jericho insulted WWE legends, Piper interrupted him and was attacked by Jericho for it. The feud culminated in Jericho defeating Piper, Jimmy Snuka and Ricky Steamboat at WrestleMania 25 in a handicap elimination match. Piper later guest hosted Raw on November 16, 2009, at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Piper challenged Vince McMahon to a street fight later in the evening, but Randy Orton came out to fight in McMahon's place. Kofi Kingston came out to stop Randy's assault on Piper.
He inducted Wendi Richter into the 2010 WWE Hall of Fame on March 27, 2010. He also appeared the next night on Raw as one of the Legend Lumberjacks in a match that involved Christian and Ted DiBiase. Two months later, Piper hired DiBiase to capture guest host Quinton Jackson so he could "gain revenge on BA", but was unsuccessful.
At WrestleMania XXVII on April 3, 2011, Piper made an appearance by hitting Zack Ryder with a coconut while the latter was being interviewed. On the June 13, 2011 episode of Raw, The Miz and later Alex Riley were guests on Piper's Pit; this led to Piper defeating Miz in a match (to win $5000) because of help from Riley, the guest referee; this was Piper's last documented WWE match. John Cena was a guest for Piper's Pit on the November 28, 2011 episode of Raw.
Sporadic appearances and departure (2012–2015)
On the April 10, 2012 episode of SmackDown, Daniel Bryan and AJ Lee were guest of Piper's Pit. On the June 18 episode of Raw, Piper reunited with Cyndi Lauper. At Raw 1000, Piper and various other veterans helped Lita defeat Heath Slater. On the August 13, 2012, episode of Raw, Chris Jericho was the guest for Piper's Pit, but Dolph Ziggler and the Miz interrupted.
On the January 6, 2014 episode of Raw, The Shield were guests for Piper's Pit. On the March 31, 2014 episode of Raw, Piper hosted Piper's Pit with superstars who would compete in the André the Giant 31-man memorial battle royal, which ended in a brawl with Big Show clearing the ring and Piper raising his hand. At WrestleMania XXX, the four men who wrestled in the main event of WrestleMania I—Piper, Paul Orndorff, Hulk Hogan and Mr. T—buried the hatchet in a backstage segment. On the December 22, 2014 episode of Raw, Rusev and Lana were guests for the final edition of Piper's Pit. At WrestleMania 31, Piper and other legends appeared in a backstage segment after Daniel Bryan won the Intercontinental Championship.
In early July 2015, Ric Flair said Piper lost his WWE Legends contract with the company because of a public feud with Steve Austin, which resulted in Piper leaving PodcastOne. Piper later apologized to Austin on July 13, only three weeks before his death.
Independent circuit (2005–2012)
In February 2005 at WrestleReunion, Piper teamed with Jimmy Valiant and Jimmy Snuka against Colonel DeBeers, "Cowboy" Bob Orton, and "Playboy" Buddy Rose. On January 29, 2011, Piper made his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) during the WrestleReunion 5 weekend, defeating nineteen other men, last eliminating Terry Funk, to win the Legends Battle Royal.
Piper's last documented match occurred on August 12, 2011, at the JCW Legends and Icons event. What was originally a match for Piper against Terry Funk was altered mid-match to a tag match between Piper and Cowboy Bob Orton against Funk and Mick Foley, which Piper's team won.
In 2012, Piper, along with Don Coss, created Portland Wrestling Uncut, a revival of the original Portland Wrestling, with new and old wrestlers combined. Playing prominently in the show are Piper and Coss as announcers, The Grappler (Len Denton) as a manager, guest appearances by the likes of Matt Borne (among others), rewind segments that show partial matches from the original Portland Wrestling (owned by Don and Barry Owen), and Piper's son, Colt Toombs.
Other media
Music videos
In the 1980s, Piper also appeared in singer Cyndi Lauper's music video for the song "The Goonies 'R' Good Enough". Piper performed the song, "For Everybody", on The Wrestling Album (Columbia Records, 1985), based on the Mike Angelo & the Idols song "Fuck Everybody", but without any of the profanity heard in the original. He also appeared as a guest VJ on MTV in 1988. In 1992, he released a UK only single and music video for his song, "I'm Your Man". The single came with the B-side, "Judy Come Back".
Acting and hosting
Deadline Hollywood wrote, "During and after his wrestling days, Piper racked up dozens of film and TV credits, starring in numerous action B-movies and later doing voice work". The most famous of Piper's acting exploits was in the 1988 science fiction film They Live, directed by John Carpenter, which spawned the catchphrase Piper came up with—"I have come here to chew bubble gum and kick ass. And I'm all out of bubble gum."—as well as the long fight scene over sunglasses against Keith David which took three weeks to rehearse. The line and the fight scene have since been parodied in Duke Nukem, South Park and Adventure Time. Entertainment Weekly wrote that Piper's role in They Live made him a "cult icon" and "some kind of legend". Rolling Stone wrote that Piper "had a memorable career as a cult actor", citing They Live and the 1987 film Hell Comes to Frogtown.
Piper was a guest on a 1985 Saturday Night Live episode, tormenting hosts Hulk Hogan and Mr. T, and appeared as a special guest on MADtv along with Bret Hart. In the early 1990s, Piper made guest-star appearances on two episodes of The New Zorro on The Family Channel. Piper had a role in a fourth season episode of the Superboy television series as an immortal Alchemist stealing the youth from his gym patrons. In 1991, Piper and Jesse "The Body" Ventura starred in Tag Team, a television film about two ex-professional wrestlers turned police officers. Piper appeared as a wrestler loosely based on himself in an episode called "Crusader" from Walker, Texas Ranger. Piper also appeared in an episode of The Outer Limits series.
Piper was the host of ITV's Celebrity Wrestling in the United Kingdom. Piper appeared on RoboCop: The Series.
Piper appeared in It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia as professional wrestler named "Da' Maniac" during season 5 and reprised this role in season 9. Although the character was a parody of Mickey Rourke's role in The Wrestler, Piper had previously endorsed The Wrestler and Rourke's performance during an appearance with Rourke on Jimmy Kimmel Live. He appeared as Mr. Thurgood in the low-budget film The Mystical Adventures of Billy Owens in 2008 and its sequel Billy Owens and the Secret of the Runes in 2010. On March 14, 2010, Piper appeared in "One Fall", an episode in CBS's Cold Case, playing a wrestler named Sweet Sil. In September 2010, Piper appeared in a FunnyorDie.com video, fighting against childhood obesity in a PSA parody. The clip included him using wrestling moves on children eating junk food and the parents who feed junk food to their kids.
In 2012, Piper appeared on a Season 4 episode of Celebrity Ghost Stories, in which he conveyed a story of being visited by the ghost of Adrian Adonis. In May 2013, Piper appeared in "Barry's Angels"— episode 12 of the fourth season of the A&E reality show, Storage Wars —in which he appraised a set of Scottish kilts purchased by Barry Weiss. In June 2013, Piper appeared on Celebrity Wife Swap, where he swapped wives with Ric Flair.
Piper appeared as himself in the video game Saints Row IV. He also played himself as the protagonist in the 2013 film Pro Wrestlers vs. Zombies. In April 2014, Piper appeared as a regular cast member on the WWE Network original reality show Legends' House. He also started a podcast; Piper's Pit with Roddy Piper, in association with PodcastOne.
Voice acting
In 2006, Roddy Piper ventured into the realm of voice acting, providing the voice of himself in "Metal Militia"—an episode of Cartoon Network's animated series Robot Chicken—and the voice of The Pyro Messiah in the Night Traveler multimedia adventure series produced by Lunar Moth Entertainment. He provided the voice of Bolphunga in Green Lantern: Emerald Knights, and the voice of Don John in the Adventure Time episode "The Red Throne". He also voiced his own likeness in the 2013 video game Saints Row IV.
Toys
Piper is one of several real people to be immortalized with a G.I. Joe action figure of himself, as "Rowdy" Roddy Piper, the Iron Grenadier Trainer. The figure was released as an exclusive for the 2007 International G.I. Joe Convention from the Official G.I. Joe Collectors' Club. Piper appeared at the convention to sign autographs.
Video games
Piper is a playable character in 14 wrestling video games. He made his first appearance in WWF WrestleMania: Steel Cage Challenge. He later appeared in WCW/nWo Revenge, WCW/nWo Thunder, Legends of Wrestling II, WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain, Showdown: Legends of Wrestling, WWE Day of Reckoning, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 and WWE All Stars as a legend. He also appeared in WWE 2K14 as a hidden character in the Superstar Head Creation mode. He was later included in WWE 2K16 as DLC. He also appears in WWE 2K19 as DLC in the game's Ric Flair-themed "Wooooo!" Edition, as well as in WWE 2K20, WWE 2K Battlegrounds, and WWE 2K22.
Outside of wrestling games, Piper voices a fictionalized version of himself in 2013's Saints Row IV. In the story, Piper helps the player rescue Keith David from a simulation by recreating their fight scene from They Live, and can be recruited as an ally during missions. Piper also made a cameo appearance in Abobo's Big Adventure.
Personal life
Toombs was a Christian. Toombs' last film that was released in his lifetime, The Masked Saint, was a Christian film. Toombs and his wife Kitty Jo Dittrich were married from 1982 until his death in 2015. They had four children. His daughter Teal Piper made her professional wrestling debut for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) in August 2019 at the All Out pay-per-view. Shortly after that announcement, it was revealed that she had signed a contract with Women of Wrestling (WOW).
On November 27, 2006, it was announced on WWE.com that Toombs had Hodgkin's lymphoma; he finished radiation therapy on January 15, 2007. This was also confirmed on Toombs' official website, where he posted messages of thanks to all his fans and stated that, had the fans not chosen him as Ric Flair's partner at Cyber Sunday, he would not have been taken to the hospital and diagnosed as having his disease in time.
In November 2008, a video spread around the internet showing Toombs smoking marijuana and taking a hit from a bong in front of a cheering crowd at the annual Gathering of the Juggalos, although he later acknowledged his use of medicinal marijuana "to alleviate the symptoms associated with cancer". This was reiterated on a blog from Jim Ross.
In his autobiography, Toombs claimed to be a cousin of Bret Hart, which would make him a relative of the Hart wrestling family. This fact was once used as a trivia question on Raw. Hart also revealed that Toombs was the only wrestler to visit him in the hospital after his stroke. Bruce Hart has stated that they were second cousins.
Death
On July 24, 2015, Piper appeared as a guest on The Rich Eisen Show. He had trouble collecting his thoughts and staying focused, often rambling and not answering Eisen's questions.
Six days later on July 30, 2015, Piper died in his sleep at the age of 61 at his summer residence in Hollywood, California. His death certificate cites a cardiopulmonary arrest caused by hypertension, listing a pulmonary embolism as a contributing factor; TMZ reported this as a heart attack caused by the embolism. Piper's long-time friend Bruce Prichard revealed on his podcast that he received a voicemail from Piper the night of his death. In the message, Piper indicated that he had not been feeling well and that he would be going to sleep it off. Hulk Hogan later revealed that Piper had left him a voice mail that he discovered following his death in which Piper said that he was "walking with Jesus".
News of his death broke minutes before the Hall of Heroes dinner to cap off the Mid-Atlantic Wrestling Legends FanFest in Charlotte, North Carolina, where about 600 current and former wrestling personalities and fans had gathered. He received a ten-bell salute after the planned salute to fellow former professional wrestler Dusty Rhodes, who had died the previous month. Another ten-bell salute was given at the beginning of the August 3, 2015, episode of Raw.
WWE CEO Vince McMahon said, "Roddy Piper was one of the most entertaining, controversial and bombastic performers ever in WWE, beloved by millions of fans around the world. I extend my deepest condolences to his family." Film director John Carpenter said, "Devastated to hear the news of my friend Roddy Piper's passing today. He was a great wrestler, a masterful entertainer and a good friend."
In an HBO Real Sports interview conducted by Piper in 2003, he had predicted that he was "not going to make 65" because of his poor health, and that he made his 2003 return to WWE because he could not access his pension fund until reaching the age of 65.
Piper was cremated and his ashes laid to rest at Crescent Grove Cemetery in Tigard, Oregon.
Legacy
Piper is considered one of the greatest talkers and heels in wrestling history. Piper's Pit interview segments were considered innovative, especially in an atmosphere where only the people like the world champion got to talk, and the wrestlers were the interviewees—never the interviewers. According to Bobby "The Brain" Heenan, he could just leave Piper in a room and return twenty minutes later with Piper having done a class-A promo. WWE named him the greatest villain in wrestling history.
Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter described Piper as "one of the key figures in the growth of WWF. In particular, he helped power the success of the first WrestleMania: the most important show in company history".
Mixed martial artist Ronda Rousey was nicknamed "Rowdy" by her friends. She initially rejected using it professionally, feeling it might disrespect Piper. After being introduced to him through Gene LeBell, Piper gave her his approval to use the nickname. On the day of his death, she dedicated her next day's UFC 190 title match with Bethe Correia to him. After quickly winning it, she noted him first in her post-fight interview. In 2018, when Rousey made her full-time WWE debut, she wore the jacket that Piper wore, which was given to her by his son.She also used a move called Piper's Pit, a reference to the talkshow he held during the WWF.
In April 2019, Piper was honored with a statue as part of WrestleMania Axxess in Brooklyn, New York.
Filmography
Film
Television
Online streaming
Games
Championships and accomplishments
Big Time Wrestling (San Francisco)
NWA United States Heavyweight Championship (San Francisco version) (1 time)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (San Francisco version) (1 time) – with Ed Wiskoski
Cauliflower Alley Club
Reel Member Inductee (2001)
George Tragos/Lou Thesz Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2008
Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling/World Championship Wrestling
NWA Mid-Atlantic Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
NWA Television Championship (2 times)
NWA/WCW United States Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
NWA All-Star Wrestling
NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version) (1 time) – with Rick Martel
NWA Hollywood Wrestling
NWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (5 times)
NWA Americas Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with Crusher Verdu (1), Keith Franks (1), Pak Choo (1), Ron Bass (1), and The Hangman (1)
NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pacific Northwest Wrestling
NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with Killer Tim Brooks (1), Rick Martel (3), and Mike Popovich (1)
Pro Wrestling Guerrilla
Legends Battle Royal (2011)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Inspirational Wrestler of the Year (1982)
Match of the Year (1985) with Paul Orndorff vs. Hulk Hogan and Mr. T at WrestleMania I
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1984, 1985)
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1986)
Stanley Weston Award (2015)
Ranked No. 45 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1992
Ranked No. 17 of the 500 singles wrestlers during the "PWI Years" in 2003
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Class of 2007
World Class Championship Wrestling
NWA American Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Bulldog Brower
World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE
WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ric Flair
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2005)
WWE Bronze Statue (2019)
Slammy Award (1 time)
Best Personality in "Land of a Thousand Dances" (1986)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Heel (1984, 1985)
Best on Interviews (1981–1983)
Worst Worked Match of the Year (1986)
Worst Worked Match of the Year (1997)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)
Luchas de Apuestas record
Notes
References
External links
Roddy Piper in Slam! Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame
Roddy Piper Slam! Wrestling Career Archive
1954 births
2015 deaths
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
Canadian bagpipe players
Canadian colour commentators
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male television actors
Canadian male voice actors
Canadian male judoka
Canadian male professional wrestlers
Canadian people of Irish descent
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian podcasters
Deaths from hypertension
Fictional Scottish people
Male actors from Oregon
Male actors from Saskatoon
Male actors from Winnipeg
NWA/WCW World Television Champions
NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions
NWA United States Heavyweight Champions (San Francisco version)
NWA World Light Heavyweight Champions
NWA Americas Tag Team Champions
NWA Americas Heavyweight Champions
Professional wrestlers from Manitoba
Professional wrestlers from Oregon
Professional wrestlers from Saskatchewan
Professional wrestling announcers
Professional wrestling authority figures
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Professional wrestling podcasters
Sportspeople from Hillsboro, Oregon
Sportspeople from Saskatoon
Sportspeople from Winnipeg
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions
World Tag Team Champions (WWE)
WCWA World Tag Team Champions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay
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Mandalay
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Mandalay ( or ; ) is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. Located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 miles) (Road Distance) north of Yangon, the city has a population of 1,225,553 (2014 census).
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by King Mindon, replacing Amarapura as the new royal capital of the Konbaung dynasty. It was Burma's final royal capital before the kingdom's annexation by the British Empire in 1885. Under British rule, Mandalay remained commercially and culturally important despite the rise of Yangon, the new capital of British Burma. The city suffered extensive destruction during the Japanese conquest of Burma in the Second World War. In 1948, Mandalay became part of the newly independent Union of Burma.
Today, Mandalay is the economic centre of Upper Myanmar and considered the centre of Burmese culture. A continuing influx of illegal Chinese immigrants, mostly from Yunnan, since the late 20th century, has reshaped the city's ethnic makeup and increased commerce with China. Despite Naypyidaw's recent rise, Mandalay remains Upper Myanmar's main commercial, educational and health center.
Etymology
The city gets its name from the nearby Mandalay Hill. The name is probably a derivative of a Pali word, although the exact word of origin remains unclear. The root word has been speculated to be (မဏ္ဍလ), referring to circular plains or Mandara, a mountain from Hindu mythology.
When it was founded in 1857, the royal city was officially named Yadanarbon (, ), a loan of the Pali name Ratanapūra () "City of Gems." It was also called Lay Kyun Aung Myei (, , "Victorious Land over the Four Islands") and Mandalay Palace (, , "Famed Royal Emerald Palace").
History
Early history
Like most former (and present) capitals of Burma, Mandalay was founded on the wishes of the ruler of the day. On 13 February 1857, King Mindon founded a new royal capital at the foot of Mandalay Hill, ostensibly to fulfill a prophecy on the founding of a metropolis of Buddhism in that exact place on the occasion of the 2,400th jubilee of Buddhism.The new capital city site was in area, surrounded by four rivers. The plan called for a 144-square block grid patterned citadel, anchored by a 16 square block royal palace compound at the center by Mandalay Hill. The 1020-acre (413-hectare) citadel was surrounded by four long walls and a moat wide, deep. At intervals of along the wall, were turrets with gold-tipped spires for watchmen. The walls had three gates on each side, and five bridges to cross the moat. In addition, the king also commissioned the Kuthodaw Pagoda, the Pahtan-haw Shwe Thein Ordination Hall, the Thudamma zayats or public houses for preaching Buddhism and a library for the Pāli Canon.
In June 1857, the former royal palace of Amarapura was dismantled and moved by elephants to the new location at the foot of Mandalay Hill, although construction of the palace compound was officially completed only two years later, on Monday, 23 May 1859.
For the next 26 years, Mandalay was to be the last royal capital of the Konbaung dynasty, the last independent Burmese kingdom before its final annexation by the British Empire. Mandalay ceased to be the capital on 28 November 1885 when the British conquered the city and sent Thibaw Min and his queen Supayalat into exile in India. Moreover, a group of drunken soldiers set fire to the Pitakataik (Royal Library) which had contained the genealogies of kings and the kingdom's official records. Mandalay was razed, however the palace, its structures and the city walls were spared destruction.
Colonial Mandalay (1885–1948)
While Mandalay would continue to be the chief city of Upper Burma during the British colonial rule, the commercial and political importance had irreversibly shifted to Yangon. The British view on the development of Mandalay (and Burma) was mainly with commercial intentions. While rail transport reached Mandalay in 1889, less than four years after the annexation, the first college in Mandalay, Mandalay College, was not established until 40 years later, in 1925. The British looted the palace, with some of the treasures going on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum; in 1964 they were returned to Burma as a gesture of goodwill. The British also renamed the palace compound Fort Dufferin and used it to billet troops.
Throughout the colonial years, Mandalay was the centre of Burmese culture and Buddhist learning, and as the last royal capital, was regarded by the Burmese as a primary symbol of sovereignty and identity. Between the two World Wars, the city was Upper Burma's focal point in a series of nationwide protests against the British rule. The British rule brought in many immigrants from India to the city. In 1904–1905, a plague caused about one-third of the population to flee the city.
During World War II, Mandalay suffered the most devastating air raids of the war. On 3 April 1942, during the Japanese conquest of Burma, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service carried out an extensive assault. The city was in effect defenseless as its firefighting resources were weak, having been lost in earlier bombing, it had no anti-aircraft capacity, and the British RAF had by now withdrawn all its aircraft to India. Three-fifths of Mandalay's houses were destroyed and 2,000 civilians were killed. Many residents also fled when the city was under Japanese occupation from May 1942 to March 1945. The palace citadel, which had been turned into a supply depot by the Japanese, was in turn burnt to the ground by Allied bombing; only the royal mint and the watch tower survived. (A faithful replica of the palace was rebuilt in the 1990s.)
Contemporary Mandalay (1948–present)
After the country gained independence from Britain in 1948, Mandalay continued to be the main cultural, educational and economic hub of Upper Burma. Until the early 1990s, most students from Upper Burma went to Mandalay for university education. Until 1991, Mandalay University, the University of Medicine, Mandalay and the Defence Services Academy were the only three universities in Upper Burma. Only a few other cities had "Degree Colleges" affiliated with Mandalay University that offered a limited number of subjects. Today, the city attracts a fraction of students as the military government requires students to attend their local universities in order to reduce concentration of students in one place.
In November 1959, Mandalay celebrated its centennial with a festival at the foot of Mandalay Hill. Special commemorative stamps were issued.
During Ne Win's isolationist rule (1962–1988), the city's infrastructure deteriorated. By the early 1980s, the second largest city of Burma resembled a town with low-rise buildings and dusty streets filled mostly with bicycles. In the 1980s, the city was hit by two major fires. In May 1981, a fire razed more than 6,000 houses and public buildings, leaving more than 90,000 homeless. On 24 March 1984, another fire destroyed 2,700 buildings and made 23,000 people homeless. The fire caused US$96 million in property damage.
Fires continue to plague the city. A major fire destroyed Mandalay's second largest market, Yadanabon Market, in February 2008, and another major fire in February 2009 destroyed 320 homes and left over 1600 people homeless.
Illegal Chinese immigration
The 1980s fires augured a significant change in the city's physical character and ethnic makeup. Huge swaths of land left vacant by the fires were later purchased, mostly by the ethnic Han Chinese, many of whom were recent immigrants from Yunnan. The Chinese influx accelerated after the State Peace and Development Council came to power in 1988. Many Chinese immigrants from Yunnan and, to a lesser extent, Sichuan poured into Upper Burma in the 1990s and many ending up in Mandalay, living illegally there. In the 1990s alone, about 250,000 to 300,000 Yunnanese are estimated to have migrated to Mandalay. Today, ethnic Chinese people are believed to make up about 40%–50% of the city's population that is nearly the same as the natives, and are a major factor in the city's doubling of population from about 500,000 in 1980 to one million in 2008. Chinese festivals are now firmly embedded in the city's cultural calendar. The Chinese dominance in the city center has pushed out the rest to the suburbs. The urban sprawl now encompasses Amarapura, the very city King Mindon left some 150 years ago. Mandalay celebrated its 150th birthday on 15 May 2009, at precisely 4:31:36 am.
Despite the rise of Naypyidaw, the country's capital since 2006, Mandalay remains Upper Burma's main commercial, educational and health center. In October 2018, Mandalay was ranked by CIO Asia as number fifth among the top 10 cities in Southeast Asia in the process of becoming a smart city for ASEAN Smart Cities Network.
Geography
Mandalay is located in the central dry zone of Burma by the Irrawaddy river at 21.98° North, 96.08° East, 80 meters (260 feet) above sea level. Its standard time zone is UTC/GMT +6:30 hours and is 626 km from Yangon.
Mandalay lies along the Sagaing Fault, a tectonic plate boundary between the India and Sunda plates. The biggest earthquake in its history, occurred on 23 March 1839, an estimated magnitude 8.2 destroyed the formal capital Ava and caused extreme destruction in nearby cities. The most recent quake was a magnitude of 7, occurred in 1956. The devastation was greatest in nearby Sagaing, and it came to be known as the Great Sagaing Quake.
Bodies of water near Mandalay are Mandalay Kantawgyi, a small lake and Irrawaddy River to the west of the city.
Climate
The rain shadow of the Arakan Mountains is so powerful that the city qualifies as having a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh), although it does border on a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification: Aw). Mandalay features noticeably warmer and cooler periods of the year. Average temperatures in January, the mildest month, hovers around while the hottest month, April, averages . Mandalay is very hot in the months of April and May, with average high temperatures easily exceeding . It is not uncommon to see high temperatures surpass during these two months in the city. Mandalay also features wet and dry seasons of nearly equal length, with the wet season running from May through October and the dry season covering the remaining six months. The highest reliably recorded temperature in Mandalay is on 24 April 1975 while the lowest is on 26 December 1999. There is considerably more diurnal temperature variation in the dry season than the wet season.
Cityscape
Around the city
Atumashi Monastery: The "Atumashi kyaung", which literally means "inimitable vihara", is also one of the well known sights. The original structure was destroyed by a fire in 1890 though the masonry plinth survived. The reconstruction project was started by the government on 2 May 1995 and completed in June 1996.
Buddha's Replica Tooth Relic Pagoda: One of the Buddha's Sacred Replica Tooth Relics was enshrined in the Mandalay Swedaw Pagoda on Maha Dhammayanthi Hill in Amarapura Township. The pagoda was built with cash donations contributed by the peoples of Burma and Buddhist donors from around the world under the supervision of the State Peace and Development Council. The authorities and donors hoisted Buddha's Replica Tooth Relic Pagoda Mandalay's Shwe Htidaw (sacred golden umbrella), Hngetmyatnadaw (sacred bird perch vane) and Seinhpudaw (sacred diamond bud) on 13 December 1996.
Kuthodaw Pagoda (The World's Biggest Book): Built by King Mindon in 1857, this pagoda modeled on the Shwezigon Pagoda at Nyaung-U, is surrounded by 729 upright stone slabs on which are inscribed the entire Tipiṭaka as edited and approved by the Fifth Buddhist council. It is popularly known as "World's largest book" for its stone scriptures.
Kyauktawgyi Pagoda: Near the southern approach to Mandalay Hill stands the Kyauktawgyi Buddha image built by King Mindon in 1853–78. The Image was carved out of a huge single block of marble. Statues of 80 arahants are assembled around the Image, twenty on each side. The carving was completed in 1865.
Mahamuni Buddha Temple: The image of Gautama Buddha at Mahamuni Buddha Temple is said to have been cast in the life-time of the Gautama Buddha and that the Buddha embraced it seven times, thereby bringing it to life. Consequently, devout Buddhists hold it to be alive and refer to it as the Mahamuni Sacred Living Image. Revered as the holiest pagoda in Mandalay, It was built by King Bodawpaya in 1784. The image in a sitting posture is 12 feet and 7 inches (3.8 m) high. As the image was brought from Rakhine State, it was also called the Great Rakhine Buddha. The early morning ritual of washing the Face of Buddha Image draws a large crowd of devotees every day. The Great Image is also considered as the greatest in Burma next to Shwedagon Pagoda.
Mandalay Hill: The hill has for long been a holy mount. Legend has it that the Buddha, on his visit, had prophesied that a great city would be founded at its foot. Mandalay Hill, 230 metres high, provides a view of the city and surrounding countryside. The construction of a motor road to reach the hill-top has already been finished.
Mandalay Palace: The whole palace complex was destroyed by a fire during World War II. The palace walls, the city gates with their crowning wooden pavilions and the surrounding moat, "Mya-nan-san-kyaw Shwenandaw", were rebuilt using forced labor. A model of the Mandalay Palace, Nanmyint-saung and Mandalay Cultural Museum are located inside the palace grounds.
Shwenandaw Monastery: known for its wood carvings, it was a part of the old palace. In 1880 it was moved by King Thibaw to its current site close to Atumashi Monastery.
U Bein Bridge : known for the oldest and (once) longest teakwood bridge in the world. It was constructed when the capital of Ava Kingdom moved to Amarapura .
Yadanabon Zoological Gardens: A small zoo between the Mandalay Palace and Mandalay Hill. It has over 300 species and is notably the only zoo to have Burmese roofed turtles.
Administration
The Mandalay Region Government is the government for Mandalay Region including Mandalay City. The Mandalay City Development Committee (MCDC) is municipal organization for Mandalay City. The Mandalay District consists of seven townships.
Amarapura
Aungmyethazan
Chanayethazan (city centre)
Chanmyathazi
Maha Aungmye
Patheingyi
Pyigyidagun
Transport
Mandalay's strategic location in Central Burma makes it an important hub for transport of people and goods. The city is connected to other parts of the country and to China and India by multiple modes of transportation.
Air
Mandalay International Airport (MDL) was one of the largest and most modern airports in Myanmar until the modernization of Yangon International Airport in 2008. Built at a cost of US$150 million in 2000, it is highly underused; it serves mostly domestic flights with the exception of those to Kunming and to/from Bangkok and Chiang Mai, with daily flights on Air Asia and Bangkok Airways. The airport has come to represent the military regime's propensity for bad planning and penchant for white elephant projects. Myanmar's recent opening stance on tourism means the airport is now receiving a growing number of visitors from Bangkok and Chiang Mai.
The airport is far from the city, on a modern highway. Before the construction of this airport, Mandalay Chanmyathazi Airport was the main airport of the city. The airport serves some flights to Myanmar towns.
River
The Ayeyarwady River remains an important arterial route for transporting goods such as farm produce including rice, beans and pulses, cooking oil, pottery, bamboo and teak.
Rail
Mandalay Central Railway Station is the terminus of Myanmar Railways's main rail line from Yangon and the starting point of branch lines to Pyin U Lwin (Maymyo), Lashio, Monywa, Pakokku, Kalay, Gangaw, and to the north, Shwebo, Kawlin, Naba, Kanbalu, Mohnyin, Hopin, Mogaung and Myitkyina.
Mandalay does not have an intra-city metro rail system. The former Trams in Mandalay has been decommissioned.
Roads
Mandalay literally is at the center of Burma's road network. The highway network includes roads towards:
Upper Burma and China—Mandalay–Tagaung–Bhamo–Myitkyina Road, Mandalay–Mogok–SiU–Bhamo Road, Mandalay–Lashio–Muse Road (part of Asian Highway route 14 or AH14)
Western Burma and India—Mandalay–Sagaing–Monywa–Kalewa–Tamu Road
Lower Burma– Yangon-Mandalay Expressway and AH1
Most stretches of these highways are one-lane roads in poor condition.
Buses and cars
As the government allows only a few thousands of vehicles to be imported each year, motor transportation in Burma is highly expensive for most of its citizens. Most people rely on bicycles, motorcycles and/or private and public buses to get around. Back in the 2000s, the most popular car in Mandalay was the 1982/83 Nissan Sunny pickup truck. Because of its utility as a private bus or taxi, the two-and-a-half-decade old model still had strong demand and heady prices to match—from K10 million to K14 million (US$8,000 to US$11,000) in mid-2008. To get around severe import limits, people of Mandalay had turned to illegally imported and hence unregistered (called "without" in Burmese English) motorcycles and cars despite the government's periodic confiscation sprees then.
In March 2008, Mandalay had nearly 81,000 registered motor vehicles plus an unknown number of unregistered vehicles. Although the number of cars in a city of one million is low, traffic in Mandalay is highly chaotic as thousands of bicycles and (unregistered) motorbikes freely roam around all the lanes of the streets. Unlike in Yangon where motorbikes, cycle rickshaws and bicycles are prohibited from entering downtown and busy areas, in Mandalay it is anything goes. In 2018, as part of Mandalay Smart City initiatives, new traffic lights with internet-connected sensors have been installed by Mandalay City Development Committee to manage traffic at junctions.
Demographics
A 2007 estimate by the UN puts Mandalay's population at nearly 1 million. The city's population is projected to reach nearly 1.5 million by 2025. While Mandalay has traditionally been the bastion of Bamar (Burman) culture and populace, the massive influx of illegal ethnic Han Chinese in the last 20 years has effectively influenced the ethnic Bamar majority there. Although many native ethnic Han Chinese could not get Burmese citizenship, the foreign-born Yunnanese can easily obtain Burmese citizenship cards on the black market. Ludu Daw Amar of Mandalay, the native journalist had said it felt like "an undeclared colony of Yunnan". Today, the percentage of ethnic Han Chinese, estimated at 50% of the city (with the Yunnanese forming an estimated 30% of Mandalay's population), is believed to be nearly the same as that of the ethnic Bamar. A sizable community of Indian immigrants (mostly Tamils) also resides in Mandalay.
Burmese is the principal language of the city, while Chinese is increasingly heard in the city's commerce centers as the second language. English is the third language, only known by some urban people.
Culture
Mandalay is Burma's cultural and religious center of Buddhism, having numerous monasteries and more than 700 pagodas. At the foot of Mandalay Hill sits the world's official "Buddhist Bible", also known as the world's largest book, in Kuthodaw Pagoda. The styles of Mandalay Buddha Images and Buddha Statues were many since King Mandon, who was a devout Buddhist, and had filled Mandalay with them and through the years Mandalay Buddhist art became established as the pure art of Myanmar. There are 729 slabs of stone that together are inscribed with the entire Pāli Canon, each housed in its own white stupa.
The buildings inside the old Mandalay city walls, surrounded by a moat, which was repaired in recent times using prison labor, comprise the Mandalay Palace, mostly destroyed during World War II. İt is now replaced by a replica, military Prison and a military garrison, the headquarters of the Central Military Command.
Media
Much of the media in Mandalay – like elsewhere in Burma – comes from Yangon. The city's non-satellite TV programming comes from Yangon-based state-run TV Myanmar and military-run Myawaddy, both of which provide Burmese language news and entertainment. Since December 2006, MRTV-4, formerly a paid channel, has also been available in Mandalay. Mandalay has two radio stations. Naypyidaw-based Myanmar Radio National Service is the national radio service and broadcasts mostly in Burmese (and in English during specific times.) Semi-state-run Mandalay City FM (87.9FM) is the Mandalay metropolitan area's pop culture oriented station.
The military government, which controls all daily newspapers in Burma, uses Mandalay to publish and distribute its three national newspapers, the Burmese language Myanmar Alin and Kyemon and the English language New Light of Myanmar. The state-run Yadanabon is published in Mandalay and serves the Upper Burma market.
The Mandalay Daily newspaper is published by Mandalay City Development Committee since 30 November 1997.
Sports
Mandalay's sporting facilities are quite poor by international standards but are still the best in Upper Burma. The 17,000 seat Bahtoo Stadium was the largest in Upper Myanmar before the construction of Mandalarthiri Stadium and hosts mainly local and regional association football and track-and-field tournaments. Since May 2009, professional football has arrived in Mandalay, with Yadanabon FC representing the city in the newly formed Myanmar National League, the country's first professional football league.
In 2013, a new stadium, Mandalarthiri Stadium was built to host the Women Football matches of 27th SEA Games and became the largest stadium in Mandalay and Upper Myanmar.
Sport climbing
At Waterfall Hill, the first bolted rock climbing site in Myanmar have been developed with the help of Mandalay climbers led by Steve, Tylor and Technical Climbing Club of Myanmar since 2010.
Economy
Mandalay is the major trading and communications center for northern and central Burma. Much of Burmese external trade to China and India goes through Mandalay.
Among the leading traditional industries are silk weaving, tapestry, jade cutting and polishing, stone and wood carving, making marble and bronze Buddha images, temple ornaments and paraphernalia, the working of gold leaves and of silver, the manufacture of matches, brewing and distilling.
Chinese immigrants have increasingly dominated Mandalay's economy since the imposition of sanctions by the United States and the European Union in the 1990s.
Education
Mandalay has the best educational facilities and institutions, after Yangon, in Burma where state spending on education is among the lowest in the world. Students in poor districts routinely drop out in middle school as schools have to rely on forced "donations" and various fees from parents for nearly everything – school maintenance to teachers' salaries.
Many wealthy Mandalay parents enroll their children in the city's English language private schools for primary and secondary education and Chinese and Singaporean universities for university education. Some wealthy Chinese families also send their children to "cram schools" where students study for entrance exams into Chinese universities from 6am to 8am, then to government high schools from 9am to 3pm, and finally preparation classes for Singapore GCE O levels from 4pm to 9pm.
For the rest of the students who cannot afford to go abroad for studies, Mandalay offers Upper Burma's best institutions of higher education. There are over 15 universities in the city. The city's University of Mandalay, University of Medicine, Mandalay, University of Dental Medicine, Mandalay, Mandalay Technological University and University of Computer Studies, Mandalay are among the nation's most selective universities.
Health care
The general state of health care in Burma is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.
In 2005, the public health care system of Mandalay Region with over 7.6 million people consisted of slightly over 1000 doctors and about 2000 nurses working in 44 hospitals and 44 health clinics. Over 30 of the so-called hospitals had less than 100 beds. Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment.
Nonetheless, Mandalay remains the main health care center for Upper Burma as almost all of large public hospitals and private hospitals are in Mandalay. The city has ten public hospitals and one hospital specializing in traditional Burmese medicine. For a semblance of adequate health care, the well-to-do from Upper Burma go to private hospitals and clinics in Mandalay. For more advanced treatments, they have to go to Yangon or abroad. The wealthy Burmese routinely go abroad (usually Bangkok or Singapore) for treatment.
Twin towns – sister cities
Mandalay is twinned with:
Cirebon, Indonesia
Kunming, China
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Ulsan, South Korea
Mandalay in popular culture
Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem called "Mandalay" (1890), which is the origin of the phrase "on the road to Mandalay". In 1907, the poem was set to music by Oley Speaks as On the Road to Mandalay. Speaks' version was widely recorded. Among the best known renditions is the one by Frank Sinatra on Come Fly With Me.
Bithia Mary Croker wrote a novel in 1917, The Road to Mandalay, which was the uncredited basis for a 1926 American silent film. Of this, only excerpts survive. A further film of the same name was directed by Midi Z in 2016.
The large hotel/casino/convention center Mandalay Bay in Las Vegas is named for the city, despite the fact that the city is 500 kilometers from the nearest bay, perhaps in reference to the line in Kipling's poem, "An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! "
George Orwell was stationed at Mandalay for a time while working for the Indian Imperial Police in Burma, and his first novel, Burmese Days (1934), was based on his experiences in Burma. He also wrote a number of short non-fiction essays and short stories about Burma, such as "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting an Elephant" (1936). John Masters wrote a book about his wartime experiences in Burma called The Road Past Mandalay (1961).
In the animated series, Nellie the Elephant, the main protagonist of the series is on a journey to return to her home in Mandalay after leaving the circus.
The American film studio Mandalay Pictures is named after the city. The logo also features a tiger, which is often seen roaming around the city.
British pop singer Robbie Williams sang a song called Eternity/The Road to Mandalay which was released as a single in 2001.
Notable people
Saw Maung (1928–1997), Burmese general, chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council
Zwe Ohn Chein (1910–1979), Burmese inventor, writer and teacher
Gallery
See also
Fifth Buddhist council
Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda
Pitakataik (Mandalay)
Sandamuni Pagoda
Setkyathiha Pagoda
Shwekyimyin Pagoda
Kyauktawgyi Buddha Temple (Mandalay)
Shwenandaw Monastery
State Pariyatti Sasana University, Mandalay
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Mandalay
References
Bibliography
External links
See also nearby Pyin Oo Lwin, the historic hill station above Mandalay
SOAS
Mandalay Gallery with antique, colonial views of Mandalay
Mandalay, the Burmese Heartland by Dr. Constance Wilson, Northern Illinois University
Asian Historical Architecture – Mandalay by Prof. Robert D. Fiala, Concordia University, Nebraska
Mandalay Centenary Song by Than Myat Soe MRTV3
Populated places established in 1859
Populated places in Mandalay Region
Irrawaddy River
Township capitals of Myanmar
1859 establishments in Burma
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus%20Europa
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Lotus Europa
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The Lotus Europa name is used on two distinct mid-engine GT cars built by British automobile manufacturer Lotus Cars. The original Europa and its variants comprise the Lotus Types 46, 47, 54, 65 and 74, and were produced between 1966 and 1975.
The name was later revived in the Type 121 Europa S, a sports car based on the Lotus Elise produced from 2006 to 2010.
Europa (1966–1975)
By the mid-1960s, the mid-engine vehicle configuration was well-established as the optimal design for Grand Prix cars, however almost no road vehicles yet used this arrangement. Lotus planned the Europa to be a volume-produced, two-seater mid-engine sports coupe built to reasonable cost, quite an ambitious goal for the time. Like all Lotus vehicles of the era, the Europa was designed and built following Colin Chapman's oft-stated philosophy of automotive design: "Simplify, then add lightness". To this end, a number of ingenious design approaches were made by Lotus to allow it to economically overcome the many challenges presented by the novel mid-engine arrangement.
Production of the original Lotus Europa ceased in 1975, with a total of 9,230 cars of all models having been built.
Design features
The Europa used a lightweight, folded and welded "minimalist" boxed-steel backbone chassis with a fibreglass moulded body, a combination that was first used by Lotus founder Colin Chapman in the Lotus Elan launched in 1962. Earliest versions of the Europa had the body fully bonded to the chassis for maximum structural stiffness, however this was soon changed to a bolted-on body to allow normal chassis and body repairs to be made. Unlike the Elan, the Europa had no front-mounted engine or gearbox to accommodate, and so the Europa's main chassis member ran straight forward to intersect a large box-section cross-beam running across the car between the front suspension points. At the rear, the chassis split into a "U" shape behind the cabin to accommodate the combined engine, transmission and final-drive components, and to support the rear suspension.
Engine and transaxle
The sourcing of suitable engine, gearbox and final-drive components was considered critical to the success of delivering a low-cost mid-engine vehicle. Chapman was keen to diversify beyond the Ford components heavily used in earlier Lotus vehicles, and settled on using the engine and combined transmission/final-drive transaxle units recently released by Renault for their 16. The Renault engine was a light and modern design, while the matching Renault 16 transaxle seemed almost ideal for the Europa project. In the Renault, the transaxle sat ahead of the engine, driving the front wheels. By relocating the combined engine/transaxle unit to the rear of the car and rotating it 180 degrees in plan, Lotus could obtain a ready-made modern mid-engine configuration - albeit one with four reverse gears. By repositioning the differential crownwheel within the final drive assembly (made possible by the symmetrical split case), the direction of rotation of the output shafts was reversed, thus correcting this shortcoming.
The Renault 16's engine's design met Lotus's requirements. It used an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, which saved appreciable weight compared to the cast-iron blocks more common at the time. Its overhead-valve design had the camshaft located high-up in the block, resulting in a compact valve-train well suited for high-rpm operation. Most importantly, all the engine ancillaries (water pump, belt-drives, alternator) were driven off a v-belt pulley fixed to the transaxle end of the camshaft instead of being driven by the engine's crankshaft. When fitted to the Europa, this pulley location put all the engine's ancillaries at its rear face giving easy access for maintenance, rather than them being located against the vehicle's bulkhead as-for most conventional engines.
For Lotus' use, the Renault engine was given a number of key improvements, including a higher compression ratio (10.25 instead of 8.6), larger inlet valves, revised valve timings, dual valve springs and a twin-barrel carburettor. These changes lifted the engine's power by 23% from at 5,000 rpm to at 6,000 rpm. For US export, a de-tuned version with a maximum output of at 6,000 rpm was fitted.
Later, Europa models were fitted with the same Ford-based Lotus TwinCam engine used in the Elan range since 1962. This was a sophisticated, twin-overhead-cam, 8-valve high-performance engine rated at in original (Euro) specification (later uprated to in "big-valve" form). It was reported that Lotus initially delayed its introduction in the Europa until they were confident in the strength of the Renault transaxle. The twin-cam engine first appeared in the Europa engine bay in mid-1971 (in Europe) and early 1972 (in North America). In North America, both the (early) 1972 Twin Cam version and (late) 1972–1974 Twin Cam "Special" versions were rated at in Federalized Form.
When Renault introduced their most powerful 16 TX model in 1973, it included a strengthened 5-speed transmission. Lotus quickly offered this gearbox as an option in the Europa, along with their Big Valve twin-cam engine.
Suspension
The Europa's four-wheel independent suspension was also typical Chapman thinking. The front used lightweight pressed steel upper and lower wishbones with a clever coil-over spring-damper arrangement, all connected to the wheels using off-the-shelf front uprights, ball joints and trunnions.
The steering gear was solid-mounted rack and pinion using components from the Triumph Herald.
The rear suspension was a heavily modified version of the Chapman strut, originally developed for Chapman's earlier Formula racing car designs and used in the Elan. In the Europa, the vertical "strut" element pivots on the wheel hub at its lower end and doesn't control wheel camber angle as-in earlier Lotus designs. Wheel location and alignment is controlled instead by interaction between a fixed-length, articulated driveshaft top link, a simple tubular lower link, and a large box-section radius arm running diagonally forward to the chassis. These radius arms played a critical role in giving the precise tracking and handling desired, as the Chapman Strut's use of the driveshaft to resist lateral forces was compromised by the rubber engine and transaxle mounts needed to isolate vibrations from the car body. A careful compromise between the radius arm mount's stiffness, isolation and car handling was required, culminating eventually in a sandwich bush that was flexible against shear but stiff in compression and tension. The car's subsequent resulting handling prompted automotive writers to describe the Europa as the nearest thing to a Formula car for the road.
Series 1
The Series 1 or S1 Europa (also known as Lotus Type 46) was announced for sale to European markets on 20 December 1966. The first cars were delivered in France in February 1967. Volkswagen owned the rights to the Europa name in Germany, so cars for sale in Germany were badged Europe rather than Europa.
The S1 was fitted with a modified Renault 16 1,470 cc inline-four engine and a 4-speed gearbox. The engine was a special version (as opposed to the generated in standard form). Lotus adapted the affordable but lightweight Renault engine and gearbox to the revolutionary Europa longitudinal mid-engined layout, inverting the gearbox's crown wheel on its pinion gear to avoid having four reverse gears. The S1 weighed . Autocar magazine achieved a top speed of , and recorded a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 9.3 seconds. Of particular note, in excess of 0.9 g (8 m/s²) lateral acceleration was consistently achieved by Car magazine on road tyres of that era.
Only 296 examples of the S1 were manufactured (chassis numbers from 460001 to 460296). These cars had extremely light and minimalist construction, with fixed side windows, fixed seats (adjustable pedals needing the use of tools), no door handles, no internal door covers, and an aluminum dashboard. The steel chassis central beam was sandwiched (incorporated) within the fibreglass bodywork, thus reinforcing stiffness, but making repair rather complicated.
Series 1A and B (around 350 built) had removable side windows, wooden dashboard, and internal door panel covers which could accommodate the windows once taken off. Series 1B had a redesigned rear panel, with new, rectangular light clusters.
Including the S1A and S1B (which incorporated some of the later S2 changes) variations, 644 Europa S1s were manufactured.
Series 2
The Europa Series 2, or Lotus Type 54, was introduced in April 1968 (approximately chassis number 0645 onwards). The S2 used the same 1,470 cc Renault engine and mechanical components as the earlier Series 1, but added a number of key refinements including opening electric windows, adjustable seats, a new fully carpeted interior and a polished wooden fascia panel for the dashboard. The most significant change was the switch from fully bonded construction to the use of bolt fasteners to attach the fibreglass body to the backbone steel frame. While reducing the torsional and flexural stiffness somewhat, the use of a separable body was welcomed by the automotive insurance industry as it greatly reduced the complexity and cost of making repairs to the vehicle.
Early examples of the S2 were externally almost identical to the S1 with the exception of the new windows. From early 1969, secondary front indicator lamp nacelles were added between the headlights, and larger door handles were used in place of the S1's push-button items. During 1968 a number of Europas (and Elans) were produced bearing black-and-silver Lotus badges on the nose and steering wheel in place of the customary yellow-and-green ones. The official Lotus Cars website states these "black-badge" vehicles were to commemorate the death earlier in 1968 of Jim Clark, Lotus's champion Formula One driver, however this is debated by other sources.
Contemporary road tests for the Europa S2 recorded a top speed around 120 mph (195 km/h), 0-60 mph acceleration times of 9.3 seconds, standing 1/4 mile times of around 16.7 seconds, and an overall economy of around 30 mpg (9.4 L/100 km).
United States
A small number of Series 2 vehicles were modified to be "federalized" for export to the United States. These Federal Type 54s had the low front fenders (guards) of the European model and the larger 1,565 cc engine of the later Lotus Type 65. In 1969–70, the Type 65 (also known as S2 Federal) was introduced specifically for export to the U.S., with additional changes to the body, chassis, suspension and the powerplant to better comply with U.S. D.O.T. standards. Among the changes, the engine was a slightly modified emission controlled Renault 16TL 1,565 cc unit rated at 80 hp rather than the 1,470 cc engine of the Type 54. The front suspension was changed to make the front end of the car taller along with taller front fenders to raise the headlamps. Road & Track magazine tested the Federal S2 and recorded 0-60 mph acceleration time of 9.6 seconds with a top speed of .
In total, Lotus produced 3,615 Europa S2s.
Twin Cam and Special
In 1971, the Type 74 Europa Twin Cam was made available to the public, with a 105 hp 1,557 cc Lotus-Ford Twin Cam engine (113 hp US "Federal" version with standard emissions control and Big Valve engine with Stromberg carburetors, until the end of production) and a re-designed bodyshell to improve rearward visibility. Initially it was available with the same gearbox as the earlier cars, once the supply had been exhausted in 1972 a new stronger Renault four-speed gearbox (Type 352) was introduced. Mike Kimberley, who rose to become chief executive of Group Lotus, then a new engineer at Lotus, was appointed Chief Engineer of the Europa TC project. 1,580 cars were shipped as Europa "Twin Cam" before Lotus switched to a 126 hp "Big Valve" version of the engine.
In Europe and rest of the world markets, the Big Valve "Europa Special" version was aspirated by a Dell'Orto carburettored version of the same engine; it also offered a new Renault five-speed (Type 365) gearbox option. It weighed ; Motor magazine tested a UK Special to a top speed of , recorded a 0–60 mph acceleration time in 6.6 seconds, and ran the 1/4 mile in 14.9 seconds. In the US version of the Europa Special, where the Federalized version of the Big Valve had already been introduced earlier in the Twin Cam model, the only changes were larger brakes and the optional five-speed transmission which would become standard on the special in 1974.
Introduced in September 1972, the first 100 Lotus Europa JPS Specials were badged and painted to honour Team Lotus's F1 World Championship title win with John Player Special as the team’s sponsor. All with a five-speed gearbox and Big Valve engine the original Specials were painted black with a gold pin stripe matching the livery of the GP cars – plus a numbered JPS dashboard badge. These were the first John Player Special commemorative Lotus production vehicles. The "Special" name and colour scheme was planned to be dropped after the commemorative cars, with Lotus reverting to the Twin Cam name, but such was the positive reaction to the new car that the name and the black and gold pin stripe colour scheme continued until the end of Europa production although colours other than black were made available.
In the end the numbered dashboard plaque distinguished the first, original, 100 JPS cars from other black Europa Specials.
In total 4,710 Type 74s were produced, of which 3,130 were badged "Specials".
Type 47 and 62
Although the original Europa was intended as a clubman's sports racer to replace the Lotus 7, it was realised that the car would be uncompetitive with the Renault engines available. A decision was therefore made to manufacture a specialist race car based on the Europa to be raced by Team Lotus and sold to private entrants. Although the very first Type 47 was based on a modified Europa, all subsequent cars were produced entirely by Lotus Components rather than the main factory. Launched at the same time as the S1 Europa, the body of the 47 was thinner than the standard Europa and with larger wheel arches. Side vents into the engine bay were added after the first few cars experienced problems with engine bay temperature.
The engine, gearbox and rear suspension were completely different from the standard Europa and were taken in their entirety from the Lotus 23/Lotus 22 Formula Junior cars with a Lotus-Ford Twin Cam based 165 hp (123 kW) 1,594 cc Cosworth Mk.XIII dry sump engine, and a Hewland FT 200 5-speed gearbox and suspension with reversed bottom wishbone, top link and dual radius arms. The front upright was specially cast in common with the F2 version of Lotus 41X to accommodate larger Girling brakes for the later 47A model (which had the Alfa Romeo tail lamp shared with the Europa S2) with reinforced front frame.
The Type 47 exact production numbers are unknown, the last car was 47GT-85 but it is unlikely that 85 47GT's were produced, estimates vary from 55 to 68 during the years 1966–70. Although the 47GT is the best known, a few 47F's were produced, these had the detachable body similar to the S2 Europa, but retaining the large wheel arches and side vents of the 47GT. Fitted with a tuned Ford cross flow engine but with the Renault gearbox and rear suspension of the Europa. At the request of parts supplier GKN, Lotus built the 47D as a show car. The 47D has a slightly enlarged chassis and body to fit a Rover V8 engine. At the time the 47D was built, it was capable of in 10 seconds.
As a mobile test bed for the new 2-litre Lotus 907 engine being developed for the forthcoming Elite and Eclat, the Type 62 was produced. Only two such cars were ever made. These were space frame cars with F1 suspension to handle the 240 hp power output from the engine. Although deliberately made to resemble the Europa, in practice the only connection to the Europa was a few of the Europa's body panels. It won its class in its first event the 1969 BOAC 500 at Brands Hatch with John Miles and Brian Muir at the wheel. Replica 47's and 62's are bespoke-manufactured by Banks Europa Engineering, in several variations.
Specials
Throughout its life, the Europa attracted the attention of many Lotus and non-Lotus automotive customising businesses who offered "special" versions in small numbers to the public. Among these was the Swiss Lotus importer, who made two special versions of the S2 fitted with the Renault 16 TS type 807 engine, the "Europa Hemi 807" and the fuel injected "Europa Black Shadow 807". The Hemi 807 had SAE and could attain a speed of , while the Black Shadow had power output of . The Black Shadow also received a five-speed gearbox. These cars had a wider track, special wheels and stickers, white indicator lights up front, and featured extractor vents high on the side panel behind the rear door. The fuel injection system was from Kugelfischer.
In 1971 two Lotus Hemi were entered as Group 4 GTS at the international hill climb race St. Ursanne Les Rangiers and Ollon-Villars driven by the Swiss divers Oskar Bubeck and Alfons Tresch.
Chip Foose the famous automobile pioneer of United States also modified and restored a Lotus Europa for Episode 6 of the season 11 of his popular show "Overhaulin'". It was one of the most time-consuming and complicated build of the show, where a brand new 1.8 litre four cylinder engine from an Elise was fitted into the car, while the power is handled by Porsche Boxster transmission. The bumpers were also tucked in signature Foose style.
in 1972, a Bristol based company called GS Cars has produced a variant of the Lotus Europa. This version is based on the standard Lotus Europa Twin Cam, but has new bodywork which bears some resemblance to the Maserati Merak. The GS Lotus Europa was limited to 17 units. However, only 5 are known to still exist.
Europa S (2006–2010)
In 2005, Lotus released images of a new GT type car called the Lotus Europa S. Based on the Lotus Elise, the car was officially introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show.
Production commenced in July 2006 and continued until 2010. The engine was a turbocharged four cylinder, rated at at 5,400 rpm, with a maximum torque of at 5,400 rpm. The Europa S could accelerate from in 5.6 seconds ( in 5.8 seconds), with a maximum speed of . Lotus did not export the Europa S to the United States. Despite this, the American manufacturer Dodge developed an electric vehicle based on the Europa, known as the Dodge Circuit, which it planned to bring to the US market by 2010, but the project was cancelled in May 2009.
The Europa SE was unveiled at the Geneva International Motor Show on 5 March 2008. The SE was an upgraded model with more comfort in mind, intended to bring in more customers. The SE has the same engine as the S but it was modified to bring power to and torque to .
References
Further reading
"Lotus Cars 1948–1990" article from 1992 International Lotus Convention (program guide), published by Golden Gate Lotus Club
External links
2008 Lotus Europa SE —Motor Trend
Lotus Europa Site
Forum dedicated to the Lotus Europa
Lotus Europa Registry and Knowledge Base
Lotus Europa at pistonheads.com—photographs and information
Europa Census—car registry, photographs, information in French and English
race-cars.com Lotus Type Reference
Lotus adds Europa SE for 2008—from Autoblog
Lotus 47—Lotus 47 registry and information
Europa
Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1966
Group 4 (racing) cars
1970s cars
Europa
Automobiles with backbone chassis
Sports cars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20World%20Series
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1993 World Series
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The 1993 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) season. The 90th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff played between the defending World Series champion and American League (AL) champion Toronto Blue Jays and the National League (NL) champion Philadelphia Phillies. The Blue Jays defeated the Phillies, four games to two.
With Toronto ahead three games to two in the Series, but trailing Game 6 by a score of 6–5 in the bottom of the ninth inning, Joe Carter hit a game-winning three-run home run to clinch Toronto's second consecutive championship (the first team to repeat as champions since the 1977–78 Yankees).
This was only the second Series concluded by such a home run (the first was on a Bill Mazeroski home run for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in the bottom of the ninth in the seventh game of the 1960 World Series), and the first such occasion where a come-from-behind walk-off home run won a World Series. This was the last major North American professional sports championship won by a Canadian team until Toronto FC won the MLS Cup in 2017.
This was the fourth World Series with games played entirely on artificial turf, following the series of , , and . A fifth occurred in , although that was a neutral-site series due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Larry Andersen was the only member of the Phillies who had played for the team in its previous World Series appearance in . Darren Daulton had been a late season call-up in 1983, but only served as the bullpen catcher in the World Series that year.
Summary
Matchups
Game 1
The Series' first game sent two staff aces—Curt Schilling for Philadelphia and Juan Guzman for Toronto—against one another. The result was less than a pitcher's duel, however, as both teams scored early and often. The Philles struck first in the top of the first on RBI singles by John Kruk and Darren Daulton aided by two walks. In the bottom of the second, after two singles and a wild pitch, Paul Molitor's single and Tony Fernandez's groundout scored a run each to tie the game. The Phillies took a 3–2 lead in the third inning when Mariano Duncan hit a leadoff single, stole second and scored on Kruk's single, but the Blue Jays tied the game in the bottom half of the inning when Devon White reached third base on left fielder's Milt Thompson's error and scored on Joe Carter's sacrifice fly. The Phillies retook the lead in the fifth inning when Duncan tripled with one out and scored on a wild pitch, but White hit a home run to tie the game in the bottom of the inning. The next inning, John Olerud hit a home run to put Toronto on top 5–4. In the seventh, after two one-out singles, Schilling was relieved by David West, who allowed an RBI double to White and two-run double to Roberto Alomar to pad Toronto's lead to 8–4. The Phillies got a run in the ninth when Kruk hit a leadoff single, moved to second on an error and scored on Jim Eisenreich's two-out single, but Duane Ward got Ricky Jordan to fly out to end the game as Toronto won 8–5. Al Leiter pitched innings—in relief of an erratic Juan Guzman, who walked four in just five innings—for his first World Series win. Kruk had three hits for Philadelphia. Alomar made an amazing diving catch on a Lenny Dykstra looper behind first in the top of the fifth.
Game 2
In the second game of the Series, ALCS MVP Dave Stewart was on the mound for Toronto and Terry Mulholland started for Philadelphia. Philadelphia jumped out to an early lead: in the third inning, After two walks, John Kruk and Dave Hollins hit back-to-back RBI singles, then Jim Eisenreich followed with a three-run home run to deep right-center to put them up 5–0. Toronto got on the scoreboard in the fourth inning courtesy of a Joe Carter two-run home run to left, then cut the Phillies' lead to 5–3 in the sixth when Roberto Alomar singled with two outs and scored on Tony Fernandez's double, but the Phillies got that run back in the seventh on Lenny Dykstra's home run off of Tony Castillo. Toronto cut the lead to 6–4 in the eighth when Paul Molitor hit a leadoff double off of Roger Mason, stole third and scored on John Olerud's sacrifice fly off of Mitch Williams. Alomar then walked and stole second, but was caught stealing third to end the inning. Williams then pitched a scoreless ninth as the Phillies won to tie the series. Mulholland pitched innings, allowing three earned runs, for the win.
Game 3
As he had in the preceding World Series, when the 1993 edition moved into the National League ballpark Toronto manager Cito Gaston was faced with a decision regarding his designated hitter. In 1992, Dave Winfield was Gaston’s regular DH but in the three games the series was played in Atlanta, he inserted him into the lineup in his natural position of right field; in two of those games Gaston moved his regular right fielder, Joe Carter, to first base and kept John Olerud out of his lineup. This time, with Paul Molitor in his lineup, Gaston again had to decide whether or not to keep Olerud, who led the major leagues with a .363 batting average and was a good defensive first baseman, in the lineup or replace him with the veteran Molitor, who at this point in his career had mostly been a regular DH and could only play first base if needed. Against a left-handed pitcher, Gaston decided to stick with the right-handed veteran Molitor, but had left-hitting Olerud on the bench if needed later in the game.
The Blue Jays sent future Cy Young winner Pat Hentgen to the mound for Game 3. The Phillies countered with veteran Danny Jackson, who was one of the few Phillies that had pitched in a World Series; he was part of the 1985 Kansas City and 1990 Cincinnati teams that won World Series championships.
The Blue Jays struck for two runs before recording an out. After Rickey Henderson’s leadoff single and Devon White’s walk, Molitor tripled to drive them both in. Joe Carter then extended the Toronto lead to 3–0 with a sacrifice fly, but Jackson got out of the inning by retiring Roberto Alomar and Tony Fernandez.
The Phillies got two runners in scoring position with one out in their half of the first, with Mariano Duncan and John Kruk singling and an error by Carter enabling both runners to advance a base. Hentgen ended the threat by striking out Dave Hollins and Darren Daulton; the Phillies only got one more man on base before the sixth inning.
Molitor struck again with two out in the fourth, hitting a solo home run to extend the lead to four. Carter, Alomar, and Fernandez followed with singles to load the bases, but Jackson struck out Ed Sprague Jr. to end the inning without further damage. Jackson would be lifted for a pinch hitter in the fifth.
In the sixth, Phillies reliever Ben Rivera gave up a leadoff single to Alomar. With Fernandez up, the speedy second baseman stole second and third and scored on a sacrifice fly by his double-play partner. The Phillies got on the board in the bottom of the inning on a single by Jim Eisenreich that drove in Kruk. This was Hentgen’s last inning of work; Danny Cox would come on for the seventh.
In the top of the seventh, Henderson hit a leadoff double, then scored on a triple by White. After a walk by Molitor and a Carter strikeout, Alomar's RBI single made it 7–1 in favor of Toronto. Bobby Thigpen relieved Rivera and walked Fernandez before Sprague's sacrifice fly made it 8–1.
The Phillies managed a run off of Cox in the seventh, with a string of singles by Milt Thompson, Lenny Dykstra, and Duncan with one out resulted in Thompson scoring. The Blue Jays finished their offensive output in the top of the ninth with an RBI triple by Alomar that scored Molitor and a single by Fernandez that followed to bring in Alomar. Thompson hit a solo home run against Toronto closer Duane Ward in the bottom of the ninth to finish out the scoring, and the Blue Jays emerged with a 10–3 victory and a two-games-to-one lead in the series.
Game 4
In the fourth game of the Series, Toronto sent Todd Stottlemyre to the mound while Philadelphia countered with Tommy Greene. It had been a rainy day in Philadelphia, which water-logged the aging turf at Veterans Stadium, making for particularly slippery conditions.
Toronto loaded the bases in the first on a double, walk and single. Paul Molitor walked to force in a run before Tony Fernandez's single scored two more. In the bottom half, three walks loaded the bases for the Phillies before Jim Eisenreich walked to force in a run, then Milt Thompson's three-run triple put the Phillies up 4–3. Lenny Dykstra's two-run home run next inning made it 6–3 Phillies. In the top of the third, after a one-out walk and single, consecutive RBI singles by Tony Fernandez and Pat Borders cut the lead to 6–5. Roger Mason relieved Greene and after a groundout and walk, Devon White's two-run single put Toronto up 7–6, but the Phillies tied the game in the fourth when Dykstra doubled with two outs off of Al Leiter and scored on Mariano Duncan's single. Next inning, after a leadoff single, Darren Daulton's two-run home run put the Phillies up 9–7. After another single, Thompson's RBI double made it 10–7, then Dykstra's second home run of the game made it 12–7 Phillies.
In the sixth, White hit a leadoff double before scoring on Roberto Alomar's single off of David West. After a single and hit-by-pitch loaded the bases, Fernandez's RBI groundout cut the Phillies' lead to 12–9, but they added a run in the bottom half when Dave Hollins hit a leadoff double off of Tony Castillo and scored on Thompson's two-out single. Next inning, a hit-by-pitch to Daulton with the bases loaded made it 14–9 Phillies. In the eighth, though, after a one-out single and walk off of Larry Andersen, Molitor's RBI double made it 14–10 Phillies. Fernandez then hit an RBI single off of Mitch Williams. A walk loaded the bases, then after a strikeout, Rickey Henderson's single and White's triple scored two runs each to put Toronto ahead 15–14. Duane Ward earned the save, retiring the last four Phillies batters.
Three new World Series records were set, including the longest game (4:14), most total runs scored in a single game (29), and most runs scored by a losing team (14). Also, Charlie Williams became the first African American to serve as the home plate umpire for a World Series game.
Two death threats directed towards Mitch Williams were phoned into Veterans Stadium as soon as it became evident that Williams was going to be the losing pitcher of Game 4. Williams was not aware of the death threats until after Game 5.
Game 5
The offenses were due for an off-day, and it came in Game 5 courtesy of a Curt Schilling (Philadelphia) and Juan Guzman (Toronto) pitching duel. Schilling shut down the previously unstoppable Toronto offense, limiting the team to just five hits, no extra-base hits (although catcher Pat Borders had two hits) and no runs in a complete-game shutout. It was only the second time all season that Toronto had been shut out. Guzman pitched well in a losing effort, allowing only two runs and five hits in seven innings of work.
The two runs scored as a result of scrappy baserunning play from the Philadelphia offense. In the first inning, Lenny Dykstra walked, stole second, moved to third on a Pat Borders throwing error, and scored on a John Kruk ground out. In the second inning, Darren Daulton opened with a double, took third on a groundout, and scored on a Kevin Stocker single.
As it turned out, it was the final postseason baseball game in Veterans Stadium. It was demolished after the 2003 season.
Game 6
The sixth game in the Series was a rematch between Game 2 starters Terry Mulholland and Dave Stewart, who would have similar results. Toronto scored in the bottom of the first with a run-scoring Paul Molitor triple after a walk, Joe Carter sacrifice fly to score Molitor, and Roberto Alomar RBI single after a double. The Phillies got on the board in the fourth when Darren Daulton doubled with two outs and scored on Jim Eisenreich's single, but the Blue Jays got that run back in the bottom of the inning on when Alomar hit a leadoff double, moved to third on a groundout and scored on Ed Sprague Jr.'s sacrifice fly. Paul Molitor added a home run in the fifth inning while the Toronto fans were chanting "MVP" for Paul, bringing the score to 5–1 for Toronto. Molitor became the first player in World Series history to have at least two home runs, two doubles, and two triples.
In the seventh inning, Philadelphia fought back with five runs. After a walk and single, Lenny Dykstra hit a three-run home run to knock Stewart out of the game. Mariano Duncan singled off reliever Danny Cox, stole second, and scored on Dave Hollins's RBI single to tie the game. A walk and single loaded the bases before Pete Incaviglia hit a sacrifice fly to put the Phillies up 6–5.
The Blue Jays would try to threaten in the bottom of the eighth. John Olerud drew a one-out walk and the Phillies brought in Larry Andersen to face Roberto Alomar. After Alomar grounded out, Andersen then hit Tony Fernandez with a pitch and walked Ed Sprague Jr. to load the bases. Andersen got out of the inning by inducing a pop-fly to Pat Borders. This became significant in the next inning, with the batting order reset to the top with Rickey Henderson leading off.
Philadelphia closer Mitch Williams came on to pitch the bottom of the ninth with his team clinging to a 6–5 lead. After beginning the inning by walking Rickey Henderson, Williams tried to counter Henderson's speed by using a slide-step style of pitching delivery. Prior to the game, Williams had never used the slide-step delivery in his career, and this may have cut back on his velocity. The walk to Henderson was followed by a Devon White flyout and a Paul Molitor single that moved Henderson to second.
Joe Carter came up next and, with the count 2–2, he hit a three-run home run to win the game and the World Series. Just before the fifth and final pitch to Joe Carter, CBS Sports announcer Tim McCarver commented that Carter (relatively unproductive in the Series to date) looked awkward and uncomfortable at the plate. The same pitch allowed Blue Jays radio announcer Tom Cheek the opportunity to utter his famous "Touch 'em all, Joe" quote, when Joe Carter clinched the series. Carter joined Bill Mazeroski as the only two players to win a World Series with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning (Mazeroski hit his home run in the deciding Game 7, while Carter hit his in Game 6).
Carter was actively involved in the final play of the World Series for the second year in a row. In the previous year, Carter caught the final out as first baseman after relief pitcher Mike Timlin fielded Otis Nixon's bunt. Taking the 1993 ALCS into account (where he caught the final out in the outfield), he had been involved in the final play of three straight postseason series.
American League president Dr. Bobby Brown presented the World Series Trophy instead of the Commissioner of Baseball; this event also occurred in the year before.
When Joe Carter appeared in the 1996 All-Star Game, he was booed by the crowd for his aforementioned home run that won him this World Series.
Composite box
1993 World Series (4–2): Toronto Blue Jays (A.L.) over Philadelphia Phillies (N.L.)
Aftermath
The Blue Jays became the second expansion team to win two World Series championships, following the New York Mets in . This has since been achieved by the Florida Marlins in , the Kansas City Royals in , and the Houston Astros in . With the Montreal Canadiens winning the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals five months earlier, it marked the only time Canadian teams won multiple league championships among the four major North American team sports in a calendar year.
Mitch Williams would later place blame on himself for the Series loss:
—Mitch Williams on his feelings about surrendering the home run to Joe Carter. Williams would be traded that off-season by the Phillies to the Astros.
Roger Angell's review of the Series in The New Yorker was entitled "Oh, What a Lovely War".
Both teams would experience absences from the postseason; the Phillies did not return to the postseason until 2007, or appear in another World Series until their championship season of , bringing the city of Philadelphia its first championship since the 76ers swept the 1983 NBA Finals. The general manager of the Blue Jays, Pat Gillick, was general manager of the Phillies team that won the 2008 World Series. The Blue Jays did not qualify for the playoffs again until the 2015 season. This was the last time a Toronto team made it to the championship round in one of the four major sports until the Toronto Raptors reached and won the 2019 NBA Finals.
By accumulating 45 runs over the course of the series, the Blue Jays scored the highest number of runs of any series-winning team in World Series history. Only the series-losing 1960 New York Yankees accumulated more runs in a series (55). Coincidentally, that series also ended on a walk-off home run.
1993 was the last postseason played under a two-division, two post-season round format. After the season, MLB owners agreed to a new three-division setup, with extra post-season round (League Division Series). The extra round format had been used once before during the 1981 strike shortened season.
Broadcasting
Game 6 (October 23) is to date, the last Major League Baseball game to be televised on CBS. Sean McDonough (play-by-play) and Tim McCarver (color commentary and himself a former Phillies broadcaster) called the action for CBS. The following season, Major League Baseball entered into a revenue sharing joint venture with ABC and NBC called The Baseball Network, but that joint venture was cancelled after two seasons, and by 1996, Fox took over the broadcasting rights to MLB games. McDonough stayed at CBS as a broadcaster until 2000, primarily calling college football and basketball games for the network, then left for ESPN, where he remains today. McCarver, meanwhile, reunited with his former ABC colleagues Al Michaels and Jim Palmer as the lead announce team for their Baseball Network telecasts and, following the dissolving of the network, joined Fox as their lead analyst alongside Joe Buck.
CBS's Andrea Joyce became the first woman to co-host (alongside Pat O'Brien) a World Series. Serving as field reporters for CBS were Lesley Visser (in the Blue Jays' dugout) and Jim Gray (in the Phillies' dugout)
The national radio broadcast was also provided by CBS, with Vin Scully and Johnny Bench on the call. Locally, the Series was called on WOGL-AM in Philadelphia by Harry Kalas, Richie Ashburn, Chris Wheeler, Andy Musser, and Garry Maddox and on CJCL-AM in Toronto by Jerry Howarth and Tom Cheek. Cheek's famous call of the Carter home run ("Touch 'em all Joe, you'll never hit a bigger home run in your life!") lives on in Blue Jays folklore. Tom Cheek never called another postseason game in his role as voice of the Blue Jays, from which he retired in 2005 prior to his death from brain cancer.
The 1993 series was Richie Ashburn's last as a Phillies broadcaster, as he died in 1997. Andy Musser also called his last World Series as a member of the Phillies' broadcast team; he retired in 2001 and died eleven years later. Game 6 also marked Johnny Bench's final broadcast for CBS Radio after nine years (he would be replaced on CBS Radio's World Series broadcasts by Jeff Torborg), while Harry Kalas would not call another World Series until 2008. Kalas later died in 2009 prior to a game at Nationals Park in Washington, D.C. Chris Wheeler continued to call games for the Phillies until being released in 2014 and Jerry Howarth continued to call Blue Jays games, moving into the primary play-by-play position following the death of Cheek, until his retirement before the 2018 season. Howarth would return to call postseason games when the Blue Jays qualified in 2015 and 2016, where they were eliminated in the ALCS both years.
The Joe Carter home run calls
CBS Radio, with Vin Scully:
Fastball, it's hit to left field, down the line, in the corner, home run! Joe Carter who took the 2 and 0 pitch for a strike right down the middle hits the 2 and 1 (sic) pitch over the left field wall and the Toronto Blue Jays come back with 3 in the bottom of the ninth inning to become the World Champions yet again. The final score: Toronto 8, Philadelphia 6.
CJCL-AM Radio in Toronto by Tom Cheek:
Joe has had his moments. Trying to lay off that ball, low to the outside part of the plate, he just went after one. Two balls and two strikes on him. Here's a pitch on the way, a swing and a belt! Left field, way back, BLUE JAYS WIN IT! The Blue Jays are World Series champions, as Joe Carter hits a three-run home run in the ninth inning and the Blue Jays have repeated as World Series champions! Touch 'em all, Joe, you'll never hit a bigger home run in your life!
WOGL-AM Radio in Philadelphia by Harry Kalas:
The 2–2 pitch, line drive in deep left, this ball is outta here. Three-run home run, Joe Carter, and the Toronto Blue Jays are the world champions of baseball for the second straight year. A three-run home run in the bottom of the ninth by Joe Carter who's being mobbed at home plate.
CBS Television. Sean McDonough:
Now the 2-2. Well-hit down the left-field line, way back and GONE! Joe Carter with a three-run homer! The winners and still world champions, the Toronto Blue Jays!
Music
Toronto rapper Choclair refers to Joe Carter's walk-off home run in his 1999 song, "Let's Ride".
On July 29, 2015, Toronto rapper Drake released a diss track against Philadelphia rapper Meek Mill entitled "Back to Back". The cover of the diss track features a picture of Joe Carter, just after hitting the series-clinching home run.
See also
1993 Japan Series
Sources
References
External links
Seattle Times article about Roberto Alomar's game 1 catch
1993 Toronto Blue Jays
1993 Philadelphia Phillies
MP3 download of Blue Jays' radio broadcaster Tom Cheek calling Joe Carter's World Series winning home run
World Series
World Series
Toronto Blue Jays postseason
Philadelphia Phillies postseason
World Series
World Series
1990s in Philadelphia
World Series
October 1993 sports events in North America
Baseball competitions in Philadelphia
Baseball competitions in Toronto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading%20movement
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Crusading movement
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The crusading movement was a framework of ideologies and institutions that described, regulated, and promoted the Crusades. Members of the Church defined the movement in legal and theological terms based on the concepts of holy war and pilgrimage. Theologically, the movement merged ideas of Old Testament wars that were instigated and assisted by God with New Testament ideas of forming personal relationships with Christ. Crusading was a paradigm that grew from the encouragement of the Gregorian Reform of the 11thcentury and the movement declined after the Reformation. The ideology continued after the 16thcentury, but in practical terms dwindled in competition with other forms of religious war and new ideologies.
The concept of crusading as holy war was based on the ancient idea of just war, in which an authority initiates the war, there is just cause, and the war is waged with pureness of intention. Adherents saw Crusades as special pilgrimagesa physical and spiritual journey under the authority and protection of the Church. Pilgrimage and crusade were penitent acts and they considered participants part of Christ's army. While this was only metaphorical before the First Crusade, the concept transferred from the clergy to the wider world. Crusaders attached crosses of cloth to their outfits, marking them as followers and devotees of Christ, responding to the biblical passage in Luke 9:23 which instructed them to carry one's cross and follow Christ. Anyone could be involved and the church considered those who died campaigning martyrs. After the First Crusade the movement became an important part of late-medieval western culture, impacting politics, the economy and society.
Crusading was strongly associated with the recovery of Jerusalem and the Palestinian holy places. The Holy Land was considered the patrimony of Christ, and its recovery was on the behalf of God. The historic Christian focus on Jerusalem as the setting for Christ's act of redemption was fundamental for the First Crusade and the successful establishment of the institution of crusading. Campaigns to the Holy Land had enthusiastic support. However, Crusades did also occur outside the Holy Land: the Iberian Peninsula; north-eastern Europe, against the Wends; the Baltic region; against heretics in France, Germany, and Hungary; and into mainly Italian campaigns against the papacy's political enemies. Common to all was papal sanction and the medieval concept of one Christian Church ruled by the papacy and separate from non-believers, so that Christendom was geopolitical.
Background
The period following the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the onset of the feudal revolution was seen by an 11thcentury reformist movement as an era of decline in morals and religious institutions. It was considered the result of too much involvement in the dealings of the mundus. The reformers responded primarily with the monasticisation of the clergy. This was centred on ideals of personal piety, chastity, moral purity, spiritual discipline, and elaborate liturgies. This group viewed themselves as architects of a re-established respublica Christiana. Focussed on the monastery at Cluny, this became known as Cluniac reform. Thus, an ideological framework was created for a faction within the clergy who saw themselves as God's agents for the moral and spiritual renewal of Christendom. As church historian Colin Morris noted, quoting German Historian Carl Erdmann, this reforming party gaining control of the Roman Church was an important turning point because these were men who stood for the concept of holy war and sought to enact it.
Andrew Latham, an International Relations Theory academic, identified three key pre-conditions for the crusading movement that persisted during the Middle Ages.
The reform of the essential identity of the Latin Church into an independent, motivated-by-God deliverer of religious renewal. The core interests of this identity provoked conflict with the Holy Roman Empire, Muslim polities, heretics, and pagans.
The development of crusading as a new social institution in which the Church was a war-making entity that the armed nobility fought for as .
The development of formal structures for building an army that furthered the Church's interests.
This new identity and developments created conflict between the Church and its opponents that become violent. The crusades were not simply a function of what International Relations Theory considers the structural drivers of anarchy, but part of wider social and political development. Without these factors, the crusades were impossible; and when these factors became less significant, crusading declined.
Christianity and war
A distinct ideology promoted and regulated crusades. The Church defined crusading in legal and theological terms based on the theory of holy war and the concept of pilgrimage. Theology merged Old Testament Israelite wars that were instigated and assisted by God with New Testament Christocentric views on forming individual relationships with Christ. Holy war was based on , the ancient idea of just war. It was the 4th-century theologian Augustine of Hippo who Christianised this, and canon lawyers developed it from the 11thcentury into , the paradigm of Christian holy war. Theologians widely accepted Henry of Segusio's justification that holy war against pagans was just because of their opposition to Christianity.
The theology of war evolved from the linking of Roman citizenship with Christianity; Christian citizens now had the obligation to fight against the Empire's enemies. Augustine argued that war was sinful, but in certain circumstances, a "just war" could be rationalised. The criteria were:
If an authority such as a king or bishop proclaimed the war.
If it was defensive or for the recovery of territory.
If combatants fought without an excessive degree of violence.
Gregory VII extended the institutions of holy war and in 1083 his supporter Anselm of Lucca consolidated the just war theories in or Collection of Canon Law. In the 11thcentury, the Church sponsored conflict with Muslims on the southern peripheries of Christendom, including the siege of Barbastro and the Norman conquest of the Sicily. In 1074, Gregory planned a holy war in support of Byzantium's struggles with Muslims, which produced a template for a crusade, but he was unable to garner the required support.
Augustine's principles formed the basis of a doctrine of holy war that was later developed in the 13thcentury by Thomas Aquinas, canon lawyers, and theologians. Historians, such as Erdmann, thought that from the 10thcentury the Peace and Truce of God movement restricted conflict between Christians. This movement's influence is apparent in Pope Urban II's speeches, but historians now assert that that influence was limited and had ended by the time of the crusades.
Erdmann documented in The Origin of the Idea of Crusade the three stages of the development of a Christian institution of crusade:
The Augustinian argument that the preservation of Christian unity was a just cause for warfare.
The idea developed under Pope Gregory I that the conquest of pagans in an indirect missionary war was also in accordance.
The paradigm developed under the reformist popes Leo IX, Alexander II, and Gregory VII, in the face of Islamic conflict, that it was right to wage war in defence of Christendom.
The Church viewed Rome as the Patrimony of Saint Peter. This enabled the application of canon law to justify various Italian wars waged by the church as purely defensive crusades to protect theoretical Christian territory.
Penance and indulgence
By the 11thcentury, the Latin Church developed a system that provided for the remission and absolution of sin in return for contrition, confession, and penitential acts. However, reparation through abstinence from martial activity presented a major challenge to the noble warrior class. In a revolutionary innovation at the end of the 11thcentury, Gregory VII offered absolution of sin earned through the Church-sponsored violence in support of his causes, if selflessly given. This was developed by subsequent Popes into the granting of plenary indulgence that reduced all God-imposed temporal penalties. At the Council of Clermont in November 1095, Urban II effectively founded the crusading movement with two directives: the exemption of atonement for those who journeyed to Jerusalem to free the Church; and that while doing so all goods and property were protected.
The weakness of conventional theologies in the face of crusading euphoria is shown in a letter critical of Pope Paschal II from the writer Sigebert of Gembloux to the crusader Robert II, Count of Flanders. Sigebert referred to Robert's safe return from Jerusalem but completely avoided mentioning the crusade. It was Calixtus II who first promised the same privileges and protections of property to the families of crusaders. Under the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, Eugenius III revised Urban's ambiguous position with the view that the crusading indulgence was remission from God's punishment for sin, as opposed to only remitting ecclesiastical confessional discipline. Innocent III emphasised crusader oaths and clarified that the absolution of sins was a gift from God, rather than a reward for the crusaders' suffering. With his 1213 bull Quia maior, he appealed to all Christians, not just the nobility, offering the possibility of vow redemption without crusading. This set a precedent for trading in spiritual rewards, a practice that scandalised devout Christians and became a contributing cause of the 16th century Protestant Reformation.
As late as the 16thcentury, writers sought redemptive solutions in the traditionalist wars of the cross, while otherssuch as English martyrologist John Foxesaw these as examples of papist superstition, corruption of religion, idolatry, and profanation. Critics blamed the Roman Church for the failure of the crusades. War against the infidel was laudable, but not crusading based on doctrines of papal power, indulgences, and against Christian religious dissidents such as the Albigensian and Waldensians. Justifying war on juristic ideas of just war to which Lutherans, Calvinists, and Roman Catholics could all subscribe, and the role of indulgences, diminished in Roman Catholics tracts on the Turkish wars. Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius developed international laws of war that discounted religion as a cause, in contrast to popes, who persisted in issuing crusade bulls for generations.
Evolution
Knights and chivalry
At the beginning of the crusading movement, chivalry was in its infancy; but it went on to define the ideas and values of knights, and was central to the crusading movement. Literature illustrated the prestige of knighthood, but it was distinct from the aristocracy. 11th and 12thcentury texts depict a class of knights that were closer in status to peasants within recent generations. In the 13thcentury knighthood became equated with nobility, as a social class with legal status, closed to non-nobles. Chivalric development grew from a society dominated by the possession of castles. Those who defended these became knights. At the same time, a novel form of combat evolved, based on the use of heavy cavalry, coupled with the growing naval capability of Italy's maritime republics, that strengthened the feasibility of the First Crusade. These new methods of warfare led to the development of codes, ethics, and ideologies. Contrary to the representation in the romances, battles were rare. Instead, raids and sieges predominated, for which there was only a minimal role for knights. During the 11th and 12thcenturies, the armies had a ratio of one knight to between seven and twelve infantry, mounted sergeants, and squires.
Knighthood required combat training, which created solidarity and gave rise to combat as a sport. Crusade preachers used tournaments and other gatherings to obtain vows of support from attending dignitaries, begin persuasive campaigns, and announce a leader's taking of the cross. Military strategy and medieval institutions were immature in feudal Europe, with power too fragmented for the formation of disciplined units. Despite the courage of knights and some notable generalship, the crusades in the Levant were typically unimpressive.
Developing vernacular literature glorified the idea of adventure and the virtues of valour, largesse, and courtesy. This created an ideal of the perfect knight. Chivalry was a way of life, a social and moral model that evolved into a myth conflicting with the ideals of the Church. Whilst fearing this knightly ideal, the Church co-opted it in conflicts with feudal lords. Writers lauded those who fought for the Church; others were excommunicated. By the 11thcentury, the Church developed liturgical blessings sanctifying new knights; and existing literary themes, such as the legend of the Grail, were Christianized and treatises on chivalry written. In 1100, kings depicted themselves as knights to indicate their power. Participation in crusades was considered integral to idealized knightly behaviour. Crusading became part of the knightly class's self-identification, creating a cultural gap with other social classes. From the Fourth Crusade, it became an adventure normalised in Europe, which altered the relationship between knightly enterprise, religious, and worldly motivation.
Military Orders
The crusaders' propensity to follow the customs of their western European homelands meant that there were very few innovations adopted from the culture of the crusader states. Three notable exceptions to this were the military orders, warfare, and fortifications. The Knights Hospitaller were founded in Jerusalem before the First Crusade but added a martial element to their ongoing medical functions to become a much larger military order. In this way, knighthood entered the previously monastic and ecclesiastical sphere.
Military orderslike the Knights Hospitaller and Knights Templarprovided Latin Christendom's first professional armies, to support the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other crusader states. The Templars were founded around 1119 by a small band of knights who dedicated themselves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem. These orders became supranational organizations with papal support, leading to rich donations of land and revenue across Europe. This led to a steady flow of recruits and the wealth to maintain multiple fortifications in the crusader states. In time, the orders developed into autonomous powers.
After the fall of Acre, the Hospitallers relocated to Cyprus, then conquered and ruled Rhodes (1309–1522) and Malta (1530–1798), and continue to exist to the present-day. King Philip IV of France had financial and political reasons to oppose the Knights Templar, which led him to exert pressure on Pope Clement V. The pope responded in 1312, with a series of papal bulls including Vox in excelso and Ad providam, which dissolved the order on alleged and false grounds of sodomy, magic, and heresy.
Common people
There were contributions to the crusading movement from classes other than the nobility and knights. Grooms, servants, smiths, armourers, and cooks provided services and could fight if required. Women also formed part of the armies. Despite papal recruitment concentrating on warriors in the movement's early years, it proved impossible to exclude non-knightly participants. Historians have increasingly researched the motivations of the poor who joined the early crusades in large numbers and engaged in popular unsanctioned events during the 13th and 14thcenturies. Participation was voluntary, so preaching needed to propagandise theology in popular forms, which often led to misunderstanding. For example, crusading was technically defensive, but amongst the poor, Christianity and crusading were aggressive. An emphasis on popular preaching, developed in the 12thcentury, generated a wealth of useful resources. The most popular example is that of Humbert of Romans from 1268. The popular but short-lived outbreaks of crusading enthusiasm after the fall of Acre were largely driven by eschatological perceptions of crusading amongst the poor rather than the advanced, professionalized plans advocated by theorists.
Pilgrimage was not a mass activity. To develop an association with the Holy Sepulchre, western Christians built models of the site across Europe and dedicated chapels. Although these acts predated crusading, they became increasingly popular and may have provided a backdrop to Easter Drama or sacramental liturgy. In this way, what was known as the remotest place in 1099 became embedded in daily devotion, providing a visible sign of what crusading was about.
Ungoverned, uncontrolled peasant crusading erupted in 1096, 1212, 1251, 1309, and 1320. Apart from the Children's Crusade of 1212, these were accompanied by violent antisemitism; it is unexplained why this was the exception. The literate classes were hostile to this particular unauthorized crusade but mytho-historicized it so effectively that it is one of the most evocative verbal artefacts from the Middle Ages that remained in European and American imagination. The term "Children's Crusade" requires clarification in that neither "children"in Latin nor "crusade"described in Latin as , , , or are completely wrong or correct. Although there are a number of written sources, they are of doubtful veracity, differing about dates and details while exhibiting mytho-historical motifs and plotlines. Clerics used the sexual purity and "innocence" of the as a critique of the sexual misbehaviour in the formal crusades, which was seen to be the source of God's anger and the failure of campaigns.
Perception of Muslims
In medieval times, ethnic identity was a social construct, defined in terms of culture rather than race; and Christians considered all of humanity common descendants of Adam and Eve. Chroniclers used the ethno-cultural terms "barbarians" or , which were inherited from the Greeks of antiquity, for "others" or "aliens", which were thus differentiated from the self-descriptive term "Latins" that the crusaders used for themselves.
Although there are no specific references to crusading in the 11thcentury , the author, for propaganda purposes, represented Muslims as monsters and idolators. Christian writers repeated this image elsewhere. Visual cues were used to represent Muslims as evil, dehumanized, and monstrous aliens with black complexions and diabolical physiognomies. This portrayal remained in western literature long after the territorial conflict of the crusades had faded into history. The term "Saracen" designated a religious community rather than a racial group, while the word "Muslim" is absent from the chronicles. Instead, various terms are usedsuch as infidels, gentiles, enemies of God, and pagans. The conflict was seen as a Manichean contest between good and evil. Historians have been shocked by the inaccuracy and hostility involved in such representations, which included crude insults to Mohammad, caricatures of Islamic rituals, and the representation of Muslims as libidinous gluttons, blood-thirsty savages, and semi-human. Historian Jean Flori argues that to self-justify Christianity's move from pacifism to warfare, their enemies needed to be ideologically destroyed.
Despite the negative representations, the Turks were respected as opponents in the , which considered only the Turks and the Franks as having a knightly lineage. Some, such as the character Aumont in the , were represented as equals, even as far as being seen as following the chivalric code. By the Third Crusade, there is evidence of a class division within the nobility in both camps who shared a chivalric identity that overcame religious and political differences. This differentiated the two elites from their common co-religionists who had other loyalties. Increasingly, epics involved instances of conversion to Christianity, which promised a solution to the conflict in favour of the Franks at a time they were being defeated militarily. Poets often relied on the patronage of leading crusaders, so they extolled the values of the nobility, the feudal status quo, chivalry, martial prowess, and the idea of the Holy Land being God's territory usurped and despoiled. Writers designed works encouraging revenge on Muslims, who deserved punishment and were God's enemies. The artists addressed their works to the patrons, often beginning with or , based on dialectical understanding of rhetoric in terms of praise or blame. Works praised those who answered the call to crusade, writers vilified those who did not. The reformist Church's identity-interest complex framed Islam as a particular form of heresy. Muslim rule in formerly Christian territory was an "unjust" confiscation of Christian property, and this persecution of Christians required repayment. The view was that these injustices demanded Christian action. Islamic polities' own identity-interest complexes led them to be equally violently opposed to the restoration of Christian rule.
Birth
The papacy developed "Political Augustinianism" into attempts to remove the Church from secular control by asserting ecclesiastical supremacy over temporal polities and the Eastern Orthodox Church. This was associated with the idea that the Church should actively intervene in the world to impose "justice". In the 12thcentury, Gratian and the Decretists elaborated on this, and Thomas Aquinas refined it in the 13thcentury. In the late 11th and early 12thcentury the papacy became a unit for organized violence in the Latin world order, equivalent to other kingdoms and principalities. This required what were partly inefficient, mechanisms of control that mobilised secular military forces under direct control of the papacy.
The sanctification of war developed during the 11thcentury through campaigns fought for, instigated, or blessed by the pope, including the Norman conquest of Sicily, the recovery of Iberia from the Muslims, and the Pisan and Genoese Mahdia campaign of 1087 to North Africa. Crusading followed this tradition, assimilating chivalry within the locus of the Church through:
The concept of pilgrimage, the primary focus in Pope Urban II's call to crusade.
The view on penance, that it could apply to killing adversaries.
The identification of Muslims as pagans. This made those killed by them martyrs, equivalent to early Christian victims of pagan persecution.
The identification of the recovery of the despoiled country of Christ. Urban assembled his own army to re-establish the patrimony of Christ over the heads of kings and princes.
The principle that crusade knights were Christ's vassals. This refined the term used originally for Christians, then only for clergy and monks fighting evil through prayer, and from 1075 warriors fighting for St. Peter before the term became synonymous with crusaders. Knights no longer needed to abandon their way of life or become monks to achieve salvation. Crusading was a break with chivalry; Urban II denounced war among Christians as sinful, but fighting for Jerusalem led by a new knighthood was meritorious and holy. This ideology did not support chivalryonly crusading.
Urban II made decisions that were fundamental for the nascent religious movements, rebuilding papal authority and restoring its financial position. It was at the Council of Clermont that he arranged the juristic foundation of the crusading movement. The catalyst was an embassy from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to the earlier Council of Piacenza, requesting military support in his conflict with the Seljuk Empire. These Turks were expanding into Anatolia and threatening Constantinople. He subsequently expressed the dual objectives for the campaign: firstly, freeing Christians from Islamic rule; secondly, freeing the Holy Sepulchrethe tomb of Christ in Jerusalemfrom Muslim control. This led to what is recognised as the first crusading expedition.
The First Crusade was a military success, but a papal failure. Urban initiated a Christian movement seen as pious and deserving but not fundamental to the concept of knighthood. Crusading did not become a duty or a moral obligationlike a pilgrimage to Mecca or jihad were to Islamand the creation of military religious orders is indicative of this failure. Canon law forbade priests from warfare, so the orders consisted of a class of lay brothers, but the orders were otherwise remarkably like other monastic orders. The difference was that these became orders of monks called to the sword and to blood-shedding. This was a doctrinal revolution within the Church regarding warfare. Its acknowledgement in 1129 at the Council of Troyes integrated the concept of holy war into the doctrines of the Latin Church. This illustrated the failure of the Church to assemble a force of knights from the laity and the ideological split between crusades and chivalry. The military vulnerability of the settlers in the East required further supportive expeditions through the 12th and 13th centuries. In each generation, these followed the pattern of a military setback in the East, a request for aid, and crusade declarations from the papacy.
12th century
The first century of crusading coincided with the Renaissance of the 12th century, and crusading was represented through the rich vernacular literature that evolved in France and Germany during the period. There are French language versions, and in the literary language of southern FranceOccitan, of epic poems such as the about the Siege of Antioch (1268) and the about the Albigensian Crusade. In French, these were known as , taken literally from the Latin for "deeds done". Songs dedicated to the subject of crusadingknown as crusade songsare rare. Still, from the time of the Second Crusade onwards, many works survive in Occitan, French, German, Spanish, and Italian that include crusading as a topic or use it as an allegory. Poet-composers such as the Occitan troubadours Marcabru and Cercamon wrote songs with themes called and about absent loves called . Crusading became the subject of songs and poems rather than creating new genres. Troubadours, and their northern French and German equivalents, grew in popularity from 1160, leaving many songs about the third and fourth crusades. Crusade songs served multiple purposes:
They provided material for the poet/performer, variations on courtly love, allegories, and paradigms.
Audiences learnt doctrine, information, and propaganda unmediated by the Church.
They reinforced the nobility's self-image, confirmed its position in society, and inspired .
They provided for the expression of injustice and criticism of mismanagement when events did not go well.
There is little evidence of protest by senior churchmen, although it is likely that had the First Crusade failed this would have been different. The crusade's success was astonishing and seen as only possible via a manifestation of God's will. When Paschal succeeded Urban he ended the schism by defeating the three anti-popes that followed Clement III. He also quarreled with Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, his eventual successor Guy, archbishop of Vienne (later Calixtus II), and Church reformists over the right to invest bishops. His legislation developed that of his predecessors in connection with crusading. After the failed 1101 crusade, he supported Bohemond I of Antioch's gathering of another army with the provision of the flag of St. Peter and a cardinal legate, Bruno of Segni. Calixtus II extended the definition of crusading during his five years as Pope. He was one of the six sons of William I, Count of Burgundy and a distant relation to Baldwin II of Jerusalem. Three of his brothers died taking part in the 1101 Crusade which exemplifies the fact that early crusade recruitment concentrated in certain families and networks of vassals. These groups demonstrated their commitment through funding, although the sale of churches and tithes may have been a pragmatic acceptance that retaining these properties was unsustainable in the face of the reform movement in the Church. These kinship groups often exhibited traditions of pilgrimage to Jerusalem, association with Cluniac monasticism, the reformed papacy, and the veneration of certain saints. Female relatives spread these values through marriage. He also equated the reconquest of Iberia from the Muslims with crusading in the Holy Land, proposing a war on two fronts and posthumously leading to the campaign by Alfonso the Battler against Granada in 1125.
Strategically, the crusaders could not hold Jerusalem in isolation, which led to the establishment of other western polities known as the Latin East. Even then, these required regular missions for their defence, supported by the developing military orders. The movement expanded into Spain with campaigns in 1114, 1118, and 1122. Eugenius III was influenced by Bernard of Clairvaux to join the Cistercians. Exiled by an antipapal commune, Eugenius III encouraged King Louis VII of France and the French to defend Edessa from the Muslims with the bull in 1145, and again, slightly amended, in 1146. Eugenius III commissioned Bernard of Clairvaux to the crusade and travelled to France where he issued (II) under the influence of Bernard, associating attacks on the Wends and the reconquest of Spain with crusading. The crusade in the East was not a success, and he subsequently resisted further crusading. Although there were three campaigns in Spain, and in 1177 one in the East, the next three decades saw the lowest ebb of the movement until the 15thcentury. This lull ended when news of the defeat at the hands of the Muslims at the Battle of Hattin created consternation throughout Europe and reignited enthusiasm. Early crusadessuch as the First, Second and Albigensianincluded peasants and non-combatants until the high costs of journeying by sea made participation in the Third and Fourth Crusade impossible for the general populace. Afterward, the professional and popular crusades diverged, such as in 1309 when the Crusade of the Poor and one by the Hospitallers occurred simultaneously, both responding to Pope ClementV's crusading summons of the previous year.
From the end of the century, Europeans adopted the terms or , meaning "one signed by the cross", with crusaders marking themselves as a follower of Christ by attaching cloth crosses to their clothing. The fashion derived from the biblical passage in Luke 9:23 "to carry one's cross and follow Christ". Through this action, a personal relationship between Crusaders and God was formed that marked the crusader's spirituality. Anyone could become a crusader, irrespective of gender, wealth, or social standing. This was an , an "imitation of Christ", a sacrifice motivated by charity for fellow Christians; and those who died campaigning were martyrs. The Holy Land was the patrimony of Christ; its recovery was on behalf of God. The Albigensian Crusade was a defence of the French Church, the Baltic Crusades were campaigns conquering lands beloved of Christ's mother Mary for Christianity.
13th century
Crusade providentialism was intricately linked with a prophetic sensibility at the end of the 12thcentury. Joachim of Fiore included the war against the infidels in his cryptic conflations of history combining past, present, and future. Such was his influence that Richard I of England met him in Messina en route to the East because, in his view, "for this Joachim had the spirit of prophecy and used to foretell what was going to happen". Foreshadowing the Children's Crusade, the representatives of the third age were children, or . Franciscans such as Salimbene saw themselves as an "order of little ones" amongst a revivalist enthusiasm and a spirit of prophetic elation. The Austrian Rhymed Chronicle added prophetic elements of mytho-history to the Children's Crusade. In 1213, Innocent III called for the Fifth Crusade by announcing that the days of Islam were over: "The sway of the beast in Revelations will last 666 years of which already nearly six hundred have passed." The Church also condemned and suppressed heretics.
For recruitment purposes, popes initiated each crusade by publicly preaching its aims, spiritual value, and justification. Preaching could be both authorized and unofficial. The Church transmitted news through its hierarchy via papal bulls. This system was not always dependable, because of conflict among clerics, local political concerns, and lack of education. From the 12thcentury, the Cistercian Order provided propaganda for campaigns, and the Dominicans and Franciscans followed in the 13thcentury. Mendicant friars and papal legates targeted different geographies. This sophisticated propaganda system was a prerequisite for the success of multiple concurrent crusades. The message varied, but the aim of papal control of crusading remained. Preachers called for Holy Land crusades across Europe, but only preached smaller venturessuch as the Northern and Italian crusadeslocally to avoid tension in recruitment. Papal authority was critical for the effectiveness of the indulgence and the validity of vow redemption. Aristocratic culture, family networks, and feudal hierarchies spread informal propaganda, often by word of mouth. Courts and tournaments were arenas where the population shared stories, songs, poems, news, and information about crusades. Songs about the crusades became increasingly popular, although troubadours were hostile after the Albigensian Crusade. Chivalric virtues were heroism, leadership, martial prowess, and religious fervour. Visual representations in books, churches, and palaces served the same purpose. Themes were expanded in church art and architecture via murals, stained glass windows, and sculptures, such as the windows at the abbey of Saint-Denis, or the murals commissioned by Henry III of England, as well as by the many churches that were modelled after the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
From around 1225 to 1500, there are more than fifty texts in Middle English and Middle Scots with crusading themes. Performers read these to an audience, as opposed to the audience reading them, for entertainment and as propaganda for political and religious identity, differentiating the Christian "us" and the non-Christian "other". The works include romances, travelogues such as Mandeville's Travels, poems such as William Langland's Piers Plowman and John Gower's Confessio Amantis, the Hereford Map and the works of Geoffrey Chaucer. That writers wrote these after crusading fervour had diminished demonstrates an ongoing interest. The authors depicted chivalric Christendom as victorious and superior, as holding the spiritual and moral high ground. They are adaptated from translations of French originals. Some authors, such as Guy of Warwick, portrayed Muslim leaders as analogous to contemporary politicians. Popular motifs include chivalrous Christian knights seeking adventure and fighting Muslim giants, or a king travelling in disguise, such as Charlemagne in the Scots Taill of Rauf Coilyear. Crusading literature represented legendary figures with military and moral authority. Charlemagne was portrayed as a role model, famed for his victories over the pagan Saxons and Vikings, his religious fervour marked by forced conversions. The entertainment aspect played a vital role in encouraging an element of "Saracen bashing". The literature demonstrates populist religious hatred and bigotry, in part because Muslims and Christians were economic, political, military, and religious rivals while exhibiting a popular curiosity about and fascination with the "Saracens".
In 1198, Innocent III was elected pope, and he reshaped the ideology and practice of crusading. This was done by creating a new executive office to organize the Fourth Crusade, appointing executors in each province of the Church, as well as having freelancers, such as Fulk of Neuilly, preaching. This system developed further in time for the Fifth Crusade, with executive boards, that held legatine power, established in each province. Delegates in dioceses and archdioceses reported to these bodies on promotional policy while the papacy codified preaching. Political circumstances meant that more pragmatic and ad-hoc approaches followed, but the coherence of local promotion remained greater than before. Under Innocent III the papacy introduced taxation to fund the campaigns and encouraged donations. In 1199, he was the first pope to deploy the conceptual and legal apparatus developed for crusading to enforce papal rights. From the 1220s, crusader privileges were regularly granted to those who fought against heretics, schismatics, or those Christians the papacy considered non-conformist.
Part of the tradition of outbreaks of popular crusading that lasted from 1096 until the 1514 Hungarian Peasants' Crusade, the 1212 Children's Crusade was the first independent popular crusade; it sprung from the preaching for the Albigensian Crusade and parades seeking God's assistance for the Iberian crusades. All crusades not authorized by the Church were illicit and unaccompanied by papal representation. Crusades of this type were atypical, and their participants were unconventional crusaders. However, those who took part perceived themselves as authentic crusaders, using pilgrimage and crusade emblems, including the cross. Historians describe these events variously as people's crusades, peasants' crusades, shepherds' crusades, and crusades of the poor. Despite a broad range of research topics, it is difficult for historians to identify common features. There is evidence of charismatic leadership until the 14thcentury. Eschatology led to antisemitic Judaic violence and trends of self-determination amongst the involuntary poor. Popular crusades were diverse but shared historical circumstances with official crusades. These events demonstrate the power of crusading ideas, and that non-noble believers were engaged in the momentous events of Latin Christendom. The focus on the activity of clerics and warrior knights underestimates the movement's importance.
Between 1217 and 1221, Cardinal Hugo Ugolino of Segni led a preaching team in Tuscany and northern Italy as papal legate. At this time:
He negotiated the end of various conflicts in Lucca, Pisa, Pistola, the Republic of Genoa, Bologna and the Republic of Venice.
Used the five percent income tax on the Church, a tax known as the "clerical twentieth".
Paid mercenaries to join the Fifth Crusade, which was delayed by Frederick II's repeatedly postponed embarkation.
Provided grants to .
In this way, the development of more lax rules regarding Church funding and crusade recruitment is evidenced. Ugolino became pope in 1227, taking the name Pope Gregory IX, and excommunicated Frederick for his prevarication. Frederick finally arrived in the Holy Land where he negotiated Christian access to Jerusalem, but his claim to the crown through marriage and his excommunicate status created political conflict in the kingdom. The settlement was decried by Gregory, but he used the resulting peace to further develop the wider movement:
The poor orders organized inquisitions into heretics.
The Church expanded crusade recruitment.
Missionaries evangelized.
Negotiations opened with the Greek Church.
The Dominican Order channelled support to the Teutonic Order.
Gregory was the first pope to deploy the full range of crusading mechanismssuch as indulgences, privileges, and taxesagainst the emperor, and extended commutation of crusader vows from expeditions to Outremer theatres. These measures and the use of clerical income tax in the conflict with the emperor formed the foundations for political crusades by Gregory's successor, Innocent IV.
In 1241, after the conflict in Lombardy and Sardinia, Frederick II's army threatened Rome. Gregory IX responded with crusading terminology. Innocent IV based crusading ideology on the Christians' right to ownership. He acknowledged Muslims' land ownership but emphasised that this was subject to Christ's authority. Rainald of Segni, who became pope in December 1254, taking the name Alexander IV, continued the policies of Gregory IX and Innocent IV. This meant supporting crusades against the Staufen dynasty, the North African Moors, and pagans in Finland and the Baltic region. He attempted to give Sicily to Edmund Crouchback, the son of King Henry III, in return for a campaign to win it from Manfred, King of Sicily, the son of Frederick II. But this was logistically impossible, and the campaigns were unsuccessful. Alexander failed to form a league to confront the Mongols in the East or the invasion of Poland and Lithuania. Frequent calls to fight in eastern Europe (1253–1254, 1259) and for the Outremer (1260–1261) raised small forces, but Alexander's death prevented a general passage. At the Second Council of Lyons in 1274, Bruno von Schauenburg, Humbert, Guibert of Tournai, and William of Tripoli produced treatises articulating the requirements for success. Crusading appears to have maintained popular appeal, with recruits from a wide geographical area continuing to take the cross.
There is evidence of early criticism of crusading and the behaviour of crusaders. Although few challenged the concept itself in the 12thand13thcenturies, there were vociferous objections to crusades against heretics and Christian lay powers. The Fourth Crusade's attack on Constantinople and the use of resources against enemies of the Church in Europe, such as the Albigensian heretics and Hohenstaufen, were all denounced. Troubadours were critical of expeditions in southern France, noting with regret the neglect of the Holy Land. The behaviour of combatants was regarded as inconsistent with that expected in a holy war. Chroniclers and preachers complained of sexual promiscuity, avarice, and overconfidence. Western Europeans blamed failuresthe First Crusade, the defeat of the kingdom of Jerusalem at Hattin by Saladin, and other campaignson human sin. Gerhoh of Reichersberg equated the failures of the Second Crusade to the coming of the Antichrist.
Remediation included ceremonial marches, reformation requests, prohibitions of gambling and luxuries, and limits on the number of women involved. The Würzburg Annals condemned the behaviour of the crusaders and suggested it was the devil's work. LouisIX of France's defeat at the Battle of Mansurah provoked challenges to crusading in sermons and treatises, such as Humbert of Romans's (The preaching of the cross). The cost of armies led to taxation, an idea attacked as an unwelcome precedent by Roger Wendover, Matthew Paris, and Walther von der Vogelweide. Critics raised concerns about Franciscan and Dominican friars abusing the system of vow redemption for financial gain. The peaceful conversion of Muslims was an option, but there is no evidence that this represented public opinion, and the continuation of crusading indicates the opposite.
At the end of the 13thcentury, the impending Mamluks victory in the Holy Land left the crusading movement in crisis. Success in Spain, Prussia, and Italy did not compensate for losing the Holy Land. This was a crisis of faith, as well as of military strategy, that the Second Council of Lyon considered religiously shameful. Notable criticism includes Matthew Paris in , and the dean of Lincoln at the Council. The military ordersparticularly the Teutonic Orderwere disparaged for pride, avarice, devoting their wealth to lives of ease and luxury, and not maintaining large enough forces in the Holy Land. Armed conflict between the Templars and Hospitallers and between Christians in the Baltic hindered cooperation. The Church deemed military action in the East less effective because of the independence of the orders and their perceived reluctance to fight the Muslims, with whom their critics considered they were on overly friendly terms. Although a minority view held by Roger Bacon and others was that aggression, particularly in the Baltic, impeded conversion.
14th century
The crisis did not end with the final fall of the Outremer in 1291, as general opinion did not consider that final. It was only when the Hundred Years' War began in 1337 that hopes for recovery faded. However, ideas, and the consolidation of methods of organisation and finance following the Council and spanning the decades around 1300, demonstrated qualities of engagement, resilience, and adaptability that in part enabled the movement's survival for generations. One of Pope Gregory X's objectives was the reunification of the Latin and Greek churches, which he viewed as essential for a new crusade and the Outremer's protection. At the Second Council of Lyon, he demanded the Eastern Orthodox delegation accept all Latin teaching. In return, Gregory offered a reversal of papal support for Charles I of Anjou, the king of Sicily, to meet the Byzantines' primary motivation of the cessation of Western attacks. However, there was little interest from European monarchs, who were focussed on their own conflicts. Gregory created a complex tax gathering system for the funding of crusading, dividing Christendom in 1274 into twenty-six collectorates. Each of these was under the direction of a general collector who further delegated the assessment of tax liability to reduce fraud. The vast amounts raised by this system led to clerical criticism of obligatory taxation.
Even then there were more than twenty treatises on the recovery of the Holy Land between the councils of Lyon in 1274 and Vienna in 1314, prompted by Gregory X and his successors following the example of Innocent III in requesting advice. This advice led to plans for a blockade of the Mamluks, a that provided a bridgehead followed by a using a professional army. Writers debated details through the prism of Capetian and Aragonese dynastic politics. Short-lived popular crusading broke out in every decade, such as those prompted by the Mongol victory over the Mamluks at Homs and popular crusades in France and Germany. The papacy's institutionalisation of taxation, including a six-year tithe levied on clerical incomes, to pay for professional crusading armies on a contractual basis was an extraordinary achievement despite numerous challenges. The 1320 of the Second Shepherds' Crusade was the first time that the papacy decried a popular crusade.
Beginning in 1304 and lasting the entire 14thcentury, the Teutonic Order used the privileges Innocent IV had granted in 1245 to recruit crusaders in Prussia and Livonia, in the absence of any formal crusade authority. Knightly volunteers from every Catholic state in western Europe flocked to take part in campaigns known as , or journeys, as part of a chivalric cult. Commencing in 1332, the numerous Holy Leagues in the form of temporary alliances between interested Christian powers, were a new manifestation of the movement. Successful campaigns included the capture of Smyrna in 1344, the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, and the recovery of territory in the Balkans between 1684 and 1697.
After the Treaty of Brétigny between England and France, the anarchic political situation in Italy prompted the curia to begin issuing indulgences for those who would fight the Routiers threatening the pope and his court at Avignon. In 1378, the Western Schism split the papacy into two and then three, with rival Popes declaring crusades against each other. The growing threat from the Ottoman Turks provided a welcome distraction that would unite the papacy and divert the violence to another front. By the end of the century, the Teutonic Order's had become obsolescent. Commoners had limited interaction with crusading beyond the preaching of indulgences, the success of which depended on the preacher's ability, local powers' attitudes, and the extent of promotion. However, there is no evidence that the failure to organize anti-Turkish crusading was due to popular apathy or hostility rather than to finance and politics.
15th century
The Venetian Gabriel Condulmaro succeeded Pope MartinV as Eugenius IV in 1431 and developed the policy of ecumenical negotiation with the Byzantines. Emperor John V Palaiologos visited him with a large delegation for talks which led to the proclamation the union of the Latin, Greek Orthodox, Armenian, Nestorian, and Cypriot Maronite churches. The reward for the Byzantines was military support. Between 1440 and 1444, Eugenius co-ordinated the defence of Constantinople from the Turks by crusading movements through the Balkan Christians (especially the Hungarian commander John Hunyadi), the Venetian navy, the papacy, and other western rulers. This policy failed with the Balkan powers' disastrous defeat at the Battle of Varna in November 1444. Opponents deposed Eugenius at the Council of Basel in 1439 in favour of Felix V, but the opponents lost support and Eugenius was able to continue his policies until his death in 1447. In 1453, Mehmed II took Constantinople, ushering in twenty-eight years of the sultanate's expansion.
The humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini became Pope Pius II in 1458. Constantinople had fallen to the Ottomans in 1453, and its recovery was the primary focus of his pontificate. The Congress of Mantua was an unsuccessful blending of crusading with humanist thought to create a European alliance, even though Pius promised to personally participate in the expedition. His famous Latin letters and speeches at Mantua, at the Diets of Regensburg, and Frankfurt became models of their genre-blending humanist styles and thought with Pope Urban II's sermon at Clermont, the First Crusade, the chronicle of Robert of Rheims, and Bernard of Clairvaux's letter of exhortation. Besides this, he also advised the conqueror of Constantinople to convert to Christianity and become a second Constantine. Pope Pius II came close to organizing an anti-Turkish crusade in 1464 but failed. During his pontificate, and those of his immediate successors, funds and military supplies raised were inadequate, mistimed, or misdirected. This was despite:
The commissioning of advisory tracts reconsidering the political, financial, and military issues.
Exiled rulers who toured Christendom's courts seeking assistance.
Individuals, such as Cardinal Bessarion, dedicating themselves to the crusading movement.
The continued levying of church taxes and preaching of indulgences.
Warfare was now more professional and costly. This was driven by factors including contractual recruitment, increased intelligence and espionage, a greater emphasis on navel warfare, the grooming of alliances, new and varied tactics to deal with different circumstances and opposition, and the hiring of experts in siege warfare. There was disillusionment and suspicion of how practical the objectives of the movements were. Lay sovereigns were more independent and prioritized their own objectives. The political authority of the papacy was reduced by the Western Schism, so popes such as Pius II and Innocent VIII found their congresses ignored. Politics and self-interest wrecked any plans. All of Europe acknowledged the need for a crusade to combat the Ottoman Empire, but effectively all blocked its formation. Popular feeling is difficult to judge: actual crusading had long since become distant from most commoners' lives. One example from 1488 saw Wageningen parishioners influenced by their priest's criticism of crusading to such a degree they refused to allow the collectors to take away donations. This contrasts with chronicle accounts of successful preaching in Erfurt at the same time and the extraordinary response for a crusade to relieve Belgrade in 1456.
Rodrigo Borja, who became Pope Alexander VI in 1492, attempted to reignite crusading to counter the threat of the Ottoman Empire, but his secular ambitions for his son Cesare and objective to prevent King Charles VIII of France from conquering Naples were paramount. The sale of indulgences gained large sums, but there was opposition to the clerical tithes and other fundraising efforts to support mercenary crusading armies. The grounds for this opposition were that the papacy used funds in Italy and that secular rulers misappropriated funds. Charles VIII's invasion plans prevented the organization of a crusade by Hungary, Bohemia, and Maximilian in 1493, leading instead to Italo-Turkish alliances. Marino Sanuto the Younger, Stephen Teglatius, and Alexander himself in Inter caetera wrote of the continued commitment to crusading, the organisational issues, theory, the impact of the Spanish Reconquista completed with the capture of Granada in 1492, the defence and expansion of the faith, and partitioning northern Africa and the Americas between Portugal and Spain, the conquest of which he granted crusading privileges and funding.
Around the end of the 15thcentury, the military orders were transformed. Castile nationalized its orders between 1487 and 1499. In 1523, the Hospitallers retreated from Rhodes and the State of the Teutonic Order became the hereditary Duchy of Prussia when the last Prussian master, Albrecht of Brandenburg-Ansbach, converted to Lutheranism and became the first duke under oath to his uncle the Polish king.
16th century
In the 16thcentury, the rivalry between Catholic monarchs prevented anti-Protestant crusades, but individual military actions were rewarded with crusader privileges, including Irish Catholic rebellions against English Protestant rule and the Spanish Armada's attack on England under Queen Elizabeth I. In 1562, Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, became the hereditary Grand Master of the Order of Saint Stephen, a Tuscan military order he founded, which was modelled on the knights of Malta. The Hospitallers remained the only independent military order with a positive strategy. Other orders continued as aristocratic corporations while lay powers absorbed local orders, outposts, and priories. Political concerns provoked self-interested polemics that mixed the legendary and historical past. Humanist scholarship and theological hostility created an independent historiography. The rise of the Ottomans, the French Wars of Religion, and the Protestant Reformation encouraged the study of crusading. Some Roman Catholic writers considered the crusades gave precedents for dealing with heretics. It was thought that the crusaders were sincere, but there was increasing uneasiness with considering war as a religious exercise as opposed to having a territorial objective.
17th century and later
Crusading continued in the 17thcentury, mainly associated with the Hapsburgs and the Spanish national identity. Crusade indulgences and taxation were used in support of the Cretan War (1645–1669), the Battle of Vienna, and the Holy League (1684). Although the Hospitallers continued the military orders in the 18thcentury, the crusading movement soon ended in terms of acquiescence, popularity, and support.
The French Revolution resulted in widespread confiscations from the military orders, which were now largely irrelevant, apart from minor effects in the Hapsburg Empire. The Hospitallers continued acting as a military order from its territory in Malta until the island was conquered by Napoleon in 1798. In 1809, Napoleon went on to suppress the Order of St Stephen, and the Teutonic Order was stripped of its German possessions before relocating to Vienna. At this point, its identity as a military order ended.
In 1936, the Spanish Catholic Church supported the coup of Francisco Franco, declaring a crusade against Marxism and atheism. Thirty-six years of National Catholicism followed, during which the idea of Reconquista as a foundation of historical memory, celebration, and Spanish national identity became entrenched in conservative circles. Reconquista lost its historiographical hegemony when Spain restored democracy in 1978, but it remains a fundamental definition of the medieval period within conservative sectors of academia, politics, and the media because of its strong ideological connotations.
Legacy
Inspired by the first crusades, the crusading movement defined late medieval western culture and had an enduring impact on the history of the western Islamic world. This influence was in every area of life across Europe. Christendom was geopolitical, and this underpinned the practice of the medieval Church. These ideas arose with the encouragement of the reformists of the 11thcentury and declined after the Reformation. The ideology of crusading continued after the 16thcentury with the military orders but dwindled in competition with other forms of religious war and new ideologies.
Some historians have maintained that the Kingdom of Jerusalem was the first experiment in western European colonialism, seeing the Outremer as a "Europe Overseas". Certainly by the mid-19thcentury, the crusader states that had existed in the East were both a nationalist rallying point and emblematic of European colonialism. This is a contentious issue, as others maintain that the accepted definitions of a colony do not fit the Latin settlements in the Levantthat is territory politically directed by or economically exploited for the benefit of a homeland. Writers at the time did refer to colonists and migration, this means that academics find the concept of a religious colony useful, defined as territory captured and settled for religious reasons whose inhabitants maintain contact with their homelands due to a shared faith, and the need for financial and military assistance. That said, the crusading movement led directly to the occupation of the Byzantine Empire by western colonists after the Fourth Crusade. In Venetian Greece, the relationship with Venice and the political and economic direction the city provided matches the more conventional definition of colonialism. In fact, its prosperity and relative safety drained settlers from the Latin East, which weakened the religious colonies of the Levant.
The raising, transporting, and supply of large armies led to a flourishing trade between Europe and the Outremer. The Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice flourished, planting profitable trading colonies in the eastern Mediterranean. The crusades consolidated the papal leadership of the Latin Church, reinforcing the link between the Catholic Church, feudalism, and militarism, and increased the tolerance of the clergy for violence. Muslim libraries contained classical Greek and Roman texts that allowed Europe to rediscover pre-Christian philosophy, science, and medicine. Opposition to the growth of the system of indulgences became a catalyst for the Reformation in the early 16thcentury. The crusades also had a role in the formation and institutionalisation of the military and the Dominican orders as well as of the Medieval Inquisition.
The behaviour of the crusaders in the eastern Mediterranean area appalled the Greeks and Muslims, creating a lasting barrier between the Latin world and the Islamic and Eastern Christian regions. This became an obstacle to the reunification of the Christian churches and fostered a perception of Westerners as defeated aggressors. Many historians argue that the interaction between the western Christian and Islamic cultures played a ultimately positive part in the development of European civilization and the Renaissance. Relations between Europeans and the Islamic world stretched across the entire length of the Mediterranean Sea, leading to an improved perception of Islamic culture in the West. But this broad area of interaction also makes it difficult for historians to identify the specific sources of cultural cross-fertilisation.
Historical parallelism and the tradition of drawing inspiration from the Middle Ages have become keystones of political Islam, encouraging ideas of modern jihad and long struggle, while secular Arab nationalism highlights the role of Western imperialism. Muslim thinkers, politicians, and historians have drawn parallels between the crusades and modern political developments such as the League of Nations mandates to govern Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine, then the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. Right-wing circles in the Western world have drawn opposing parallels, considering Christianity to be under an Islamic religious and demographic threat that is analogous to the situation at the time of the crusades. Advocates present crusader symbols and anti-Islamic rhetoric as an appropriate response, even if only for propaganda. These symbols and rhetoric are used to provide a religious justification and inspiration for a struggle against a religious enemy. Some historians, such as Thomas F. Madden, argue that modern tensions result from a constructed view of the crusades created by colonial powers in the 19thcentury, which provoked Arab nationalism. For Madden, the crusades are a medieval phenomenon in which the crusaders were engaged in a defensive war on behalf of their co-religionists.
Historiography
The description and interpretation of crusading began with accounts of the First Crusade. The image and morality of the first expeditions served as propaganda for new campaigns. The understanding of the crusades was based on a limited set of interrelated texts. (Exploits of the Franks) created a papist, northern French, and Benedictine template for later works that contained a degree of martial advocacy that attributed both success and failure to God's will. This clerical view was challenged by vernacular adventure stories based on the work of Albert of Aachen. William of Tyre expanded Albert's writing in his Historia, which was completed by 1200. His work described the warrior state the Outremer became as a result of the tension between the providential and the worldly. Medieval crusade historiography predominately remained interested in moralistic lessons, extolling the crusades as moral and cultural norms. Academic crusade historian Paul Chevedden argued that these accounts are anachronistic, in that they were aware of the success of the First Crusade. He argues that, to understand the state of the crusading movement in the 11thcentury, it is better to examine the works of Urban II who died unaware of the outcome.
Independent historiography emerged in the 15thcentury and was informed by humanism and hostility to theology. This grew in popularity in the 16thcentury, encouraged by events such as the rise of the Ottoman Turks, the French Wars of Religion, and the Protestant Reformation. Traditional crusading provided exemplars of redemptive solutions that were, in turn, disparaged as papal idolatry and superstition. War against the infidel was laudable, but crusading movement doctrines were not. Popes persisted in issuing crusade bulls for generations, but international laws of war that discounted religion as a cause were developed. A nationalist view developed, providing a cultural bridge between the papist past and Protestant future based on two dominant themes for crusade historiography: firstly, intellectual, or religious disdain; and secondly, national, or cultural admiration. Crusading now had only a technical impact on contemporary wars but provided imagery of noble and lost causes. Opinions of crusading moved beyond the judgment of religion and increasingly depicted crusades as models of the distant past that were either edifying or repulsive.
18thcentury Age of Enlightenment philosopher historians narrowed the chronological and geographical scope to the Levant and the Outremer between 1095 and 1291. There were attempts to set the number crusades at eight while others counted five large expeditions that reached the eastern Mediterranean1096–1099, 1147–1149, 1189–1192, 1217–1229, and 1248–1254. In the absence of an Ottoman threat, influential writers considered crusading in terms of anticlericalism, viewing crusading with disdain for its apparent ignorance, fanaticism, and violence. By the 19thcentury, crusade enthusiasts disagreed with this view as being unnecessarily hostile and ignorant.
Increasingly positive views of the Middle Ages developed in the 19thcentury. A fascination with chivalry developed to support the moral, religious, and cultural mores of established society. In a world of unsettling change and rapid industrialization, nostalgic escapist apologists and popular historians developed a positive view of crusading. Jonathan Riley-Smith considers that much of the popular understanding of the crusades derives from the 19thcentury novels of Sir Walter Scott and the French histories of Joseph François Michaud. Michaud married admiration of supremacist triumphalismsupporting the nascent European commercial and political colonialism of the Middle Eastto the point where the Outremer were "Christian colonies". The Franco-Syrian society in the Outremer became seen as benevolent, an attractive idea justifying the French mandates in Syria and Lebanon. In 1953, Jean Richard described the kingdom of Jerusalem as "the first attempt by the Franks of the West to found colonies". In the absence of widespread warfare, 19thcentury Europe created a cult of war based on the crusades, linked to political polemic and national identities. After World War I, crusading no longer received the same positive responses; war was now sometimes necessary but not good, sanctified, or redemptive. Michaud's viewpoint provoked Muslim attitudes. The crusades had aroused little interest among Islamic and Arabic scholars until the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the penetration of European power.
Jonathan Riley-Smith straddles the two schools regarding the motives and actions of early crusaders. The definition of a crusade remains contentious. Historians accept Riley-Smith's view that "everyone accepted that the crusades to the East were the most prestigious and provided the scale against which the others were measured". There is disagreement whether only those campaigns launched to recover or protect Jerusalem were proper crusades or whether those wars to which popes applied temporal and spiritual authority were equally legitimate. Today, crusade historians study the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and even the Atlantic, and crusading's position in, and derivation from, host and victim societies. Chronological horizons have crusades existing into the early modern world, e.g. the survival of the Order of St. John on Malta until 1798. The academic study of crusading in the West has integrated mainstream theology, the Church, law, popular religion, aristocratic society and values, and politics. The Muslim context now receives attention from Islamicists. Academics have replaced disdain with attempts to situate crusading within its social, cultural, intellectual, economic, and political context. Historians employ a wide range of evidence, including charters, archaeology, and the visual arts, to supplement chronicles and letters. Local studies have lent precision as well as diversity.
See also
History of the Jews and the Crusades
List of principal crusaders
List of Crusader castles
Women in the Crusades
Criticism of crusading
References
Bibliography
Further reading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20McNaughton
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Andrew McNaughton
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General Andrew George Latta McNaughton (25 February 1887 – 11 July 1966) was a Canadian electrical engineer, scientist, army officer, cabinet minister, and diplomat.
Early life
McNaughton was born in Moosomin, District of Assiniboia, North-West Territories (now part of Saskatchewan), on 25 February 1887. Both of McNaughton's parents were immigrants from Scotland, and his youth was a happy one, being brought up by an adventuresome father who had once been a trader in buffalo hides and a kindly, loving mother. His upbringing on a farm instilled in him a life-long love of hard work and self-discipline. McNaughton spent his free time riding horses across the vast expanses of the Prairies while also engaging in hunting and fishing. McNaughton credited his youth on a frontier farm on the Prairies with making him tough and hardy. His parents had both converted to the Church of England, voted Conservative and like many other Anglo-Canadians in the Victorian era strongly identified with the British Empire.
McNaughton held to a specific Scottish-Canadian identity, which led him to a sense of Canadian nationalism based on his feeling that the British Empire was dominated by the English while Canada was dominated by Scottish-Canadians like himself, but his biographer John Rickard noted "...even though he would come into conflict with British generals, he always held the British people and their accomplishments in a high regard". McNaughton always attended Anglican services, and though he was devoted to science, believing that the pure rationality of science was the best solution to the world's problems, he never seems to have any difficulty in reconciling his faith in the Anglican church with his faith in science. Despite being a member of the Church of England, he was always very proud of his Scottish heritage.
McNaughton was a student at Bishop's College School in Lennoxville, Quebec, after winning a scholarship. At Bishop's, McNaughton was both successful student and an athlete. In 1905, he entered McGill University in Montreal where he studied under the New Zealander physicist Ernest Rutherford. As a student, his grades were outstanding, and he was singled out by Rutherford as a man to watch. As an undergraduate, he applied for a commission in the Indian Army with the hope of a joining a famous cavalry regiment, saying it been his boyhood dream to serve the British Empire in India. He joined the Canadian non-permanent Militia in 1909. and earned a B.A. in physics and engineering from McGill University in Montreal in 1910, where he was a member of the Kappa Alpha Society, and earned an MSc with Honours in Electrical Engineering in 1912. He then stayed on at McGill as an instructor as a professor of engineering until the outbreak of the Great War.
His work in engineering innovation led to his invention of a cathode ray direction finder – a form of the technology that would evolve into radar. In 1914, he married Mabel Weir of Montreal, who was Irish and Catholic.
First World War
While still a student at McGill, McNaughton joined the Canadian Militia in 1909. He took the 4th Battery of the Canadian Expeditionary Force overseas with the outbreak of the First World War in the summer of 1914 and arrived in France in February 1915. In March 1916 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and went to England to take command of the newly arrived 11 (Howitzer) Brigade of the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, taking it to France in July. In February 1917 he was appointed the Counter Battery Staff Officer of the Canadian Corps. Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng, the commander of the Canadian Corps from 1916−1917, personally selected McNaughton, saying that while McNaughton was a relatively young man, he had already heard much about his work, hence his promotion from the command of a brigade to senior position with the corps command. On the day before the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, at 31 years old, he was promoted to brigadier general and appointed General Officer Commanding (GOC) Canadian Corps Artillery.
During the war, he was wounded twice and received multiple decorations. McNaughton did not demand the normal privileges of an officer, living alongside his men and eating the same food, and was noted for his care for his men. McNaughton slept on the floor, consumed the same bully beef rations as the average soldier, saying he was a farm boy at heart and did not need a bed or better food while preferring to be addressed as Andy instead of by his rank. McNaughton was very popular with the men who served under him, who regarded him as their friend who represented their interests instead of the high command.
Particularly after being promoted to Corps Counter Battery Staff Officer, McNaughton used his expertise in engineering to help make advances in the science of artillery particularly in pinpointing artillery targets, both stationary and moving. His acumen and expertise is often pointed to as a key to the Canadian success in the Battle of Vimy Ridge where McNaughton's innovations in the detection of German artillery positions with flash-spotting and sound-ranging led to the Canadians accurately mapping the vast majority of German gun positions before the infantry were sent into battle. A technique McNaughton had developed to measure the wear on cannon barrels and make adjustments to their aiming proved to be vital on April 9, 1917, when the Canadian Corps assaulted Vimy Ridge. As the battle commenced, the combination of accurately plotted German gun positions and deadly accurate Canadian artillery fire led to precise strikes that eliminated over 80% of enemy artillery and machine guns, significantly blunting their defences. As the infantry attacked, precise artillery fire allowed the effective implementation of the creeping barrage which proved vital to the success of the infantry advance.
At Vimy, the counter-battery team under McNaughton's command knocked out 83% of the 212 German artillery guns on Vimy Ridge in the first two hours, making it possible for the infantry of the Canadian Corps to advance up the heights and take the ridge. Vimy Ridge had been unsuccessfully assaulted by the French with heavy losses in 1915 and likewise by the British in 1916, making it into a symbol of German power on the Western Front, a massive and heavily fortified ridge towering over the front that was widely considered impossible to take. The fact that the four divisions of the Canadian Corps in their first battle together took Vimy Ridge in two days led to the battle taking on a legendary aura in Canada that it retains to this day. McNaughton's role in using operational research to map out precisely where the German artillery guns were on Vimy Ridge and then taking them out made his reputation. The fact that McNaughton was only 30 at the time further marked him out as an outstanding gunner.
His most serious wound occurred on 5 February 1918 when he was hit by the fragments of a German shell, requiring a stay in a hospital. That same month, he received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). Later in the year, a bar was added to his DSO, with the bar's citation reading:
By war's end, McNaughton was widely considered to be the most talented and capable artilleryman in any army. General Sir Frederick Pile, of the British Army's Royal Artillery, who served alongside McNaughton in the First World War wrote in 1918 that McNaughton was "probably the best and most scientific gunner in any army in the world. His ideas were colossal."
Interwar period
Chief of the General staff
In 1920 McNaughton joined the regular army and in 1922 was promoted to Deputy Chief of the General Staff and Chief of the General Staff in 1929. During that time he worked at mechanizing the army and modernizing the militia. In 1919, it became necessary to integrate the numbered battalions of the returning Canadian Expeditionary Force with the old militia regiments, the then Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden created the Otter committee headed by General Sir William Otter. In general, the Otter committee tended to create as many regiments as possible across the country, but McNaughton, who served on the Otter committee, ensured Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, which had been privately raised in 1914, was taken on by the "permanent force militia" as a regiment for western Canada. Likewise, McNaughton ensured that the 22nd Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force was not disbanded, arguing that the 22nd Battalion, which came from Quebec and won more battle honours than any other Canadian battalion, should be kept on to show the army appreciated the sacrifices of French Canadians in the war. The 22nd Battalion was assigned to the "permanent force militia" as the 22nd Regiment, becoming the Royal 22nd Regiment in 1922, and went on to become the most famous French-Canadian regiment in the Canadian Army. McNaughton wrote the part of the Otter committee's report which stated the "principal peril" to Canada was "the danger of the overthrow of Law and Order" by "Bolshevik agitators", whom the report in a xenophobic note stated were mostly immigrants from Eastern Europe. McNaughton wrote that the best way of defeating the "Bolshevik peril" was "to have immediately available an efficient military body with which to overawe this unruly element, and secondly, by education, to convert them from their perverted ideals to a true conception of citizenship". As such, McNaughton envisioned the militia as primarily an internal security force that was intended to fulfil the role of "aid to civil power".
McNaughton was described as "a forceful dynamic thruster with a tornado-like intellect", whom the historian James Eayrs wrote "dominated his colleagues in the military establishment as a great oak dominates a scrub forest". At the same time, McNaughton was referred to as "a master military bureaucratic politician" who fought hard for more funding for defence and as a general who was so interested in scientific problems who had "attacks of the gadgets" during staff meetings, as he was always fascinated by science and technology. McNaughton remained active as a scientist throughout his military career, being regularly published in various scientific journals. To secure more military funding from hostile politicians, McNaughton, whom many viewed as the most powerful civil servant in Ottawa during the interwar period, pushed strongly for northern development. As part of his plans to develop the far north of Canada, McNaughton pressed for the aerial mapping and survey of the north (much of which was still unmapped as late as the 1930s), which increased the budget for the Royal Canadian Air Force and for the building of the Northwest Territories and Yukon Radio System, which increased the budget for the Royal Canadian Corps of Signals. McNaughton's interests reached beyond the military as he became the most powerful civil servant in Ottawa in the interwar period, and promoted the militia as a "school for the nation." He argued that the "foundations of military efficiency" rested upon providing a patriotic education to male citizens by way of their service in the militia, which would lead to the "creation of a national spirit," the fostering of which McNaughton tended to see as his principal duty.
As a "gunner" (artilleryman), McNaughton favoured promoting officers from the artillery and engineers over the cavalry and infantry, increasing the portion of general staff officers with a background in the technical services well above the 50% already reached in 1922. Officers from the cavalry and the infantry complained that under McNaughton's leadership the "gunners" were holding most of the senior positions. In 1929–30, McNaughton came into major conflict with the Defence Minister, Colonel James Ralston, a highly decorated veteran who considered himself just as much an expert on defence matters as McNaughton, something that caused considerable vexation between the Chief of Staff and the Minister of National Defence. Ralston vetoed McNaughton's plans to upgrade the equipment of the permanent force militia and to build more arsenals, saying that the Liberals would not be "Merchants of Death". Had the Liberals won the 1930 election, McNaughton was planning to resign as he did not want to serve any longer under Ralston.
McNaughton was a friend of the Conservative leader Richard Bennett and in the 1930 election, secretly reviewed drafts of his campaign speeches and in 1935 when Bennett swung to the left with his "New Deal", McNaughton likewise secretly suggested improvements to his speeches. It was during the years 1930–35 when Bennett was Prime Minister that McNaughton was at the height of his influence in Ottawa. During the interwar period, McNaughton was widely credited with inventing the cathode ray tube, which enhanced his reputation as a brilliant scientist-general, making him the best-known Canadian soldier and scientist around the world. In 1933, when the Bennett government brought in the "Big Cut" to defence spending, ordering the defence department to cut $3.6 million at once, McNaughton tried very hard to abolish the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), arguing that Canada did not need a navy and without a navy, the defence department would save $2 million/per year. In a lengthy bureaucratic battle, Commodore Walter Hose of the Royal Canadian Navy argued to the Bennett government that McNaughton was wrong to dismiss sea power as he did, and with Japan showing expansionist tendencies as proven by the seizing the Manchuria region of China in 1931, that Canada did need a navy. The RCN was almost abolished in 1933, but for Hose's efforts to save it. McNaughton's Army-centered arguments for abolishing the RCN left a lasting bitterness between the two services that lasted decades.
The Canadian historian Colonel John English wrote that McNaughton, for all his intelligence and drive, had an overall deleterious effect on the Canadian military, describing him as a general who was so caught up in his scientific studies that he neglected military issues. McNaughton shared the long-standing hostility felt by most Canadians to a professional army and believed that a well-trained militia was all that was needed. In 1931, McNaughton forcefully stated his belief that "a Citizen Militia...is the proper type of Land Defence Force for Canada," and that the "permanent force militia" (a euphemism for the professional army) should serve as the "instructional corps" for the militia. McNaughton did not see the importance of training officers for the operational level of war, writing that the "foundations of military efficiency" were the education of Canadian men and that the "creation of a national spirit" suitable for war: he argued that the "technical efficiency in the various arms and services... would readily follow," for all that was required to prepare for war was "...merely a matter of drill and training combined with careful selection of suitable material". Reflecting his strongly scientific bent, McNaughton wrote what was needed were officers well trained in science like himself and that "a highly scientific army requiring highly trained personnel...[could] be best obtained quite outside the army itself". One consequence of this way of viewing war was that McNaughton cut the funding for the training of infantry and cavalry officers while ensuring the majority of the officer training went to those in artillery, engineer and signals branches. As a result, the majority of officers holding senior positions in the Canadian Army in World War II were artillerymen, engineers and signals men. As early as 1933 there were complaints from infantry officers that "the gunners" as artillerymen were known were monopolizing the senior positions as McNaughton himself was a "gunner". In 1932, Brigadier James Sutherland Brown wrote about McNaughton: "the C.G.S is a super-engineer and college professor by profession. He is a gunner in the Canadian Militia and, technically, he is a good one. He is cold, calculating, touchy, and determined to pursue his own schemes, inclined to do everything himself and will not take advice". McNaughton insisted that officers seeking high command attend courses at the Imperial Defence College which provided much training for questions of grand strategy. English described McNaughton as having neglected the study of war on the operational level, which did not interest him in the same way that grand strategy and science did.
Formation of relief camps
By the summer of 1932, due to the massive unemployment caused by the Great Depression, Canada had become poverty-stricken with much of the populace left destitute. While on a tour of the nation's military establishments General McNaughton was shocked by the spectacle of homeless men living in shacks, begging on the streets of Western cities and swarming aboard freight trains to move on to the next town or city in search of a job. McNaughton recognized this as a situation where the possibility of revolution didn't seem unrealistic. In October he presented a proposal eagerly grasped by Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, that had two aims. It would get the men off the streets, out of the cities and out of sight, and, at the same time improve their bodies and provide useful work in a group of camps, run by the military. In the so-called "relief camps" men would be fed, clothed and housed, and would work on projects of national importance—building airfields, highways and other public works. As an "alternative to bloodshed on the streets," this stop-gap solution for unemployment was to establish military-run and -styled relief camps in remote areas throughout the country, where single unemployed men toiled for twenty cents a day.
What appeared to be a humanitarian effort to aid the unemployed and indigent and prevent the propagation of revolution soon turned into a hotbed of dissent due to the draconian disciplinary measures adopted. Portions of a letter smuggled out read to the House of Commons by J. S. Woodsworth, MP for Winnipeg North Centre described the conditions.
"Picture to yourself a tarpaper shack 79 feet x 24 with no windows, along each side there is a row of double decker bunks, these are spaced off with 8 × 1 board so that there is room for two men in each bunk. The bunks are filled with straw and you crawl into them from the foot end. Along the front of the lower bunk a narrow board is placed upon which the men may sit. The place is very meagerly lighted and ventilation by three skylights.... So narrow is the passageway between the bunks that when the men are sitting on the bench there is scarcely room to pass between them. This shack houses 88 men.... At times the place reeks of the foul smell and at night the air is simply fetid. The floor is dirty and the end of the shack where the men wash ... is caked with black mud. The toilet is thoroughly filthy, unsanitary, and far too small."
The irony was that McNaughton's scheme for staving off revolution had the seeds of revolution inherent in it. Within two years the camps that had been greeted with such applause would be known throughout the country as slave camps. The "volunteer inmates" were not allowed newspapers, magazines or radios. Any man who left a camp, even for a visit to his family, was subsequently refused re-entry and the "dole" was denied to him.
National Research Council of Canada
He returned for a few years to civilian life and from 1935 to 1939 was head of the National Research Council of Canada. National Research Council Building M50 on the Ottawa Campus was named the McNaughton Building, in his honour.
IEEE honours McNaughton in the naming of the McNaughton Medal, presented annually for excellence in engineering.
Second World War
As the best known Canadian soldier, McNaughton was the natural choice to lead the Canadian Expeditionary Force to Europe; the fact that McNaughton was vocally opposed to conscription, insisting that an all-volunteer force was all that was needed to win the war endeared him to the then Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King, who had promised in September 1939 that there would be no overseas conscription. In September 1939, the Union Nationale Premier of Quebec, Maurice Duplessis, had called a snap election with the aim of seeking a mandate to oppose the war, and to defeat Duplessis, Mackenzie King had promised the people of Quebec there would no overseas conscription. Having McNaughton as a professional soldier endorse Mackenzie King's no overseas conscription views as militarily sound and correct gave the prime minister a potent political shield to wield against those in English Canada who called for overseas conscription. Furthermore, McNaughton's views that the correct way to defeat Germany was through a series of methodical, "scientific" operations in which artillery was to play the dominant role promised to minimize casualties, which was the all-important consideration for Mackenzie King who wanted to avoid battles with heavy casualties as that would force him to make a difficult decision about conscription. Mackenzie King had remembered how the heavy losses taken by the Canadian Expeditionary Force in the battles from 1915 to 1917 had led to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, as by 1917 the government of Sir Robert Borden had the choice of either pulling the Canadian Corps out of action or bring in conscription, and he very much wanted to avoid a repeat.
Division commander
McNaughton commanded the newly raised 1st Canadian Infantry Division during the early part of the Second World War, and led the division overseas, first to the United Kingdom in December 1939 and later to France in June 1940, only to be withdrawn back to England in the final stages of the Battle of France. McNaughton, who was known for his care for his men, ensuring that the Canadian soldiers sent to Britain had the best possible accommodations, was always very popular with the rank and file of the Canadian Army. As the best known Canadian general in the world, McNaughton attracted much media attention in Canada, the United Kingdom and even the neutral United States as the great "soldier-scientist", making the cover of Life magazine on 18 December 1939, which predicated that McNaughton was the Allied general most likely to take Berlin. In April 1940, when the British government asked McNaughton's permission to send the 1st Canadian Division to Norway, McNaughton agreed, though the Norwegian campaign ended in defeat before the Canadians could arrive. As Mackenzie King was visiting the United States at the time to see President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the acting prime minister in Ottawa was the finance minister, Colonel Ralston, who still very much disliked McNaughton. Ralston chose to make an issue of the fact that McNaughton had agreed to send the 1st Division to Norway without consulting Ottawa first, saying this was an illegal act. McNaughton felt that he acted legally as he sought an opinion from the Deputy Judge Advocate, Price Montague about the legality of sending the 1st Division to Norway before agreeing first, exploded in rage about "politicians trying to run the war while 3,000 miles away".
In June 1940, McNaughton's old nemesis, Colonel Ralston, was brought back by Mackenzie King as Defence Minister after Norman Rogers, the previous defence minister, was killed in an airplane clash. Relations between Ralston and McNaughton remained unfriendly as they had been in 1929–30. In a reversal of the expected roles, General McNaughton insisted as a professional soldier that overseas conscription was unsound while Ralston, the civilian minister of defence, was more open to the idea of overseas conscription. Ernest Côté, one of the officers on McNaughton's staff was astonished to see McNaughton call up Ralston in Ottawa to make a complaint about the appearance of Canadian Army trucks on aesthetic grounds, saying he wanted Ralston to send over more aesthetically pleasing trucks as the current trucks were too ugly for his liking. In an interview with the historian Jack Granatstein, Côté described McNaughton as a man who was universally admired and liked by the officers who served under him, but he stated that he had nagging doubts about McNaughtons' fitness for high command, saying he had an obsessive personality for whom no detail was too small. McNaughton's relations with the first two Chiefs of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Edmund Ironside and Field Marshal John Dill, were excellent as he served alongside both men in the Great War and counted them as amongst his friends.
Corps and army commander
He commanded VII Corps from July to December 1940 when it was renamed the Canadian Corps. Then under his leadership the Canadian Army in the United Kingdom, reinforced with the II Canadian Corps, and the Canadian Corps being redesignated as the I Canadian Corps, was organized into the Canadian First Army in April 1942. McNaughton's contribution to the development of new techniques was outstanding, especially in the field of detection and weaponry, including the discarding sabot projectile. Tensions between Ralston and McNaughton were increased in December 1941 after the fall of Hong Kong and the loss of the entire C Force when McNaughton in an "off-the-record" interview with the media blamed Ralston, saying he was "completely unfitted for the job" and that C Force should never had been sent to Hong Kong.
Mackenzie King preferred to keep the First Canadian Army in Britain to guard against a possible German invasion, which had the convenient effect of keeping the Canadians out of action and ensured no casualties, meaning no decision was necessary about overseas conscription. McNaughton very much wanted to keep all five divisions of the First Canadian Army together, insisting he would not allow a division or two to be detached from his command to go to North Africa as he wanted all of the Canadian units to fight together. As a result, the Canadian units languished in Britain, guarding against a possible invasion of Britain that no one felt was very likely after Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, was launched in June 1941, while British, Australian, New Zealand, South African and Indian troops fought in North Africa and the Middle East. While the other Commonwealth units were fighting the North African campaign, many of the Canadian officers and enlisted men in Britain were jealous of the way of the other Commonwealth units were winning glory in North Africa while they had to sit on the sidelines of the war. In the spring of 1942, when McNaughton was approached by Admiral Louis Mountbatten with a request that the 2nd Canadian Division take part in a raid on the French city of Dieppe, McNaughton jumped at the chance to finally get one of his divisions into action.
McNaughton was unduly blamed for the disastrous Dieppe Raid in August 1942, which saw the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General John Hamilton Roberts, sustain heavy casualties, blame better deserved by the British who failed to provide needed, requested, and promised support. General Sir Alan Brooke, the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), his opponent since the First World War, frequently criticized him. Brooke had been the Staff Officer Royal Artillery in the Canadian Corps during the First World War and organized the "creeping barrages" in support of the assaults at the Battle of Vimy Ridge.
Relief of army command
McNaughton's reputation was badly damaged by the Exercise Spartan war games held on 4–12 March 1943, which he described as "a dress rehearsal for the full-scale invasion of the Continent". McNaughton commanding the First Canadian Army had the task of breaking out over the river Thames to "take" Huntingdon, which was the "capital" of the fictional country of "Eastland", which was defended by VIII Corps and XI Corps of the British Army. Much of the criticism of McNaughton's leadership was over his decision on the night of 7 March 1943 to leave his command post to personally supervise the building of a bridge over the Thames, instead of sending out an engineer officer to build the bridge. This showed that McNaughton was unable to delegate authority properly as he insisted on doing everything himself, leading to command paralysis. McNaughton did not understand war on the operational level, and Colonel English wrote: "That McNaughton had no idea that a corps required a minimum of 24 hour warning in order to execute a major task is borne out by the following timings: at 23:35 on 6 March, he directed 2 Corps to advance east across the Thames through 1 Corps; at 16:15, the next day he gave counter orders to effect the western envelopment that night; at 21:30 on 10 March he issued orders for operations the following day; and at 22:59 11 March, he gave orders for operations on 12 March". Sir James Grigg, the British War Secretary, who attended the Spartan war game wrote he was "appalled at McNaughton's indecision" as "he stood in front of his situation map hesitating as to what to do and what orders to issue". General Alan Brooke, who also attended the Spartan war game wrote in his diary that the Spartan war game had done much to "proving my worse fear that ... McNaughton is quite incompetent to command an army!". The man who was to replace McNaughton as commander of the First Canadian Army, General Harry Crerar later wrote that during the Spartan war game "that it became patently obvious to all" that McNaughton "was totally unsuitable for high operational command". Spartan ended in the "defeat" of the Canadians as McNaughton was unable to break out over the Thames to "take" Huntingdon".
In the spring of 1943, Mackenzie King, who until then had tried to keep the Canadians out of action as much as possible in order to avoid casualties that might lead to a difficult decision on conscription, became obsessed with the fear that the war might end with the Canadians winning no victories on land. As Churchill had described Italy as the "soft underbelly" of the Axis, King believed the up-coming Italian campaign would provide an opportunity for easy victories that would not cause too many casualties, and insisted to the British that a Canadian division had to take part in Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily, saying the Canadian people would be unhappy with him if the war ended with only battles for Canada being Hong Kong and Dieppe. Despite King's crass political motives for wanting the Canadians to take part in Husky, the British agreed to accommodate him. McNaughton was opposed at first to losing a division, saying he was opposed to sending the 1st Division to Sicily "merely to satisfy a desire for activity". In June 1943, McNaughton very reluctantly approved of the decision to detach the 1st Canadian Division from the First Canadian Army, which was to take part in Operation Husky as part of the British Eighth Army commanded by General Bernard Montgomery. McNaughton was concerned about losing a division, but was promised that 1st Division would return to Britain to rejoin First Canadian Army when Husky was completed, and the possibility of finally getting the 1st Division into action, which had been assigned to Britain in late 1939, was too much to resist. Operation Husky began on 9 July 1943, and McNaughton complained much when the initial press releases announcing the invasion did not mention the Canadians were taking part. When McNaughton tried to visit Sicily to observe the 1st Division in action, Montgomery refused, saying the 1st Canadian Division was operating as part of his Eighth Army and he not want McNaughton interfering with his operations. General Guy Simonds commanding the 1st Division supported Montgomery as he felt McNaughton would do more than "observe" his operations and it would be impossible for him to serve two commanders at once. McNaughton complained furiously about his exclusion from Sicily, saying that as the senior Canadian general in Europe that he had the right to visit Canadian troops wherever they were in Europe. The British found the Canadian nationalist McNaughton a "prickly" man to deal with, as McNaughton saw Canada as an equal power and not as a subordinate nation.
In September 1943, McNaughton clashed with Mackenzie King, when the Prime Minister decided that the 1st Canadian Division would stay with the British Eighth Army as it crossed over to the Italian mainland, and that he would send the 5th Canadian Armored Division and 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade and the headquarters for I Canadian Corps to Italy as well. In a memo to Defence Minister James Ralston, McNaughton wrote: "The important thing for Canada at the end of the war is to have her army together under the control of a Canadian". However, the prospect of the Canadians fighting in the "soft underbelly" of Italy, which King mistakenly believed would not involve too many losses and allowed the Canadians to win battlefield glory, was too attractive to King. McNaughton for his part, believed that all of the Canadian units in Europe should operate together as part of the First Canadian Army was incensed about losing an entire corps to the Eighth Army, and did little to disguise his fury that the Canadians would operate in both Italy and in north-west Europe when Operation Overlord was launched. McNaughton wrote the "dispersion of the Army" by taking away 1st Corps from his command would be bad for morale, and in a memo to Ralston suggested "it would be wise to put someone in control who believed in it [dispersion]". A further strain in relations with Ralston occurred when the Defence Minister passed along Brooke's opinion that McNaughton was unfit for field command, a judgement that deeply wounded McNaughton's ego. McNaughton believed that Ralston was responsible for Brooke's views, leading to the exchange of increasingly acrimonious telegrams between Ralston and McNaughton with the latter accusing the former of seeking to undermine his command.
A favourite of Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister; though in October 1943 he came back from a weekend at Chequers looking limp and told Brooke that he had had a ghastly weekend .... kept up all hours of the morning. Brooke had warned him that Churchill might want him to agree to an operation against Norway (which had twice been turned down as impractical). While he had eventually agreed to examine the Trondheim operation, to Brooke's relief he had since sent a telegram to Mackenzie King that he was on no account to agree to the employment of the Canadian forces in any operations in Norway.
He was sent as envoy for a conference with Stalin. McNaughton, then a Major-General, was cover celebrity for Life magazine in December 1939 when Canada had entered the war, but the USA had not. His support for voluntary enlistment rather than conscription led to conflict with James Ralston, the then Minister of National Defence. McNaughton had taken the loss of I Canadian Corps to the Eighth Army very badly, leading to stained relations with Ralston while the British and Montgomery in particular made it clear that they did not want the First Canadian Army going into Operation Overlord, the invasion of France, under McNaugton's command. In December 1943, McNaughton was removed as commander of the First Canadian Army and the historian Desmond Morton wrote: "By the end of December, a fit and lively looking McNaughton returned to Canada, recalled on "on grounds of health". His successor, after a brief interlude, commanding the Canadian Corps in Italy, was Lieutenant-General Harry Crerar".
Minister of National Defence
Because of his support for a volunteer army, McNaughton remained friendly with Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, who wanted to make him the first Canadian-born Governor General of Canada. Instead, McNaughton became Minister of National Defence when Ralston was forced to resign after the Conscription Crisis of 1944, as King did all he could to avoid introducing conscription. On the morning of 1 November 1944 Mackenzie King in effect fired Ralston as defence minister by accepting his resignation, which had been submitted in April 1942. The fact that McNaughton held anti-conscription views and had he and Ralston hated each other were additional benefits from Mackenzie King's viewpoint, but he appointed McNaughton primarily out of the belief that McNaughton by the sheer force of his personality could produce enough volunteers to go overseas and resolve the manpower shortages caused by heavy losses in Italy and north-west Europe.
In his first speech as Defence Minister, McNaughton declared his confidence that "the continuation of the voluntary system will produce the reinforcements". The Canadian historians Jack Granatstein and Desmond Morton noted: "The news of Ralston's sacking put the conscription crisis on the front pages in screaming headlines. To King's horror and to McNaughton's distress, the publicity created a firestorm of reaction against the once-popular general. Audiences booed and jeered when he tried to rally the country behind the no-conscription policy".
McNaughton tried to appeal to the "Zombies" (men who had been conscripted for the defence of Canada, so-called because they were soldiers who could not legally fight overseas) to volunteer for Europe, but his speeches failed to move his audiences, who instead booed him. One Zombie was quoted in the press as saying: "If Mackenzie King wants me to go overseas, he'll have to send me. I'm damned if I'll volunteer to help out this government". On the morning of 22 November 1944, General John Carl Murchie told McNaughton about the failure of his policy and that virtually no Zombies had volunteered to "go active", which McNaughton recalled "was like a blow to the stomach". Later on 22 November 1944, McNaughton telephoned King to say as the prime minister wrote in his diary: "The Headquarters staff here had all advised him that the voluntary system would not get the men...It was the most serious advice that could be tended". Mackenzie King chose to wildly misrepresent McNaughton's statement as some sort of military coup d'état, what in his own words was variously a "generals' revolt", a "palace revolution" and "the surrender of civil government to the military" as he now announced that because of the alleged "generals' revolt" that he was being forced against his will to send some 17, 000 "Zombies" to the battlefields of Europe.
McNaughton was soon pressured into calling for conscription despite King's wishes, a popular move for some Canadians but an equally unpopular one for many others. As McNaughton was never elected to the House of Commons, on 22 November 1944, he had to go to the bar of the House of Commons to announce that some 17,000 Zombies were to go overseas if the House gave its approval. When word of the decision reached the "Zombie" soldiers stationed in Terrace, British Columbia who had guarding the Pacific coast against the unlikely event of a Japanese invasion, it resulted in the short-lived Terrace Mutiny. The mutiny was soon put down peacefully by General George Pearkes of the Pacific command who went to Terrace and advised the mutineers that the penalty for mutiny was death, but if they agreed to lay down their arms, no charges of mutiny would be pressed.
In early 1945, McNaughton sought election to the House of Commons as a Liberal in a by-election in the Ontario riding of Grey North. During the 1945 by-election, the Conservative candidate W. Garfield Case made much of the Catholicism of McNaughton's wife, claiming that the general was under the control of Mrs. McNaughton, whom in turn was taking her orders from the Pope. McNaughton's opposition to conscription was portrayed as a part of a Catholic plot to destroy the British and Protestant character of Canada by having only volunteers go overseas (who were very inaccurately portrayed as being only Protestant English-Canadians) where many would be killed while Catholics remained at home to "breed and breed". A Protestant fundamentalist minister, the Baptist Revered Thomas Todhunter Shields, who campaigned aggressively against McNaughton, warned in a speech in Owen Sound that "a vote for McNaughton is a vote for the Roman Catholic hierarchy and for the future enslavement of Canada". Shields portrayed Mrs. McNaughton as a sinister and malign influence on her husband, a charge that infuriated McNaughton who was furious that his wife should become the central issue in the by-election. Case in a speech stated that it was wrong for the "most British riding in Canada" to vote for McNaughton, whom he accused of pandering to Quebec, a province that was "lacking in courage, loyalty and resolve, a community which has deteriorated till we find them paying tribute to those who would hamper the war effort".
The decision to send only 17, 000 Zombies (who were widely, if wrongly perceived to be mostly French-Canadian Catholics) to Europe was portrayed as a disaster with the claim being made in a speech by the Conservative leader John Bracken that most of the 17, 000 had either deserted or thrown their rifles away, which was used to illustrate McNaughton's alleged weakness as a defence minister as he supposedly given orders not to prosecute the deserters. John Diefenbaker, a Conservative MP from Saskatchewan arrived in Grey North to campaign for Case, giving speeches where he claimed that Quebec was the province of deserters while Ontario was the province of volunteers and like Bracken claimed that McNaughton was a weak defence minister who was pandering to Quebec by his alleged order not to prosecute the thousands of Zombies who were said to have deserted since November. The fact that the Conservative leader Bracken personally campaigned in Grey North together with rising Conservative stars like Diefenbaker was a further advantage for Case while Mackenzie King and other prominent Liberals did not campaign for McNaughton.
The by-election of 5 February 1945 ended with McNaughton's defeat to Case, who was elected the MP for Grey North. McNaughton always believed that it was the issue of his wife's Catholicism that caused his defeat in the Grey North riding, and that Mackenzie King had set up him for the defeat by having run for the House of Commons in a riding that was mostly rural and Protestant, instead of an urban riding where population was more diverse. The journalist John Marshall described Grey North as "typically Old Ontario" area that was rural, ardently Protestant and very committed to upholding the British connection, which led him to wonder why Mackenzie King had chosen to have McNaughton run in Grey North at all. Another journalist, Wilfried Eggleston, reported that had Mrs. McNaughton been a Protestant, the general would almost certainly had won the Grey North by-election, writing that this was "a deplorable factor in a country like Canada, but nobody denies that it is influential".
In the 1945 federal election, McNaughton ran again as a Liberal in the riding of Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan, and was again defeated. McNaughton resigned as Defence minister in August 1945. King had made him take blame for conscription, to which both men had been opposed, and now had to replace him as Governor-General designate. King recommended to King George VI that the British Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander be appointed Governor-General of Canada, setting back the first appointment of a Canadian to that role by seven more years.
The McNaughton Avenue was named in Ottawa, Ontario, and unveiled and dedicated to General Andrew McNaughton in 1943. The avenue runs from McGillivray Street to Main Street.
After the war
After the war McNaughton chaired the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission from 1946 to 1948; served as Canada's Ambassador to the United Nations from 1948 to 1949; and chaired the Canadian Section of the International Joint Commission from 1950 to 1962.
His son, Brigadier-General Edward Murray Dalziel Leslie (né McNaughton) was commander of 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery and served during the Korean War.
His grandson Lieutenant-General Andrew Leslie was Chief of the Land Staff of the Canadian Forces from 2006 to 2010.
Promotions
His promotions were:
Lieutenant (9 May 1910)
Captain (16 May 1911)
Major (28 May 1913)
Brevet Brigadier-General (10 November 1918)
Lieutenant-Colonel (1 January 1920)
Colonel (1 January 1923)
Major-General (1 January 1929)
Lieutenant-General (1940)
General (1944)
Archives
There is an Andrew George Latta McNaughton collection at Library and Archives Canada and an Andrew G. L. McNaughton fonds at McGill University.
There is a 3-volume biography "McNaughton" by John Alexander Swettenham. Volume 3 published by Ryerson Press in 1968
Electoral record
See also
List of Bishop's College School alumni
Canadian pipe mine
References
Sources
External links
McNaughton Archives at McGill
Canadian Army Officers 1939–1945
Generals of World War II
Canada's 25 Most Renowned Military Leaders
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1966 deaths
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Canadian military personnel from the Northwest Territories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20Pictures
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Republic Pictures
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Republic Pictures Corporation (currently held under Melange Pictures, LLC) was an American film studio corporation which originally operated from 1935 to 1967, based in Los Angeles, California. It had production and distribution facilities in Studio City, as well as a movie ranch in Encino. Republic was best known for specializing in Westerns, cliffhanger serials, and B-films emphasizing action and mystery. The studio was also notable for developing the careers of such famous Western stars as Roy Rogers, Gene Autry, and John Wayne. It was also responsible for the financial management and distribution of several big-budget feature films directed by John Ford, as well as one Shakespeare motion picture directed by Orson Welles. Under the supervising leadership of Herbert J. Yates, Republic was considered a mini-major film studio, producing almost 1,000 motion pictures.
Company history
Created in 1935 by Herbert J. Yates, a longtime investor in film (having invested in 20th Century Pictures at its founding in 1933) and owner of the film processing laboratory Consolidated Film Industries, Republic was initially founded upon Yates' acquisition of six smaller independent Poverty Row studios.
In the depths of the Great Depression, Yates' laboratory was no longer serving the major studios, which had developed their own in-house laboratories for purposes of both economy and control, while the small, independent producers were going under in the face of increased competition from the majors combined with the general impact of the depressed economy. In 1935, he thus decided to create a studio of his own to insure Consolidated's stability. Six surviving small companies (Monogram Pictures, Mascot Pictures, Liberty Pictures, Majestic Pictures, Chesterfield Pictures, and Invincible Pictures) were all in debt to Yates' lab. He prevailed upon these studios to merge under his leadership or else face foreclosure on their outstanding lab bills. Yates' new company, Republic Pictures Corporation, was presented to their producer-owners as a collaborative enterprise focused on low-budget product.
The largest of Republic's components was Monogram Pictures, run by producers Trem Carr and W. Ray Johnston, which specialized in "B" films and operated a nationwide distribution system.
The most technologically advanced of the studios that now comprised Republic was Nat Levine's Mascot Pictures Corporation, which had been making serials almost exclusively since the mid-1920s and had a first-class production facility, the former Mack Sennett lot in Studio City. Mascot also had just discovered Gene Autry and signed him to a contract as a singing cowboy star.
Larry Darmour's Majestic Pictures had developed an exhibitor following, with big-name stars and rented sets giving his humble productions a polished look.
Republic took its original "Liberty Bell" logo from M.H. Hoffman's Liberty Pictures (not to be confused with Frank Capra's short-lived Liberty Films that produced his It's a Wonderful Life, coincidentally now owned by Republic) as well as Hoffman's talents as a low-budget film producer.
Chesterfield Pictures and Invincible Pictures, two sister companies under the same ownership, were skilled in producing low-budget melodramas and mysteries.
Acquiring and integrating these six companies enabled Republic to begin life with an experienced production staff, a company of veteran B-film supporting players and at least one very promising star, a complete distribution system, and a functioning and modern studio. In exchange for merging, the principals were promised independence in their productions under the Republic aegis, and higher budgets with which to improve the quality of the films. After he had learned the basics of film production and distribution from his partners, Yates began asserting more and more authority over their film departments, and dissension arose in the ranks. Carr and Johnston left and reactivated Monogram Pictures in 1937; Darmour resumed independent production for Columbia Pictures; Levine left and never recovered from the loss of his studio, staff and stars, all of whom now were contracted to Republic and Yates. Meanwhile, Yates installed a staff of new, "associate" producers who were loyal to him. Freed of partners, Yates presided over what was now his film studio and acquiring senior production and management staff who served him as employees, not experienced peers with independent ideas and agendas.
Republic also acquired Brunswick Records to record its singing cowboys Gene Autry and Roy Rogers and hired Cy Feuer as head of its music department.
At the 1958 annual meeting, Yates announced the end of motion picture production.
Movie studio
Notable Republic films
Types of films
In its early years, Republic was sometimes labeled a "Poverty Row" company, as its primary products were B movies and serials. Most of the technical staff had been with Mascot, a serial specialist, and thus was already geared to the steady production of weekly chapter plays. Republic's own serials began in 1936 and developed a following very quickly. Many were live-action adaptations of radio and comic-strip adventures. Dick Tracy (1937), starring Ralph Byrd as the intrepid detective, was so popular that it spawned three sequels. The Lone Ranger (1938) and its follow-up The Lone Ranger Rides Again (1939) were well received, and Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941) reached new heights of visual effects. Serials produced after World War II were more economy-minded, with the running times slashed from 20 minutes per episode to 13 minutes, and with the cliffhanger endings borrowed from older Republic serials and features. The studio also stopped licensing expensive comic-strip and radio properties, and instead created generic cops-and-robbers stories and science-fiction adventures. Despite the obvious economies, the Republic serials still found an audience, the last film being King of the Carnival (1955). Republic kept many of its serials in circulation; they were still playing in local movie theaters well into the 1960s.
The backbone of the company was its feature-length Westerns. Many of its Western film leads — among them John Wayne, Gene Autry, Roy Rogers, Bill Elliott, Allan "Rocky" Lane, and Rex Allen — became recognizable stars at Republic. However, by the mid-1940s, Yates was producing better-quality pictures, mounting big-budget fare such as The Quiet Man (1952), Sands of Iwo Jima (1949), Johnny Guitar (1954), and The Maverick Queen (1956). Another distinguishing aspect of Republic Pictures was Yates' avoidance of any controversial subject matter (exploitation films being a staple of B movies), in contrast to the other "Poverty Row" studios that often dodged the Production Code.
Republic's leading female star was Judy Canova, who was enormously popular in Republic's customer base of small towns and rural areas. Republic produced many "hillbilly" rural musicals and comedies featuring Canova and the Weaver Brothers and Elviry. <ref>Harkins, Anthony; Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon" Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 161.</ref> She left Republic after a salary dispute in 1943, but was wooed back into the fold in 1951.
In 1946, Republic incorporated animation into its Gene Autry feature film Sioux City Sue. It turned out well enough for the studio to dabble in animated cartoons. After leaving Warner Bros. in 1946 (reportedly because of angering his peers at the studio's cartoon division for taking credit that was not really his), Bob Clampett approached Republic and directed a single cartoon, It's a Grand Old Nag, featuring the equine character Charlie Horse. Republic management, however, had second thoughts owing to dwindling profits and discontinued the series. Clampett took his direction credit under the name "Kilroy". Republic also released another cartoon series in 1949 (this time without Clampett): a free-wheeling series of animated travelogues called Jerky Journeys, written and produced by Leonard Levinson, but only four cartoons were made.
From the mid-1940s, Republic films often featured Vera Hruba Ralston, a former ice skater from Czechoslovakia who had won the heart of Yates, marrying him in 1952. She was originally featured in musicals as Republic's answer to Sonja Henie, but Yates tried to build her up as a dramatic star, casting her in leading roles opposite important male stars. Yates billed her as "the most beautiful woman in films," but her charms and her noticeable Czech accent were lost on the moviegoing public and exhibitors complained that Republic was producing too many Ralston pictures. Years later, John Wayne admitted that he had departed Republic in 1952 over the prospect of having to appear in another film with her. Yates remained Ralston's most ardent supporter, and she continued to appear in Republic features until its final production, Spoilers of the Forest (1957).
By the mid-to-late-1940s, the American film industry faced an existential threat, the result of years of wartime stress on costs and the postwar exchange and trade restrictions enacted by the nations of Continental Europe (practically closing off the market to smaller studios such as Republic), the Paramount Case (even though Republic never owned more than a handful of theaters), and the rise of television. In 1947, Yates stopped the production of short subjects, reduced the amount of serials, and organized Republic's feature output into four types of films: "Jubilee", usually a Western shot in seven days for about $50,000; "Anniversary", filmed in 14–15 days for $175,000-$200,000; "Deluxe", major productions made with a budget of around $500,000; and "Premiere", which were usually made by top-rank directors who most often did not work for Republic, such as John Ford, Fritz Lang and Frank Borzage, and which could have budgets of $1,000,000 or more. Some of these "Deluxe" films were produced by independent companies and were picked up for release by Republic.
Although Republic released most of its films in black and white, it occasionally produced higher-budgeted films such as The Red Pony (1949) and The Quiet Man in Technicolor. During the late 1940s and 1950s, Yates utilized a low-cost, two-color process called Trucolor (similar to Cinecolor, favoring blues and oranges) in many Republic films, including Johnny Guitar, The Last Command (1955), and Magic Fire (1956). In 1956, the studio devised its own widescreen film process, Naturama, and The Maverick Queen was the first film made in that process.
Television era
Most of the movie studios regarded television as competition, and resisted making their film libraries available to local stations. Republic, however, established a subsidiary, Hollywood Television Service, in December 1950. Earl Collins, Republic's branch manager in Los Angeles, accepted the presidency of the new TV arm. Collins made two major announcements: effective June 25, 1951, much of Republic's backlog of feature films would be available to local stations; and, effective that same day, Republic's studio lot would be available for rental to independent TV producers. The Republic features, including the Gene Autry and Roy Rogers westerns, were uniformly edited to a running time of 53 minutes and 30 seconds each, in order to fit neatly into one-hour time slots. This was looked upon by TV programmers as a tremendous convenience, and Hollywood Television Service found hundreds of ready customers.
Hollywood Television Service also produced television shows filmed in the same style as Republic's serials, such as The Adventures of Fu Manchu (1956). Also, in 1952, the Republic studio lot became the first home of MCA's series factory, Revue Productions.
While it appeared that Republic was well suited for television series production, it did not have the finances or vision to do so. Yet by the mid-1950s, thanks to its sale of old features and leasing of studio space to MCA, television was the prop supporting Republic. During this period, the studio produced Commando Cody: Sky Marshal of the Universe; unsuccessful as a theater release, the 12-part serial was later sold to NBC for television distribution.
Talent agent MCA exerted influence at the studio, bringing in some high-paid clients for occasional features, and it was rumored at various times that either MCA or deposed MGM head Louis B. Mayer would buy the studio outright.
As the demand and market for motion pictures declined with the increasing popularity of television, Republic began to cut back on its films, slowing production from 40 features annually in the early 1950s to 18 in 1957 (in 1956—the year the company had recorded a profit of $919,000—it temporarily ceased production of features.) Perhaps inspired by the success of American International Pictures catering to teenaged audiences, Republic dispensed with its old "no exploitation" rule and released several films in the late 1950s about juvenile delinquency, such as The Wayward Girl (1957), Juvenile Jungle (1958), and Young and Wild (1958).
A tearful Yates informed shareholders at the 1958 annual meeting that feature film production was ending; the distribution offices were shut down the following year.
Serials
Republic Corporation
On July 1, 1958, Victor M. Carter, a Los Angeles businessman and turnaround specialist, acquired controlling interest in the company for nearly $6 million, becoming its president. He turned Republic into a diversified business that included plastics and appliances in addition to its film and studio rentals and Consolidated Film Industries, renaming the company Republic Corporations. Having used the studio for series production for years, Republic began leasing its backlot to other firms, including CBS, in 1963. In 1967, Republic's studio was purchased outright by CBS and, having more than quadrupled the stock price for shareholders, Carter sold his controlling interest. Other than producing a 1966 package of 26 Century 66 100-minute made-for-TV movies edited from some of the studio's serials to cash in on the popularity of the Batman television series, Republic Pictures' role in Hollywood ended with the sale of the studio lot. Republic sold its library of films to National Telefilm Associates (NTA).
Non-entertainment acquisitions included Mansbach Metal Company and Kentucky Electric Steel Company, both acquired in September 1968. Republic reported a $13 million loss for the year ending October 1970, and a $43 million loss for the year ended July 1971. The company promoted Sanford Sigoloff, who would later earn a reputation as a turnaround expert, to lead as President.
Today, the studio lot is known as CBS Studio Center. In 2006, it became home to the network's Los Angeles stations KCBS-TV and KCAL-TV. In 2008, the CBS network relocated from its Hollywood Television City operations to the Radford lot, and its executives are based from the site.
Re-establishment
Republic Entertainment Inc.
Formation
Following the immense success of their syndication of the Republic Pictures catalogue to cable television, National Telefilm Associates announced on December 28, 1984, that they had acquired the logos, copyrights, and trademarks of Republic Pictures Corporation and effectively renamed themselves as such. A television production unit was set up under the Republic name and offered, among other things, off-network repeats of the CBS series Beauty and the Beast and game show Press Your Luck in syndication. There were also a few theatrical films, including Freeway, Ruby in Paradise, Dark Horse, Live Nude Girls, and Bound. At the same time, subsidiary NTA Home Entertainment was renamed Republic Pictures Home Video and began remarketing the original Republic film library. In 1985, the company bought out Blackhawk Films, and eventually, Republic decided to close Blackhawk in 1987.
Also that year, Republic Pictures Home Video, the home video division of Republic Pictures, had inked an agreement with Hawk Company, headed by Robert Clouse, in order to gain access to 31 projects that were developed by Hawk, for home video release, and that Republic Pictures Home Video received a 24% share in the newly formed Hawk Company organization.
On August 27, 1986, Republic Pictures Home Video established a venture with Eagle Productions Ltd. that Eagle would produce family-oriented outdoors programming, and that Republic Pictures Home Video would handle sales, marketing, and distribution of the Eagle Productions titles, with the venture The Eagle Heritage Video Collection is aimed at the interest of hunting, fishing and other "non-consumptive" uses of the outdoors. In 1987, Republic Pictures decided to expand onto its television production activities, in association with Jaffe/Lansing Productions, on a television movie for ABC, which is When the Time Comes, plus two prospective projects for CBS, which are Indiscreet, and Mistress, which was part of a three-picture deal between Jaffe/Lansing and Republic Pictures. That year, Chuck Larsen was hired by Republic Pictures as president of domestic television distribution, and will select the two from a number of series we have in development.
Purchase by Spelling Entertainment
In January 1993, Blockbuster Entertainment announced they would purchase a 35% stake in Republic,
In June 1993, the company's home video division signed a deal with the Children's Television Workshop for the release of several of the company's properties on VHS in order for the former to expand to the children's video market. Later on in then year, the company used the landmark legal decision Stewart v. Abend in order to reactivate the copyright on Frank Capra's 1946 RKO film It's a Wonderful Life (under NTA, it had already acquired the film's negative, music score, and the story on which it was based, "The Greatest Gift").
On September 14, 1993, following Blockbuster's purchase of a 48.2% stake in Aaron Spelling's Spelling Entertainment, Spelling announced that they would enter into a $100 million purchase and merger with Republic Pictures Corporation, which would close at the end of January 1994. The deal was closed on April 27, 1994, with Republic Pictures Corporation becoming a fully owned subsidiary of Spelling Entertainment and was renamed Republic Entertainment Inc. Following Blockbuster Entertainment's merger with Viacom on September 29, 1994, Blockbuster by then owned 67% of Spelling Entertainment and Republic. At the end of the year, Spelling's exising home video division - Worldvision Home Video, was merged with Republic Pictures Home Video and took the latter name.
Fate
In 1996, Republic shut down its film production unit. In September 1997, Republic's video rental operations were taken over by Paramount Home Video; although its sell-through operations remained.
In September 1998, Spelling announced that they would license the American and Canadian video rights to the Republic Pictures library to Artisan Entertainment, and would continue to be released with the Republic Pictures brand and logo. Overseas, Spelling licensed out the library to distributors such as PolyGram Video/Universal Pictures Video in the United Kingdom.
By the end of the decade, Viacom bought the portion of Spelling it did not own previously; thus, Republic became a wholly owned division of Paramount Pictures. Artisan (later sold to Lionsgate Home Entertainment) continued to use the Republic name, logo, and library under license from Paramount. Republic Pictures' holdings consist of a catalog of 3,000 films and TV series, including the original Republic library (except for the Roy Rogers and Gene Autry catalogs, owned by their respective estates) and inherited properties from NTA and Aaron Spelling.
In 2012, Richard Feiner & Co. sued Paramount for the unauthorized exploitation of 17 films from the 1940s and 50s originally released by Warner Bros. which Feiner had previously acquired. Feiner sold Republic Pictures the "rights, and interest of every kind, nature, and description throughout the Universe" to the films in 1986, but retained the license to exploit the films in major U.S. markets (New York, Atlanta, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, etc.). The plaintiff claimed that the films aired on cable several times without their knowledge. The case was later settled, with Feiner now sharing in the royalties.Gardner, Eriq. Paramount Gets Mixed Rulings in Legal Cases Over 'La Dolce Vita,' 'Johnny Come Lately.' The Hollywood Reporter (April 24, 2012)
Republic Entertainment Inc. has since been folded by Paramount, who later formed a holding company called Melange Pictures for the Republic library, logos and brand. After Lionsgate's domestic deal with Paramount expired, Paramount signed new deals with Olive Films and Kino Lorber to distribute the Republic Library. As before, the Republic brand and logo continue to be used by both companies under license.
As a Paramount Global subsidiary
On March 24, 2023, Paramount Global announced it would revive the Republic Pictures brand, with the intention of it serving as the company's acquisitions label, releasing titles acquired by Paramount Global Content Distribution, similar to the distribution model of, amongst other companies, Stage 6 Films or American International Pictures.
References
Sources
Mathis, Jack, Republic Confidential – Volume One: The Studio and Republic Confidential – Volume Two: The Players'' (1992), Empire Publishing Company.
External links
Republic Pictures: Celebrating 75 Years
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
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Ali
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ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (; 600 – 661 CE) was the last Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, the successor state to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's political dominions. A senior companion of Muhammad, he is considered by Shia Muslims to be the first Imam, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The issue of succession caused a major rift among Muslims and divided them into two major branches: Shia following an appointed hereditary leadership among Ali's descendants, and Sunni following political dynasties. Ali's assassination in the Grand Mosque of Kufa by a Kharijite coincided with the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Imam Ali Shrine and the city of Najaf were built around Ali's tomb and it is visited yearly by millions of devotees.
Ali was a cousin of Muhammad. He was raised by Mohammed from the age of 5 and accepted Mohammed's claim of divine revelation by age 11, being among the first to do so. Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam while Muhammad was in Mecca and under severe persecution. After Muhammad's relocation to Medina in 622, Ali married his daughter Fatima, becoming Mohammed's son-in-law. Ali fathered, among others, Hasan and Husayn, the second and third Shia Imams.
Muhammad called him his brother, guardian and successor, and he was the flag bearer in most of the wars and became famous for his bravery. On his return from the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad uttered the phrase, "Whoever I am his , this Ali is his Mawla." But the meaning of Mawla became disputed. Shias believed that Ali was appointed by Muhammad to lead Islam, and Sunnis interpreted the word as friendship and love. While Ali was preparing Muhammad's body for burial, a group of Muslims met and pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr. Ali pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, after six months, but did not take part in the wars and political activity, except for the election of Uthman, the third caliph. However, he advised the three caliphs in religious, judicial, and political matters.
After Uthman was killed, Ali was elected as the next Caliph, which coincided with the first civil wars between Muslims. Ali faced two separate opposition forces: a group in Mecca, who wanted to convene a council to determine the caliphate; and another group led by Mu'awiya in the Levant, who demanded revenge for Uthman's blood. He defeated the first group; but in the end, the Battle of Siffin led to an arbitration that favored Mu'awiya, who eventually defeated Ali militarily. Slain by the sword of Ibn Muljam Moradi, Ali was buried outside the city of Kufa. In the eyes of his admirers, he became an example of piety and un-corrupted Islam, as well as the chivalry of pre-Islamic Arabia. Several books are dedicated to his hadiths, sermons, and prayers, the most famous of which is Nahj al-Balagha.
Early life
Ali was born to Abu Talib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE, possibly on 13 Rajab, which is the date celebrated annually by the Shia. Shia and some Sunni sources introduce Ali as the only person born inside Ka'ba in Mecca, some containing miraculous descriptions of the incident. Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim clan, who also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. When Abu Talib fell into poverty later, Ali was taken in at the age of five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.
In 610, when Ali was aged between nine and eleven, Muhammad announced that he had received divine revelations (). Ali was among the first to believe him and profess to Islam, either the second (after Khadija) or the third (after Khadija and Abu Bakr), a point of contention among Shia and Sunni Muslims. Gleave nevertheless writes that the earliest sources seem to place Ali before Abu Bakr, while Watt () comments that Abu Bakr's status after Muhammad's death might have been reflected back into the early Islamic records.
Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali provided for the needs of the Meccan Islamic community, especially the poor. Some three years after the first revelation and after receiving verse 26:214, Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance. The Sunni al-Tabari () writes that Ali was the only relative who offered his support and Muhammad subsequently announced him as his brother, his trustee, and his successor. This declaration was met with ridicule from the infamous Abu Lahab and the guests then dispersed. The announcement attributed to Muhammad is not included in the Sunni collection Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, but readily found in the Shia exegeses of verse 26:214. The similar account of Ibn Ishaq () in his Sira was later omitted in the recension of the book by the Sunni Ibn Hisham (), possibly because of its Shia implications. The Shia interpretation of these accounts is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor from an early age.
From migration to Medina to the death of Muhammad
In 622, Muhammad was informed of an assassination plot by the Meccan elites and it was Ali who is said to have stayed in Muhammad's house overnight to fool the assassins waiting outside, while the latter escaped to Yathrib (now Medina), thus marking 1 AH in the Islamic calendar. This incident is given by the early exegete Ibn Abbas (), among others, as the reason of the revelation for verse 2:207, which includes, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God." Ali too escaped Mecca soon after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there. In Medina, Muhammad paired Muslims for fraternity pacts and he is said to have selected Ali as his brother, telling him, "You are my brother in this world and the Hereafter," according to the canonical Sunni collection Sahih al-Tirmidhi. Ali soon married Muhammad's daughter Fatima in 1 or 2 AH (623–5 CE), at the age of about twenty-two. Their union holds a special spiritual significance for Muslims, write Nasr and Afsaruddin, and Muhammad said he followed divine orders to marry Fatima to Ali, narrates the Sunni al-Suyuti (), among others. The Sunni Ibn Sa'd () and some others write that Muhammad had earlier turned down the marriage proposals by Abu Bakr and Umar.
Event of the
After an inconclusive debate in 10/631-2, Muhammad and the Najranite Christians decided to engage in , where both parties would pray to invoke God's curse upon the liar. Verse 3:61 of the Quran is associated with this incident. Madelung argues based on this verse that Muhammad participated in this event alongside Ali, Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn. This is also the Shia view. In contrast, most Sunni accounts by al-Tabari do not name the participants of the event, while some other Sunni historians agree with the Shia view. During the event, Muhammad gathered Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn under his cloak and addressed them as his , according to some Shia and Sunni sources, including the canonical Sunni Sahih Muslim and Sahih al-Tirmidhi. Madelung suggests that their inclusion by Muhammad in this significant ritual must have raised the religious rank of his family. A similar view is voiced by Lalani.
Missions
Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in Medina. He was also one of the scribes tasked by Muhammad with committing the Quran to writing. In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh. In 630, Muhammad sent Abu Bakr to read the at-Tawbah for pilgrims in Mecca but then dispatched Ali to take over this responsibility, later explaining that he received a divine command to this effect, as related by the canonical Sunni collection . At the request of Muhammad, Ali helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later removed the idols from Ka'ba. In 631, Ali was sent to Yemen to spread the teachings of Islam, as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted. Ali was also tasked with resolving the dispute with the Banu Jadhima, some of whom had been killed by Khalid ibn al-Walid () after being promised safety by him.
Military career
Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military expeditions except the Battle of Tabuk (630), during which he was left behind in charge of Medina. The Hadith of Position is linked with this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This appears in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. For the Shia, the hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad, while it primarily supports the finality of Muhammad in the chain of prophets for the Sunni. Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak (628) in the absence of Muhammad.
Ali was renowned for his bravery. He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628). He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630), while Veccia Vaglieri () attributes the Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar to his courage, where he is popularly said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort. At Uhud, Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth () but Ali," writes al-Tabari. After defeating Amr ibn Abd Wudd, who had challenged Ali to single combat in the Battle of the Trench (627), Muhammad praised him, "Faith, in its entirety, has appeared before polytheism, in its entirety," writes the Shia Rayshahri. According to Veccia Vaglieri, Ali and Zubayr oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 5 AH, though the historicity of this incident has been disputed by some, while Shah-Kazemi comments on the defensive nature of the battles fought by Ali and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.
Ghadir Khumm
As Muhammad was returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, he halted the large caravan of pilgrims at Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer. During his sermon, taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad asked the crowd if he was not closer () to the believers than they were to themselves, which they affirmed. Muhammad then declared, "He whose I am, Ali is his ." Musnad Ibn Hanbal, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this sentence three or four more times and that his companion Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become of every faithful man and woman." In this sermon and earlier in Mecca, Muhammad is said to have alerted Muslims about his impending death. Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the event to the revelation of verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.
With some exceptions, the authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested, as its recorded tradition is "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" in classical Islamic sources. The numerous Shia accounts include one by the proto-Shia Ya'qubi (), while the Sunni accounts include the s of al-Tirmidhi (), al-Nasa'i (), Ibn Maja (), Abu Dawud (), and the works of Ibn al-Athir (), Ibn Abd al-Barr (), Ibn Abd Rabbih (), al-Jahiz (), Ibn Asakir (), and Ibn Kathir (). Some Sunni authors, such as al-Tabari (), Ibn Hisham (), and Ibn Sa'd () nevertheless made little or no mention of the Ghadir Khumm, perhaps because the story seem to justify the Shia claims, or perhaps to avoid angering their Sunni rulers by supporting the Shia claims.
The interpretation of the Ghadir Khumm is a source of controversy between Sunni and Shia. is a polysemous Arabic word, its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm tends to be split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret as meaning 'leader', 'master', and 'patron', while Sunni accounts of this sermon offer little explanation, or interpret the hadith as love or support for Ali, or substitute with the word (of God, ). As such, Shias view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority, while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men, or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will. Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement, give Quranic and textual evidence, and argue to eliminate other meanings of in the hadith except for authority, while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali. On one occasion during his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm, presumably to counter the challenges to his legitimacy as caliph. Madelung, McHugo, and Shah-Kazemi suggest that Ali thereby claimed to have been entrusted by Muhammad with an authority superior to his predecessors, while Afsaruddin notes that the Sunni al-Bukhari () and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj () have not recorded the event in their canonical works. The latter does relate a public statement attributed to Muhammad at Khumm in praise of the Banu Hashim, not just Ali.
Life under Rashidun Caliphs
The next phase of Ali's life started in 632, after the death of Muhammad, and lasted until the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan, the third caliph, in 656. During those 24 years, Ali took no part in the early Muslim conquests.
Succession to Muhammad
Saqifa
As Ali and other close relatives prepared for the burial of Muhammad, a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, ) gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to re-establish their control over their city, Medina. Upon learning about this, Abu Bakr and Umar, both senior companions of Muhammad, rushed to join the gathering as the only representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, ) at the Saqifa, alongside Abu Ubaidah. Those present at the Saqifa appointed Abu Bakr as the successor to Muhammad after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.
The case of Ali for the caliphate was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence, though Madelung and MucHugo suggest that the outcome would have been different in a broad council () with Ali as a candidate: The Ansar would have supported him because of his family ties with them, and the additional backing of the Banu Hashim and the powerful Abd Shams clans of the Quraysh would have carried Ali to the caliphate. On the one hand, the same arguments that Abu Bakr advanced against the Ansar (kinship, service to Islam, lineage, etc.) would have likely favored Ali over Abu Bakr. On the other hand, Sunni authors often justify the caliphate of Abu Bakr on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days, though the veracity and political significance of such reports have been challenged by Jafri, Lecomte, and Shaban. Alternatively, Veccia Vaglieri believes that the Arabs' (pre-Islamic) tradition of choosing elderly leaders weakened the case of Ali, while some others note that the tradition of hereditary succession among the Quraysh would have favored Ali over Abu Bakr. Umar later described the Saqifa affair as a [i.e., a precipitate and ill-considered deal], possibly because it excluded from decision making the majority of the Muhajirun and particularly Muhammad's kin. Jafri and Momen similarly comment that the caliphate of Abu Bakr was the decision of a group of companions, successfully imposed upon others due to their clan rivalries. Some other contemporary authors have criticized the Saqifa affair as a "backroom deal" and a "coup" which was influenced by the pre-Islamic tribal politics.
Opposition of Ali
After the Saqifa meeting, Omar and his supporters dominated the streets of Medina, and the caliphate of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance there. The Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house, among them Muhammad's uncle Abbas and Zubayr. These held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad, possibly referring to the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm. Among others, al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters would not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr. The scene soon grew violent, but the mob retreated without Ali's pledge after his wife Fatima pleaded with them. Abu Bakr later placed a boycott on Ali and also on the Banu Hashim to abandon their support for Ali. The boycott was successful, and those who initially supported Ali gradually turned away and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Most likely, Ali did not pay his allegiance to Abu Bakr until his wife Fatima died within six months of her father Muhammad. In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali at the order of Abu Bakr. Sunnis categorically reject these claims.
After the death of Fatima and in the absence of popular support, Ali is said to have relinquished his claims to the caliphate for the sake of the unity of a nascent Islam. In particular, he turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate, including an offer from Abu Sufyan, which led Veccia Vaglieri to conclude that Ali had no interest in the caliphate. In contrast, others maintain that Ali viewed himself as the most qualified person to lead the Muslim community after Muhammad by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad, while there is some evidence that Ali also considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad through a divine decree at the Ghadir Khumm. In contrast with the lifetime of Muhammad, Ali is believed to have retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, which has been interpreted as a silent censure of the first three caliphs. While he reputedly advised Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters, the mutual distrust and hostility of Ali with the two caliphs is also well-documented, but largely downplayed or ignored in Sunni sources. In contrast, Shia sources tend to view Ali's pledge of allegiance to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency or , and the disagreements of Ali with his predecessors are magnified in these sources. Their differences were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs. The conflicts after the death of Muhammad are considered the roots of the current division among Muslims. Those who had accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate later became the Sunnis, while the supporters of Ali's right to the caliphate eventually became the Shias.
Caliphate of Abu Bakr ()
In contrast with the lifetime of Muhammad, Ali retired from the public life during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, did not take part in the Ridda wars, and instead engaged himself with religious affairs, devoting his time to the study and teaching of the Quran. The caliphate of Abu Bakr began with a conflict between him and Fatima, Muhammad's daughter and the wife of Ali. When she requested her inheritance from the estate of his father, including the lands of Fadak and Khaybar, Abu Bakr refused, saying that Muhammad had told him, "We, the prophets, do not leave any inheritance; whatever we leave is charity," as related by al-Tabari. The first caliph was initially the sole witness to this statement, and Soufi regards him as the only credible narrator of this hadith in Sunni sources, while Sajjadi adds also his daughter Aisha and his ally Umar. In contrast, Twelvers reject the authenticity of the hadith based on their own traditions, claiming also that it contradicts the Quran, where verses 19:6 and 27:16 describe how Zechariah and David both left inheritance. These ostensible contradictions with the Quran have also been noted by some contemporary authors. Nevertheless, Soufi suggests that the testimony of Abu Bakr is strong enough for Sunnis to make an exception to the Quranic rules of inheritance. Abu Bakr announced that he would administer those properties like Muhammad and that his kin should henceforth rely on general alms, which was forbidden for them in his lifetime because of their status of purity in the Quran, as preserved today by all schools of jurisprudence in Islam. Abu Bakr thus deprived Muhammad's kin also of their Quranic share of the booty and , in verses 8:41 and 59:7, respectively, to which they were previously entitled instead of general alms. Because Muhammad had become the owner of Fadak as the leader of the Muslim community, to inherit this property as a prerogative by the Banu Hashim might have implied their authority over the community, which is likely why Abu Bakr rejected Fatima's claims. This was the opinion of Jafri, and the views of some contemporary authors are alike.
Another incident in this period was the death of Fatima. Shortly after the appointment of Abu Bakr, Umar led an armed mob to the house of Ali, who had withheld his pledge, and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and those with him did not pay allegiance to Abu Bakr. The scene soon grew violent, but the mob retreated after Fatima publicly shamed them, without receiving Ali's pledge, who withheld his oath until after the death of Fatima, some six months after Muhammad. Shia sources describe a final and violent raid to secure the oath of Ali, also led by Umar, in which Fatima suffered injuries that shortly led to her miscarriage and death. Any violence is categorically rejected by Sunnis, though there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali, which Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed. Fitzpatrick surmises that the story of the altercation reflects the political agendas of the period and should therefore be treated with caution. In contrast, Veccia Vaglieri maintains that the Shia account is based on facts, even if it has been later exaggerated. Madelung is uncertain about the use of force but writes that Fatima's house was searched in some Sunni sources, adding that Ali later repeatedly said that he would have resisted (Abu Bakr) had there been forty men with him. Abbas writes that some well-regarded Sunni sources mention Umar's raid and Fatima's injuries.
Caliphate of Umar ()
On his deathbed in 634, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor, which led Lalani to conclude that Muhammad had similarly appointed Ali but his choice was ignored by the community. Ali was not consulted about the matter, and the nomination of Umar was met with resistance from some companions, but Abu Bakr ultimately secured the endorsement of key figures. Ali did not press any claims, possibly fearing division in Islam, and remained withdrawn from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar. Any disagreements between Ali and Umar are often minimized by Sunni authors, who say that Ali was consulted in matters of state, while Shia sources highlight the conflicts between the two, and their mutual dislike is clear in the Sunni Tarikh al-Tabari. Unlike his legal advice, which was accepted because of his "excellent knowledge of the Quran and the Sunna," political views of Ali were probably ignored by Umar: Ali advised Umar in vain that all the excess state revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr. He was also absent from the strategic meeting of the notables convened by Umar near Damascus because, according to al-Tabari, he had stayed behind as the governor of Medina in the absence of Umar, though it is said that he held no other positions under the second caliph. Ali also did not participate in the military expeditions of Umar, although he does not seem to have objected to them, according to Gleave. At the same time, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting as the start of the Islamic calendar introduced by Umar. The Sunni Kitab al-Isti'ab and the Shia Bihar al-anwar attribute to Umar, "Had there not been Ali, Umar would have perished." A similar sentiment is expressed by Umar in the Sunni al-Bidaya wa'l-nihaya.
Umar evidently opposed the combination of the prophethood and the caliphate in the Banu Hashim, and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed, possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor. Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate without giving them excessive economic and political power. He returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali and Muhammad's uncle Abbas as an endowment, though Fadak and Khayber remained under the control of the caliph. Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed after the former enlisted public support for his demand.
Election of Uthman (644)
Umar was stabbed in 23/644 by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, a disgruntled Persian slave. On his deathbed, he tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves. The committee members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh, but Ali and Uthman ibn Affan were most likely the strongest candidates among them. The deciding vote was given to another member named Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, either by the committee, or by Umar. Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph, after Ali rejected his condition to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs if elected, or gave an evasive answer, while Uthman readily accepted this condition. Umar has been criticized by some authors for his exclusion of the Ansar from the committee, and for its evident bias toward Uthman, both of which were intended to keep the caliphate away from the Banu Hashim, or perhaps the bias of the committee was accidental.
Caliphate of Uthman ()
Ali frequently accused Uthman of deviating from the Quran and the Sunna, and he was joined in this criticism by most of the senior companions. Uthman was also widely accused of nepotism, corruption, and injustice, and Ali is known to have protested his conduct, including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen. Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar, against the wrath of the caliph. Ali appears in early sources as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition to Uthman, joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, who were both companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha. Among the supporters were Malik al-Ashtar () and the other religiously learned (). These wanted to see Ali as the next caliph, though there is no evidence that he communicated or coordinated with them. Ali is also said to have rejected the requests to lead the rebels, although he might have sympathized with their grievances, and was thus considered a natural focus for the opposition, at least morally.
Assassination of Uthman
As their grievances mounted, discontented groups from provinces began arriving in Medina in 35/656. On their first attempt, the Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to send a delegation to negotiate with Uthman, unlike Talha and Ammar who might have encouraged the Egyptians to advance on the town. Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to avoid violence, which was heeded. He also acted as a mediator between Uthman and the provincial dissidents more than once to address their economical and political grievances. In particular, he negotiated and guaranteed on behalf of Uthman the promises that persuaded the rebels to return home and ended the first siege. Ali then urged Uthman to publicly repent, which he did. The caliph soon retracted his statement, however, possibly because his secretary Marwan convinced him that repentance would only embolden the opposition. On their way back home, some Egyptian rebels intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They now returned to Medina and laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time, demanding that he abdicates. The caliph refused and claimed he was unaware of the letter, for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources. Ali and another companion sided with Uthman about the letter, and suspected Marwan, though a report by the Sunni al-Baladhuri () suggests that the caliph accused Ali. This is likely when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman. The caliph was assassinated soon afterward in the final days of 35 AH (June 656) by the Egyptian rebels during a raid on his residence in Medina.
Ali played no role in the deadly attack, and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali. He also convinced the rebels not to prevent the delivery of water to Uthman's house during the siege. Beyond this, historians disagree about his measures to protect the third caliph. Husain Mohammed Jafri () and Madelung highlight multiple attempts by Ali for reconciliation, and Martin Hinds () believes that Ali could not have done anything more for Uthman. Reza Shah-Kazemi points to Ali's "constructive criticism" of Uthman and his opposition to violence, while Moojan Momen writes that Ali mediated between Uthman and the rebels, all the time urging the former to alter his policies and refusing the requests from the latter to lead them. This is similar to the view of John McHugo, who adds that Ali withdrew in frustration when his peace efforts where undone by Marwan. Fred Donner and Robert Gleave suggest that Ali was the immediate beneficiary of Uthman's death. This is challenged by Madelung, who suggests that Aisha would have not actively opposed Uthman if Ali had been the prime mover of the rebellion and its future beneficiary. He and others observe the hostility of Aisha toward Ali, which resurfaced immediately after his accession. Laura Veccia Vaglieri () notes that Ali refused to lead the rebellion but sympathized with them and probably agreed with their calls for abdication. Hossein Nasr and Asma Afsaruddin, Levi della Vida, and Julius Wellhausen () believe that Ali remained neutral, while Caetani labels Ali as the chief culprit in the murder of Uthman, even though the evidence suggests otherwise.
Caliphate
Election
When Uthman was killed in 656 CE by the Egyptian rebels, the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, and the provincial rebels and the Ansar were in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Basrans and Kufans, who had heeded Ali's opposition to violence, and most of the Ansar supported Ali. Some authors add the (majority of the) Muhajirun to the above list of Ali's supporters. The key tribal chiefs also favored Ali at the time.
The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who was initially reluctant to accept it, saying that he preferred to be a minister (). He was reluctant perhaps because he saw the polarizing impact of the assassination on the community, suggests Reza Aslan. Some early reports emphasize that Ali then accepted the caliphate when it became clear that he enjoyed popular support, reporting also that Ali demanded a public pledge at the mosque. Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali. Talha and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office, also gave their pledges to Ali but later broke their oaths. Some early sources say that they pledged under duress, though contemporary historians tend to reject their claims as invented. It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone and, among others, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abd-Allah ibn Umar, Sa'id ibn al-As, al-Walid ibn Uqba, and Marwan likely refused to give their oaths, some motivated by personal grudges against Ali. On the whole, Madelung suggests that there is less evidence for any violence here than in the case of Abu Bakr, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress. At the same time, that the majority favored Ali in Medina might have created an intimidating atmosphere for those opposed to him.
Legitimacy
For Veccia Vaglieri, that Ali allowed himself to be nominated by the rebels was an error, because it left him exposed to accusations of complicity in the assassination. Alternatively, M.A. Shaban and Sean Anthony believe that Ali stepped in to prevent chaos and fill the power vacuum created by the regicide. The opinion of Mahmoud M. Ayoub () is close. Madelung is critical that Ali was elected irregularly and not by a council, while Hugh N. Kennedy and Veccia Vaglieri write that the election of Ali faced little public opposition, and this is also implied by Shaban. Jafri and Momen suggest that Ali was elected by a near-consensus, commenting that he was the only popularly-elected caliph in Muslim history. The latter part is also echoed by Ayoub. Even though underprivileged groups rallied around Ali, he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to the title of caliph. Within the Quraysh, Madelung identifies two camps opposed to Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr () and Umar () (rather than the caliphate of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim). Madelung considers the latter group as the majority within the Quraysh. Kennedy similarly writes that the Quraysh challenged Ali to preserve the status of their tribe. Ali was vocal about the divine and exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to succeed him, which would have jeopardized the future ambitions of other Qurayshites for leadership.
Administrative policies
Justice
The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice. In his inaugural speech, Ali rebuked Muslims for straying from the straight path after Muhammad and set out to implement radical policies, intended to restore his vision of the prophetic governance. The caliph immediately dismissed nearly all the governors who had served Uthman, saying that the likes of those men should not be appointed to any office. He replaced them with men whom he considered pious, largely from the Ansar and the Banu Hashim. Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad, and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption. Some of those affected by these policies soon revolted against Ali under the pretext of revenge for Uthman. Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria. Some have criticized Ali for political naivety and excessive rigorism, while others say that Ali ruled with righteousness rather than political flexibility. His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad, and assert that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, quoting verse 68:9, "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise." Some suggest that the decisions of Ali were actually justified on a practical level. For instance, the removal of unpopular governors might have been the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.
Religious authority
Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority, as evident from his inaugural speech as the caliph. Ali thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunnah, and particularly the esoteric message of the script. This claim of Ali distinguished him from his predecessors who may be viewed as merely the administrators of the divine law. In return, some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who demanded the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did. These felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty () to Ali that transcended politics, and offered him a second and unconditional to him after the Kharijites broke with Ali. They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam, his kinship with Muhammad, and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm. Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the legatee () of Muhammad and thus his rightful successor after his death, as evidenced in the poetry from the period and the inaugural address of Malik al-Ashtar.
Fiscal policies
Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues. He also equally distributed the taxes and booty amongst Muslims, following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr. This practice may indicate the egalitarian views of Ali, who thus attempted to unravel the social order established under his predecessors: Umar distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit and precedence, which he apparently came to regret later as it replaced the Quranic principle of equality among the faithful. In turn, Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of nearly all underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the (), and the late immigrants to Iraq. In contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman. They both revolted against Ali after the caliph refused to grant them favors. Some other figures among the Quraysh also turned against Ali for the same reason, write Ayoub and John McHugo. Ali is said to have even rejected a request by his brother Aqil for public funds, whereas Mu'awiya readily offered all of them bribes. Regarding taxation, Ali instructed his officials to collect payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing the funds. He directed Malik al-Ashtar in a letter to pay more attention to land development than short-term taxation.
Rules of war
Ali is regarded as an authority for the rules of intra-Muslim war in Islamic jurisprudence. He forbade Muslim fighters from looting, and instead equally distributed the taxes as salaries among the warriors. With this ruling, Ali thus recognized his enemies' rights as Muslims. He also pardoned them in victory, and both of these practices were soon enshrined in the Islamic law. Beyond these measures, Ali has often been noted for his magnanimity to his defeated foes. He also advised al-Ashtar not to reject any call to peace and not to violate any agreements, and warned him against unlawful shedding of blood. He forbade his commanders from disturbing the civilians except when lost or in dire need of food. He further urged al-Ashtar to resort to war only when negotiations fail. He also ordered him to avoid commencing hostilities, and this Ali observed too in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Nahrawan. Ali barred his troops from killing the wounded and those who flee, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming the women. Veccia Vaglieri adds that Ali prevented the enslavement of women and children in victory, even though some protested. Prior to the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.
Battle of the Camel
When Aisha, a widow of Muhammad, learned about the accession of Ali in Medina, she stationed herself in Mecca and publicly blamed the assassination on him, and engaged in propaganda against the caliph. She was soon joined there by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr, who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali. The triumvirate were joined, in turn, by the Umayyads, although their objectives were different, as the latter believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman. The opposition to Ali decried his leniency towards the rebels, and accused him of complicity in the assassination. They demanded that Ali punish those responsible for the assassination of Uthman. They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a (Qurayshite) council () to appoint his successor. This removal of Ali was likely their primary goal, rather than vengeance for Uthman, against whom Talha, Zubayr, and Aisha had been active earlier. In particular, Talha and Aisha had likely written to the provinces to stir unrest. The latter had also publicly called for the death of Uthman shortly before his assassination. The caliphate of Ali had perhaps frustrated the political ambitions of Talha and Zubayr, and the Quraysh in general. For these, Ali represented the Ansar and the lower classes of the society. Fearing that he would end their privileged status as the ruling class of Islam, the Quraysh thus challenged Ali to safeguard their entitlements. In place of Ali, the opposition wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. Alternatively, Talha and Zubayr revolted after Ali refused to grant them favors. In particular, Ali did not offer the two any posts in his government, specifically the governorships of Basra and Kufa.
When the rebels failed to gain traction in Hijaz, they set out for Basra with several hundred soldiers. They captured Basra, killed many, and expelled Uthman ibn Hunaif, Ali's governor, after torturing him. Ali had set out in pursuit but failed to intercept them. In al-Rabadha, he thus changed direction to Kufa and sent delegates to raise an army there. However, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the governor of Kufa, called on the Kufans to remain neutral. The supporters of Ali thus expelled him from the town, and raised an army of six to twelve thousand men, which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles. The two armies soon camped across from each other just outside of Basra, both numbered around 10,000 men by one account. Negotiations then began between Ali, Talha, and Zubayr to avoid the impending war. The talks apparently broke the resolve of Zubayr, who might have realized his small chances for the caliphate and the immorality of his bloody rebellion, according to Madelung. At the negotiations, Aisha's party demanded the removal of Ali from office and a council to elect his successor, but Ali countered that he was the legitimate caliph. The two sides also accused each other of responsibility in the assassination of Uthman. The negotiations thus failed after three days and the two sides readied for battle.
Account of the battle
The battle took place on a December day in 656, lasting from noon to sunset. Ali is said to have barred his men from commencing hostilities. He ordered his forces to advance when the rebels killed Ali's envoy, thus blocking his last-ditch effort to avoid war. Aisha was also led onto the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named. Talha was soon killed by the Umayyad's Marwan, another rebel, who apparently held the former responsible for the assassination of Uthman, or wanted to rid his kinsman, Mu'awiya, of a serious contender for the caliphate. Zubayr, an experienced fighter, left shortly after the battle began, but was pursued and killed. Madelung and Veccia Vaglieri suggest that it was the serious misgivings of Zubayr about the justice of their cause that led Zubayr to desertion. The deaths of Talha and Zubayr sealed the fate of the battle, despite the intense fighting that continued possibly for hours around Aisha's camel. The fighting stopped only when Ali's troops succeeded in killing Aisha's camel. She was nevertheless treated with respect, and later escorted back to Hejaz. Ali then announced a public pardon, setting free the war prisoners and prohibiting the enslavement of their women and children. The properties seized were to be returned to the enemy soldiers or their heirs. The caliph instead compensated his army from the treasury of Basra. Ali also extended this pardon to high-profile rebels such as Marwan, who soon joined the court of Mu'awiya. For Madelung, that Ali released Marwan signals how little he was willing to engage in the ongoing political schemes of the civil war. Ali then appointed Ibn Abbas as the governor of Basra, and divided the treasury funds equally. The caliph soon set off for Kufa, arriving there in December 656 or January 657. He refused to reside in the governor's castle, calling it (), and instead stayed with his nephew Ja'da ibn Hubayra. Kufa thus became Ali's main base of activity during his caliphate.
Battle of Siffin
Once in Kufa, Ali dispatched an envoy to Syria with a letter for its governor, Mu'awiya. The letter demanded his pledge of allegiance and added that he would be dismissed from his post, in which he had served under Umar and Uthman. Ali argued in his letter that his election in Medina was binding on Mu'awiya in Syria because he was elected by the same people who had pledged to his predecessors. The letter continued that the election of the caliph was the right of the Muhajiran and the Ansar, explicitly excluding Mu'awiya, as a late convert (), from any and from the caliphate itself. The letter also urged Mu'awiya to leave justice for Uthman to Ali, promising that he would deal with the issue in due course. In response to Ali's letter, Mu'awiya asked Jarir for time, then launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, charging Ali in the death of Uthman and calling for revenge. Mu'awiya was soon joined by Amr ibn al-As, a military strategist, who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for the life-long governorship of Egypt, from which he was earlier removed by Uthman. In turn, Amr incited against Uthman, and later publicly took some credit for his assassination by the Egyptian rebels. Amr is also credited with successfully spreading the rumor that Ali had killed Uthman. Mu'awiya soon privately visited Ali's emissary and proposed to recognize him in return for Syria and Egypt. When Ali rejected this proposal, Mu'awiya sent the envoy back to Kufa with a formal declaration of war which charged Ali with the murder of Uthman and vowed war. Thereafter would be a Syrian council () to elect the next caliph, the declaration continued. Ali replied to this letter that he was innocent and that Mu'awiya's accusations lacked any evidence. He also challenged Mu'awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify to vote in a . As for handing Uthman's killers to Mu'awiya, Ali asked the latter to pledge allegiance and then present his case before Ali's court. With the exception of Kennedy, modern authors tend to consider Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for power grab, as evidenced by his secret offer to recognize Ali in return for Syria and Egypt.
Account of the battle
The two sides prepared for war and faced each other in the summer of 36/657 at Siffin, west of the Euphrates. The number of troops is uncertain, perhaps 100,000 and 130,000 for Ali and Mu'awiya, respectively. As for their Islamic credentials, a considerable number of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful. The Syrians reached there first, and prevented the Iraqis from accessing the watering place. Soon, however, the Iraqis drove off the Syrians, though Ali permitted the enemies to freely access the water source. The two sides at Siffin engaged in skirmishes and negotiations, which continued for some three months, perhaps reflecting the reluctance for war. The negotiations failed nevertheless, possibly on 18 July 657, and prominent figures fought with small retinues before the main battle, which began on Wednesday, 26 July 657, and continued to Friday or Saturday morning. Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities, and later fought together with his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion. Mu'awiya fared better overall on the first day, but his forces were pushed back by the Iraqis on the second day. Among those killed fighting for Mu'awiya on this day was Ubayd Allah, son of Umar, who had earlier fled to Syria when he learned that Ali intended to punish him for murdering some Persians innocent in the assassination of his father. On the other side, Ammar ibn Yasir, an octogenarian companion of Muhammad, was killed fighting for Ali on this day. In the canonical Sunni sources Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of () who call to hellfire. On the third day, Mu'awiya turned down the proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali. Urwa ibn Dawud al-Dimashqi volunteered to fight instead of Mu'awiya and was promptly "cleft in two" by Ali. After another indecisive day, heavy fighting continued throughout ().
Call to arbitration
By the next morning, the balance had moved in favor of Ali. Before noon, however, some of the Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us." The fighting thus stopped at once. Ali is estimated to have lost 25,000 men by this point, while Mu'awiya might have lost 45,000 men. Battle was consistently Mu'awiya's position and his call for arbitration thus indicates that he had sensed imminent defeat, and this tends to be the view of modern authors, some of whom add that Mu'awiya was advised to do so by Amr ibn al-As. Ali is said to have exhorted his men to continue fighting, telling them to no avail that raising the Quran was for deception. Representing the , Mis'ar ibn Fadaki and Zayd ibn Hisn al-Ta'i, who both later became Kharijite leaders, threatened to kill Ali if he did not answer the Syrians' call. Representing the tribesmen of Kufa, the largest bloc in the army, al-Ash'ath ibn Qays told Ali that his clan would not fight for him if he refused the Syrians' call. Ali now recalled al-Ashtar, who is said to have advanced far towards the Syrian camp and initially refused to stop fighting. Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali was thus compelled to accept the arbitration proposal, most likely against his own judgment.
Arbitration agreement
Mu'awiya now conveyed his proposal that representatives from both sides should together reach a binding solution on the basis of the Quran. In Ali's camp, the majority pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa, despite the opposition of Ali, who said he could not trust Abu Musa who had hindered the war preparations for the Battle of the Camel. The alternatives proposed by Ali were Ibn Abbas and al-Ashtar, both of whom were rejected by al-Ash'ath and other Yemenites, and also by the Iraqi . Ultimately, Ali and Mu'awiya were represented by, respectively, Abu Musa and Amr, of whom the latter acted solely in the interest of Mu'awiya. The arbitration agreement was written and signed by both parties on 15 Safar 37 (2 August 657), according to which the two representatives committed to meet on neutral territory, to adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and to save the community from war and division, a clause added evidently to appease the peace party. The two arbitrators were given about a year to come to a decision, and hostilities would resume if they failed. Two days after this agreement both armies left the battlefield. The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many there could not accept that he would negotiate with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. It also handed Mu'awiya a moral victory as an equal contender for the caliphate.
Formation of the Kharijites
As Ali returned to Kufa, some 12,000 of his men seceded and gathered outside of Kufa in protest to the arbitration agreement. Ali visited them and told them that they had opted for the arbitration despite his warnings. The seceders agreed and told Ali that they had repented for their sins and now demanded that Ali follow suit. To this, he responded with the general declaration, "I repent to God and ask for his forgiveness for every sin," and also ensured them that the judgment of the arbitrators would not be binding if they deviated from the Quran and Sunna. He thus largely regained their support at the time. But when the seceders returned to Kufa, they spread that Ali had nullified the arbitration agreement, which he denied, saying that he was committed to the formal agreement with Mu'awiya. Many of the dissidents apparently accepted Ali's position, while the rest left for al-Nahrawan, a town near al-Mada'in, and there declared Abd-Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi () as their leader. These formed the Kharijites (), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan (658). As for their motives, the Kharijites, among them many of the , may have feared being held accountable for their role in the assassination of Uthman. Alternatively, the Kharijites were disillusioned with the arbitration process, particularly by the removal of Ali's title of in the final agreement and by its reference to the Sunna next to the Quran. After being silent about it initially, the Syrians now said that they also wanted the arbitrators to judge whether the killing of Uthman was justified, about which the had no doubts. The Kharijites adopted the slogan, "No judgment but that of God," highlighting their rejection of the arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9, "If two parties among the believers fall to fighting, make peace between them. If one of them aggresses against the other, fight those who aggress until they return to God’s Command. And if they return, make peace between them with justice and act equitably. Truly God loves the just." When they interrupted Ali's sermon with this slogan, he commented that it was a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood. He added that they were repudiating government even though a ruler was indispensable in the conduct of religion. Ali nevertheless did not bar their entry to mosques or deprive them of their shares in the treasury, saying that they should be fought only if they initiate hostilities.
Arbitration proceedings
After some months of preparation, the two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal, halfway between Iraq and Syria, perhaps in Ramadan 37 (February 658), and the proceedings lasted for some weeks. As an early companion of Muhammad, most likely Abu Musa did not support the caliphate of Mu'awiya, a . With a strong preference for peace among Muslims, Abu Musa was probably willing to confirm Ali as the caliph, provided that he would reinstate Mu'awiya as the governor of Syria, who was well-liked by his troops, and on the condition that Mu'awiya would, in turn, recognize Ali as the caliph. Ideally, however, Abu Musa may have preferred a broad that included Ali and Abd-Allah ibn Umar. The latter was his son-in-law and also favorite choice for the caliphate, even though Abd-Allah was probably not interested in it. Eventually, the arbitrators reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge, but could not agree on anything else, either because Amr blocked the choice of Ali for the caliphate or a fresh , or because Abu Musa was adamant in his opposition to Mu'awiya. Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession of Abu Musa, who might have hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture. The verdict was not made public but both parties came to know about it anyway. In particular, Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a new expedition to Syria.
Evidently not endorsed by Ali, there was also a second meeting in Udhruh in January 659, or in August–September 658, probably to discuss the succession to Ali. Not part of the arbitration process, this second meeting was solely an initiative of Mu'awiya, who also invited the sons of prominent companions to take part. The negotiations there failed eventually, as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya, while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar, who stood down in the interest of unity by his own account, or more likely because he was intimidated by Mu'awiya, who also publicly threatened him in the closing gala. In the public declaration that followed, Abu Musa deposed both Ali and Mu'awiya and called for a council to appoint the new caliph per his earlier agreement with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali but confirmed Mu'awiya as the new caliph, thus violating his agreement with Abu Musa. The Kufan delegation then reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions, and he fled to Mecca in disgrace, whereas Amr was well received by Mu'awiya upon his return to Syria. The common view is that the arbitration failed, or was inconclusive. It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.
Battle of Nahrawan
After the failed arbitration, and after Syrians' pledge to Mu'awiya as caliph, Ali re-mobilized his supporters for a second confrontation with Mu'awiya. He invited the Kharijites to join him in a letter addressed at their leaders. They refused unless he repented for the arbitration saga, which Ali rejected. He decided to depart for Syria without them, probably to deny Mu'awiya the time to recuperate. This time only the Ansar, the remnants of the led by al-Ashtar, and some of their tribesmen joined Ali. Around this time the Kharijites also started the practice of interrogating civilians about their views on Uthman and Ali, and executing those who disagreed with them. They subsequently killed many, apparently not even sparing women. In one instance, they are alleged to have disemboweled a farmer's pregnant wife, cut out and killed her unborn infant, before beheading the farmer. Ali received the news of the Kharijites' violence en route to Syria and sent one of his men to investigate, but he too was killed by the Kharijites. His soldiers now implored him to neutralize their threat, fearing for the safety of their families in Kufa. Ali moved to Nahrawan with his army, estimated to be 14,000 strong.
When the two armies met, Ali informed the Kharijites that he would leave them alone if they surrendered the murderers and accepted peace. They responded that all of them were responsible for the murders as they all considered it licit to kill his followers. Then Ali and some of his men addressed the Kharijites and pleaded with them to lay down their arms, but they told each other not to reply and instead prepare for martyrdom. Both sides arranged in battle order and Ali gave a banner of safe conduct to one of his men, announcing an amnesty for any Kharijite who would join him or return to Kufa or al-Madai'n, adding that only the murderers would be punished. Hundreds of Kharijites thus separated from their army, leaving about 1,5001,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters. Ali waited for the Kharijites to commence hostilities, and then crushed them with his army of about 14,000 men. Some 713 of Ali's soldiers were killed, while nearly all the Kharijites were either killed or wounded and returned to their families. The date of the battle is commonly given as 9 Safar 38 AH (17 July 658), although some argue that it happened in 37 AH. Some scholars have criticized Ali for killing his erstwhile allies, many of whom were outwardly pious Quran readers. For others, it was necessary to subdue the Kharijites, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who openly threatened to kill anyone who disagreed with them and posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.
Later years
Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali returned to Kufa and camped outside the city for his army to recuperate before a renewed Syria campaign. Most soldiers, however, deserted the camp and Ali was compelled to abandon his plans and return to Kufa. The soldiers were either demoralized by the Battle of Nahrawan, or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders, who wanted peace with Syrians. Mu'awiya had secretly offered many of them posts and wealth in return for their support, whereas Ali refused to grant any financial favors to the tribal chiefs as a matter of principle. At any rate, the secession of so many of the and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali. With the collapse of his broad military coalition, the governor of Egypt, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, was defeated and killed, and Egypt thus fell in 658 to a Syrian army led by Amr ibn al-As. In addition, Ali had to contend with Kharijite revolts in his territory and faced some opposition in the eastern provinces.
Mu'awiya also began to dispatch military units to harass the civilian population loyal to Ali. These units evaded enemy forces and instead targeted civilians along the Euphrates, in the vicinity of Kufa, and most successfully, in Hejaz and Yemen. Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults. In the case of the raid led by Busr ibn Abi Artat in 661, the Kufans eventually responded to calls for jihad and routed Muawiya's force, but only after the enemy had reached Yemen. There are allegations of atrocious crimes committed by Busr, including the murder of the two minor sons of Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas, a relative of Ali, and enslaving Muslim women, apparently for the first time. In his final months, Ali repeatedly complained about the disobedience of the Kufans in the public sermons attributed to him in . He nevertheless continued his efforts to organize a second Syrian campaign and appears to have finally found sufficient support for an offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage in the wake of the infamous Syrian raid led by Busr. Following the raid, a group of Kufan tribal chiefs pledged their support for war and enlisted their men, while Ali separately recruited new fighters from the Sawad region. In preparation for a large-scale war, a detachment raided Syria under the command of Ziyad ibn Khasafa, but it is unlikely to have inflicted substantial damage since Ali had ordered the unit to fight only those who would fight them and to avoid wronging anyone or interfering with the bedouins. The planned second campaign was abandoned after the assassination of Ali.
Assassination and burial
Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 CE, equivalent to 19 Ramadan 40 AH. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He died of his wounds about two days after the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam struck him over his head with a poison-coated sword at the Great Mosque of Kufa. He was sixty-two or sixty-three years of age at the time of his death. By some accounts, Ali had long known about his fate either by a premonition or through Muhammad, who might have told him that his beard would be stained with the blood of his head. Ibn Muljam had entered Kufa with the intention of killing Ali in revenge for the Kharijites' defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. He found two accomplices in Kufa, namely, Shabib ibn Bujra and Wardan ibn al-Mujalid. Unlike Ibn Muljam, the swords of these two missed Ali and they fled but were later caught and killed.
Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of to Ibn Muljam or his pardon, and he was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali. By most accounts, also involved in the assassination was al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, whose loyalty to Ali is often questioned in the early sources. Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali was then buried secretly. His grave was identified during the caliphate of the Abbasid Harun al-Rashid () and the town of Najaf grew around it near Kufa, becoming a major site of pilgrimage for Muslims, especially Shias. The present shrine was built by the Safavid Shah Safi (), near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wish to be buried next to their imam. Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.
Succession
Shortly after the death of Ali, his eldest son Hasan was acknowledged as caliph in Kufa. Ali had probably not nominated a successor before his sudden death but had often said that only members of Muhammad's household (Ahl al-Bayt) were entitled to the caliphate. As Ali's legatee, Hasan was thus the obvious choice for the Kufans. Some Shia reports add that Ali designated Hasan as his before dying, thus transferring his authority to him, and as his , thus leaving Hasan responsible for punishing his assassin. Some authors have also noted that the surviving companions of Muhammad were primarily in Ali's army and must have therefore pledged their allegiance to Hasan, as there is no evidence to the contrary. Mu'awiya soon marched on Iraq and seized the caliphate from Hasan, who abdicated in August 661, probably compelled by the overwhelming military superiority of his enemy and the weak support of the Kufans. Mu'awiya thus founded the Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali, and also mandated regular public cursing of Ali across the Muslim territories.
Descendants of Ali
In addition to seventeen daughters, various sources report that Ali had eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons. In particular, al-Tabari lists fourteen sons, born to six wives and a freed slave (). Among these sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role, and five of them left descendants, also known as the Alids. The first marriage of Ali was with Fatima, who bore him three sons, namely, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin, though the last one is not mentioned in some sources. Muhsin either died in infancy, or was miscarried after Fatima was injured during a raid on her house to arrest Ali, who had withheld his pledge of allegiance from Abu Bakr. The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively. They are revered by all Muslims as the progeny of Muhammad and honored by nobility titles such as Sharif and Sayyid. Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, namely, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum. Ali remarried multiple times after the death of Fatima in 632 and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.
After the assassination of Ali in 661, Mu'awiya founded the Umayyad Caliphate (), during which the Alids were persecuted. After Ali, his followers () recognized as their imam his eldest son Hasan. After his death in 670, they recognized his brother Husayn, but he and his small caravan were massacred by the Umayyads in the Battle of Karbala in 680. In addition to Husayn, six other sons of Ali were also killed in this battle, including Abbas ibn Ali. Three sons of Hasan and two sons of Husayn were also among the dead. Soon followed the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar in 685 on behalf of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiya. The main movements that followed afterward were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites. Named after a commander of al-Mukhtar, the Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. On the other hand, the Imamites were led by the quiescent descendants of Husayn through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (). His son Zayd ibn Ali was an exception for he led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740. The followers of Zayd went on to form the Zaydites, for whom any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny was qualified as imam.
The Alids were also persecuted during the Abbasid Caliphate (). Some of them revolted, including the Hasanid brothers Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah () and Ibrahim, while some others took refuge in remote areas and founded regional dynasties in the southern shores of the Caspian sea, Yemen, and western Maghreb. For instance, the revolt of the Hasanid Husayn ibn Ali al-Abid was suppressed in 786 but his brother Idris () escaped and founded the first Alid dynasty in Morocco. Some of the quiescent imams of the Imamites were also probably killed by the Abbasids, including Muhammad al-Jawad () and his son, Ali al-Hadi (). Their followers also believe that the birth of their twelfth imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was hidden for fear of Abbasid persecution and that he remains in occultation by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil. They became known as the Twelvers. Meanwhile, the only historic split among the Imamites happened after the death in 765 of their sixth imam, the quiescent Ja'far al-Sadiq. Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These followers permanently separated and later formed the Isma'ilites. The Isma'ilites vigorously opposed the Abbasids, and their efforts culminated in the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate () in North Africa.
Works and contributions
Most works attributed to Ali were first delivered in the form of sermons and speeches and later committed to writing by his companions. There are similarly supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught his companions.
() is an eleventh-century collection of more than two-hundred sermons, nearly eighty letters, and almost five-hundred sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (), a prominent Twelver scholar. In view of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of has long been a subject of polemic debates, though recent academic research suggests that most of its contents can indeed be attributed to Ali by tracking the texts in sources that predate al-Radi.
The sermons and letters in offer a commentary on the political career of Ali, and have served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance. In particular, the letter of instructions addressed at Malik al-Ashtar has received much attention as a model for just and righteous Islamic governance. The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights. also contains more sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of the predecessors of Ali in its Shaqshaqiya sermon, and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.
also holds passages about morality and doctrine, notably about the sovereignty of God and the essence of the Quran and the prophethood. Among them, the letter of life advices addressed to his son Hasan has received considerable attention. Recognized as an example of the most eloquent Arabic, is said to have significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric. The book has also been the focus of numerous commentaries and studies by both Sunni and Shia authors, including the comprehensive commentary of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid ().
() was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book consists of over ten thousand short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics, collected from different sources, such as by al-Radi and () by al-Jahiz . The aphorisms in and other works attributed to Ali may have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism throughout its history.
Mushaf of Ali
Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, as one of its first scribes. In his codex (), Ali may have arranged the verses by the order in which they were revealed to Muhammad. His codex may have also included interpretive material, such as information about the abrogation () of verses. By some Shia accounts, the codex of Ali was rejected for official use after the death of Muhammad in 632 for political reasons. Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the official Uthmanid codex, though currently, the prevalent Shia view is that the recension of Ali matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content. It is believed in Twelver Shia that the codex of Ali is now in the possession of their last imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and the commentary of Ali) when he reappears at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil. Also attributed to Ali is a recitation of the Quran, although it differs from the standard recitation transmitted by the Sunni scholar Hafs (). Yet some have argued that the recitation of Hafs can actually be traced back to Ali.
Ali was seen writing in the presence of Muhammad and some early traditions point to a collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali, known as (). As for its content, it may have concerned matters of lawfulness () and unlawfulness (), including a detailed penal code that accounted even for bodily bruises. In Shia belief, is also often linked to , which is said to contain esoteric teachings for the Ahl al-Bayt, dictated to Ali by Muhammad. It is believed in Twelver Shia that is now in the possession of their last imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. Copies of were likely available until the early eight century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.
Other works
Widely recited, especially among the Shia, the is a supplication attributed Ali, transmitted on the authority of his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad. Also attributed to Ali is on Islamic law with instructions for calculating financial compensation for victims (), quoted in its entirety in the hadith collection by the Shia traditionist Ibn Babawayh (). The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate were also recorded by his companions. Nevertheless, some works attributed to Ali may not be extant, such as (a short work on inheritance law), (on alms tax), and an exegesis of the Quran (). Other materials attributed to Ali are collected in of the Shia traditionist al-Kulayni () and other works of Ibn Babawayh. Ali is also the first transmitter of several hundred prophetic hadiths which have either been compiled in different works either under the title of or included in larger collections of hadith, such as , a canonical Sunni source. There are also multiple s of poems attributed to Ali, though many of these poems were probably composed by others.
Contributions to Islamic sciences
The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali, and his non-extant recension of the Quran, known as , is thought to have also included his authoritative commentary. Still, the written legacy of Ali is dotted with Quranic commentaries, and he is credited with laying the foundations for the exegesis () of the Quran by the Quran. Numerous traditions have been transmitted from Ali about the Quran, some of which have been compiled in . Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran, while Ibn Mas'ud (), another early exegete, said that Ali possessed both the inner and outer dimensions of the Quran. Ali has also related numerous prophetic hadiths, some 586 of them. These have been compiled in different works either under the title of , or included in larger collections of hadith. There also likely existed a collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali himself, known as , although only parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works. As a Shia imam, the statements and practices attributed to Ali are also widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings. Ali is also credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.
Ali is also credited by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his words are said to contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the unity of God (). In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were regarded as a central source of metaphysical knowledge or divine philosophy. In particular, Ali is regarded in the Sadra school of philosophy as the supreme metaphysician of Islam and the first person to have expressed philosophical ideas in Arabic terms. is also a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and the of Muhammad. Alongside the written legacy of other Shia imams, and the many commentaries written about it seem responsible for the sustained development of Shia philosophy long after its Sunni counterpart reached a standstill. Some hidden or occult sciences such as , Islamic numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, were reportedly established by Ali in connection with the books and .
Character
Ali is regarded by his followers as a paragon of the essential virtues, particularly justice. Yet historical accounts about him are often tendentious, perhaps because the early Muslim conflicts in which he took part have been perpetuated for centuries in sectarian writings. For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation. By contrast, Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different and perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior. He is also often featured positively in Shia and Sufi artworks. In manner, Ali is similarly presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable, whereas Shia sources describe Ali as generous, gentle, and cheerful, to the point that the Syrian war propaganda apparently accused him of frivolity. Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor. The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong. His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, is reported to have described him as follows.
Ail is also viewed as the model for Islamic chivalry (). Often praised for his piety and courage, he fought to uphold his beliefs, but was also magnanimous in victory, apparently risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women and children. This and many other practices of Ali were soon enshrined in the Islamic wartime law. He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies. Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility, as his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many. Others have argued in his defense that these qualities were also present in Muhammad, citing, for instance, the Quranic verse, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise." Alternatively, some others propose that the controversial decisions of Ali were the only options available to him, both on principle and in practice. At any rate, most seem to agree that these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, largely contributed to his image today as a paragon of Islamic virtues for his followers.
Names and titles
Ali is known by many titles and honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are exclusively found in the Shia literature. His titles include Abu al-Hasan (), al-Murtada (), Asad Allah (), Haydar (, the name initially chosen for him by his mother), and especially among the Shia, Amir al-Mu'minin (), Imam al-Muttaqin (), Wali Allah (), among others. Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali. He is also referred to as Abu Turab (), which was initially either a pejorative by his enemies, or may instead refer to the time when Muhammad approached Ali, wiped the dust from his shoulders, calling him, "father of dust."
Place in Islam
Ali's place in Muslim culture is said to be second only to that of Moḥammad. Afsaruddin and Nasr further suggest that, except for the prophet, more has been written about Ali in Islamic languages than anyone else. He retains his stature as an authority on Qur'anic exegesis and Islamic jurisprudence, and is regarded as a founding figure for Arabic rhetoric () and grammar. Ali has also been credited with establishing the authentic style of Qur'anic recitation, and is said to have heavily influenced the first generation of Qur'anic commentators. He is central to mystical traditions within Islam, such as Sufism, and fulfills a high political and spiritual role in Shia and Sunni schools of thought. In Muslim culture, Madelung writes, Ali is respected for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. He is remembered, according to Jones, as a model of uncorrupted socio-political and religious righteousness. Esposito further suggests that Ali still remains an archetype for political activism against social injustice. Ali is also remembered as a gifted orator though Veccia Vaglieri does not extend this praise to the poems attributed to Ali.
In the Quran
While most believe that Ali is not mentioned by name in the Quran, he regularly represented Muhammad in missions that were preceded or followed by Quranic injunctions. Certain verses of the Quran were thus directly revealed about Ali, according to some Shia and Sunni authorities. For instance, the verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt, which Shia limits to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons. Reports to this effect are also found in some canonical Sunni sources, including . Similarly, Shia exegetes interpret the word in the verse of (42:23) as the Ahl al-Bayt, and this is also the view of some Sunni scholars, including al-Razi (), Baydawi (), and Ibn Maghazili. The verse of is considered in Shia a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.
The verses of (5:67) and (5:3) are linked in Shia sources to Muhammad's announcement at the Ghadir Khumm. Therein, the former verse spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor, while the latter verse declared the perfection of Islam following that announcement. Some Sunni authors also connect these verses to the Ghadir Khumm but reject their Shia implications. Perhaps the most controversial is the verse of (5:55), which gave Ali the same spiritual authority () as Muhammad, according to the Shia. As for the occasion of its revelation, the verse is considered a specific reference to Ali by Shia and some Sunni commentators, that is, a reference to when Ali reputedly gave his ring to a beggar while he was bowing in worship in the mosque. The frequent association of this verse with Ali in early Sunni sources may support the authenticity of this claim.
In hadith literature
Numerous widely reported hadiths, attributed to Muhammad, praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose I am, Ali is his ," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm in 632 and gave Ali the same spiritual authority () as Muhammad, according to the Shia. The hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron, and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam. Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite () hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the () of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ()," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."
In Sunni Islam
Ali is highly regarded in Sunni thought as one of Rashidun (Rightly-Guided) Caliphs and a close companion of Muhammad. The incorporation of Ali into Sunni orthodoxy, however, might have been a late development, according to Gleave, dating back to Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Later on, Sunni authors regularly reported Ali's legal, theological, and historical views in their works, and some particularly sought to depict him as a supporter of Sunni doctrine.
In Sunni thought, Ali is seen sometimes as inferior to his predecessors, in line with the Sunni doctrine of precedence (), which assigns higher religious authority to earlier caliphs. The most troubling element of this view, according to Gleave, is the apparent elevation of Ali in Muhammad's sayings such as "I am from Ali and Ali is from me" and "For whomever I am the , Ali is his ." These hadiths have been reinterpreted accordingly. For instance, some have interpreted as financial dependence because Ali was raised in Muhammad's household as a child. Some Sunni writers, on the other hand, acknowledge the preeminence of Ali in Islam but do not consider that a basis for political succession.
In Shia Islam
It is difficult to overstate the significance of Ali in Shia belief and his name, next to Muhammad's, is incorporated into Shia's daily call to prayer (). In Shia Islam, Ali is considered the first Imam and the belief in his rightful succession to Muhammad is an article of faith among Shia Muslims, who also accept the superiority of Ali over the rest of companions and his designation by Muhammad as successor. In Shia belief, by the virtue of his imamate, Ali inherited both political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate. Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali was not the recipient of a divine revelation (), though he is believed to have been guided by divine inspiration () in Shia theology. To support this view, verse 21:73 of the Qur'an is cited among others, "We made them Imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of (alms), and they used to worship Us." Shia Muslims believe in the infallibility () of Ali, citing the verse of purification, among others. In Shia view, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad. Among the evidence to support this view is often the well-attested hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is his gate." According to Momen, most Shia theologians agree that Ali did not inherently possess the knowledge of unseen (), though glimpses of this knowledge was occasionally at his disposal. Shia Muslims believe that Ali is endowed with the privilege of intercession on the day of judgment, citing, for instance, verse 10:3 of the Qur'an, which includes the passage, "There is no one that can intercede with Him, unless He has given permission."
Ali's words and deeds are considered as a model for the Shia community and a source of sharia law for Shia jurists. Ali's piety and morality initiated a kind of mysticism among the Shias that shares some commonalities with Sufism. Musta'lis consider Ali's position to be superior to that of an Imam. Shia extremists, known as Ghulat, believed that Ali had access to God's will. For example, the Nuṣayrīs considered Ali to be an incarnation of God. Some of them (e.g. Khattabiyya, Saba'iyya) regarded Ali to be superior to Muhammad and were dissociated by him.
In Sufism
Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power, , that makes the spiritual journey to God possible. Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements and nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through him, an exception being Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr. According to Gleave, even the Naqshbandis include Ali in their spiritual hierarchy by depicting how Muhammad taught him the rituals of Sufism, through which believers may reach certain stages on the Sufi path. In Sufism, Ali is regarded as the founder of Jafr, the occult science of the symbolic significance of the Arabic alphabet letters.
In Judaism
When Ali passed through the city of Peroz-Shapur (now Anbar), he was warmly welcomed by ninety-thousand Jews who then lived there, and he "received them with great friendliness." The memorial of his kindness to them is preserved amongst Jews unto this day.
Historiography
Much has been written about Ali in historical texts, second only to Muhammad, according to Nasr and Afsaruddin. The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and hadiths, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Arab Christians, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern western scholars. Since the character of Ali is of religious, political, jurisprudential, and spiritual importance to Muslims (both Shia and Sunni), his life has been analyzed and interpreted in various ways. In particular, many of the Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.
The earlier Western scholars, such as Caetani (d. 1935), were often inclined to dismiss as fabricated the narrations and reports gathered in later periods because the authors of these reports often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, Caetani considered the later attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious since the former was often for and the latter was often against Ali. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Madelung, however, argues that Caetani's approach was inconsistent and rejects the indiscriminate dismissal of late reports. In Madelung's approach, tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply fabrication. Instead, Madelung and some later historians advocate for discerning the authenticity of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.
Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work prior to this period is the Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasids. When affordable paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950. For instance, according to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin in this period, thirteen of which were authored by the renowned historian Abu Mikhnaf. Most of these monographs are, however, not extant anymore except for a few which have been incorporated in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 923). More broadly, ninth- and tenth-century historians collected, selected, and arranged the available monographs.
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Books
Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard.
Encyclopedias
Encyclopaedia Iranica
Encyclopaedia of Islam
Encyclopaedia Islamica
Others
Journals
Further reading
External links
Shia biography
Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
A Biographical Profile of Imam Ali by Syed Muhammad Askari Jafari
Online Biography by Witness-Pioneer
Quotes
A Website featuring validated/referenced quotes of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
"Shadow of the Sun" published on first Shia Imam, a collection of 110 hadiths from Prophet (s) concerning the character of Ali.
600 births
661 deaths
7th-century caliphs
7th-century judges
7th-century monarchs in Asia
Arab generals
Arab politicians
Assassinated caliphs
Assassinated Shia imams
Deified men
Family of Muhammad
Arab Muslims
Deaths by blade weapons
Islamic philosophers
Writers of the medieval Islamic world
People of the First Fitna
People from Mecca
Philanthropists
Rashidun caliphs
Sahabah martyrs
Sahabah who participated in the battle of Uhud
Sahabah who participated in the battle of Badr
Shia imams
Zaydi imams
Twelve Imams
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty%20and%20the%20Beast%20%281987%20TV%20series%29
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Beauty and the Beast (1987 TV series)
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Beauty and the Beast is an American fantasy-drama television series that first aired on CBS from September 25, 1987 to August 4, 1990. Creator Ron Koslow's updated version of the fairy tale has a double focus: the relationship between Vincent (Ron Perlman), a mythic, noble man-beast, and Catherine (Linda Hamilton), a savvy Assistant District Attorney in New York City, and a secret utopian community of social outcasts living in a subterranean sanctuary. Through an empathetic bond, Vincent senses Catherine's emotions, and becomes her guardian.
Premise
The series follows the developing relationship between the characters and the division between New York and the hidden world beneath it. In a twist from the original tale, however, this "beast" does not transform into society's idea of beauty after gaining the love of Catherine. Rather, Vincent's inner beauty is allowed to remain the focus of who he is, and it is Catherine's life that transforms from her relationship to Vincent.
In the third season, after the death of the character Catherine, Jo Anderson became the new female lead playing Diana Bennett, a criminal profiler investigating Catherine's murder.
Production
As the title indicates, the premise of the series is inspired by the fairy tale "Beauty and the Beast"; in particular, there is some connection to the Jean Cocteau's 1946 French film, La Belle et la Bête.
George R. R. Martin, who would later write the A Song of Ice and Fire book series which were later adapted into the acclaimed television series Game of Thrones, was a writer and producer on the show.
In 2004 and 2007, Beauty and the Beast was ranked #14 and #17, respectively, on TV Guides Top Cult Shows Ever.
Series synopsis
Season 1
Catherine Chandler (played by Linda Hamilton) is abducted, beaten, slashed and left to die in Central Park because she was inadvertently mistaken for somebody else. She is rescued and cared for by Vincent (played by Ron Perlman) who has taken her to Father (played by Roy Dotrice), head of a hidden community of people dwelling in tunnels below the city of New York. Ten days later, Catherine returns to the surface with the promise of keeping Vincent's secret and the challenge to go on after her terrible attack. After completing her recovery, her life begins a serious transition: she takes self-defense lessons, leaves her comfortable job at her father's law firm and joins the Manhattan District Attorney's office as an assistant district attorney. Her first action involves her asking Carol Stabler about those men who attacked her, where she states that they were part of an illegal escort service run by Martin Belmont. When Catherine is attacked by Martin Belmont's men, she is saved by Vincent, who mauls the men.
During the course of the first season, the production team fashioned a blend of romance and crime drama, which used both Catherine's position as an ADA and her will to help Vincent and his world to place her in moments of physical danger that would bring the idealized romantic figure of Vincent to the surface world as her guardian angel.
Season 2
During its second season, the series shifted its focus slightly to add more character development, as the central characters spent considerable time exploring their relationships with the inhabitants of the Tunnel World, where Catherine had finally been accepted as a friend and "Helper" (someone who assists the Tunnel community with what they need to survive and by keeping their secret). More people from the World Above turned up for emotional support and healing in the secure environment of the World Below.
Near the end of the season, however, in an effort to boost faltering ratings, the action orientation returned as a result of the misleadings of the recurrent villain Paracelsus (played by Tony Jay). In a cliffhanger final episode, Catherine is seen walking down a tunnel into a chamber, where Vincent is suffering from a violent madness.
Season 3
When the series returned for its abbreviated third season late in 1989, Linda Hamilton had announced her decision to leave the series as she was pregnant at the time. It was a decision that, along with the network's desire to attract more male viewers, would have serious repercussions for the show's continued survival. In the resolution to the previous season's cliffhanger, Catherine rescued Vincent from his inner demons but was kidnapped by a man named Gabriel (played by Stephen McHattie), the ruthless head of a huge criminal empire she had been investigating, which was trying to corrupt the D.A.'s office. She was killed, but not before giving birth to Vincent's son, who was held hostage by the evil Gabriel. Catherine's boss and close friend Joe Maxwell (Jay Acovone) hired Diana Bennett (Jo Anderson), a criminal profiler with the police department, to track down Catherine's killer. Quite naturally, her investigation ultimately led her to the now darkly obsessed and grieving Vincent.
Although still popular with its dedicated fans, the darker, more resolutely violent aspects of the reworked concept, coupled with the fatal loss of the all-important central relationship between Catherine and Vincent, led to further declining ratings and, ultimately, cancellation.
Characters
Main cast
Catherine Chandler (portrayed by Linda Hamilton) – A corporate attorney in her father's law firm. After she's abducted, beaten, and her face slashed upon being mistaken for Carol Stabler, Catherine was rescued and tended to by Vincent. After that experience, Catherine changes her life completely and becomes an investigator for the Manhattan District Attorney's Office. In Season Three, Catherine becomes pregnant with Vincent's child and is captured by Gabriel. She is later murdered by Gabriel who overdoses her with morphine.
Vincent (portrayed by Ron Perlman) – A man of extremely large build with the facial characteristics of a lion (fanged teeth, a flattened nose and a feline muzzle) and fingers tipped with claw-like nails. He is also much stronger than ordinary humans and, when enraged, growls and roars like a lion. He wears a hooded cloak to hide his appearance from strangers while walking the city streets at night. His parentage is unknown as he was found as a baby near St Vincent's Hospital and brought to Father by Paracelsus' wife Anna. Vincent has empathic abilities that let him know when Catherine is in danger. Following the death of Catherine, his baby son was captive in the clutches of Gabriel prompting him to take down Gabriel's operations. He does end up surrendering to Gabriel when he hears that his son is ill. This leads up to a rescue mission by Diana and the rest of the "World Below". Following the death of Gabriel, Vincent saves his son and names him after Father's real name; Jacob. Vincent's makeup was devised by veteran Hollywood makeup artist Rick Baker. It was Baker who brought up Perlman based on his previous experiences in prosthetics and fought hard for his casting which ultimately started a long-lasting friendship between the two. Matt McColm was a stunt double for Perlman.
Diana Bennett (portrayed by Jo Anderson) – Diana is a criminal profiler with the "210 Division" of the New York Police Department, which investigates unusual cases beyond the scope of the normal police. She debuted in Season 3 where she was called to investigate Catherine's murder. She later becomes a friend of "The World Below" and plays a part in the final battle against Gabriel, ending his life by fatally shooting him with Catherine's gun.
The "World Above"
Joe Maxwell (portrayed by Jay Acovone) – A Deputy District Attorney for the Borough of Manhattan and Catherine's immediate superior in the office. In Season Three, Joe is injured in a car explosion caused by Gabriel's crime syndicate. After the murder of Catherine, Joe hires Diana Bennett to find her killer. Joe later meets Father (when it comes to tracking down Gabriel), but has never met Vincent.
Isaac Stubbs (portrayed by Ron O'Neal in "Once Upon a Time", Delroy Lindo in "Terrible Savior" and "No Way Down") – A street-fighting instructor who teaches Catherine to defend herself after she recovers from her attack.
Jenny Aronson (portrayed by Terri Hanauer) – A friend of Catherine's.
Edie (portrayed by Ren Woods) – Works in the computer division of the DA's office in Season 1.
Elliot Burch (portrayed by Edward Albert) – A self-made millionaire and New York building developer who is in love with Catherine. In Season Three, Elliot becomes familiar with Vincent after an encounter with him. Due to a deal with Gabriel, Elliot is involved in a plot to kill Vincent on his boat. Elliot is presumably killed by the boat explosion which wounded Vincent.
Charles Chandler (portrayed by John McMartin) – Catherine's father who is seen in Season 1 and 2 where he runs a law firm that Catherine used to work at. He dies of a stroke in the episode "Orphans". Before Charles died, Catherine was able to have Vincent meet her father.
Laura Williams (portrayed by Terrylene Sacchetti) – A deaf girl who lived in "The World Below" and struggles living in "The World Above" while remaining a helper to her tunnel family and befriending Catherine whom she admires.
Devin Wells (portrayed by Bruce Abbott) – A former inhabitant of "The World Below" who grew up with Vincent where they had a brother-like relationship.
Dr. Peter Alcott (portrayed by Joseph Campanella) – A "Helper" who is a fellow medical student and old friend of Jacob Wells. In "Dead of Winter", Peter is among the "Helpers" that attend Winterfest.
John Moreno (portrayed by Bill Marcus) – The District Attorney that Catherine Chandler and Joe Maxwell work for.
Gabriel (portrayed by Stephen McHattie) – A highly-influential crime boss and the biggest drug trafficker on the East Coast who debuted in Season 3 as a recurring antagonist. He was responsible for Catherine's death and the kidnapping of her baby. After Gabriel's men captured Diana, Vincent surrendered himself to Gabriel's men. In the final battle, Vincent's son is rescued as Vincent wounds Gabriel. After Gabriel mentions that no court would be able to convict him, Gabriel is then shot by Diana who avenges Catherine's death using Catherine's gun.
Jonathan Pope (portrayed by John Lehne) – Gabriel's right-hand man who issues out Gabriel's orders.
Doctor (portrayed by Kenneth Kimmins) – An unnamed doctor who works for Gabriel. He had the Doctor inject Catherine with a fatal dose of morphine following her giving birth to Vincent's baby. When Gabriel revealed this to Vincent at the time when he was his prisoner, he offered Vincent revenge on the Doctor even though the Doctor stated to Vincent that Gabriel made him do it. Vincent was unable to take the Doctor's life causing Gabriel to have one of his men shoot the Doctor as Gabriel says to Vincent "I always pay my debts".
The "World Below"
Jacob Wells/Father (portrayed by Roy Dotrice) – The patriarch of the "World Below" and Vincent's foster father. A physician who left the "World Above" after being unjustly blacklisted, fired from his job, and having his license to practice medicine stripped from him, Jacob found sanctuary in an early tunnel community and became its leader. He was also the one who helped Vincent heal Catherine after she was attacked by Martin Belmont's men.
Mary (portrayed by Ellen Geer) – The matriarch and midwife of the "World Below". Befitting her position, she is very motherly and generous. Mary is particularly devoted to giving back to the "Helpers".
Mouse (portrayed by David Greenlee) – Apparently having no other name, at least none that he remembers, he is a young tunnel dweller who originally hid from the "World Below" community until Vincent caught him stealing some food and invited him into their family. He is infamous for stealing from the "World Above", which, in his opinion, exists for no other reason than to be stolen from as he once commented "Everyone takes things from Up Top. It's what Up Top is there for". Mouse loves tinkering with machinery and has invented several "gizmos" to help his fellow tunnel dwellers. He has a pet raccoon named Arthur.
Pascal (portrayed by Armin Shimerman) – The shy and gentle "pipe master" who is the supervisor of the tunnels' communication system that involves the inhabitants of "The World Below" speaking through banging on the pipes. He was born in "The World Below" and was trained into understanding morse code by his father.
Winslow (portrayed by James Avery) – A very influential member of the underground community and a member of Father's council. Winslow is a blacksmith by trade. When on a rescue mission with Vincent to save Catherine from Paracelsus in "To Reign in Hell", Winslow is killed by Paracelsus' minion Erlik who threw Winslow against the wall.
Geoffrey (portrayed by Philip Waller) – A young boy who lives in "The World Below".
Jamie (portrayed by Irina Irvine) – A teenage girl who lives in "The World Below". She is particularly protective of Mouse, defending his often erratic behavior to their elders. In "To Reign in Hell", Jamie is shown to be skillful with a crossbow when she uses it in a fight with Paracelsus' minion Erlik.
Narcissa (portrayed by Beah Richards) – An elderly and nearly blind inhabitant of "The World Below", she has resided there at least as far back as Vincent's childhood. Narcissa eventually moved far from the other inhabitants into the furthest tunnels where few others venture and even Vincent's knowledge of these areas does not surpass her own. She pretends to be nothing more than a senile old woman, but she is actually a skilled magician and fortune-teller.
Rebecca (portrayed Kathryn Spitz) – A female inhabitant of "The World Below" and an expert candlestick maker.
William (portrayed by Ritch Brinkley) – A heavyset man and inhabitant of "The World Below" who serves as their cook. His experiences in "The World Above" left him bitter and suspicious of almost everyone. William's role as cook makes him feel needed and appreciated as "The World Above" never did and he is usually the first to suggest a violent response to any threat to "The World Below".
John Pater/Paracelsus (portrayed by Tony Jay) – An inhabitant of "The World Below" who was featured in Season 1 and 2 as a recurring antagonist. John Pater was a scientist and a former friend of Jacob Wells' who helped organize "The World Below". But when he eventually desired power for himself, the community was forced to exile him. Father describes him as a "philosopher, scientist, magician" like the real Paracelsus, the name John Pater eventually takes for himself. When Jacob tries to reason with Paracelsus by calling him by his real name, he commented "John is dead". Paracelsus' late wife Anna was the one who discovered the infant Vincent near St. Vincent's Hospital and brought him to Jacob. Paracelsus tried to lead Vincent to siding with him while disguised as Jacob, but was ultimately killed by Vincent during a fit of rage. In his dying breath, Paracelsus quotes "At last, you are my son."
Episodes
Nielsen ratings
1987–88: #51, 13.1 rating
1988–89: #65, 10.4 rating
1989–90: #68, 9.5 rating
Novelizations
Avon Books published three books novelizing various episodes from the series:
Beauty and the Beast by Barbara Hambly – October 1989 – , a novelization and expanding of the pilot episode
Masques by Ru Emerson – September 1990 – , a novelization of the episodes "Arabesque", "Masques" and "The Watcher"
Song of Orpheus by Barbara Hambly – November 1990 – , a novelization of the episodes "Fever", "Song of Orpheus" and "Shades of Grey"
Image Pub of New York published another book based on episodes and characters from the series:
Beyond Words, Beyond Silence by Nan Dibble – January 1993 –
First Comics published two graphic novels based on the series written and illustrated by Wendy Pini:
"Portrait of Love" – June 1989 –
"Night of Beauty" – April 1990 –
Home media
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all three seasons of Beauty and the Beast on DVD in region 1. They also released Beauty and the Beast: The Complete Series, a 16-disc box set featuring all 56 episodes of the series.
On 11 November 2014, CBS Home Entertainment released a repackaged version of the complete series set which featured a lower price but did not include the bonus disc that was part of the original complete series set.
Fabulous Films has released the entire series on DVD in region 2.
Shock Entertainment has released the entire series on DVD in region 4.
A Blu-ray release in region 2 was announced for March 2011, but was canceled.
Fandom
An active fan community (self-titled "Helpers" or "the tunnel community") arose during the show's run, helping organize a petition drive to assure that there would be a third season. They have published fanzines, fan fiction and collections of filk music inspired by the show, and as of 2013 continue to hold various fan conventions around the world.
Reboot
CBS Television Studios, which owns the rights to the series, developed a reboot for the series. It was executive produced by Ron Koslow, the creator of the original, along with the earlier show's producers, Paul Junger Witt and Tony Thomas. The reboot has been described as a "modern-day romantic love story with a procedural twist". In Canada, it aired on Showcase and the United States, aired on The CW.
The television series starred New Zealand actor Jay Ryan as Vincent (the "beast") and Canadian actress Kristin Kreuk as Catherine (the "beauty"). The pilot was filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in March 2012.
References
External links
1987 American television series debuts
1990 American television series endings
1980s American crime drama television series
1990s American crime drama television series
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Subterranean fiction
Romantic fantasy television series
Television shows based on fairy tales
Television series by CBS Studios
Television shows set in New York City
Works based on Beauty and the Beast
1990s American romance television series
1980s American romance television series
Television shows adapted into comics
American fantasy drama television series
Television series about prosecutors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval%20Battle%20of%20Guadalcanal
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Naval Battle of Guadalcanal
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The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, sometimes referred to as the Third and Fourth Battles of Savo Island, the Battle of the Solomons, The Battle of Friday the 13th, The Night of the Big Guns, or, in Japanese sources, the , took place from 12 to 15 November 1942 and was the decisive engagement in a series of naval battles between Allied (primarily American) and Imperial Japanese forces during the months-long Guadalcanal campaign in the Solomon Islands during World War II. The action consisted of combined air and sea engagements over four days, most near Guadalcanal and all related to a Japanese effort to reinforce land forces on the island. The only two U.S. Navy admirals to be killed in a surface engagement in the war were lost in this battle.
Allied forces landed on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942 and seized an airfield, later called Henderson Field, that was under construction by the Japanese military. There were several subsequent attempts to recapture the airfield by the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy using reinforcements delivered to Guadalcanal by ship, efforts which ultimately failed. In early November 1942, the Japanese organized a transport convoy to take 7,000 infantry troops and their equipment to Guadalcanal to attempt once again to retake the airfield. Several Japanese warship forces were assigned to bombard Henderson Field with the goal of destroying Allied aircraft that posed a threat to the convoy. Learning of the Japanese reinforcement effort, U.S. forces launched aircraft and warship attacks to defend Henderson Field and prevent the Japanese ground troops from reaching Guadalcanal.
In the resulting battle, both sides lost numerous warships in two extremely destructive surface engagements at night. Nevertheless, the U.S. succeeded in turning back attempts by the Japanese to bombard Henderson Field with battleships. Allied aircraft also sank most of the Japanese troop transports and prevented the majority of the Japanese troops and equipment from reaching Guadalcanal. Thus, the battle turned back Japan's last major attempt to dislodge Allied forces from Guadalcanal and nearby Tulagi, resulting in a strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies and deciding the ultimate outcome of the Guadalcanal campaign in their favor. The Japanese decided on the evacuation of Guadalcanal the following month, which they completed by early February 1943.
Guadalcanal was the last major naval battle in the Pacific War for the next one-and-a-half years, until the Battle of the Philippine Sea. It was one of the costliest naval battles of the Second World War in terms of lives lost.
Background
The six-month Guadalcanal campaign began on 7 August 1942 when Allied (primarily U.S.) forces landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands, a pre-war colonial possession of Great Britain. The landings were meant to prevent the Japanese using the islands as bases from which to threaten the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign to neutralize the major Imperial Japanese military base at Rabaul, and to support the Allied New Guinea campaign. The Japanese had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and began constructing an airfield on Guadalcanal in June 1942.
By nightfall on 8 August, the 11,000 Allied troops secured Tulagi, the nearby small islands, and a Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal (later renamed Henderson Field). Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the "Cactus Air Force" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal. To protect the airfield, the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point. Additional reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of U.S. troops at Lunga Point to more than 20,000 men.
In response, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army, a corps-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant-General Harukichi Hyakutake, with the task of retaking Guadalcanal. Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on 19 August to drive Allied forces from the island.
Because of the threat posed by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field, the Japanese were unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island. Instead, they used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands. The Japanese warships—mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa—were usually able to make the round trip down "The Slot" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to air attack. Delivering the troops in this manner prevented most of the soldiers' heavy equipment and supplies—such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition—from being carried to Guadalcanal with them. These high-speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and came to be known as the "Tokyo Express" by Allied forces and "Rat Transportation" by the Japanese.
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917-man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru. The next attempt took place from 12 to 14 September, ending in the defeat of the 6,000 men under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi at the Battle of Edson's Ridge.
In October, the Japanese again tried to recapture Henderson Field by delivering 15,000 more men—mainly from the Army's 2nd Infantry Division—to Guadalcanal. In addition to delivering the troops and their equipment by Tokyo Express runs, the Japanese successfully pushed through one large convoy of slower transport ships. Enabling the approach of the transport convoy was a nighttime bombardment of Henderson Field by two battleships on 14 October that heavily damaged the airfield's runways, destroyed half of the CAF's aircraft, and burned most of the available aviation fuel. In spite of the damage, Henderson personnel were able to restore the two runways to service, and replacement aircraft and fuel were delivered, gradually restoring the CAF to its prebombardment level over the next few weeks.
The next Imperial attempt to retake the island with the newly arrived troops occurred from 20 to 26 October and was defeated with heavy losses in the Battle for Henderson Field. At the same time, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (the commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet) engaged U.S. naval forces in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, which resulted in a tactical victory for the Japanese. However, the Americans won a strategic victory as the Japanese navy failed in its objectives and the Japanese carriers were forced to retreat because of losses to carrier aircraft and aircrewmen. Thereafter, Yamamoto's ships returned to their main bases at Truk in Micronesia, where he had his headquarters, and Rabaul while three carriers returned to Japan for repairs and refitting.
The Japanese Army planned another attack on Guadalcanal in November 1942, but further reinforcements were needed before the operation could proceed. The Army requested assistance from Yamamoto to deliver the needed reinforcements to the island and to support their planned offensive on the Allied forces guarding Henderson Field. Yamamoto provided 11 large transport ships to carry 7,000 army troops from the 38th Infantry Division, their ammunition, food, and heavy equipment from Rabaul to Guadalcanal. He also sent a warship support force from Truk on 9 November which included the battleships and . Equipped with special fragmentation shells, they were to bombard Henderson Field on the night of 12–13 November and destroy it and the aircraft stationed there in order to allow the slow, heavy transports to reach Guadalcanal and unload safely the next day. The warship force was commanded from Hiei by recently promoted Vice Admiral Hiroaki Abe.
Because of the constant threat posed by Japanese aircraft and warships, it was difficult for Allied forces to resupply their forces on Guadalcanal, which often came under attack from Imperial land and sea forces in the area. In early November 1942, Allied intelligence learned that the Japanese were preparing again to try to retake Henderson Field. Therefore, the U.S. sent Task Force 67 (TF 67)—a large reinforcement and re-supply convoy, split into two groups and commanded by Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner—to Guadalcanal on 11 November. The supply ships were protected by two task groups—commanded by Rear Admirals Daniel J. Callaghan and Norman Scott—and aircraft from Henderson Field. The transport ships were attacked several times on 11 and 12 November near Guadalcanal by Japanese aircraft based at Buin, but most were unloaded without serious damage. Twelve Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti-aircraft fire from the U.S. ships or by fighter aircraft flying from Henderson Field. Callaghan's flagship, , was heavily damaged during this air raid when a large twin-engined Japanese "Betty" medium bomber, which was in flames from anti-aircraft fire, crashed into the backup conning tower (Battle II) of San Francisco. 24 men were killed and 45 were wounded, including the heavily wounded executive officer, Commander Mark H. Crouter, who had to abandon his post and was recovering in his quarters and killed during the later night surface action. Survivors of San Francisco said that the heavy damage, which included damage to radar and fire control equipment stationed at the backup conning tower, and the loss of so many officers and men greatly hindered their ability to command and perform optimally during the night battle. The destroyer was also heavily damaged in the air attack. Due to the low-flying Japanese torpedo bombers that forced American sailors to fire their anti-aircraft weapons in the direction of friendly ships Buchanan was hit by a 5-inch shell from a U.S. ship that heavily damaged her after stack and also completely disabled her torpedo tubes. The friendly fire killed 5 crewmen and wounded seven on Buchanan and forced her to retire from the area to undergo major repairs that lasted three months. A Japanese bomber's tail gunner also caused minor damage on her with his machine gun, wounding one more sailor. This hurt Callaghan's forces because Buchanan was the destroyer that was able to successfully fire torpedoes that permanently disabled and sank the heavy cruiser at the Battle of Cape Esperance, the first American sinking of a large Japanese ship due to surface ships.
First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 13 November
Prelude
Abe's warship force assembled north of Indispensable Strait and proceeded towards Guadalcanal on 12 November with an estimated arrival time for the warships of early morning of 13 November. The convoy of slower transport ships and 12 escorting destroyers, under the command of Raizō Tanaka, began its run down The Slot from the Shortlands with an estimated arrival time at Guadalcanal during the night of 13 November.
Abe's force consisted of:
(d, damaged; D, crippled; S, sunk; s, sunk soon after)
2 fast battleships: (Ds),
1 light cruiser:
11 destroyers:
1 :
2 : (d),
1 :
4 : , (d), , (Ds)
3 : (d), , (S)
Three more destroyers (, , and ) would provide a rear guard in the Russell Islands during Abe's foray into the waters of Savo Sound around and near Savo Island off the north coast of Guadalcanal that would soon be nicknamed "Ironbottom Sound" as a result of the numerous ships sunk in this succession of battles and skirmishes. U.S. reconnaissance aircraft spotted the approach of the Japanese ships and passed a warning to the Allied command. Thus warned, Turner detached all usable combat ships to protect the troops ashore from the expected Japanese naval attack and troop landing and ordered the supply ships at Guadalcanal to depart by the early evening of 12 November. Callaghan was a few days senior to the more experienced Scott and therefore was placed in overall command.
Callaghan prepared his force to meet the Japanese that night in the sound. His force consisted of:
2 heavy cruisers
1 : (D)
1 : (D)
3 light cruisers
1 :
2 : (Ds), (ds)
8 destroyers
2 : ,
2 : (D), (S)
2 : (S), (S)
1 : (D)
1 : (S)
Admiral Callaghan commanded from San Francisco.
During their approach to Guadalcanal, the Japanese force passed through a large and intense rain squall which, along with a complex formation plus some confusing orders from Abe, split the formation into several groups. The U.S. force steamed in a single column in Ironbottom Sound, with destroyers in the lead and rear of the column, and the cruisers in the center. Five ships had the new, far-superior SG radar, but Callaghan's deployment put none of them in the forward part of the column, nor did he choose one for his flagship. Callaghan did not issue a battle plan to his ship commanders.
Action
Confused approach
At about 01:25 on 13 November, in near-complete darkness due to the bad weather and dark moon, the ships of the Imperial Japanese force entered the sound between Savo Island and Guadalcanal and prepared to bombard Henderson Field with the special ammunition loaded for the purpose. The ships arrived from an unexpected direction, coming not down the Slot but from the west side of Savo Island, thus entering the sound from the northwest rather than the north. Unlike their American counterparts, the Japanese sailors had drilled and practiced night fighting extensively, conducting frequent live-fire night gunnery drills and exercises. This experience would be telling in the pending encounter, as well as in several other fleet actions off Guadalcanal in the months to come.
Several of the U.S. ships detected the approaching Japanese on radar, beginning at about 01:24, but had trouble communicating the information to Callaghan because of problems with radio equipment, lack of discipline regarding communications procedures, and general inexperience in operating as a cohesive naval unit. Messages were sent and received but did not reach the commander in time to be processed and used. With his limited understanding of the new technology, Callaghan wasted further time trying to reconcile the range and bearing information reported by radar with his limited sight picture, to no avail. Lacking a modern combat information center (CIC), where incoming information could be quickly processed and coordinated, the radar operator was reporting on vessels that were not in sight, while Callaghan was trying to coordinate the battle visually from the bridge. It should be emphasized that due to the earlier de facto kamikaze strike on the after superstructure of San Francisco Callaghan and skipper Captain Cassin Young (who unfortunately had just begun his first ever command of a cruiser four days earlier on 9 November) had to work with a new acting executive officer (he was actually the damage control commanding officer) who was stationed at his new heavily damaged backup command post for less than twelve hours and the radar and fire control here were inoperable. This had a detrimental effect on the quality of her performance. (Post battle analysis of this and other early surface actions would lead directly to the introduction of modern CICs early in 1943.)
Several minutes after initial radar contact the two forces sighted each other at about the same time, but both Abe and Callaghan hesitated ordering their ships into action. Abe was apparently surprised by the proximity of the U.S. ships, and with decks stacked with San Shiki special bombardment (rather than armor penetrating) munitions, he was momentarily uncertain if he should withdraw to give his battleships time to rearm, or continue onward. He decided to continue onward. Callaghan apparently intended to attempt to cross the T of the Japanese, as Scott had done at Cape Esperance, but—confused by the incomplete information he was receiving, plus the fact that the Japanese formation consisted of several scattered groups—he gave several confusing orders on ship movements and delayed too long in acting.
The U.S. ship formation began to fall apart, apparently further delaying Callaghan's order to commence firing as he first tried to ascertain and align his ships' positions. Meanwhile, the two forces' formations began to overlap as individual ship commanders on both sides anxiously awaited permission to open fire.
Akatsuki and Atlanta receive the opening blows
At 01:48, Akatsuki and Hiei turned on large searchlights and illuminated Atlanta only away—almost point-blank range for the battleship's main guns. Several ships on both sides spontaneously began firing, and the formations of the two adversaries quickly disintegrated. Realizing that his force was almost surrounded by Japanese ships, Callaghan issued the confusing order, "Odd ships fire to starboard, even ships fire to port", though no pre-battle planning had assigned any such identity numbers to reference, and the ships were no longer in coherent formation. Most of the remaining U.S. ships then opened fire, although several had to quickly change their targets to attempt to comply with Callaghan's order. As the ships from the two sides intermingled, they battled each other in an utterly confused and chaotic short-range mêlée in which superior Japanese optic sights and well-practiced night battle drill proved deadly effective. Indeed, the battle was so close-quarters that at one point the battleship Hiei and destroyer Laffey passed within of each other. An officer on Monssen likened it afterwards to "a barroom brawl after the lights had been shot out".
At least six of the U.S. ships—including Laffey, O'Bannon, Atlanta, San Francisco, Portland, and Helena—fired at Akatsuki, which had drawn attention to herself with her illuminated searchlight. The Japanese destroyer was hit repeatedly and blew up and sank within a few minutes.
Perhaps because it was the lead cruiser in the U.S. formation, Atlanta was the target of fire and torpedoes from several Japanese ships—probably including Nagara, Inazuma, and Ikazuchi, in addition to Akatsuki. The gunfire caused heavy damage to Atlanta, and a type 93 torpedo strike cut all of her engineering power. The disabled cruiser drifted into the line of fire of San Francisco, which accidentally fired on her, causing even greater damage. Scott and many of the bridge crew were killed. Without power and unable to fire her guns, Atlanta drifted out of control and out of the battle as the Japanese ships passed her by. The lead U.S. destroyer, Cushing, was also caught in a crossfire between several Japanese destroyers and perhaps Nagara. She too was hit heavily and stopped dead in the water.
Attention shifts to Hiei, San Francisco is mauled
Hiei, with her nine lit searchlights, huge size, and course taking her directly through the U.S. formation, became the focus of gunfire from many of the U.S. ships. The destroyer Laffey passed so close to Hiei that they missed colliding by , only avoiding the collision by accelerating. Hiei was unable to depress her main or secondary batteries low enough to hit Laffey, but Laffey was able to rake the Japanese battleship with shells and machine gun fire, causing heavy damage to the superstructure and bridge, wounding Abe and killing his chief of staff. Abe was thus limited in his ability to direct his ships for the rest of the battle. Sterett and O'Bannon likewise fired several salvos into Hieis superstructure from close range, and perhaps one or two torpedoes into her hull, causing further damage before both destroyers escaped into the darkness.
Unable to fire her main or secondary batteries at the three destroyers causing her so much trouble, Hiei instead concentrated on San Francisco, which was passing by only away. Along with Kirishima, Inazuma, and Ikazuchi, the four ships made repeated hits on San Francisco, disabling her steering control and killing Callaghan, Captain Cassin Young, and most of the bridge staff. The first few salvos from Hiei and Kirishima consisted of the special fragmentation bombardment shells, which caused less damage to the interior of San Francisco than armor-piercing shells would have done; this may have saved her from being sunk outright. Not expecting a ship-to-ship confrontation, it took the crews of the two Japanese battleships several minutes to switch to armor-piercing ammunition, and San Francisco, almost helpless to defend herself, managed to momentarily sail clear of the melee. She had landed at least one shell in Hieis steering gear room during the exchange, flooding it with water, shorting out her power steering generators, and severely inhibiting Hieis steering capability. Helena followed San Francisco to try to protect her from further harm.
Chaotic melee, IJN prevails
Two of the U.S. destroyers met a sudden demise. Either Nagara or the destroyers Teruzuki and Yukikaze came upon the drifting Cushing and pounded her with gunfire, knocking out all of her systems. Unable to fight back, Cushings crew abandoned ship. Cushing sank several hours later. Laffey, having escaped from her engagement with Hiei, encountered Asagumo, Murasame, Samidare, and, perhaps, Teruzuki. The Japanese destroyers pounded Laffey with gunfire and then hit her with a torpedo which broke her keel. A few minutes later fires reached her ammunition magazines, and she blew up and sank.
Portland—after helping sink Akatsuki—was hit by a torpedo from Inazuma or Ikazuchi, causing heavy damage to her stern and forcing her to steer in a circle. After completing her first loop, she was able to fire four salvos at Hiei but otherwise took little further part in the battle.
Yūdachi and Amatsukaze independently charged the rear five ships of the U.S. formation. Two torpedoes from Amatsukaze hit Barton, immediately sinking her with heavy loss of life. Amatsukaze turned back north and later also hit Juneau with a torpedo while the cruiser was exchanging fire with Yūdachi, stopping her dead in the water, breaking her keel, and knocking out most of her systems. Juneau then turned east and slowly crept out of the battle area.
Monssen avoided the wreck of Barton and steamed onward looking for targets. She was noticed by Asagumo, Murasame, and Samidare who had just finished blasting Laffey. They smothered Monssen with gunfire, damaging her severely and forcing the crew to abandon ship. The ship sank some time later.
Amatsukaze approached San Francisco with the intention of finishing her off. While concentrating on San Francisco, Amatsukaze did not notice the approach of Helena, which fired several full broadsides at Amatsukaze from close range and knocked her out of the action. The heavily damaged Amatsukaze escaped under cover of a smoke screen while Helena was distracted by an attack by Asagumo, Murasame, and Samidare.
Aaron Ward and Sterett, independently searching for targets, both sighted Yūdachi, which appeared unaware of the approach of the two U.S. destroyers. Both U.S. ships hit Yūdachi simultaneously with gunfire and torpedoes, heavily damaging the destroyer and forcing her crew to abandon ship. The ship did not sink right away. Continuing on her way, Sterett was suddenly ambushed by Teruzuki, heavily damaged, and forced to withdraw from the battle area to the east. Aaron Ward wound up in a one-on-one duel with Kirishima, which the destroyer lost with heavy damage. She tried to retire from the battle area to the east but soon stopped dead in the water because the engines were damaged.
Robert Leckie, a Marine private on Guadalcanal, described the battle:
The star shells rose, terrible and red. Giant tracers flashed across the night in orange arches. ... the sea seemed a sheet of polished obsidian on which the warships seemed to have been dropped and were immobilized, centered amid concentric circles like shock waves that form around a stone dropped in mud.
Ira Wolfert, an American war correspondent, was with the Marines on shore and wrote of the engagement:
The action was illuminated in brief, blinding flashes by Jap searchlights which were shot out as soon as they were turned on, by muzzle flashes from big guns, by fantastic streams of tracers, and by huge orange-colored explosions as two Jap destroyers and one of our destroyers blew up... From the beach it resembled a door to hell opening and closing ... over and over.
After nearly 40 minutes of brutal close-quarters fighting, the two sides broke contact and ceased fire at 02:26, after Abe and Captain Gilbert Hoover (the captain of Helena and senior surviving U.S. officer) ordered their respective forces to disengage. Abe had one battleship (Kirishima), one light cruiser (Nagara), and four destroyers (Asagumo, Teruzuki, Yukikaze, and Harusame) with only light damage and four destroyers (Inazuma, Ikazuchi, Murasame, and Samidare) with moderate damage. The U.S. had only one light cruiser (Helena) and one destroyer (Fletcher) that were still capable of effective resistance. Although perhaps unclear to Abe, the way was now open for him to bombard Henderson Field and finish off the U.S. naval forces in the area, thus allowing the troops and supplies to be landed safely on Guadalcanal.
At this crucial juncture, Abe, like Mikawa before him and Kurita after him, chose to abandon the mission and depart the area. Several reasons are conjectured as to why he made this decision. Much of the special bombardment ammunition had been expended in the battle. If the bombardment failed to destroy the airfield, then his warships would be vulnerable to CAF air attack at dawn. His own injuries and the deaths of some of his staff from battle action may have affected Abe's judgement. Perhaps he was also unsure as to how many of his or the U.S. ships were still combat-capable because of communication problems with the damaged Hiei. Furthermore, his own ships were scattered and would have taken some time to reassemble for a coordinated resumption of the mission to attack Henderson Field and the remnants of the U.S. warship force. For whatever reason, Abe called for a disengagement and general retreat of his warships, although Yukikaze and Teruzuki remained behind to assist Hiei. Samidare picked up survivors from Yūdachi at 03:00 before joining the other Japanese ships in the retirement northwards.
Aftermath
At 03:00 on 13 November, Admiral Yamamoto postponed the planned landings of the transports, which returned to the Shortlands to await further orders. Dawn revealed three crippled Japanese (Hiei, Yūdachi, and Amatsukaze) and three crippled U.S. ships (Portland, Atlanta, and Aaron Ward) in the general vicinity of Savo Island. Amatsukaze was attacked by U.S. dive bombers but escaped further damage as she headed to Truk, and she eventually returned to action several months later. The abandoned hulk of Yūdachi was sunk by Portland, whose guns were still functioning despite other damage to the ship. The tugboat motored around Ironbottom Sound throughout the day of 13 November, assisting the damaged U.S. ships and rescuing U.S. survivors from the water.
During the morning and early afternoon, IJN carrier under the command of Vice Admiral Kakuji Kakuta, which was located about 200 miles north of the Solomons, dispatched several combat air patrols, consisting of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and Nakajima B5N and Aichi D3A bombers (for navigational aid), to cover the crippled Hiei. In addition, several more patrols were dispatched from ground bases at Rabaul and Buin. These patrols engaged U.S. aircraft that were sent from Henderson Field and from the aircraft carrier , but they could not save Hiei.
Hiei was attacked repeatedly by Marine Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo planes from Henderson Field, Navy TBF Avengers, and Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers from Enterprise, which had departed Nouméa on 11 November, as well as Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers of the U.S. Army Air Forces' 11th Bombardment Group from Espiritu Santo. Abe and his staff transferred to Yukikaze at 08:15. Kirishima was ordered by Abe to take Hiei under tow, escorted by Nagara and its destroyers, but the attempt was cancelled because of the threat of submarine attack and Hieis increasing unseaworthiness. After sustaining more damage from air attacks, Hiei sank northwest of Savo Island, perhaps after being scuttled by her remaining crew, in the late evening of 13 November.
Portland, San Francisco, Aaron Ward, and Sterett were eventually able to make their way to rear-area ports for repairs. Atlanta, however, sank near Guadalcanal at 20:00 on 13 November. Departing from the Solomon Islands area with San Francisco, Helena, Sterett, and O'Bannon later that day, Juneau was torpedoed and sunk by (). Juneaus 100+ survivors (out of a total complement of 697) were left to fend for themselves in the open ocean for eight days before rescue aircraft belatedly arrived. While awaiting rescue, all but ten of Juneaus crew had died from their injuries, the elements, or shark attacks. The dead included the five Sullivan brothers.
Most historians appear to agree that Abe's decision to retreat represented a strategic victory for the United States. Henderson Field remained operational with attack aircraft ready to deter the slow Imperial transports from approaching Guadalcanal with their precious cargoes. Plus, the Japanese had lost an opportunity to eliminate the U.S. naval forces in the area, a result which would have taken even the comparatively resource-rich U.S. some time to recover from. Reportedly furious, Admiral Yamamoto relieved Abe of command and later directed his forced retirement from the IJN. It appears that Yamamoto may have been more angry over the loss of one of his battleships (Hiei) than he was over the abandonment of the supply mission and failure to completely destroy the U.S. force. Shortly before noon, Yamamoto ordered Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō, commanding the Second Fleet at Truk, to form a new bombardment unit around Kirishima and attack Henderson Field on the night of 14–15 November.
Including the sinking of Juneau, total U.S. losses in the battle were 1,439 dead. The Japanese suffered between 550 and 800 dead. The U.S. ships that were sunk or scuttled during the battle were two light cruisers, Atlanta and Juneau, and four destroyers, Monssen, Cushing, Laffey, and Barton. Analyzing the effect of this engagement, historian Richard B. Frank states:
This action stands without peer for furious, close-range, and confused fighting during the war. But the result was not decisive. The self-sacrifice of Callaghan and his task force had purchased one night's respite for Henderson Field. It had postponed, not stopped, the landing of major Japanese reinforcements, nor had the greater portion of the (Japanese) Combined Fleet yet been heard from."
Transports approach, 13–14 November
Although the reinforcement effort to Guadalcanal was delayed, the Japanese did not give up trying to complete the original mission, albeit a day later than originally planned. On the afternoon of 13 November, Tanaka and the 11 transports resumed their journey toward Guadalcanal. A Japanese force of cruisers and destroyers from the 8th Fleet (based primarily at Rabaul and originally assigned to cover the unloading of the transports on the evening of 13 November) was given the mission that Abe's force had failed to carry out—the bombardment of Henderson Field. The battleship Kirishima, after abandoning its rescue effort of Hiei on the morning of 13 November, steamed north between Santa Isabel and Malaita Islands with her accompanying warships to rendezvous with Kondo's Second Fleet, inbound from Truk, to form the new bombardment unit.
The 8th Fleet cruiser force, under the command of Mikawa, included the Takao-class heavy cruisers and , the Mogami-class and the older and smaller Aoba-class , the light cruisers and , and six destroyers: , , , , , . Mikawa's force was able to slip into the Guadalcanal area uncontested, the battered U.S. naval force having withdrawn. Suzuya and Maya, under the command of Shōji Nishimura, bombarded Henderson Field while the rest of Mikawa's force cruised around Savo Island, guarding against any U.S. surface attack (which in the event did not occur). The 35-minute bombardment caused some damage to various aircraft and facilities on the airfield but did not put it out of operation. The cruiser force ended the bombardment around 02:30 on 14 November and cleared the area to head towards Rabaul on a course south of the New Georgia island group.
At daybreak, aircraft from Henderson Field, Espiritu Santo, and Enterprise—stationed south of Guadalcanal—began their attacks, first on Mikawa's force heading away from Guadalcanal, and then on the transport force heading towards the island. The attacks on Mikawa's force sank Kinugasa, killing 511 of her crew, and damaged Maya, forcing her to return to Japan for repairs. Chokai suffered damage from near misses, causing some flooding and reduced speed. Michishio was critically damaged by near misses, losing all propulsion. She had to be towed out of the battle and then all the way back to Japan, arriving in March 1943 with repairs finished in November 1943. Two of Isuzus boiler rooms were flooded as a result of near misses, reducing her speed.
Repeated air attacks on the transport force overwhelmed the escorting Japanese fighter aircraft, sank six of the transports, and forced one more to turn back with heavy damage, before it later sank. Survivors from the transports were rescued by the convoy's escorting destroyers and returned to the Shortlands. A total of 450 army troops were reported to have perished. The remaining four transports and four destroyers continued towards Guadalcanal after nightfall of 14 November but stopped west of Guadalcanal to await the outcome of a warship surface action developing nearby (see below) before continuing.
Kondo's ad hoc force rendezvoused at Ontong Java on the evening of 13 November, then reversed course and refueled out of range of Henderson Field's bombers on the morning of 14 November. The U.S. submarine stalked but was unable to attack Kirishima during refueling. The bombardment force continued south and came under air attack late in the afternoon of 14 November, during which they were also attacked by the submarine , which launched five torpedoes (but scored no hits) before reporting its contact by radio.
Kinugasa was the third and last Japanese heavy cruiser to be sunk in the Solomon Islands campaign. Almost two years passed before the Japanese navy lost another, when 6 were sunk in the Battle of Leyte Gulf within the span of a few days.
Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 14–15 November
Prelude
Kondo's force approached Guadalcanal via Indispensable Strait around midnight on 14 November, and a quarter moon provided moderate visibility of about . The force included Kirishima, heavy cruisers and , light cruisers and Sendai, and nine destroyers, some of the destroyers being survivors (along with Kirishima and Nagara) of the first night engagement two days prior. Kondo flew his flag in the cruiser Atago.
1 fast battleship: (S)
2 heavy cruisers: ,
2 light cruisers
1 :
1 :
9 destroyers
1 :
1 :
1 :
1 :
5 : , , , , (S)
Low on undamaged ships, Admiral William Halsey, Jr., detached the new battleships and , of Enterprises support group, together with four destroyers, as TF 64 under Admiral Willis A. "Ching" Lee to defend Guadalcanal and Henderson Field. It was a scratch force; the battleships had operated together for only a few days, and their four escorts were from four different divisions—chosen simply because, of the available destroyers, they had the most fuel. The U.S. force arrived in Ironbottom Sound in the evening of 14 November and began patrolling around Savo Island. The U.S. warships were in column formation with the four destroyers in the lead, followed by Washington, with South Dakota bringing up the rear.
2 battleships
1 :
1 : (d)
4 destroyers
1 : (S)
1 : (S)
1 : (Ds)
1 : (d)
At 22:55 on 14 November, radar on South Dakota and Washington began picking up Kondo's approaching ships near Savo Island, at a distance of around .
Action
Kondo split his force into several groups, with one group—commanded by Shintaro Hashimoto and consisting of Sendai and destroyers and ("C" on the maps)—sweeping along the east side of Savo Island, and destroyer ("B" on the maps) sweeping counterclockwise around the southwest side of Savo Island to check for the presence of Allied ships. The Japanese ships spotted Lee's force around 23:00, though Kondo misidentified the battleships as cruisers. Kondo ordered the Sendai group of ships—plus Nagara and four destroyers ("D" on the maps)—to engage and destroy the U.S. force before he brought the bombardment force of Kirishima and heavy cruisers ("E" on the maps) into Ironbottom Sound. The U.S. ships ("A" on the maps) detected the Sendai force on radar but did not detect the other groups of Japanese ships. Using radar targeting, the two U.S. battleships opened fire on the Sendai group at 23:17. Admiral Lee ordered a cease fire about five minutes later after the northern group disappeared from his ship's radar. Sendai, Uranami, and Shikinami were undamaged and circled out of the danger area.
U.S. escort wiped out
Meanwhile, the four U.S. destroyers in the vanguard of the U.S. formation began engaging both Ayanami and the Nagara group of ships at 23:22. Nagara and her escorting destroyers responded effectively with accurate gunfire and torpedoes, and destroyers and were hit and sunk within 10 minutes with heavy loss of life. The destroyer had part of her bow blown off by a torpedo and had to retreat (she sank the next day), and destroyer was hit in her engine room and put out of the fight. The U.S. destroyers had completed their mission as screens for the battleships, absorbing the initial impact of contact with the enemy, although at great cost. Lee ordered the retirement of Benham and Gwin at 23:48.
South Dakota in peril
Washington passed through the area still occupied by the damaged and sinking U.S. destroyers and fired on Ayanami with her secondary batteries, setting her afire. Following close behind, South Dakota suddenly suffered a series of electrical failures, reportedly during repairs when her chief engineer locked down a circuit breaker in violation of safety procedures, causing her circuits repeatedly to go into series, making her radar, radios, and most of her gun batteries inoperable. Nonetheless, she continued to follow Washington towards the western side of Savo Island until 23:35, when Washington changed course left to pass to the southward behind the burning destroyers. South Dakota tried to follow but had to turn to starboard to avoid Benham, which resulted in the ship being silhouetted by the fires of the burning destroyers and made her a closer and easier target for the Japanese.
Receiving reports of the destruction of the U.S. destroyers from Ayanami and his other ships, Kondo pointed his bombardment force towards Guadalcanal, believing that the U.S. warship force had been defeated. His force and the two U.S. battleships were now heading towards each other.
Almost blind and unable to effectively fire her main and secondary armament, South Dakota was illuminated by searchlights and targeted by gunfire and torpedoes by most of the ships of the Japanese force, including Kirishima, beginning around midnight on 15 November. Although able to score a few hits on Kirishima, South Dakota took 26 hits—some of which did not explode—that completely knocked out her communications and remaining gunfire control operations, set portions of her upper decks on fire, and forced her to try to steer away from the engagement. All of the Japanese torpedoes missed. Admiral Lee later described the cumulative effect of the gunfire damage to South Dakota as to, "render one of our new battleships deaf, dumb, blind, and impotent". South Dakotas crew casualties were 39 killed and 59 wounded, and she turned away from the battle at 00:17 without informing Admiral Lee, though observed by Kondo's lookouts.
Washington to the rescue
The Japanese ships continued to concentrate their fire on South Dakota and none detected Washington approaching to within . Washington was tracking a large target (Kirishima) for some time but refrained from firing since there was a chance it could be South Dakota. Washington had not been able to track South Dakotas movements because she was in a blind spot in Washingtons radar and Lee could not raise her on the radio to confirm her position. When the Japanese illuminated and fired on South Dakota, all doubts were removed as to which ships were friend or foe. From this close range, Washington opened fire and quickly hit Kirishima with at least 9 (and possibly up to 20) main battery shells and at least 17 secondary ones, disabling all of Kirishimas main gun turrets, causing major flooding, and setting her aflame. Kirishima was hit below the waterline and suffered a jammed rudder, causing her to circle uncontrollably to port.
At 00:25, Kondo ordered all of his ships that were able to, to converge and destroy any remaining U.S. ships. However, the Japanese ships still did not know where Washington was, and the other surviving U.S. ships had already departed the battle area. Washington steered a northwesterly course toward the Russell Islands to draw the Japanese force away from Guadalcanal and the presumably damaged South Dakota. The Imperial ships finally sighted Washington and launched several torpedo attacks, but she avoided all of them and also avoided running aground in shallow waters. At length, believing that the way was clear for the transport convoy to proceed to Guadalcanal (but apparently disregarding the threat of air attack in the morning), Kondo ordered his remaining ships to break contact and retire from the area about 01:04, which most of the Japanese warships complied with by 01:30.
Aftermath
Ayanami was scuttled by Uranami at 02:00, while Kirishima capsized and sank by 03:25 on 15 November. Uranami rescued survivors from Ayanami and destroyers Asagumo, Teruzuki, and Samidare rescued the remaining crew from Kirishima. Three U.S. destroyers, Walke, Benham, and Preston, were sunk during the battle. In the engagement, 242 U.S. and 249 Japanese sailors died. The engagement was one of only two battleship-against-battleship surface battles in the entire Pacific campaign of World War II, the other being at the Surigao Strait during the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
The four Japanese transports beached themselves at Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal by 04:00 on 15 November, and Tanaka and the escort destroyers departed and raced back up the Slot toward safer waters. The transports were attacked, beginning at 05:55, by U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field and elsewhere, and by field artillery from U.S. ground forces on Guadalcanal. Later, the destroyer approached and opened fire on the beached transports and surrounding area. These attacks set the transports afire and destroyed any equipment on them that the Japanese had not yet managed to unload. Only 2,000 to 3,000 of the embarked troops made it to Guadalcanal, and most of their ammunition and food was lost.
Yamamoto's reaction to Kondo's failure to accomplish his mission of neutralizing Henderson Field and ensuring the safe landing of troops and supplies was milder than his earlier reaction to Abe's withdrawal, perhaps because of Imperial Navy culture and politics. Kondo, who also held the position of second in command of the Combined Fleet, was a member of the upper staff and battleship "clique" of the Imperial Navy, while Abe was a career destroyer specialist. Admiral Kondo was not reprimanded or reassigned, but, instead, was left in command of one of the large ship fleets based at Truk.
Significance
The failure to deliver to Guadalcanal most of the troops and especially supplies in the convoy prevented the Japanese from launching another offensive to retake Henderson Field. Thereafter, the Imperial Navy was able to deliver only subsistence supplies and a few replacement troops to Japanese Army forces on Guadalcanal. Because of the continuing threat from Allied aircraft based at Henderson Field, plus nearby U.S. aircraft carriers, the Japanese had to continue to rely on Tokyo Express warship deliveries to their forces on Guadalcanal. These supplies and replacements were not enough to sustain Japanese troops on the island, who – by 7 December 1942 – were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground and air attacks. On 12 December, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders, who still hoped that Guadalcanal could be retaken from the Allies, Japan's Imperial General Headquarters—with approval from the Emperor—agreed on 31 December to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia.
Thus, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was the last major attempt by the Japanese to seize control of the seas around Guadalcanal or to retake the island. In contrast, the U.S. Navy was thereafter able to resupply the U.S. forces at Guadalcanal at will, including the delivery of two fresh divisions by late December 1942. The inability to neutralize Henderson Field doomed the Japanese effort to successfully combat the Allied conquest of Guadalcanal. The last Japanese resistance in the Guadalcanal campaign ended on 9 February 1943, with the successful evacuation of most of the surviving Japanese troops from the island by the Japanese Navy in Operation Ke. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, which culminated in Japan's defeat and the end of World War II. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, upon learning of the results of the battle, commented, "It would seem that the turning point in this war has at last been reached."
Historian Eric Hammel sums up the significance of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal this way:
On November 12, 1942, the (Japanese) Imperial Navy had the better ships and the better tactics. After November 15, 1942, its leaders lost heart and it lacked the strategic depth to face the burgeoning U.S. Navy and its vastly improving weapons and tactics. The Japanese never got better while, after November 1942, the U.S. Navy never stopped getting better.
General Alexander Vandegrift, the commander of the troops on Guadalcanal, paid tribute to the sailors who fought the battle:
We believe the enemy has undoubtedly suffered a crushing defeat. We thank Admiral Kinkaid for his intervention yesterday. We thank Lee for his sturdy effort last night. Our own aircraft has been grand in its relentless hammering of the foe. All those efforts are appreciated but our greatest homage goes to Callaghan, Scott and their men who with magnificent courage against seemingly hopeless odds drove back the first hostile attack and paved the way for the success to follow. To them the men of Cactus lift their battered helmets in deepest admiration.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
– Firsthand account of the first engagement of the battle by the captain of the Japanese destroyer .
Further reading
: Online views of selections of the book
External links
Article on the battle of Friday the 13th that gives additional details on the demise of Hiei.
1942 in Japan
Conflicts in 1942
1942 in the Solomon Islands
Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands
Guadalcanal Campaign
Military history of Japan during World War II
World War II naval operations and battles of the Pacific theatre
Naval battles of World War II involving Australia
Naval battles of World War II involving Japan
Naval battles of World War II involving the United States
Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II
Guadalcanal
November 1942 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20antisemitism
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History of antisemitism
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The history of antisemitism, defined as hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group, goes back many centuries, with antisemitism being called "the longest hatred". Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:
Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in Ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
Muslim antisemitism which was—at least in its classical form—nuanced, in that Jews were a protected class
Political, social and economic antisemitism during the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism
Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the new antisemitism
Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the 19th and 20th centuries". In practice, it is difficult to differentiate antisemitism from the general ill-treatment of nations by other nations before the Roman period, but since the adoption of Christianity in Europe, antisemitism has undoubtedly been present. The Islamic world has also historically seen the Jews as outsiders. The coming of the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions in 19th-century Europe bred a new manifestation of antisemitism, based as much upon race as upon religion, which culminated in the Holocaust that occurred during World War II. The formation of the state of Israel in 1948 caused new antisemitic tensions in the Middle East.
Classical period
Early animosity towards Jews
Louis H. Feldman argues that "we must take issue with the communis sensus that the pagan writers are predominantly anti-Semitic". He asserts that "one of the great puzzles that has confronted the students of anti-semitism is the alleged shift from pro-Jewish statements found in the first pagan writers who mention the Jews ... to the vicious anti-Jewish statements thereafter, beginning with Manetho about 270 BCE". In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices". As examples of pagan writers who spoke positively of Jews, Feldman cites Aristotle, Theophrastus, Clearchus of Soli and Megasthenes. Feldman concedes that after Manetho "the picture usually painted is one of universal and virulent anti-Judaism".
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced back to Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Alexandrian Jewry were the largest Jewish community in the world and the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced there. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that time, wrote scathingly of the Jews and his themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Hecateus of Abdera is quoted by Flavius Josephus as having written about the time of Alexander the Great that the Jews "have often been treated injuriously by the kings and governors of Persia, yet can they not be dissuaded from acting what they think best; but that when they are stripped on this account, and have torments inflicted upon them, and they are brought to the most terrible kinds of death, they meet them after an extraordinary manner, beyond all other people, and will not renounce the religion of their forefathers". One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.
The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews' being portrayed as misanthropic. Tcherikover argues that the reason for the hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis. However, Bohak has argued that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, because many Greeks showed animosity towards any group which they considered barbaric.
Statements which exhibit prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataeus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life". Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught "not to adore the gods" by Moses. The same themes appear in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus wrote about the "ridiculous practices" of the Jews and he also wrote about the "absurdity of their Law", and he also wrote about how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BC because its inhabitants were observing the Sabbath. Edward Flannery describes the form of antisemitism which existed in ancient times as being essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia which was played out in political settings".
There is a recorded instance in which an Ancient Greek ruler, Antiochus Epiphanes, desecrated the Temple in Jerusalem and banned Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance and the study of Jewish religious books, during the period when Ancient Greece dominated the eastern Mediterranean. Statements exhibiting prejudice towards Jews and their religion can also be found in the works of a few pagan Greek and Roman writers, but the earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars, largely because different writers use different definitions of antisemitism. The terms "religious antisemitism" and "anti-Judaism" are sometimes used in reference to animosity towards Judaism as a religion rather than antisemitism, which is used in reference to animosity towards Jews as members of an ethnic or racial group.
Roman Empire
Relations between the Jews in Judea and the occupying Roman Empire were antagonistic from the very start and they resulted in several rebellions. It has been argued that European antisemitism has its roots in the Roman policy of religious persecution.
Several ancient historians report that in 19 CE, the Roman emperor Tiberius expelled the Jews from Rome. According to the Roman historian Suetonius, Tiberius tried to suppress all foreign religions. In the case of the Jews, he sent young Jewish men, under the pretence of military service, to provinces which were noted for their unhealthy climate. He expelled all other Jews from the city, under threat of lifelong slavery for non-compliance. Josephus, in his Jewish Antiquities, confirms that Tiberius ordered all Jews to be banished from Rome. Four thousand Jews were sent to Sardinia but more Jews, who were unwilling to become soldiers, were punished. Cassius Dio reports that Tiberius banished most of the Jews, who had been attempting to convert the Romans to their religion. Philo of Alexandria reported that Sejanus, one of Tiberius's lieutenants, may have been a prime mover in the persecution of the Jews.
The Romans refused to permit the Jews to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem after its destruction by Titus in 70 CE, imposed a tax on the Jews (Fiscus Judaicus) at the same time, ostensibly to finance the construction of the Temple of Jupiter in Rome, and renamed Judaea to Syria Palestina. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that, following the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), the Romans killed many Jews, "killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils". However, some historians argue that Rome brutally suppressed revolts in all of its conquered territories and they also point out that Tiberius expelled all adherents of foreign religions from Rome, not just the Jews.
Some accommodations, in fact, were later made with Judaism, and the Jews of the Diaspora had privileges that others did not have. Unlike other subjects of the Roman Empire, the Jews had the right to maintain their religion and they were not expected to accommodate themselves to local customs. Even after the First Jewish–Roman War, the Roman authorities refused to rescind Jewish privileges in some cities. And although Hadrian outlawed circumcision as a form of mutilation which was normally inflicted upon people who were unable to consent to it, he later exempted the Jews from the ban on circumcision. According to the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon, there was greater tolerance of the Jews from about 160 CE. Between 355 and 363 CE, Julian the Apostate permitted the Jews to rebuild the Second Temple of Jerusalem.
Rise of Christianity and Islam
The New Testament and early Christianity
Although most of the New Testament was written, ostensibly, by Jews who became followers of Jesus, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some consider antisemitic, and they have been used for antisemitic purposes, including:
Jesus speaking to a group of Pharisees: "I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him." (John 8:37–39, 44–47, RSV)
After Pilate washes his hands and declares himself innocent of Jesus' blood, the Jewish crowd answers him, "His blood be on us and on our children!" (Matthew 27:25, RSV). In an essay regarding antisemitism, biblical scholar Amy-Jill Levine argues that this passage has caused more Jewish suffering throughout history than any other passage in the New Testament.
Saint Stephen speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did your fathers not persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." (Acts 7:51–53, RSV)
Muhammad, the Quran, and early Islam
The Quran, the holy book of Muslims, contains some verses that can be interpreted as expressing very negative views of some Jews. After the Islamic prophet Muhammad moved to Medina in 622 CE, he made peace treaties with the Jewish tribes of Arabia and other tribes. However, the relationship between the followers of the new religion and the Jews of Medina later became bitter. At this point the Quran instructs Muhammad to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca, and from this point on, the tone of the verses of the Quran become increasingly hostile towards Jewry.
In 627 CE, Jewish tribe Banu Qurayza of Medina violated a treaty with Muhammad by allying with the attacking tribes. Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad himself. The Banu Qurayza were forced to surrender and the men were beheaded, while all the women and children were taken captive and enslaved. Several scholars have challenged the veracity of this incident, arguing that it was exaggerated or invented. Later, several conflicts arose between Jews of Arabia and Muhammad and his followers, the most notable of which was in Khaybar, in which many Jews were killed and their properties seized and distributed amongst the Muslims.
Late Roman Empire
When Christianity became the state religion of Rome in the 4th century, Jews became the victims of religious intolerance and political oppression. Christian literature began to display extreme hostility towards Jews, which occasionally resulted in attacks against them and the burning of their synagogues. The hostility against Jews was reflected in the edicts which were imposed upon them by church councils and state laws. In the early 4th century, intermarriage between unconverted Jews and Christians was prohibited by the provisions of the Synod of Elvira. The Council of Antioch (341) prohibited Christians from celebrating Passover with the Jews while the Council of Laodicea forbade Christians from keeping the Jewish Sabbath. The Roman Emperor Constantine I instituted several laws concerning the Jews: they were forbidden to own Christian slaves and they were also forbidden to circumcise their slaves. The conversion of Christians to Judaism was also outlawed. Religious services were regulated, congregations were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on Tisha B'Av, the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple.
Discrimination against Jews became worse in the 5th century. The edicts of the Codex Theodosianus (438) barred Jews from the civil service, the army and the legal profession. The Jewish Patriarchate was abolished and the scope of Jewish courts was restricted. Synagogues were confiscated and old synagogues could only be repaired if they were in danger of collapsing. Synagogues fell into ruin or they were converted to churches. Synagogues were destroyed in Tortona (350), Rome (388 and 500), Raqqa (388), Menorca (418), Daphne (near Antioch, 489 and 507), Genoa (500), Ravenna (495), Tours (585) and in Orléans (590). Other synagogues were confiscated: Urfa in 411, several in Judea between 419 and 422, Constantinople in 442 and 569, Antioch in 423, Vannes in 465, Diyarbakir in 500 Terracina in 590, Cagliari in 590 and Palermo in 590.
Accusations that the Jews killed Jesus
Deicide is the killing of a god. In the context of Christianity, deicide refers to the responsibility for the death of Jesus. The accusation that the Jews committed deicide has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians. The earliest recorded instance of an accusation of deicide against the Jewish people as a whole – that they were collectively responsible for the death of Jesus – occurs in a sermon of 167 CE attributed to Melito of Sardis entitled Peri Pascha, On the Passover. This text blames the Jews for allowing King Herod and Caiaphas to execute Jesus. Melito does not attribute particular blame to Pontius Pilate, he only mentions that Pilate washed his hands of guilt. The sermon is written in Greek, but it may have been an appeal to Rome to spare Christians at a time when Christians were widely being persecuted. The Latin word deicida (slayer of god), from which the word deicide is derived, was used in the 4th century by Peter Chrystologus in his sermon number 172. Though not part of Roman Catholic dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, once held Jews collectively responsible for the death of Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews who were present at Jesus' death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing.
Middle Ages
There was continuing hostility to Judaism from the late Roman period into medieval times. During the Middle Ages in Europe there was a full-scale persecution of Jews in many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and killings. In the 12th century, there were Christians who believed that some, or possibly all, of the Jews possessed magical powers and had gained these powers from making a pact with the devil. Judensau images began to appear in Germany.
Although the Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Spain issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts already in the 7th century, persecution of Jews in Europe reached a climax during the Crusades. Anti-Jewish rhetoric such as the Goad of Love began to appear and affect public consciousness. At the time of the First Crusade, in 1096, a German Crusade destroyed flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube. In the Second Crusade in 1147, the Jews in France were the victims of frequent killings and atrocities. Following the coronation of Richard the Lionheart in 1189, Jews were attacked in London. When king Richard left to join the Third Crusade in 1190, anti-Jewish riots broke out again in York and throughout England. In the first large-scale persecution in Germany after the First Crusade, 100,000 Jews were killed by Rintfleisch knights in 1298. The Jews were also subjected to attacks during the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. In the 1330s Jews were assaulted by the Armleder, led by Arnold von Uissigheim, starting in 1336 in Franconia and subsequently by John Zimberlin during 1338–9 in Alsace who attacked more than one hundred Jewish communities. Following these crusades, Jews were subject to expulsions, including, in 1290, the banishing of all English Jews. In 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of those expelled fled to Poland.
As the Black Death plague swept across Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews often became the scapegoats. Rumors spread that they had caused this epidemic by deliberately poisoning wells, an accusation that appeared before in the 1321 leper scare. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by the ensuing hatred and violence. Pope Clement VI tried to protect Jews by a papal bull dated July 6, 1348, and by an additional bull soon afterwards, but several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city. The Jews of Prague were attacked on Easter of 1389. The massacres of 1391 marked a decline in the Golden Age for Spanish Jewry.
Relations between Muslims and Jews in the Islamic world
From the 9th century onwards, the medieval Islamic world imposed dhimmi status on Christian and Jewish minorities. Nevertheless, Jews were granted more freedom to practise their religion in the Muslim world than they were in Christian Europe. Jewish communities in Spain thrived under tolerant Muslim rule during the Spanish Golden Age and Cordova became a centre of Jewish culture.
However, the entrance of the Almoravides from North Africa in the 11th century saw harsh measures taken against both Christians and Jews. As part of this repression there were pogroms against Jews in Cordova in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. The Almohads, who by 1147 had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories, took a less tolerant view still and treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians took a third option if they could, and fled. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, went east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. At certain times in the Middle Ages, in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen, decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted. Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad. 6,000 Jews were killed by a Muslim mob during the 1033 Fez massacre. There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465, and in Marrakesh in 1146 and 1232.
Occupational and other restrictions
Restrictions upon Jewish occupations were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to Jews, pushing them into marginal roles which were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending, occupations which were only tolerated as a "necessary evil". At that time, Catholic doctrine taught the view that lending money for interest was a sin, and an occupation which Christians were forbidden to engage in. Not being subject to this restriction, insofar as loans to non-Jews were concerned, Jews made this business their own, despite possible criticism of usury in the Torah and later sections of the Hebrew Bible. This led to many negative stereotypes of Jews as insolent, greedy usurers and the tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) added to social, political, religious, and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could see them as personally taking their money while unaware of those on whose behalf these Jews worked.
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal disabilities and restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Even moneylending and peddling were at times forbidden to them. The number of Jews permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and were not allowed to own land; they were subject to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own and were forced to swear special Jewish Oaths, and they suffered a variety of other measures. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 decreed that Jews and Muslims must wear distinguishing clothing. The most common such clothing was the Jewish hat, which was already worn by many Jews as a self-identifying mark, but was now often made compulsory.
The Jewish badge was introduced in some places; it could be a coloured piece of cloth in the shape of a circle, strip, or the tablets of the law (in England), and was sewn onto the clothes. Elsewhere special colours of robe were specified. Implementation was in the hands of local rulers but by the following century laws had been enacted covering most of Europe. In many localities, members of Medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as those worn by guild members) were prestigious, while others were worn by ostracised outcasts such as lepers, reformed heretics and prostitutes. As with all sumptuary laws, the degree to which these laws were followed and enforced varied greatly. Sometimes, Jews sought to evade the badges by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid for whenever the king needed to raise funds. By the end of the Middle Ages, the hat seems to have become rare, but the badge lasted longer and remained in some places until the 18th century.
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy in Rome, which took place from the end of the 11th century until the 13th century. They began as endeavors to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.
The People's Crusade that accompanied the First Crusade attacked Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and killed many Jews. Entire communities, like those of Treves, Speyer, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne, were murdered by armed mobs. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhineland cities alone between May and July 1096. Before the Crusades, Jews had practically a monopoly on the trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of Christian merchant traders, and from this time onwards, restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against Jews as against Muslims, although attempts were made by bishops during the first Crusade and by the papacy during the Second Crusade to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially, the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III.
The Jewish defenders of Jerusalem retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death" once the Crusaders had breached the outer walls of the city during the siege of 1099. The chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi states that the building was set on fire whilst the Jews were still inside. The Crusaders were supposedly reported as hoisting up their shields and singing "Christ We Adore Thee!" while they encircled the burning building." Following the siege, Jews captured from the Dome of the Rock, along with native Christians, were made to clean the city of the slain. Numerous Jews and their holy books (including the Aleppo Codex) were held ransom by Raymond of Toulouse. The Karaite Jewish community of Ashkelon (Ascalon) reached out to their coreligionists in Alexandria to first pay for the holy books and then rescued pockets of Jews over several months. All that could be ransomed were liberated by the summer of 1100. The few who could not be rescued were either converted to Christianity or murdered.
In the County of Toulouse, in southern France, toleration and favour shown to Jews was one of the main complaints of the Roman Church against the Counts of Toulouse at the beginning of the 13th century. Organised and official persecution of the Jews became a normal feature of life in southern France only after the Albigensian Crusade, because it was only then that the Church became powerful enough to insist that measures of discrimination be applied. In 1209, stripped to the waist and barefoot, Raymond VI of Toulouse was obliged to swear that he would no longer allow Jews to hold public office. In 1229 his son Raymond VII underwent a similar ceremony. In 1236, Crusaders attacked the Jewish communities of Anjou and Poitou, killing 3,000 and baptizing 500. Two years after the 1240 disputation of Paris, twenty-four wagons piled with hand-written Talmudic manuscripts were burned in the streets. Other disputations occurred in Spain, followed by accusations against the Talmud.
Blood libels and host desecrations
On many occasions, Jews were accused of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist. According to the authors of these so-called blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses and then drunk. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.
The story of William of Norwich (d. 1144) is often cited as the first known accusation of ritual murder against Jews. The Jews of Norwich, England were accused of murder after a Christian boy, William, was found dead. It was claimed that the Jews had tortured and crucified him. The legend of William of Norwich became a cult, and the child acquired the status of a holy martyr. Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (d. 1255), in the 13th century, reputedly had his belly cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose, such as a divination ritual, after being taken from a cross. Simon of Trent (d. 1475), in the fifteenth century, was held over a large bowl so that all of his blood could be collected, it was alleged.
During the Middle Ages, such blood libels were directed against Jews in many parts of Europe. The believers in these false accusations reasoned that the Jews, having crucified Jesus, continued to thirst for pure and innocent blood, at the expense of innocent Christian children. Jews were also sometimes falsely accused of desecrating consecrated hosts in a reenactment of the Crucifixion; this crime was known as host desecration and it carried the death penalty.
Expulsions from France and England
The practice of expelling Jews, the confiscation of their property and further ransom for their return was utilized to enrich the French crown during the 13th and 14th centuries. The most notable such expulsions were from Paris by Philip Augustus in 1182, from the whole of France by Louis IX in 1254, by Philip IV in 1306, by Charles IV in 1322 and by Charles VI in 1394.
Jewish expulsions inside England took place in Bury St. Edmunds in 1190, Newcastle in 1234, Wycombe in 1235, Southampton in 1236, Berkhamsted in 1242 and Newbury in 1244. Simon de Montfort banished the Jews of Leicester in 1231. During the Second Barons' War in the 1260s, Simon de Montfort's followers ravaged the Jewries of London, Canterbury, Northampton, Winchester, Cambridge, Worcester and Lincoln in an effort to destroy the records of their debts to moneylenders. To finance his war against Wales in 1276, Edward I of England taxed Jewish moneylenders. When the moneylenders could no longer pay the tax, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, Edward abolished their "privilege" to lend money, restricted their movements and activities and forced Jews to wear a yellow patch. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested with over 300 being taken to the Tower of London and executed. Others were killed in their homes. All Jews were banished from the country in 1290, where it was possible that hundreds were killed or drowned while trying to leave the country. All the money and property of these dispossessed Jews was confiscated. No Jews were known to be in England thereafter until 1655, when Oliver Cromwell reversed the policy.
Expulsions from the Holy Roman Empire
In Germany, part of the Holy Roman Empire, persecutions and formal expulsions of the Jews were liable to occur at intervals, although it should be said that this was also the case for other minority communities, whether religious or ethnic. There were particular outbursts of riotous persecution in the Rhineland massacres of 1096 accompanying the lead-up to the First Crusade, many involving the crusaders as they travelled to the East. There were many local expulsions from cities by local rulers and city councils. The Holy Roman Emperor generally tried to restrain persecution, if only for economic reasons, but he was often unable to exert much influence. As late as 1519, the Imperial city of Regensburg took advantage of the recent death of Emperor Maximilian I to expel its 500 Jews. At this period the rulers of the eastern edges of Europe, in Poland, Lithuania and Hungary, were often receptive to Jewish settlement, and many Jews moved to these regions.
The Black Death
Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence during the ravages of the Black Death, particularly in the Iberian peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In Provence, 40 Jews were burnt in Toulon as quickly after the outbreak as April 1348. "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague; they were tortured until they 'confessed' to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambéry (near Geneva) had ordered him to poison the wells in Venice, Toulouse, and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet's 'confession', the Jews of Strasbourg were burned alive on February 14, 1349."
Early modern period
Spain and Portugal
In the Catholic kingdoms of late medieval and early modern Spain, oppressive policies and attitudes led many Jews to embrace Christianity. Such Jews were known as conversos or Marranos. Suspicions that they might still secretly be adherents of Judaism led Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to institute the Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition used torture to elicit confessions and delivered judgment at public ceremonials known as autos de fe before they gave their victims over to the secular authorities for punishment. Under this dispensation, some 30,000 were condemned to death and executed by being burnt alive. In 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile issued an edict of expulsion of Jews from Spain, giving Jews four months to either convert to Christianity or leave the country. Some 165,000 emigrated and some 50,000 converted to Christianity. The same year the order of expulsion arrived in Sicily and Sardinia, belonging to Spain.
Portugal followed suit in December 1496. However, those expelled could only leave the country in ships specified by the King. When those who chose to leave the country arrived at the port in Lisbon, they were met by clerics and soldiers who used force, coercion and promises to baptize them and prevent them from leaving the country. This episode technically ended the presence of Jews in Portugal. Afterwards, all converted Jews and their descendants would be referred to as New Christians or Conversos, and those were rumoured to practice crypto-Judaism were pejoratively labelled as Marranos. They were given a grace period of thirty years during which no inquiry into their faith would be allowed. This period was later extended until 1534. However, a popular riot in 1506 resulted in the deaths of up to four or five thousand Jews, and the execution of the leaders of the riot by King Manuel. Those labeled as New Christians were under the surveillance of the Portuguese Inquisition from 1536 until 1821.
Jewish refugees from Spain and Portugal, known as Sephardi Jews from the Hebrew word for Spain, fled to North Africa, Turkey and Palestine within the Ottoman Empire, and to Holland, France and Italy. Within the Ottoman Empire, Jews could openly practise their religion. Amsterdam in Holland also became a focus for settlement by the persecuted Jews from many lands in succeeding centuries. In the Papal states, Jews were forced to live in ghettos and subjected to several restrictions as part of the Cum nimis absurdum of 1555.
Anti-Judaism and the Reformation
Martin Luther, a Lutheran Augustinian friar excommunicated by the Papacy for heresy, and an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and Their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them..." a passage that "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust."
Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian antisemitism. Muslow and Popkin assert that, "the antisemitism of the early modern period was even worse than that of the Middle Ages; and nowhere was this more obvious than in those areas which roughly encompass modern-day Germany, especially among Lutherans." In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached: "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord."
Canonization of Simon of Trent
Simon of Trent was a boy from the city of Trento, Italy, who was found dead at the age of two in 1475, having allegedly been kidnapped, mutilated, and drained of blood. His disappearance was blamed on the leaders of the city's Jewish community, based on confessions extracted under torture, in a case that fueled the rampant antisemitism of the time. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by Pope Sixtus V in 1588.
Seventeenth century
During the 1614 Fettmilch uprising, mobs led by Vincenz Fettmilch looted the Jewish ghetto of Frankfurt, expelling Jews from the city. Two years later emperor Matthias executed Fettmilch and made the Jews return to the city under protection by imperial soldiers.
In the mid-17th century, Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch Director-General of the colony of New Amsterdam, later New York City, sought to bolster the position of the Dutch Reformed Church by trying to stem the religious influence of Jews, Lutherans, Catholics and Quakers. He stated that Jews were "deceitful", "very repugnant", and "hateful enemies and blasphemers of the name of Christ". However, religious plurality was already a cultural tradition and a legal obligation in New Amsterdam and in the Netherlands, and his superiors at the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam overruled him.
During the mid-to-late-17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people). The decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, including emigration, deaths from diseases and captivity in the Ottoman Empire. These conflicts began in 1648 when Bohdan Khmelnytsky instigated the Khmelnytsky Uprising against the Polish aristocracy and the Jews who administered their estates. Khmelnytsky's Cossacks massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas that he controlled (now Ukraine). This persecution led many Jews to pin their hopes on a man called Shabbatai Zevi who emerged in the Ottoman Empire at this time and proclaimed himself Messiah in 1665. However his later conversion to Islam dashed these hopes and led many Jews to discredit the traditional belief in the coming of the Messiah as the hope of salvation.
In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.
Eighteenth century
In many European countries the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment" saw the dismantling of archaic corporate, hierarchical forms of society in favour of individual equality of citizens before the law. How this new state of affairs would affect previously autonomous, though subordinated, Jewish communities became known as the Jewish question. In many countries, enhanced civil rights were gradually extended to the Jews, though often only in a partial form and on condition that the Jews abandon many aspects of their previous identity in favour of integration and assimilation with the dominant society.
According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his later years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.
In 1744, Frederick II of Prussia limited the number of Jews allowed to live in Breslau to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he issued the Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft: forcing these "protected" Jews to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin." In the same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on condition that they pay for their readmission every ten years. This was known among the Jews as malke-geld (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced a law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. In 1768, thousands of Jews were killed by Cossack Haidamaks during the massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland.
Jews in Switzerland were greatly restricted in their freedom of work, movement and settlement, and in the 17th century, Aargau was the only federal condominium where they were tolerated. In 1774, the Jews were restricted to just two towns, Endingen and Lengnau. While the rural upper class pressed incessantly for their expulsion, the financial interests of the authorities prevented it. They imposed special taxes on peddling and cattle trading, the primary Jewish professions. The Jews were directly subordinate to the governor; from 1696, they were compelled to renew a (costly) letter of protection every 16 years.
During this period, Jews and Christians were not allowed to live under the same roof, nor were Jews allowed to own land or houses. They were taxed at a much higher rate than others and, in 1712, a pogrom took place in Lengnau, resulting in considerable property destruction. In 1760, they were further restricted regarding marriages and procreation. An exorbitant tax was levied on marriage licenses; oftentimes, they were outright refused. This remained the case until the 19th century.
In accordance with the anti-Jewish precepts of the Russian Orthodox Church, Russia's discriminatory policies towards Jews intensified when the partition of Poland in the 18th century resulted, for the first time in Russian history, in the possession of land with a large population of Jews. This land was designated as the Pale of Settlement from which Jews were forbidden to migrate into the interior of Russia. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews of the Pale of Settlement to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland.
Nineteenth century
Following legislation supporting the equality of French Jews with other citizens during the French Revolution, similar laws promoting Jewish emancipation were enacted in the early 19th century in those parts of Europe over which France had influence. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded.
Despite laws granting legal and political equality to Jews in a number of countries, traditional cultural discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism.
Catholic counter-revolution
Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as the royalist Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–55. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by white Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.
The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel and Henry Hyndman. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.
In the 1840s, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians. Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. In Italy, the Jesuit priest Antonio Bresciani's highly popular novel 1850 novel L'Ebreo di Verona (The Jew of Verona) shaped religious antisemitism for decades, as did his work for La Civiltà Cattolica, which he helped launch. In the Papal States, Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In some cases, the state separated them from their families, of which the Edgardo Mortara account is one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the second half of the 19th century.
Germany
Civil rights granted to Jews in Germany, following the occupation of that country by the French under Napoleon, were rescinded after his defeat. Pleas to retain them by diplomats at the Congress of Vienna peace conference (1814–5) were unsuccessful. In 1819, German Jews were attacked in the Hep-Hep riots. Full Jewish emancipation was not granted in Germany until 1871, when the country was united under the Hohenzollern dynasty.
In his 1843 essay On the Jewish Question, Karl Marx said the god of Judaism is money and accused the Jews of corrupting Christians. In 1850, German composer Richard Wagner published Das Judenthum in der Musik ("Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jewish influences more widely of being a harmful and alien element in German culture.
The term "antisemitism" was coined by the German agitator and publicist, Wilhelm Marr in 1879. In that year, Marr founded the Antisemites League and published a book called Victory of Jewry over Germandom. The late 1870s saw the growth of antisemitic political parties in Germany. These included the Christian Social Party, founded in 1878 by Adolf Stoecker, the Lutheran chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, as well as the German Social Antisemitic Party and the Antisemitic People's Party. However, they did not enjoy mass electoral support and at their peak in 1907, had only 16 deputies out of a total of 397 in the parliament.
France
The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) was blamed by some on the Jews. Jews were accused of weakening the national spirit through association with republicanism, capitalism and anti-clericalism, particularly by authoritarian, right wing, clerical and royalist groups. These accusations were spread in antisemitic journals such as La Libre Parole, founded by Edouard Drumont and La Croix, the organ of the Catholic order of the Assumptionists. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.
Financial scandals such as the collapse of the Union Generale Bank and the collapse of the French Panama Canal operation were also blamed on the Jews. The Dreyfus affair saw a Jewish military officer named Captain Alfred Dreyfus falsely accused of treason in 1895 by his army superiors and sent to Devil's Island after being convicted. Dreyfus was acquitted in 1906, but the case polarised French opinion between antisemitic authoritarian nationalists and philosemitic anti-clerical republicans, with consequences which were to resonate into the 20th century.
Switzerland
Having been restricted in their rights of work and movement since the Middle Ages, on 5 May 1809, Jews were finally declared Swiss citizens and given limited rights regarding trade and farming. They were still restricted to Endingen and Lengnau until 7 May 1846, when their right to move and reside freely within the canton of Aargau was granted. On 24 September 1856, the Swiss Federal Council granted them full political rights within Aargau, as well as broad business rights; however, the majority Christian population did not fully abide by these new liberal laws. The time of 1860 saw the canton government voting to grant suffrage in all local rights and to give their communities autonomy. Before the law was enacted however, it was repealed due to vocal opposition led by Johann Nepomuk Schleuniger and the Ultramonte Party. In 1866, a referendum granted all Jews full citizenship rights in Switzerland. However, they did not receive all of the rights in Endingen and Lengnau until a resolution of the Grand Council, on 15 May 1877, when Jewish citizens were given charters under the names of New Endingen and New Lengnau, finally granting them full citizenship.
United States
Between 1881 and 1920, approximately three million Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe migrated to America, many of them fleeing pogroms and the difficult economic conditions which were widespread in much of Eastern Europe during this time. Many Americans distrusted these Jewish immigrants. Along with Italians, Irish and other Eastern and Southern Europeans, Jews faced discrimination in the United States in employment, education and social advancement. American groups like the Immigration Restriction League, criticized these new arrivals along with immigrants from Asia and southern and eastern Europe, as culturally, intellectually, morally, and biologically inferior. Despite these attacks, very few Eastern European Jews returned to Europe for whatever privations they faced, their situation in the U.S. was still improved.
Beginning in the early 1880s, declining farm prices also prompted elements of the Populist movement to blame the perceived evils of capitalism and industrialism on Jews because of their alleged racial/religious inclination for financial exploitation and, more specifically, because of the alleged financial manipulations of Jewish financiers such as the Rothschilds. Although Jews played only a minor role in the nation's commercial banking system, the prominence of Jewish investment bankers such as the Rothschilds in Europe, and Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. in New York City, made the claims of antisemites believable to some. The Morgan Bonds scandal injected populist antisemitism into the 1896 presidential campaign. It was disclosed that President Grover Cleveland had sold bonds to a syndicate which included J. P. Morgan and the Rothschilds house, bonds which that syndicate was now selling for a profit. The Populists used it as an opportunity to uphold their view of history, and prove to the nation that Washington and Wall Street were in the hands of the international Jewish banking houses. Another focus of antisemitic feeling was the allegation that Jews were at the center of an international conspiracy to fix the currency and thus the economy to a single gold standard.
Russia
Since 1827, Jewish minors were conscripted into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service. Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Tsar Alexander II, but antisemitic attitudes and long-standing repressive policies against Jews were intensified after Alexander II was assassinated on 13 March 1881, culminating in widespread anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire which lasted for three years. A hardening of official attitudes under Tsar Alexander III and his ministers, resulted in the May Laws of 1882, which severely restricted the civil rights of Jews within the Russian Empire. The Tsar's minister Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev stated that the aim of the government with regard to the Jews was that: "One third will die out, one third will leave the country and one third will be completely dissolved [into] the surrounding population". In the event, a mix of pogroms and repressive legislation did indeed result in the mass emigration of Jews to western Europe and America. Between 1881 and the outbreak of the First World War, an estimated two and half million Jews left Russia – one of the largest mass migrations in recorded history.
The Muslim world
Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. According to Mark Cohen in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalisms, and it was primarily imported into the Arab world by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").
Hundreds of Algerian Jews were killed in 1805. There was a massacre of Iraqi Jews in Baghdad in 1828. In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue and destroyed the Torah scrolls, and it was only by forced conversion that a massacre was averted. There was a massacre of Jews in Barfurush in 1867. In 1840, in the Damascus affair, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused of having ritually murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread. In 1859, some 400 Jews in Morocco were killed in Mogador. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morocco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island.
Concerning the life of Persian Jews in the middle of the 19th century, a contemporary author wrote:
...they are obliged to live in a separate part of town... for they are considered as unclean creatures... Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt... For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans... If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him... unmercifully... If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods... Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them.
One symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. A 19th-century traveler observed: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan." In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from Russia.
Twentieth century
In the 20th century, antisemitism and Social Darwinism culminated in a systematic campaign of genocide, called the Holocaust, in which some six million Jews were exterminated in German-occupied Europe between 1941 and 1945 under the National Socialist regime of Adolf Hitler.
Russia
In Russia, under the Tsarist regime, antisemitism intensified in the early years of the 20th century and was given official favour when the secret police forged the notorious Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a document purported to be a transcription of a plan by Jewish elders to achieve global domination. Violence against the Jews in the Kishinev pogrom in 1903 was continued after the 1905 revolution by the activities of the Black Hundreds. The Beilis Trial of 1913 showed that it was possible to revive the blood libel accusation in Russia.
The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution ended official discrimination against the Jews but was followed, however, by massive anti-Jewish violence by the anti-Bolshevik White Army and the forces of the Ukrainian People's Republic in the Russian Civil War. From 1918 to 1921, between 100,000 and 150,000 Jews were slaughtered during the White Terror. White emigres from revolutionary Russia fostered the idea that the Bolshevik regime, with its many Jewish members, was a front for the global Jewish conspiracy, outlined in the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which had by now achieved wide circulation in the west. The pogroms were committed not only by White forces, but also by Red forces, local warlords, and ordinary Ukrainian and Polish citizens.
France
In France, antisemitic agitation was promoted by right-wing groups such as Action Française, founded by Charles Maurras. These groups were critical of the whole political establishment of the Third Republic. Following the Stavisky Affair, in which a Jewish man named Serge Alexandre Stavisky was revealed to be involved in high-level political corruption, these groups encouraged serious rioting which almost toppled the government in the 6 February 1934 crisis. The rise to prominence of the Jewish socialist Léon Blum, who became prime minister of the Popular Front Government in 1936, further polarised opinion within France. Action Française and other right-wing groups launched a vicious antisemitic press campaign against Blum which culminated in an attack in which he was dragged from his car and kicked and beaten whilst a mob screamed 'Death to the Jew!' Catholic writers such as Ernest Jouin, who published the Protocols in French, seamlessly blended racial and religious antisemitism, as in his statement that "from the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." Pope Pius XI praised Jouin for "combating our mortal [Jewish] enemy" and appointed him to high papal office as a protonotary apostolic.
Antisemitism was particularly virulent in Vichy France during World War II. The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation. The antisemitic demands of right-wing groups were implemented under the collaborating Vichy regime of Marshal Philippe Pétain, following the defeat of the French by the German army in 1940. A law on the status of Jews of that year, followed by another in 1941, purged Jews from employment in administrative, civil service and judicial posts, from most professions and even from the entertainment industryrestricting them, mostly, to menial jobs. Vichy officials detained some 75,000 Jews who were then handed over to the Germans; approximated 72,500 Jews were murdered during the Holocaust in France.
Nazism and the Holocaust
In Germany, following World War I, Nazism arose as a political movement incorporating racially antisemitic ideas, expressed by Adolf Hitler in his book Mein Kampf (). After Hitler came to power in 1933, the Nazi regime sought the systematic exclusion of Jews from national life. Jews were demonized as the driving force of both international Marxism and capitalism. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 outlawed marriage or sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jews. Antisemitic propaganda by or on behalf of the Nazi Party began to pervade society. Especially virulent in this regard was Julius Streicher's publication Der Stürmer, which published the alleged sexual misdemeanors of Jews for popular consumption. Mass violence against the Jews was encouraged by the Nazi regime, and on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, the regime sanctioned the killing of Jews, the destruction of property and the torching of synagogues. Already prior to the new European war, German authorities started rounding up thousands of Jews for their first concentration camps while many other German Jews fled the country or were forced to emigrate.
As Nazi control extended in the course of World War II, antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were brought to occupied Europe, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In the German-occupied Poland, where over three million Jews had lived before the war in the largest Jewish population in Europe, Polish Jews were forced into newly established prison ghettos in 1940, including the Warsaw Ghetto for almost half million Jews. Following the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, a systematic campaign of mass murder in that country was conducted against Soviet Jews (including former Polish Jews from Soviet-annexed territories) by Nazi death squads called the Einsatzgruppen, murdering over one million Jews and marking a turn from persecution to extermination. In all, some six million Jews, about half of them from Poland, were murdered outright or indirectly through starvation, disease and overwork in German and collaborationist captivity between 1941 and 1945 in the genocide known as the Holocaust.
On 20 January 1942, Reinhard Heydrich, deputed to find a "final solution to the Jewish question", chaired the Wannsee Conference at which all the ethnic Jews and many of part-Jews resident in Europe and North Africa were marked to be exterminated. To implement this plan, the Jews from Poland, Germany, and various other countries would be transported to purpose-built extermination camps set up by Nazis in the occupied Poland and in Germany-annexed territories, where they were mostly murdered in gas chambers immediately upon their arrival. These camps, located at Auschwitz-Birkenau, Chełmno, Bełżec, Majdanek, Sobibór and Treblinka, accounted for about half of the total number of Jewish victims of Nazism.
United States
Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America's shores, the bulk of them were from Eastern Europe. Where before 1900, American Jews never amounted to even 1 percent of America's total population, by 1930 Jews formed about 3½ percent of America's total population. This dramatic increase in the size of America's Jewish community and the upward mobility of some Jews was accompanied by a resurgence of antisemitism.
In the first half of the 20th century, Jews in the United States faced discrimination in employment, in access to residential and resort areas, in membership in clubs and organizations and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrollment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. Some sources state that the conviction (and later the lynching) of Leo Frank, which turned a spotlight on antisemitism in the United States, also led to the formation of the Anti-Defamation League in October 1913. However, Abraham H. Foxman, the organization's National Director, disputes this claim, stating that American Jews simply needed to found an institution that would combat antisemitism. The social tensions which existed during this period also led to renewed support for the Ku Klux Klan, which had been inactive since 1870.
Antisemitism in the United States reached its peak during the 1920s and 1930s. The pioneering automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent. The pioneering aviator Charles Lindbergh and many other prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any American involvement in the new war in Europe. However, America First's leaders avoided saying or doing anything that would make them and their organization appear to be antisemitic and for this reason, they voted to drop Henry Ford as an America First member. Lindbergh gave a speech in Des Moines, Iowa in which he expressed the decidedly Ford-like view that: "The three most important groups which have been pressing this country towards war are the British, the Jews, and the Roosevelt Administration." In his diary Lindbergh wrote: "We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence... Whenever the Jewish percentage of the total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country."
In the late 1930s, the German American Bund held parades which featured Nazi uniforms and flags with swastikas alongside American flags. At Madison Square Garden in 1939, some 20,000 people listened to the Bund leader Fritz Julius Kuhn as he criticized President Franklin Delano Roosevelt by repeatedly referring to him as "Frank D. Rosenfeld" and calling his New Deal the "Jew Deal". Because he espoused a belief in the existence of a Bolshevik–Jewish conspiracy in America, Kuhn and his activities were scrutinized by the US House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) and when the United States entered World War II most of the Bund's members were placed in internment camps, and some of them were deported at the end of the war. Meanwhile, the United States government did not allow the MS St. Louis to enter the United States in 1939 because it was full of Jewish refugees. During race riot in Detroit in 1943, Jewish businesses were targeted for looting and burning.
Eastern Europe after World War II
Antisemitism in the Soviet Union reached a peak in 1948–1953 and culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot that could have been a precursor to a general purge and a mass deportation of the Soviet Jews as nation. The country's leading Yiddish-writing poets and writers were tortured and executed in a campaign against the so-called rootless cosmopolitans. The excesses largely ended with the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and the de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union. However, the discrimination against Jews had continued, leading to a mass emigration once it was allowed in the 1970s, followed by another during and after the breakup of the Soviet Union, mostly to Israel.
The Kielce pogrom and the Kraków pogrom in communist Poland were examples further incidents of antisemitic attitudes and violence in the Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe. A common theme behind the anti-Jewish violence in the immediate post-war period in Poland were blood libel rumours. Poland's later "March events" of 1967–1968 was a state anti-Jewish (officially anti-Zionist) political campaign involving the suppression of the dissident movement and a power struggle within the Polish communist party against the background of the Six-Day War and the Soviet Union's and the Eastern Bloc's new radically anti-Israeli policy in support of socialist Arab countries. Both of these waves of antisemitism in Poland resulted in the emigration of most of the country's Holocaust survivors during the late 1940s and in 1968, mostly to either Israel or the United States.
United States after World War II
During the early 1980s, isolationists on the far right made overtures to anti-war activists on the left in the United States to join forces against government policies in areas where they shared concerns. This was mainly in the area of civil liberties, opposition to United States military intervention overseas and opposition to U.S. support for Israel. As they interacted, some of the classic right-wing antisemitic scapegoating conspiracy theories began to seep into progressive circles, including stories about how a "New World Order", also called the "Shadow Government" or "The Octopus", was manipulating world governments. Antisemitic conspiracism was "peddled aggressively" by right-wing groups. Some on the left adopted the rhetoric, which it has been argued, was made possible by their lack of knowledge of the history of fascism and its use of "scapegoating, reductionist and simplistic solutions, demagoguery, and a conspiracy theory of history." The Crown Heights riots of 1991 were a violent expression of tensions within a very poor urban community, pitting African American residents against followers of Hassidic Judaism.
Towards the end of 1990, as the movement against the Gulf War began to build, a number of far-right and antisemitic groups sought out alliances with left-wing anti-war coalitions, who began to speak openly about a "Jewish lobby" that was encouraging the United States to invade the Middle East. This idea evolved into conspiracy theories about a "Zionist-occupied government" (ZOG), which has been seen as equivalent to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
The Muslim world
While Islamic antisemitism has increased in the wake of the Arab–Israeli conflict, there were riots against Jews in Middle Eastern countries prior to the foundation of Israel, including unrest in Casablanca, Shiraz and Fez in the 1910s, massacres in Jerusalem, Jaffa and broadly throughout Palestine in the 1920s, pogroms in Algeria, Turkey and Palestine in the 1930s, as well as attacks on the Jews of Iraq and Tunisia in the 1940s. As Palestinian Arab leader Amin al-Husseini decided to make an alliance with Hitler's Germany during World War II, 180 Jews were killed and 700 Jews were injured in the Nazi-inspired riots of 1941 which are known as the Farhud. Jews in the Middle East were also affected by the Holocaust. Most of North Africa came under Nazi control and many Jews were discriminated against and used as slaves until the Axis defeat. In 1945, hundreds of Jews were injured during violent demonstrations in Egypt and Jewish property was vandalized and looted. In November 1945, 130 Jews were killed during a pogrom in Tripoli. In December 1947, shortly after the UN Partition Plan, Arab rioting resulted in hundreds of Jewish casualties in Aleppo, including 75 dead. In Aden, 87 Jews were killed and 120 injured. A mob of Muslim sailors looted Jewish homes and shops in Manama. During 1948 there were further riots against Jews in Tripoli, Cairo, Oujda and Jerada. As the first Arab–Israeli War came to an end in 1949, a grenade attack against the Menarsha Synagogue of Damascus claimed a dozen lives and thirty injured. The 1967 Six-Day War led to further persecution against Jews in the Arab world, prompting an increase in the Jewish exodus that began after Israel was established. Over the following years, Jewish population in Arab countries decreased from 856,000 in 1948 to 25,870 in 2009 as a result of emigration, mostly to Israel.
Twenty-first century
The first years of the 21st century have seen an upsurge of antisemitism. Several authors such as Robert S. Wistrich, Phyllis Chesler, and Jonathan Sacks argue that this is antisemitism of a new type stemming from Islamists, which they call new antisemitism. Blood libel stories have appeared numerous times in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab nations, on Arab television shows, and on websites.
In 2004, the United Kingdom set up an all-Parliamentary inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. The inquiry stated that: "Until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." However, it found a reversal of this progress since 2000 and aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation. A 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify antisemitism.
Antisemitism in the English-speaking world
William D. Rubenstein, a respected author and historian, outlines the presence of antisemitism in the English-speaking world in one of his essays with the same title. In the essay, he explains that there are relatively low levels of antisemitism in the English-speaking world, particularly in Britain and the United States, because of the values associated with Protestantism, the rise of capitalism, and the establishment of constitutional governments that protect civil liberties. Rubenstein does not argue that the treatment of Jews was ideal in these countries, rather he argues that there has been less overt antisemitism in the English-speaking world due to political, ideological, and social structures. Essentially, English-speaking nations experienced lower levels of antisemitism because their liberal and constitutional frameworks limited the organized, violent expression of antisemitism. In his essay, Rubinstein tries to contextualize the reduction of the Jewish population that led to a period of reduced antisemitism: "All Jews were expelled from England in 1290, the first time Jews had been expelled en masse from a European country".
Protestantism
As mentioned above, Protestantism was a major factor that curbed antisemitism in England beginning in the sixteenth century. This assertion is supported by the fact that the number of reported instances in which Jews were killed in England was significantly higher prior to the birth of Protestantism albeit this was also affected by the number of resident Jews. Protestants were comparatively more understanding of Jews relative to Catholics and other religious groups. One possible reason as to why Protestant groups were more accepting of Jews was the fact that they preferred the Old Testament rather than the New Testament, so their doctrines shared both content and narrative with Jewish teachings. Rubenstein attests that another reason as to why "most of these [Protestants] were predisposed to be sympathetic to the Jews" was because they often "view[ed] themselves, like the biblical Hebrews, as a chosen group that had entered into a direct covenant with God." Lastly, Protestantism's anti-Catholic bend contributed to lower levels of antisemitism: "All of these groups were profoundly hostile to Catholicism. Anti-Catholicism, at both the elite and mass levels, became a key theme in Britain, tending to push antisemitism aside." Overall, the emergence of Protestantism lessened the severity of antisemitism through its use of the Old Testament and its anti-Catholic sentiment.
Capitalism
In post-Napoleonic England, when there was a notable absence of Jews, Britain removed bans on "usury and moneylending," and Rubenstein attests that London and Liverpool became economic trading hubs which bolstered England's status as an economic powerhouse. Jews were often associated with being the moneymakers and financial bodies in continental Europe, so it is significant that the English were able to claim responsibility for the country's financial growth and not attribute it to Jews. It is also significant that because Jews were not in the spotlight financially, it took a lot of the anger away from them, and as such, antisemitism was somewhat muted in England. It is said that Jews did not rank among the "economic elite of many British cities" in the 19th century. Again, the significance in this is that British Protestants and non-Jews felt less threatened by Jews because they were not imposing on their prosperity and were not responsible for the economic achievements of their nation. Albert Lindemann also proposes in the introduction to his book Antisemitism: A History that Jews "assumed social positions, such as moneylending, that were inherently precarious and tension creating." Lindemann believes that moneylending is inevitably riddled with tension, so as long as Jews were moneylenders, they would always be at the center of the problem and synonymous with fraught financial affairs.
Constitutional government
The third major factor which contributed to the lessening of antisemitism in Britain was the establishment of a constitutional government, something that was later adopted and bolstered in the United States. A constitutional government is one which has a written document that outlines the powers of government in an attempt to balance and protect civil rights. After the English Civil War, the Protectorate (1640–60) and the Glorious Revolution (1688), parliament was established in order to make laws that protected the rights of British citizens. The Bill of Rights specifically outlined laws to protect British civil liberties as well. Thus, it is not surprising that having a constitutional government with liberal principles minimized, to some extent, antisemitism in Britain.
In further attempts to minimize antisemitism within government, the United States' Declaration of Independence embraced the liberal principles that were previously put forth in England and inspired the formation of a republic that had executive, judicial, and legislative powers and even a law that served to "forbid the establishment of any religion or any official religious test for office holding." Having a government that respected and protected civil liberties, especially those pertaining to religious liberties, reduced blatant antisemitism by constitutionally protecting the right to practice different faiths. These sentiments go back to the first President of the United States, George Washington, who asserted his belief in religious inclusion. Rubinstein believes that though instances of antisemitism definitely existed in Britain and America, the moderation of antisemitism was limited in English-Speaking countries largely because of political and social ideologies that come with a constitutional government.
Other English-speaking countries
In addition to being low in the United States and Britain, antisemitism was also low in other English-speaking countries such as Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand. Australia has had a historically positive attitude towards Jews and as a result, it had "remarkably little overt antisemitism at any point." Similarly, Ireland and New Zealand also experienced a lower presence of antisemitism. This is not to say that English-speaking countries have less antisemitic sentiment because their populations speak English, instead, the ideologies that often exist in English-speaking countries affect their acceptance of Jews.
While antisemitism tended to be low in English-speaking regions of Canada, it was higher in Quebec where the native language is French. Quebec has a "long history of blaring antisemitism, enunciated by French-speaking nationalists steeped in the most extreme forms of Catholic hostility towards Jews." This is important because other English-speaking parts of Canada were more tolerant of Jews than its non-English speaking parts were, which suggests a correlation between lingual diversity and the level of Jewish hate. Additionally, it seems that Quebec's firm Catholic hostility towards Jews contributed to local antisemitic behavior.
See also
References
Further reading
Abella, Irving M and Troper, Harold M. None is too many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933–1948.
Ansky, S, translated by Joachim Neugroschel. The Enemy at His Pleasure: A Journey Through the Jewish Pale of Settlement During World War I. . S. Ansky
Berger, David (ed.). History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism.
Chesler, Phyllis. The New Anti-Semitism.
Foxman, Abraham. Never Again?: The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism.
Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of European Jews, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1985.
Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews.
Julius, Anthony, 2010. Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England Oxford University Press; 811 pages; Examines four distinct versions of English antisemitism, from the medieval era (including the expulsion of Jews in 1290) to what is argued is antisemitism in the guise of anti-Zionism today.
Anti-Semitism, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1974.
Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice.
Nafziger, George and Walton, Mark, 2003. Islam at War, Greenwood Publishers Group. . George Nafziger
Rosenberg, Elliot But Were They Good for the Jews? Over 150 Historical Figures Viewed From a Jewish Perspective.
Rubenstein, Joshua. Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee.
Tevis, Britt P. "Trends in the Study of Antisemitism in United States History." American Jewish History 105.1 (2021): 255–284. online
Veidlinger, Jeffrey. The Moscow State Yiddish Theater.
External links
Nazi Germany and the Jews 1933–1939: Antisemitism on the Yad Vashem website
Antisemitism through the Ages Exposition at Florida Holocaust Museum
Anti-Semitism: What Is It?
Anti-Semitism & Responses
Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Anti-Semitism
Voices on Antisemitism Podcast Series from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Never Again: The Holocaust Timeline
Solomon Mikhoels
MidEastWeb: Israel-Arab Conflict Timeline
Islamic Antisemitism And Its Nazi Roots
United Nations and Israel
The U.N.'s Dirty Little Secret
Anti-Semitism in the United Nations
The Forgotten Jewish Exodus: Mizrahi Timeline
Jews indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism
Materials for the International Conference The "Other" as Threat: Demonization and Antisemitism Jerusalem, June 1995
Antisemitism: A Historical Survey as the SWC Museum of Tolerance
Global Anti-Semitism: Selected Incidents Around the World in 2006
Why the Jews
Anti-Judaism
History of racism
pt:História judaica#Judaísmo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel%20%28moon%29
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Ariel (moon)
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Ariel is the fourth-largest of the 27 known moons of Uranus. Ariel orbits and rotates in the equatorial plane of Uranus, which is almost perpendicular to the orbit of Uranus and so has an extreme seasonal cycle.
It was discovered in October 1851 by William Lassell and named for a character in two different pieces of literature. As of 2019, much of the detailed knowledge of Ariel derives from a single flyby of Uranus performed by the space probe Voyager 2 in 1986, which managed to image around 35% of the moon's surface. There are no active plans at present to return to study the moon in more detail, although various concepts such as a Uranus Orbiter and Probe have been proposed.
After Miranda, Ariel is the second-smallest of Uranus's five major rounded satellites and the second-closest to its planet. Among the smallest of the Solar System's 20 known spherical moons (it ranks 14th among them in diameter), it is believed to be composed of roughly equal parts ice and rocky material. Its mass is approximately equal in magnitude to Earth's hydrosphere.
Like all of Uranus's moons, Ariel probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation, and, like other large moons, it is likely differentiated, with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice. Ariel has a complex surface consisting of extensive cratered terrain cross-cut by a system of scarps, canyons, and ridges. The surface shows signs of more recent geological activity than other Uranian moons, most likely due to tidal heating.
Discovery and name
Discovered on 24 October 1851 by William Lassell, it is named for a sky spirit in Alexander Pope's 1712 poem The Rape of the Lock and Shakespeare's The Tempest.
Both Ariel and the slightly larger Uranian satellite Umbriel were discovered by William Lassell on 24 October 1851. Although William Herschel, who discovered Uranus's two largest moons Titania and Oberon in 1787, claimed to have observed four additional moons, this was never confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious.
All of Uranus's moons are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock. The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell. Ariel is named after the leading sylph in The Rape of the Lock. It is also the name of the spirit who serves Prospero in Shakespeare's The Tempest. The moon is also designated Uranus I.
Orbit
Among Uranus's five major moons, Ariel is the second closest to the planet, orbiting at the distance of about 190,000 km. Its orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus. Its orbital period is around 2.5 Earth days, coincident with its rotational period. This means that one side of the moon always faces the planet; a condition known as tidal lock. Ariel's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere. The trailing hemispheres (those facing away from their directions of orbit) of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere like Ariel are struck by magnetospheric plasma co-rotating with the planet. This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon (see below). Ariel also captures magnetospheric charged particles, producing a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon's orbit observed by Voyager 2 in 1986.
Because Ariel, like Uranus, orbits the Sun almost on its side relative to its rotation, its northern and southern hemispheres face either directly towards or directly away from the Sun at the solstices. This means it is subject to an extreme seasonal cycle; just as Earth's poles see permanent night or daylight around the solstices, Ariel's poles see permanent night or daylight for half a Uranian year (42 Earth years), with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice. The Voyager 2 flyby coincided with the 1986 southern summer solstice, when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was dark. Once every 42 years, when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth, mutual occultations of Uranus's moons become possible. A number of such events occurred in 2007–2008, including an occultation of Ariel by Umbriel on 19 August 2007.
Currently Ariel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites. In the past, however, it may have been in a 5:3 resonance with Miranda, which could have been partially responsible for the heating of that moon (although the maximum heating attributable to a former 1:3 resonance of Umbriel with Miranda was likely about three times greater). Ariel may have once been locked in the 4:1 resonance with Titania, from which it later escaped. Escape from a mean motion resonance is much easier for the moons of Uranus than for those of Jupiter or Saturn, due to Uranus's lesser degree of oblateness. This resonance, which was likely encountered about 3.8 billion years ago, would have increased Ariel's orbital eccentricity, resulting in tidal friction due to time-varying tidal forces from Uranus. This would have caused warming of the moon's interior by as much as 20 K.
Composition and internal structure
Ariel is the fourth-largest of the Uranian moons, and may have the third-greatest mass. It is also the 14th-largest moon in the Solar System. The moon's density is 1.66 g/cm3, which indicates that it consists of roughly equal parts water ice and a dense non-ice component. The latter could consist of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins. The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations, which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon, which is porous and thus transmits little solar heat to layers below. Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Ariel's leading hemisphere than on its trailing hemisphere. The cause of this asymmetry is not known, but it may be related to bombardment by charged particles from Uranus's magnetosphere, which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere (due to the plasma's co-rotation). The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice, decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics, leaving a dark, carbon-rich residue behind.
Except for water, the only other compound identified on the surface of Ariel by infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is concentrated mainly on its trailing hemisphere. Ariel shows the strongest spectroscopic evidence for CO2 of any Uranian satellite, and was the first Uranian satellite on which this compound was discovered. The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear. It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from Uranus's magnetosphere or solar ultraviolet radiation. This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution, as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere. Another possible source is the outgassing of primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Ariel's interior. The escape of CO2 from the interior may be related to past geological activity on this moon.
Given its size, rock/ice composition and the possible presence of salt or ammonia in solution to lower the freezing point of water, Ariel's interior may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. If this is the case, the radius of the core (372 km) is about 64% of the radius of the moon, and its mass is around 56% of the moon's mass—the parameters are dictated by the moon's composition. The pressure in the center of Ariel is about 0.3 GPa (3 kbar). The current state of the icy mantle is unclear. The existence of a subsurface ocean is currently considered possible, though a 2006 study suggests that radiogenic heating alone would not be enough to allow for one. More scientific research concluded that an Active underwater ocean is possible for the 4 largest moons of Uranus.
Surface
Albedo and color
Ariel is the most reflective of Uranus's moons. Its surface shows an opposition surge: the reflectivity decreases from 53% at a phase angle of 0° (geometrical albedo) to 35% at an angle of about 1°. The Bond albedo of Ariel is about 23%—the highest among Uranian satellites. The surface of Ariel is generally neutral in color. There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres; the latter appears to be redder than the former by 2%. Ariel's surface generally does not demonstrate any correlation between albedo and geology on one hand and color on the other hand. For instance, canyons have the same color as the cratered terrain. However, bright impact deposits around some fresh craters are slightly bluer in color. There are also some slightly blue spots, which do not correspond to any known surface features.
Surface features
The observed surface of Ariel can be divided into three terrain types: cratered terrain, ridged terrain, and plains. The main surface features are impact craters, canyons, fault scarps, ridges, and troughs.
The cratered terrain, a rolling surface covered by numerous impact craters and centered on Ariel's south pole, is the moon's oldest and most geographically extensive geological unit. It is intersected by a network of scarps, canyons (graben), and narrow ridges mainly occurring in Ariel's mid-southern latitudes. The canyons, known as chasmata, probably represent graben formed by extensional faulting, which resulted from global tensional stresses caused by the freezing of water (or aqueous ammonia) in the moon's interior (see below). They are 15–50 km wide and trend mainly in an east- or northeasterly direction. The floors of many canyons are convex; rising up by 1–2 km. Sometimes the floors are separated from the walls of canyons by grooves (troughs) about 1 km wide. The widest graben have grooves running along the crests of their convex floors, which are called valles. The longest canyon is Kachina Chasma, at over 620 km in length (the feature extends into the hemisphere of Ariel that Voyager 2 did not see illuminated).
The second main terrain type—ridged terrain—comprises bands of ridges and troughs hundreds of kilometers in extent. It bounds the cratered terrain and cuts it into polygons. Within each band, which can be up to 25 to 70 km wide, are individual ridges and troughs up to 200 km long and between 10 and 35 km apart. The bands of ridged terrain often form continuations of canyons, suggesting that they may be a modified form of the graben or the result of a different reaction of the crust to the same extensional stresses, such as brittle failure.
The youngest terrain observed on Ariel are the plains: relatively low-lying smooth areas that must have formed over a long period of time, judging by their varying levels of cratering. The plains are found on the floors of canyons and in a few irregular depressions in the middle of the cratered terrain. In the latter case they are separated from the cratered terrain by sharp boundaries, which in some cases have a lobate pattern. The most likely origin for the plains is through volcanic processes; their linear vent geometry, resembling terrestrial shield volcanoes, and distinct topographic margins suggest that the erupted liquid was very viscous, possibly a supercooled water/ammonia solution, with solid ice volcanism also a possibility. The thickness of these hypothetical cryolava flows is estimated at 1–3 km. The canyons must therefore have formed at a time when endogenic resurfacing was still taking place on Ariel. A few of these areas appear to be less than 100 million years old, suggesting that Ariel may still be geologically active in spite of its relatively small size and lack of current tidal heating.
Ariel appears to be fairly evenly cratered compared to other moons of Uranus; the relative paucity of large craters suggests that its surface does not date to the Solar System's formation, which means that Ariel must have been completely resurfaced at some point of its history. Ariel's past geologic activity is believed to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently. The largest crater observed on Ariel, Yangoor, is only 78 km across, and shows signs of subsequent deformation. All large craters on Ariel have flat floors and central peaks, and few of the craters are surrounded by bright ejecta deposits. Many craters are polygonal, indicating that their appearance was influenced by the preexisting crustal structure. In the cratered plains there are a few large (about 100 km in diameter) light patches that may be degraded impact craters. If this is the case they would be similar to palimpsests on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. It has been suggested that a circular depression 245 km in diameter located at 10°S 30°E is a large, highly degraded impact structure.
Origin and evolution
Ariel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity. The precise composition of the subnebula is not known; however, the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water-poor. Significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide (CO) and molecular nitrogen (N2), instead of methane and ammonia. The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice (with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate) and more rock, explaining the higher density.
The accretion process probably lasted for several thousand years before the moon was fully formed. Models suggest that impacts accompanying accretion caused heating of Ariel's outer layer, reaching a maximum temperature of around 195 K at a depth of about 31 km. After the end of formation, the subsurface layer cooled, while the interior of Ariel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks. The cooling near-surface layer contracted, while the interior expanded. This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon's crust reaching estimates of 30 MPa, which may have led to cracking. Some present-day scarps and canyons may be a result of this process, which lasted for about 200 million years.
The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements and likely tidal heating may have led to melting of the ice if an antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or some salt was present. The melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean, however, is likely to have frozen long ago. The freezing of the water likely led to the expansion of the interior, which may have been responsible for the formation of the canyons and obliteration of the ancient surface. The liquids from the ocean may have been able to erupt to the surface, flooding floors of canyons in the process known as cryovolcanism. More recent analysis concluded that an active ocean is probable for the 4 largest moons of Uranus; specifically including Ariel.
Thermal modeling of Saturn's moon Dione, which is similar to Ariel in size, density, and surface temperature, suggests that solid state convection could have lasted in Ariel's interior for billions of years, and that temperatures in excess of 173 K (the melting point of aqueous ammonia) may have persisted near its surface for several hundred million years after formation, and near a billion years closer to the core.
Observation and exploration
The apparent magnitude of Ariel is 14.8; similar to that of Pluto near perihelion. However, while Pluto can be seen through a telescope of 30 cm aperture, Ariel, due to its proximity to Uranus's glare, is often not visible to telescopes of 40 cm aperture.
The only close-up images of Ariel were obtained by the Voyager 2 probe, which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986. The closest approach of Voyager 2 to Ariel was —significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons except Miranda. The best images of Ariel have a spatial resolution of about 2 km. They cover about 40% of the surface, but only 35% was photographed with the quality required for geological mapping and crater counting. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Ariel (like those of the other moons) was pointed towards the Sun, so the northern (dark) hemisphere could not be studied. No other spacecraft has ever visited the Uranian system. The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft to Uranus was evaluated during its mission extension planning phase. It would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn, and these plans were scrapped in favour of remaining at Saturn and eventually destroying the spacecraft in Saturn's atmosphere.
Transits
On 26 July 2006, the Hubble Space Telescope captured a rare transit made by Ariel on Uranus, which cast a shadow that could be seen on the Uranian cloud tops. Such events are rare and only occur around equinoxes, as the moon's orbital plane about Uranus is tilted 98° to Uranus's orbital plane about the Sun. Another transit, in 2008, was recorded by the European Southern Observatory.
See also
List of natural satellites
Planetary Science Decadal Survey
Notes
References
External links
Ariel profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
AN, 33 (1852) 257/258
Ariel basemap derived from Voyager images
Ariel page (including labelled maps of Ariel) at Views of the Solar System
NASA archive of publicly released Ariel images
Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Ariel and other outer solar system satellites
Ariel nomenclature from the USGS Planetary Nomenclature web site
Ted Stryk: Revealing the night sides of Uranus' moons
18511021
Things named after Shakespearean works
Moons with a prograde orbit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%20%28title%29
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Caesar (title)
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Caesar ( English Caesars; Latin Caesares; in Greek: Kaîsar) is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of the Roman dictator Julius Caesar. The change from being a surname to a title used by the Roman emperors can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. When used on its own, the title denoted heir apparents, which would later adopt the title augustus on accession. The title remained an essential part of the style of the emperors, and became the word for "emperor" in some languages, such as German (kaiser) and Russian (tsar).
Origins
The first known individual to bear the cognomen of "Caesar" was Sextus Julius Caesar, who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent Julii Caesares. Sextus' great-grandson was the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, who seized control of the Roman Republic following his war against the Senate. He appointed himself as dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he only held for about a month before he was assassinated in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the Second Triumvirate, which was made up of three generals, including Julius' adopted son Gaius Octavius.
Following Roman naming conventions, Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar. Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the triumvirs led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific Augustus by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a nomen, and had adopted the victory title imperator ("commander") as a new praenomen.
As a matter of course, Augustus' own adopted son and successor, Tiberius, followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".
The fourth Emperor, Claudius (in full, "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name without having been adopted by the previous emperor. However, he was at least a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula (who was also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own nomen, "Claudius". His stepson thus became "Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus".
Dynastic title
The first emperor to assume both the position and name without any real claim was Galba, who took the throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Piso Licinianus. His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon killed by Otho, who became "Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by Vitellius, who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus", adopting the victory title "Germanicus" instead. Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by Vespasian, who ended the civil war and established the Flavian dynasty in AD 69, ruling as "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".
The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the cognomen (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian); a few placed it right after it (Galba, Otho, Nerva). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius". The imperial formula thus became "Imperator Caesar [name] Augustus" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it after their cognomen. Caesars occasionally were given the honorific princeps iuventutis ("First among the Youth") and, starting with the 3rd century, nobilissimus ("Most Noble").
Later developments
Crisis of the Third Century
The popularity of using the title caesar to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming their sons as heirs with the title of caesar, namely Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus, Gallienus and Carus. With the exception of Verus Maximus and Valerian II all of them were later either promoted to the rank of augustus within their father's lifetime (like Philip II) or succeeded as augusti after their father's death (Hostilian and Numerian). The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor Tetricus I appointing his heir Tetricus II as caesar and his consular colleague.
Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all caesares would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of Hostilian. The sole caesar to successfully obtain the rank of augustus and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court.
Tetrarchy and Diarchy
In 293, Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as augustus (in plural, augusti). The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as nobilissimus caesar. Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title caesar upon becoming full emperors. The caesares of this period are sometimes referred as "emperors", with the Tetrarchy being a "rule of four emperors", despite being clearly subordinate of the augusti and thus not actually sovereigns.
The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, resulting in a lengthy civil war. Constantine reunited the Empire 324, after defeating the Eastern emperor Licinius. The tetrarchic division of power was abandoned, although the divisions of the praetorian prefectures were maintained. The title caesar continued to be used, but now merely as a ceremorial honorific for young heirs. Constantine had four caesares at the time of his death: his sons Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and his nephew Dalmatius, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances. Constantius II himself would nominate as caesares his cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 360, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to augustus, starting with Gratian in 367.
The title would be revived in 408 when Constantine III gave it to his son Constans II, and then in 424 when Theodosius II gave it to his nephew Valentinian III before successfully installing him upon the western throne as augustus in 425. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire; for example, it was given to Leo II in 472 several months before his grandfather's death. In the Western Empire, Palladius, the son of emperor Petronius Maximus, became the last person bearing the title caesar in 455.
Byzantine Empire
Caesar or Kaisar () remained a senior court title in the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. Originally, as in the classical Roman Empire, it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of Theodosius I, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors, i.e. augustus. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example, Alexios Mosele who was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas who was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), and Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas. An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705. The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, George II of Georgia in 1081.
The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created the title of sebastokrator, kaisar became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of despot, which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was kaisarissa. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.
According to the Klētorologion of 899, the Byzantine caesars insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a caesars creation (in this case dating to Constantine V), is included in De Ceremoniis I.43. The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the sebastokratōr (a composite derived from sebastos and autokrator, the Greek equivalents of augustus and imperator) by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and later of despotēs by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the Palaiologan period, it was held by prominent nobles such as Alexios Strategopoulos, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the Balkans such as the princes of Vlachia, Serbia and Thessaly.
In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the sebastokratōr. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the caesar was equal in precedence to the panhypersebastos, another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of protovestiarios and decreed that to come after the caesar; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the megas domestikos was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354). According to pseudo-Kodinos, the caesars insignia under the Palaiologoi were a skiadion hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the despotēs and the sebastokratōr. He wore a red tunic (rouchon) similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the sebastokratōr, but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed skaranikon, and of the mantle, the tamparion, for the caesar were not known.
Ottoman Empire
"Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persians to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in Qaysar-i Rum, "Caesar of the Romans", from Middle Persian kēsar). Thus, following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to assume the title (in Kayser-i Rûm).
After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title Kayser-i Rûm, claiming succession to the Roman imperium. His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III. Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".
Gennadius II, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the Sack of Constantinople committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and ethnarch (or milletbashi) status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos. Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire.
In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of the Caesar title according to Treaty of Constantinople (1533) (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined Moscow as the Third Rome, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia on numerous occasions. The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, and over the Russian Empire with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.
List of holders
Note: Caesars who later became Augusti and thus emperors are highlighted in bold.
Byzantine nobles
Tervel, khan of the Bulgars, named in 705 by Justinian II
Nikephoros & Christopher, named on 2 April 769 by their father Constantine V
Alexios Mosele, likely named in 831 by his father-in-law Theophilos
Bardas, named on 22 April 862 by his nephew Michael III
Romanos I Lekapenos, named on 24 September 920 by the Byzantine senate
Bardas Phokas, named in late 963 by his son Nikephoros II
Romanos III Argyros, named on 9 November 1028 by his father-in-law Constantine VIII
Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, named by his father-in-law Alexios I
John Doukas, named in 1074 by his brother Constantine X
George II of Georgia, named in 1081 by his brother-in-law Nikephoros III
Nikephoros Melissenos, named in 1080 by Alexios I
Isaac Komnenos, named in 1104 by his father Alexios I
John Rogerios Dalassenos, named 1130 by his father-in-law John II
Renier of Montferrat, named in 1180 by his father-in-law Manuel I
John Kantakouzenos, named in 1186 by Isaac II
Conrad of Montferrat, named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II
Manuel Maurozomes, named 1200 by Alexios III
Leo Gabalas, named by Theodore I Laskaris (r. 1205–1221)
Constantine Palaiologos, named in 1259 by his brother Michael VIII
Alexios Strategopoulos, named in 1259 by Michael VIII
Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Company, named in 1304 by Andronikos II
John Palaiologos, named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II
Hrelja, likely named by John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354)
Serbian rulers
Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1373 by despot Thomas Preljubović
Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1390 by despot Esau de' Buondelmonti
Grgur Golubić, named in 1347 by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan
Vojihna, named in 1347 by Uroš IV
Preljub, named in 1348–49 by Uroš IV
Uglješa Vlatković, named by Uroš V
Nikola Radonja, named by Uroš V
Novak, named by Uroš V
Ottoman rulers
Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481) assumed title kayser-i Rûm following the conquest of Constantinople in 1452
Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) is adressed as kayser in contemporary sources
Suleiman I (r. 1520–1566) called himself Caesar of Rome in the inscription of Bender, Moldova, dating from . In one of his poems, he also called himself "Roman caesar".
See List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire; the title kayser continued to be used as late as the 18th century.
See also
Caesaropapism
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Pauly-Wissowa – Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft
Ancient Roman titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Byzantine court titles
Imperial titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argosy%20%28magazine%29
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Argosy (magazine)
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Argosy was an American magazine. It was founded in 1882 as The Golden Argosy, a children's weekly, edited by Frank Munsey and published by E. G. Rideout. Munsey took over as publisher when Rideout went bankrupt in 1883, and after many struggles made the magazine profitable. He shortened the title to The Argosy in 1888 and targeted an audience of men and boys with adventure stories of all genres. In 1894 he switched it to a monthly schedule and in 1896 he eliminated all non-fiction and started using cheap pulp paper, making it the first pulp magazine. Circulation had reached half a million by 1907, and remained strong until the 1930s. The name was changed to Argosy All-Story Weekly in 1920 after the magazine merged with All-Story Weekly, another Munsey pulp, and from 1929 it became just Argosy.
In 1925 Munsey died, and the publisher, the Frank A. Munsey Company, was purchased by Thomas Dewart, who had worked for Munsey. By the end of the 1930s circulation had fallen to no more than 50,000, and after a failed effort to revive the magazine by including sensational non-fiction, it was sold in 1942 to Popular Publications, another pulp magazine publisher. Popular converted it from pulp to slick format, and initially attempted to make it a fiction-only magazine, but gave up on this within a year. Instead it became a men's magazine, carrying fiction and feature articles aimed at men. Circulation soared and by the early 1950s was well over one million.
Early contributors included Horatio Alger, Oliver Optic, and G. A. Henty. During the pulp era, many famous writers appeared in Argosy, including O. Henry, James Branch Cabell, Albert Payson Terhune, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Erle Stanley Gardner, Robert E. Howard, and Max Brand. Argosy was regarded as one of the most prestigious publications in the pulp market, along with Blue Book, Adventure and Short Stories. After the transition to slick format it continued to publish fiction, including science fiction by Robert Heinlein, Arthur Clarke, and Ray Bradbury. From 1948 to 1958 it published a series by Gardner called "The Court of Last Resort" which examined the cases of dozens of convicts who maintained their innocence, and succeeding in overturning many of the convictions. NBC adapted the series for television in 1957.
Popular sold the magazine to David Geller in 1972, and in 1978 Geller sold it to the Filipacchi Group, which closed down the magazine at the end of the year. The title has been revived several times, most recently in 2016.
Publication history
The Golden Argosy
In the late 1870s, Frank Munsey was working in Augusta, Maine, as the manager of the Western Union office there. He helped a friend get a job at a publisher in Augusta, and after a couple of years his friend moved to New York City to another publishing company. Munsey was becoming more familiar with the publishing industry during this time, and decided he wanted to launch a magazine of his own. He had some difficulty in getting anyone to agree to invest, but eventually persuaded a stockbroker he knew to put in $2,500, of which $500 was a loan to Munsey. Munsey invested $500 of his own, and his friend in New York City added another $1,000, making a total of $4,000 in capital. Munsey resigned from Western Union, and moved to New York on September 23, 1882, bringing with him manuscripts he had bought for the magazine before leaving Augusta.
Once in New York, Munsey quickly realized that the cost estimates he had made, based on what he had been able to learn while in Maine, were unrealistically low. His original plan for the magazine had been to make it a close copy of Golden Days, a juvenile weekly paper published in Philadelphia by James Elverson, and to include lithographed covers and internal illustrations. He abandoned these ideas and came up with a simplified approach, still based on Golden Days, that he believed could be made profitable. He wrote to the stockbroker who had promised $2,500 to get the funds sent to him, but received no reply, and since this made it impossible to start the magazine as planned, Munsey released his New York friend from his promise of investment. This left Munsey with only about $40, along with the manuscripts he had in hand, which had cost over $500 to acquire. He began looking for a publisher who would back the new magazine, and eventually persuaded E. G. Rideout to take it on. The first issue, titled The Golden Argosy, with Munsey as editor and manager, was dated December 9, 1882; it was eight pages long and cost five cents. Subscribers were offered a set of colored chromolithographs along with their subscription.
Five months later Rideout went bankrupt. Munsey had not drawn all his salary, and Rideout had borrowed money from him as well, so he was owed about $1,000 by the bankrupt company. He claimed the magazine's title and subscription list in return for his debt, succeeding over a competing claim from a publisher who would have merged the magazine's subscriptions into those of his own publication. The first issue with Munsey as publisher was dated September 8, 1883. Munsey again was reduced to a few dollars, but he was able to borrow $300 from Oscar Holway, a banker in Augusta who was a friend. At about this time he bought some stories from Malcolm Douglas, but when Douglas came to collect his payment Munsey offered him the job of editor, at $10 per week, in lieu of payment for the stories. Douglas accepted.
A friend from Augusta, John Fogler, who had become cashier of Augusta's First National Bank, was able to arrange another loan for Munsey, of $1,000. Munsey kept to the weekly schedule without missing an issue, but the financial pressure on him was enormous. Rideout had set up Munsey in an office on Barclay Street in what is now known as Tribeca, in Manhattan; Munsey moved to an office on Warren Street nearby to reduce the rent, and he and Douglas would eat in a German beer saloon where they could get a free lunch. Munsey and Douglas assembled free material by rewriting items from English boys' papers. One week, Douglas was unable to find enough material to fill an issue. Munsey wrote a short story that night: "Harry's Scheme, or Camping Among the Maples", about two boys in the Maine woods, and turned it in to Douglas the next morning. Douglas twice saw Munsey write a letter to Elverson, offering the subscription list of The Golden Argosy in return for a job at $50 per week, but Munsey did not mail either letter.
In 1884 James Blaine was the Republican candidate for President. Blaine knew of Munsey from Augusta, and his campaign needed help with publicity: Munsey proposed a new magazine, Munsey's Illustrated Weekly, to carry campaign news. It only lasted two months, from September 6 to November 8, 1884, but it helped Munsey by giving him an official-seeming presence in publishing that made it much easier for him to obtain credit for paper and other supplies. Before the campaign he had been unable to get credit; after it he was $8,000 in debt to his suppliers. Ten years later Munsey recalled the change, and said "That debt made me. Before, I had no credit and had to live from hand to mouth. But when I owed $8,000 my creditors didn't dare drop me. They saw their only chance of getting anything was to keep me going." Munsey had a bank account in New York, but kept two more, in Maine and Chicago, moving funds between them constantly: "I kept thousands of dollars in the air between these three banks. It was a dizzy, dazzling, daring game, a game to live for, to die for, a royal glorious game". Munsey told a story of being unable to meet payroll because the New York bank would not give him credit. He went to the bank, upbraided the president for his "effrontery", and left without letting the man speak. When his employee went to the bank again that day, he was able to cash the payroll check.
The fact that The Golden Argosy never missed an issue also helped Munsey persuade the businesses he worked with to extend him credit, which in turn helped him invest in the business. In the winter of 1885/1886 he wrote a serial, Afloat in a Great City, with the intention of using it as the basis for an advertising campaign to increase subscriptions. Munsey owed $5,000 at this point, and went into debt by about another $10,000 in order to advertise the story, distributing 100,000 sample copies of the March 13, 1886 issue containing the first instalment of the serial in Manhattan, Brooklyn, and the surrounding areas. The campaign was a success, and from being a more-or-less breakeven concern, The Golden Argosy began to net Munsey about $100 a week in profit, not counting the cost of the campaign. This convinced Munsey to invest further in building circulation. A new editor, Matthew White, took over from Douglas at the end of the year. At the same time Munsey doubled the page count and increased the price from five cents to six, and in 1887 he began a national advertising campaign, with traveling representatives as far west as Nebraska, and a mail campaign for points further west. He wrote another story, The Boy Broker, for serialization, beginning in the February 5, 1887 issue, and credited it with adding 20,000 to The Golden Argosy's circulation. Over five months the campaign gave out 11,500,000 sample issues: his debt ballooned to $95,000, but he was now clearing $1,500 a week in profit, and circulation reached 115,000 in May 1887.
The Argosy
The improvement in Munsey's finances was temporary, though before Munsey realized it he had given up his cheap rooms and moved to the Windsor Hotel on Fifth Avenue. Another advertising campaign was launched; it cost $20,000 but produced no results, and Munsey began to experiment with the magazine, trying to find a profitable approach. He shortened the title to just The Argosy with the December 1, 1888 issue to make it sound more like an adventure magazine and less like a children's paper. He later commented that he had not realized the problems attendant on magazines for children—they grew up quickly and dropped their subscriptions, so circulation was very difficult to maintain, and because they had little spending power it was hard to interest advertisers. He reduced the page size and increased the page count, and added illustrated covers, and cut the price, and then reversed all these changes, but nothing worked. In 1890 circulation dropped to the point where it no longer covered its own costs. The expenses Munsey had taken on after the successful campaign in 1887 were now a drain, and when his friend Fogler visited, and was impressed that Munsey was living at the Windsor, he told Fogler, "I can't afford it ... but it is a means to an end. It gives me standing to have the acquaintance of the men I meet here." Fogler also discovered on that visit that Munsey had bought a pew in a popular church for $1,000 a year.
Munsey launched two more periodicals, hoping that they would establish themselves as profitable before The Argosy failed completely. The first was Munsey's Weekly, launched on February 2, 1889; the second was a newspaper, the Daily Continent, which he took over in February 1891 and gave up on four months later. The Weekly was not a success either, and in late 1891 Munsey converted it into a monthly, titled Munsey's Magazine, priced at 25 cents. Fogler, now working for a bank in Kansas, arranged a loan for Munsey that grew to $8,000, with half Munsey's stock as collateral. In the Panic of 1893 the bank called in the loan, and Munsey offered Fogler the stock if he would take over the loan. Fogler declined, and Munsey had to arrange for another loan at 18% interest to cover the repayment. In October 1893 Munsey cut the price of Munsey's Magazine to 10 cents. He had to struggle to distribute it at this price, since the American News Company had a monopoly on magazine distribution and had little interest in a low-priced magazine. By the February issue Munsey was printing 200,000 copies, and it soon became successful enough to guarantee his financial security.
The Argosy did not share in the success of Munsey's Magazine; circulation continued to decline, but Munsey kept it going, as he later said, "as a matter of sentiment", and to see what could be made of it. From a high of 115,000 the circulation fell to 9,000 for the March 24, 1894 issue, which was the last one as a weekly. Munsey switched it to monthly publication with the April issue, and circulation jumped to 40,000 immediately, but went no higher for over two years. With the October 1896 issue Munsey changed it to carry fiction only, targeted at adults rather than children; it was the first magazine to print only fiction. Starting with the December issue he began printing it on cheap wood-pulp paper, making The Argosy the first pulp magazine. The all-fiction format brought about another jump in circulation to 80,000. In 1898, with circulation still at around 80,000, Munsey bought Peterson's Magazine and merged it into The Argosy. A year or so later circulation began to climb again: Munsey spent nothing on advertising, but circulation reached 300,000 in 1902, and hit half a million in 1907, 25 years after it was launched. The magazine absorbed two other Munsey publications, The Puritan and Junior Munsey, in 1902, and Munsey credited some of the increase in circulation to the merger.
The Argosy's circulation fell from this peak, and it returned to a weekly schedule in 1917. In 1906 Munsey had started The Railroad Man's Magazine, which carried both fiction and non-fiction; after the January 18, 1919 issue it was merged into The Argosy, which was retitled Argosy and Railroad Man's Magazine briefly, reverting to just Argosy with the May 31 issue. Paper shortages caused by World War I forced a reduction in the page count of both The Argosy and All-Story Weekly, another Munsey fiction magazine, and costs continued to go up after the war. Most of the other major fiction magazines of the day increased their price to at twenty cents; Top-Notch Magazine was a holdout at fifteen cents, but Munsey kept both Argosy and All-Story at ten cents. In 1920 he merged All-Story Weekly into The Argosy, explaining that this let him keep the price of the combined magazine at ten cents, while saving "all the cost of stories in one magazine, all the cost of the editorial force, all the cost of typesetting, all the cost of making electrotype plates, and many other minor costs". The low price, sustained through most of the 1920s, must have been a strong benefit to circulation, which is reported to have reached half a million when the combined magazine, now titled Argosy All-Story Weekly, debuted, and stayed at about 400,000 during the following decade. The first issue of the new magazine added pages to allow it to carry continuations of the serials that had been running in each of the two magazines before the merger, and Sam Moskowitz, a magazine historian, comments that this approach "was such that it is doubtful that a single nonduplicating reader was lost from either magazine". The page count gradually dropped again as the serials were completed, from 224 after the merger to 144 at the end of the year.
Dewart, Popular Publications, and later revivals
In 1925 Munsey died. The Frank A. Munsey Corporation, which continued as the publisher, was sold to Thomas Dewart, who had been working for Munsey. Matthew White, who had been editor since 1886, was finally replaced by A. H. Bittner in 1928. Bittner lasted for three years as editor; his successors throughout the 1930s only lasted a year or two each. In October 1929 Munsey's Magazine and Argosy All-Story Weekly were combined and immediately split again into two magazines: one was titled All-Story Combined with Munsey's, and the other continued as Argosy.
In 1932 Don Moore, who had become editor in July 1931, bought two stories from Frank Morgan Mercer that turned out to have been copied from earlier stories by H. Bedford-Jones and James Francis Dwyer. Up to this point Argosy paid on acceptance; because of the plagiarism the policy was changed to pay new authors only after publication, to allow plagiarism to be detected.
Moore left to work at Cosmopolitan in mid-1934, and was replaced by Frederick Clayton, who had been associate editor. In 1936 Clayton was hired by Liberty, and Jack Byrne, who had been working at Fiction House, took over as editor for a year before being replaced by Chandler Whipple. Another Munsey magazine, All-American Fiction, was merged into Argosy in 1938. In 1939 Whipple resigned and George Post, who had been part of Whipple's editorial team, became editor.
Argosy remained a weekly until the October 4, 1941 issue, then switched to an irregular schedule with two issues a month. Post left in early 1942, and was briefly replaced by Harry Gray and then for two issues by Burroughs Mitchell.
In September 1942 Popular Publications, a pulp magazine publisher, bought all the Munsey pulp magazine titles from Dewart, including Argosy, which by this time had a circulation of only 40,000 to 50,000. The new editor was Rogers Terrill. Argosy ceased to use pulp paper from 1943, becoming a slick magazine. In early 1944 Harry Steeger, the owner of Popular, took over the editorship for five years, hiring Jerry Mason away from This Week in 1949 to replace himself as editor. Mason stayed for four years; when he left in mid-1953 Howard Lewis was promoted to editor from executive editor. Lewis resigned in 1954, and Ken Purdy, the editor of Argosy's main rival, True, was hired, but stayed less than a year. James O'Connell, who had been fiction editor of Argosy since 1948, was editor for one issue, dated October 1954, and then Steeger took the editing chair again. Circulation prospered under Popular, reaching 600,000 in June 1948, and 1.25 million by 1954. This growth was aided by some lucky publicity, broadcast to millions of radio listeners: after the acquisition by Popular, Argosy was the subject of a question on the popular Take It or Leave It radio show, which referred to it as a pulp magazine. Two weeks later the show's host apologized, and asked the studio audience to chant "Argosy is a slick" on the air.
Argosy's circulation remained over a million until at least 1973, and the advertising revenue this provided made the magazine an attractive acquisition target. Steeger sold Popular Publications to David Geller's Brookside Publications in 1972. In early January 1978 Geller sold the company to the Filipacchi Group. The last issue from Popular was dated November/December 1978. Four more monthly issues appeared from August to November 1979, published by Lifetime Wholesalers, Inc.
Special issues, associated titles, and revivals
In addition to the monthly issues, between 1975 and 1978 Argosy published about fifty special issues on specific topics such as sharks, basketball, guns, or treasure hunting. There were also two associated magazines: Argosy UFO appeared in July 1976 and ceased publication with its eighth issue, dated Winter 1977/1978; and Argosy Gun produced at least four issues between Fall 1977 and Summer 1978.
The magazine has been revived three times since then. Between 1989 and 1994, six issues were produced by Richard Kyle, at irregular intervals. Three more issues, dated in 2004 and 2005, appeared from Lou Anders and James A. Owen, with the third issue edited by Owen alone, and retitled Argosy Quarterly. One more issue, from Altus Press, appeared in 2016, edited by Matthew Moring.
Contents and reception
Early years
The first issue of The Golden Argosy included the first instalment of two novels: Do and Dare, or a Brave Boy's Fight for a Fortune, by Horatio Alger, which took the cover page, and Nick and Nellie, or God Helps them that Helps Themselves, by Edward S. Ellis. There were also short stories and some non-fiction. The target audience was both boys and girls, from ten to twenty years old. When Munsey began to write serialized novels for the magazine, starting with Afloat in a Great City in 1886, he used the same basic plot that Alger had been successful with: rags to riches stories of boys succeeding against the odds. Other early serials were boys' adventure tales, occasionally with science fiction ideas such as lost races. Multiple serials often ran simultaneously. Early contributors included Harry Castlemon, whose Don Gordon's Shooting-Box began serialization in the March 3, 1883 issue; Frank H. Converse, who in addition to an early serial (A Voyage to the Gold Coast, or Jack Bond's Quest, beginning in the March 24, 1883 issue) had several short stories in the first couple of years of the magazine; Oliver Optic, (Making a Man of Himself, beginning in the October 20, 1883 issue), and G. A. Henty (Facing Peril: A Tale of the Coal Mines, from September 5, 1885).
The magazine's subtitle, "Freighted with Treasures for Boys and Girls" was dropped in 1886, though the contents were still aimed at the same youthful readers as before. P. T. Barnum's Dick Broadhead: a Story of Wild Animals and the Circus was serialized from May to August 1887. There was little science fiction in the early years; one exception was The Conquest of the Moon, by Andre Laurie, which began serialization in The Argosy in 1889; another was William Murray Graydon's The River of Darkness; or, Under Africa (1890). "When the Redcoats Came to Bennington", an early story by Upton Sinclair, appeared in the December 1895 issue.
Pulp era
Editorial policy
After the change to an all-fiction monthly format in 1896, The Argosy was a men's and boy's adventure magazine, though The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction describes many of the serials in the first decade or so after the change as "still only a little above juvenile adventure stories". In 1926, Albert William Stone, a fairly prolific pulp author, visited Manhattan to meet with the editors of the various magazines he had been selling to, and find out more about what their requirements were for submissions. Stone had sold several stories to Bob Davis, the editor of All-Story Weekly, before its merger with The Argosy, but had never sold to Matthew White, who had been editor of The Argosy since before the change to pulp format. White had sent Stone an encouraging note in reply to an early submission of his: "Two things I like about this story are its Western atmosphere, and its brevity—two thousand five hundred words ... If those hints are of any value to you, try us again." In the interview with Stone, White expanded upon what he was looking for. "I require yarns ... that violate the traditions relative to 'logical development'. By this I mean that I do not want the story developed in what is commonly called the 'natural' way. I require unexpected development—surprises at every turn it is possible to have them without destroying the convincingness of the story ... In other words, stories that are a constant challenge to the author's inventive ability, one situation after another, and that keep the writer perspiring freely."
Ed Hulse, a historian of pulp magazines, while generally praising the quality of the fiction in Argosy during the pulp era, comments that during the 1920s some "bland, conventional dramas" appeared in the magazine, by writers such as Edgar Franklin, Isabel Ostrander, and E. J. Rath. Hulse suggests that this editorial policy was aimed at attracting more women readers to the magazine.
After White's editorship, and for the next fifteen years, the requirements that Argosy's editors sent to writers' magazines such as Writer's Digest and Author & Journalist emphasized that they were looking for stories focused on action, with a masculine point of view. Bittner's comments in 1928 asked for "any good clean story with sound plot, rapid-fire action and strong masculine appeal will be considered", and gave a long list of genres all of which were acceptable—even romance so long as "the love element is not unduly stressed". In 1931 Moore outlined the stories to be excluded: "love or domestic tales, sex stories, stories with a predominant woman interest or told from a woman’s viewpoint". In 1935 Clayton provided a list of hackneyed plots to be avoided, including escaping convicts, an underwater adventure in which the hero fights an octopus and a giant clam as well as the villain, and a legionnaire who "dies gloriously for Dear Old France". The policy of action stories told from a male viewpoint continued through the rest of the decade.
New writers
Many writers who later became well-known sold to The Argosy early in their careers. William MacLeod Raine's first story, "The Luck of Eustace Blount", appeared in the March 1899 issue. William Wallace Cook contributed numerous serials in the first decade of the 20th century, beginning with The Spur of Necessity in the September 1900 issue after half-a-dozen sales to other markets. Cook wrote adventure fiction with elements of satire, an unusual combination for the pulps. James Branch Cabell's first sale was to The Argosy; his "An Amateur Ghost" appeared in the February 1902 issue. William Hamilton Osborne's first sale was also to The Argosy, but after paying for it White returned the story to Osborne as the plot was too similar to other stories that had appeared elsewhere. It did eventually appear in the New York Daily News, but Osborne's first appearance in print was in The Argosy with "Turner's Luck with Rouge et Noir", in the September 1902 issue. Louis Joseph Vance, the creator of the character The Lone Wolf, published most of his fiction in The Popular Magazine, but his first two sales were to Munsey, including The Coil of Circumstance, a serial that began in the November 1903 Argosy. Albert Payson Terhune, later the author of Lad: A Dog, frequently published in the Munsey magazines early in his career. His first sale to The Argosy was "The Fugitive", a novella that began serialization in the August 1905 issue, and he sold a dozen more stories to the magazine over the next few years. An early story by Mary Roberts Rinehart, "The Misadventures of a Pearl Necklace", appeared in February the following year.
Science fiction and fantasy
The first pulp issue, in December 1896, included a science fiction story, "Citizen 504", by C. H. Palmer, and science fiction featured regularly thereafter. Five science fiction adventure novels by William Wallace Cook appeared, starting in 1903 with A Round Trip to the Year 2000, or A Flight Through Time. Lost race stories continued to appear, such as Frank Aubrey's A Queen of Atlantis (1899), Frank Savile's Beyond the Great South Wall (1899–1900), and Perley Poore Sheehan's The Abyss of Wonders (1915), described by Hulse as "arguably the finest lost race novel ever to appear in a Munsey magazine". Francis Stevens contributed another lost world novel, The Citadel of Fear, in 1918.
Humorous stories about scientific inventions were another theme. Howard Rogert Garis began selling to Argosy in 1904; his "Professor Jonkin" stories were lighthearted examples of the genre, and other examples came from H.D. Smiley, whose "Bagley's Coagulated Cyclone" and "Bagley's Rain-Machine" appeared in the September 1906 and February 1907 issues. Some more sophisticated science fiction also appeared, including "Finis", an end of the world story by Frank Lillie Pollock, in June 1906. George Griffith, an important early science fiction writer from the UK, published almost none of his work in the US in his lifetime. The only exception was The Lake of Gold, serialized in The Argosy from December 1902 to July 1903, in which a group of Britons and Americans use the riches from a lake of gold in Patagonia to enforce peace across Europe.
The Argosy's sister magazine, All-Story Weekly, was the venue for most of the science fiction in the Munsey magazines, but Argosy did print Murray Leinster's first science fiction story, "The Runaway Skyscraper", in 1919. Leinster's first sale, "The Atmosphere", had appeared in The Argosy the previous year. Edgar Rice Burroughs's Barsoom series had begun in All-Story Weekly, as had his Tarzan novels; when the two magazines merged in 1920 later episodes of each series appeared in the combined magazine, Argosy All-Story Weekly. Abraham Merritt's The Metal Monster began serialization in the August 7 issue, the third one after the merger, and many more science fiction and fantasy stories followed in the next two decades by authors such as Ray Cummings, Ralph Milne Farley, Otis Adelbert Kline, Victor Rousseau, Eando Binder, Donald Wandrei, Manly Wade Wellman, Jack Williamson, Arthur Leo Zagat, and Henry Kuttner. Merritt's "The Ship of Ishtar", which was serialized in 1924, was voted Argosy's most popular story in a reader poll in 1938. In 1940 and 1941 Frederick C. Painton published a series of stories in Argosy about Joel Quaite, a time detective who travels into the past to solve mysteries.
Erle Stanley Gardner, later famous for his Perry Mason detective stories, sold "Rain Magic", his first science fiction short story, to Argosy in 1928, and went on to write several more. Gardner combined science fiction with detective plots in some of these stories, and he was not the only writer to do so: Garrett Smith's "You've Killed Privacy!" in the July 7, 1928 Argosy was about using CCTV to catch criminals, and Leinster's "Darkness on Fifth Avenue", in the November 30, 1929 Argosy, about a device that can bring artificial darkness to an area, was originally intended for the detective pulps.
Other genres
Argosy's Western fiction included Zane Grey's Last of the Duanes, which appeared in the September 1914 Argosy, and Walt Coburn's first story, "The Peace Treaty of the Seven Up", in the July 8, 1922 issue. Max Brand, a very prolific Western writer, sold his first pulp stories to All-Story in 1917, but by the end of the year had begun selling to Argosy too. Clarence Mulford was the creator of the character Hopalong Cassidy; the first few stories in the series appeared in other magazines, but many were published in Argosy in the early 1920s. Robert E. Howard, best known for his stories about Conan the Barbarian, also wrote Westerns, several of which were published in Argosy in the mid-1930s.
O. Henry appeared in the March 1904 Argosy with "Witches Loaves". H. Bedford-Jones, a popular author with over 1,000 stories published in the pulps over his career, sold his first story, "Out of a Stormy Sky", to The Argosy in 1910, and appeared in its pages regularly for the next four decades. Bedford-Jones's series about adventurer John Solomon began with The Gate of Farewell, serialized in the January and February 1914 issues, and continued in The Argosy and elsewhere for over twenty years. George Worts published the first of his "Peter the Brazen" series, about an "expert wireless operator and dauntless adventurer", in Argosy in the October 5, 1918 issue; it became one of the most popular series in the magazine, with all twenty stories appearing in Argosy into the mid-1930s. Under his own name and a pseudonym, Loring Brent, Worts contributed scores of other stories to Argosy over the same period. Johnston McCulley had launched his Zorro series in All-Story in 1919 and more episodes appeared in Argosy after the two magazines merged.
Fred MacIsaac, one of Argosy's most popular authors, first appeared in the November 1, 1924 issue with the first instalment of his novel Nothing but Money. Most of MacIsaac's work was not science fiction; an exception was The Hothouse World, a serial that ran in Argosy from February 21 to March 28, 1931. Theodore Roscoe was a frequent contributor of adventure stories set in exotic locations such as Timbuktu and Saigon. He traveled the world once his writing began to pay him well enough to allow him to do so, and used the experience to add color to his stories. Borden Chase sold his first story, "Tunnel Men", to Argosy in 1934 while he was a laborer on the tunnel being built under the East River in New York. He became a regular contributor, and his "East River", which appeared in Argosy in December 1934, was filmed the following year as Under Pressure. Ship of the Line, an early novel in C. S. Forester's stories about Horatio Hornblower, was serialized in Argosy in early 1938. Max Brand, though best known for his Westerns, wrote in many other genres as well, including historical fiction and mystery stories. He was the creator of Dr. Kildare, and four novels in the series appeared in Argosy between 1938 and 1940. Mystery contributors included Cornell Woolrich, beginning with "Hot Water" in the December 28, 1935 issue, and Norbert Davis.
Art
In 1903 Street & Smith launched The Popular Magazine, an early pulp rival to The Argosy with color art on the cover. Up to this point The Argosy had had text only on the cover, and no art, but in 1905, probably in response to The Popular Magazine, it began to run limited color art on the cover, and in 1912 it began to use full-color cover art. At the start of the 1920s the most frequent cover artists for Argosy were Modest Stein, Stockton Mulford, and P. J Monahan; by the end of the decade Paul Stahr and Robert Graef had taken over most of the covers, and remained the main cover artists until the mid-1930s. Hulse considers the artwork of this era to have been "consistently good". Towards the end of the 1930s Rudolph Belarski, Emmett Watson, and George Rozen become regular cover artists.
Virgil Finlay was a popular illustrator for the Munsey magazines at the end of the 1930s and start of the 1940s. When Argosy planned to reprint Seven Footprints to Satan, one of A. Merritt's novels, in 1939, Merritt persuaded the editor, G. W. Post, to use Finlay as the interior illustrator.
Men's magazine era
Transition from pulp format
In 1942, in an attempt to revive the magazine's fortunes, the all-fiction format was abandoned and articles about the war and "sensationalized" news stories were added. The cover was redesigned starting with the March 7, 1942, issue, with the outline of a jet plane replacing the galleon behind the title, and a picture of the film star Dorothy Lamour on the cover instead of the usual adventure-themed cover art. The title was changed to The New Argosy, though this change was reversed with the August issue. The publication frequency was changed to monthly starting in May.
The new version of Argosy was almost immediately caught in a crackdown by Frank Walker, the Postmaster General. The Post Office declared that publishers should consider "decency and good morals" in deciding what could be included in a mailed magazine, and promptly notified dozens of publishers that they had to attend a hearing in Washington or lose their permits. Argosy's citation from the Post Office listed stories considered to be obscene; the list included The G-String Murders, a serial by Rose Louise Hovick that began in May 1942, and "How Paris Apaches Terrorize Nazis in Girl Orgies" and "Sex Outrages by Jap Soldiers", articles in the July and August 1942 issues. The hearings were thought by most publishers to be pointless, and nobody from Munsey attended. Argosy briefly lost its permit as a result, but did not miss any issues.
When Popular Publications acquired Argosy at the end of 1942, they announced that it would immediately return to a fiction-only format. Richard Abbott, the editor of Writer's Digest, commented that Popular were "again making Argosy the fine old book it was", and that when they acquired Argosy it had "recently been degraded by wretched editing". In September 1943, the format changed from pulp to slick, but Popular still planned to print only fiction. Rogers Terrill, the editor, announced that "we have stepped out of the pulp field entirely ... We felt there was room in the country for an all-fiction slick, and we're it."
Slick men's magazine era
By the end of 1943, the policy had changed back to include feature articles again as well as fiction. This made Argosy a competitor with slick general men's magazines such as True. The publisher, Harry Steeger, later explained the reason for the change of focus, arguing that women had been the primary target for advertisers before World War II, but afterwards "new buying pursuits were adopted by the male and it began to be recognized by the advertising agencies that the male was an individual to be reckoned with in the purchase of all types of products ...". The non-fiction material was mostly written in-house; in 1950 Argosy rejected over 99% of the unsolicited non-fiction manuscripts it received.
After Argosy was acquired by Popular Publications, less science fiction appeared for a couple of years. Exceptions included some of Walter R. Brooks' Mr. Ed stories. The late 1940s saw more science fiction again, with stories by Nelson Bond, A. Bertram Chandler, and Robert A. Heinlein, whose "Gentlemen, Be Seated!" appeared in the May 1948 issue, and in the 1950s Argosy published work by Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, and Philip José Farmer. In 1977 one of Argosy's special issues was devoted to science fiction; the stories in it were all reprinted from Popular's Super Science Stories, rather than from earlier issues of Argosy.
In September 1948 Erle Stanley Gardner began a true-crime column in Argosy called "The Court of Last Resort". Gardner enlisted assistance from professional experts to examine the cases of dozens of convicts who maintained their innocence after their appeals were exhausted. The column ran for ten years, ending in October 1958, and was adapted for television as a 26-episode series by NBC. Many of the convictions were eventually overturned
Assessment
John Clute, discussing the American pulp magazines in the first two decades of the twentieth century, has described The Argosy and its companion The All-Story as "the most important pulps of their era." In the era before the Second World War, Argosy was regarded as one of the "Big Four" pulp magazines, along with Blue Book, Adventure and Short Stories. In the early 1960s Theodore Peterson, a magazine historian, considered the slick incarnation of Argosy, along with True, to be "the best magazines of their kind". Peterson suggests that it was the success of these two magazines that led to the expansion of the men's magazine market during the 1950s.
Additional bibliographic details
Titles
Argosy's title changed many times, either in an attempt to attract more readers, or because of mergers with other magazines.
Reprint magazines and anthologies
The long history of Argosy meant that by the 1930s there were many stories that readers had heard of but could no longer obtain. In response to reader requests, Munsey launched Famous Fantastic Mysteries in 1939 in order to reprint old stories from both Argosy and All-Story Weekly. The following year Munsey launched Fantastic Novels, another reprint magazine, in order to make longer stories available without needed to serialize them in Famous Fantastic Mysteries. Fantastic Novels only lasted five issues before being discontinued in 1941, but Famous Fantastic Mysteries lasted for 81 issues, ceasing publication with the June 1953 issue. Popular brought back Fantastic Novels for another 20 issues between 1948 and 1951, and also produced five issues of A. Merritt's Fantasy Magazine, also as a reprint venue for stories from the old Munsey magazines, between 1949 and 1950.
In 1976 Popular published two anthology magazines of stories, mostly science fiction and fantasy, titled The Best of Argosy Annual, though only some of the stories included had originally appeared in Argosy. A collection of science fiction stories from the early years of The Argosy was edited by Gene Christie and published in 2010, titled The Space Annihilator and Other Early Science Fiction From the Argosy.
There was a Canadian reprint edition; the first and last known issues were dated April 21, 1924, and July 1960.
See also
Works originally published in Argosy
Notes
References
Sources
External links
The Golden Argosy (1882–1888) at the HathiTrust
The Argosy (1888–1920) at the HathiTrust
Argosy All-Story Weekly (1920–1929) at the HathiTrust
1882 establishments in New York (state)
1978 disestablishments in New York (state)
Children's magazines published in the United States
Men's magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Defunct literary magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1882
Magazines disestablished in 1978
Magazines published in New York City
Men's adventure magazines
Pulp magazines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Magazine%20of%20Fantasy%20%26%20Science%20Fiction
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The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction
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The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction (usually referred to as F&SF) is a U.S. fantasy and science fiction magazine, first published in 1949 by Mystery House, a subsidiary of Lawrence Spivak's Mercury Press. Editors Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas had approached Spivak in the mid-1940s about creating a fantasy companion to Spivak's existing mystery title, Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. The first issue was titled The Magazine of Fantasy, but the decision was quickly made to include science fiction as well as fantasy, and the title was changed correspondingly with the second issue. F&SF was quite different in presentation from the existing science fiction magazines of the day, most of which were in pulp format: it had no interior illustrations, no letter column, and text in a single-column format, which in the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley "set F&SF apart, giving it the air and authority of a superior magazine".
F&SF quickly became one of the leading magazines in the science fiction and fantasy fields, with a reputation for publishing literary material and including more diverse stories than its competitors. Well-known stories that appeared in its early years include Richard Matheson's "Born of Man and Woman", and Ward Moore's Bring the Jubilee, a novel of an alternative history in which the South has won the American Civil War. McComas left for health reasons in 1954, but Boucher continued as sole editor until 1958, winning the Hugo Award for Best Magazine that year, a feat his successor, Robert Mills, repeated in the next two years. Mills was responsible for publishing Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes, Rogue Moon by Algis Budrys, Starship Troopers by Robert Heinlein, and the first of Brian Aldiss's Hothouse stories. The first few issues mostly featured cover art by George Salter, Mercury Press's art director, but other artists soon began to appear, including Chesley Bonestell, Kelly Freas, and Ed Emshwiller.
In 1962, Mills was succeeded as editor by Avram Davidson. When Davidson left at the end of 1964, Joseph Ferman, who had bought the magazine from Spivak in 1954, took over briefly as editor, though his son Edward soon began doing the editorial work under his father's supervision. At the start of 1966, Edward Ferman was listed as editor, and four years later, he acquired the magazine from his father and moved the editorial offices to his house in Connecticut. Ferman remained editor for over 25 years, and published many well-received stories, including Fritz Leiber's "Ill Met in Lankhmar", Robert Silverberg's "Born with the Dead", and Stephen King's The Dark Tower series. In 1991, he turned the editorship over to Kristine Kathryn Rusch, who began including more horror and dark fantasy than had appeared under Ferman. In the mid-1990s, circulation began to decline; most magazines were losing subscribers and F&SF was no exception. Gordon Van Gelder replaced Rusch in 1997, and bought the magazine from Ferman in 2001, but circulation continued to fall, and by 2011, it was below 15,000. Charles Coleman Finlay took over from Van Gelder as editor in 2015. Sheree Renée Thomas succeeded Charles Coleman Finlay, becoming the magazine's 10th editor in the fall of 2020.
Publication history
Lawrence Spivak
The first magazine dedicated to fantasy, Weird Tales, appeared in 1923; it was followed in 1926 by Amazing Stories, the first science fiction (sf) magazine. By the end of the 1930s, the genre was flourishing in the United States, nearly twenty new sf and fantasy titles appearing between 1938 and 1941. These were all pulp magazines, which meant that despite the occasional high-quality story, most of the magazines presented badly written fiction and were regarded as trash by many readers. In 1941, Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine appeared, edited by Fred Dannay and focusing on detective fiction. The magazine was published in digest format, rather than pulp, and printed a mixture of classic stories and fresh material. Dannay attempted to avoid the sensationalist fiction appearing in the pulps, and soon made the magazine a success.
In the early 1940s Anthony Boucher, a successful writer of fantasy and sf and also of mystery stories, got to know Dannay through his work on the Ellery Queen radio show. Boucher also knew J. Francis McComas, an editor who shared his interest in fantasy and SF. By 1944 McComas and Boucher became interested in the idea of a fantasy companion to Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, and spoke to Dannay about it. Dannay was interested in the idea, but paper was scarce because of World War II. The following year Boucher and McComas suggested that the new magazine could use the Ellery Queen name, but Dannay knew little about fantasy and suggested instead that they approach Lawrence Spivak, the owner of Mercury Press, which published Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine.
In January 1946, Boucher and McComas went to New York and met with Spivak, who let them know later in the year that he wanted to go ahead. At Spivak's request they began acquiring material for the new magazine, including a new story by Raymond Chandler, and reprint rights to stories by H.P. Lovecraft, John Dickson Carr, and Robert Bloch. Spivak initially planned the first issue (for which Boucher and McComas were proposing the title Fantasy and Horror) for early 1947, but repeatedly delayed the launch because of poor newsstand sales of digest magazines. He also suggested that it should be priced at 35 cents an issue, which was higher than the original plan, to provide a financial buffer against poor sales. In May 1949 Spivak suggested a new title, The Magazine of Fantasy, and in August a press release announced that the magazine would appear in October. On October 6, 1949, Spivak, Boucher and McComas held a luncheon at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the death of Edgar Allan Poe and to launch "a new fantasy anthology periodical". Invitees included Carr, Basil Rathbone, and Boris Karloff.
The first issue, published by Fantasy House, a subsidiary of American Mercury, sold 57,000 copies, which was less than Spivak had hoped for, but in November he gave Boucher and McComas the go-ahead for another issue. The title was changed to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction (almost always abbreviated to F&SF by both fans and science fiction historians) to reflect the contents. Sales of the second issue were strong enough for Spivak to commit further, and the magazine's future became more assured, despite the difficulties caused by the fact that both Boucher and McComas lived on the west coast, whereas the magazine's publishing offices were in New York. The publishing schedule moved to bimonthly with the December 1950 issue. The pay rate for the early issues was two cents per word, or $100 for short pieces, which was competitive with Astounding Science Fiction, the leading sf magazine of the day. By 1953 the rates had changed to three-and-a-half cents per word for stories under 3,000 words.
In 1951, McComas, who had a full-time job in sales on top of his role as editor of F&SF, was forced to reduce his workload for health reasons. Boucher then did most of the reading and editing, while McComas reviewed the results and occasionally vetoed a story. In August the following year the schedule switched to monthly. In 1954 Spivak sold his shares in Mercury Press to his general manager, Joseph Ferman; that year also saw McComas's departure—his health had deteriorated to the point where he had to give up the editing post completely.
The Fermans and Gordon Van Gelder
In 1957 Ferman launched a companion magazine, Venture Science Fiction, which was intended to focus on more action-oriented fiction than F&SF. Boucher was unable to take on the extra work, so Robert P. Mills, who had been the managing editor for F&SF, became Ventures editor, with Boucher in an advisory role. Later that year Ferman sold Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine to Bernard Davis, who was leaving Ziff-Davis to start his own publishing venture. Ferman retained F&SF, though Boucher departed, and Mills became the editor of F&SF while remaining managing editor of Queen's magazine. Mills stayed for over three years, leaving at the end of 1961 to spend more time working as a literary agent, and Ferman replaced him with Avram Davidson, whose name first appeared on the masthead with the April 1962 issue. Joseph Ferman's son Edward had worked for the magazine as an editorial assistant in the 1950s, but left in 1959 to gain experience elsewhere; he returned in 1962, and worked under Davidson as managing editor. In 1963 Ted White, later the editor of Amazing Stories, became assistant editor, and stayed with the magazine until 1968.
Davidson gave up the editor's chair in late 1964 in order to have more time to write, and was initially replaced by Joseph Ferman, who handed over control to his son Edward from May 1965, though the masthead did not reflect the change till 1966. Four years later the younger Ferman took over from his father as publisher as well, and moved the editorial and publishing offices to his house in Cornwall, Connecticut. His wife, Audrey, was business manager, and Andrew Porter was an assistant editor. In the early 1970s Ferman contacted Sol Cohen, the owner of Amazing Stories and Fantastic Stories, two competing sf magazines, about purchasing them both. Ferman was considering combining them into a single magazine and publishing them alongside F&SF, but Cohen decided to keep both titles.
In 1969, an issue of F&SF was priced at 50 cents; by the end of the 1970s the price had gone up to $1.25, although the page count also rose, from 128 to 160 pages. Circulation did not suffer, but rose from 50,000 to over 60,000, partly because of subscription drives through Publishers' Clearing House, and perhaps also because the magazine's quality remained consistent throughout the decade. In Ashley's words, "F&SF delivered the goods month after month": the schedule was reliable, the format remained unchanged, and the editor remained the same from 1965 throughout the next two decades and more. Ferman managed to keep the circulation above 50,000, and sometimes above 60,000, during the 1980s when most other magazines were losing subscribers. He turned over the editorship to Kristine Kathryn Rusch in 1991, and by the mid-1990s circulation began to fall again. In 1997 Gordon Van Gelder took over as editor, and from the February 2001 issue was publisher as well, having bought the magazine from Ferman. John Joseph Adams was Van Gelder's assistant editor from 2001 until December 2009. Van Gelder was unable to arrest the decline in circulation, which by 2011 was down to less than 15,000. Van Gelder reduced the publication frequency to bimonthly, increasing the page count and price. Charles Coleman Finlay guest-edited the July/August 2014 issue, and was hired in 2015 as full-time editor, beginning with the March/April 2015 issue. Sheree Renée Thomas was hired as editor, beginning with the March/April 2021 issue.
Contents and reception
Boucher, McComas, Mills and Davidson
Boucher and McComas's original goal for the new magazine was to imitate the formula that had made Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine successful: classic reprints, along with quality fiction that avoided the excesses of the pulps. The initial proposal called for the magazine to include fantasy, but not science fiction. Even before the launch, the editors found they were having trouble deciding exactly where the boundary lay, so when in February 1949 Joseph Ferman, Spivak's general manager, asked them to add sf to the lineup as a way to broaden the readership, they were happy to comply. The first issue included only one story that could be called science fiction: Theodore Sturgeon's "The Hurkle Is a Happy Beast"; it also included reprints from the slick magazines by writers such as Richard Sale, and Guy Endore. The interior layout was quite different from the existing fantasy and sf magazines: there were no interior illustrations, and the text was printed in a single column, instead of two as was usual elsewhere. There was a book review column, but no letters page. According to sf historian Mike Ashley, this "set F&SF apart, giving it the air and authority of a superior magazine". The logo design and layout were the work of Mercury Press's art director, George Salter, whose background was in book design rather than in pulp magazines. Salter remained with the magazine until 1958. He was responsible for many of the surreal early covers; these gave way to work by other artists, but his design for F&SF remained intact for decades, and in Ashley's opinion the consistency of appearance has been "one of the major selling points" of the magazine.
When the second issue appeared, with the title revised to include "Science Fiction", there was no announcement of the change, and not much more science fiction than in the first issue. Damon Knight contributed one example, "Not with a Bang", which Knight has described as his first fully professional story. The next issue included Richard Matheson's first sale, "Born of Man and Woman", widely considered one of the finest stories F&SF ever published. Over the next few years several writers became strongly associated with the magazine, including Margaret St. Clair, Reginald Bretnor, Miriam Allen deFord, and Zenna Henderson, and Boucher was also able to attract some of the best-known established names, such as Arthur C. Clarke, Fritz Leiber, and Ray Bradbury. Fletcher Pratt and L. Sprague de Camp began their "Gavagan's Bar" series of stories in the first issue of F&SF, and Manly Wade Wellman published the first of his "John the Balladeer" stories in the December 1951 issue. The focus was on short fiction; serials and novels were mainly avoided. One exception was Ward Moore's Bring the Jubilee, an alternative history set in a world where the South wins the American Civil War. Boucher bought "A Canticle for Leibowitz" from Walter M. Miller, who had been unable to sell it elsewhere, and printed it in the April 1955 issue; it was the first story in the series that would become the novel of the same name, and has since become recognized as a classic of the genre.
A controversial article by the astronomer R.S. Richardson titled "The Day After We Land on Mars" appeared in the December 1955 issue; Richardson commented that an exploration of other worlds would require "the men stationed on a planet [to be] openly accompanied by women to relieve the sexual tensions that develop among normal healthy males". Responses by Poul Anderson and Miriam Allen deFord appeared in F&SF the following year. DeFord argued that Richardson was assuming that women were not people in the same way as men, and the controversy has since been cited as part of the long debate within the genre about the image of women in science fiction.
In 1958 F&SF won its first Hugo Award for Best Magazine, and when Mills became editor that year he maintained the high standards Boucher had set, winning the award again in 1959 and 1960. Mills continued to publish a broad range of material without limiting the magazine to particular subgenres. Ashley cites John Collier, Robert Arthur, Allen Drury, and Ray Bradbury, all authors with mainstream reputations who appeared in F&SF in 1960, as evidence of the magazine's diversity. Daniel Keyes had been unable to sell "Flowers for Algernon" until Mills bought it in 1959; it went on to win several awards and according to Clute and Nicholls is "arguably the most popular sf novel ever published". Rogue Moon, a novel about a deadly artifact left by aliens on the moon, is often considered Algis Budrys's best novel; it appeared in 1960, and the following year saw Brian Aldiss's "Hothouse", the first in that series. (Budrys later said that what he described as the "cuteness of the early F&SF school of editing—and its open contempt for the accomplishments of the Campbellian school" had resulted in "buckets and buckets of froth" but, more favorably, "Liberal Arts concepts in what had been almost exclusively a B. S. field".) Zenna Henderson's stories of The People, a group of refugee humanoid aliens hiding on Earth, were published through the 1950s and 1960s and became a "central feature" of the magazine according to sf critic John Clute. Boucher published Damon Knight's "The Country of the Kind", described by Ashley as "one of his most potent stories from the fifties", in 1956, and the same year, under the pseudonym "Grendel Briarton", Reginald Bretnor began a series of punning stories known as "Feghoots" that lasted until 1964. At the end of the 1950s, during Mills' tenure as editor, Robert Heinlein's Starship Troopers was serialized in F&SF, under the title Starship Soldier; this was intended to be a juvenile novel but was rejected by Scribner's for being too violent. It won the Hugo Award in the novel category the following year, and proved to be one of Heinlein's most controversial books.
Among the cover artists in the first decade, sf historian and critic Thomas Clareson singles out the early astronomical scenes by Chesley Bonestell as being the most notable; these were among the first to replace George Salter's surreal artwork on the cover. Kelly Freas and Ed Emshwiller, two of the most popular artists in the sf field, also contributed covers during the 1950s. Mel Hunter began contributing covers with the November 1953 issue, and in October 1955 began a long-running series of covers that depicted a robot survivor of a nuclear holocaust engaging in human activities amidst the desolation—watering a flower, playing with toys, or reading a store catalog, for example. A regular book review column appeared, titled "Recommended Reading"; it was signed simply "The Editors" until McComas ceased to be one of the co-editors, after which Boucher used his own name. According to Clareson, the column "long remained the most catholic appraisal of the field" because of the variety of works reviewed. Boucher did not review his own fiction in the column, though on at least one occasion he listed a new book of his, telling the reader: "Comments eagerly welcomed; in this case, you are the reviewer". When Boucher left, he was succeeded by Damon Knight as book reviewer; Alfred Bester took over in 1960 and remained in the role until Avram Davidson became the book reviewer when he took the editorial chair. Isaac Asimov had begun a series of science articles for Venture Science Fiction in January 1958, and when Venture was cancelled Mills brought the science column over to F&SF. The column, which according to Asimov he enjoyed writing more than any of his other works, ran for decades without interruption, helping to contribute to a long-standing feeling of consistency and continuity in F&SFs format and contents.
Avram Davidson, who became editor in 1962, had sold his first story to F&SF in 1954, though he was better remembered for "The Golem", which appeared in the March 1955 issue. Under Davidson more work appeared by non-English-speaking writers such as Hugo Correa, Herbert Franke, and Shin'ishi Hoshi. Notable stories he acquired for F&SF include Terry Carr's first sale, "Who Sups with the Devil?", in 1962, and Roger Zelazny's "A Rose for Ecclesiastes" in November 1963. He published two "author special" issues: Theodore Sturgeon was featured in the September 1962 issue, and Ray Bradbury in May 1963. These author issues, which had been Joseph Ferman's idea, became a regular feature, with subsequent issues featuring Isaac Asimov (October 1966), Fritz Leiber (July 1969), Poul Anderson (April 1971), James Blish (April 1972), Frederik Pohl (September 1973), Robert Silverberg (April 1974), Damon Knight (November 1976), Harlan Ellison (July 1977), Stephen King (December 1990), Lucius Shepard (March 2001), Kate Wilhelm (September 2001), Barry N. Malzberg (June 2003), Gene Wolfe (April 2007), and David Gerrold (September/October 2016).
Edward Ferman
Joseph Ferman's son, Edward Ferman, was managing editor during Davidson's tenure as editor. When Davidson left, Joseph Ferman took over the editorial chair, but in reality Edward Ferman was doing all the editorial work, and by the May 1965 issue was in full control of the magazine. It remained eclectic through the 1960s and 1970s, publishing work by New Wave writers such as Thomas Disch and John Sladek, along with new US writers such as Samuel Delany and Roger Zelazny, hard science fiction stories by Gregory Benford and John Varley, fantasies by Sterling Lanier and Tom Reamy, and horror by Charles L. Grant and Stephen King. The mid-1960s saw an increase in the diversity of stories appearing elsewhere in the field; magazines like New Worlds and Science Fantasy published material that previously could only have appeared in F&SF. Sf author Christopher Priest, writing in 1978, commented that many writers later considered part of the New Wave soon found "a natural home for their work" in F&SF. In Ashley's view the rest of the field was starting to catch up to F&SFs open-mindedness, but this did not lead to a drop in F&SFs quality; the end of the 1960s saw Ferman printing some old-fashioned material such as John Christopher's novel about miniaturization, The Little People, alongside much of Roger Zelazny's early output, and "anarchic and often indefinable" stories by R.A. Lafferty, Harvey Jacobs, and others. In 1968, Piers Anthony's early novel Sos the Rope was serialized; Anthony had won a competition sponsored in part by F&SF.
Harlan Ellison and James Tiptree, Jr. were frequent contributors in the 1970s, Tiptree contributing some of her best-known stories, such as "And I Awoke and Found Me Here on the Cold Hill's Side" and "The Women Men Don't See"; Ellison's many stories in F&SF included "The Deathbird", in 1973, which won a Hugo Award, and "Jeffty Is Five" in 1977, which won both a Hugo and a Nebula Award. Other award-winning stories from Ferman's first decade and a half included Fritz Leiber's "Ship of Shadows" in 1969, "Ill Met in Lankhmar" in 1970, and "Catch That Zeppelin" in 1975; all three won Hugos, and the latter two also won Nebulas. Poul Anderson's "The Queen of Air and Darkness" won both a Hugo and a Nebula, Robert Silverberg's "Born with the Dead" won a Nebula, and Frederik Pohl's novel of Martian colonization, Man Plus, also won a Nebula.
Judith Merril took over the book review column on Davidson's departure, and was followed by James Blish in 1970 and Algis Budrys in 1975, with frequent contributions from other reviewers such as Joanna Russ and Gahan Wilson. In 1965 Wilson began contributing cartoons, and continued to do so regularly until 1981. Ferman set a humorous competition for the readers in the November 1971 issue, and thereafter ran two or three similar competitions every year. These were later collected in a 1996 anthology, titled Oi, Robot, the title taken from a competition to add a single letter to a well-known work of SF. A film review column, the first in the magazine since Charles Beaumont's "The Science Screen" (and "William Morrison" aka Joseph Samachson's live-theater column "The Science Stage") in the latter 1950s, conducted by Samuel R. Delany, commenced in 1969; Baird Searles contributed the column between 1970 and 1984. Among the later reviewers, Ellison was one of the most popular, and columns from his first four years were collected as Harlan Ellison's Watching in 1989.
Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine was launched in 1977 and from 1983, under the editorships of Shawna McCarthy and later Gardner Dozois, it began to publish more mature material, becoming a more direct competitor to F&SFs market niche. Authors such as Lucius Shepard, James Blaylock, and John Crowley, whose work was a natural fit for F&SF, were selling to Asimovs as well. The launch of Omni in 1978 also had an impact. For almost every year in the 1970s stories published in F&SF won more award nominations, and were selected for more "Year's Best" anthologies, than the other magazines; in the 1980s that was no longer true, as Asimov's took over the leading role, and Omni sometimes pushed F&SF into third place. Ferman was still able to acquire some highly regarded material, such as "Lost Boys" by Orson Scott Card, and Kirinyaga by Mike Resnick. When Omni rejected George R.R. Martin's "Monkey Treatment" and Gardner Dozois's "Down Among the Dead Men", which were dark fantasy, Ferman acquired both. Along with these regular columns, Ferman occasionally published articles, such as "Science Fiction and the University", a feature in the May 1972 issue that included contributions from Darko Suvin, Thomas Clareson, and Philip Klass.
F&SF won the Hugo Award for Best Magazine for four consecutive years, from 1969 through 1972, when the award was changed to "Best Professional Editor". Initially this category was dominated by Ben Bova, the editor of Analog, but Ferman won it for three more years at the start of the 1980s.
Some of the artists who had provided covers for early issues of F&SF, including Chesley Bonestell, Ed Emshwiller, and Alex Schomburg, were still contributing their work into the late 1970s, and many of the regular writers from the early years, such as Reginald Bretnor, Ron Goulart, and Hilbert Schenck, continued to appear in F&SF into the 1980s. A newer group, including Joanna Russ and R.A. Lafferty, had become regulars more recently. Some established writers such as Thomas Disch published their more unusual work in F&SF, and there were also writers such as Felix C. Gotschalk, whose unusual stories were described by Ferman as "a step ahead of most sf writers (or perhaps he's marching in a different direction)". In Ashley's opinion, Ferman managed to "balance the work of these eccentric writers so that they never distorted the contents yet kept the magazine on the edge".
Newer writers who began to appear regularly in the 1980s included Bruce Sterling, who published his early Shaper/Mechanist stories in F&SF, beginning with "Swarm", in 1982. Stephen King's "The Dark Tower" series had begun in 1979 in F&SF, and four more stories appeared over the next three years before being collected as a novel in 1982; and Michael Shea and Bob Leman contributed horror and weird fiction regularly in the 1980s. Despite the increased competition from Omni and Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, Ferman managed to keep F&SFs reputation for quality intact throughout the 1980s; it was not as distinct from its competition as it had once been, but it retained an "idiosyncratic individuality", in Ashley's words.
After Ferman
Under Kristine Kathryn Rusch F&SF began to publish more dark fantasy and horror stories, such as "The Night We Buried Road Dog" by Jack Cady, which won a Nebula Award. When Rusch took over as editor, Isaac Asimov had been writing the science column for over three decades, and Algis Budrys had been contributing a book review column since 1975; in 1992 Asimov died and Budrys departed. The science column ran for 399 consecutive issues, ending in February 1992. Asimov's widow, Janet Asimov, wrote another essay for the December 1994 issue, based on her conversations with her husband before his death, and a final essay appeared in January 1996, containing material from the book Yours, Isaac Asimov: A Lifetime of Letters. The science column continued to appear, written by Bruce Sterling and Gregory Benford among others, and John Kessel took over the book reviews; Robert Killheffer succeeded Kessel, with some overlap in 1994 and 1995. Asimov's maintained its dominance of the field through the 1990s, though Rusch published well-received material such as "The Martian Child" by David Gerrold and "Last Summer at Mars Hill" by Elizabeth Hand. Rusch won one Hugo Award as editor during her five years at F&SF, in 1994.
Van Gelder printed more fantasy and less hard science fiction than had Rusch, and in Ashley's opinion he was able to "restore some of the magazine's distinctiveness". As a result of the switch to bimonthly in 2009, with the resulting higher page count in each issue, the magazine began to publish longer stories.
Assessment
F&SF quickly established itself as one of the leading magazines. Ashley describes it as bridging "the attitude gap between the slick magazines and the pulps"', and argues that it made the genre more respectable. The fantasy side of the magazine attracted writers who had been regular contributors to Weird Tales and Unknown, two of the best-known fantasy pulps, and in Ashley's opinion, it soon found a "middle ground" between those pulp traditions and fantasy written for the slicks. It was known as the most literary of the science fiction and fantasy magazines, and it published the most diverse range of material. In a 1978 review of New Wave SF, Christopher Priest agreed that F&SF has a bias for literary work, and added that "it has been a sort of New Wave of its own ever since its inception".
From the 1950s, F&SF was regarded as one of the "big three" science fiction magazines, along with Astounding Science Fiction and Galaxy Science Fiction. In a review of a 1952 issue, James Blish (writing as William Atheling, Jr.) commented that much of the magazine to that point was wonderfully written, and that Boucher's and McComas's editorial acumen made F&SF very readable, but that on occasion a well-written, sophisticated, but unoriginal science fiction story might be accepted by F&SF because it was not a specialist sf magazine. At the end of the 1950s Kingsley Amis described it as "the most highbrow" of the science fiction magazines, and Gary K. Wolfe later said that F&SF, along with Galaxy, "defined the tenor" of the 1950s. In 1966, Judith Merril argued that it was Boucher and McComas who made a place in the genre for writers such as Charles Beaumont, Mildred Clingerman, Edgar Pangborn, and many others who, in her opinion, had "virtually stopped writing until the necessary new magazine came along".
In 2007, Ashley commented that F&SF had been "the most consistently enjoyable magazine of the last 50 years". In his view, a key reason for the magazine's appeal was that its roots were in the literary tradition, with Lawrence Spivak, its first publisher, the inheritor of H.L. Mencken's American Mercury, which had been successful and widely respected as a literary review. Unlike most of its competitors, F&SF had no connection to the pulp magazine era, and its editors had always intended to appeal to readers of books, rather than of magazines. Ashley also cites F&SFs broad editorial policy, which allowed the magazine to carry a wider range of fiction than its competitors. In 2014 Gary Westfahl praised the "creative editors of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Gardner Dozois ... and Gordon Van Gelder", but added that "such editors were no longer the most important figures in the field".
Bibliographic details
As of March 2017, the editorial succession is as follows:
Anthony Boucher & J. Francis McComas, Fall 1949 – August 1954
Anthony Boucher, September 1954 – August 1958
Robert P. Mills, September 1958 – March 1962
Avram Davidson, April 1962 – November 1964
Joseph W. Ferman, December 1964 – December 1965
Edward L. Ferman, January 1966 – June 1991
Kristine Kathryn Rusch, July 1991 – May 1997
Gordon Van Gelder, June 1997 – January 2015
Charles Coleman Finlay, March/April 2015 – January 2021
Sheree Renée Thomas, March/April 2021 – present.
The first issue was titled The Magazine of Fantasy; with the second issue the title switched to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. It has been in digest format since the beginning.
The publisher was initially Fantasy House, a subsidiary of Mercury Press; from March 1958 the publisher was listed as Mercury Press instead. Since February 2001 the publisher has been Van Gelder's Spilogale, Inc.
The following table lists F&SFs prices over the years. When Joseph Ferman announced the price change in the February 1959 issue, his justification for the increase was that "during the past ten years...paper costs have gone up by 38%, composition, printing, binding and handling costs have gone up by 32%, postages costs have gone up from 33% to 60%, and various other costs have risen as much or more".
Anthologies
The following anthologies of fiction from F&SF have appeared.
In 1981, Martin H. Greenberg edited a hardcover facsimile edition of the April 1965 issue of F&SF, with the addition of an introduction by Edward Ferman, and memoirs by the authors whose work appeared in the issue. The book was published by Southern Illinois University Press.
Overseas editions
F&SF has had multiple foreign editions, including:
Argentina. Minotauro (September 1964 – June 1968), edited by Francisco Porrúa under the alias Ricardo Gosseyn, and published by Ediciones Minotauro, Buenos Aires. Ten issues. The full title was Minotauro fantasía y ciencia-ficción. Minotauro did not reprint individual issues of F&SF; instead each issue was filled with stories selected from various issues of F&SF. Also La revista de ciencia ficción y fantasía (October 1976 – February 1977), edited by Marcial Souto and published by Ediciones Orión. Three issues. This was primarily a reprint edition of F&SF but also published some original material.
Australia. The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction (November 1954 – August 1958), published by Consolidated Press as a saddle-stapled digest. 14 issues. The first six issues were 128 pages long, the next 4 were 112 pages, and the last four were 96 pages. It was priced at 2/- throughout. The contents were selected from the US magazine but the Australian issues did not correspond to individual issues of the original.
Brazil. Galáxia 2000 (first issue January 1968), edited by Mario Camarinha, and published by Ediçōes O Cruzeiro. Four or five issues. This contains reprints from not only the US edition of F&SF, but also from the French, Italian and Argentinian versions. This was followed in 1970 by another Magazine de Ficçāo Cientifica, which appeared in April 1970. The editor was initially Jerônymo Monteiro; he died after two issues and was succeeded by his daughter, Theresa Monteiro. The publisher was Revista do Globo. The magazine ran from April 1970 to November 1971, publishing a total of 20 issues, each containing a story by a local writer along with the reprinted material.
France. Fiction (October 1953 – February 1990), edited by Alain Dorémieux for most of its existence. 412 issues. Fiction included original French stories as well as translations from the English version of the magazine, and occasionally these French stories subsequently appeared in F&SF, translated into English. One example is "Les Premiers jour de mai" by Claude Veillot, which appeared in Fiction in May 1960 and then as "The First Days of May" in F&SF in December 1961, translated by Damon Knight. Since 2005 it has been issued twice a year as a magazine/anthology series.
Germany. A series of anthologies titled Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction began appearing in Germany in 1963, published by Heyne, and lasted until issue 101, which appeared in 2000. These contained stories selected from F&SF. The editor was Charlotte Winheller for issues 1–9; Walter Ernsting for issues 10–14; Wulf H. Bergner for issues 15–42; Manfred Kluge for issues 43–63; and Ronald M. Hahn thereafter. The full title of the publication was initially "Eine Auswahl der besten SF-Stories aus The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction"; later titles include "Die besten SF-Stories aus The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction" and "Die besten Stories aus The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction".
Israel. Fantasia 2000 (December 1978 – 1984), edited by Aharon Hauptman and Gabi Peleg; published by A. Tene for the first 15 issues, and thereafter by Hyperion. 44 issues. Most of Fantasia 2000s contents were translations of material that had originally appeared in F&SF, along with some original stories by Israelis. It included translations of Asimov's science column, and also included departments that did not originate in F&SF, such as a letters page and non-fiction articles.
Italy. Fantascienza (November 1954 – May 1955), edited by Livio Garzanti, published by Garzanti e i Fratelli Treves. 7 issues. Reprints of issues of F&SF. Also Fantasia & Fantascienza (December 1962 – October 1963), edited by G. Jori, published by Minerva Editrice. 10 monthly issues, omitting May 1963. A reprint of F&SF, but it included some original material as well. Another series of reprints was published by Elara from 2013 to 2017, for a total of 17 issues with irregular periodicity.
Japan. SF Magazine (February 1960 – current as of 2017), edited by (among others) Masami Fukushima, Ryozo Nagashima, and Imaoka Kiyoshi. This began as a reprint edition of F&SF, but soon began printing more original fiction, and as of 2016 is the leading Japanese science fiction magazine, publishing both original material and stories reprinted from a variety of sources.
Mexico. Ciencia y Fantasía (September 1955 – December 1957), editor unknown, published by Novaro-México, S.A. 14 issues. Reprinted from F&SF by selecting stories from different issues of the original magazine.
Norway. Nova (1971–1979), edited by Terje Wanberg, Øyvind Myhre, Per G. Olson, and Johannes H. Berg, published by Stowa Forlag. 34 issues. Initially titled Science Fiction-Magasinet, it began by reprinting from F&SF; from the fourth issue it began to feature new material.
Sweden. Jules Verne Magasinet (1969–2013), edited and published by Bertil Falk (1969–1971); edited by Sam Lundwall (1972–2013) and published by Askild & Kärnekull (1972), Delta (1973–1983), and Sam J Lundwall Fakta & Fantasi (1983–2010). Starting with the Askild & Kärnekull issues, and until at least the mid-1980s, this contained a large proportion of reprints from F&SF, along with some original material from other sources.
United Kingdom. Two series, both titled The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. The first series was published by Mellifont Press, and ran from October 1953 to September 1954, in digest format, with 128 pages, priced at 1/6. The contents were taken from the U.S. magazine, but the UK issues did not directly correspond to individual U.S. issues. The second series was published by Atlas Publishing & Distributing from December 1959 to June 1964, in digest format. All issues were 128 pages except for January 1961 through November 1961 and March 1962 through June 1964, which were 112 pages. The price was 2/- from until November 1961, and 2/6 from December 1961 until the end of the run. As with the first series the reprint issues did not exactly correspond to individual U.S. issues. After the second series ended, some additional material from the U.S. issues was reprinted in the UK edition of Venture Science Fiction.
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Archive index of the former official site, www.sfsite.com/fsf/
The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (UK) July 1961—Internet Archive Python Library 1.0.10
1949 establishments in the United States
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Fantasy fiction magazines
Horror fiction magazines
Magazines established in 1949
Magazines published in Connecticut
Magazines published in New Jersey
Magazines published in New York City
Science fiction digests
Science fiction magazines established in the 1940s
Science fiction magazines published in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray%20cod
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Murray cod
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The Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii) is a large Australian predatory freshwater fish of the genus Maccullochella in the family Percichthyidae. Although the species is called a cod in the vernacular, it is not related to the Northern Hemisphere marine cod (Gadus) species. The Murray cod is an important part of Australia's vertebrate wildlife—as an apex predator in the Murray-Darling River system—and also significant in Australia's human culture. The Murray cod is the largest exclusively freshwater fish in Australia, and one of the largest in the world. Other common names for Murray cod include cod, greenfish, goodoo, Mary River cod, Murray perch, ponde, pondi and Queensland freshwater cod.
The scientific name of Murray cod derives from an early Australian fish researcher with the surname McCulloch and the river from which the explorer Major Mitchell first scientifically described the species, the Peel River. This was for a number of years changed to M. peelii peelii to differentiate Murray cod from Mary River cod, which were designated as a subspecies of Murray cod. However, as of 2010, Mary River cod have been raised to full species status (M. mariensis), thus Murray cod have reverted simply to M. peelii.
Murray cod populations have declined severely since European colonisation of Australia due to a number of causes, including severe overfishing, river regulation, and habitat degradation and are now a listed threatened species. However, they once inhabited almost the entire Murray-Darling basin, Australia's largest river system, in very great numbers.
A long-lived fish, adult Murray cod are carnivorous and mainly eat other fish. The species exhibits a high degree of parental care for their eggs, which are spawned in the spring and are generally laid in hollow logs or on other hard surfaces. Murray cod are a popular angling target and aquaculture species. Often available through the aquarium trade, they are also a popular aquarium species in Australia.
Description
The Murray cod is a large grouper-like fish with a deep, elongated body that is round in cross section. It has a broad, scooped head, and a large mouth lined with pads of very small, needle-like teeth. The jaws of the Murray cod are equal, or the lower jaw protrudes slightly.
The spiny dorsal fin of Murray cod is moderate to low in height and is partially separated by a notch from the high, rounded soft dorsal fin. Soft dorsal, anal, and caudal (tail) fins are all large and rounded, and are dusky grey or black with distinct white edges. The large, rounded pectoral fins are usually similar in colour to the flanks. The pelvic fins are large, angular, and set forward of the pectoral fins. The leading white-coloured rays on the pelvic fins split into two trailing white filaments, while the pelvic fins themselves are usually a translucent white or cream, tending toward opacity in large fish.
Murray cod are white to cream on their ventral (belly) surfaces. Their backs and flanks are usually yellowish-green to green, overlain with heavy darker green, but occasionally brown or black, mottling. The effect is a marbled appearance sometimes reminiscent of a leopard's markings. Colouration is related to water clarity; colouration is intense in fish from clear water habitats. Small to medium-sized Murray cod from clear-water habitats often have striking and very distinct colouration. Very large fish tend towards a speckled grey-green colouration.
Size
Murray cod are large fish, with adult fish regularly reaching in length. Murray cod are capable of growing well over in length and the largest on record was over and about in weight. Large breeding fish are rare in most wild populations today due to overfishing.
Related species
Murray cod continue a pattern present in Murray-Darling native fish genera of speciation into lowland and specialist upland species: Murray cod are the primarily lowland species and the endangered trout cod are the specialist upland species. The pattern is slightly blurred in the cod species because, being adaptable and successful fish, Murray cod push significant distances into upland habitats, while the now endangered trout cod stray (or did stray, before their decline) well down the upland/lowland transition zone, which can be extensive in Murray-Darling Rivers. Nevertheless, the basic pattern of speciation into a primarily lowland species and a specialist upland species is present.
Murray cod, like a number of other Murray-Darling native fish species, have also managed to cross the Great Dividing Range at least once through natural river capture events, leading to several species and subspecies of coastal cod. The best known are eastern freshwater cod of the Clarence River system in northern New South Wales, and Mary River cod of the Mary River system in south eastern Queensland, both of which are endangered, but survive today. Coastal cod were also found in the Richmond River system in northern New South Wales and the Brisbane River system in southern Queensland, but are now extinct.
Taxonomy
In Mitchell's original description, he classified the fish as "Family, Percidae; Genus, Acerina; Subgenus, Gristes, Cuv. or Growler; Species, Gristes peelii mihi, or Cod-perch", observing "This fish may be identical with the fish described by MM. Cuvier and Valenciennes Volume 3 page 45 under the name of Gristes macquariensis: but it differs from their description…".
In the 1800s and early 1900s, commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, riverside residents, and some fisheries scientists (e.g. Anderson, Stead, Langtry) distinctly recognised two species of cod in the southern Murray-Darling basin, Murray cod and trout cod or "blue nose cod". Taxonomically however, confusion abounded. Ignoring glaring differences in size at sexual maturity, and via some rather unscientific reasoning, some prominent fisheries scientists (e.g. Whitley) insisted on recognising only one species of cod—the Murray cod (then named Maccullochella macquariensis, after an early Australian fish researcher with the surname McCulloch and the Macquarie River in New South Wales where the holotype was captured). Then, as trout cod declined into near extinction over the 1900s, the distinction between the two species was further eroded and finally questioned. In the 1970s, early genetic techniques confirmed that trout cod were a separate species and further showed that the original "Murray cod" specimen was in fact a trout cod. Following the rules of scientific classification, the name M. macquariensis remained with the original specimen, now known to be the trout cod, and a new name, M. peelii, for the Peel River where the new holotype was captured, was coined for the Murray cod. Subsequently, two further cod were identified as separate species, the eastern freshwater cod (M. ikei) and the Mary River cod (M. mariensis).
Range
The Murray cod is named after the Murray River, part of the Murray-Darling basin in eastern Australia, Australia's largest and most important river system, draining around 14% of the continent. The Murray cod's natural range encompasses virtually the whole Murray-Darling basin, particularly the lowland areas, and extending well into upland areas — to about elevation in the southern half of the basin and to about in the northern half of the basin.
Consequently, Murray cod inhabit a remarkably wide variety of habitats, from cool, clear, fast-flowing streams with riffle-and-pool structure and rocky substrates in upland areas to large, slow flowing, meandering rivers in the extensive alluvial lowland reaches of the Murray-Darling basin.
Murray cod have died out in many of their upland habitats, particularly in the southern Murray-Darling basin, due to a combination of overfishing, siltation, dams and weirs blocking migration, pollution from arsenic-based sheep-dips, mining, and in some cases, introduced trout stockings, which causes competition between juvenile Murray cod and introduced trout species.
Murray Cod have also been introduced into other drainage basins, such as the Cooper Basin in Queensland.
Age
Murray cod are very long-lived, which is characteristic of many freshwater native fish in Australia. Longevity is a survival strategy in variable Australian environment to ensure that most adults participate in at least one exceptional spawning and recruitment event, which are often linked to unusually wet La Niña years and may only occur every one or two decades. Murray cod are the most long-lived freshwater native fish in Australia. The oldest Murray cod aged yet was 48 years of age, and the even larger specimens of years past leave little doubt that the species can reach considerably greater ages, of 70 years or more.
Diet
The Murray cod is the apex aquatic predator in the rivers of the Murray-Darling basin, and will eat almost anything smaller than itself and anything in its way, including finned fishes such as smaller Murray cod, golden perch, silver perch, bony bream, eel-tailed catfish, western carp gudgeon, and Australian smelt and introduced fish such as carp, goldfish, and redfin (English perch), as well as crustaceans such as yabbies, freshwater shrimp, and Murray crayfish. Fish compose the majority of the diet of mature Murray cod in lowland river and impoundment habitats, and that Murray cod are apex predators in these habitats. Murray cod have also been known to eat ducks, cormorants, freshwater turtles, water dragons, snakes, mice, and frogs. The observations of the recreational fishermen fishing for Murray cod with surface lures at night reveal that the popular description of Murray cod as a demersal ambush predator is only partially correct. While this behaviour is typical during the day, at night, Murray cod are active pelagic predators, venturing into shallow waters and frequently taking prey from the surface.
Reproduction
Murray cod reach sexual maturity between four and six years of age, generally five years. Sexual maturity in Murray cod is dependent on age. Therefore, roughly 70% of wild river Murray cod, with their slower growth rate, have reached sexual maturity by in length. Wild Murray cod in impoundments like Lake Mulwala, with their faster growth rates, do not reach sexual maturity until they are well over in length. These data strongly indicate the 50-cm (20-in) size limit for Murray cod is inadequate and should be increased substantially to allow for a greater chance of reproduction before capture.
Large female Murray cod in the 15– to 35-kg (35– to 80-lb) range are the most important breeders because they produce the most eggs and for other reasons; large females in most fish species are also important because they produce larger larvae with larger yolk sacs, and are also more experienced breeders that display optimal breeding behaviours. Such large females may also have valuable, successful genes to pass on. All of these factors mean the spawnings of large female fish have far higher larval survival rates and make far greater reproductive contributions than the spawnings of small female fish. Not surprisingly, there is no truth to claim made by some recreational fishers that "large Murray cod don't breed".
Female Murray cod, upon first reaching sexual maturity, have egg counts of no more than 10,000. Very large female Murray cod can have egg counts as high as 80,000–90,000, although a recent, very large 33-kg specimen yielded an egg count of 110,000 viable eggs. Egg counts in female Murray cod of all sizes are relatively low compared to many fish species.
Murray cod spawn in spring, cued by rising water temperatures and increasing photoperiod (daylight length). Initially, fish biologists working with Murray cod considered spring floods and temperatures of to be necessary and that spring flooding is critical for successful recruitment (i.e. survival to juvenile stages) of young cod by providing an influx of pelagic zooplankton and early life-stage macroinvertebrates off the flood plain into the main river channel for first feeding, but more recent research has shown Murray cod breed annually, with or without spring floods, and at temperatures as low as . Additionally, recent research has shown abundant epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) prey in unflooded lowland rivers, traits in Murray cod larvae that should allow survival in a variety of challenging conditions, and a significant proportion of Murray cod larvae feeding successfully in unflooded rivers.
Latest research has also shown that Murray cod in fact live their entire lifecycle within the main channel of the stream. Earlier ideas that Murray cod spawn on floodplains, or the larvae feed on floodplains, are incorrect. Murray cod breed in the main river channel or, in times of spring flood, the inundated upper portion of the main channel and tributary channels, but not on floodplains. Murray cod larvae feed within the main river channel or, in times of spring flood, on the inundated upper portion of the main channel and the channel/floodplain boundary, but not on the floodplain.
Spawning is preceded by significant upstream migrations if high spring flows or floods allow. Radio-tracked Murray cod in the Murray River have migrated up to upstream to spawn, before returning to exactly the same snag from where they departed, an unusual homing behaviour in a freshwater fish. Decades of observations by recreational and commercial fishermen suggest such spring spawning migrations are common across the Murray cod's geographical range. Spawning is initiated by pairing up and courtship rituals. During the courtship ritual a spawning site is selected and cleaned — hard surfaces such as rocks in upland rivers and impoundments, and logs and occasionally clay banks in lowland rivers, at a depth of , are selected. The female lays the large adhesive eggs as a mat on the spawning surface, which the male fertilises. The female then leaves the spawning site. The male remains to guard the eggs during incubation, which takes six to 10 days (depending on water temperature), and to guard the hatched larvae for a further week or so until they disperse. Larvae disperse from the nest site by drifting in river currents at night, and continue this behaviour around four to seven days. During this dispersal process, larvae simultaneously absorb the remainder of their yolk sac and begin to feed on pelagic zooplankton, small, early life-stage macroinvertebrates and epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) microinvertebrates. It may be that Murray cod are the first freshwater fish identified as having long-term pair-bonding in its repertoire of mating strategies in the wild.
The relationship between river flows and Murray cod recruitment are more complex than first thought, and in less regulated rivers, Murray cod may be able to recruit under a range of conditions including stable low flows. (Significant recruitment of Murray cod in low-flow conditions in less regulated lowland rivers has now been proven.) This information also suggests that nonriver-regulation-related causes of degradation are playing a larger role in the survival and recruitment of Murray cod larvae than first thought; competition from extremely large numbers of invasive carp larvae are negatively affecting the survival and recruitment of Murray cod larvae to a much greater degree than first thought; and that decades of overfishing is playing a far larger role in the current state of Murray cod stocks, through depletion of spawning adults, than first thought.
These findings do not mean that river regulation and water extraction have not had adverse effects on fish stocks. Rather, river regulation has been a major factor in the decline of Murray cod and other native fish. Thermal pollution is also a major problem, evidence indicates strong Murray cod recruitment events (which may be important for sustaining Murray cod populations over the long term) can result from spring flooding, and the health of Australian lowland river ecosystems generally rely on periodic spring flooding. Also, due to the regulation of most of the rivers in the Murray-Darling River system, mainly for irrigation purposes, only exceptional spring floods manage to "break free". The long-term viability of wild Murray cod, other native fish species and river ecosystems, in the face of this fact, are of great concern.
Conservation
History
Murray cod were originally the most common large native fish in the Murray-Darling basin. Contrary to some fishery department literature, the first serious declines in Murray cod were caused by extremely severe overfishing. In the latter half of the 1800s and the early 1900s, Murray cod — very large, very long-lived fish — were caught in large numbers by both commercial and recreational fishermen. For example, one commercial fishing operation commenced on the Murray River near Echuca in 1855, targeting Murray cod over hundreds of kilometres of river, and yet within eight years, grave concerns over the sustainability of this operation, and complaints about the near-absence of Murray cod in their heavily fished grounds, were being raised in the main state newspaper, The Argus. Yet fishing effort continued to increase in the region, so in the late 1880s and early 1890s, between 40,000 and 150,000 kg of mostly Murray cod (between 7,500 and 27,000 fish, at an average weight of 5.5 kg) were caught near Echuca. Similarly, in 1883, more than 147,000 kg of Murray cod were sent to Melbourne from just one river town (Moama). By the 1920s Murray cod had been overfished to the point where large-scale commercial fishing operations were no longer feasible. Recreational fishermen took similarly excessive hauls during this era, using rods and reels, handlines, setlines, drum nets, gill nets, and even explosives, with hauls often either wasted or illegally sold. Perhaps this extreme overfishing and its impacts of wild Murray cod stocks is best summarised by a short article in the Register News (a South Australian newspaper) in 1929:
In [the last] 29 years 26,214,502 lbs (nearly 11,703 tons) [11,915,683 kg] of Murray cod has been eaten by the people of Melbourne. The Superintendent of Markets (Mr G. B. Minns) included these figures in a statement he made today pointing out that the supply was declining. In 1918, the peak year, was received at the market, but since 1921, when was sent to Melbourne, supply has decreased. Last year [1928] it was only .
Twenty years later, the aquatic ecologist J. O. Langtry criticised the heavy fishing pressure, in the form of both uncontrolled small-scale commercial fishing and rampant illegal fishing, which he found in all reaches of the Murray River he investigated 1949–1950.
A thorough reading of historical newspaper articles and historical government reports reveals that the history of wild Murray cod between the mid–1800s and the mid–1900s was one of citizen agitation, government inaction, and ongoing stock decline. For decades, riverside residents, commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, local fisheries inspectors, fish retailers, and others agitated in newspapers and other fora about the declining Murray cod stocks, to be met in turn either with government denials, or conversely, with various ineffective inquiries into Murray cod stocks and fisheries, and various ineffective control measures. Debate about excessive fishing pressure, number of fishermen, number of nets, net mesh size, bag limits, minimum size limits and take of small cod, closed seasons and the taking of spawning cod full of eggs during spring, and other sundry issues, continued without resolution. Fishing regulations were either not amended, or amended and largely unenforced and completely ignored. Heavy commercial, recreational and illegal fishing pressure continued. The end result was a Murray cod population, initially abundant, continually fished down until in the early to mid 20th century a number of other factors such as river regulation (listed below) emerged to drive the species even further into decline. All of these drivers of decline left this iconic Australian fish in a perilous situation. There are now concerns for the long-term survival of wild Murray cod populations.
Status
Since 3 July 2003 and , the Murray cod is listed as a vulnerable species under the EPBC Act (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999). It is listed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, but under state legislation in both South Australia and Victoria, it is an endangered species.
A study published in Biological Conservation in March 2023 listed 23 species which the authors considered to no longer meet the criteria as threatened species under the EPBC Act, including the Murray cod. The team, led by John Woinarski of Charles Darwin University looked at all species listed as threatened under the act in 2000 and 2022. The Murray cod was the only fish on the list, and the reason for their assessment was given as "Actual recovery over the period 2000–2022, from long period of decline".
Threats
Overfishing
While extremely severe commercial and recreational overfishing in the 1800s and the early 1900s caused the first strong declines of Murray cod, overfishing by recreational fishermen, aided by inadequate fishing regulations, continues today and remains an extremely serious threat to Murray cod. The current size limit of 60 centimetres in most states is inadequate now that scientific studies have documented average size at sexual maturity in Murray cod. This and catch data and computer modelling exercises on wild Murray cod stocks indicate measures such as raising the size limit to 70 centimetres and reducing the bag and possession limits from 2 and 4 fish respectively to 1 fish are urgently needed to maintain the long-term viability of wild Murray cod populations. As of November 2014, the NSW Department of Fisheries has introduced a maximum size limit of 75 cm for Murray Cod to provide protection for large breeding fish, as well as a new minimum size limit of 55 cm.
Although angler effects are sometimes disregarded in the overall picture today, recent population studies have shown that while all year classes are well represented up to the minimum legal angling size (now 60 centimetres in most states), above that size, numbers of fish are dramatically reduced almost to the point of non-existence in many waters. Some emphasis has been made of the results of two small surveys which suggested a majority of Murray cod are released by anglers. However, there are valid questions as to the representativeness of these surveys: these surveys do not explain the dramatic disappearance of large numbers of young Murray cod at exactly the minimum size limit, and most importantly, any emphasis on these surveys miss the fundamental point — as a large, long-lived species with relatively low fecundity and delayed sexual maturity wild Murray cod populations are extremely vulnerable to overfishing, even with only modest angler-kill. A tightening of fishing regulations for wild Murray cod, as referred to above, and a switch by fishermen to a largely catch and release approach for wild Murray cod would alleviate this problem. Recognising these issues, in late 2014 the New South Wales and Victorian fishery departments amended their regulations so that a slot limit of 55 to 75 cm now applies in these states. (i.e. only Murray cod between 55 and 75 cm may be taken; those above and below this size range or "slot" must be released.) This measure should have positive effects for the Murray cod population by protecting and increasing the proportion of large breeding Murray cod.
Another issue is that Murray cod caught and released in winter, while developing their eggs, or in spring prior to spawning, resorb their eggs and do not spawn. This may be a minor issue compared to some of the other threats facing Murray cod, nevertheless, concerned fishermen try to avoid catching wild Murray cod at these times. At this point in time a closed season is in place for the spring spawning period, during which anglers are not allowed to target Murray cod, even on a catch and release basis.
Effects of river regulation
The Murray River and southern tributaries originally displayed a pattern of high flows in winter, high flows and floods in spring, and low flows in summer and autumn. The breeding of Murray cod and other Murray-Darling native fish was adapted to these natural flow patterns. River regulation for irrigation has reversed these natural flow patterns, with negative effects on the breeding and recruitment of Murray cod. The Murray and most southern tributaries now experience high irrigation flows in summer and autumn and low flows in winter and spring. Small and medium floods including the once annual spring flood-pulse have been completely eliminated.
It is estimated that flows at the river mouth by 1995 had declined to only 27% of natural outflows. The probability of the bottom end of the Murray experiencing drought-like flows had increased from 5% under natural conditions to 60% by 1995.
Thermal pollution is the artificial reduction in water temperatures, especially in summer and autumn, caused when frigid water is released from the bottom of reservoirs for irrigation demands. Such temperature suppression typically extends several hundred kilometres downstream. Thermal pollution inhibits both the breeding of Murray cod and the survival of Murray cod larvae, and in extreme cases inhibits even the survival of adult Murray cod.
The rare floods that do break free of the dams and weirs of the Murray-Darling system have their magnitude and duration deliberately curtailed by river regulators. Increasing research indicates this management practice is very harmful and drastically reduces the general ecosystem benefits and breeding and recruitment opportunities for Murray cod and other Murray-Darling native fish species these now rare floods can provide.
Blackwater events
Blackwater events are emerging as a very serious threat to wild Murray cod stocks in lowland river reaches. Blackwater events occur when floodplains and ephemeral channels accumulate large quantities of leaf litter over a number of years and are then finally inundated in a flood event. The leaf litter releases large quantities of dissolved organic carbon, turning the water a characteristic black colour and inducing a temporary explosion in bacterial numbers and activity, which in turn consume dissolved oxygen, reducing them to levels harmful or fatal to fish. (Fish essentially asphyxiate.) Water temperature is a critical regulator of blackwater events as warmer water temperatures increase bacterial activity and markedly reduce the intrinsic oxygen carrying capacity of water; events that may be tolerable for fish in winter or early spring may be catastrophic in late spring or summer due to the increase in water temperature.
Blackwater events are often described as “natural” events—while there are some historical records of relatively severe events in smaller, more ephemeral systems (e.g. lower Lachlan, upper Darling), there is no record of severe events in the Murray River and its largest southern tributaries before water extraction and river regulation. In the Murray and large southern tributaries, very severe large-scale blackwater events are a relatively new but recurring phenomenon and appear to be an effect of river regulation curtailing the winter/spring flood events that formerly swept leaf litter away annually, exacerbated by long-term declines in rainfall and recurring prolonged drought events.
Flood events in 2010 and 2012 following the prolonged Millennium Drought (1997–2009) induced very severe blackwater events; while formal studies of these events were limited due to the relatively rapid response times required and logistical difficulties,
angler photographs and observations of extraordinary numbers of dead Murray cod during these events and plunging catch rates after these events show they induced extremely heavy Murray cod mortalities along extensive tracts of the Murray River.
Physical barriers to fish movement
Dams, weirs and other instream barriers block the migration of adult and juvenile Murray cod and prevent recolonisation of habitats and maintenance of isolated populations. Additionally, recent study has proven approximately 50% of Murray cod larvae are killed when they pass through undershot weirs.
Habitat degradation / siltation
Hundreds of thousands, perhaps more than a million, submerged timber "snags", mainly River Red Gum, have been removed from lowland reaches of the Murray-Darling basin over the past 150 years. The removal of such a vast number of snags has had devastating impacts on Murray cod and river ecosystems. Snags are critical habitats and spawning sites for Murray cod. Snags are also critical for the functioning of lowland river ecosystems — as one of the few hard substrates in lowland river channels composed of fine silts snags are crucial sites for biofilm growth, macroinvertebrate grazing and general in-stream productivity.
Vegetation clearing and cattle trampling river banks create severe siltation, which fill in pools, degrade river ecosystems and make rivers and streams uninhabitable for Murray cod. This is exacerbated by removal of riparian (riverbank) vegetation which causes siltation and degrades river ecosystems in many ways.
Introduced carp
There is serious competition for food between larval/early juvenile introduced carp and larval/early juvenile native fish. Introduced carp dominate the fish faunas of lowland Murray-Darling rivers; the sheer amount of biomass carp now take up, and the large numbers of larvae carp produce, causes serious negative effects on river ecosystems and native fish. Carp are the main vector of the introduced Lernaea parasite (Lernaea cyprinacea) and serious vectors of the introduced Asian fish tapeworm (Bothriocephalus acheilognathi).
Introduced pathogens
Murray cod have soft skin and very fine scales that leave them particularly vulnerable to infection from exotic diseases and parasites. The following exotic diseases and parasites all seriously affect wild Murray cod; all have been introduced by imports of exotic fish. Chilodonella is a single-celled, parasitic protozoa that infects the skin of Murray cod and has caused a number of serious kills of wild Murray cod. Saprolegnia is a fungus-like oomycete or "water mould" that frequently infects Murray cod eggs and the skin of Murray cod that have been roughly handled through poor catch and release technique. (It is essential that Murray cod intended for release only touch cool wet surfaces and are not put down on any hard, dry, rough or hot surfaces, e.g. boat gunwales, boat floors, dry grass, dry rocks, gravel banks, dry towels or mats, etc. Hands should also be wetted before touching them. They must not be hung vertically by the mouth or gill covers.) Wild Murray cod populations across their range suffer extremely severe infestations of Lernaea or "anchor worm", a parasitic copepod vectored by introduced carp and that burrows into the skin of Murray cod. Lernaea puncture wounds are often secondarily infected by bacteria. Severe Lernaea infestations probably causes the death of many more adult Murray cod than commonly recognised. Ebner reports a young adult Murray cod seemingly killed by severe Lernaea infestation.
Conservation measures
State government fisheries departments support Murray cod populations by stocking with hatchery-bred fish, especially in man-made lakes. Important issues affecting restoration of cod populations, such as the need for spring floods and excessive angler take, are slowly being acknowledged but are yet to be definitely addressed. Other concerns such as the stocking of Murray cod in areas where trout cod (M. macquariensis) are recovering encourages hybridisation and needs consideration for future restocking programs.
Relationship with humans
Murray cod play a very important role in the mythology of many Aboriginal tribes in the Murray-Darling basin, and for some tribes, particularly those living along the Murray River, Murray cod were the icon species. The myths of these tribes describe the creation of the Murray River by a gigantic Murray cod fleeing down a small creek to escape from a renowned hunter. In these myths, the fleeing Murray cod enlarges the river and the beating of its tail create the bends in it. The cod is eventually speared near the terminus of the Murray River, chopped into pieces, and the pieces thrown back into the river. The pieces become all the other fish species of the river. The cod's head is kept intact, told to "keep being Murray cod", and also thrown back into the river.
Aquaculture
The Murray cod is renowned as a good-tasting fish for eating. In recent years, despite the decline in the wild population, farmed fish are being harvested.
It has long been known that Murray cod could be translocated to impounded water. In the 1850s, landholder Terence Aubrey Murray stocked a large and beautiful billabong—Murray's Lagoon just north of Lake George—with Murray cod fished out of the Molonglo River at Murray's other property of Yarralumla. At some time the billabong overflowed and introduced Murray cod into the slightly brackish lake itself. They bred rapidly, and, from the 1850s to the 1890s, Lake George abounded with them. Due to the lengthy Federation Drought, by 1902, the lake dried out completely. In their search for water to survive in, the Murray cod flocked into the mouths of the few small creeks feeding the lake and died there by the thousands.
Farming Murray cod uses fishmeal and fish oil as food, but the species has a better ‘wild fish in to farmed fish out’ ratio than other farmed species such as rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon. It commands a premium price compared to those species. It is increasingly farmed, in large dams holding water used for irrigation of farmland, where the presence of effluent produced by the fish is not a problem
References
External links
Murray Cod on Fishes of Australia
Murray cod on Native Fish Australia
Murray cod
Fish of the Murray-Darling basin
Taxa named by Thomas Mitchell (explorer)
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
Murray cod
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20diaspora
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Jewish diaspora
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The Jewish diaspora () or exile (Hebrew: ; Yiddish: ) is the biblical dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland (the Land of Israel) and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe.
In terms of the Hebrew Bible, the term "Exile" denotes the fate of the Israelites who were taken into exile from the Kingdom of Israel during the 8th century BCE, and the Judahites from the Kingdom of Judah who were taken into exile during the 6th century BCE. While in exile, the Judahites became known as "Jews" (, or ), "Mordecai the Jew" from the Book of Esther being the first biblical mention of the term.
The first exile was the Assyrian exile, the expulsion from the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) begun by Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria in 733 BCE. This process was completed by Sargon II with the destruction of the kingdom in 722 BCE, concluding a three-year siege of Samaria begun by Shalmaneser V. The next experience of exile was the Babylonian captivity, in which portions of the population of the Kingdom of Judah were deported in 597 BCE and again in 586 BCE by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II.
A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Before the middle of the first century CE, in addition to Judea, Syria and Babylonia, large Jewish communities existed in the Roman provinces of Egypt, Crete and Cyrenaica, and in Rome itself; after the Siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE, when the Hasmonean kingdom became a protectorate of Rome, emigration intensified. In 6 CE the region was organized as the Roman province of Judea. The Judean population revolted against the Roman Empire in 66 CE in the First Jewish–Roman War which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. During the siege, the Romans destroyed the Second Temple and most of Jerusalem. This watershed moment, the elimination of the symbolic centre of Judaism and Jewish identity motivated many Jews to formulate a new self-definition and adjust their existence to the prospect of an indefinite period of displacement.
In 132 CE, Bar Kokhba led a rebellion against Hadrian, a revolt connected with the renaming of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina. After four years of devastating warfare, the uprising was suppressed, and Jews were forbidden access to Jerusalem.
During the Middle Ages, due to increasing migration and resettlement, Jews divided into distinct regional groups which today are generally addressed according to two primary geographical groupings: the Ashkenazi of Northern and Eastern Europe, and the Sephardic Jews of Iberia (Spain and Portugal), North Africa and the Middle East. These groups have parallel histories sharing many cultural similarities as well as a series of massacres, persecutions and expulsions, such as the expulsion from England in 1290, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and the expulsion from Arab countries in 1948–1973. Although the two branches comprise many unique ethno-cultural practices and have links to their local host populations (such as Central Europeans for the Ashkenazim and Hispanics and Arabs for the Sephardim), their shared religion and ancestry, as well as their continuous communication and population transfers, has been responsible for a unified sense of cultural and religious Jewish identity between Sephardim and Ashkenazim from the late Roman period to the present.
Origins and uses of the terms
Diaspora has been a common phenomenon for many peoples since antiquity, but what is particular about the Jewish instance is the pronounced negative, religious, indeed metaphysical connotations traditionally attached to dispersion and exile (galut), two conditions which were conflated. The English term diaspora, which entered usage as late as 1876, and the Hebrew word galut though covering a similar semantic range, bear some distinct differences in connotation. The former has no traditional equivalent in Hebrew usage.
Steven Bowman argues that diaspora in antiquity connoted emigration from an ancestral mother city, with the emigrant community maintaining its cultural ties with the place of origin. Just as the Greek city exported its surplus population, so did Jerusalem, while remaining the cultural and religious centre or metropolis (ir-va-em be-yisrael) for the outlying communities. It could have two senses in Biblical terms, the idea of becoming a 'guiding light unto the nations' by dwelling in the midst of gentiles, or of enduring the pain of exile from one's homeland. The conditions of diaspora in the former case were premised on the free exercise of citizenship or resident alien status. Galut implies by comparison living as a denigrated minority, stripped of such rights, in the host society. Sometimes diaspora and galut are defined as 'voluntary' as opposed to 'involuntary' exile. Diaspora, it has been argued, has a political edge, referring to geopolitical dispersion, which may be involuntary, but which can assume, under different conditions, a positive nuance. Galut is more teleological, and connotes a sense of uprootedness. Daniel Boyarin defines diaspora as a state where people have a dual cultural allegiance, productive of a double consciousness, and in this sense a cultural condition not premised on any particular history, as opposed to galut, which is more descriptive of an existential situation, that properly of exile, conveying a particular psychological outlook.
The Greek word διασπορά (dispersion) first appears as a neologism in the translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint, where it occurs 14 times, starting with a passage reading: (‘thou shalt be a diaspora (or dispersion) in all kingdoms of the earth’, ), translating 'ləza‘ăwāh', whose root suggests 'trouble, terror'. In these contexts it never translated any term in the original Tanakh drawn from the Hebrew root glt (), which lies behind galah, and golah, nor even galuth. Golah appears 42 times, and galuth in 15 passages, and first occurs in the 2 Kings 17:23's reference to the deportation of the Judean elite to Babylonia. Stéphane Dufoix, in surveying the textual evidence, draws the following conclusion:
galuth and diaspora are drawn from two completely different lexicons. The first refers to episodes, precise and datable, in the history of the people of Israel, when the latter was subjected to a foreign occupation, such as that of Babylon, in which most of the occurrences are found. The second, perhaps with a single exception that remains debatable, is never used to speak of the past and does not concern Babylon; the instrument of dispersion is never the historical sovereign of another country. Diaspora is the word for chastisement, but the dispersion in question has not occurred yet: it is potential, conditional on the Jews not respecting the law of God. . . It follows that diaspora belongs, not to the domain of history, but of theology.'
In Talmudic and post-Talmudic Rabbinic literature, this phenomenon was referred to as galut (exile), a term with strongly negative connotations, often contrasted with geula (redemption). Eugene Borowitz describes Galut as "fundamentally a theological category The modern Hebrew concept of Tefutzot תפוצות, "scattered", was introduced in the 1930s by the Jewish-American Zionist academic Simon Rawidowicz, who to some degree argued for the acceptance of the Jewish presence outside the Land of Israel as a modern reality and an inevitability. The Greek term for diaspora (διασπορά) also appears three times in the New Testament, where it refers to the scattering of Israel, i.e., the Ten Northern Tribes of Israel as opposed to the Southern Kingdom of Judah, although James (1:1) refers to the scattering of all twelve tribes.
In modern times, the contrasting meanings of diaspora/galut have given rise to controversy among Jews. Bowman states this in the following terms,
(Diaspora) follows the Greek usage and is considered a positive phenomenon that continues the prophetic call of Israel to be a 'light unto the nations' and establish homes and families among the gentiles. The prophet Jeremiah issues this call to the preexilic emigrants in Egypt. . . Galut is a religious–nationalist term, which implies exile from the homeland as a result of collective sins, an exile that will be redeemed at YHWH’s pleasure. Jewish messianism is closely connected with the concept of galut.’
In Zionist debates a distinction was made between galut and golus/gola. The latter denoted social and political exile, whereas the former, while consequential on the latter, was a psycho-spiritual framework that was not wholly dependent on the conditions of life in diasporic exile, since one could technically remain in galut even in Eretz Israel. Whereas Theodor Herzl and his follows thought that the establishment of a Jewish state would put an end to the diasporic exile, Ahad Ha-am thought to the contrary that such a state's function would be to 'sustain Jewish nationhood' in the diaspora.
Pre-Roman diaspora
In 722 BCE, the Assyrians, under Sargon II, successor to Shalmaneser V, conquered the Kingdom of Israel, and many Israelites were deported to Mesopotamia. The Jewish proper diaspora began with the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE.
After the overthrow of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (see Babylonian captivity) and the deportation of a considerable portion of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, the Jews had two principal cultural centers: Babylonia and the land of Israel.
Deportees returned to the Samaria after the Neo-Babylonian Empire was in turn conquered by Cyrus the Great. The biblical book of Ezra includes two texts said to be decrees allowing the deported Jews to return to their homeland after decades and ordering the Temple rebuilt. The differences in content and tone of the two decrees, one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic, have caused some scholars to question their authenticity. The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus, but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem. Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event. There is no sudden expansion of the population base of 30,000 and no credible indication of any special interest in Yehud.
Although most of the Jewish people during this period, especially the wealthy families, were to be found in Babylonia, the existence they led there, under the successive rulers of the Achaemenids, the Seleucids, the Parthians, and the Sassanians, was obscure and devoid of political influence. The poorest but most fervent of the exiles returned to Judah / the Land of Israel during the reign of the Achaemenids (c. 550–330 BCE). There, with the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem as their center, they organized themselves into a community, animated by a remarkable religious ardor and a tenacious attachment to the Torah as the focus of its identity. As this little nucleus increased in numbers with the accession of recruits from various quarters, it awoke to a consciousness of itself, and strove once again for national independence and political enfranchisement and sovereignty.
The first Jewish diaspora in Egypt arose in the last century of pharaonic rule, apparently with the settlement there, either under Ashurbanipal or during the reign of Psammeticus of a colony of Jewish mercenaries, a military class that successively served the Persian, the Ptolemaic and Roman governments down to the early decades of the second century CE, when the revolt against Trajan destroyed them. Their presence was buttressed by numerous Jewish administrators who joined them in Egypt's military and urban centres. According to Josephus, when Ptolemy I took Judea, he led 120,000 Jewish captives to Egypt, and many other Jews, attracted by Ptolemy's liberal and tolerant policies and Egypt's fertile soil, emigrated from Judea to Egypt of their own free will. Ptolemy settled the Jews in Egypt to employ them as mercenaries. Philadelphus subsequently emancipated the Jews taken to Egypt as captives and settled them in cleruchs, or specialized colonies, as Jewish military units.
While communities in Alexandria and Rome dated back to before the Maccabean Revolt, the population in the Jewish diaspora expanded after the Pompey's campaign in 62 BCE. Under the Hasmonean princes, who were at first high priests and then kings, the Jewish state displayed even a certain luster and annexed several territories. Soon, however, discord within the royal family and the growing disaffection of the pious, towards rulers who no longer evinced any appreciation of the real aspirations of their subjects made the Jewish nation easy prey for the ambitions of the now increasingly autocratic and imperial Romans, the successors of the Seleucids. In 63 BCE Pompey invaded Jerusalem, the Jewish people lost their political sovereignty and independence, and Gabinius subjected the Jewish people to tribute.
Early diaspora populations
As early as the third century BCE Jewish communities sprang up in the Aegean islands, Greece, Asia Minor, Cyrenaica, Italy and Egypt. In Palestine, under the favourable auspices of the long period of peace—almost a whole century—which followed the advent of the Ptolemies, the new ways were to flourish. By means of all kinds of contacts, and particularly thanks to the development of commerce, Hellenism infiltrated on all sides in varying degrees. The ports of the Mediterranean coast were indispensable to commerce and, from the very beginning of the Hellenistic period, underwent great development. In the Western diaspora Greek quickly became dominant in Jewish life and little sign remains of profound contact with Hebrew or Aramaic, the latter probably being the more prevalent. Jews migrated to new Greek settlements that arose in the Eastern Mediterranean and former subject areas of the Persian Empire on the heels of Alexander the Great's conquests, spurred on by the opportunities they expected to find. The proportion of Jews in the diaspora in relation to the size of the nation as a whole increased steadily throughout the Hellenistic era and reached astonishing dimensions in the early Roman period, particularly in Alexandria. It was not least for this reason that the Jewish people became a major political factor, especially since the Jews in the diaspora, notwithstanding strong cultural, social and religious tensions, remained firmly united with their homeland. Smallwood writes that, 'It is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in Puteoli attested in 4 BCE went back to the late (pre-Roman Empire) Roman Republic or early Empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce." Many Jews migrated to Rome from Alexandria due to flourishing trade relations between the cities. Dating the numerous settlements is difficult. Some settlements may have resulted from Jewish emigration following the defeat of Jewish revolts. Others, such as the Jewish community in Rome, were far older, dating back to at least the mid second century BCE, although it expanded greatly following Pompey’s campaign in 62 BCE. In 6 CE the Romans annexed Judaea. Only the Jews in Babylonia remained outside of Roman rule. Unlike the Greek speaking Hellenized Jews in the west the Jewish communities in Babylonian and Judea continued the use of Aramaic as a primary language.
As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE the Jewish author of the third book of the Oracula Sibyllina addressed the "chosen people," saying: "Every land is full of thee and every sea." The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, Philo, Seneca, Luke (the author of the Acts of the Apostles), Cicero, and Josephus, all mention Jewish populations in the cities of the Mediterranean basin. See also History of the Jews in India and History of the Jews in China for pre-Roman (and post-) diasporic populations.
King Agrippa I, in a letter to Caligula, enumerated among the provinces of the Jewish diaspora almost all the Hellenized and non-Hellenized countries of the Orient. This enumeration was far from complete as Italy and Cyrene were not included. The epigraphic discoveries from year to year augment the number of known Jewish communities but must be viewed with caution due to the lack of precise evidence of their numbers. According to the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, the next most dense Jewish population after the Land of Israel and Babylonia was in Syria, particularly in Antioch, and Damascus, where 10,000 to 18,000 Jews were massacred during the great insurrection. The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo gives the number of Jewish inhabitants in Egypt as one million, one-eighth of the population. Alexandria was by far the most important of the Egyptian Jewish communities. The Jews in the Egyptian diaspora were on a par with their Ptolemaic counterparts and close ties existed for them with Jerusalem. As in other Hellenistic diasporas, the Egyptian diaspora was one of choice not of imposition.
To judge by the later accounts of wholesale massacres in 115 CE, the number of Jewish residents in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia must also have been large. At the commencement of the reign of Caesar Augustus, there were over 7,000 Jews in Rome (though this is only the number that is said to have escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of Archelaus; compare: Bringmann: Klaus: Geschichte der Juden im Altertum, Stuttgart 2005, S. 202. Bringmann talks about 8,000 Jews who lived in the city of Rome.). Many sources say that the Jews constituted a full one-tenth (10%) of the population of the ancient city of Rome itself. Finally, if the sums confiscated by the governor Lucius Valerius Flaccus in the year 62/61 BCE represented the tax of a didrachma per head for a single year, it would imply that the Jewish population of Asia Minor numbered 45,000 adult males, for a total of at least 180,000 persons.
Under the Roman Empire
The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world. Salo Wittmayer Baron considered the figure convincing. The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by Louis Feldman. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens and thus, included non-Jews. The figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in Eusebius' Chronicon. Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken. Philo gives a figure of one million Jews living in Egypt. John R. Bartlett rejects Baron's figures entirely, arguing that we have no clue as to the size of the Jewish demographic in the ancient world. The Romans did not distinguish between Jews inside and outside of the Land of Israel/Judaea. They collected an annual temple tax from Jews both in and outside of Israel. The revolts in and suppression of diaspora communities in Egypt, Libya and Crete in 115–117 CE had a severe impact on the Jewish diaspora.
Destruction of Judea
Roman rule in Judea began in 63 BCE with the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey. After the city fell to Pompey's forces, thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought from Judea to Rome and sold into slavery. After these Jewish slaves were manumitted, they settled permanently in Rome on the right bank of the Tiber as traders. In 37 BCE, the forces of the Jewish client king Herod the Great captured Jerusalem with Roman assistance, and there was likely an influx of Jewish slaves taken into the diaspora by Roman forces. In 53 BCE, a minor Jewish revolt was suppressed and the Romans subsequently sold Jewish war captives into slavery. Roman rule continued until the First Jewish-Roman War, or the Great Revolt, a Jewish uprising to fight for independence, which began in 66 CE and was eventually crushed in 73 CE, culminating in the Siege of Jerusalem and the burning and destruction of the Temple, the centre of the national and religious life of the Jews throughout the world. The Jewish diaspora at the time of the Temple's destruction, according to Josephus, was in Parthia (Persia), Babylonia (Iraq), Arabia, as well as some Jews beyond the Euphrates and in Adiabene (Kurdistan). In Josephus' own words, he had informed "the remotest Arabians" about the destruction. Jewish communities also existed in southern Europe, Anatolia, Syria, and North Africa. Jewish pilgrims from the diaspora, undeterred by the rebellion, had actually come to Jerusalem for Passover prior to the arrival of the Roman army, and many became trapped in the city and died during the siege. According to Josephus, about 97,000 Jewish captives from Judea were sold into slavery by the Romans during the revolt. Many other Jews fled from Judea to other areas around the Mediterranean. Josephus wrote that 30,000 Jews were deported from Judea to Carthage by the Romans.
Exactly when Roman Anti-Judaism began is a question of scholarly debate, however historian Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson has proposed that the "Crisis under Caligula" (37–41) was the "first open break between Rome and the Jews". Meanwhile, the Kitos War, a rebellion by Jewish diaspora communities in Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia, led to the destruction of Jewish communities in Crete, Cyprus, and North Africa in 117 CE, and consequently the dispersal of Jews already living outside of Judea to further reaches of the Empire.
Jerusalem had been left in ruins from the time of Vespasian. Sixty years later, Hadrian, who had been instrumental in the expulsion from Palestine of Marcius Turbo after his bloody repression of Jews in the diaspora in 117 CE, on visiting the area of Iudaea, decided to rebuilt the city in 130 CE, and settle it, circumstantial evidence suggesting it was he who renamed it Ælia Capitolina, with a Roman colonia and foreign cults. It is commonly held that this was done as an insult to the Jews and as a means of erasing the land's Jewish identity, Others argued that this project was expressive of an intention of establishing administratively and culturally a firm Roman imperial presence, and thus incorporate the province, now called Syro-Palaestina, into the Roman world system. These political measures were, according to Menachem Mor, devoid of any intention to eliminate Judaism, indeed, the pagan reframing of Jerusalem may have been a strategic move designed to challenge, rather, the growing threat, pretensions and influence of converts to Christianity, for whom Jerusalem was likewise a crucial symbol of their faith. Implementation of these plans led to violent opposition, and triggered a full-scale insurrection with the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), assisted, according to Dio Cassius, by some other peoples, perhaps Arabs who had recently been subjected by Trajan. The revolt was crushed, with the Jewish population of Judea devastated. Jewish war captives were again captured and sold into slavery by the Romans. According to Jewish tradition, the Romans deported twelve boatloads of Jews to Cyrenaica. Voluntary Jewish emigration from Judea in the aftermath of the Bar-Kokhba revolt also expanded Jewish communities in the diaspora. Jews were forbidden entrance to Jerusalem on pain of death, except for the day of Tisha B'Av. There was a further shift of the center of religious authority from Yavne, as rabbis regrouped in Usha in the western Galilee, where the Mishnah was composed. This ban struck a blow at Jewish national identity within Palestine, while the Romans however continued to allow Jews in the diaspora their distinct national and religious identity throughout the Empire.
The military defeats of the Jews in Judaea in 70 CE and again in 135 CE, with large numbers of Jewish captives from Judea sold into slavery and an increase in voluntary Jewish emigration from Judea as a result of the wars, meant a drop in Palestine's Jewish population was balanced by a rise in diaspora numbers. Jewish prisoners sold as slaves in the diaspora and their children were eventually manumitted and joined local free communities. It has been argued that the archaeological evidence is suggestive of a Roman genocide taking place during the Second revolt. A significant movement of gentiles and Samaritans into villages formerly with a Jewish majority appears to have taken place thereafter. During the Crisis of the Third Century, civil wars in the Roman Empire caused great economic disruption, and taxes imposed to finance these wars impacted the Jewish population of Palestine heavily. As a result, many Jews emigrated to Babylon under the more tolerant Sassanid Empire, where autonomous Jewish communities continued to flourish, lured by the promise of economic prosperity and the ability to lead a full Jewish life there.
Palestine and Babylon were both great centers of Jewish scholarship during this time, but tensions between scholars in these two communities grew as many Jewish scholars in Palestine feared that the centrality of the land to the Jewish religion would be lost with continuing Jewish emigration. Many Palestinian sages refused to consider Babylonain scholars their equals and would not ordain Babylonian students in their academies, fearing they would return to Babylon as rabbis. Significant Jewish emigration to Babylon adversely affected the Jewish academies of Palestine, and by the end of the third century they were reliant on donations from Babylon.
It is commonly claimed that the diaspora began with Rome's twofold crushing of Jewish national aspirations. David Aberbach, for one, has argued that much of the European Jewish diaspora, by which he means exile or voluntary migration, originated with the Jewish wars which occurred between 66 and 135 CE. Martin Goodman states that it is only after the destruction of Jerusalem that Jews are found in northern Europe and along the western Mediterranean coast. This widespread popular belief holds that there was a sudden expulsion of Jews from Judea/Syria Palaestina and that this was crucial for the establishment of the diaspora. Israel Bartal contends that Shlomo Sand is incorrect in ascribing this view to most Jewish study scholars, instead arguing that this view is negligible among serious Jewish study scholars. These scholars argue that the growth of diaspora Jewish communities was a gradual process that occurred over the centuries, starting with the Assyrian destruction of Israel, the Babylonian destruction of Judah, the Roman destruction of Judea, and the subsequent rule of Christians and Muslims. After the revolt, the Jewish religious and cultural center shifted to the Babylonian Jewish community and its scholars. For the generations that followed, the destruction of the Second Temple event came to represent a fundamental insight about the Jews who had become a dispossessed and persecuted people for much of their history. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt Jews were reduced to a completely diaspora people.
Erich S. Gruen maintains that focusing on the destruction of the Temple misses the point that already before this, the diaspora was well established. Compulsory dislocation of people cannot explain more than a fraction of the eventual diaspora. Avrum Ehrlich also states that already well before the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, more Jews lived in the Diaspora than in Israel. Jonathan Adelman estimated that around 60% of Jews lived in the diaspora during the Second Temple period. According to Gruen:
Perhaps three to five million Jews dwelled outside Palestine in the roughly four centuries that stretched from Alexander to Titus. The era of the Second Temple brought the issue into sharp focus, inescapably so. The Temple still stood, a reminder of the hallowed past, and, through most of the era, a Jewish regime existed in Palestine. Yet the Jews of the diaspora, from Italy to Iran, far outnumbered those in the homeland. Although Jerusalem loomed large in their self-perception as a nation, few of them had seen it, and few were likely to.
Israel Yuval claimed the Babylonian captivity created a promise of return in the Jewish consciousness which had the effect of enhancing the Jewish self-perception of Exile after the destruction of the Second Temple, albeit their dispersion was due to an array of non-exilic factors.
Byzantine, Islamic, and Crusader era
In the 4th century, the Roman Empire split and Palestine came under the control of the Byzantine Empire. There was still a significant Jewish population there, and Jews probably constituted a majority of the population until some time after Constantine converted to Christianity in the 4th century. The ban on Jewish settlement in Jerusalem was maintained. There was a minor Jewish rebellion against a corrupt governor from 351 to 352 which was put down. In the 5th century, the collapse of the Western Roman Empire resulted in Christian migration into Palestine and the development of a firm Christian majority. Judaism was the only non-Christian religion tolerated, but the Jews were discriminated against in various ways. They were prohibited from building new houses of worship, holding public office, or owning slaves. The 7th century saw the Jewish revolt against Heraclius, which broke out in 614 during the Byzantine–Sasanian War. It was the last serious attempt by Jews to gain autonomy in the Land of Israel prior to modern times. Jewish rebels aided the Persians in capturing Jerusalem, where the Jews were permitted autonomous rule until 617, when the Persians reneged on their alliance. After Byzantine Emperor Heraclius promised to restore Jewish rights, the Jews aided him in ousting the Persians. Heraclius subsequently went back on his word and ordered a general massacre of the Jewish population, devastating the Jewish communities of Jerusalem and the Galilee. As a result, many Jews fled to Egypt.
In 638, Palestine came under Muslim rule with the Muslim conquest of the Levant. One estimate placed the Jewish population of Palestine at between 300,000 and 400,000 at the time. However, this is contrary to other estimates which place it at 150,000 to 200,000 at the time of the revolt against Heraclius. According to historian Moshe Gil, the majority of the population was Jewish or Samaritan. The land gradually came to have an Arab majority as Arab tribes migrated there. Jewish communities initially grew and flourished. Umar allowed and encouraged Jews to settle in Jerusalem. It was the first time in about 500 years that Jews were allowed to freely enter and worship in their holiest city. In 717, new restrictions were imposed against non-Muslims that negatively affected the Jews. Heavy taxes on agricultural land forced many Jews to migrate from rural areas to towns. Social and economic discrimination caused significant Jewish emigration from Palestine, and Muslim civil wars in the 8th and 9th centuries pushed many Jews out of the country. By the end of the 11th century the Jewish population of Palestine had declined substantially.
During the First Crusade, Jews in Palestine, along with Muslims, were indiscriminately massacred and sold into slavery by the Crusaders. The majority of Jerusalem's Jewish population was killed during the Crusader Siege of Jerusalem and the few thousand survivors were sold into slavery. Some of the Jews sold into slavery later had their freedom bought by Jewish communities in Italy and Egypt, and the redeemed slaves were taken to Egypt. Some Jewish prisoners of war were also deported to Apulia in southern Italy.
Relief for the Jewish population of Palestine came when the Ayyubid dynasty defeated the Crusaders and conquered Palestine. Some Jewish immigration from the diaspora subsequently took place, but this came to an end when Mamluks took over Palestine. The Mamluks severely oppressed the Jews and greatly mismanaged the economy, resulting in a period of great social and economic decline. The result was large-scale migration from Palestine, and the population declined. The Jewish population shrunk especially heavily, as did the Christian population. Though some Jewish immigration from Europe, North Africa, and Syria also occurred in this period, which potentially saved the collapsing Jewish community of Palestine from disappearing altogether, Jews were reduced to an even smaller minority of the population.
The result of these waves of emigration and expulsion was that the Jewish population of Palestine was reduced to a few thousand by the time the Ottoman Empire conquered Palestine, after which the region entered a period of relative stability. At the start of Ottoman rule in 1517, the estimated Jewish population was 5,000, composed of both descendants of Jews who had never left the land and migrants from the diaspora.
Post-Roman period Jewish diaspora populations
During the Middle Ages, due to increasing geographical dispersion and re-settlement, Jews divided into distinct regional groups which today are generally addressed according to two primary geographical groupings: the Ashkenazi of Northern and Eastern Europe, and the Sephardic Jews of Iberia (Spain and Portugal), North Africa and the Middle East. These groups have parallel histories sharing many cultural similarities as well as a series of massacres, persecutions and expulsions, such as the expulsion from England in 1290, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and the expulsion from Arab countries in 1948–1973. Although the two branches comprise many unique ethno-cultural practices and have links to their local host populations (such as Central Europeans for the Ashkenazim and Hispanics and Arabs for the Sephardim), their shared religion and ancestry, as well as their continuous communication and population transfers, has been responsible for a unified sense of cultural and religious Jewish identity between Sephardim and Ashkenazim from the late Roman period to the present.
By 1764 there were about 750,000 Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The worldwide Jewish population (comprising the Middle East and the rest of Europe) was estimated at 1.2 million.
Classic period
After the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, Judah ( ) became a province of the Persian empire. This status continued into the following Hellenistic period, when Yehud became a disputed province of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria. In the early part of the 2nd century BCE, a revolt against the Seleucids led to the establishment of an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty. The Hasmoneans adopted a deliberate policy of imitating and reconstituting the Davidic kingdom, and as part of this forcibly converted to Judaism their neighbours in the Land of Israel. The conversions included Nabateans (Zabadeans) and Itureans, the peoples of the former Philistine cities, the Moabites, Ammonites and Edomites. Attempts were also made to incorporate the Samaritans, following takeover of Samaria. The success of mass-conversions is however questionable, as most groups retained their tribal separations and mostly turned Hellenistic or Christian, with Edomites perhaps being the only exception to merge into the Jewish society under Herodian dynasty and in the following period of Jewish–Roman Wars.
Middle Ages
Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews is a general category of Jewish populations who immigrated to what is now Germany and northeastern France during the Middle Ages and until modern times used to adhere to the Yiddish culture and the Ashkenazi prayer style. There is evidence that groups of Jews had immigrated to Germania during the Roman Era; they were probably merchants who followed the Roman Legions during their conquests. However, for the most part, modern Ashkenazi Jews originated with Jews who migrated or were forcibly taken from the Middle East to southern Europe in antiquity, where they established Jewish communities before moving into northern France and lower Germany during the High and Late Middle Ages. They also descend to a lesser degree from Jewish immigrants from Babylon, Persia, and North Africa who migrated to Europe in the Middle Ages. The Ashkenazi Jews later migrated from Germany (and elsewhere in Central Europe) into Eastern Europe as a result of persecution. Some Ashkenazi Jews also have minor ancestry from Sephardi Jews exiled from Spain, first during Islamic persecutions (11th–12th centuries) and later during Christian reconquests (13th–15th centuries) and the Spanish Inquisition (15th–16th centuries). Ashkenazi Jews are of mixed Middle Eastern and European ancestry, as they derive part of their ancestry from non-Jewish Europeans who intermixed with Jews of migrant Middle Eastern origin.
In 2006, a study by Doron Behar and Karl Skorecki of the Technion and Ramban Medical Center in Haifa, Israel demonstrated that the vast majority of Ashkenazi Jews, both men and women, have Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Nicholas Wades' 2010 Autosomal study Ashkenazi Jews share a common ancestry with other Jewish groups and Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews have roughly 30% European ancestry with the rest being Middle Eastern. According to Hammer, the Ashkenazi population expanded through a series of bottlenecks—events that squeeze a population down to small numbers—perhaps as it migrated from the Middle East after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, to Italy, reaching the Rhine Valley in the 10th century.
David Goldstein, a Duke University geneticist and director of the Duke Center for Human Genome Variation, has said that the work of the Technion and Ramban team served only to confirm that genetic drift played a major role in shaping Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited in a matrilineal manner. Goldstein argues that the Technion and Ramban mtDNA studies fail to actually establish a statistically significant maternal link between modern Jews and historic Middle Eastern populations. This differs from the patrilineal case, where Goldstein said there is no doubt of a Middle Eastern origin.
In June 2010, Behar et al. "shows that most Jewish samples form a remarkably tight subcluster with common genetic origin, that overlies Druze and Cypriot samples but not samples from other Levantine populations or paired diaspora host populations. In contrast, Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) and Indian Jews (Bene Israel and Cochini) cluster with neighboring autochthonous populations in Ethiopia and western India, respectively, despite a clear paternal link between the Bene Israel and the Levant." "The most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant." In conclusion the authors are stating that the genetic results are concordant "with the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World". Regarding the samples he used Behar points out that "Our conclusion favoring common ancestry (of Jewish people) over recent admixture is further supported by the fact that our sample contains individuals that are known not to be admixed in the most recent one or two generations."
A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by Costa et al., reached the conclusion that the four major female founders and most of the minor female founders had ancestry in prehistoric Europe, rather than the Near East or Caucasus. According to the study these findings 'point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities" and their intermarriage with Jewish men of Middle Eastern origin.
A study by Haber, et al., (2013) noted that while previous studies of the Levant, which had focused mainly on diaspora Jewish populations, showed that the "Jews form a distinctive cluster in the Middle East", these studies did not make clear "whether the factors driving this structure would also involve other groups in the Levant". The authors found strong evidence that modern Levant populations descend from two major apparent ancestral populations. One set of genetic characteristics which is shared with modern-day Europeans and Central Asians is most prominent in the Levant amongst "Lebanese, Armenians, Cypriots, Druze and Jews, as well as Turks, Iranians and Caucasian populations". The second set of inherited genetic characteristics is shared with populations in other parts of the Middle East as well as some African populations. Levant populations in this category today include "Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, as well as North Africans, Ethiopians, Saudis, and Bedouins". Concerning this second component of ancestry, the authors remark that while it correlates with "the pattern of the Islamic expansion", and that "a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners," they also say that "its presence in Lebanese Christians, Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews, Cypriots and Armenians might suggest that its spread to the Levant could also represent an earlier event". The authors also found a strong correlation between religion and apparent ancestry in the Levant:
all Jews (Sephardi and Ashkenazi) cluster in one branch; Druze from Mount Lebanon and Druze from Mount Carmel are depicted on a private branch; and Lebanese Christians form a private branch with the Christian populations of Armenia and Cyprus placing the Lebanese Muslims as an outer group. The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen.
Another 2013 study, made by Doron M. Behar of the Rambam Health Care Campus in Israel and others, suggests that: "Cumulatively, our analyses point strongly to ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews primarily from European and Middle Eastern populations and not from populations in or near the Caucasus region. The combined set of approaches suggests that the observations of Ashkenazi proximity to European and Middle Eastern populations in population structure analyses reflect actual genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to populations with predominantly European and Middle Eastern ancestry components, and lack of visible introgression from the region of the Khazar Khaganate—particularly among the northern Volga and North Caucasus populations—into the Ashkenazi community."
A 2014 study by Fernández et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their maternal (mitochondrial) DNA, suggesting an ancient Near Eastern matrilineal origin, similar to the results of the Behar study in 2006. Fernández noted that this observation clearly contradicts the results of the 2013 study led by Costa, Richards et al. that suggested a European source for 3 exclusively Ashkenazi K lineages.
Sephardic Jews
Sephardi Jews are Jews whose ancestors lived in Spain or Portugal. Some 300,000 Jews resided in Spain before the Spanish Inquisition in the 15th century, when the Reyes Católicos reconquered Spain from the Arabs and ordered the Jews to convert to Catholicism, leave the country or face execution without trial. Those who chose not to convert, between 40,000 and 100,000, were expelled from Spain in 1492 in the wake of the Alhambra decree. Sephardic Jews subsequently migrated to North Africa (Maghreb), Christian Europe (Netherlands, Britain, France and Poland), throughout the Ottoman Empire and even the newly discovered Latin America. In the Ottoman Empire, the Sephardim mostly settled in the European portion of the Empire, and mainly in the major cities such as: Istanbul, Selânik and Bursa. Selânik, which is today known as Thessaloniki and found in modern-day Greece, had a large and flourishing Sephardic community as was the community of Maltese Jews in Malta.
A small number of Sephardic refugees who fled via the Netherlands as Marranos settled in Hamburg and Altona Germany in the early 16th century, eventually appropriating Ashkenazic Jewish rituals into their religious practice. One famous figure from the Sephardic Ashkenazic population is Glückel of Hameln. Some relocated to the United States, establishing the country's first organized community of Jews and erecting the United States' first synagogue. Nevertheless, the majority of Sephardim remained in Spain and Portugal as Conversos, which would also be the fate for those who had migrated to Spanish and Portuguese ruled Latin America. Sephardic Jews evolved to form most of North Africa's Jewish communities of the modern era, as well as the bulk of the Turkish, Syrian, Galilean and Jerusalemite Jews of the Ottoman period.
Mizrahi Jews
Mizrahi Jews are Jews descended from the Jewish communities of the Middle East, Central Asia and the Caucasus, largely originating from the Babylonian Jewry of the classic period. The term Mizrahi is used in Israel in the language of politics, media and some social scientists for Jews from the Arab world and adjacent, primarily Muslim-majority countries. The definition of Mizrahi includes the modern Iraqi Jews, Syrian Jews, Lebanese Jews, Persian Jews, Afghan Jews, Bukharian Jews, Kurdish Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews. Some also include the North-African Sephardic communities and Yemenite Jews under the definition of Mizrahi, but do that from rather political generalization than ancestral reasons.
Yemenite Jews
Temanim are Jews who were living in Yemen prior to immigrating to Ottoman Palestine and Israel. Their geographic and social isolation from the rest of the Jewish community over the course of many centuries allowed them to develop a liturgy and set of practices that are significantly distinct from those of other Oriental Jewish groups; they themselves comprise three distinctly different groups, though the distinction is one of religious law and liturgy rather than of ethnicity. Traditionally the genesis of the Yemenite Jewish community came after the Babylonian exile, though the community most probably emerged during Roman times, and it was significantly reinforced during the reign of Dhu Nuwas in the 6th century CE and during later Muslim conquests in the 7th century CE, which drove the Arab Jewish tribes out of central Arabia.
Karaite Jews
Karaim are Jews who used to live mostly in Egypt, Iraq, and Crimea during the Middle Ages. They are distinguished by the form of Judaism which they observe. Rabbinic Jews of varying communities have affiliated with the Karaite community throughout the millennia. As such, Karaite Jews are less an ethnic division, than they are members of a particular branch of Judaism. Karaite Judaism recognizes the Tanakh as the single religious authority for the Jewish people. Linguistic principles and contextual exegesis are used in arriving at the correct meaning of the Torah. Karaite Jews strive to adhere to the plain or most obvious understanding of the text when interpreting the Tanakh. By contrast, Rabbinical Judaism regards an Oral Law (codified and recorded in the Mishnah and the Talmud) as being equally binding on Jews, and mandated by God. In Rabbinical Judaism, the Oral Law forms the basis of religion, morality, and Jewish life. Karaite Jews rely on the use of sound reasoning and the application of linguistic tools to determine the correct meaning of the Tanakh; while Rabbinical Judaism looks towards the Oral law codified in the Talmud, to provide the Jewish community with an accurate understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures.
The differences between Karaite and Rabbinic Judaism go back more than a thousand years. Rabbinical Judaism originates from the Pharisees of the Second Temple period. Karaite Judaism may have its origins among the Sadducees of the same era. Karaite Jews hold the entire Hebrew Bible to be a religious authority. As such, the vast majority of Karaites believe in the resurrection of the dead. Karaite Jews are widely regarded as being halachically Jewish by the Orthodox Rabbinate. Similarly, members of the rabbinic community are considered Jews by the Moetzet Hakhamim, if they are patrilineally Jewish.
Modern era
Israeli Jews
Jews of Israel comprise an increasingly mixed wide range of Jewish communities making aliyah from Europe, North Africa, and elsewhere in the Middle East. While a significant portion of Israeli Jews still retain memories of their Sephardic, Ashkenazi and Mizrahi origins, mixed Jewish marriages among the communities are very common. There are also smaller groups of Yemenite Jews, Indian Jews and others, who still retain a semi-separate communal life. There are also approximately 50,000 adherents of Karaite Judaism, most of whom live in Israel, but their exact numbers are not known, because most Karaites have not participated in any religious censuses. The Beta Israel, though somewhat disputed as the descendants of the ancient Israelites, are widely recognized in Israel as Ethiopian Jews.
American Jews
The ancestry of most American Jews goes back to Ashkenazi Jewish communities that immigrated to the US in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as more recent influxes of Persian and other Mizrahi Jewish immigrants. The American Jewish community is considered to contain the highest percentage of mixed marriages between Jews and non-Jews, resulting in both increased assimilation and a significant influx of non-Jews becoming identified as Jews. The most widespread practice in the U.S is Reform Judaism, which doesn't require or see the Jews as direct descendants of the ethnic Jews or Biblical Israelites, but rather adherents of the Jewish faith in its Reformist version, in contrast to Orthodox Judaism, the mainstream practice in Israel, which considers the Jews as a closed ethnoreligious community with very strict procedures for conversion.
French Jews
The Jews of modern France number around 400,000 persons, largely descendants of North African communities, some of which were Sephardic communities that had come from Spain and Portugal—others were Arab and Berber Jews from Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, who were already living in North Africa before the Jewish exodus from the Iberian Peninsula—and to a smaller degree members of the Ashkenazi Jewish communities, who survived WWII and the Holocaust.
Mountain Jews
Mountain Jews are Jews from the eastern and northern slopes of the Caucasus, mainly Azerbaijan, Chechnya and Dagestan. They are the descendants of Persian Jews from Iran.
Bukharan Jews
Bukharan Jews are an ethnic group from Central Asia who historically practised Judaism and spoke Bukhori, a dialect of the Tajik-Persian language.
Kaifeng Jews
The Kaifeng Jews are members of a small Jewish community in Kaifeng, in the Henan province of China who have assimilated into Chinese society while preserving some Jewish traditions and customs.
Cochin Jews
Cochin Jews also called Malabar Jews, are the oldest group of Jews in India, with possible roots that are claimed to date back to the time of King Solomon. The Cochin Jews settled in the Kingdom of Cochin in South India, now part of the state of Kerala. As early as the 12th century, mention is made of the Black Jews in southern India. The Jewish traveler, Benjamin of Tudela, speaking of Kollam (Quilon) on the Malabar Coast, writes in his Itinerary: "...throughout the island, including all the towns thereof, live several thousand Israelites. The inhabitants are all black, and the Jews also. The latter are good and benevolent. They know the law of Moses and the prophets, and to a small extent the Talmud and Halacha." These people later became known as the Malabari Jews. They built synagogues in Kerala beginning in the 12th and 13th centuries. They are known to have developed Judeo-Malayalam, a dialect of the Malayalam language.
Paradesi Jews
Paradesi Jews are mainly the descendants of Sephardic Jews who originally immigrated to India from Sepharad (Spain and Portugal) during the 15th and 16th centuries in order to flee forced conversion or persecution in the wake of the Alhambra Decree which expelled the Jews from Spain. They are sometimes referred to as White Jews, although that usage is generally considered pejorative or discriminatory and it is instead used to refer to relatively recent Jewish immigrants (end of the 15th century onwards), who are predominantly Sephardim.
The Paradesi Jews of Cochin are a community of Sephardic Jews whose ancestors settled among the larger Cochin Jewish community located in Kerala, a coastal southern state of India.
The Paradesi Jews of Madras traded in diamonds, precious stones and corals, they had very good relations with the rulers of Golkonda, they maintained trade connections with Europe, and their language skills were useful. Although the Sephardim spoke Ladino (i.e. Spanish or Judeo-Spanish), in India they learned to speak Tamil and Judeo-Malayalam from the Malabar Jews.
Georgian Jews
The Georgian Jews are considered ethnically and culturally distinct from neighboring Mountain Jews. They were also traditionally a highly separate group from the Ashkenazi Jews in Georgia.
Krymchaks
The Krymchaks are Jewish ethno-religious communities of Crimea derived from Turkic-speaking adherents of Orthodox Judaism.
Anusim
During the history of the Jewish diaspora, Jews who lived in Christian Europe were often attacked by the local Christian population, and they were often forced to convert to Christianity. Many, known as "Anusim" ('forced-ones'), continued practicing Judaism in secret while living outwardly as ordinary Christians. The best known Anusim communities were the Jews of Spain and the Jews of Portugal, although they existed throughout Europe. In the centuries since the rise of Islam, many Jews living in the Muslim world were forced to convert to Islam, such as the Mashhadi Jews of Persia, who continued to practice Judaism in secret and eventually moved to Israel. Many of the Anusim's descendants left Judaism over the years. The results of a genetic study of the population of the Iberian Peninsula released in December 2008 "attest to a high level of religious conversion (whether voluntary or enforced) driven by historical episodes of religious intolerance, which ultimately led to the integration of the Anusim's descendants.
Modern Samaritans
The Samaritans, who comprised a comparatively large group in classical times, now number 745 people, and today they live in two communities in Israel and the West Bank, and they still regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Ephraim (named by them as Aphrime) and Manasseh (named by them as Manatch). Samaritans adhere to a version of the Torah known as the Samaritan Pentateuch, which differs in some respects from the Masoretic text, sometimes in important ways, and less so from the Septuagint.
The Samaritans consider themselves Bnei Yisrael ("Children of Israel" or "Israelites"), but they do not regard themselves as Yehudim (Jews). They view the term "Jews" as a designation for followers of Judaism, which they assert is a related but an altered and amended religion which was brought back by the exiled Israelite returnees, and is therefore not the true religion of the ancient Israelites, which according to them is Samaritanism.
Genetic studies
Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths. In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions which place most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.
Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous. Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel. In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40% of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect." Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of the non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."
Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most people in a community sharing significant ancestry in common. For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World". North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations and Sub-Saharan Africans. Behar et al. have remarked on an especially close relationship of Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians. Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to Arabs.
The studies also show that persons of Sephardic Bnei Anusim origin (those who are descendants of the "anusim" who were forced to convert to Catholicism) throughout today's Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and Ibero-America (Hispanic America and Brazil), estimated that up to 19.8% of the modern population of Iberia and at least 10% of the modern population of Ibero-America, has Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The Bene Israel and the Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, meanwhile, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent.
Zionist "negation of the Diaspora"
According to Eliezer Schweid, the rejection of life in the diaspora is a central assumption in all currents of Zionism. Underlying this attitude was the feeling that the diaspora restricted the full growth of Jewish national life. For instance the poet Hayim Nahman Bialik wrote:
And my heart weeps for my unhappy people ...
How burned, how blasted must our portion be,
If seed like this is withered in its soil. ...
According to Schweid, Bialik meant that the "seed" was the potential of the Jewish people. Preserved in the diaspora, this seed could only give rise to deformed results; however, once conditions changed the seed could still provide a plentiful harvest.
In this matter Sternhell distinguishes two schools of thought in Zionism. One was the liberal or utilitarian school of Theodor Herzl and Max Nordau. Especially after the Dreyfus Affair, they held that antisemitism would never disappear and they saw Zionism as a rational solution for Jews.
The other was the organic nationalist school. It was prevalent among the Zionist olim and they saw the movement as a project to rescue the Jewish nation rather than as a project to only rescue Jews. For them, Zionism was the "Rebirth of the Nation".
In the 2008 book The Invention of the Jewish People, Shlomo Sand argued that the formation of the "Jewish-Israeli collective memory" had inculcated a "period of silencing" in Jewish history, particularly with regard to the formation of the Khazar Kingdom out of converted gentile tribes. Israel Bartal, then dean of the humanities faculty of the Hebrew University, countered "that no historian of the Jewish national movement has ever really believed that the origins of the Jews are ethnically and biologically "pure." [...] No "nationalist" Jewish historian has ever tried to conceal the well-known fact that conversions to Judaism had a major impact on Jewish history in the ancient period and in the early Middle Ages. Although the myth of an exile from the Jewish homeland (Palestine) does exist in popular Israeli culture, it is negligible in serious Jewish historical discussions.
Mystical explanation
Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech of Dinov (Bnei Yissaschar, Chodesh Kislev, 2:25) explains that each exile was characterized by a different negative aspect:
The Babylonian exile was characterized by physical suffering and oppression. The Babylonians were lopsided towards the Sefirah of Gevurah, strength and bodily might.
The Persian exile was one of emotional temptation. The Persians were hedonists who declared that the purpose of life is to pursue indulgence and lusts—"Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we may die." They were lopsided towards the quality of Chesed, attraction and kindness (albeit to the self).
Hellenistic civilization was highly cultured and sophisticated. Although the Greeks had a strong sense of aesthetics, they were highly pompous, and they viewed aesthetics as an end in itself. They were excessively attached to the quality of Tiferet, beauty. This was also related to an appreciation of the intellect's transcendence over the body, which reveals the beauty of the spirit.
The exile of Edom began with Rome, whose culture lacked any clearly defined philosophy. Rather, it adopted the philosophies of all the preceding cultures, causing Roman culture to be in a constant flux. Although the Roman Empire has fallen, the Jews are still in the exile of Edom, and indeed, one can find this phenomenon of ever-changing trends dominating modern western society. The Romans and the various nations who inherited their rule (e.g., the Holy Roman Empire, the Europeans, the Americans) are lopsided towards Malchut, sovereignty, the lowest Sefirah, which can be received from any of the others, and can act as a medium for them.
The Jewish fast day of Tisha B'Av commemorates the destruction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem and the subsequent exile of the Jews from the Land of Israel. The Jewish tradition maintains that the Roman exile would be the last, and that after the people of Israel returned to their land, they would never be exiled again. This statement is based on the verse: "(You paying for) Your sin is over daughter of Zion, he will not exile you (any)more" [""].
In Christian theology
According to Aharon Oppenheimer, the concept of the exile beginning after the destruction of the Second Jewish Temple was developed by early Christians, who saw the destruction of the Temple as a punishment for Jewish deicide, and by extension as an affirmation of the Christians as God's new chosen people, or the "New Israel". In actually, in the period that followed the destruction of the Temple, Jews had many freedoms. The people of Israel had religious, economic and cultural autonomy, and the Bar Kochba revolt demonstrated the unity of Israel and their political-military power at that time. Therefore, according to Aharon Oppenheimer, the Jewish exile only started after the Bar Kochba revolt, which devastated the Jewish community of Judea. Despite popular conception, Jews have had a continuous presence in the Land of Israel, despite the exile of the majority of Judeans. The Jerusalem Talmud was signed in the fourth century, hundreds of years after the revolt. Moreover, many Jews remained in Israel even centuries later, including during the Byzantine period (many remnants of synagogues are found from this period). Jews have been a majority or a significant plurality in Jerusalem in the millennia since their exile with few exceptions (including the period following the Siege of Jerusalem (1099) by the Crusaders and the 18 years of Jordanian rule of eastern Jerusalem, in which Jerusalem's historic Jewish quarter was expelled).
Historical comparison of Jewish population
a. Austria, Czech republic, Slovenia
b. Albania, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Macedonia, Syria, Turkey
c. Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia
d. Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Belarus, Moldova, Russia (including Siberia), Ukraine.
e. Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan).
Today
As of 2019, the largest numbers of Jews live in Israel (5,704,000), United States (5,275,000), France (484,000), Canada (375,000), the United Kingdom (292,000), Russia (205,000–1.5 million), Argentina (182,300), Germany (119,000), Australia (113,000–140,000), Brazil (107,000), South Africa (69,000–80,000), Ukraine (50,000–140,000) and Hungary (47,000–100,000). These numbers reflect the "core" Jewish population, defined as being "not inclusive of non-Jewish members of Jewish households, persons of Jewish ancestry who profess another monotheistic religion, other non-Jews of Jewish ancestry, and other non-Jews who may be interested in Jewish matters." Significant Jewish populations also remain in Middle Eastern and North African countries outside of Israel, particularly Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia, and Yemen. In general, these populations are shrinking due to low growth rates and high rates of emigration (particularly since the 1960s).
The Jewish Autonomous Oblast continues to be an Autonomous Oblast of Russia. The Chief Rabbi of Birobidzhan, Mordechai Scheiner, says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city. Governor Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov has stated that he intends to, "support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations." The Birobidzhan Synagogue opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934. An estimated 75,000 Jews live in Siberia.
Metropolitan areas with the largest Jewish populations are listed below, though one source at jewishtemples.org, states that "It is difficult to come up with exact population figures on a country by country basis, let alone city by city around the world. Figures for Russia and other CIS countries are but educated guesses." The source cited here, the 2010 World Jewish Population Survey, also notes that "Unlike our estimates of Jewish populations in individual countries, the data reported here on urban Jewish populations do not fully adjust for possible double counting due to multiple residences. The differences in the United States may be quite significant, in the range of tens of thousands, involving both major and minor metropolitan areas."
Gush Dan (Tel Aviv) – 2,980,000
New York City – 2,008,000
Jerusalem – 705,000
Los Angeles – 685,000
Haifa – 671,000
Miami – 486,000
Beersheba – 368,000
San Francisco – 346,000
Chicago – 319,600
Paris – 284,000
Philadelphia – 264,000
Boston – 229,000
Washington, D.C. – 216,000
London – 195,000
Toronto – 180,000
Atlanta – 120,000
Moscow – 95,000
San Diego – 89,000
Cleveland – 87,000
Phoenix – 83,000
Montreal – 80,000
São Paulo – 75,000
See also
Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
Historical Jewish population comparisons
Homeland for the Jewish people
Jewish Agency for Israel
Jewish ethnic divisions
Jewish history
Jewish population by country
World Jewish Congress
Yerida
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Jewish Diaspora at the JewishEncyclopedia.com
World Jewish Congress – Jewish Communities
Research and articles about the diaspora experience and Israel-Diaspora relations on the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner
The Diaspora and Israel – Rich Cohen
Exile
Expulsions of Jews
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Dundee
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University of Dundee
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The University of Dundee is a public research university based in Dundee, Scotland. It was founded as a university college in 1881 with a donation from the prominent Baxter family of textile manufacturers. The institution was, for most of its early existence, a constituent college of the University of St Andrews alongside United College and St Mary's College located in the town of St Andrews itself. Following significant expansion, the University of Dundee gained independent university status by royal charter in 1967 while retaining elements of its ancient heritage and governance structure.
The main campus of the university is located in Dundee's West End, which contains many of the university's teaching and research facilities; the Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design, Dundee Law School and the Dundee Dental Hospital and School. The University has additional facilities at Ninewells Hospital, containing its School of Medicine; Perth Royal Infirmary, which houses a clinical research centre; and in Kirkcaldy, Fife, containing part of its School of Health Sciences. The annual income of the institution for 2021–22 was £291.5 million of which £71.8 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £344.8 million.
History
Foundation
The University of Dundee has its roots in the earlier university college based in Dundee and the University of St Andrews. During the 19th century, the growing population of Dundee significantly increased demand for the establishment of an institution of higher education in the city and several organisations were established to promote this end, including a University Club in the city. There was a significant movement with the intention of moving the entire university to Dundee (which the royal commission observed was now a "large and increasing town") or the establishment of a college along very similar lines to the present United College. Finally, agreement was reached that what was needed was expansion of the sciences and professions, rather than the arts at St Andrews.
A donation of £120,000 for the creation of an institution of higher education in Dundee was made by Miss Mary Ann Baxter of Balgavies, a notable lady of the city and heir to the fortune of William Baxter of Balgavies. In this endeavour, she was assisted by her relative, John Boyd Baxter, an alumnus of St Andrews and Procurator Fiscal of Forfarshire who also contributed nearly £20,000. In order to craft the institution and its principles, it was to be established first as an independent university college, with a view from its very inception towards incorporation into the University of St Andrews.
In 1881, the ideals of the proposed new college were laid down, suggesting the establishment of an institute for "promoting the education of persons of both sexes and the study of Science, Literature and the Fine Arts". The university currently identifies 1881 as the year of its foundation, as University College's endowment was dated 31 December 1881, but the year 1880, when the announcement of Mary Ann Baxter's funding was made, as well as the years 1882 and 1883 have also been cited as their foundation year by the institution in the past.
No religious oaths were to be required of members. Later that year, "University College, Dundee" was established as an academic institution and the first principal, Sir William Peterson, was elected in late 1882. When opened in 1883, it comprised five faculties: Maths and Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Engineering and Drawing, English Language and Literature and Modern History, and Philosophy. The University College had no power to award degrees and for some years some students were prepared for external examinations of the University of London. By 1894, the faculties offered at the college remained essentially scientific in outlook, with three academics - including the principal, William Peterson - giving instruction in classics, philosophy, English and history at both the Dundee and St Andrews sites.
The policy of no discrimination between the sexes, which was insisted upon by Mary Ann Baxter, meant that the new college recruited several able female students. Their number included the social reformer Mary Lily Walker and, later, Margaret Fairlie who in 1940 became Scotland's first female professor. Another early female graduate, Ruth Wilson, later Young, became professor of surgery at Lady Hardinge Medical College in Delhi and later became its principal.
Incorporation into the University of St Andrews
Following discussions around various forms of incorporation and association, students were able to matriculate through the University of St Andrews from 1885. The full incorporation was completed in 1897 when University College became part of the University of St Andrews. This move was of notable benefit to both, enabling the University of St Andrews (which was in a small town) to support a medical school. Medical students could choose to undertake preclinical studies either in Dundee or St Andrews (at the Bute Medical School) after which all students would undertake their clinical studies at Dundee. Eventually, law, dentistry and other professional subjects were taught at University College. By 1904 University College had a roll of 208, making up 40 per cent of the roll of the university generally. By session 1909-10 234 students were studying at University College, 101 of whom were female. Among the notable students at this time were Robert Watson-Watt, the radar pioneer; William Alexander Young the epidemiologist who later died in Accra while studying yellow fever; and David Rutherford Dow who would go on to be a senior member of staff at the college.
In 1895, unlike the students at St Andrews, there were reportedly very few "bona-fide" matriculated students at Dundee who were "aiming to graduate". During the academic years of 1892–4, those students at Dundee who had matriculated at St Andrews were considered St Andrews University students and were subsequently awarded degrees by St. Andrews. Although the union between the two institutions was then threatened by a lawsuit, by 1898 the union with St. Andrews was restored on the original basis.
University College's development in the early twentieth century has been described as "slow and fitful" and the interwar period saw virtually no new building projects, leaving large parts of the college housed in buildings which were not fit for purpose. Kenneth Baxter has claimed that World War I had a major impact on University College and stated that the conflict presented it with "a storm of challenges unlike anything it had faced" up to that point. Baxter contends that the War impacted the college greatly, with key consequences being declining student numbers which in turn led to a loss of income, as well as staff departures and the decaying of fabric. In 2018 it was revealed that research shows that while the college's war memorial records the names of 37 staff and former students who died at least a further 39 alumni of the college were not recorded on it. In 1920 the college received a war trophy in the form of a "40 ton, 15 cm field gun", which was thought to have been captured from Bulgarian forces and was sited in front of the students Union.
Attempts were made to raise income. In 1923 Rudyard Kipling, then the rector of the University of St Andrews, visited University College and asked the merchant princes and leading citizens of Dundee to give the college their money and support. Kipling implored those who had lost their sons in the Great War to consider giving a donation so that their names would live on. Staff of a high calibre continued to be employed by the university including Alexander Peacock and Margaret Fairlie, who in 1940 was appointed as professor of obstetrics and gynaecology and thus became the first woman to hold a professorial chair at a university in Scotland.
In 1947, the principal of University College, Douglas Wimberley released the "Wimberley Memo" (resulting in the Cooper and Tedder reports of 1952), advocating independence for the college. In 1954, after a royal commission, University College was renamed "Queen's College" and the Dundee-based elements of the university gained a greater degree of independence and flexibility. It was also at this time that Queen's College absorbed the former Dundee School of Economics as well as the jointly administered medical school and dental school.
Creation of the University of Dundee
The publication of the Robbins Report on Higher Education in 1963, which considered the question of university education expansion throughout the country, provided impetus to the movement to attain independent university status for Dundee. At this time, a number of new institutions were being elevated to this status, such as the University of Stirling, and second universities were created in Edinburgh and Glasgow (Heriot-Watt University and the University of Strathclyde) despite their having fewer than 2,000 students.
Queen's College's size and location, alongside a willingness to expand, led to an eventual decision to separate from the wider University of which it remained an integral part. In 1966, St Andrews University Court and the Council of Queen's College submitted a joint petition to the Privy Council seeking the grant of a royal charter to establish the University of Dundee. This petition was approved and the Charter was granted which saw Queen's College become the University of Dundee, on 1 August 1967. The university continued a number of the traditions of its originator college and university and continues to be organised under the ancient university governance structure.
Modern developments
In 1974, the university began to validate some degrees from Dundee's Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design, and by 1988 all degrees from that institution were being validated in this fashion. In 1994 the two institutions merged, with the college becoming a constituent faculty of the university. In 1996, the Tayside College of Nursing and the Fife College of Health studies became part of the university, as a school of Nursing and Midwifery. For several years, Dundee College of Education prepared students for degree examinations at the University of Dundee, and in December 2001 the university merged with the Dundee campus of Northern College to create a Faculty of Education and Social Work.
In October 2005, the university became home to the first UNESCO centre in the United Kingdom. The IHP-HELP Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science is involved in research regarding the management of the world's water resources on behalf of the United Nations. A school of accounting and finance was introduced in 2007. These disciplines are now part of the School of Business.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the university suspended most face to face teaching from 16 March 2020. However, a "blended learning" approach was offered to many students with weekly tutorials available in person for small groups using COVID-19 protocols of social distancing and regular cleaning.
Campus
City Campus
The main campus is within the West End of the City of Dundee. It has expanded greatly since the university gained independence, from just four converted buildings when the University College was founded in 1881 the university has grown to consist of over fifty at present. However, many buildings survive from Dundee's period as a university college and as a constituent college of St Andrews University. The earliest purpose-built facility on campus was the Carnelley Building which opened in 1883 as part of the new University College. A £10,000 donation from Mary Ann Baxter provided for a chemistry laboratory situated in the building which was named for the university's first professor of chemistry, Thomas Carnelley.
Geddes Quadrangle
The buildings at the heart of the university form the Geddes Quadrangle. These include the Carnegie, Harris and Peters Buildings which were constructed in 1909 as part of the new college of the University of St Andrews. The Geddes Quadrangle was named for Patrick Geddes, a pioneering thinker in the fields of sociology and urban planning and former professor of botany at Dundee, as a botanist Geddes had originally proposed a garden in the center of the quadrangle to be used for teaching purposes. The designer was Victorian architect Robert Rowand Anderson, the architect of buildings such as the Scottish National Portrait Gallery and Mount Stuart House.
Post-war buildings
Amid the expansion of education in post-war Britain, the University College, Dundee commissioned the construction of several new buildings to cope with the increasing numbers of students and academics arriving. The first of these was the Ewing Building which had started planning in 1950 and was officially opened in 1954. Named after Sir James Alfred Ewing, the university's first professor of engineering. The Fulton Building gave the civil and mechanical engineering department a dedicated building, it was opened in 1964 and took its name from Angus Robertson Fulton, former principal of University College, Dundee (1939–1946).
The 1960s saw the further development of the Queen's College campus with some of the earliest multi-story towers in Scotland being built for both teaching and student accommodation. The Tower Building, opened in 1961 by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, exemplified early Scottish modernist architecture and was designed by Robert Matthew; it stands 140 ft tall with ten storeys home to both academic, executive and administrative departments of the university. The Tower was built on the site of two of the original four Georgian houses which had housed University College, Dundee (originally known as Whiteleys). Its construction was notable as it was the tallest structure built in Dundee since the Old Steeple in the medieval period. The building was extended in the later 1960s was resulted in the demolition of the remaining two original buildings.
Belmont Halls of Residence took inspiration from Danish design and aimed to provide modern, spacious quarters for students while keeping costs cheap; it was completed in 1963 on the site of Belmont Works, a former jute mill.
Recent developments
The 2000s brought extensive renovation to the university's central campus, with a number of new and upgraded buildings introduced around 2007 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the university's independence. Large extensions have been placed on the Main Library and sports centre, and a number of new halls of residence (Heathfield, Belmont, West Park and Seabraes) have been gradually phased into operation. The Dalhousie building was erected during this period as dedicated teaching accommodation for the university, in part replacing space previously at the Gardyne Road campus of Northern College, which has now been taken up by Dundee College. Significant improvement works have taken place in old buildings such as the Old Technical Institute, Medical Sciences Institute and Old Medical School buildings.
Kirkcaldy Campus
The School of Nursing and Health Sciences has a campus on Forth Avenue, Kirkcaldy, Fife. This offers degrees in nursing, midwifery and other health-related subjects. Placements are available often in conjunction with NHS Fife.
Governance and organisation
Governance
The University of Dundee is organised under the provisions of its royal charter, which granted the university its independence in 1967. Dundee, uniquely outside of the four ancient universities of Scotland has a governance framework which shares a number of similarities with the ancient governance structure which was developed in the 19th and 20th centuries through the various Universities (Scotland) Acts.
Chancellor
The chancellor is the head of the university and president of the Graduates' Council, with a role of presiding over academic ceremonies such as graduations. The five chancellors of the university to have held office since its independence are:
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (1967–1977)
Simon Ramsay, 16th Earl of Dalhousie (1977–1992)
Sir James W. Black (1992–2006)
Narendra Patel, Baron Patel (2006–2017)
Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell (2018–2023)
Baron George Robertson (2023-)
Rector
The rector of the university is an official elected by the matriculated students of the university for a three-year term. In common with other university rectors in Scotland, the position is largely ceremonial, although it does involve the representation of students on the University Court. The rector at Dundee, unlike that of the ancient universities, does not chair the University Court, that duty instead falling to a lay member. The rector may appoint an assessor who can carry out the rector's functions on their behalf when they are absent. The university gained national attention in 2001 when it seemed that actor David Hasselhoff may stand as rector.
As part of the process of installation, the students traditionally take the new rector on the 'rectorial drag' which involves them being 'dragged' from Dundee City Chambers to the university in the university's own carriage visiting on the way some of the many pubs in the city as part of the informal welcome to the university.
The present holder of the position is artist manager Keith Harris, who was installed in 2022. He replaced sports broadcaster Jim Spence, who was installed in 2019 but did not serve a full term partly due to changes in personal circumstances as a result of COVID-19. Prior to Spence, the rector was Mark Beaumont, the record-breaking endurance cyclist.
Previous Rectors since the university's independence have included Sir Peter Ustinov, Sir Clement Freud, and Stephen Fry, who each served two terms, and Craig Murray, Tony Slattery, Lorraine Kelly and Fred MacAulay, who each served one.
Principal and Vice-Chancellor
The Principal and Vice-Chancellor is the chief academic and administrative officer of the university, presiding over the Senatus Academicus. As a result of their title as Vice-Chancellor, the Principal can fulfill the duties of the Chancellor in their absence. Prior to the university's independence, when it was part of the University of St Andrews, a similar function was carried out by the Master of Queen's College. This position replaced the earlier post of Principal of University College, Dundee, which was first filled in 1882.
Following the announced resignation of Principal and Vice-Chancellor Sir Pete Downes in February 2018, the university appointed Professor Andrew Atherton to the post, to begin in January 2019. Atherton resigned following a dispute with the university in November 2019.
Holders of this position and its predecessors are:
Principals of University College, Dundee
William Peterson (1882–1895)
John Yule Mackay (1895–1930)
Sir James Irvine (1930–1939) – 'Interim' appointment
Angus Robertson Fulton (1939–1946) – 'Interim' appointment
Douglas Wimberley (1946–1954)
Masters of Queen's College, Dundee
David Rutherford Dow (1954–1958)
Arthur Alexander Matheson (1958–1966)
James Drever (1966–1967)
Principals of the University of Dundee
James Drever (1967–1978)
Adam Neville (1978–1987)
Michael Hamlin (1987–1994)
Ian James Graham-Bryce (1994–2000)
Sir Alan Langlands (2000–2009)
Sir Pete Downes (2009–2018)
Andrew Atherton (2019)
David Maguire (2020) Interim Principal
Iain Gillespie (2021-)
Structure
As of 1 August 2022, the University of Dundee is organised into eight schools containing multiple disciplines. Each individual school is formally headed by a dean. The following is a full list of the academic divisions of the university:
School of Art and Design
Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design
School of Business
Accounting and Finance
Economics
Business, Management and Marketing
School of Dentistry
Dentistry
School of Humanities, Social Sciences and Law
Dundee Law School
Education and Society
Energy, Environment and Society
Humanities
Psychology
School of Life Sciences
Life Sciences
School of Medicine
Medicine
School of Health Sciences
Adult Nursing
Child Nursing
Mental Health Nursing
School of Science and Engineering
Anatomy and Human Identification
Computing
Engineering (Civil, Mechanical and Industrial, Biomedical)
Mathematics
Physics
Academics
University rankings
, Dundee is ranked within the top 500 universities in the world according to the major global rankings (ARWU, QS, Times and CWTS Leiden); placing 42nd in the CWTS Leiden Ranking, joint 441st in the QS World University Rankings and 201-300th in the Academic Ranking of World Universities. The university was The Times Good University Guide's "Scottish University of the Year" consecutively in 2015/16 and 2016/17.
Subject rankings
In both the 2021 and 2014 Research Excellence Framework which assesses research output between 2008-2020, the quality of research for Biological Sciences at Dundee is ranked 2nd in the United Kingdom by GPA, behind only the specialist Institute of Cancer Research. According to the 2023 Times Higher Education World University Rankings by Subject, Dundee's strongest subjects are Life Sciences, ranked joint 95th in the world and Law, ranked in the top 125 in the world. The 2022 QS World University Rankings by Subject ranks the university 44th for Pharmacy & Pharmacology, 93rd for Biological Sciences, and in the top 100 for Art & Design, top 150 for Nursing, and top 200 for Medicine in the world.
In the 2024 Guardian university rankings in the UK, Dundee's subject offerings in Dentistry (3rd in UK, 1st in Scotland), and Computer science and information systems (9th in UK, 3rd in Scotland) rank within the top ten nationally.In 2023/2024 Anatomy & Physiology, Art and Design, Biological Sciences, Social Work and Medicine rank within the top ten nationally in at least one of the rankings.
Student life
Students at Dundee are represented by the university's students' representative council and the Rector in common with other universities in Scotland sharing the ancient organisational structure.
Students' Association
The Dundee University Students' Association (DUSA), unlike many other students' unions in the United Kingdom, is not affiliated to the National Union of Students, mainly due to cost concerns and political objections.
Membership of the Students' Association is automatic for all students of the University, although it is possible under statutes to renounce this membership at any time. The Association, as with the other ancient universities in Scotland, co-exists with the University's students' representative council.
The DUSA building is located in Airlie Place, in the centre of the University's Main Campus and caters as a private members' club offering bar, nightclub and refectory services for students. DUSA also provides a number of other typical students' union services such as advocacy on behalf of its membership and assistance to individual students. In addition the DUSA facilitates the creation of student societies, as of 2023 there are 240 student-led societies on campus.
Sports facilities
As of 2016, there are 43 clubs affiliated with the Sports' Union. There is an annual award ceremony for the sports clubs, and a Blues & Colours Ball (see Blue (university sport)) to provide social interaction between the clubs.
The Institute of Sport and Exercise, unlike the Sports Union, is directly controlled by the university, but works closely with the students' organisations. Its chief building is located on Old Hawkhill in the main campus, which contains the main indoor sporting facilities and the university's gym.
Outdoor facilities are mainly based in the Riverside Sporting Ground, within a reasonable walking distance and bordering the Tay, although there are others – such as tennis courts – spread throughout the main campus. The ISE's 25m swimming pool is located within the Students' Association building on Airlie Place.
Notable sporting achievements of the university include winning the British University Gaelic football Championship in 1994 and being the first team in Scottish rugby history to win the league and SUS Cup double in the 2007/08 season.
Chaplaincy
The University Chaplaincy Centre was constructed in 1974 and extended in 1987 and houses both the University Chapel and a number of other related social facilities. The chapel is often used for concerts, including a free lunchtime concert most Fridays during the academic year.
The university has a full-time chaplain, Fiona Douglas (since 1997), who is a minister of the Church of Scotland. There are also several part-time associate and honorary chaplains representing other faiths and denominations.
Traditions
Dundee students participate in a number of traditional events during the academic calendar. Towards the start of the year, a standard British Freshers' Week is organised, with a secondary one held when the university reconvenes after the Christmas vacation.
Traditions remaining from Dundee's days as a college of the University of St Andrews include the Gaudie Night (taking its name from the first line of the students' anthem, De Brevitate Vitae) – held early in the first semester and organised both as a Students' Union night and an event organised by the individual schools (for example by the Life Sciences, Medical, Law and Dentistry Societies) where students are assigned academic "parents" from the senior years. Some weeks later, a Raisin (alternatively spelled "Raisen") weekend is held to all new students to repay their academic parents' hospitality. Generally the school society run events are more traditional in nature than the Students' Union event.
Since 2004, the university has organised the Discovery Days series of public lectures hosted by University and visiting academics and persons of note, providing introductions into a number of major fields of work taking place at Dundee.
Student residences
The university has a number of student residences spaced around the city. Over the last decade there has been an attempt to move some of these halls of residence closer to the main campus. With the closure and re-building of West Park Hall in 2005, all of the halls are now self catered en-suite.
At present, there exist the following university residences:
Belmont Tower (including Belmont Upper/Lower) – Based on the main campus and consisting of two main sections: Belmont Tower, opened in 1966, located on Mount Pleasant next to Belmont Quadrangle; and Belmont Upper and Lower, a long and low building connected to the tower, raised up on stilts to accommodate for car parking underneath for residences staff.
Belmont Flats – Opened in 2006, these halls are of identical style to those of Heathfield and the new Seabraes halls. It is located on Old Hawkhill, across from the ISE and centred around Belmont Quadrangle.
Heathfield – Built at the same time as Belmont Flats. It is located on Old Hawkhill, immediately across from Belmont Tower.
Seabraes – A number of buildings containing flats, with a new hall identical in style to the new Heathfield and Belmont Halls being built at the foot of the complex. Located near to the south side of the main campus on Roseangle.
West Park – Located some distance to the west of the main campus, these halls were traditionally popular with medicine students due to their proximity to Ninewells Hospital. Consists of a relatively new complex known as West Park Villas, which are essentially student flats. The old hall (separate from the Villas) was largely torn-down in 2005 (leaving behind only the listed parts of the building) and the new complex (generally known as 'West Park Flats' by the university) will be available from the start of the 2007/08 term.
Some older halls, despite remaining open in the interim until building works were finished, are now out of use – the last students moved out in early 2007. These are:
Airlie Place & Springfield – A number of flats located in old terrace housing on the main campus, consisting of two streets mainly owned by the university. Both are architecturally noteworthy and have mostly been converted to offices.
Peterson Hall – An almost brutalist style building to be found further down Roseangle from Seabraes. This hall was traditionally a non-smoking hall of residence, and is now ear-marked for private development.
Wimberley Houses – The furthest university residences from the main campus, Wimberley – also the closest to Ninewells Hospital in the far west of the city. The residences themselves were a complex of buildings, each comprising a "house" which served as an independent flat for a number of students. They were named for Principal Douglas Wimberley.
Historic collections
The university's cultural and historic collections are looked after by Museum Services and Archive Services.
Museum Services
Dundee has significant museum collections acquired over the 140 years of its history. These include fine art, design furniture, textiles, scientific instruments, medical equipment and natural history specimens.
The collections are accredited as a public museum and are cared for by Museum Services. In 2012 it was announced that Museum Services had been awarded a grant of £100,000 by the Art Fund to develop an art collection inspired by D'Arcy Thompson. This body promotes the various departments of the university involved in cultural activity and runs an annual culture day of short public lectures. In January 2014 it was announced that Museum Services had been awarded funding of £32,407 to acquire a new object database to aid the management of its various collections of nearly 30,000 items.
Archive Services
The university's Archive Services was established in 1976 and maintains the University of Dundee's manuscripts and records collections. The archives hold a wide range of material relating to the university and its predecessor institutions and to individuals associated with the university. Archive Services also holds a number of records relating to individuals, businesses and organizations based in the Tayside area. The records held include a substantial number of business archives relating to the jute and linen industry in Dundee and West Bengal, records of other businesses including the archives of the Alliance Trust and the department store G. L. Wilson, the records of the Brechin Diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church, the Michael Peto photographic collection and the NHS Tayside Archive. Archive Services' other collections include the archives of Dundee Repertory Theatre and the papers of the Great War poet Joseph Johnston Lee. In addition to material relating to the local area, the archives have a number of documents relating to other countries, especially India. The Archives also hold the records of the Glasite Church.
The archives also house some special book collections. These include rare books relating to local history and the Joan Auld Memorial Collection, an important collection of labour history books donated to the university in 1996 in memory of Joan Auld, the first university archivist, who had died in a climbing accident the previous year.
Archive Services also runs an ongoing oral history project to record the memories of individuals who have lived and worked in Dundee and hold public events to promote the project.
Notable alumni and staff
This list includes certain persons who are graduates of the University of St Andrews, having studied at the University College or Queen's College in Dundee, as well as graduates of the University of Dundee. This is a result of the incorporation of this institution in the other from 1897 to 1967. Indeed, in a great many respects, the medical school at the University of Dundee is the direct inheritor of the medical traditions of the University of St Andrews. It also includes notable former members of staff of these institutions.
Former chancellor Sir James Black, who had studied medicine at the then University College Dundee, won the Nobel Prize for Medicine for his work on the discovery of propranolol – a beta-blocker for the treatment of hypertension. Ronald Coase served as a founding lecturer from 1932 to 1934 of the Dundee School of Economics and Commerce. Coase received the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1991 for his work on the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy.
Business
Sir Robert Horton, former Chairman of BP and Railtrack
Sir George Mathewson, Chairman of the Royal Bank of Scotland Group (2001–2006); Convenor of the Scottish Council of Economic Advisers (2007–2011)
Law
Media and the arts
Johanna Basford, illustrator
Naetochukwu Chikwe (Naeto-C), musician
B. C. Forbes, founder of Forbes magazine
Holly Hamilton, BBC journalist and presenter
David Jackson, musician, best known for his involvement in Van der Graaf Generator
Alan Johnston, BBC correspondent based in Gaza, famously kidnapped in 2007
Gary Lightbody, lead singer of Snow Patrol
Fred MacAulay, comedian and former rector of the university
James McIntosh, food writer
Graham Phillips, Journalist noted for coverage of war in Ukraine
Karine Polwart, folk musician
Carla Romano, GMTV reporter
John Suchet, Channel Five news anchor, formerly of ITN
Artists
Calum Colvin
Luke Fowler, 2012 Turner Prize Nominee
David Mach , 1988 Turner Prize Nominee
Lucy McKenzie
Susan Philipsz , 2010 Turner Prize
Thomson & Craighead
Louise Wilson (of Jane and Louise Wilson) 1999 Turner Prize Nominees
Politics
Malcolm Bruce, former Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament, Rector of the university (1986–89)
Christopher Chope, Member of Parliament, former Minister of State and barrister
Lynda Clark, Baroness Clark of Calton, former Member of Parliament and Advocate General for Scotland, now Senator of the College of Justice
Chris Clarkson, Conservative Member of Parliament
William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk, Advocate, judge, Lord Justice General and Lord President of the Court of Session as well as life peer
Kurt Deketelaere, Secretary-General of the League of European Research Universities
Frank Doran, Former Labour Member of Parliament
Kevin Dunion, Scottish Information Commissioner between 2003 and 2012, as well as former Lord Rector of the University of St Andrews
Maurice Golden, Conservative Member of the Scottish Parliament
Geoffrey Aori Mabea, first Executive Secretary of the Energy Regulators Association of East Africa
Finlay Macdonald, retired minister and Principal Clerk to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Jenny Marra, Member of Scottish Parliament, attended Dundee to read the Diploma in Professional Legal Practice
Paul Masterton, former Conservative MP and solicitor
Bruce Millan, Labour MP, Secretary of State for Scotland and European Commissioner for Regional Policy
Lewis Moonie, Baron Moonie – Labour politician, former minister of state
Claude Moraes, former Commissioner for Racial Equality, former member of the European Parliament
Craig Murray, former British ambassador to Uzbekistan, former president of DUSA, former rector of the university
Elijah Ngurare, Namibian politician serving as the secretary general of the SWAPO Party Youth League
Nhial Deng Nhial, Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Republic of South Sudan
Alex Neil, Scottish National Party MSP, Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing
George Robertson , Baron Robertson of Port Ellen – former Secretary-General of NATO, Labour MP and UK Secretary of State for Defence
John Stevenson, Conservative MP and solicitor
Brian Wilson, former Labour MP and Minister of State
Boaz Kipchumba Kaino, former MP and Assistant Minister of Lands and Settlement. Republic of Kenya
Science, medicine and engineering
Sir James W. Black, pharmacologist and Nobel laureate
Sue Black, anatomist and forensic anthropologist
William Thomas Calman, zoologist
Richard A. Collins, scientist and author
Sir James Alfred Ewing, engineer and physicist
Margaret Fairlie, gynaecologist and first female professor in Scotland
Thomas Claxton Fidler, civil engineer
Angus A. Fulton, civil engineer
Sir Patrick Geddes, biologist, botanist and urban planning theorist
Johannes Kuenen, physicist
Peter LeComber, physicist
Doris Mackinnon, zoologist
Narendra Patel, obstetrician, former chancellor of the university
Alexander David Peacock, zoologist
William Peddie, mathematician and physicist
Harold Plenderleith, art conservator and archaeologist
George Dawson Preston, physicist
Dorothy MacBride Radwanski, occupational health nurse
Edward Waymouth Reid, physiologist
William G. Smith, botanist and ecologist
Walter Eric Spear, physicist
John Steggall, mathematician
Sir William Stewart, government chief scientific advisor
D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, biologist, mathematician, and classical scholar
A. D. Walsh, chemist
Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt, pioneer of radar
William Alexander Young, doctor, surgeon and epidemiologist
Isham Jaafar, Minister of Health in Brunei Darussalam
Miscellaneous
Colin Norris, serial killer nurse who is believed to have been inspired by lectures at the university in 2001 to kill his patients
David Shayler, Security Service officer who revealed state secrets to the public, editor of Annasach magazine while at the university
Cardinal Cornelius Sim, Roman Catholic Bishop of the Apostolic Vicariate of Brunei Darussalam
See also
Armorial of UK universities
University of Dundee Botanic Garden – University gardens in the West End of the city.
List of universities in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
Bibliography
Baxter, K., Rolfe, M. & Swinfen, D. A Dundee Celebration (Dundee: University of Dundee), 2007. The most recent history of the University of Dundee which was produced to mark the fortieth anniversary of the university's founding.
Shafe, M. University Education in Dundee 1881–1981: A Pictorial History (Dundee: University of Dundee), 1982.
Southgate, D., University Education in Dundee: A Centenary History (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press), 1982.
White, R. M. "Dundee Law 1865-1967: The Development of a Law School in a Time of Change" (Dundee: Abertay Historical Society), 2019.
Kenneth Baxter, "University College, Dundee and the Great War". In Kenefick, William; Patrick, Derek. Tayside at War.
External links
Educational institutions established in 1881
1881 establishments in Scotland
Universities UK
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers%20Commission%20Report
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Rogers Commission Report
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The Rogers Commission Report was written by a Presidential Commission charged with investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster during its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The report, released and submitted to President Ronald Reagan on June 9, 1986, both determined the cause of the disaster that took place 73 seconds after liftoff, and urged NASA to improve and install new safety features on the shuttles and in its organizational handling of future missions.
Commission members
William P. Rogers, chairman and former United States Secretary of State (under Richard Nixon) and United States Attorney General (under Dwight Eisenhower)
Neil Armstrong (vice-chairman), retired astronaut and first human to walk on the Moon (Apollo 11)
David Campion Acheson, diplomat and son of former Secretary of State Dean Acheson
Eugene E. Covert, aeronautics expert and former Chief Scientist of the U.S. Air Force
Richard P. Feynman, theoretical physicist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics
Robert B. Hotz, editor, Aviation Week and Space Technology
Donald J. Kutyna, Air Force general with experience in ICBMs and shuttle management
Sally K. Ride, engineer, astrophysicist and first female American astronaut in space, flew on Challenger as part of missions STS-7 and STS-41-G
Robert W. Rummel, Trans World Airlines executive and aviation consultant to NASA
Joseph F. Sutter, Boeing senior vice president and engineering program director on the Boeing 747 aircraft
Arthur B. C. Walker, Jr, solar physicist and Stanford University professor
Albert D. Wheelon, physicist and developer of Central Intelligence Agency's aerial surveillance program
Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager, retired Air Force general and the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight
Alton G. Keel, Jr., executive director of the commission
Commission witnesses
Day 1, February 6, 1986
Dr. William R. Graham, Acting Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
Arnold D. Aldrich, Manager, National space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center
Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Shuttle Projects office, Marshall Space Flight Center
Robert Sieck, Director of Shuttle operations, Kennedy Space Center
Richard G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
Thomas L. Moser, Director, Engineering, Johnson Space Center
Richard H. Kohrs, Deputy Manager, National Space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center
Day 2, February 7, 1986
Marv Jones
Stanley Klein, FBI
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
Arnold Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program, Johnson Space Center
Day 3, February 10, 1986
Mr L. Michael Weeks, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
Irvin Davids, Shuttle propulsion Division
Lawrence B. Mulloy, project manager, solid rocket boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center
Day 4, February 11, 1986
William R. Graham, Acting Administrator of NASA
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space Flight, NASA
Lawrence B. Mulloy, Project Manager, Solid Rocket Boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA
Richard C. Cook
Michael B. Mann, Chief, STS Resources Analysis Branch, Office of The Comptroller, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Mr. David Winterhalter, Acting Director, Shuttle Propulsion Group, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Day 5, February 13, 1986
Dick Kohrs, Deputy Manager, NST Program office, Johnson Space Center
Charlie Stevenson, Photographic Team Analysis, Kennedy Space Center
William R. Lucas
Jesse W. Moore
Milton Silveira
Horace lamberth
Jim Harrington
T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, and Head, Marshall Contingency Investigative Team
Mr. George Hardy
Rick Bachtol
T. Moser, Head, Failure Scenario Team, Johnson Space Center
Day 6, February 14, 1986
Larry mulloy
Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Operations, Morton Thiokol
Robert Lund, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Roger Boisjoly, Structures Section, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Arnold Thompson, Design Engineer, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Allan J. McDonald, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Day 7, February 25, 1986
Allan J. McDonald, Manager, SRM Project, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Division, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Thiokol
Arnie Thompson, Supervisor, Structures, Thiokol
Robert Lund, Vice President, Engineering, Thiokol
Joe Kilminster, Vice President, Shuttle Project, Huntsville
Brian G. Russell
Day 8, February 26, 1986
Larry Mulloy, Manager, Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Program, Marshall Space Flight Center
George C. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
Stanley Reinarz, Manager, Marshall Shuttle projects Office
Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Marshall Shuttle Projects Office
Charles Stevenson, Ice Team member
B. K. Davis, Ice Team member
Lieutenant Colonel Edward F. Kolczynski, Commander, Detachment 11, 2d Weather Squadron, Patrick Air Force Base
Day 9, February 27, 1986
Charles Stevenson
B.K. Davis
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Kolczynski
Rocco Petrone, President, Space Transportation Systems Division, North American Space Operations, Rockwell International
Al Martin, Site Director, Launch Support Operations, Kennedy Space Center, Rockwell International
Bob Glaysher, Vice President and Program Manager, Orbiter Operations Support, Rockwell International
Martin Cioffoletti, Vice President, Space Transportation Systems Integration, Rockwell International
Arnie Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems, Johnson Space Center
William R. Lucas, Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for Space Flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters
Dick G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
Gene Thomas, Director, Launch and Landing Operations, Kennedy Space Center
Ben Powers, Engineer, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Day 10, March 7, 1986
Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., USAF, Director of Operations, 6655TH ASTG, ESMC
Robert Lang, Shuttle Operations, Mechanical Systems Division, Kennedy Space Center
Carver Kennedy, Director, VAB Operations, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Bill Barsh, Engineering Manager, External Tank/Solid Rocket Booster Operations, Lockheed Space Operations Company, KSC
Thomas L. Moser, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
Dr. J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, MSFC
Gary Coultas, Assistant Manager, Orbiter Projects, Johnson Space Center
George Hopson, Director, Systems Analysis and Integration Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Day 11, March 21, 1986
James R. Thompson Jr., Vice Chairman, STS 51L, Data and Design and Analyst Task force, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., Chairman, Search, Recovery and Reconstruction, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Dan M. Germany, Chairman, photo and television support team, Cape Canaveral, and Deputy Manager, Space Station Project Office, Johnson Flight Space Center, Houston, Texas
Charles Stevenson
George McDonough
John Erickson
J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
Harold N. Scofield, Chief, Control Systems Division, Marshall Space Flight Center
Robert S. Ryan, Chief, Structural Dynamics Division Systems Dynamics Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Garry M. Lyles, Propulsion Analysis Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Fredrick D. Bachtel, Thermal Engineering Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Day 12, April 3, 1986
George Abbey, Director of Flight Crew Operations
John Young, Chief, Astronaut Office
Paul J. Weitz, Deputy Chief, Astronaut Office
Bob Crippen, astronaut
Hank Hartsfield, astronuat
Rear Admiral Richard H. Truly, Associate Administrator for space flight
Arnold D. Aldrich, manager of the space transportation systems
Clifford E. Charlesworth, director of space operations
Day 13, May 3, 1986
Lawrence B. Mulloy, Manager, Solid Rocket Booster Project Office
Lawrence O. Wear, Manager, Solid Rocket Motor Project, Marshall Space Flight Center
Brian G. Russell, Program Manager, Department of solid rocket motor and Final Assembly
Robert Ebeling, Department of solid rocket motor igniter and Final Assembly
J.C. Kilminster, Vice President, Space Booster Programs
Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
George B. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, former Manager, Solid Rocket Booster office
James E. Kingsbury, Science and Engineering
Robert G. Eudy, former Chief Engineer, Solid Rocket Motor, Office of Associate Director For Engineering
John O. Miller, Technical Assistant To Solid Rocket Motor Manager
William L. Ray, Solid Rocket Motor Branch, Propulsion Division, Engineering Directorate
L. Michael Weeks, Associate Administrator, (technical) for space flight, NASA
Glynn S. Lunney, former Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program Office
John R. Stocker, Assistant General counsel, corporate offices, Rockwell International, corporation
Findings
The commission found that the immediate cause of the Challenger accident was a failure in the O-rings sealing the aft field joint on the right solid rocket booster, causing pressurized hot gases and eventually flame to "blow by" the O-ring and contact the adjacent external tank, causing structural failure. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors including the low temperature on the day of launch.
"An accident rooted in history"
More broadly, the report also determined the contributing causes of the accident. Most salient was the failure of both NASA and its contractor, Morton Thiokol, to respond adequately to the design flaw. The Commission found that as early as 1977, NASA managers had not only known about the flawed O-ring, but that it had the potential for catastrophe. This led the Rogers Commission to conclude that the Challenger disaster was "an accident rooted in history".
Flawed launch decision
The report also strongly criticized the decision-making process that led to the launch of Challenger, saying that it was seriously flawed. Morton Thiokol called a meeting the night before the launch to raise concerns over the forecast temperature in regards to the O-rings. During the meeting, Morton Thiokol's engineers issued a recommendation "not to launch below 53F", the previous lowest temperature of a launch (STS-51C, a year earlier). The NASA managers challenged this and after a 30 minute offline caucus, Morton Thiokol's senior management overruled their engineers decision and gave the launch the go-ahead. The concerns were not communicated beyond the Level III Flight Readiness Review (FRR). It is certain that even though members of higher FRR teams knew about the issues, there were plenty of members who could have stopped the launch but decided not to. This was done in large part because of the management structure at NASA and the lack of major checks and balances, which proved to be fatal in this scenario. The report concluded that:
Role of Richard Feynman
One of the commission's best-known members was theoretical physicist Richard Feynman. His style of investigating with his own direct methods rather than following the commission schedule put him at odds with Rogers, who once commented, "Feynman is becoming a real pain." During a televised hearing, Feynman famously demonstrated how the O-rings became less resilient and subject to seal failures at low temperatures by compressing a sample of the material in a clamp and immersing it in a glass of ice water. Feynman's own investigation reveals a disconnect between NASA's engineers and executives that was far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling misunderstandings of elementary concepts. One such concept was the determination of a safety factor.
In one example, early tests resulted in some of the booster rocket's O-rings burning a third of the way through. These O-rings provided the gas-tight seal needed between the vertically stacked cylindrical sections that made up the solid fuel booster. NASA managers recorded this result as demonstrating that the O-rings had a "safety factor" of 3. Feynman incredulously explains the magnitude of this error: A "safety factor" refers to the practice of building an object to be capable of withstanding more force than the force to which it will conceivably be subjected. To paraphrase Feynman's example, if engineers built a bridge that could bear 3,000 pounds without any damage, even though it was never expected to bear more than 1,000 pounds in practice, the safety factor would be 3. If a 1,000-pound truck drove across the bridge and a crack appeared in a beam, even just a third of the way through a beam, the safety factor is now zero: The bridge is defective, there was no safety factor at all even though the bridge did not actually collapse.
Feynman was clearly disturbed by the fact that NASA management not only misunderstood this concept, but inverted it by using a term denoting an extra level of safety to describe a part that was actually defective and unsafe. Feynman continued to investigate the lack of communication between NASA's management and its engineers, and was struck by management's claim that the risk of catastrophic malfunction on the shuttle was 1 in 105, i.e. 1 in 100,000. Feynman immediately realized that this claim was risible on its face; as he described, this assessment of risk would entail that NASA could expect to launch a shuttle every day for the next 274 years while suffering, on average, only one accident. Investigating the claim further, Feynman discovered that the 1 in 105 figure was stating what they claimed the failure rate ought to be, given that it was a manned vehicle, and working backward to generate the failure rate of components.
Feynman was disturbed by two aspects of this practice. First, NASA management assigned a probability of failure to each individual bolt, sometimes claiming a probability of 1 in 108, i.e. one in one hundred million. Feynman pointed out that it is impossible to calculate such a remote possibility with any scientific rigor. Secondly, Feynman was bothered not just by this sloppy science but by the fact that NASA claimed that the risk of catastrophic failure was "necessarily" 1 in 105. As the figure itself was beyond belief, Feynman questioned exactly what "necessarily" meant in this context, whether it meant that the figure followed logically from other calculations or that it reflected NASA management's desire to make the numbers fit.
Feynman suspected that the 1 in 105 figure was wildly fantastical, and made a rough estimate that the true likelihood of shuttle disaster was closer to 1 in 100. He then decided to poll the engineers themselves, asking them to write down an anonymous estimate of the odds of shuttle explosion. Feynman found that the bulk of the engineers' estimates fell between 1 in 50 and 1 in 200 (at the time of retirement, the Shuttle suffered two catastrophic failures across 135 flights, for a failure rate of 1 in 67.5). Not only did this confirm that NASA management had clearly failed to communicate with their own engineers, but the disparity engaged Feynman's emotions. When describing these wildly differing estimates, Feynman briefly lapses from his damaging but dispassionate detailing of NASA's flaws to recognize the moral failing that resulted from a scientific failing: he was upset NASA presented its fantastical figures as fact to convince a member of the public, schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe, to join the crew. Feynman was not uncomfortable with the concept of a risk factor, but felt strongly that the recruitment of laypeople required an honest portrayal of the true risk involved.
Feynman's investigation eventually suggested to him that the cause of the Challenger disaster was the very part to which NASA management so mistakenly assigned a safety factor. The O-rings were rubber rings designed to form a seal in the shuttle's solid rocket boosters, preventing the rockets' hot gas from escaping and damaging other parts of the vehicle. Feynman suspected that despite NASA's claims, the O-rings were unsuitable at low temperatures and lost their resilience when cold, thus failing to maintain a tight seal when rocket pressure distorted the structure of the solid fuel booster. Feynman's suspicions were corroborated by General Kutyna, also on the commission, who cunningly provided Feynman with a broad hint by asking about the effect of cold on O-ring seals after mentioning that the temperature on the day of the launch was far lower than had been the case with previous launches: below freezing at ; previously, the coldest launch had been at . In 2013, the BBC film The Challenger revealed that the O-ring insight had in fact come to Kutyna from the astronaut and fellow commission member Sally Ride, who had secretly provided him with NASA test results showing the O-rings became stiff when they were too cold.
Feynman's investigations also revealed that there had been many serious doubts raised about the O-ring seals by engineers at Morton Thiokol, which made the solid fuel boosters, but communication failures had led to their concerns being ignored by NASA management. He found similar failures in procedure in many other areas at NASA, but singled out its software development for praise due to its rigorous and highly effective quality control procedures – then under threat from NASA management, which wished to reduce testing to save money given that the tests had always been passed.
Based on his experiences with NASA's management and engineers, Feynman concluded that the serious deficiencies in NASA management's scientific understanding, the lack of communication between the two camps, and the gross misrepresentation of the Shuttle's dangers, required that NASA take a hiatus from Shuttle launches until it could resolve its internal inconsistencies and present an honest picture of the shuttle's reliability. Feynman soon found that, while he respected the intellects of his fellow Commission members, they universally finished their criticisms of NASA with clear affirmations that the Challenger disaster should be addressed by NASA internally, but that there was no need for NASA to suspend its operations or to receive less funding. Feynman felt that the Commission's conclusions misrepresented its findings, and he could not in good conscience recommend that such a deeply flawed organization as NASA should continue without a suspension of operations and a major overhaul. His fellow commission members were alarmed by Feynman's dissent, and it was only after much petitioning that Feynman's minority report was included at all. Feynman was so critical of flaws in NASA's "safety culture" that he threatened to remove his name from the report unless it included his personal observations on the reliability of the shuttle, which appeared as Appendix F. In the appendix, he stated:
"For a successful technology," Feynman concluded, "reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."
Feynman later wrote about the investigation in his 1988 book What Do You Care What Other People Think?. The second half of the book covers the investigation and the issues between science and politics, and includes the appendix he wrote.
Feynman later reported that, although he had believed he was making discoveries about the problems at NASA on his own, he eventually realized that either NASA or contractor personnel, in an apparent effort to anonymously focus attention on these problem areas, had carefully led him to the evidence which would support the conclusions on which he would later report.
Result
The Rogers Commission offered nine recommendations on improving safety in the space shuttle program, and NASA was directed by President Reagan to report back within thirty days as to how it planned to implement those recommendations. This is a summary of the chapter of Recommendations:
Design and Independent Oversight
Shuttle Management Structure, Astronauts in Management and Shuttle Safety Panel
Criticality Review and Hazard Analysis
Safety Organization
Improved Communications
Landing Safety
Launch Abort and Crew Escape
Flight Rate
Maintenance Safeguards
In response to the commission's recommendation, NASA initiated a total redesign of the space shuttle's solid rocket boosters, which was watched over by an independent oversight group as stipulated by the commission. NASA's contract with Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the solid rocket boosters, included a clause stating that in the event of a failure leading to "loss of life or mission," Thiokol would forfeit $10 million of its incentive fee and formally accept legal liability for the failure. After the Challenger accident, Thiokol agreed to "voluntarily accept" the monetary penalty in exchange for not being forced to accept liability.
NASA also created a new Office of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance, headed as the commission had specified by a NASA associate administrator who reported directly to the NASA administrator. George Rodney, formerly of Martin Marietta, was appointed to this position. Former Challenger flight director Jay Greene became chief of the Safety Division of the directorate.
The unrealistically optimistic launch schedule pursued by NASA had been criticized by the Rogers Commission as a possible contributing cause to the accident. After the accident, NASA attempted to aim at a more realistic shuttle flight rate: it added another orbiter, Endeavour, to the space shuttle fleet to replace Challenger, and it worked with the Department of Defense to put more satellites in orbit using expendable launch vehicles rather than the shuttle. In August 1986, President Reagan also announced that the shuttle would no longer carry commercial satellite payloads. After a 32-month hiatus, the next shuttle mission, STS-26, was launched on September 29, 1988.
After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, attention once again focused on the attitude of NASA management towards safety issues. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) concluded that NASA had failed to learn many of the lessons of Challenger. In particular, the agency had not set up a truly independent office for safety oversight; the CAIB felt that in this area, "NASA's response to the Rogers Commission did not meet the Commission's intent". The CAIB believed that "the causes of the institutional failure responsible for Challenger have not been fixed," saying that the same "flawed decision-making process" that had resulted in the Challenger accident was responsible for Columbias destruction seventeen years later.
See also
Columbia Accident Investigation Board
Apollo 1
References
External links
Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident – the Rogers Commission report on the accident (NASA.gov parsed HTML version)
Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident – pdf version, compiled by Thomas ('thomasafb') – Volume I only
Hearing on the Space Shuttle Accident and the Rogers Commission Report. 219 pages (14.2 MB) U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space. Date: 99th Congress, 2nd Session, February 18, June 10 and 17, 1986. See also GPO Challenger index page.
– Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Appendix F – Personal Observations on Reliability of Shuttle by R. P. Feynman
NASA oversight
Reports of the United States government
1986 in the United States
United States Presidential Commissions
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
Richard Feynman
1986 works
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The Trials of Life
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The Trials of Life: A Natural History of Behaviour is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough, first transmitted in the United Kingdom from 3 October 1990.
A study in animal behaviour, it was the third in a trilogy of major series (beginning with Life on Earth) that took a broad overview of nature, rather than the more specialised surveys of Attenborough's later productions. Each of the twelve 50-minute episodes features a different aspect of the journey through life, from birth to adulthood and continuation of the species through reproduction.
The series was produced in conjunction with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Turner Broadcasting System Inc. The executive producer was Peter Jones and the music was composed by George Fenton.
Part of David Attenborough's 'Life' series, it was preceded by The Living Planet (1984) and followed by Life in the Freezer (1993).
Background
The series took over three-and-a-half years to film, during which time Attenborough travelled almost a quarter of a million miles. The production team sought to further push the boundaries of natural history film-making, following on from the advances made in The Living Planet, and were provided with several new challenges.
The sequence of chimpanzees hunting colobus monkeys was only possible through the efforts of Hedwige and Christophe Boesch, who had spent five years studying the apes in the Ivory Coast forests of West Africa.
Meanwhile, a bivouac of army ants in Panama was able to be filmed internally with the aid of a medical endoscope. Furthermore, a new type of camera lens enabled tree ants to be filmed in enlarged close-up just in front of Attenborough – with both subjects in sharp focus. This gave the illusion that the insects were much larger than their actual size.
Filming critical moments in the life of a herd of elephants necessitated the expertise of Cynthia Moss, who had devoted 25 years to researching the animals in Kenya. She was able to advise the production team on the right moments to film specific events.
The camera team had only one chance to film a 60,000-strong flock of waders flying over David Attenborough's head in Norfolk, and the RSPB was enlisted to predict their flight path. By contrast, the Florida scrub jays couldn't have been more co-operative: since the particular group being filmed had been studied closely and were used to humans, a bird could land on Attenborough's hand right on cue.
The inside of a termite mound proved especially challenging for Attenborough: it was so cramped that he could only face in one direction. He therefore had to slowly crawl backwards out of shot when performing re-takes.
Behaviour seen for the first time included the sequence that was eventually selected to illustrate the series' DVD cover: that of a killer whale pouncing on a colony of sea lions on a Patagonian beach and 'playing' with its young prey before consuming it. This meant some risks being taken by the cameramen, as they placed themselves in the water just feet away from the creatures in order to obtain close-ups of an attack run.
Episodes
1. "Arriving"
Broadcast 3 October 1990, the first episode examines the various methods by which creatures come into the world. Attenborough's opening statement alludes to the annual spawning of the Christmas Island red crab, of which there are estimated to be some 120 million. The exercise is all the more hazardous since the species is a land crab, and the eggs have to be deposited in the sea – where the most ancient animals on the planet still live and breed. One of the most prolific aquatic egg producers is the giant clam, but some land animals also lay vast quantities, and the mantis is one example. In the Western United States, Attenborough observes a wasp that digs a burrow, conceals it, and stocks it with fresh caterpillars for her emerging young. The grubs of another start life inside caterpillars, and eat the unsuspecting hosts. The problems of larger animals are illustrated by snow geese in the Arctic, which have to defend their eggs from Arctic foxes. The process of embryonic growth inside the egg, from laying to hatching, is shown in detail. The malleefowl warms its eggs with rotting leaves, and Attenborough demonstrates the care with which it regulates them by adding sand to its mound – to have it kicked back in his (Attenborough's) face. The sea louse is a crustacean that commits suicide: its grubs consume so much of the mother's energies that she dies after birth. Mammals shown giving birth to fully formed young include wildebeest, antelope, sea lions and chinchillas.
2. "Growing Up"
Broadcast 10 October 1990, this programme describes the ways that various species care for their young. Attenborough defines childhood as achieving two tasks: growing and surviving. He highlights the elephant seal as an animal that experiences a compressed childhood, being abandoned after three weeks and left for up to another eight alone, while it becomes large enough to be able to swim. For terns, there is safety in numbers as the dense population works together to drive out marauding gulls. The snow geese in the Russian Arctic show intense devotion as they escort their goslings by foot to the coast some 50 kilometres away. Scorpions carry their young on their backs, while a shrew will leave hers under a stone while she goes to feed. The eider duck is one creature that shares responsibility for its offspring: females regularly supervise the ducklings of others in a group. The mara is another that uses a crèche system, as does the bat, whose nurseries can be up to a million strong. The Florida scrub jay has a complex system of raising young known as cooperative breeding, where young stay on as helpers at the nest of their parents. Such behaviour is exhibited on a larger scale by elephants, where all females take an interest in raising a single calf. A chimpanzee's childhood is socially complicated, as an individual must learn how to behave towards others, as well as master the use of tools. Albatrosses must be accomplished fliers as soon as possible – chicks are shown being hunted by tiger sharks.
3. "Finding Food"
Broadcast 17 October 1990, the next instalment is devoted to the ways in which animals gather their sustenance. Attenborough begins in the South American rainforest, where the proliferation of animal and plant life does not necessarily make it easy to find food. Some leaves are poisonous, and so those that eat them have to be careful. Other plants use food (or nectar) as a bribe to get their pollen transported, and several species of hummingbird have developed exclusive relationships with certain of them. Fruit is also on offer, again as a means of reproduction, and creatures such as squirrel monkeys eat little else. Meanwhile, parrots and macaws take kaolin as an antidote to their diet of toxic seeds. Attenborough witnesses a 60,000 strong flock of knot and dunlin suddenly take advantage of a low tide to feed on tiny mud-dwelling molluscs. Barracuda hunt small fish, and drive shoals of them into bays to be eaten by pelicans, which are besieged by gulls that attempt to steal their catches. One species of gecko is able to differentiate between worker termites and the more dangerous soldiers. The web of the orb spider is hailed as one of the most elegant food catching devices, and the methods of two others, nephila and its kleptoparasite visitor, argyrodes, are explored in detail. Finally, tropicbirds, their crops full with food en route back to their nests, are ambushed in mid-air by a group of frigatebirds, whose aim is to make them surrender their cargo.
4. "Hunting and Escaping"
Broadcast 24 October 1990, this episode looks at those that hunt other creatures and ways of avoiding capture. Attenborough is attacked by a pair of skuas as he approaches their nest, which demonstrates this particular bird's aggressive behaviour, both when taking food and defending its young. Off the shores of Patagonia, the same group of killer whales returns each year to ambush sea lion pups, which stray out of the safer shallow waters. Having grabbed their prey, they take it back out to sea and 'play' with it for some time before killing it. Poison can be used both as a weapon and a deterrent, such as by the viper and tomato frog respectively. Some animals advertise their defensive measures in advance, in case deployment occurs too late. Among them are the skunk, which discharges an appalling smell, and some salamanders that display their toxicity by remaining stationary, with their warning markings visible. Several species of stick insect and their elaborate camouflage are shown. However, none of these methods of protection pose problems to army ants, which can subdue any of their prey, simply by virtue of their size and vast numbers. The Harris hawk is unusual, since it hunts in teams, and a group of six are shown practising their skill in the desert of New Mexico. The final sequence depicts a troop of chimpanzees displaying strategy and co-ordination as it successfully pursues colobus monkeys through a forest in the Ivory Coast.
5. "Finding the Way"
Broadcast 31 October 1990, this programme explores forms of navigation. Attenborough starts in Africa at dusk, by describing some of the species that don't rely on sight. The spotted hyena uses its acute sense of smell to guide it while it hunts nocturnally, while galagos urinate on their hands so they can completely mark their movements. Some animals use echolocation and these include swiftlets, bats and river dolphins. By contrast, electric eels use fields of electricity to sense their environment. During the hours of daylight, other methods are employed: the rufous elephant shrew, with its carefully cleared network of pathways, has a sharp mental picture of its habitat – even knowing the various shortcuts with which to evade capture. Attenborough visits the Sahara to illustrate a species that makes the longest overland journey of any insect: cataglyphis, an ant that uses the sun's position to enable it to return to its nest in a straight line. Lobsters in the Bahamas are shown marching in columns to escape stormy waters. In its search for perpetual daylight in which to fish, the Arctic tern makes a 19,000-kilometre journey from one end of the earth to the other. The albatross is highlighted as one of the most skilled navigators: it can travel up to 1300 kilometres over sea in search of food for its chicks, and still find its way back to the nest. Finally, Attenborough stands on a waterfall in Ireland to tell of the three-year, 10,000-kilometre journey made by elvers.
6. "Home Making"
Broadcast 7 November 1990, this instalment deals with how animals construct their shelters from the elements and predators. Burrows and holes can provide considerable refuge, and Attenborough inspects the home of the American prairie dog, an elaborate construction that has its own air conditioning system. Silk is such a valuable commodity that those that can't make it steal it instead. The hermit hummingbird uses it to attach its nest to the underside of a leaf, while the Indian tailorbird stitches two leaves together. However, the expert in complex nest-building is the weaverbird which makes its abode from over 1,000 strips of grass that are perfectly interwoven – and dismantling it if it fails to attract a mate. The beaver is responsible for one of the biggest animal dwellings: its wooden lodge that rises from the river bed stays in place from one generation to the next, and so requires constant maintenance. Some stingless bees use their wax and the resin of tree bark to create labyrinthine structures containing various compartments. Mud is also used by several creatures, such as the potter wasp and the cliff swallow. The termites' intricate creations allow for security, heating, air conditioning, self-contained nurseries and gardens, and sanitation systems. Attenborough hails the species as the consummate home maker, and explores a 15-foot colony in West Africa that contains 1.5 million insects: he crawls right inside to examine its method of ventilation.
7. "Living Together"
Broadcast 14 November 1990, this episode focuses on those species that co-operate and depend on (or exploit) others. Spotted deer follow langur monkeys as they travel from tree to tree, eating any leaves that get dropped from above. In return, the deer serve as a lookout when the primates are feeding on the ground. Underwater, a hermit crab is shown adding sea anemones to its shell in order to protect itself from attack by an octopus, and a goby assists a virtually blind shrimp. Fleas, lice and mites are parasites: they share no mutual partnership and instead take advantage of creatures for food or shelter. However, parasites have their predators, and an example are the finches of the Galápagos Islands that clear the resident giant tortoises of their ticks, and oxpeckers, which do the same for giraffes in Africa (and even use its fur to line their nests). Some fish regularly clean others, and wrasse and shrimp appear to specialise in this regard, as do remora, which permanently hang on to their hosts. One parasite that grows inside its host is the fluke, and one is shown gestating inside a snail, having previously been unknowingly eaten. Because it needs to transfer to a bird's gut to develop further, it causes the snail to advertise its presence to allow itself to be consumed – thus completing the circle. However, some microscopic creatures inhabit the stomachs of large herbivores in order to break down the cellulose of their diet, thereby aiding their digestion.
8. "Fighting"
Broadcast 21 November 1990, this programme details how fighting – both physical and psychological – is used for food, land or to gain a mate. Territorial conflict is demonstrated by the hummingbird, and Attenborough illustrates its aggressiveness by placing a stuffed specimen nearby, only to have it speared by its opponent's bill. The midas cichlid on the other hand, has no weapons to speak of, and so uses its mouth to hold on for trials of strength. By contrast, the forelegs of a mantis shrimp are powerful enough to crack the shell of another crustacean: therefore disputes or courtship are fraught with danger. Animals that possess lethal food-gathering weapons usually don't use them against one another, as neither side wishes to risk death. For example, one venomous snake will aim to floor the other, rather than bite. Wolves and big cats largely use snarls and body posture to convey their threat. There are no holds barred between rival zebras: kicking and biting is employed until a victor emerges, whereas giraffes slam their necks against each other. Normally peaceful mountain gorillas are shown squabbling when play gets out of hand, and one of them communicates real fright by urinating uncontrollably. Large herbivores that have horns or antlers are naturally inclined to use them to assert their dominance over the females in a herd. Duelling male ibex and Alaskan bull moose undergo some of the most ferocious engagements – sometimes to the death.
9. "Friends and Rivals"
Broadcast 28 November 1990, this instalment investigates the ways in which those animals that live in social groups interact with each other. The solitary eagle is contrasted with whooper swans landing in Scotland after a 1,600-kilometre journey from Iceland. Once arrived, they must battle for territory with those already there, and pairs or families are usually victorious. Attenborough uses a group of farmyard chickens to demonstrate a pecking order. Caciques are shown cooperating to deter predators, despite their fights amongst themselves to establish a pecking order. A pride of lions is shown co-operating to subdue a buffalo. Afterwards, each animal peacefully awaits its turn at the carcass. Baboons live in troops of up to 150, and their complex dominance hierarchy is examined in detail. Vampire bats display reciprocal altruism by regurgitating blood for any neighbour that has missed out on a night's feeding. Dwarf mongooses live in family groups of around a dozen. While some look for food or sleep, others are always posted on the lookout for predators and quickly raise the alarm if necessary. Meanwhile, some of the most extreme co-operation is demonstrated by the underground naked mole-rat, whose 80-strong clusters are divided into workers (who tunnel perpetually), soldiers (who only act when danger threatens), and a single queen for breeding. Leafcutter ants are shown transporting their food deep below ground: it has to be planted in a special fungus to convert its indigestible cellulose into something edible, and each stage of the operation is carried out by a different caste of individuals.
10. "Talking to Strangers"
Broadcast 5 December 1990, this episode concentrates on animal communication. In Kenya, Attenborough accompanies a tribesman who calls to a honeyguide, which in turn answers him and leads the pair to a bees' nest. The tribesman extracts the honey, and some is left to reward the bird. African hunting dogs are shown hunting gazelles, of which the target is the individual that leaps lowest. Larks evade merlin by sending a similar message: by continuing to sing while being chased, it tells the pursuer that its prey is fit and therefore will be difficult to catch (see handicap principle). (In 80% of cases this turns out to be true.) Vervet monkeys' cries are among the most complex. Their utterances are effectively words: a vocabulary that defines each of their predators, so an alarm call is specific to a particular threat. Some creatures transmit their presence by display, and Attenborough observes thousands of fireflies illuminating the darkness. Sounds travel faster and further underwater, and over 200 species of fish use them to communicate. In turn, sea lions have become adept at sensing their proximity. However, the most visual aquatic animal is the squid, which uses colour change and posture to communicate. Finally, Attenborough swims with spotted dolphins. They converse with a series of ultrasonic clicks, and each has a family call inherited from its mother: effectively a 'surname'. They also use normal sound, body posture and touch – in short, in terms of ability to communicate, they are man's closest rival.
11. "Courting"
Broadcast 12 December 1990, this programme surveys the methods employed in attracting a mate, mainly those of birds. The Indian florican inhabits long grass, and so is difficult to see. In order to gain attention, it 'trampolines' in the same spot for up to 400 times a day. Whales sing to their prospective partners, and the female's calls can be heard by suitors for over eight kilometres. When animals send out signals of attraction, they must also ensure that they don't entice the wrong species, and so have markings that differ prominently. Attenborough highlights the booby as an example: there are around half a dozen species, all of which may occupy the same island. However, the blue-footed booby reassures its chosen mate by continually lifting its feet. Tropicbirds and marsh harriers are shown providing graceful aerobatic displays, while the sac-winged bat uses a strong perfume to lure a companion. Among those birds that produce the most spectacular visual displays are the lyrebird (which also has an elaborate song), the peacock, and the riflebird (and indeed most other birds of paradise). The bowerbird invites potential partners to inspect its bower: a specially prepared area that contains a hut or walkway augmented by strikingly coloured objects. The intricate dances performed by manakins in Trinidad are also examined. Finally, Attenborough observes the topi's display courts, whose sharply defined boundaries are jealously guarded by rival males.
12. "Continuing the Line"
Broadcast 19 December 1990, the final instalment illustrates how species fulfil their ultimate raison d'être and ensure that their genes are passed on to the next generation. It is a universal problem, but one which has given rise to a variety of solutions. Barnacles cannot move, but each has both male and female sex cells, allowing each neighbour to be a potential mate. On the other end of the scale, a female elephant undergoes a long pregnancy – 22 months – and so wishes to ensure that her calf is fathered by a strong and proven male. She is therefore very choosy about her partner. A female chinchilla is even more so, and rejects an unwanted suitor by squirting urine in its face. Mating is a dangerous business when weapons are involved, and a male tarantula approaches his intended with trepidation. Only when he succeeds in holding off her poison fangs is he able to progress any further. For some, the right moments to get together are few and far between: a male crab, for example, must wait until a female moults her shell before he is able to fertilise her. Male sea lions are shown fighting over a harem, and some use the battle to their advantage by making off with reluctant females. Attenborough observes that the monogamous relationships enjoyed by humans are rare within the animal kingdom, but he highlights the royal albatross as a "beautiful" exception. The pair of birds featured met as five-year-olds, and have been together for twenty years.
Home media
The series is available in the UK for Regions 2 and 4 as a 4-disc DVD set (BBCDVD1428, released 27 September 2004) and as part of The Life Collection. Erroneously entitled Trials of Life, its sole extra feature is a 50-minute documentary: The Making of The Trials of Life. It was previously released in 2002 as an abridged 3-disc set, with each episode cut to 35 minutes. The series was released on Blu-ray in the UK on 12 November 2012.
The accompanying book, The Trials of Life: A Natural History of Behaviour by David Attenborough (), was published by BBC Books on 4 October 1990 and was shortlisted for the 1991 Rhône-Poulenc Prize. In 2022 the book was given an updated rerelease ().
References
External links
1990 British television series debuts
1990 British television series endings
BBC television documentaries
Documentary films about nature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Life%20of%20Birds
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The Life of Birds
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The Life of Birds is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough, first transmitted in the United Kingdom from 21 October 1998.
A study of the evolution and habits of birds, it was the third of Attenborough's specialised surveys following his major trilogy that began with Life on Earth. Each of the ten 50-minute episodes discusses how the huge variety of birds in the world deal with a different aspect of their day-to-day existence.
The series was produced in conjunction with BBC Worldwide Americas Inc. and PBS. The executive producer was Mike Salisbury and the music was composed by Ian Butcher and Steven Faux. It won a Peabody Award in 1999 for combining "spectacular imagery and impeccable science."
Part of Attenborough's 'Life' series of programmes, it was preceded by The Private Life of Plants (1995), and followed by The Life of Mammals (2002). Before the latter was transmitted, David Attenborough presented State of the Planet (2000) and narrated The Blue Planet (2001).
Background
In common with Attenborough's previous productions, the programmes include sequences that were filmed in many locales. The series took three years to make, involving visits to 42 countries. The subject matter had been covered before by Attenborough within Life on Earth, in an episode entitled "Lords of the Air", but now he was free to expand on it. However, by his own confession, despite being especially fascinated by one family, the birds of paradise, Attenborough was not an expert in ornithology. Nevertheless, the notion of an entire series devoted to the creatures excited him, as he would be able to not only communicate his findings to the viewing audience, but further his own knowledge as well.
From the outset, the production team were determined that the sound of birds calling and singing would not be dubbed on to the filmed pictures afterwards: it would be recorded simultaneously. To that end, meticulous care was taken not to include man-made 'noises off' from the likes of cars and aeroplanes. For one particular sequence, Britain's dawn chorus, it was important that the movement of the beak and the expelled warm air was synchronous with the accompanying song.
A trick used to entice some of the animals near the camera was to play a recording of the same species in the hope that the target would not only answer back, but investigate its source as well. This was employed in the episode "Signals and Songs", where Attenborough encouraged a superb lyrebird—one of nature's best mimics—to perform on cue. Despite such fortuity, filming on the series was not all plain sailing: in "Finding Partners", Attenborough was chased by a capercaillie, which didn't even stop when the presenter fell over.
A technique that had been previously used for The Living Planet was again called for to film greylag geese in flight. The newly hatched goslings were imprinted with a human 'mother', and, when fully grown, were able to be photographed flying alongside an open-top car.
Computer animation was utilised in the first episode to illustrate extinct species, such as the terror bird and the moa.
Production was suddenly halted during a trip to New Zealand in 1997 when Attenborough's wife, Jane, died:
The next filming trip for the Birds series was, of course, cancelled. But I could not simply abandon the series. Three quarters of the filming had been done. The film of some of the programmes had been edited but none of the commentaries had yet been written. There was a lot of work that I had to do—and I was grateful that this was so.
Episodes
1. "To Fly or Not to Fly?"
Broadcast 21 October 1998, the first episode looks at how birds first took to the skies in the wake of the insects. It begins in Mexico, where Attenborough observes bats being outmaneuvered by a red-tailed hawk. Pterosaurs were the birds' forerunners, some 150 million years after dragonflies developed the means of flight, but eventually became extinct together with the dinosaurs. Birds had by then already evolved from early forms like Archaeopteryx, the first creature to possess feathers. Its ancestry can be traced through reptiles, and some current species, such as the flying lizard, possibly show paths this evolution may have taken. One of the biggest birds to have ever existed was the terror bird, which proliferated after dinosaurs vanished and stood up to 2.5 metres tall. By comparison, the ostrich, while not closely related, is the largest and heaviest living bird. It was probably the evasion of predators that drove most birds into the air, so their flightless cousins evolved because they had few enemies. Accordingly, such species are more likely to be found on islands, and Attenborough visits New Zealand to observe its great variety, most especially the kiwi. Also depicted is the moa, another huge creature that is now gone. The takahe is extremely rare, and high in the mountains of New Zealand, Attenborough discovers one from a population of only 40 pairs. Finally, another example on the brink of extinction is the kakapo, which at one point numbered only 61 individuals. A male is heard calling — an immensely amplified deep note that can be heard at great distances from its nest.
2. "The Mastery of Flight"
Broadcast 28 October 1998, the second programme deals with the mechanics of flight. Getting into the air is by far the most exhausting of a bird's activities, and Attenborough observes shearwaters in Japan that have taken to climbing trees to give them a good jumping-off point. The albatross is so large that it can only launch itself after a run-up to create a flow of air over its wings. A combination of aerodynamics and upward air currents (or thermals), together with the act of flapping or gliding is what keeps a bird aloft. Landing requires less energy but a greater degree of skill, particularly for a big bird, such as a swan. Weight is kept to a minimum by having a beak made of keratin instead of bone, a light frame, and a coat of feathers, which is maintained fastidiously. The peregrine falcon holds the record for being fastest in the air, diving at speeds of over 300 km/h. Conversely, the barn owl owes its predatory success to flying slowly, while the kestrel spots its quarry by hovering. However, the true specialists in this regard are the hummingbirds, whose wings beat at the rate of 25 times a second. The habits of migratory birds are explored. After stocking up with food during the brief summer of the north, such species will set off on huge journeys southwards. Some, such as the snow goose, travel continuously, using both the stars and the sun for navigation. They are contrasted with hawks and vultures, which glide overland on warm air, and therefore have to stop overnight.
3. "The Insatiable Appetite"
Broadcast 4 November 1998, the next installment focuses on dietary needs and how different species have evolved beaks to suit their individual requirements. The latter come in a multitude of forms. Blue tits and goldfinches have beaks akin to tweezers, with which to extract seeds, while the hawfinch's razor-like bill can deal with a cherry-stone. However, the crossbill is the only finch that can twist its mandibles in opposite directions. Jays store acorns for winter by burying them in the ground, whereas woodpeckers can keep up to 60,000 of them in one tree trunk. Sap is also desirable, and there are a variety of methods used to obtain it. The hoatzin is the only specialised leaf-eater, and accordingly has a digestive system more akin to that of cattle. Plants recruit birds to aid pollination, and offer nectar as a reward. hummingbirds eat little else, and the sword-bill's beak is the longest of any bird in relation to its body. Insects are also highly prized, and Galápagos finches are shown to possess some ingenuity as they not only strip bark, but also use 'tools' to reach their prey. Crows are hailed as being among the most intelligent birds, and one is shown using a twig to spear a grub within a fallen log. The robin is an opportunist, and Attenborough observes one seizing morsels as he digs a patch of earth. In South America, a cattle tyrant sits atop an obliging capybara and uses its vantage point to spot passing food that may be dislodged by its grazing partner.
4. "Meat-Eaters"
Broadcast 11 November 1998, this episode examines those birds whose sustenance comes from flesh and their methods of hunting. In New Zealand, Attenborough observes keas, parrots that do not eat meat exclusively, raiding a shearwater's burrow for a chick. However, it is the dedicated birds of prey, such as owls, buzzards, eagles, falcons and vultures, to which much of the programme is devoted. In order to spot and pursue their victims, senses of sight and hearing are very acute. Vultures are the exception, in that they eat what others have left, and once a carcass is found, so many birds descend on it that the carrion seems submerged beneath them. The turkey vulture is an anomaly within its group, as it also has a keen sense of smell. Eagles defend their territory vigorously, and a pair of sea eagles are shown engaging in an aerial battle. The Galápagos hawk hunts marine iguanas, but can only do so when its quarry is vulnerable, during the breeding season. The African harrier-hawk has adapted to extracting burrowing animals by virtue of an especially long, double-jointed pair of legs. By contrast, a shrike is not equipped with the requisite sharp beak and talons needed for butchery, and so dismembers its kill by impaling it on the thorns of acacias. The lammergeier eats bones, and will drop them on to rocks from a great height in order to break them down to a digestible size. Also featured are the Eurasian sparrowhawk, goshawk and peregrine falcon.
5. "Fishing for a Living"
Broadcast 18 November 1998, the next programme details river and ocean dwellers. The dipper swims completely below water to search for food, whereas the kingfisher uses a 'harpoon' technique, diving from a vantage point. However, the darter uses a combination of both methods, stalking its prey underwater before spearing it. By contrast, the reddish egret uses a kind of dance to flush out the aquatic inhabitants. Skimmers have different-sized mandibles, the lower one being used to skim the water's surface for small fish. Ducks have developed an assortment of angling skills. Some dabble, like the mallard, while others are of a more streamlined design and are at home underwater, such as the merganser. Waders, which specialise in feeding on mud flats at low tide, include avocets, godwits, dowitchers and sanderlings. The pelican feeds in groups, their pouch-like bills being more successful when used collectively. Boobies fish in the open ocean and are shown dive-bombing shoals en masse. Attenborough visits Lord Howe Island, off Australia, and by imitating the calls of various birds, invites a group of curious Providence petrels — which are indigenous — to investigate. Because there are no humans in their habitat, they are a very trusting species, as Attenborough discovers when one perches on his hand. Out on a seemingly empty area of ocean, the presenter is able to fill it with various sea birds within seconds, simply by throwing fish oil on to the water.
6. "Signals and Songs"
Broadcast 25 November 1998, this installment describes ways of communicating. A colony of fieldfares in Sweden deters a raven from raiding a nest by collectively raising an audible alarm. However, in an English wood, all species co-operate to warn each other surreptitiously of approaching danger. By contrast, a sunbittern is shown expanding its plumage to discourage a group of marauding hawks. The members of the finch family exemplify how colour aids recognition. Birds have excellent colour vision, and the feathers of many species react to ultraviolet light. Flocking birds, such as sparrows, also have a 'ranking system' that determines seniority. In Patagonia, Attenborough demonstrates the effectiveness of sound: he summons a Magellanic woodpecker by knocking on a tree. The nature of tropical rainforests means that their occupants tend to make much louder calls than those in other habitats, and several such species are shown. Saddlebacks vary their calls so that even individuals from different areas can be identified. The dawn chorus provides a mystery, as there is still much to learn about why so many different birds sing together at the same time of day. (Proclaiming territory or attracting mates are two likely reasons.) Finally, Attenborough introduces the superb lyrebird as one of the most versatile performers: it is a skilled mimic, and this particular one imitates not only other species, but also cameras, a car alarm and a chain saw.
7. "Finding Partners"
Broadcast 2 December 1998, this programme discusses mating rituals. If a male bird is on the lookout for a partner and has a suitable nest, it must advertise the fact, either by its call, a visual display or both. The frigatebird provides an example of the latter, with its inflated throat pouch. The hornbill's courtship, among that of many others, also runs to the offer of a gift. For some species, dancing can also be an important component, and grebes are shown performing a pas de deux. The cock-of-the-rock, which dances solo within a group, is contrasted with the team performance of the manakin. Once trust has been established between a pair, mutual preening can follow. After mating, the individuals usually remain together to rear their eventual family. The Temminck's Tragopan with its beautiful and colorful neck, the Himalayan Monal with glowing feather's colors and the huge tailed great argus to the peacock with its colorful and huge tail.
In this regard, the rhea and the phalarope are highlighted as unusual because in both instances, it is the male that incubates the eggs. Some females judge a prospective companion on its nest-building ability, and this is a conspicuous part of the weaver's behaviour. The bowerbird puts on one of the most elaborate displays: a hut-like construction, completed by a collection of objects designed to impress. Competition among males can be fierce and in Scotland, Attenborough observes rival capercaillies engaging in battle — after one of them chases the presenter. Avian polyandry is not widespread, but is illustrated by the superb fairy-wren, where the male's family can easily comprise young that it did not father.
8. "The Demands of the Egg"
Broadcast 9 December 1998, this episode explores the lengths to which birds will go to ensure that their chicks are brought into the world. Attenborough begins on an island in the Seychelles, where sooty terns, which have hitherto spent their lives on the wing, have landed to lay their eggs. This is a necessity for birds, as eggs are too heavy to be borne in the air for any considerable length of time. It is imperative that nests are kept as far away from predators as possible, and unusual locations for them are shown, such as: behind the water curtain of Iguazu Falls in South America (as chosen by swifts), cliffs on Argentina's coast favoured by parrots, an ants' nest occupied by a woodpecker, and a tree hole inside which a female hornbill seals itself. Eggs require warmth, and some nests are insulated by the owners' feathers, others from ones found elsewhere. External temperatures dictate how the eggs are incubated. The snowy owl has to do so itself, because of its habitat; however, the maleo is able to take advantage of solar heating. The amount of eggs laid also varies: for example, the kiwi lays just one, whereas the blue tit will deposit many. Their mottled surface serves to camouflage them. Birds that steal eggs include toucans and currawongs. A number of strategies are employed to deter the thieves, as illustrated by the yellow-rumped thornbill, which builds a decoy nest atop its actual one, and the plover, which distracts marauders by feigning injury.
9. "The Problems of Parenthood"
Broadcast 16 December 1998, the penultimate installment concentrates on the ways in which birds rear their offspring. Having successfully incubated their eggs, the moment arrives when they hatch — and then the real challenge begins: feeding the chicks. Lapland buntings and dippers are shown doing so virtually non-stop throughout the day. The Gouldian finch has a further problem in that its tree-hollow nest is dark inside, so its young have conspicuous markings inside their mouths for identification. Grebes are fed feathers with which to line the stomach, and so protect it from fish bones. Coots and pelicans are among those that turn on their own and force death by starvation if there is insufficient food. The European cuckoo tricks other species into raising its chick, but it is by no means alone in doing this. Protecting a family is also a priority, and brent geese are shown nesting close to snowy owls as a means of insurance, but as soon as the eggs hatch, they and their young must flee to avoid giving their neighbours an easy meal. The million or so sooty terns in the Seychelles prove that there is safety in numbers and the nearby predatory egrets have little success when attempting to steal. The behaviour of Arabian babblers is more akin to that of a troop of monkeys: they do everything for the benefit of a group as a whole. Eventually the day will come when flight beckons, and the grown bird will leave the nest to start a family of its own.
10. "The Limits of Endurance"
Broadcast 23 December 1998, the final programme investigates the challenges that must be surmounted if birds are to survive. The sandgrouse is a species that has adapted to desert living: its breast feathers are capable of absorbing water, which it can pass on to its young. The crab plover also nests in the sand, and burrows until it finds a comfortable temperature. Birds that choose remote places can proliferate hugely, like the flamingos on an African soda lake. Meanwhile, during winter, the entire world population of spectacled eiders can be found in just a few assemblies on patches of the Arctic Ocean. The city is a relatively recent habitat, but many have become accustomed to it, such as the American black vultures in São Paulo. In Japan, crows have learned to crack nuts by dropping them on to pedestrian crossings — and waiting for the traffic to stop before collecting them. In North America, purple martins have become totally dependent on humans for their nest sites. Attenborough highlights man's influence by describing the Pacific island of Guam, whose bird population was wiped out following the accidental introduction of brown tree snakes during the 1940s. Examples of species that were hunted to extinction are the huia, the great auk and, most famously, the dodo. However, there are conservation efforts being made, such as those for Australia's orange-bellied parrot, the pink pigeon and the echo parakeet (the latter two both of Mauritius).
DVD and book
The series is available in the UK for Regions 2 and 4 as a three-disc DVD (BBCDVD1020, released 4 December 2000) and as part of The Life Collection. Each episode features additional footage, accessed separately.
The accompanying book, The Life of Birds by David Attenborough, was published by BBC Books on 24 September 1998.
References
External links
The Life of Birds at the PBS Television website
The Life of Birds on the Eden website
1998 British television series debuts
1998 British television series endings
BBC television documentaries
Documentary films about nature
Films about birds
Ornithology
Peabody Award-winning television programs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caecilian
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Caecilian
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() are a group of limbless, vermiform (worm-shaped) or serpentine (snake-shaped) amphibians with small or sometimes nonexistent eyes. They mostly live hidden in soil or in streambeds, and this cryptic lifestyle renders caecilians among the least familiar amphibians. Modern caecilians live in the tropics of South and Central America, Africa, and southern Asia. Caecilians feed on small subterranean creatures such as earthworms. The body is cylindrical and often darkly coloured, and the skull is bullet-shaped and strongly built. Caecilian heads have several unique adaptations, including fused cranial and jaw bones, a two-part system of jaw muscles, and a chemosensory tentacle in front of the eye. The skin is slimy and bears ringlike markings or grooves, which may contain tiny scales.
Modern caecilians are grouped as a clade, Apoda , one of three living amphibian groups alongside Anura (frogs) and Urodela (salamanders). Apoda is a crown group, encompassing modern, entirely limbless caecilians. There are more than 200 living species of caecilian distributed across 10 families. Many herpetologists name the caecilian total group as the order Gymnophiona , which includes Apoda as well as a few extinct stem-group caecilians (amphibians related to modern caecilians but evolving prior to the crown group). Gymnophiona as a name derives from the Greek words / and / , as the caecilians were originally thought to be related to snakes. The proper application of the names Apoda and Gymnophiona has been a matter of strong debate. Gymnophionomorpha is another name which has been applied to the caecilian total group.
The study of caecilian evolution is complicated by their poor fossil record and specialized anatomy. Genetic evidence and some anatomical details (such as pedicellate teeth) support the idea that frogs, salamanders, and caecilians (collectively known as lissamphibians) are each others' closest relatives. Frogs and salamanders show many similarities to dissorophoids, a group of extinct amphibians in the order Temnospondyli. Caecilians are more controversial; many studies extend dissorophoid ancestry to caecilians. Some studies have instead argued that caecilians descend from extinct lepospondyl or stereospondyl amphibians, contradicting evidence for lissamphibian monophyly (common ancestry). Rare fossils of early gymnophionans such as Eocaecilia and Funcusvermis have helped to test the various conflicting hypotheses for the relationships between caecilians and other living and extinct amphibians.
Description
Caecilians anatomy is highly adapted for a burrowing lifestyle. They completely lack limbs, making the smaller species resemble worms, while the larger species like Caecilia thompsoni, with lengths up to , resemble snakes. Their tails are short or absent, and their cloacae are near the ends of their bodies.
Except for one lungless species, Atretochoana eiselti, all caecilians have lungs, but also use their skin or mouths for oxygen absorption. Often, the left lung is much smaller than the right one, an adaptation to body shape that is also found in snakes.
Their muscles are adapted to pushing their way through the ground, with the skeleton and deep muscles acting as a piston inside the skin and outer muscles. This allows the animal to anchor its hind end in position, and force the head forwards, and then pull the rest of the body up to reach it in waves. In water or very loose mud, caecilians instead swim in an eel-like fashion. Caecilians in the family Typhlonectidae are aquatic, and the largest of their kind. The representatives of this family have a fleshy fin running along the rear section of their bodies, which enhances propulsion in water.
Skull and senses
Caecilians have small or absent eyes, with only a single known class of photoreceptors, and their vision is limited to dark-light perception. Unlike other modern amphibians (frogs and salamanders) the skull is compact and solid, with few large openings between plate-like cranial bones. The snout is pointed and bullet-shaped, used to force their way through soil or mud. In most species the mouth is recessed under the head, so that the snout overhangs the mouth.
The bones in the skull are reduced in number compared to prehistoric amphibian species. Many bones of the skull are fused together: the maxilla and palatine bones have fused into a maxillopalatine in all living caecilians, and the nasal and premaxilla bones fuse into a nasopremaxilla in some families. Some families can be differentiated by the presence of absence of certain skull bones, such as the septomaxillae, prefrontals, an/or a postfrontal-like bone surrounding the orbit (eye socket). The braincase is encased in a fully integrated compound bone called the os basale, which takes up most of the rear and lower parts of the skull. In skulls viewed from above, a mesethmoid bone may be visible in some species, wedging into the midline of the skull roof.
All caecilians have a pair of unique sensory structures, known as tentacles, located on either side of the head between the eyes and nostrils. These are probably used for a second olfactory capability, in addition to the normal sense of smell based in the nose.
The ringed caecilian (Siphonops annulatus) has dental glands that may be homologous to the venom glands of some snakes and lizards. The function of these glands is unknown.
The middle ear consists of only the stapes bone and the oval window, which transfer vibrations into the inner ear through a reentrant fluid circuit as seen in some reptiles. Species within the family Scolecomorphidae lack both a stapes and an oval window, making them the only known amphibians missing all the components of a middle ear apparatus.
The lower jaw is specialized in caecilians. Gymnophionans, including extinct species, have only two components of the jaw: the pseudodentary (at the front, bearing teeth) and pseudoangular (at the back, bearing the jaw joint and muscle attachments). These two components are what remains following fusion between a larger set of bones. An additional inset tooth row with up to 20 teeth lies parallel to the main marginal tooth row of the jaw.
All but the most primitive caecilians have two sets of muscles for closing the jaw, compared with the single pair found in other amphibians. One set of muscles, the adductors, insert into the upper edge of the pseudoangular in front of the jaw joint. Adductor muscles are commonplace in vertebrates, and close the jaw by pulling upwards and forwards. A more unique set of muscles, the abductors, insert into the rear edge of the pseudoangular below and behind the jaw joint. They close the jaw by pulling backwards and downwards. Jaw muscles are more highly developed in the most efficient burrowers among the caecilians, and appear to help keep the skull and jaw rigid.
Skin
Their skin is smooth and usually dark, but some species have colourful skins. Inside the skin are calcite scales. Because of these scales, the caecilians were once thought to be related to the fossil Stegocephalia, but they are now believed to be a secondary development, and the two groups are most likely unrelated. Scales are absent in the families Scolecomorphidae and Typhlonectidae, except the species Typhlonectes compressicauda where minute scales have been found in the hinder region of the body. The skin also has numerous ring-shaped folds, or annuli, that partially encircle the body, giving them a segmented appearance. Like some other living amphibians, the skin contains glands that secrete a toxin to deter predators. The skin secretions of Siphonops paulensis have been shown to have hemolytic properties.
Distribution
Caecilians are native to wet, tropical regions of Southeast Asia, India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, parts of East and West Africa, the Seychelles Islands in the Indian Ocean, Central America, and in northern and eastern South America. In Africa, caecilians are found from Guinea-Bissau (Geotrypetes) to southern Malawi (Scolecomorphus), with an unconfirmed record from eastern Zimbabwe. They have not been recorded from the extensive areas of tropical forest in central Africa. In South America, they extend through subtropical eastern Brazil well into temperate northern Argentina. They can be seen as far south as Buenos Aires, when they are carried by the flood waters of the Paraná River coming from farther north. Their American range extends north to southern Mexico. The northernmost distribution is of the species Ichthyophis sikkimensis of northern India. Ichthyophis is also found in South China and Northern Vietnam. In Southeast Asia, they are found as far east as Java, Borneo, and the southern Philippines, but they have not crossed Wallace's line and are not present in Australia or nearby islands. There are no known caecilians in Madagascar, but their presence in the Seychelles and India has led to speculation on the presence of undiscovered extinct or extant caecilians there.
In 2021, a live specimen of Typhlonectes natans, a caecilian native to Colombia and Venezuela, was collected from a drainage canal in South Florida. It was the only caecilian ever reported in the wild in the United States, and is considered to be an introduction, perhaps from the wildlife trade. Whether a breeding population has been established in the area is unknown.
Taxonomy
The name caecilian derives from the Latin word caecus, meaning "blind", referring to the small or sometimes nonexistent eyes. The name dates back to the taxonomic name of the first species described by Carl Linnaeus, which he named Caecilia tentaculata.
There has historically been disagreement over the use of the two primary scientific names for caecilians, Apoda and Gymnophiona. Some specialists prefer to use the name Gymnophiona to refer to the "crown group", that is, the group containing all modern caecilians and extinct members of these modern lineages. They sometimes use the name Apoda to refer to the total group, that is, all caecilians and caecilian-like amphibians that are more closely related to modern groups than to frogs or salamanders. However, many scientists have advocated for the reverse arrangement, where Apoda is used as the name for modern caecilian groups. Some have argued that this use makes more sense, because the name "Apoda" means "without feet", and this is a feature associated mainly with modern species (some stem-group caecilian-like amphibians, such as Eocaecilia, had legs). The name "Gymniophonomorpha" has been proposed to avert this disagreement, acting as the total group with Gymnophiona as the crown group.
A classification of caecilians by Wilkinson et al. (2011) divided the caecilians into 9 families containing nearly 200 species. In 2012, a tenth caecilian family was newly described, Chikilidae. This classification is based on a thorough definition of monophyly based on morphological and molecular evidence, and it solves the longstanding problems of paraphyly of the Caeciliidae in previous classifications without an exclusive reliance upon synonymy. There are 219 species of caecilian in 33 genera and 10 families.
The most recent phylogeny of caecilians is based on molecular mitogenomic evidence examined by San Mauro et al. (2014), and modified to include some more recently described genera such as Amazops.
Evolution
Little is known of the evolutionary history of the caecilians, which have left a very sparse fossil record. The first fossil, a vertebra dated to the Paleocene, was not discovered until 1972. Other vertebrae, which have characteristic features unique to modern species, were later found in Paleocene and Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) sediments.
Phylogenetic evidence suggests that the ancestors of caecilians and batrachians (including frogs and salamanders) diverged from one another during the Carboniferous. This leaves a gap of more than 70 million years between the presumed origins of caecilians and the earliest definitive fossils of stem-caecilians.
Prior to 2023, the earliest fossil attributed to a stem-caecilian (an amphibian closer to caecilians than to frogs or salamanders but not a member of the extant caecilian lineage) comes from the Jurassic period. This primitive genus, Eocaecilia, had small limbs and well-developed eyes. In their 2008 description of the Early Permian amphibian Gerobatrachus, Anderson and co-authors suggested that caecilians arose from the Lepospondyl group of ancestral tetrapods, and may be more closely related to amniotes than to frogs and salamanders, which arose from Temnospondyl ancestors. Numerous groups of lepospondyls evolved reduced limbs, elongated bodies, and burrowing behaviors, and morphological studies on Permian and Carboniferous lepospondyls have placed the early caecilian (Eocaecilia) among these groups. Divergent origins of caecilians and other extant amphibians may help explain the slight discrepancy between fossil dates for the origins of modern Amphibia, which suggest Permian origins, and the earlier dates, in the Carboniferous, predicted by some molecular clock studies of DNA sequences. Most morphological and molecular studies of extant amphibians, however, support monophyly for caecilians, frogs, and salamanders, and the most recent molecular study based on multi-locus data suggest a Late Carboniferous–Early Permian origin of extant amphibians.
Chinlestegophis, a stereospondyl temnospondyl from the Late Triassic Chinle Formation of Colorado, was proposed to be a stem-caecilian in a 2017 paper by Pardo and co-authors. If confirmed, this would bolster the proposed pre-Triassic origin of Lissamphibia suggested by molecular clocks. It would fill a gap in the fossil record of early caecilians and suggest that stereospondyls as a whole qualify as stem-group caecilians. However, affinities between Chinlestegophis and gymnophionans have been disputed along several lines of evidence. A 2020 study questioned the choice of characters supporting the relationship, and a 2019 reanalysis of the original data matrix found that other equally parsimonious positions were supported for the placement of Chinlestegophis and gymnophionans among tetrapods.
A 2023 paper by Kligman and co-authors described Funcusvermis, another amphibian from the Chinle Formation of Arizona. Funcusvermis was strongly supported as a stem group caecilian based on traits of its numerous skull and jaw fragments, the largest sample of caecilian fossils known. The paper discussed the various hypotheses for caecilian origins: the polyphyly hypothesis (caecilians as lepospondyls, and other lissamphibians as temnospondyls), the lepospondyl hypothesis (lissamphibians as lepospondyls), and the newer hypothesis supported by Chinlestegophis, where caecilians and other lissamphibians had separate origins within temnospondyls. Nevertheless, all of these ideas were refuted, and the most strongly supported hypothesis combined lissamphibians into a monophyletic group of dissorophoid temnospondyls closely related to Gerobatrachus.
Behavior
Reproduction
Caecilians are the only order of amphibians to use internal insemination exclusively (although most salamanders have internal fertilization and the tailed frog in the US uses a tail-like appendage for internal insemination in its fast-flowing water environment). The male caecilians have a long tube-like intromittent organ, the phallodeum, which is inserted into the cloaca of the female for two to three hours. About 25% of the species are oviparous (egg-laying); the eggs are laid in terrestrial nests rather than in water and are guarded by the female. For some species, the young caecilians are already metamorphosed when they hatch; others hatch as larvae. The larvae are not fully aquatic, but spend the daytime in the soil near the water.
About 75% of caecilians are viviparous, meaning they give birth to already-developed offspring. The foetus is fed inside the female with cells lining the oviduct, which they eat with special scraping teeth. Some larvae, such as those of Typhlonectes, are born with enormous external gills which are shed almost immediately.
The egg-laying herpelid species Boulengerula taitana feeds its young by developing an outer layer of skin, high in fat and other nutrients, which the young peel off with modified teeth. This allows them to grow by up to 10 times their own weight in a week. The skin is consumed every three days, the time it takes for a new layer to grow, and the young have only been observed to eat it at night. It was formerly thought that the juveniles subsisted only on a liquid secretion from their mothers. This form of parental care, known as maternal dermatophagy, has also been reported in two species in the family Siphonopidae: Siphonops annulatus and Microcaecilia dermatophaga. Siphonopids and herpelids are not closely related to each other, having diverged in the Cretaceous Period. The presence of maternal dermatophagy in both families suggest that it may be more widespread among caecilians than previously considered.
Herpele squalostoma caecilians vertically transmit the mother's microbiome to their offspring through maternal dermatophagy. In comparison to other amphibians, the extended parenting of caecilians can provide beneficial bacteria and fungi, but this transmission risks the spread of diseases like chytridiomycosis.
Diet
While caecilians are generally carnivorous, their diet differs between taxa. The stomach contents of wild caecilians include earthworms, termites, lizards, moth larvae, and shrimp. Some species of caecilians will opportunistically consume newborn rodents, salmon eggs, and veal in laboratory conditions.
Cultural significance
As caecilians are a reclusive group, they are only featured in a few human myths, and are generally considered repulsive in traditional customs.
In the folklore of certain regions of India, caecilians are feared and reviled, based on the belief that they are fatally venomous. Caecilians in the Eastern Himalayas are colloquially known as "back ache snakes", while in the Western Ghats, Ichthyophis tricolor is considered to be more toxic than a king cobra. Despite deep cultural respect for the cobra and other dangerous animals, the caecilian is killed on sight by salt and kerosene. These myths have complicated conservation initiatives for Indian caecilians.
Crotaphatrema lamottei, a rare species native to Mount Oku in Cameroon, is classified as a Kefa-ntie (burrowing creature) by the Oku. Kefa-ntie, a term also encompassing native moles and blind snakes, are considered poisonous, causing painful sores if encountered, contacted, or killed. According to Oku tradition, the ceremony to cleanse the affliction involves a potion composed of ground herbs, palm oil, snail shells, and chicken blood applied to and licked off of the left thumb.
South American caecilians have a variable relationship to local cultures. The minhocão, a legendary worm-like beast in Brazilian folklore, may be inspired by caecilians. Colombian folklore states that the aquatic caecilian, Typhlonectes natans, can be manifested from a lock of hair sealed in a sunken bottle. In southern Mexico and Central America, Dermophis mexicanus is colloquially known as the "tapalcua", a name referencing the belief that it emerges to embed itself in the rear end of any unsuspecting person who chooses to relieve themself over its home. This may be inspired by their tendency to nest in refuse heaps.
See also
Caecilians of the Western Ghats
References
External links
Mesozoic amphibians
Hettangian first appearances
Extant Early Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Johannes Peter Müller
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PASOK
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PASOK
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The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (, ), known mostly by its acronym PASOK, (; , ) is a social-democratic political party in Greece. Until 2012 it was one of the two major parties in the country, along with New Democracy, its main political rival.
Following the collapse of the Greek military dictatorship of 1967–1974, PASOK was founded on 3 September 1974 as a socialist party.
Formerly the largest left-wing party in Greece between 1977 and 2012, PASOK lost much of its popular support as a result of the Greek debt crisis. PASOK was the ruling party when the economic crisis began, and it negotiated the first Greek bailout package with the European troika, which necessitated harsh austerity measures. This caused a significant loss in the party's popularity. It was part of two coalition governments from 2011 to 2015, during which further austerity measures were taken in response to the crisis. Due to these measures and the crisis, PASOK went from being the largest party in the Hellenic Parliament with 160 seats (43.92% of the popular vote) in the 2009 election to being the smallest party with 13 seats (4.68% of the popular vote) in the January 2015 election. This decline became known as Pasokification.
To halt the party's decline, Fofi Gennimata was elected as the new president of the party and formed a political alliance known as the Democratic Alignment (DISY). In the September 2015 election, DISY was the fourth most voted-for party. In 2018, PASOK merged into a new political alliance of centre-left parties, again led by Gennimata, called the Movement for Change (KINAL), becoming the third largest party in the parliament in the 2019 election.
History
Foundation
The first members of the party were the main organizers of the collapse of the military junta of 1967–1974 and the re-establishment of democracy on 3 September 1974. Its founder was Andreas Papandreou, son of the late Greek liberal leader and three-time Prime Minister of Greece Georgios Papandreou Sr, and its co-founder was trade unionist Georgios Daskalakis. Its founding mottos were "National Independence, Popular Sovereignty, Social Emancipation, Democratic Process." Andreas Papandreou was offered the leadership of the liberal political forces immediately after the restoration of democracy, but in a risky move he declined, so the leadership was assumed by Georgios Mavros. Papandreou, a powerful orator and charismatic leader, explicitly rejected the Venizelist ideological heritage of his father, and stressed the fact that he was a socialist, not a liberal.
Early years
At the November 1974 elections the Party received only 13.5% of the vote and won 15 seats (out of 300), coming third behind the centre-right New Democracy of Konstantinos Karamanlis and the Centre Union – New Forces (EK-ND) of Giorgos Mavros. At the November 1977 elections, however, PASOK eclipsed the EK-ND, doubled its share of the vote and won 93 seats, becoming the main opposition party.
In government
At the October 1981 national elections the PASOK won a landslide victory with 48.1% of the vote and capturing 172 seats; it formed the first socialist government in Greece since 1924. Although Papandreou had campaigned for withdrawal of Greece from NATO and the European Economic Community, after a strong request by the rest of the party members and its supporters, changed his policy towards both institutions. He proved to be an excellent negotiator when it came to securing benefits and subsidies for Greece from the EEC. For example, in 1985 he openly threatened Jacques Delors to veto the entry of Spain and Portugal in the Community to secure more monetary aid for Greece.
In 1986, the PASOK government amended the Greek constitution to remove most powers from the President and give wider authority to the Prime Minister and the Executive Government. Civil marriages, not consecrated by religious ceremony, were recognized as equally valid with religious weddings. The left-wing Resistance movement against the Axis in World War II was finally formally recognized, and former leftist resistance fighters were given state pensions, while leftist political refugees of the Greek Civil War were finally given permission to return to Greece. The National Health System was created and various repressive laws of the anti-communist postwar establishment were abolished, wages were boosted, an independent and multidimensional foreign policy was pursued, many reforms in family law to strengthen the rights of women were undertaken and the Greek Gendarmerie was abolished in 1984. At the June 1985 elections, PASOK received 46% of the vote and won 161 seats, thus securing a stable parliamentary majority for its second term in power.
It continued to be popular for much of its second term, especially in March 1987 when Andreas Papandreou successfully handled a crisis in the Aegean with Turkey. By late 1988, however, both the government's popularity and Papandreou's health had declined. The former, because of press reports of financial and corruption scandals that surfaced, implicating Ministers and, allegedly, Andreas Papandreou himself as well as because of fiscal austerity measures imposed after the Keynesian policies of the first term. PASOK lost the June 1989 elections with 40% of the vote while the opposing New Democracy received 44.3%. PASOK had changed the electoral law before the elections, making it harder for the leading party to form a majority government, so the legislature was deadlocked.
Another election in November produced a very similar result. After a brief period of a grand coalition government, in which PASOK participated, a third election in April 1990 brought New Democracy back to power. Despite a 7% lead in popular vote over PASOK, New Democracy could only secure a marginal majority in the Hellenic Parliament, electing 152 MPs out of a total of 300; PASOK had secured a larger number of representatives on a lower percentage of votes, as well as a small overall lead, in the elections of 1985, under the previous electoral system. Its representation in the Parliament shrunk to 121 MPs in 1990.
In opposition, PASOK underwent a leadership crisis when Andreas Papandreou was prosecuted over his supposed involvement in the Bank of Crete scandal. He was eventually acquitted and, in a dramatic reversal of fortunes, at the October 1993 elections he led the party to another landslide victory. Papandreou returned to office with 47% of the vote and his re-election was considered by many a vote of confidence of the public against his prosecution. In November 1995, however, Papandreou's health began to deteriorate and the Party was racked with leadership conflicts.
Modernization period
In January 1996 Andreas Papandreou retired after a protracted three-month-long hospitalization, during which he retained the role of Prime Minister; he died six months later. He was succeeded by Costas Simitis, the candidate of the modernising, pro-European wing of PASOK (the so-called "modernizers", εκσυγχρονιστές eksynchronistes), who won an internal vote against Akis Tsochatzopoulos, a Papandreou confidant. In the first days following his election, Costas Simitis faced the biggest crisis in Greek politics for over 20 years, with the Imia crisis. He was criticized for his soft stance against Turkey and especially for praising in public the American intervention on the issue.
In a PASOK conference held in the summer of 1996, following Andreas Papandreou's death, Costas Simitis was elected leader of the party and called early elections seeking a renewed public vote of confidence. Although the Imia crisis had somewhat tarnished his image, the country's economic prosperity and his matter-of-fact administration won him the September 1996 general election with a 41.5% of the vote. Under Costas Simitis' leadership, PASOK had two major successes: In September 1997 Greece won the right to stage the 2004 Summer Olympic Games and in 2001 it was confirmed that the country would be included in the Eurozone, for which it had failed to meet the convergence criteria in 1998. Costas Simitis won another term in April 2000, narrowly winning with 43.8% of the vote and 158 seats: a substantial achievement for a Party which had been in power almost continuously for nearly 20 years.
In 2000, after the assassination of Brigadier Saunders by the terrorist group 17 November (17N), and especially with the forthcoming Athens Olympics being a major terrorist target, a significant international pressure was exerted on PASOK to recognise that Greece had a terrorist problem and do everything possible to bring the terrorist group to justice. Some among the western media had even falsely accusing the party of colluding with the terrorists, due to the fact that the authorities were unable to arrest the terrorists. Under the guidance of British and U.S. experts, the government intensified its efforts and finally, with a string of events starting at 29 June 2002, the 17N members were captured and put to trial.
Under the leadership of George Papandreou
Nevertheless, the party was losing its traditional appeal to the Greek lower and middle classes. To revitalize the party's chances for the next elections, Costas Simitis announced his resignation as the leader of the party on 7 January 2004. He was succeeded by George Papandreou, son of Andreas Papandreou. The party members were expecting that Papandreou could reverse the slide in the opinion polls which saw the opposition New Democracy (ND), under Kostas Karamanlis, 7% ahead at the start of the year.
Although Papandreou reduced ND's lead in the polls to 3%, he was unable to reverse the view of the majority of Greek voters that PASOK had been in power too long and had grown lazy, corrupt and had abandoned the inclusive and progressive principles of economic parity on which it was founded. ND had a comfortable win at the 2004 legislative elections held on 7 March 2004, placing the party in opposition after eleven years in office with 40.55% share of the vote and 117 seats.
On 16 September 2007, New Democracy headed by Costas Karamanlis won re-election with a marginal majority of 152 seats in the Parliament. Despite ND's falling performance in the 2007 legislative election, PASOK suffered a crushing defeat, registering 38.1% of the vote, its lowest percentage in almost 30 years, and 102 seats in the Hellenic Parliament.
The dismal result led to activation of the procedure to select a new leadership, or to reaffirm the current one. The main candidates for the leadership were the incumbent George Papandreou and the Party's informal second in command, Evangelos Venizelos. M.P. for Thessaloniki. M.P. Kostas Skandalidis also announced his candidacy in September. According to Party regulation, leaders are elected in a voting process open to all members. During the leadership election of 11 November 2007 George Papandreou was re-elected by the friends and members of the party as its leader.
In June 2009, the PASOK won the 2009 European Parliament election in Greece. Four months later, the Party enjoyed a resounding victory in the October 2009 general elections with 43.92% of the popular vote to ND's 33.48%, and 160 parliament seats to 91. Due to a number of defections and expulsions after 2009, by November 2011 PASOK held a slim majority of 152 of the parliament's 300 seats.
Decline (2009–2015)
A poll in October 2011 on behalf of the Greek TV channel Skai TV and the newspaper Kathimerini (after the austerity measures that were taken to tackle the financial crisis) revealed that of the people asked, 92% felt disappointed by the government while only 5% believed that a PASOK government would be best for the nation in the next elections. In the same survey, when asked about whether people have a positive or negative opinion of the various political parties in Greece, PASOK scored as the lowest, with 76% answering "negative".
Because of the financial crisis and the measures that were taken by the party from 2009 to 2012, PASOK, having been the largest party in the outgoing coalition government, achieved only third place with a mere 13.18%, retaining just 41 seats.
After the elections of 6 May 2012, the President of Greece, Karolos Papoulias, mandated New Democracy leader Antonis Samaras to form a coalition government. On 7 May 2012, Samaras gave up the attempt and on the following day, President Papoulias mandated Alexis Tsipras, president of the Synaspismos political party and head of the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) parliamentary group. After Tsipras was also unable to form a government, Evangelos Venizelos was mandated, but he too had no success. The legislative elections of June 2012 resulted in a further reduction in PASOK's popular support, probably as a result of the unpopular memorandum signed by former Prime Minister George Papandreou with the IMF, European Commission and European Central Bank. PASOK's share of the overall vote was its worst ever showing since the party was formed (12.28%). However PASOK decided to help the formation of a government by joining with New Democracy (ND) as well as the Democratic Left (DIMAR) of Fotis Kouvelis in a coalition under Prime Minister Samaras.
To contest the 2014 European election, PASOK founded the Olive Tree electoral alliance on 7 March 2014. In the May 2014 European elections, the Olive Tree list came in fourth place nationally, receiving 8.02% of the vote, electing 2 MEPs.
On 29 December 2014, following the failure of the government to elect a presidential candidate, a snap January 2015 legislative election was called by Prime Minister Samaras, scheduled for 25 January 2015.
2015 legislative elections
On 2 January 2015, in the run-up to the legislative election, former Prime Minister and PASOK leader George Papandreou announced the formation of a breakaway party called Movement of Democratic Socialists (KIDISO), a move immediately condemned by PASOK officials. Five PASOK members of the Hellenic Parliament were expected to join the new party, including the former ministers Philippos Sachinidis and Dimitris Reppas.
In the 25 January 2015 legislative election, PASOK received 4.7% of the vote, with mandate for 13 seats in the Hellenic Parliament.
On 30 August 2015, ahead of the upcoming September snap election, PASOK announced an electoral alliance with DIMAR, dubbed the Democratic Alignment (DISY).
In the September 2015 legislative election on 20 September 2015, the Democratic Alignment (DISY) received 6.3% of the vote, and 17 seats.
Under KINAL (2017–2021)
On 12 November 2017, an open primary was used as the first round of elections to select the leader of a new, as yet unfounded centre-left party in which PASOK would be folded. Nine initial leadership candidates include PASOK leader Fofi Gennimata, The River leader Stavros Theodorakis and incumbent Athens mayor Giorgos Kaminis. Reaching the second-round election were Gennimata, with 44.5% of the vote, and PASOK MEP Nikos Androulakis with 25.4%. The run-off election on 19 November was won by Gennimata with 56% of the vote. On 28 November 2017, the name of the new party was announced as "Movement for Change" (), abbreviated to KINAL (ΚΙΝΑΛ).
On 2 July 2018, The River left KINAL. On 20 January 2019, DIMAR also left KINAL due to its position of supporting the Prespa agreement. On 1 June 2019 former PASOK leader Evangelos Venizelos left KINAL, accusing Gennimata of turning the Movement into "SYRIZA's tail".
KINAL increased its obtained seats in the 2019 Greek legislative election compared to Democratic Alignment, becoming Greece's third-largest party or coalition and securing 22 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. Following the election, KINAL positioned itself into opposition to the new Mitsotakis Government.
Gennimata died on 25 October 2021 at the Evangelismos Hospital in Athens from cancer.
Elections for the new leader took place in December 2021, with the main candidates being Andreas Loverdos, Nikos Androulakis, and George Papandreou. Nikos Androulakis was elected to the leadership of both KINAL and PASOK on 12 December 2021.
Return of PASOK
On 9 May 2022, the alliance was rebranded back to "PASOK – Movement for Change" (PASOK–KINAL) after an internal party referendum, becoming a political party in its own right and absorbing the original party incarnation. The old PASOK emblem (the green sun) was restored soon after that.
At the May 2023 election, PASOK–KINAL managed to increase both its vote percentage by 3.36% and its share of seats in the Hellenic Parliament from 22 to 41. This increase, in combination with the electoral decline of Syriza, has raised hopes among members that the party will regain its former status as the largest opposition party.
International and European links
PASOK is a member of the Socialist International, the Progressive Alliance and the Party of European Socialists. PASOK MEPs sit with the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D) group in the European Parliament.
Pasokification refers to the decline and rightward political shift of centre-left parties across Europe.
Election results
Hellenic Parliament
European Parliament
Party leaders
Gallery
See also
Terrorism in Greece
PASOKification
History of Greece
List of political parties in Greece
Socialism in Greece
Politics of Greece
Party of European Socialists
Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats
Socialist International
Notes
References
Dimitris Michalopoulos, "PASOK and the Eastern Block", in Greece under Socialism, New Rochelle, New York: Orpheus Publishing Inc., 1988, pp. 339–337.
External links
Political parties established in 1974
1974 establishments in Greece
Social democratic parties in Greece
Full member parties of the Socialist International
Progressive Alliance
Party of European Socialists member parties
Greek irredentism
1970s in Greek politics
1980s in Greek politics
1990s in Greek politics
2000s in Greek politics
2010s in Greek politics
Pro-European political parties in Greece
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumbh%20Mela
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Kumbh Mela
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Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela () is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism. It is celebrated in a cycle of approximately 12 years, to celebrate every revolution Brihaspati (Jupiter) completes, at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: Prayagraj (Ganges-Yamuna-Sarasvati rivers confluence), Haridwar (Ganges), Nashik (Godavari), and Ujjain (Shipra). The festival is marked by a ritual dip in the waters, but it is also a celebration of community commerce with numerous fairs, education, religious discourses by saints, mass gatherings of monks, and entertainment. The seekers believe that bathing in these rivers is a means to prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for past mistakes, and that it cleanses them of their sins.
The festival is traditionally credited to the 8th-century Hindu philosopher and saint Adi Shankara, as a part of his efforts to start major Hindu gatherings for philosophical discussions and debates along with Hindu monasteries across the Indian subcontinent. However, there is no historical literary evidence of these mass pilgrimages called "Kumbha Mela" prior to the 19th century. There is ample evidence in historical manuscripts and inscriptions of an annual Magha Mela in Hinduism – with periodic larger gatherings after 6 or 12 years – where pilgrims gathered in massive numbers and where one of the rituals included a sacred dip in a river or holy tank. According to Kama MacLean, the socio-political developments during the colonial era and a reaction to Orientalism led to the rebranding and remobilisation of the ancient Magha Mela as the modern era Kumbh Mela, particularly after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
The weeks over which the festival is observed cycle at each site approximately once every 12 years based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar and the relative astrological positions of Jupiter, the sun and the moon. The difference in Prayag and Haridwar festivals is about 6 years, and both feature a Maha (major) and Ardha (half) Kumbh Melas. The exact years – particularly for the Kumbh Melas at Ujjain and Nashik – have been a subject of dispute in the 20th century. The Nashik and Ujjain festivals have been celebrated in the same year or one year apart, typically about 3 years after the Allahabad / Prayagraj Kumbh Mela. Elsewhere in many parts of India, similar but smaller community pilgrimage and bathing festivals are called the Magha Mela, Makar Mela or equivalent. For example, in Tamil Nadu, the Magha Mela with water-dip ritual is a festival of antiquity. This festival is held at the Mahamaham tank (near Kaveri river) every 12 years at Kumbakonam, attracts millions of South Indian Hindus and has been described as the Tamil Kumbh Mela. Other places where the Magha-Mela or Makar-Mela bathing pilgrimage and fairs have been called Kumbh Mela include Kurukshetra, Sonipat, and Panauti (Nepal).
The Kumbh Melas have three dates around which the significant majority of pilgrims participate, while the festival itself lasts between one and three months around these dates. Each festival attracts millions, with the largest gathering at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and the second largest at Haridwar. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica and Indian authorities, more than 200 million Hindus gathered for the Kumbh Mela in 2019, including 50 million on the festival's most crowded day. The festival is one of the largest peaceful gatherings in the world, and considered as the "world's largest congregation of religious pilgrims". It has been inscribed on the UNESCO's Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The festival is observed over many days, with the day of Amavasya attracting the largest number on a single day. The Kumbh Mela authorities said that the largest one-day attendance at the Kumbh Mela was 30 million on 10 February 2013, and 50 million on 4 February 2019.
Etymology and nomenclature
The Kumbha in Kumbha Mela literally means "pitcher, jar, pot" in Sanskrit. It is found in the Vedic texts, in this sense, often in the context of holding water or in mythical legends about the nectar of immortality. The word Kumbha or its derivatives are found in the Rigveda (1500–1200 BCE), for example, in verse 10.89.7; verse 19.16 of the Yajurveda, verse 6.3 of Samaveda, verse 19.53.3 of the Atharvaveda, and other Vedic and post-Vedic ancient Sanskrit literature. In astrological texts, the term also refers to the zodiac sign of Aquarius. The astrological etymology dates to late 1st-millennium CE, likely influenced by Greek zodiac ideas.
The word mela means "unite, join, meet, move together, assembly, junction" in Sanskrit, particularly in the context of fairs, community celebration. This word too is found in the Rigveda and other ancient Hindu texts. Thus, Kumbh Mela means an "assembly, meet, union" around "water or nectar of immortality".
Mythology
Many Hindus believe that the Kumbh Mela originated in times immemorial and is attested in the Hindu mythology about Samudra Manthana (lit. churning of the ocean) found in the Vedic texts. Historians, in contrast, reject these claims as none of the ancient or medieval era texts that mention the Samudra Manthana legend ever link it to a "mela" or festival. According to Giorgio Bonazzoli – a scholar of Sanskrit Puranas, these are anachronistic explanations, an adaptation of early legends to a later practice by a "small circle of adherents" who have sought roots of a highly popular pilgrimage and festival.
This Hindu legend describes the creation of a "pot of amrita (nectar of immortality)" after the forces of good and evil churn the ocean of creation. The gods and demons fight over this pot, the "kumbha", of nectar in order to gain immortality. In a later day extension to the legend, the pot is spilled at four places, and that is the origin of the four Kumbha Melas. The story varies and is inconsistent, with some stating Vishnu as Mohini avatar, others stating Dhanavantari or Garuda or Indra spilling the pot. This "spilling" and associated Kumbh Mela story is not found in the earliest mentions of the original legend of Samudra Manthana (churning of the ocean) such as the Vedic era texts (pre-500 BCE). Nor is this story found in the later era Puranas (3rd to 10th-century CE).
While the Kumbha Mela phrase is not found in the ancient or medieval era texts, numerous chapters and verses in Hindu texts are found about a bathing festival, the sacred junction of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and mythical Saraswati at Prayag, and pilgrimage to Prayag. These are in the form of Snana (bathe) ritual and in the form of Prayag Mahatmya (greatness of Prayag, historical tour guides in Sanskrit).
History
The earliest mention of Prayag and the bathing pilgrimage is found in Rigveda Pariśiṣṭa (supplement to the Rigveda). It is also mentioned in the Pali canons of Buddhism, such as in section 1.7 of Majjhima Nikaya, wherein the Buddha states that bathing in Payaga (Skt: Prayaga) cannot wash away cruel and evil deeds, rather the virtuous one should be pure in heart and fair in action. The Mahabharata mentions a bathing pilgrimage at Prayag as a means of prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for past mistakes and guilt. In Tirthayatra Parva, before the great war, the epic states "the one who observes firm [ethical] vows, having bathed at Prayaga during Magha, O best of the Bharatas, becomes spotless and reaches heaven." In Anushasana Parva, after the war, the epic elaborates this bathing pilgrimage as "geographical tirtha" that must be combined with Manasa-tirtha (tirtha of the heart) whereby one lives by values such as truth, charity, self-control, patience and others.
There are other references to Prayaga and river-side festivals in ancient Indian texts, including at the places where present-day Kumbh Melas are held, but the exact age of the Kumbh Mela is uncertain. The 7th-century Buddhist Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) mentions king Harsha and his capital of Prayag, which he states to be a sacred Hindu city with hundreds of "deva temples" and two Buddhist institutions. He also mentions the Hindu bathing rituals at the junction of the rivers. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela, which took place in present-day Prayag in 644 CE.
Kama MacLean – an Indologist who has published articles on the Kumbh Mela predominantly based on the colonial archives and English-language media, states based on emails from other scholars and a more recent interpretation of the 7th-century Xuanzang memoir, the Prayag event happened every 5 years (and not 12 years), featured a Buddha statue, involved alms giving and it might have been a Buddhist festival. In contrast, Ariel Glucklich – a scholar of Hinduism and Anthropology of Religion, the Xuanzang memoir includes, somewhat derisively, the reputation of Prayag as a place where people (Hindus) once committed superstitious devotional suicide to liberate their souls, and how a Brahmin of an earlier era successfully put an end to this practice. This and other details such as the names of temples and bathing pools suggest that Xuanzang presented Hindu practices at Prayag in the 7th-century, from his Buddhist perspective and perhaps to "amuse his audience back in China", states Glucklich.
Other early accounts of the significance of Prayag to Hinduism is found in the various versions of the Prayaga Mahatmya, dated to the late 1st-millennium CE. These Purana-genre Hindu texts describe it as a place "bustling with pilgrims, priests, vendors, beggars, guides" and local citizens busy along the confluence of the rivers (Sangam). These Sanskrit guide books of the medieval era India were updated over its editions, likely by priests and guides who had a mutual stake in the economic returns from the visiting pilgrims. One of the longest sections about Prayag rivers and its significance to Hindu pilgrimage is found in chapters 103–112 of the Matsya Purana.
Evolution of earlier melas to Kumbh Melas
According to James Lochtefeld – a scholar of Indian religions, the phrase Kumbh Mela and historical data about it is missing in early Indian texts. However, states Lochtefeld, these historical texts "clearly reveal large, well-established bathing festivals" that were either annual or based on the twelve-year cycle of planet Jupiter. Manuscripts related to Hindu ascetics and warrior-monks – akharas fighting the Islamic Sultanates and Mughal Empire era – mention bathing pilgrimage and a large periodic assembly of Hindus at religious festivals associated with bathing, gift-giving, commerce and organisation. An early account of the Haridwar Kumbh Mela was published by Captain Thomas Hardwicke in 1796 CE.
According to James Mallinson – a scholar of Hindu yoga manuscripts and monastic institutions, bathing festivals at Prayag with large gatherings of pilgrims are attested since "at least the middle of the first millennium CE", while textual evidence exists for similar pilgrimage at other major sacred rivers since the medieval period. Four of these morphed under the Kumbh Mela brand during the East India Company rule (British colonial era) when it sought to control the war-prone monks and the lucrative tax and trade revenues at these Hindu pilgrimage festivals. Additionally, the priests sought the British administration to recognise the festival and protect their religious rights.
The 16th-century Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas mentions an annual Mela in Prayag, as does a Muslim historian's Ain-i-Akbari (c. 1590 CE). The latter Akbar-era Persian text calls Prayag (spells it Priyag) the "king of shrines" for the Hindus, and mentions that it is considered particularly holy in the Hindu month of Magha. The late 16th-century Tabaqat-i-Akbari also records of an annual bathing festival at Prayag sangam where "various classes of Hindus came from all sides of the country to bathe, in such numbers, that the jungles and plains [around it] were unable to hold them".
The Kumbh Mela of Haridwar appears to be the original Kumbh Mela, since it is held according to the astrological sign "Kumbha" (Aquarius), and because there are several references to a 12-year cycle for it. The later Mughal Empire era texts that contain the term "Kumbha Mela" in Haridwar's context include Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh (1695–1699 CE), and Chahar Gulshan (1759 CE). The Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh also mentions an annual bathing pilgrimage festival in Prayag, but it does not call it Kumbh. Both these Mughal era texts use the term "Kumbh Mela" to describe only Haridwar's fair, mentioning a similar fair held in Prayag and Nashik. The Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh lists the following melas: an annual mela and a Kumbh Mela every 12 years at Haridwar; a mela held at Trimbak when Jupiter enters Leo (that is, once in 12 years); and an annual mela held at Prayag (in modern Prayagraj) in Magh.
Like the Prayag mela, the bathing pilgrimage mela at Nasik and Ujjain are of considerable antiquity. However, these were referred to as Singhasth mela, and the phrase "Kumbh mela" is yet to be found in literature prior to the 19th-century. The phrases such as "Maha Kumbh" and "Ardh Kumbh" in the context of the ancient religious pilgrimage festivals with a different name at Prayag, Nasik and Ujjain are evidently of a more modern era.
The Magh Mela of Prayag is probably the oldest among the four modern day Kumbh Melas. It dates from the early centuries CE, given it has been mentioned in several early Puranas. However, the name Kumbh for these more ancient bathing pilgrimages probably dates to the mid-19th century. D. P. Dubey states that none of the ancient Hindu texts call the Prayag fair as a "Kumbh Mela". Kama Maclean states that the early British records do not mention the name "Kumbh Mela" or the 12-year cycle for the Prayag fair. The first British reference to the Kumbh Mela in Prayag occurs only in an 1868 report, which mentions the need for increased pilgrimage and sanitation controls at the "Coomb fair" to be held in January 1870. According to Maclean, the Prayagwal Brahmin priests of Prayag coopted the Kumbh legend and brand to the annual Prayag Magh Mela given the socio-political circumstances in the 19th-century.
The Kumbh Mela at Ujjain began in the 18th century, when the Maratha ruler Ranoji Shinde invited ascetics from Nashik to Ujjain for a local festival. Like the priests at Prayag, those at Nashik and Ujjain, competing with other places for a sacred status, may have adopted the Kumbh tradition for their pre-existing Magha melas.
Akharas: Warrior monks, recruitment drive and logistics
One of the key features of the Kumbh mela has been the camps and processions of the sadhus (monks). By the 18th-century, many of these had organised into one of thirteen akharas (warrior ascetic bands, monastic militia), of which ten were related to Hinduism and three related to Sikhism. Seven have belonged to the Shaivism tradition, three to Vaishnavism, two to Udasis (founded by Guru Nanak's son) and one to Nirmalas. These soldier-monk traditions have been a well-established feature of the Indian society, and they are prominent feature of the Kumbh melas.
Until the East India Company rule, the Kumbh Melas (Magha Melas) were managed by these akharas. They provide logistical arrangements, policing, intervened and judged any disputes and collected taxes. They also have been a central attraction and a stop for mainstream Hindus who seek their darsana (meeting, view) as well as spiritual guidance and blessings. The Kumbh Melas have been one of their recruitment and initiation venues, as well as the place to trade. These akharas have roots in the Hindu Naga (naked) monks tradition, who went to war without clothes. These monastic groups traditionally credit the Kumbh mela to the 8th-century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara, as a part of his efforts to start monastic institutions (matha), and major Hindu gatherings for philosophical discussions and debates. However, there is no historic literary evidence that he actually did start the Kumbh melas.
During the 17th-century, the akharas competed for ritual primacy, priority rights to who bathes first or at the most auspicious time, and prominence leading to violent conflicts. The records from the East India Company rule era report of violence between the akharas and numerous deaths. At the 1760 Kumbh Mela in Haridwar, a clash broke out between Shaivite Gosains and Vaishnavite Bairagis (ascetics), resulting in hundreds of deaths. A copper plate inscription of the Maratha Peshwa claims that 12,000 ascetics died in a clash between Shaivite sanyasis and Vaishnavite bairagis at the 1789 Nashik Kumbh Mela. The dispute started over the bathing order, which then indicated status of the akharas. At the 1796 Kumbh Mela in Haridwar, violence broke out between the Shaivites and the Udasis on logistics and camping rights.
The repetitive clashes, battle-ready nature of the warrior monks, and the lucrative tax and trading opportunities at Kumbh melas in the 18th-century attracted the attention of the East India Company officials. They intervened, laid out the camps, trading spaces, and established a bathing order for each akhara. After 1947, the state governments have taken over this role and provide the infrastructure for the Kumbh mela in their respective states.
The Kumbh Melas attract many loner sadhus (monks) who do not belong to any akharas. Of those who do belong to a group, the thirteen active akharas have been,
7 Shaiva akharas: Mahanirvani, Atal, Niranjani, Anand, Juna, Avahan, and Agni
3 Vaishnava akharas: Nirvani, Digambar, and Nirmohi
3 Sikh akharas: Bara Panchayati Udasins, Chota Panchayati Udasins, and Nirmal
The ten Shaiva and Vaishnava akharas are also known as the Dasanamis, and they believe that Adi Shankara founded them and one of their traditional duties is dharma-raksha (protection of faith).
Significance and impact
The Kumbh melas of the past, albeit with different regional names, attracted large attendance and have been religiously significant to the Hindus for centuries. However, they have been more than a religious event to the Hindu community. Historically the Kumbh Melas were also major commercial events, initiation of new recruits to the akharas, prayers and community singing, spiritual discussions, education and a spectacle. During the colonial era rule of the East India Company, its officials saw the Hindu pilgrimage as a means to collect vast sums of revenue through a "pilgrim tax" and taxes on the trade that occurred during the festival. According to Dubey, as well as Macclean, the Islamic encyclopaedia Yadgar-i-Bahaduri written in 1834 Lucknow, described the Prayag festival and its sanctity to the Hindus. The British officials, states Dubey, raised the tax to amount greater than average monthly income and the attendance fell drastically. The Prayagwal pandas initially went along, according to colonial records, but later resisted as the impact of the religious tax on the pilgrims became clear. In 1938, Lord Auckland abolished the pilgrim tax and vast numbers returned to the pilgrimage thereafter. According to Macclean, the colonial records of this period on the Prayag Mela present a biased materialistic view given they were written by colonialists and missionaries.
Baptist missionary John Chamberlain, who visited the 1824 Ardh Kumbh Mela at Haridwar, stated that a large number of visitors came there for trade. He also includes a 1814 letter from his missionary friend who distributed copies of the Gospel to the pilgrims and tried to convert some to Christianity. According to an 1858 account of the Haridwar Kumbh Mela by the British civil servant Robert Montgomery Martin, the visitors at the fair included people from a number of races and clime. Along with priests, soldiers, and religious mendicants, the fair had horse traders from Bukhara, Kabul, Turkistan as well as Arabs and Persians. The festival had roadside merchants of food grains, confectioners, clothes, toys and other items. Thousands of pilgrims in every form of transport as well as on foot marched to the pilgrimage site, dressed in colourful costumes, some without clothes, occasionally shouting "Mahadeo Bol" and "Bol, Bol" together. At night the river banks and camps illuminated with oil lamps, fireworks burst over the river, and innumerable floating lamps set by the pilgrims drifted downstream of the river. Several Hindu rajas, Sikh rulers and Muslim Nawabs visited the fair. Europeans watched the crowds and few Christian missionaries distributed their religious literature at the Hardwar Mela, wrote Martin.
Prior to 1838, the British officials collected taxes but provided no infrastructure or services to the pilgrims. This changed particularly after 1857. According to Amna Khalid, the Kumbh Melas emerged as one of the social and political mobilisation venues and the colonial government became keen on monitoring these developments after the Indian rebellion of 1857. The government deployed police to gain this intelligence at the grassroots level of Kumbh Mela. The British officials in co-operation with the native police also made attempts to improve the infrastructure, movement of pilgrims to avoid a stampede, detect sickness, and the sanitary conditions at the Melas. Reports of cholera led the officials to cancel the pilgrimage, but the pilgrims went on "passive resistance" and stated they preferred to die rather than obey the official orders.
Massacres, stampedes and scandals
The Kumbh Melas have been sites of tragedies. According to Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi – the historian and biographer of the Turco-Mongol raider and conqueror Timur, his armies plundered Haridwar and massacred the gathered pilgrims. The ruthlessly slaughtered pilgrims were likely those attending the Kumbh mela of 1399. The Timur accounts mention the mass bathing ritual along with shaving of head, the sacred river Ganges, charitable donations, the place was at the mountainous source of the river and that pilgrims believed a dip in the sacred river leads to their salvation.
Several stampedes have occurred at the Kumbh Melas. After an 1820 stampede at Haridwar killed 485 people, the Company government took extensive infrastructure projects, including the construction of new ghats and road widening, to prevent further stampedes. The various Kumbh melas, in the 19th- and 20th-century witnessed sporadic stampedes, each tragedy leading to changes in how the flow of pilgrims to and from the river and ghats was managed. In 1986, 50 people were killed in a stampede. The Prayag Kumbh mela in 1885 became a source of scandal when a Muslim named Husain was appointed as the Kumbh Mela manager, and Indian newspaper reports stated that Husain had "organised a flotilla of festooned boats for the pleasure of European ladies and gentlemen, and entertained them with dancing girls, liquor and beef" as they watched the pilgrims bathing.
1857 rebellion and the Independence movement
According to the colonial archives, the Prayagwal community associated with the Kumbh Mela were one of those who seeded and perpetuated the resistance and 1857 rebellion to the colonial rule. Prayagwals objected to and campaigned against the colonial government supported Christian missionaries and officials who treated them and the pilgrims as "ignorant co-religionists" and who aggressively tried to convert the Hindu pilgrims to a Christian sect. During the 1857 rebellion, Colonel Neill targeted the Kumbh mela site and shelled the region where the Prayagwals lived, destroying it in what Maclean describes as a "notoriously brutal pacification of Allahabad". "Prayagwals targeted and destroyed the mission press and churches in Allahabad". Once the British had regained control of the region, the Prayagwals were persecuted by the colonial officials, some convicted and hanged, while others for whom the government did not have proof enough to convict were persecuted. Large tracts of Kumbh mela lands near the Ganga-Yamuna confluence were confiscated and annexed into the government cantonment. In the years after 1857, the Prayagwals and the Kumbh Mela pilgrim crowds carried flags with images alluding to the rebellion and the racial persecution. The British media reported these pilgrim assemblies and protests at the later Kumbh Mela as strangely "hostile" and with "disbelief", states Maclean.
The Kumbh Mela continued to play an important role in the independence movement through 1947, as a place where the native people and politicians periodically gathered in large numbers. In 1906, the Sanatan Dharm Sabha met at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and resolved to start the Banaras Hindu University in Madan Mohan Malaviya's leadership. Kumbh Melas have also been one of the hubs for the Hindutva movement and politics. In 1964, the Vishva Hindu Parishad was founded at the Haridwar Kumbh Mela.
Rising attendance and scale
The historical and modern estimates of attendance vary greatly between sources. For example, the colonial era Imperial Gazetteer of India reported that between 2 and 2.5 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh mela in 1796 and 1808, then added these numbers may be exaggerations. Between 1892 and 1908, in an era of major famines, cholera and plague epidemics in British India, the pilgrimage dropped to between 300,000 and 400,000.
During World War II, the colonial government banned the Kumbh Mela to conserve scarce supplies of fuel. The ban, coupled with false rumours that Japan planned to bomb and commit genocide at the Kumbh mela site, led to sharply lower attendance at the 1942 Kumbh mela than prior decades when an estimated 2 to 4 million pilgrims gathered at each Kumbh mela. After India's independence, the attendance rose sharply. On amavasya – one of the three key bathing dates, over 5 million attended the 1954 Kumbh, about 10 million attended the 1977 Kumbh while the 1989 Kumbh attracted about 15 million.
On 14 April 1998, 10 million pilgrims attended the Kumb Mela at Haridwar on the busiest single day, according to the Himalayan Academy editors. In 2001, IKONOS satellite images confirmed a very large human gathering, with officials estimating 70 million people over the festival, including more than 40 million on the busiest single day according to BBC News. Another estimate states that about 30 million attended the 2001 Kumbh mela on the busiest mauni amavasya day alone.
In 2007, as many as 70 million pilgrims attended the 45-day long Ardha Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj. In 2013, 120 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj. Nasik has registered maximum visitors to 75 million.
Maha Kumbh at Prayagraj is the largest in the world, the attendance and scale of preparation of which keeps rising with each successive celebration. For the 2019 Ardh Kumbh at Prayagraj, the preparations include a temporary city over 2,500 hectares with 122,000 temporary toilets and range of accommodation from simple dormitory tents to 5-star tents, 800 special trains by the Indian Railways, artificially intelligent video surveillance and analytics by IBM, disease surveillance, river transport management by Inland Waterways Authority of India, and an app to help the visitors.
The Kumbh mela is "widely regarded as the world's largest religious gathering", states James Lochtefeld. According to Kama Maclean, the coordinators and attendees themselves state that a part of the glory of the Kumbh festival is in that "feeling of brotherhood and love" where millions peacefully gather on the river banks in harmony and a sense of shared heritage.
Calendar, locations and preparation
Types
The Kumbh Mela are classified as:
The Purna Kumbh Mela (sometimes just called Kumbh or "full Kumbha"), occurs every 12 years at a given site.
The Ardh Kumbh Mela ("half Kumbh") occurs approximately every 6 years between the two Purna Kumbha Melas at Prayagraj and Haridwar.
The Maha Kumbh, which occurs every 12 Purna Kumbh Melas i.e. after every 144 years.
For the 2019 Prayagraj Kumbh Mela, the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath announced that the Ardh Kumbh Mela (organised every 6 years) will simply be known as "Kumbh Mela", and the Kumbh Mela (organised every 12 years) will be known as "Maha Kumbh Mela" ("Great Kumbh Mela").
Locations
Numerous sites and fairs have been locally referred to be their Kumbh Melas. Of these, four sites are broadly recognised as the Kumbh Melas: Prayagraj, Haridwar, Trimbak-Nashik and Ujjain. Other locations that are sometimes called Kumbh melas – with the bathing ritual and a significant participation of pilgrims – include Kurukshetra, and Sonipat.
Dates
Each site's celebration dates are calculated in advance according to a special combination of zodiacal positions of Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the Moon). The relative years vary between the four sites, but the cycle repeats about every 12 years. Since Jupiter's orbit completes in 11.86 years, a calendar year adjustment appears in approximately 8 cycles. Therefore, approximately once a century, the Kumbh mela returns to a site after 11 years.
Past years
Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj is celebrated approximately 3 years after Kumbh at Haridwar and 3 years before Kumbh at Nashik and Ujjain (both of which are celebrated in the same year or one year apart).
Historical Festival management
The Kumbh Mela attracts tens of millions of pilgrims. Providing for a safe and pleasant temporary stay at the festival site is a complex and challenging task. The camping (santhas/akharas), food, water, sanitation, emergency health care, fire services, policing, disaster management preparations, the movement of people require significant prior planning. Further, assistance to those with special needs and lost family members through Bhule-Bhatke Kendra demands extensive onsite communication and co-ordination. In the case of Prayag in particular, the festival site is predominantly submerged during the monsoon months. The festival management workers have only two and a half months to start and complete the construction of all temporarily infrastructure necessary for the pilgrims, making the task even more challenging.
In 2013, the Indian government authorities, in co-operation with seva volunteers, monks and Indian companies, set up 11 sectors with 55 camp clusters, providing round-the-clock first aid, ambulance, pharmacy, sector cleaning, sanitation, food and water distribution (setting up of pipelines operated by 42 pumps), cooking fuel, and other services. According to Baranwal et al., their 13-day field study of the 2013 Kumbh mela found that "the Mela committee and all other agencies involved in Mela management successfully supervised the event and made it convenient, efficient and safe," an assessment shared by the US-based Center for Disease Control for the Nasik Kumbh mela.
Rituals
Bathing and processions
Bathing, or a dip in the river waters, with a prayer, is the central ritual of the Kumbh Melas for all pilgrims. Traditionally, on amavasya – the most cherished day for bathing – the Hindu pilgrims welcome and wait for the thirteen sadhu akharas to bathe first. This event – called shahi snan or rajyogi snan – is marked by a celebratory processional march, with banners, flags, elephants, horses and musicians along with the naked or scantily clad monks, some smeared with bhasma (ashes). These monastic institutions come from different parts of India, have a particular emblem symbol and deity (Ganesha, Dattatreya, Hanuman, etc.). The largest contingent is the Juna akhara, traced to Adi Shankara, representing a diverse mix from the four of the largest Hindu monasteries in India with their headquarters at Sringeri, Dvarka, Jyotirmatha and Govardhana. The Mahanirbani and Niranjani are the other large contingents, and each akhara has their own lineage of saints and teachers. Large crowds gather in reverence and cheer for this procession of monks. Once these monks have taken the dip, the festival day opens for bathing by the pilgrims from far and near the site.
The bathing ritual by the pilgrims may be aided by a Prayagwal priest or maybe a simple dip that is private. When aided, the rituals may begin with mundan (shaving of head), prayers with offerings such as flowers, sindur (vermilion), milk or coconut, along with the recitation of hymns with shradha (prayers in the honour of one's ancestors). More elaborate ceremonies include a yajna (homa) led by a priest. After these river-side rituals, the pilgrim then takes a dip in the water, stands up, prays for a short while, then exits the river waters. Many then proceed to visit old Hindu temples near the site.
The motivations for the bathing ritual are several. The most significant is the belief that the tirtha (pilgrimage) to the Kumbh Mela sites and then bathing in these holy rivers has a salvific value, moksha – a means to liberation from the cycle of rebirths (samsara). The pilgrimage is also recommended in Hindu texts to those who have made mistakes or sinned, repent their errors and as a means of prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for these mistakes. Pilgrimage and bathing in holy rivers with a motivation to do penance and as a means to self-purify has Vedic precedents and is discussed in the early dharma literature of Hinduism. Its epics such as the Mahabharata describe Yudhisthira in a state full of sorrow and despair after participating in the violence of the great war that killed many. He goes to a saint, who advises him to go on a pilgrimage to Prayag and bathe in river Ganges as a means of penance.
Feasts, festivities and discussions
Some pilgrims walk considerable distances and arrive barefoot, as a part of their religious tradition. Most pilgrims stay for a day or two, but some stay the entire month of Magh during the festival and live an austere life during the stay. They attend spiritual discourses, fast and pray over the month, and these Kumbh pilgrims are called kalpavasis.
The festival site is strictly vegetarian by tradition, as violence against animals is considered unacceptable. Many pilgrims practice partial (one meal a day) or full vrata (day-long fasting), some abstain from elaborate meals. These ritual practices are punctuated by celebratory feasts where vast number of people sit in rows and share a community meal – mahaprasada – prepared by volunteers from charitable donations. By tradition, families and companies sponsor these anna dana (food charity) events, particularly for the monks and the poor pilgrims. The management has established multiple food stalls, offering delicacies from different states of India.
Other activities at the mela include religious discussions (pravachan), devotional singing (kirtan), and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardised (shastrartha). The festival grounds also feature a wide range of cultural spectacles over the month of celebrations. These include kalagram (venues of kala, Indian arts), laser light shows, classical dance and musical performances from different parts of India, thematic gates reflecting the historic regional architectural diversity, boat rides, tourist walks to historic sites near the river, as well opportunities to visit the monastic camps to watch yoga adepts and spiritual discourses.
Darshan
Darshan, or viewing, is an important part of the Kumbh Mela. People make the pilgrimage to the Kumbh Mela specifically to observe and experience both the religious and secular aspects of the event. Two major groups that participate in the Kumbh Mela include the Sadhus (Hindu holy men) and pilgrims. Through their continual yogic practices the Sadhus articulate the transitory aspect of life. Sadhus travel to the Kumbh Mela to make themselves available to much of the Hindu public. This allows members of the Hindu public to interact with the Sadhus and to take "darshan". They are able to "seek instruction or advice in their spiritual lives." Darshan focuses on the visual exchange, where there is interaction with a religious deity and the worshiper is able to visually "'drink' divine power." The Kumbh Mela is arranged in camps that give Hindu worshipers access to the Sadhus. The darshan is important to the experience of the Kumbh Mela and because of this worshipers must be careful so as to not displease religious deities. Seeing of the Sadhus is carefully managed and worshipers often leave tokens at their feet.
In culture
Kumbh Mela has been theme for many documentaries, including Kings with Straw Mats (1998) directed by Ira Cohen, Kumbh Mela: The Greatest Show on Earth (2001) directed by Graham Day, Short Cut to Nirvana: Kumbh Mela (2004) directed by Nick Day and produced by "Maurizio Benazzo", Kumbh Mela: Songs of the River (2004) by Nadeem Uddin, Invocation, Kumbh Mela (2008), Kumbh Mela 2013: Living with Mahatiagi (2013) by the Ukrainian Religious Studies Project Ahamot, and Kumbh Mela: Walking with the Nagas (2011), Amrit: Nectar of Immortality (2012) directed by Jonas Scheu and Philipp Eyer.
In 2007, National Geographic filmed and broadcast a documentary of the Prayag Kumbh Mela, named Inside Nirvana, under the direction of Karina Holden with the scholar Kama Maclean as a consultant. In 2013, the National Geographic returned and filmed the Inside the Mahakumbh. Indian and foreign news media have covered the Kumbh Mela regularly. On 18 April 2010, a popular American morning show CBS News Sunday Morning extensively covered Haridwar's Kumbh Mela, calling it "The Largest Pilgrimage on Earth". On 28 April 2010, the BBC reported an audio and a video report on Kumbh Mela, titled "Kumbh Mela: 'greatest show on earth'". On 30 September 2010, the Kumbh Mela featured in the second episode of the Sky One TV series An Idiot Abroad with Karl Pilkington visiting the festival.
Young siblings getting separated at the Kumbh Mela were once a recurring theme in Hindi movies. Amrita Kumbher Sandhane, a 1982 Bengali feature film directed by Dilip Roy, also documents the Kumbh Mela.
Ashish Avikunthak's Bengali-language feature length fiction film Kalkimanthakatha (2015), was shot in the Prayag Kumbh Mela in 2013. In this film, two characters search for the tenth avatar and the final avtar of Lord Vishnu – Kalki, in the lines of Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot.
Threat of terrorism
In November 2017, Islamist terrorist organisation ISIS threatened to attack the Hindu pilgrims who visit the Kumbh Mela and Thrissur Pooram. The 10-minute audio clip warned of a 2017 Las Vegas style attacks to be carried out by lone wolf attackers. The clip also called on the Mujahideen to use different tactics like poisoning the food, using trucks or at least trying to derail a train. The terrorists had threatened to poison the water of the Ganges river.
See also
Barahakshetra – A semi-Kumbh Mela in Sunsari Nepal
Mahamaham – the Tamil Kumbh Mela
Pushkaram – the river festivals of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Pushkar Fair – the springtime fair in Rajasthan, includes the tradition of a dip in the Pushkar lake
List of largest gatherings in history
Notes
References
Bibliography
Harvard University, South Asia Institute (2015) Kumbh Mela: Mapping the Ephemeral Megacity New Delhi: Niyogi Books.
Kumbh Mela and The Sadhus,(English, Paperback, Badri Narain and Kedar Narain) Pilgrims Publishings, India, , 8177698052
KUMBH : Sarvjan – Sahbhagita ka Vishalatam Amritparva with 1 Disc (Hindi, Paperback, Ramanand)Pilgrims Publishings, India,, 8177696718
External links
Fairs in India
Tourism in Uttar Pradesh
Nashik
Haridwar
Uttarakhand
Religion in Uttarakhand
Tourism in Uttarakhand
Culture of Ujjain
Hindu festivals
COVID-19 pandemic in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuration%20theory
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Structuration theory
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The theory of structuration is a social theory of the creation and reproduction of social systems that is based on the analysis of both structure and agents (see structure and agency), without giving primacy to either. Furthermore, in structuration theory, neither micro- nor macro-focused analysis alone is sufficient. The theory was proposed by sociologist Anthony Giddens, most significantly in The Constitution of Society, which examines phenomenology, hermeneutics, and social practices at the inseparable intersection of structures and agents. Its proponents have adopted and expanded this balanced position. Though the theory has received much criticism, it remains a pillar of contemporary sociological theory.
Premises and origins
Sociologist Anthony Giddens adopted a post-empiricist frame for his theory, as he was concerned with the abstract characteristics of social relations. This leaves each level more accessible to analysis via the ontologies which constitute the human social experience: space and time ("and thus, in one sense, 'history'.") His aim was to build a broad social theory which viewed "[t]he basic domain of study of the social sciences... [as] neither the experience of the individual actor, nor the existence of any form of societal totality, but social practices ordered across space and time." His focus on abstract ontology accompanied a general and purposeful neglect of epistemology or detailed research methodology.
Giddens used concepts from objectivist and subjectivist social theories, discarding objectivism's focus on detached structures, which lacked regard for humanist elements and subjectivism's exclusive attention to individual or group agency without consideration for socio-structural context. He critically engaged classical nineteenth and early twentieth century social theorists such as Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, Alfred Schutz, Robert K. Merton, Erving Goffman, and Jürgen Habermas. Thus, in many ways, structuration was "an exercise in clarification of logical issues." Structuration drew on other fields, as well: "He also wanted to bring in from other disciplines novel aspects of ontology that he felt had been neglected by social theorists working in the domains that most interested him. Thus, for example, he enlisted the aid of geographers, historians and philosophers in bringing notions of time and space into the central heartlands of social theory." Giddens hoped that a subject-wide "coming together" might occur which would involve greater cross-disciplinary dialogue and cooperation, especially between anthropologists, social scientists and sociologists of all types, historians, geographers, and even novelists. Believing that "literary style matters", he held that social scientists are communicators who share frames of meaning across cultural contexts through their work by utilising "the same sources of description (mutual knowledge) as novelists or others who write fictional accounts of social life."
Structuration differs from its historical sources. Unlike structuralism it sees the reproduction of social systems not "as a mechanical outcome, [but] rather ... as an active constituting process, accomplished by, and consisting in, the doings of active subjects." Unlike Althusser's concept of agents as "bearers" of structures, structuration theory sees them as active participants. Unlike the philosophy of action and other forms of interpretative sociology, structuration focuses on structure rather than production exclusively. Unlike Saussure's production of an utterance, structuration sees language as a tool from which to view society, not as the constitution of society—parting with structural linguists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and generative grammar theorists such as Noam Chomsky. Unlike post-structuralist theory, which put similar focus on the effects of time and space, structuration does not recognise movement, change and transition. Unlike functionalism, in which structures and their virtual synonyms, "systems", comprise organisations, structuration sees structures and systems as separate concepts. Unlike Marxism, structuration avoids an overly restrictive concept of "society" and Marxism's reliance on a universal "motor of history" (i.e. class conflict), its theories of societal "adaptation", and its insistence on the working class as universal class and socialism as the ultimate form of modern society. Finally, "structuration theory cannot be expected to furnish the moral guarantees that critical theorists sometimes purport to offer."
Main ideas
Duality of structure
Giddens observed that in social analysis, the term structure referred generally to "rules and resources" and more specifically to "the structuring properties allowing the 'binding' of time-space in social systems". These properties make it possible for similar social practices to exist across time and space and that lend them "systemic" form. Agents—groups or individuals—draw upon these structures to perform social actions through embedded memory, called memory traces. Memory traces are thus the vehicle through which social actions are carried out. Structure is also, however, the result of these social practices. Thus, Giddens conceives of the duality of structure as being:
Giddens uses "the duality of structure" (i.e. material/ideational, micro/macro) to emphasize structure's nature as both medium and outcome. Structures exist both internally within agents as memory traces that are the product of phenomenological and hermeneutic inheritance and externally as the manifestation of social actions. Similarly, social structures contain agents and/or are the product of past actions of agents. Giddens holds this duality, alongside "structure" and "system," in addition to the concept of recursiveness, as the core of structuration theory. His theory has been adopted by those with structuralist inclinations, but who wish to situate such structures in human practice rather than to reify them as an ideal type or material property. (This is different, for example, from actor–network theory which appears to grant a certain autonomy to technical artifacts.)
Social systems have patterns of social relation that change over time; the changing nature of space and time determines the interaction of social relations and therefore structure. Hitherto, social structures or models were either taken to be beyond the realm of human control—the positivistic approach—or posit that action creates them—the interpretivist approach. The duality of structure emphasizes that they are different sides to the same central question of how social order is created.
Gregor McLennan suggested renaming this process "the duality of structure ", since both aspects are involved in using and producing social actions.
Cycle of structuration
The duality of structure is essentially a feedback–feedforward process whereby agents and structures mutually enact social systems, and social systems in turn become part of that duality. Structuration thus recognizes a social cycle. In examining social systems, structuration theory examines structure, modality, and interaction. The "modality" (discussed below) of a structural system is the means by which structures are translated into actions.
Interaction
Interaction is the agent's activity within the social system, space and time. "It can be understood as the fitful yet routinized occurrence of encounters, fading away in time and space, yet constantly reconstituted within different areas of time-space." Rules can affect interaction, as originally suggested by Goffman. "Frames" are "clusters of rules which help to constitute and regulate activities, defining them as activities of a certain sort and as subject to a given range of sanctions." Frames are necessary for agents to feel "ontological security, the trust that everyday actions have some degree of predictability. Whenever individuals interact in a specific context they address—without any difficulty and in many cases without conscious acknowledgement—the question: "What is going on here?" Framing is the practice by which agents make sense of what they are doing.
Routinization
Structuration theory is centrally concerned with order as "the transcending of time and space in human social relationships". Institutionalized action and routinization are foundational in the establishment of social order and the reproduction of social systems. Routine persists in society, even during social and political revolutions, where daily life is greatly deformed, "as Bettelheim demonstrates so well, routines, including those of an obnoxious sort, are re-established." Routine interactions become institutionalized features of social systems via tradition, custom and/or habit, but this is no easy societal task and it "is a major error to suppose that these phenomena need no explanation. On the contrary, as Goffman (together with ethnomethodology) has helped to demonstrate, the routinized character of most social activity is something that has to be 'worked at' continually by those who sustain it in their day-to-day conduct." Therefore, routinized social practices do not stem from coincidence, "but the skilled accomplishments of knowledgeable agents."
Trust and tact are essential for the existence of a "basic security system, the sustaining (in praxis) of a sense of ontological security, and [thus] the routine nature of social reproduction which agents skilfully organize. The monitoring of the body, the control and use of face in 'face work'—these are fundamental to social integration in time and space."
Explanation
Thus, even the smallest social actions contribute to the alteration or reproduction of social systems. Social stability and order is not permanent; agents always possess a dialectic of control (discussed below) which allows them to break away from normative actions. Depending on the social factors present, agents may cause shifts in social structure.
The cycle of structuration is not a defined sequence; it is rarely a direct succession of causal events. Structures and agents are both internal and external to each other, mingling, interrupting, and continually changing each other as feedbacks and feedforwards occur. Giddens stated, "The degree of "systemness" is very variable. ...I take it to be one of the main features of structuration theory that the extension and 'closure' of societies across space and time is regarded as problematic."
The use of "patriot" in political speech reflects this mingling, borrowing from and contributing to nationalistic norms and supports structures such as a police state, from which it in turn gains impact.
Structure and society
Structures are the "rules and resources" embedded in agents' memory traces. Agents call upon their memory traces of which they are "knowledgeable" to perform social actions. "Knowledgeability" refers to "what agents know about what they do, and why they do it." Giddens divides memory traces (structures-within-knowledgeability) into three types:
Domination (power): Giddens also uses "resources" to refer to this type. "Authoritative resources" allow agents to control persons, whereas "allocative resources" allow agents to control material objects.
Signification (meaning): Giddens suggests that meaning is inferred through structures. Agents use existing experience to infer meaning. For example, the meaning of living with mental illness comes from contextualized experiences.
Legitimation (norms): Giddens sometimes uses "rules" to refer to either signification or legitimation. An agent draws upon these stocks of knowledge via memory to inform him or herself about the external context, conditions, and potential results of an action.
When an agent uses these structures for social interactions, they are called modalities and present themselves in the forms of facility (domination), interpretive scheme/communication (signification) and norms/sanctions (legitimation).
Thus, he distinguishes between overall "structures-within-knowledgeability" and the more limited and task-specific "modalities" on which these agents subsequently draw when they interact.
The duality of structures means that structures enter "simultaneously into the constitution of the agent and social practices, and 'exists' in the generating moments of this constitution." "Structures exist paradigmatically, as an absent set of differences, temporally "present" only in their instantiation, in the constituting moments of social systems." Giddens draws upon structuralism and post-structuralism in theorizing that structures and their meaning are understood by their differences.
Agents and society
Giddens' agents follow previous psychoanalysis work done by Sigmund Freud and others. Agency, as Giddens calls it, is human action. To be human is to be an agent (not all agents are human). Agency is critical to both the reproduction and the transformation of society. Another way to explain this concept is by what Giddens calls the "reflexive monitoring of actions." "Reflexive monitoring" refers to agents' ability to monitor their actions and those actions' settings and contexts. Monitoring is an essential characteristic of agency. Agents subsequently "rationalize," or evaluate, the success of those efforts. All humans engage in this process, and expect the same from others. Through action, agents produce structures; through reflexive monitoring and rationalization, they transform them. To act, agents must be motivated, must be knowledgeable must be able to rationalize the action; and must reflexively monitor the action.
Agents, while bounded in structure, draw upon their knowledge of that structural context when they act. However, actions are constrained by agents' inherent capabilities and their understandings of available actions and external limitations. Practical consciousness and discursive consciousness inform these abilities. Practical consciousness is the knowledgeability that an agent brings to the tasks required by everyday life, which is so integrated as to be hardly noticed. Reflexive monitoring occurs at the level of practical consciousness. Discursive consciousness is the ability to verbally express knowledge. Alongside practical and discursive consciousness, Giddens recognizes actors as having reflexive, contextual knowledge, and that habitual, widespread use of knowledgeability makes structures become institutionalized.
Agents rationalize, and in doing so, link the agent and the agent's knowledgeability. Agents must coordinate ongoing projects, goals, and contexts while performing actions. This coordination is called reflexive monitoring and is connected to ethnomethodology's emphasis on agents' intrinsic sense of accountability.
The factors that can enable or constrain an agent, as well as how an agent uses structures, are known as capability constraints include age, cognitive/physical limits on performing multiple tasks at once and the physical impossibility of being in multiple places at once, available time and the relationship between movement in space and movement in time.
Location offers are a particular type of capability constraint. Examples include:
Locale
Regionalization: political or geographical zones, or rooms in a building
Presence: Do other actors participate in the action? (see co-presence); and more specifically
Physical presence: Are other actors physically nearby?
Agents are always able to engage in a dialectic of control, able to "intervene in the world or to refrain from such intervention, with the effect of influencing a specific process or state of affairs." In essence, agents experience inherent and contrasting amounts of autonomy and dependence; agents can always either act or not.
Methodology
Structuration theory is relevant to research, but does not prescribe a methodology and its use in research has been problematic. Giddens intended his theory to be abstract and theoretical, informing the hermeneutic aspects of research rather than guiding practice. Giddens wrote that structuration theory "establishes the internal logical coherence of concepts within a theoretical network." Giddens criticized many researchers who used structuration theory for empirical research, critiquing their "en bloc" use of the theory's abstract concepts in a burdensome way. "The works applying concepts from the logical framework of structuration theory that Giddens approved of were those that used them more selectively, 'in a spare and critical fashion.'" Giddens and followers used structuration theory more as "a sensitizing device".
Structuration theory allows researchers to focus on any structure or concept individually or in combination. In this way, structuration theory prioritizes ontology over epistemology. In his own work, Giddens focuses on production and reproduction of social practices in some context. He looked for stasis and change, agent expectations, relative degrees of routine, tradition, behavior, and creative, skillful, and strategic thought simultaneously. He examined spatial organization, intended and unintended consequences, skilled and knowledgeable agents, discursive and tacit knowledge, dialectic of control, actions with motivational content, and constraints. Structuration theorists conduct analytical research of social relations, rather than organically discovering them, since they use structuration theory to reveal specific research questions, though that technique has been criticized as cherry-picking.
Giddens preferred strategic conduct analysis, which focuses on contextually situated actions. It employs detailed accounts of agents' knowledgeability, motivation, and the dialectic of control.
Criticisms and additions
Though structuration theory has received critical expansion since its origination, Giddens' concepts remained pivotal for later extension of the theory, especially the duality of structure.
Strong structuration
Rob Stones argued that many aspects of Giddens' original theory had little place in its modern manifestation. Stones focused on clarifying its scope, reconfiguring some concepts and inserting new ones, and refining methodology and research orientations. Strong structuration:
Places its ontology more in situ than abstractly.
Introduces the quadripartite cycle, which details the elements in the duality of structure. These are:
external structures as conditions of action;
internal structures within the agent;
active agency, "including a range of aspects involved when agents draw upon internal structures in producing practical action"; and
outcomes (as both structures and events).
Increases attention to epistemology and methodology. Ontology supports epistemology and methodology by prioritising:
the question-at-hand;
appropriate forms of methodological bracketing;
distinct methodological steps in research; and
"[t]he specific combinations of all the above in composite forms of research."
Discovers the "meso-level of ontology between the abstract, philosophical level of ontology and the in-situ, ontic level." Strong structuration allows varied abstract ontological concepts in experiential conditions.
Focuses on the meso-level at the temporal and spatial scale.
Conceptualises independent causal forces and irresistible causal forces, which take into account how external structures, internal structures, and active agency affect agent choices (or lack of them). "Irresistible forces" are the connected concepts of a horizon of action with a set of "actions-in-hand" and a hierarchical ordering of purposes and concerns. An agent is affected by external influences. This aspect of strong structuration helps reconcile an agent's dialectic of control and his/her more constrained set of "real choices."
Post-structuration and dualism
Margaret Archer objected to the inseparability of structure and agency in structuration theory. She proposed a notion of dualism rather than "duality of structure". She primarily examined structural frameworks and the action within the limits allowed by those conditions. She combined realist ontology and called her methodology analytical dualism. Archer maintained that structure precedes agency in social structure reproduction and analytical importance, and that they should be analysed separately. She emphasised the importance of temporality in social analysis, dividing it into four stages: structural conditioning, social interaction, its immediate outcome and structural elaboration. Thus her analysis considered embedded "structural conditions, emergent causal powers and properties, social interactions between agents, and subsequent structural changes or reproductions arising from the latter." Archer criticised structuration theory for denying time and place because of the inseparability between structure and agency.
Nicos Mouzelis reconstructed Giddens' original theories. Mouzelis kept Giddens' original formulation of structure as "rules and resources." However, he was considered a dualist, because he argued for dualism to be as important in social analysis as the duality of structure. Mouzelis reexamined human social action at the "syntagmatic" (syntactic) level. He claimed that the duality of structure does not account for all types of social relationships. Duality of structure works when agents do not question or disrupt rules, and interaction resembles "natural/performative" actions with a practical orientation. However, in other contexts, the relationship between structure and agency can resemble dualism more than duality, such as systems that are the result of powerful agents. In these situations, rules are not viewed as resources, but are in states of transition or redefinition, where actions are seen from a "strategic/monitoring orientation." In this orientation, dualism shows the distance between agents and structures. He called these situations "syntagmatic duality". For example, a professor can change the class he or she teaches, but has little capability to change the larger university structure. "In that case, syntagmatic duality gives way to syntagmatic dualism." This implies that systems are the outcome, but not the medium, of social actions. Mouzelis also criticised Giddens' lack of consideration for social hierarchies.
John Parker built on Archer and Mouzelis's support for dualism to propose a theoretical reclamation of historical sociology and macro-structures using concrete historical cases, claiming that dualism better explained the dynamics of social structures. Equally, Robert Archer developed and applied analytical dualism in his critical analysis of the impact of New Managerialism on education policy in England and Wales during the 1990s and organization theory.
John B. Thompson
Though he agreed with the soundness and overall purposes of Giddens' most expansive structuration concepts (i.e., against dualism and for the study of structure in concert with agency), John B. Thompson ("a close friend and colleague of Giddens at Cambridge University") wrote one of the most widely cited critiques of structuration theory. His central argument was that it needed to be more specific and more consistent both internally and with conventional social structure theory. Thompson focused on problematic aspects of Giddens' concept of structure as "rules and resources," focusing on "rules". He argued that Giddens' concept of rule was too broad.
Thompson claimed that Giddens presupposed a criterion of importance in contending that rules are a generalizable enough tool to apply to every aspect of human action and interaction; "on the other hand, Giddens is well aware that rules, or some kinds or aspects of rules, are much more important than others for the analysis of, for example, the social structure of capitalist societies." He found the term to be imprecise and to not designate which rules are more relevant for which social structures.
Thompson used the example of linguistic analysis to point out that the need for a prior framework which to enable analysis of, for example, the social structure of an entire nation. While semantic rules may be relevant to social structure, to study them "presupposes some structural points of reference which are not themselves , with regard to which [of] these semantic rules are differentiated" according to class, sex, region and so on. He called this structural differentiation.
Rules differently affect variously situated individuals. Thompson gave the example of a private school which restricts enrollment and thus participation. Thus rules—in this case, restrictions—"operate , affecting unevenly various groups of individuals whose categorization depends on certain assumptions about social structures." The isolated analysis of rules does not incorporate differences among agents.
Thompson claimed that Giddens offered no way of formulating structural identity. Some "rules" are better conceived of as broad inherent elements that define a structure's identity (e.g., Henry Ford and Harold Macmillan are "capitalistic"). These agents may differ, but have important traits in common due to their "capitalistic" identity. Thompson theorized that these traits were not rules in the sense that a manager could draw upon a "rule" to fire a tardy employee; rather, they were which " the kinds of rules which are possible and which thereby the scope for institutional variation." It is necessary to outline the broader social system to be able to analyze agents, actors, and rules within that system.
Thus Thompson concluded that Giddens' use of the term "rules" is problematic. "Structure" is similarly objectionable: "But to adhere to this conception of structure, while at the same time acknowledging the need for the study of 'structural principles,' 'structural sets' and 'axes of structuration,' is simply a recipe for conceptual confusion."
Thompson proposed several amendments. He requested sharper differentiation between the reproduction of institutions and the reproduction of social structure. He proposed an altered version of the structuration cycle. He defined "institutions" as "characterized by rules, regulations and conventions of various sorts, by differing kinds and quantities of resources and by hierarchical power relations between the occupants of institutional positions." Agents acting within institutions and conforming to institutional rules and regulations or using institutionally endowed power reproduce the institution. "If, in so doing, the institutions continue to satisfy certain structural conditions, both in the sense of conditions which delimit the scope for institutional variation and the conditions which underlie the operation of structural differentiation, then the agents may be said to reproduce social structure."
Thompson also proposed adding a range of alternatives to Giddens' conception of constraints on human action. He pointed out the paradoxical relationship between Giddens' "dialectic of control" and his acknowledgement that constraints may leave an agent with no choice. He demanded that Giddens better show how wants and desires relate to choice.
Giddens replied that a structural principle is not equivalent with rules, and pointed to his definition from A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism: "Structural principles are principles of organisation implicated in those practices most "deeply" (in time) and "pervasively" (in space) sedimented in society", and described structuration as a "mode of institutional articulation" with emphasis on the relationship between time and space and a host of institutional orderings including, but not limited to, rules.
Ultimately, Thompson concluded that the concept of structure as "rules and resources" in an elemental and ontological way resulted in conceptual confusion. Many theorists supported Thompson's argument that an analysis "based on structuration's ontology of structures as norms, interpretative schemes and power resources radically limits itself if it does not frame and locate itself within a more broadly conceived notion of social structures."
Change
Sewell provided a useful summary that included one of the theory's less specified aspects: the question "Why are structural transformations possible?" He claimed that Giddens' overrelied on rules and modified Giddens' argument by re-defining "resources" as the embodiment of cultural schemas. He argued that change arises from the multiplicity of structures, the transposable nature of schemas, the unpredictability of resource accumulation, the polysemy of resources and the intersection of structures.
The existence of multiple structures implies that the knowledgeable agents whose actions produce systems are capable of applying different schemas to contexts with differing resources, contrary to the conception of a universal habitus (learned dispositions, skills and ways of acting). He wrote that "Societies are based on practices that derived from many distinct structures, which exist at different levels, operate in different modalities, and are themselves based on widely varying types and quantities of resources. ...It is never true that all of them are homologous."
Originally from Bourdieu, transposable schemas can be "applied to a wide and not fully predictable range of cases outside the context in which they were initially learned." That capacity "is inherent in the knowledge of cultural schemas that characterizes all minimally competent members of society."
Agents may modify schemas even though their use does not predictably accumulate resources. For example, the effect of a joke is never quite certain, but a comedian may alter it based on the amount of laughter it garners regardless of this variability.
Agents may interpret a particular resource according to different schemas. E.g., a commander could attribute his wealth to military prowess, while others could see it as a blessing from the gods or a coincidental initial advantage.
Structures often overlap, confusing interpretation (e.g., the structure of capitalist society includes production from both private property and worker solidarity).
Technology
This theory was adapted and augmented by researchers interested in the relationship between technology and social structures, such as information technology in organizations. DeSanctis and Poole proposed an "adaptive structuration theory" with respect to the emergence and use of group decision support systems. In particular, they chose Giddens' notion of modalities to consider how technology is used with respect to its "spirit". "Appropriations" are the immediate, visible actions that reveal deeper structuration processes and are enacted with "moves". Appropriations may be faithful or unfaithful, be instrumental and be used with various attitudes.
Wanda Orlikowski applied the duality of structure to technology: "The duality of technology identifies prior views of technology as either objective force or as socially constructed product–as a false dichotomy." She compared this to previous models (the technological imperative, strategic choice, and technology as a trigger) and considered the importance of meaning, power, norms, and interpretive flexibility. Orlikowski later replaced the notion of embedded properties for enactment (use). The "practice lens" shows how people enact structures which shape their use of technology that they employ in their practices. While Orlikowski's work focused on corporations, it is equally applicable to the technology cultures that have emerged in smaller community-based organizations, and can be adapted through the gender sensitivity lens in approaches to technology governance.
Workman, Ford and Allen rearticulated structuration theory as structuration agency theory for modeling socio-biologically inspired structuration in security software. Software agents join humans to engage in social actions of information exchange, giving and receiving instructions, responding to other agents, and pursuing goals individually or jointly.
Four-flows-model
The four flows model of organizing is grounded in structuration theory. McPhee and Pamela Zaug (2001) identify four communication flows that collectively perform key organizational functions and distinguish organizations from less formal social groups:
Membership negotiation—socialization, but also identification and self-positioning;
Organizational self-structuring—reflexive, especially managerial, structuring and control activities;
Activity coordination—Interacting to align or adjust local work activities;
Institutional positioning in the social order of institutions—mostly external communication to gain recognition and inclusion in the web of social transactions.
Group communication
Poole, Seibold, and McPhee wrote that "group structuration theory," provides "a theory of group interaction commensurate with the complexities of the phenomenon."
The theory attempts to integrate macrosocial theories and individuals or small groups, as well as how to avoid the binary categorization of either "stable" or "emergent" groups.
Waldeck et al. concluded that the theory needs to better predict outcomes, rather than merely explaining them. Decision rules support decision-making, which produces a communication pattern that can be directly observable. Research has not yet examined the "rational" function of group communication and decision-making (i.e., how well it achieves goals), nor structural production or constraints. Researchers must empirically demonstrate the recursivity of action and structure, examine how structures stabilize and change over time due to group communication, and may want to integrate argumentation research.
Public relations
Falkheimer claimed that integrating structuration theory into public relations (PR) strategies could result in a less agency-driven business, return theoretical focus to the role of power structures in PR, and reject massive PR campaigns in favor of a more "holistic understanding of how PR may be used in local contexts both as a reproductive and [transformational] social instrument." Falkheimer portrayed PR as a method of communication and action whereby social systems emerge and reproduce. Structuration theory reinvigorates the study of space and time in PR theory. Applied structuration theory may emphasize community-based approaches, storytelling, rituals, and informal communication systems. Moreover, structuration theory integrates all organizational members in PR actions, integrating PR into all organizational levels rather than a separate office. Finally, structuration reveals interesting ethical considerations relating to whether a social system transform.
COVID-19 and structure
the COVID-19 pandemic had huge impact on society since the beginning. When investigating those impacts, many researchers found helpful using structuration theory to explain the change in society. Oliver (2021) used "a theoretical framework derived from Giddens' structuration theory to analyze societal information cultures, concentrating on information and health literacy perspectives." And this framework focused on "the three modalities of structuration, i.e., interpretive schemes, resources, and norms." And in Oliver's research, those three modalities are "resources", "information freedom" and "formal and informal concepts and rules of behavior". After analyzing four countries framework, Oliver and his research team concluded "All our case studies show a number of competing information sources – from traditional media and official websites to various social media platforms used by both the government and the general public – that complicate the information landscape in which we all try to navigate what we know, and what we do not yet know, about the pandemic."
In the research of interpreting how remote work environment change during COVID-19 in South Africa, Walter (2020) applied structuration theory because "it addresses the relationship between actors (or persons) and social structures and how these social structures ultimately realign and conform to the actions of actors" Plus, "these social structures from Giddens's structuration theory assist people to navigate through everyday life."
Zvokuomba (2021) also used Giddens' theory of structuration "to reflect at the various levels of fragilities within the context of COVID-19 lockdown measures." One example in the research is that "theory of structuration and agency point to situations when individuals and groups of people either in compliance or defiance of community norms and rules of survival adopt certain practices." And during pandemic, researched pointed out "reverting to the traditional midwifery became a pragmatic approach to a problem." One example to support this point is that "As medical centers were partly closed, with no basic medication and health staff, the only alternative was seek traditional medical services. "
Business and structure
Structuration theory can also be used in explaining business related issues including operating, managing and marketing.
Clifton Scott and Karen Myers (2010)studied how the duality of structure can explain the shifts of members' actions during the membership negotiations in an organization by This is an example of how structure evolves with the interaction of a group of people.
Another case study done by Dutta (2016) and his research team shows how the models shift because of the action of individuals. The article examines the relationship between CEO's behavior and a company's cross-border acquisition. This case can also demonstrate one of the major dimensions in the duality of structure, the sense of power from the CEO. Authors found out that the process follows the theory of duality of structure: under the circumstances of CEO is overconfident, and the company is the limitation of resources, the process of cross-border acquisition is likely to be different than before.
Yuan ElaineJ (2011)'s research focused on a certain demographic of people under the structure. Authors studied Chinese TV shows and audiences' flavor of the show. The author concludes in the relationship between the audience and the TV shows producers, audiences' behavior has higher-order patterns.
Pavlou and Majchrzak argued that research on business-to-business e-commerce portrayed technology as overly deterministic. The authors employed structuration theory to re-examine outcomes such as economic/business success as well as trust, coordination, innovation, and shared knowledge. They looked beyond technology into organizational structure and practices, and examined the effects on the structure of adapting to new technologies. The authors held that technology needs to be aligned and compatible with the existing "trustworthy" practices and organizational and market structure. The authors recommended measuring long-term adaptations using ethnography, monitoring and other methods to observe causal relationships and generate better predictions.
See also
Action theory (sociology)
Archaeology of religion and ritual
A Community of Witches § Wicca as a religion of late modernity
Comparative contextual analysis
Constitutive criminology
Grand theory
Health geography
Macrosociology
Social change
Sociology of space
Text and conversation theory
References
External links
Anthony Giddens'The constitution of society: An outline of the theory of structuration.. Giddens' most comprehensive work on structuration theory. Available in part for free online via Google Books
This book is intended to provide an accessible introduction to Giddens' work and also to situate structuration theory in the context of other approaches. Available in part for free online via Google Books.
A critical assessment of Giddens' entire body of work. Available in part for free online via Google Books.
Social theory for beginners. Available in part for free online via Google Books.
Anthony Giddens: The theory of structuration - Theory.org.uk.
detailing the structure of structuration theory as contrasted with Talcott Parsons's action theory.
Sociological theories
Critical theory
Social change
Social theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ilidh
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Cèilidh
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A ( , ) or () is a traditional Scottish and Irish social gathering. In its most basic form, it simply means a social visit. In contemporary usage, it usually involves dancing and playing Gaelic folk music, either at a home or a larger concert at a social hall or other community gathering place.
(plural of ) and (plural of ) originated in the Gaelic areas of Scotland and Ireland and are consequently common in the Scottish and Irish diasporas. They are similar to the traditions in Cornwall and and events in Wales, as well as English country dance throughout England which have in some areas undergone a fusion with céilithe.
Etymology
The term is derived from the Old Irish (singular) meaning 'companion'. It later became and , which means 'visit' in Gaelic. In Scottish Gaelic reformed spelling it is spelt (plural ) and in Irish reformed spelling as (plural ).
History
Originally, a was a social gathering of any sort, and did not necessarily involve dancing.
In more recent decades, the dancing portion of the event has usurped the older meanings of the term, though the tradition of guests performing music, songs, storytelling, and poetry still persists in some areas.
were originally hosted by a , meaning 'man of the house'. This is still the form in Ireland, though otherwise in modern events the host is usually referred to more simply as the "host" or "master of ceremonies".
Modern cèilidhean
The facilitated courting and prospects of marriage for young people and, although discos and nightclubs have displaced the to a considerable extent, such events are still an important and popular social outlet in rural parts of Scotland and Ireland, especially in the Gaelic-speaking regions. are sometimes held on a smaller scale in private or public houses, for example in remote rural areas and during busy festivals.
It is common for some clubs and institutions such as sports clubs, schools and universities and even employers to arrange cèilidhs on a regular—or at least annual—basis. The formality of these can vary. Some mix modern pop music with a Scottish country dancing band and dress codes range from compulsory highland dress to informal. Knowledge and use of the basic dance steps is not always strictly necessary, and dances often alternate with songs, poetry recitals, story telling and other types of "party pieces".
Cèilidh music may be provided by an assortment of instruments including fiddle, flute, tin whistle, accordion, bodhrán (frame-drum), hammered dulcimer, and in more recent times also drums, guitar, mandolin, bouzouki, Scottish smallpipes, and electric bass guitar. The music is cheerful and lively, consisting in Ireland mainly of jigs, reels, hornpipes, polkas, slip-jigs, and waltzes, with Scotland adding strathspeys, and England adding regional forms such as the northeastern rant. The basic steps can be learned easily; a short instructional session is often provided for new dancers before the start of the dance itself. In Ireland, the first band was put together in 1926 by Séamus Clandillon, Radio Éireann's director of music, to have dance music for his studio-based programmes.
Dancing at is usually in the form of cèilidh dances, set dances, or couples' dances. A "set" consists of four to eight couples, with each pair of couples facing another in a square or rectangular formation. Each couple exchanges position with the facing couple, and also facing couples exchange partners, while all the time keeping in step with the beat of the music.
About half of the dances in the modern Scots , however, are couples' dances performed in a ring. These can be performed by fixed couples or in the more sociable "progressive" manner, with the lady moving to the next gentleman in the ring at or near the end of each repetition of the steps. In Ireland, the similar style of dance is called dance or ('true') dance. Some of the dances are named after famous regiments, historical battles, and events, others after items of daily rural life. The "gay Gordons", "siege of Ennis", "walls of Limerick", and "stack of barley" are popular dances in this genre.
Step dancing is another form of dancing often performed at , the form that was popularised in the 1990s by the world-famous Riverdance ensemble. Whereas set dancing involves all present, whatever their skill, step dancing is usually reserved for show, being performed only by the most talented of dancers.
The has been internationalised by the Scottish and Irish diasporas in Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where local and traditional music competitions are held. In recent years, and traditional music competitions have been frequently won by descendants of emigrants.
It bears mention that are common throughout Nova Scotia. The tradition and the spirit of these gatherings are carried on in most small communities of these Maritime Provinces.
In Scotland
Privately organised in the 2020s are extremely common in both rural and urban Scotland, where bands are hired, usually for evening entertainment for a wedding, birthday party, celebratory or fundraising event. These may be more or less formal, and very often omit all other traditional Gaelic activity beyond the actual music and dancing. Novices are usually among the participants, so a "dance caller" may teach the steps before music begins for each dance. The more versatile bands will demonstrate the dances too. Scottish primary schools frequently teach some Scottish country dancing, often around Christmas time. Bands vary in size but are commonly made up of between two and six players. The appeal of the Scottish is by no means limited to the younger generation, and dances vary in speed and complexity to accommodate most age groups and levels of ability. Most private schools in Scotland will also hold on a fairly regular basis.
Public are also held, attracting paying participants, often held at dance clubs; and the annual Ceilidh Culture festival in Edinburgh.
Universities in Scotland hold regular , with the University of Edinburgh providing a number for students throughout each term, especially the long-running Highland Annual, the oldest in Edinburgh and the largest in Scotland, organised by the Highland Society (). Glasgow University Union's annual debating competition, Glasgow Ancients, traditionally ends the night with a . The union's Christmas event, Daft Friday, also involves a . are common fundraising and social events for many societies at the University of Glasgow.
Some bands intersperse dancing with a DJ playing disco music to broaden the appeal of the evening's entertainment.
In Northern Ireland
The resurgence in the popularity of the over the last 20 years or so in Northern Ireland has been assisted in no small way by the interest in amongst the younger generation and bands such as 'Haste to the Wedding', a band.
In Ireland
dances (, ) or true dances () are a popular form of folk dancing in Ireland, and are part of the broader Irish dances. The Irish Céilí dances are based on heys ("hedges", or pairs of facing lines), round dances, long dances, and quadrilles, generally revived during the Gaelic revival in the first quarter of the twentieth century and codified by the Irish Dancing Commission. There are about thirty dances that form the basis for examination of dance teachers. Irish is a participatory social event attended by both men and women and accompanied by live Irish traditional music. The dance emerged within cultural nationalist consciousness as during the late 19th and early 20th century traditions promoting nationalist agendas, and national identities were regarded as not culturally unified.
History and background
Irish regained its popularity in the late 19th century, when Ireland made efforts to regain its cultural and political autonomy after being colonized for over 800 years. The goal of the Gaelic League established in 1893 was to promote Irish cultural independence and de-anglicisation, which involved the remergent popularization of the Irish language, literature, and vernacular traditions, such as Irish singing and dancing. Plentiful branches of the Gaelic League giving dance, singing, music, and literature classes were established across Ireland.
Dance form and style
The style of dance employed for dance differs greatly from that used for set dance, and has more the appearance associated with the style of step dance. In particular, it emphasizes height and extension, with dancers generally dancing on their toes (but not as in ballet).
A movement called "side-step" or "sevens and threes" with which dancers travel sideways to the direction they are facing is common, as are jig-step movements called the "rising step" or "grinding step". dances may be divided into figures, but a single type of tune is generally used for all the figures and the dancing does not pause between the figures.
Unlike square dance and round dance, dances are generally not called by a caller; the flow of dance is defined by its name.
Social ceili dances
dances when performed socially are often performed in a progressive style. At the end of one whole iteration of the dance (lead around and body), instead of stopping, the groups move on to the next set of partners in the line. dances that can be performed progressively are: walls of Limerick, siege of Ennis, haymaker's jig, and fairy reel. When there is a large social gathering, there will often be a caller for the dance, though it is a very different style from square-dancing caller. A caller is usually the teacher or most experienced dancer of the group who has the dance memorized. They then call the movements out in a non-stylized way, intended to remind those who are non-dancers when and where to move. Social dances are often the easiest dances and very easy to shuffle through as a non-dancer. A caller makes sure that everyone at a social dance can participate. Embellishments are accepted and fun in social dances, women adding spins or changing the style of a swing based on the skill of a partner.
Similar gatherings in England
Ceilidh in England has evolved a little differently from its counterparts elsewhere in Britain and Ireland. English ceilidh (usually spelled without the diacritics), sometimes abbreviated to eCeilidh or E-ceilidh, can be considered part of English country dance (and related to contra dance). English ceilidh has many things in common with the Scottish and Irish social dance traditions. The dance figures are similar using couples dances, square sets, long sets, and circle dances. However, the English style requires a slower tempo of tune accentuating the on-beat, the central instrument often being the English melodeon, a diatonic accordion in the keys of D and G. Dancers often use a skip, a step-hop or rant step depending on region. This contrasts with the smoother style and more fluid motion seen in Ireland, Scotland, or (the walking) in contra. Many ceilidh dances involve a couple, but this does not limit the number of partners any one dancer has during the ceilidh. Often dancers will change partners every dance to meet new people.
An important part of English ceilidhs is the "caller" who instructs the dancer in the next dance. An experienced ceilidh caller will have a good understanding of the mechanics of the tunes and a deep knowledge of regional dances from the UK and beyond. They will confer with the band about what type of tune to play for the dance. This aids the selection of the right dance for the right audience. This skill is so sought after in the south of England that there are callers who are famous in their own right. However, many bands have their own caller, often also an instrumentalist; some have two.
During an English ceilidh there is often an interval involving the talents of local Morris or rapper side; this also serves to give bands with older members a rest.
It is possible to see many diverse and regionally distinct acts at a modern English ceilidh. Acts range from the most traditional, like the Old Swan Band, to the most experimental like the electronic dance music-influenced Monster Ceilidh Band. Many other forms of music have been combined with English ceilidh music including; Irish music from the band Phoenix Ceilidh Band; ska from the band Whapweasel; traditional jazz from the bands Chalktown and Florida; funk fusion from Licence to Ceilidh, Ceilidhography, and Climax Ceilidh Band, rock from the bands Peeping Tom, Aardvark Ceilidh Band, Touchstone, and Tickled Pink; West African- and Indian-influenced music from the band Boka Halattraditional; traditional French music from the band Token Women; traditional Welsh music from Twm Twp; and heavy metal from Glorystrokes.
In popular culture
In the 1945 film I Know Where I'm Going! the characters attend a .
In the song Oh! What a Ceilidh, performed by Andy Stewart on his 1965 album Cambeltown Loch. The song's composition is credited as: (Grant-Stewart).
In the 1983 film Local Hero the characters are shown at a .
The 1987 song When New York Was Irish by Terence Winch mentions the .
The 1990 film The Field features a céilidh.
A song by the group Black 47 is titled "Funky Céilí" (1992).
Danny Boyle's 1994 film Shallow Grave features Ewan McGregor and Kerry Fox at a .
In the 1997 film Titanic the third class passengers hold a which Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet's characters attend.
In the 1999 Michael Winterbottom Belfast-set movie With or Without You, London–Irish band Neck appear performing at a that Christopher Eccleston and Dervla Kirwan's characters attend. Neck describe themselves as being a "psycho-ceilídh" band - a term picked up by frontman Leeson O'Keeffe from Shane MacGowan when he was playing in his post-Pogues band, Shane MacGowan and The Popes. One of Neck's most popular tracks, an instrumental highlighting the band's musicianship on a set of traditional Irish jigs and reels, is called "The Psycho-Ceilídh Mayhem Set".
In the 2000 – 2005 BBC TV series Monarch of the Glen the characters are shown at a .
In 2002's The Magdalene Sisters a is portrayed.
The characters in the 2003 film The Boys from County Clare participate in a band competition.
In the 2006 film The Wind That Shakes The Barley, the characters are shown at a .
The popular Celtic musical team Celtic Woman describes a in their popular tour song "At the Céilí", a live recording of which appears on their 2007 album Celtic Woman: A New Journey.
Pogues frontman Shane MacGowan features the song "Céilidh Cowboy" on his The Crock of Gold album.
The Richard Thompson song "Johnny's Far Away" describes a couple who are unfaithful while the husband travels with a band.
The band Real McKenzies song "Ceilidh" from the album Clash of the Tartans (1998) describes the practice.
The word "Ceili" in the name of the band Ceili Rain is explicitly meant to invoke the spirit.
The Philadelphia Céilí Group is a music organisation known for its traditional Irish music and dance festivals.
In the 2011 movie The Guard, the main character takes his dying mother to see a band.
In the British television series My Mother & Other Strangers, part of the Masterpiece series, there are multiple references to ceili and multiple scenes set at in the fictional Northern Irish town of Moybeg.
Carnegie Mellon University holds an annual Cèilidh Weekend which serves as the university's homecoming celebration.
The lyrics of Ed Sheeran's song "Galway Girl" (2017) mention "dancing the , singing to trad tunes".
See also
Hootenanny
References
Bibliography
John Cullinane: Aspects of the History of Irish Céilí Dancing, The Central Remedial Clinic, Clontarf, Dublin 3,(1998),
An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha: Ár Rincí Fóirne-Thirty Popular Céilí Dances, Westside Press (2003)
J. G. O' Keeffe, Art O' Brien: A Handbook of Irish Dances, 1. Edition, Gill & Son Ltd., (1902)
Helen Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, Mount Eagle Publications Ltd., 1999
Further reading
The Sweets of May; Aoibhneas na Bealtaine: The céilí band era, music and dance of south Armagh. Ceol Camlocha (Tommy Fegan, chairman; book accompanied by 2 CDs and a DVD)
External links
A Handbook of Irish Dances, 1. Edition (1902) O'Keeffe & O'Brien
dance notes
Irish folk music
Scottish folk music
European folk dances
Irish dance
Scottish country dance
Society of Scotland
Entertainment in Scotland
Celtic music festivals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilmarnock%20F.C.
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Kilmarnock F.C.
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Kilmarnock Football Club, commonly known as Killie, is a Scottish professional football team based in the town of Kilmarnock, East Ayrshire. The team is currently managed by Derek McInnes, who was appointed in January 2022. The club has achieved several honours since its formation in 1869, most recently the 2011–12 Scottish League Cup after a 1–0 win over Celtic at Hampden Park and the Scottish Championship title in 2022. The club nickname, Killie, is the Scottish term for the town of Kilmarnock.
The club have qualified for European competitions on nine occasions, their best performance coming in the 1966–67 Fairs Cup when they progressed to the semi-finals, eventually being eliminated by Leeds United. The club is also one of only a few Scottish clubs to have played in three European competitions (European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Cup). Additionally, the club have played in the International Soccer League four times – 1960, 1961, 1963 and 1965, as well as competing in the 1995 Korea Cup.
Kilmarnock Football Club is currently the oldest football club in the Scottish Premiership, and also the second-oldest professional club in Scotland. Home matches are played at Rugby Park, a 15,003 capacity all-seater stadium situated in the town itself. Kilmarnock took part in the first-ever official match in the Scottish Cup against the now-defunct Renton in 1873. With a long-standing football rivalry with fellow Ayrshire side Ayr United, both teams play frequently in the Ayrshire derby, first meeting in September 1910. Kilmarnock is the most successful derby club, winning 189 times in 256 meetings.
History
Formation and early years
The club's foundation dates back to the very earliest days of organised football in Scotland, with speculation over the club's beginnings being in 1868, 1869 or 1872 often disputed. The club was founded by a collection of men and boys who were sporting enthusiasts, with a few of them playing cricket during the summer months, as well as playing bowls, quiots, running and golf During the winter period, the group lacked active sporting opportunities, and in the Autumn of 1868, the younger members of the sporting enthusiasts who attended Kilmarnock Academy first played football in the Barbadoes Green area of Kilmarnock. Football in Scotland at this time was considered "rough" and "disorderly", and, while it was popular, it had never been played in an organised manner before. The group of sporting enthusiasts later became known as the clubs "founding fathers", and began playing football with their own set of rules which were more similar to that of rugby, rather than association rules, which had become the rules used for a similar game, also known as football, in England in the late 1850s. A committee was formed with the intention of the game becoming more organised, and after raising money, had placed an advertisement in the 2 January 1869 issue of the Kilmarnock Standard for a general meeting of the "Kilmarnock Foot-ball Club" to be held in Robertson's Temperance Hotel on Portland Road in Kilmarnock on Tuesday 5 January 1869. The advert read: "Parties wishing to become members may do so at the meeting, or at the Secretary's, 55 King Street". No official recorded minutes or outcomes of the meeting are known to have existed.
With no recorded minutes of the meeting having taken place in January 1869, it is assumed that the members continued to play amongst themselves and with their own set of rugby-inspired rules. On 25 October 1872, a meeting was held by the committee at the town's George Hotel, Kilmarnock. Recorded minutes from the meeting highlighted that interest in the game had increased as had the membership, leading to the decision being made to officially constitute the club as "Kilmarnock Football Club", with a set of rules to play the game of football properly to be purchased, as no other clubs were playing "football" in the same style that the club had being playing up until that point. A meeting held by the committee on 29 October 1872 saw the agreement between the club and a gentleman, Mr. Wright, to rent his field nearby for £3, which they did until March 1873. A game was agreed to be played on the field on 2 November 1872, but no result or opponent to Kilmarnock Football Club were ever recorded. In November 1872, the club decided to formally adopt the rugby union rules they had purchased for use in the game. On 7 December 1872, Kilmarnock Football Club played their first known competitive game using the rugby union rules. The game was an 11-a-side game against Kilmarnock Cricket Club Xl which ended in a 0-0 draw.
During a club meeting on 3 March 1873, a letter from Queen's Park F.C. asked Kilmarnock F.C. if they were interested in attending a meeting at the Dewar Hotel in Glasgow on 13 March 1873 to discuss the formation of a Scottish Football Association playing to football association rules, with the possibility of purchasing a cup for the winner of a knock out competition to take place later in 1873. Kilmarnock had long previously turned Queen's Park F.C.'s requests down in the past, however, a favourable letter was returned to the team, informing the club was Kilmarnock were unable to send a representative to the meeting in Glasgow on 13 March 1873 due to having a committee meeting on the scheduled date, but advised that they were willing to join the Scottish Football Association, pledging to pay the 5 shillings membership fee and donate £1 awards the purchase of a cup for the knock-out competition. The first game played by Kilmarnock under football association rules was in the 1873/74 season. The club suffered a drastic decline in membership numbers following a fall out with their landlord at Holm Quarry, after the club wished to move back to Dundonald Road. Kilmarnock Football Club were one of the founding members of the Ayrshire Football Association which formed in May 1877. By the 1880s, Kilmarnock Football Club had established themselves as the premier club in Ayrshire.
The club had not been considered eligible for the Scottish League when it was formed in 1890, nor was it deemed eligible to be included in a second division. Kilmarnock Football Club was finally elected to the Scottish League in 1895, and finished their first season in the Scottish League in fourth place out of ten teams. In 1920 Kilmarnock won the Scottish Cup for the first time, beating Albion Rovers at Hampden Park. This was followed by their second success in 1929 where they beat massive favourites Rangers 2–0 at the national stadium in front of a crowd of 114,708 people. They soon reached another final against the same opposition in 1932 but this time were beaten after a replay, and the same outcome followed in the 1938 final against East Fife, Killie this time the team on the receiving end of an upset.
North American and European tournaments
After finishing as runners-up during the 1959-60 season, Kilmarnock could have been put forward as one of Scotland's entrants for the following seasons European Fairs Cup. Instead, the Scottish Football Association sent the team to North America to play in the International Soccer League, serving as Scotland's representative. Kilmarnock remained unbeaten during their group matches in both New York and Jersey City, with wins over Bayern Munich F.C. and English league champions, Burnley F.C.. Kilmarnock returned to North America to play in the International Soccer League final, losing 2-0 to Brazilian club Bangu Atlético Clube.
During the 1960-61 season, Kilmarnock reached the Scottish League Cup final for the second time, where they lost to Rangers F.C. 2-0 and finished as the seasons runners-up. After years of being sidelined by the Scottish Football Association, Kilmarnock were put forward for the 1964/65 European Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing their first match. The team made it to the second round, losing to Everton F.C. 1–4 and exiting the competition.
Scottish League Champions
Kilmarnock performed strong during the 1964-65 season, winning their first six matches in the season and remained unbeaten in the league until December 1964. The club made it to the league final against Hearts of Midlothian, with Kilmarnock winning 2-0 at half time. By the end of the game, Kilmarnock beat Hearts and won the Scottish League Championship for the first time.
In 1964–65 Heart of Midlothian fought out a championship title race with Willie Waddell's Kilmarnock. In the era of two points for a win Hearts were three points clear with two games remaining. Hearts drew with Dundee United meaning the last game of the season with the two title challengers playing each other at Tynecastle would be a league decider. Kilmarnock needed to win by a two-goal margin to take the title. Hearts entered the game as favourites with both a statistical and home advantage. They also had a solid pedigree of trophy-winning under Tommy Walker. Waddell's Kilmarnock in contrast had been nearly men. Four times in the previous five seasons they had finished league runners-up including Hearts' triumph in 1960. Killie had also lost three domestic cup finals during the same period including the 1962 League Cup Final defeat to Hearts. Hearts had won five of the six senior cup finals they played in under Walker. Even the final they had lost was in a replay after drawing the first game. Hearts' Roald Jensen hit the post after six minutes. Kilmarnock then scored twice through Davie Sneddon and Brian McIlroy after 27 and 29 minutes. Alan Gordon had an excellent chance to clinch the title for Hearts in second half injury time but was denied by a Bobby Ferguson diving save pushing the ball past the post. The 2–0 defeat meant Hearts lost the title by an average of 0.042 goals. Subsequently, Hearts were instrumental in pushing through a change to use goal difference to separate teams level on points. Ironically this rule change later denied Hearts the title in 1985–86. This is the only time to date Killie have been Scottish champions.
Korean Cup and Scottish Cup victory
Decline in the 1980s brought relegation to the Second Division, returning to the top division with promotion in 1993. In the summer of 1995, Kilmarnock were invited to South Korea to play in the Korea Cup. Kilmarnock played the Costa Rica national football team, finishing the game with a draw between both teams.
By the commencement of the 1996-97 season, optimism within the club remained low, with little to suggest that the season would see Kilmarnock win the Scottish Cup again, having previously done so 68 years prior. With inconsistent league results, and a home defeat to Raith Rovers F.C. in December 1996, Bobby Williamson became the new manager of Kilmarnock and began introducing new players to the team. Players such as David Bagan and Alex Burke were credited with improving the teams performance, along with Williamson's managerial style and approach. With relegation still a possibility, Kilmarnock climbed out of the relegation zone following a 1-1 home draw in the final league match of the season between Aberdeen F.C.. During the same period, Kilmarnock had been making good progress in the Scottish Cup, progressing to the 1997 Scottish Cup final with Falkirk F.C. held at Ibrox Stadium in Glasgow on 24 May 1997. 25,000 Kilmarnock fans attended with final, with Paul Wright scoring for Kilmarnock, allowing for Kilmarnock to claim the Scottish Cup for the third time. Following their Scottish Cup victory, the team travelled back to Kilmarnock from Glasgow on an open topped bus, travelling up the town's John Finnie Street where they were met with a barrage of fans celebrating their victory.
Victory in the Scottish Cup secured a place for Kilmarnock in the 1997–98 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, meaning a return to European football for the club following an absence of 27 years. The club have qualified for European competitions on nine occasions, their best performance coming in the 1966–67 Fairs Cup when they progressed to the semi-finals, eventually being eliminated by Leeds United. The club is also one of only a few Scottish clubs to have played in all three European competitions (European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Cup).
21st Century
UEFA Cup
In the 2001–02 UEFA Cup, Kilmarnock travelled to Lurgan in Northern Ireland to play Glenavon F.C., winning 1-0 following a goal by Chris Innes. Glenavon played Kilmarnock at Rugby Park, again, Kilmarnock winning 1-0 following a goal from Ally Mitchell. In their next match, Kilmarnock faced Norwegian club Viking FK, securing a 1-1 draw at Rugby Park before suffering a 0-2 loss away to Viking FK and exiting the EUFA Cup. Kilmarnock won the Scottish Youth Cup in 2004, following a 1-0 victory over Rangers during the final which was held at the clubs Rugby Park due to Hampden Park being unavailable to host the final.
2007 Scottish League Cup
Kilmarnock reached the 2007 Scottish League Cup final, but suffered a 5–1 defeat in the final by Hibernian. After selling Steven Naismith to Rangers for a club-record fee in August 2007, Killie struggled in the 2007–08 Scottish Premier League, finishing in 11th place with 40 points. In January 2010, Kilmarnock were second bottom of the 2009–10 Scottish Premier League, with last placed Falkirk just two points behind. On 11 January 2010, Jim Jefferies left the club by "mutual consent" and Jimmy Calderwood was appointed manager. Kilmarnock then achieved a first win in nine years against Celtic. Continued poor form, however, meant a final day showdown at Rugby Park with Falkirk for SPL survival. Kilmarnock began the game with a two-point advantage over their rivals and a goalless draw on the day was good enough to secure top-flight football for another year. They ended the season with just 33 points, their worst points finish in the SPL.
After Calderwood left at the end of the season, Mixu Paatelainen was appointed manager for the next two years with an option for a third. Despite being the favourites for relegation that season, Kilmarnock finished the season in fifth position. Paatelainen left the club to become manager of Finland and his assistant Kenny Shiels was appointed manager. Kilmarnock progressed to the 2012 Scottish League Cup final with wins against Queen of the South, East Fife and Ayr United in an Ayrshire derby at Hampden. Kilmarnock won the League Cup for the first time, as they defeated Celtic 1–0 in the final; Dieter van Tornhout scored the only goal six minutes from time, with goalkeeper Cammy Bell named Man of the Match. In June 2013, after three years at Kilmarnock, manager Kenny Shiels was sacked by chairman Michael Johnston after a "mutual agreement" between the two.
Manager changes
Allan Johnston signed a two-year contract and was appointed manager on 24 June 2013, with Sandy Clark as the assistant manager. Clark left his role in the summer of 2014 with the club looking to go in a new direction, and ex-Killie player and former Hearts manager Gary Locke was appointed as his assistant. Johnston was sacked in February 2015 after informing the press of his intention to leave in the summer, before discussing this with the board. Locke was placed in interim charge, before signing a three-year deal in April 2015. Kilmarnock went on to lose seven of their final eight games of the season, but were spared the play-off spot after a 4–1 win over Partick Thistle.
The 2015–16 season would prove difficult for the team. Locke was removed from his position as manager in February 2016, with Lee Clark being appointed as his replacement. Despite a small uplift in form, the team finished in 11th place and faced a relegation play-off against Championship side Falkirk in order to stay in the top flight. Despite losing 0–1 in the first leg, Killie fought back and comfortably won the second leg 4–0 (4–1 on aggregate), securing the club's status in the Scottish Premiership for another season. Clark would leave Kilmarnock for a return to England with Bury in February 2017, exactly a year after his arrival. Former Rangers player Lee McCulloch, assistant to both Locke and Clark, was placed in temporary charge until the end of the season, achieving an eighth-place finish. The following season saw another poor start, with an early defeat to rivals Ayr United in the league cup group stages, followed by a disappointing start to the league campaign. McCulloch was sacked in September 2017 with the club rooted to the bottom of the table.
The Clarke era
In an unexpected move, Kilmarnock appointed former Chelsea and West Bromwich Albion coach Steve Clarke. It was Clarke's first involvement with the Scottish game in 30 years and his appointment preempted a dramatic upturn in form, with the club ultimately finishing in fifth place, earning him the SFWA Manager of the Year award in the process. The 2018–19 season saw Kilmarnock celebrate their 150th anniversary, and the team continued their strong form in the league, both home and away, culminating in a final day fixture against Rangers at Rugby Park. Kilmarnock won the match 2–1 and the result secured a third-place finish in the league, which guaranteed European football for the first time since 2001. The season's results also set a new record points total for the club and their highest placed finish in the league since 1966. The following day, Clarke was signed by the Scottish FA to become the head coach of the Scotland national team.
Following the departure of Steve Clarke, Kilmarnock had three managers whose spell in charge was brief, beginning with former Juventus and Chelsea assistant coach Angelo Alessio. In Alessio's second match in charge, Kilmarnock lost in Europa League qualification to Welsh Premier League club Connah's Quay Nomads. Alessio was sacked in December 2019, with the team sitting in fifth place. Following his departure, Alex Dyer, assistant coach to both Alessio and Clarke, was appointed on an initial caretaker basis until the end of the season, before all football was abruptly ended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Dyer's services were retained by the club and he signed a new contract extension in June 2020. However, following a poor start to the new season, he left the club by mutual consent in January 2021. In February 2021, former St Johnstone manager Tommy Wright was appointed as the club's third manager in two years.
Relegation and Championship winners
On 24 May 2021, following a play−off defeat to Dundee, Kilmarnock were relegated to the Scottish Championship, bringing an end to their 28-year stay in the top flight. Tommy Wright was sacked in December 2021 with the team sitting fourth place in the Championship. Former Aberdeen manager Derek McInnes was quickly appointed as his successor. Results improved, and by the end of the 2021–22 season Killie were promoted back to the top flight of Scottish football at the first attempt, defeating closest challengers Arbroath 2–1 on the penultimate matchday with a dramatic last-minute winner from Blair Alston.
Ayrshire Derby
Kilmarnock's biggest rivalry is with their South Ayrshire neighbours Ayr United and together they contest the Ayrshire derby. The fixture has been played 142 times since their first meeting on 14 September 1910. The current record for Ayrshire derby games in major competitions stands at 102 wins for Kilmarnock and 87 for Ayr United.
Between national competitions such as the Scottish Football League, Scottish Cup, Scottish League Cup and the Scottish Challenge Cup, Kilmarnock have beaten Ayr United a total of 59 times, whilst beating Ayr United 43 times in defunct competitions such as the Ayrshire Cup, Ayrshire League, Ayr Charity Cup, Kilmarnock Charity Cup and the West Sound Trophy.
On 28 January 2012, Ayr United and Kilmarnock met at Hampden Park for the League Cup semi-final. Kilmarnock won 1–0 thanks to a 109th-minute goal from Dean Shiels. This was the first time that the Ayrshire derby had taken place in the semi-finals of a major competition and it was also the first derby to be played at a neutral venue. The game also achieved the highest recorded post-World War II crowd of any Ayrshire derby with 25,057 people travelling to Hampden (Kilmarnock versus Ayr United on 19 March 1938 had a crowd of 27,442).
The Ayrshire Derby fixture was revived in season 2021–22, as both clubs were in the same division following Kilmarnock's relegation to the Scottish Championship.
Club operations
Ownership and finances
Since June 1906, Kilmarnock F.C. has been owned by the private limited company The Kilmarnock Football Club Ltd.
Since 2014, the majority shareholder of the club is Ayrshire businessman Billy Bowie, who oversees all operations of the club. Kilmarnock became debt-free under Bowie's control in 2017 after several years of financial difficulty.
In May 2018 Kilmarnock made a landmark move by appointing Phyllis McLeish, commercial director of the QTS Group, to the club's board and in doing so became the first female board member in over 20 years. Later that same month, the club appointed its second female board member in Cathy Jamieson, former MP for the Kilmarnock and Loudoun district and a life-long Killie fan. Her appointment came after being nominated by The Killie Trust Initiative l, who raised over £100,000 to have a member of the trust on the board.
Colours and badge
The earliest known Kilmarnock kit from 1879 consisted of an all-blue jersey with white trousers. The shirt bore a crest which was described as "a hand, index and second fingers upright, thumb outstretched, other fingers enclosed over a palm" (an adoption of the historic Clan Boyd chief's heraldic crest). The hand rested on a bar over a ball marked KFC. Between 1887 and 1890 Kilmarnock wore black and white striped tops. Thereafter, the club has predominantly played in blue and white striped or hooped shirts with either blue or white shorts. The club have also occasionally played in plain blue and plain white tops; this was suggested by Ross Quigley who, at the time, was one of the first directors of the club, although the kit was later changed to the hooped style in 1920. The club's away colours have varied greatly over time. Yellow is generally regarded as the club's main third colour; but white, red and purple away kits have also appeared in recent years.
Between 2008 and 2014, the club manufactured their kits under their own sportswear brand, 1869. Following this, Italian company Erreá was the manufacturer. Kilmarnock kits were manufactured by American company Nike between 2016 and 2020. The current kit manufacturer is Danish company Hummel; it can only be bought from the store at Rugby Park.
The club badge is a modernised version of previous club badges. It features a ball bearing a hand in a blessing position, flanked by two red squirrels. The club's Latin motto, confidemus (we trust), is written above the badge (similar to the Clan Boyd heraldic motto, confido (I trust)). The club adopted the badge in 1992 after The Lord Lyon decreed that the previous badge, based heavily upon the town crest, was in breach of ancient Scottish heraldic rules.
In October 2018 the club unveiled a special badge for the club's 150th anniversary.
Kit manufacturers
Shirt sponsors
Club mascot
The club's mascot is a squirrel named 'Captain Conker' after the squirrels found on the club's crest and the Boyd coats of arms. In the past the 'Killie Pie' mascot was also a regular at Rugby Park on matchdays. Previously the mascot was Nutz the squirrel, played by long-time Kilmarnock fan Ian Downie who died in 2020.
Stadium
Kilmarnock first played football matches at the present Rugby Park site in 1899. Despite this, the venue is actually Kilmarnock's fourth home ground. The Grange, Holm Quarry and Ward's Park all hosted matches before the club moved to Rugby Park in 1877. This was not the present stadium, but one situated close by near South Hamilton Street. This ground was shared by cricket and rugby teams – sports which Kilmarnock had played previously – and the connection with rugby gave the ground its name. This name was taken with the club when they moved to their present stadium.
During the 1994–95 season the stadium capacity was significantly reduced as three new stands were constructed; the Moffat Stand, the Chadwick Stand and the East Stand. Their completion brought the capacity of the stadium to . The stadium opened on 6 August 1995, in a friendly match against English champions Blackburn Rovers. Mike Newell hit a hat-trick as the home team lost 5–0.
A FIFA 2 star FieldTurf artificial pitch was installed at Rugby Park for the start of the 2014–15 season. The pitch is capable of hosting rugby matches as well as football. A new artificial hybrid surface was installed during the 2019 close season. In February 2019 Kilmarnock received approval to install a new safe-standing section in areas of the East and Moffat stands. The installation process was completed in early December of that year.
In December 2022 Kilmarnock announced that consultation had begun on the plans to develop 'Bowie Park Training Facility' with a view to creating a dedicated club training ground where Kilmarnock’s men’s, women’s and academy teams can develop within the same purpose-built environment. Funded by Billy Bowie, the proposal includes the creation of two five-a-side and two full-size pitches – one with an accompanying 500-seat stand – alongside a two-floor training facility building which features a gym, changing rooms, canteen / seminar room, offices and a players’ lounge.
Club anthem
The song "Paper Roses", originally a hit by American singer and activist Anita Bryant, was adopted by Kilmarnock fans as their own club anthem. American singer and actress Marie Osmond, who is famous for recording this song, surprised the fans in February 2013 and performed at Rugby Park along with a meet and greet session, signing autographs for the players and fans.
Players
First team squad
On loan
Non-playing staff
Board of directors
Management
Managerial statistics
Information correct as of matches played 30 January 2021. Only official Scottish League, Scottish Cup, Scottish League Cup and European Competition matches are counted
Club records and accolades
Club accolades
Second oldest club in Scotland
Biggest competitive win: 13–2 v Saltcoats Victoria, Scottish Qualifying Cup 2nd Round, 12 September 1896
Worst defeat: 1–9 v Celtic, Scottish League Division 1, 13 August 1938
Highest home attendance: 35,995 v Rangers, Scottish Cup Quarter-Finals 10 March 1962
Most League goals in a season: Harry Cunningham (34 in 1927–28) and Andy Kerr (34 in 1960–61)
Transfer fee paid: £340,000 for Paul Wright from St Johnstone, March 1995
Transfer fee received: £2,200,000 for Greg Taylor to Celtic, August 2019
European performance record
Scotland
Scottish Football League (first tier):
Winners (1): 1964–65
Runners-up (4): 1959–60, 1960–61, 1962–63, 1963–64
Scottish First Division / Scottish Championship (second tier):
Winners (3): 1897–98, 1898–99, 2021–22
Runners-up (6): 1953–54, 1973–74, 1975–76, 1978–79, 1981–82, 1992–93
Scottish Second Division (third tier):
Runners-up (1): 1989–90
Scottish Cup:
Winners (3): 1919–20, 1928–29, 1996–97
Runners-up (5): 1897–98, 1931–32, 1937–38, 1956–57, 1959–60
Scottish League Cup:
Winners (1): 2011–12
Runners-up (5): 1952–53, 1960–61, 1962–63, 2000–01, 2006–07
Scottish Qualifying Cup:
Winners (1): 1896–97
Other; international and regional
Inter-Cities Fairs Cup:
Semi-finalists: 1966–67
International Soccer League:
Runners-up: 1960
Tennent Caledonian Cup:
Winners: 1979–80
UEFA Respect Fair Play ranking:
Winners: 1999
Ayrshire Cup (44): 1884, 1885, 1886, 1891, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1928, 1930, 1931, 1935, 1947, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959 (shared), 1960, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998
Source:
Hall of Fame
2014 inductees
The Founding Fathers – Founders of Kilmarnock Football Club
Kilmarnock FC 1964–65 Squad
Hugh Allen M.B.E. – Club Physiotherapist 1968–2002
Willie Culley – All-time Record Goalscorer
Alan Robertson – Most Scottish League Appearances
Mattha Smith – Scottish Cup Winner 1920 & 1929
2016 inductees
James Fowler – Captain 2012 League Cup Winners
Tommy McLean – Golden Era Award
Stuart McLean – 2nd Highest League Appearances
Ray Montgomerie – Captain 1997 Scottish Cup Winners
Eddie Morrison – Highest Post-War Goalscorer
Manuel Pascali – 1st International Award
2018 inductees
Frank Beattie – Golden Era Award
Paul Clarke – Legends Award
Frédéric Dindeleux – International Award
Ronnie Hamilton – Legends Award
Garry Hay – Legends Award
Derrick McDicken – Legends Award
Willie Waddell – Manager 1964–65 League Championship Winners
Bobby Williamson – Manager 1997 Scottish Cup Winners
2022 inductees
Kenny Sheils – Manager 2012 Scottish League Cup Final
Alan McCulloch – Former Goalkeeper
Kris Boyd – Scored 121 League Goals
2023 inductees
Ally Mitchell – 1997 Scottish Cup Winner
George Maxwell – Champion Hot–Shot Trophy Winner
Notable academy graduates
Jamie Adams
Scott Anson
Lee Ashcroft
Ross Barbour
Cammy Bell
Kris Boyd
Conor Brennan
Tomas Brindley
Innes Cameron
Robert Campbell
Peter Canero
Mark Canning
Kyle Connell
David Cox
Ross Davidson
Euan Deveney
Paul di Giacomo
Shaun Dillon
Michael Doyle
Gary Fisher
Iain Flannigan
James Fowler
Adam Frizzell
William Gros
Jamie Hamill
Dean Hawkshaw
Garry Hay
Emilio Jaconelli
Chris Johnston
Matty Kennedy
Greg Kiltie
Jim Lauchlan
Rory Loy
Devlin MacKay
Gary McCutcheon
Gary McDonald
Neil McGregor
Barrie McKay
Daniel McKay
Rory McKenzie
Scott McLean
Lewis Morrison
Robbie Muirhead
Scott Murray
Steven Naismith
Mark O'Hara
Alex Pursehouse
Craig Samson
Craig Slater
Graeme Smith
Brad Spencer
Aaron Splaine
Colin Stewart
David Syme
Ally Taylor
Greg Taylor
David Watson
Iain Wilson
Jude Winchester
See also
Kilmarnock FC Women
Howard Park, Kilmarnock
Killie pie
References
External links
KillieFC.com Unofficial Fans' Website, Archive & Forums
Kilmarnock on the BBC
Club information at Fitbastats.com
Football clubs in Scotland
Association football clubs established in 1869
Defunct rugby union clubs in Scotland
Scottish Premier League teams
Sport in Kilmarnock
1869 establishments in Scotland
Scottish Football League teams
Scottish Cup winners
South of Scotland Football League teams
Scottish Professional Football League teams
Scottish Football Association founder members
Scottish League Cup winners
Football in East Ayrshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20National%20People%27s%20Party
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German National People's Party
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The German National People's Party (, DNVP) was a national-conservative and right-wing populist political party in Germany during the Weimar Republic. Before the rise of the Nazi Party, it was the major conservative and nationalist party in Weimar Germany. It was an alliance of German conservative, German nationalist, supporters of the German monarchy, , and antisemitic elements supported by the Pan-German League. Ideologically, the party was described as subscribing to authoritarian conservatism, German nationalism, and from 1931 onwards also to corporatism in economic policy. It held anti-communist, anti-Catholic, antisemitic, and monarchist views. On the left–right political spectrum, it belonged on the right-wing, and is classified as far-right in its early years and then in the 1930s when it moved further rightward.
It was formed in late 1918 after Germany's defeat in World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919 that toppled the German Empire and the monarchy. It combined the bulk of the German Conservative Party, Free Conservative Party, and German Fatherland Party, with right-wing elements of the National Liberal Party. The party strongly rejected the republican Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Treaty of Versailles, which it viewed as a national disgrace, signed by traitors. The party instead aimed at a restoration of monarchy, a repeal of the dictated peace treaty and reacquisition of all lost territories and colonies.
During the mid-1920s, the DNVP moderated its profile, accepting republican institutions in practice while still calling for a return to monarchy in its manifesto, and participating in centre-right coalition governments on federal and state levels. It broadened its voting base—winning as much as 20.5% in the December 1924 German federal election—and supported the election of Paul von Hindenburg as President of Germany () in 1925. Under the leadership of the populist media entrepreneur Alfred Hugenberg from 1928, the party moved to the far-right and reclaimed its reactionary nationalist and anti-republican rhetoric and changed its strategy to mass mobilisation, plebiscites, and support of authoritarian rule by the president instead of work by parliamentary means. At the same time, it lost many votes to Adolf Hitler's rising Nazi Party. Several prominent Nazis began their careers in the DNVP.
After 1929, the DNVP co-operated with the Nazis, joining forces in the Harzburg Front of 1931, forming coalition governments in some states and finally supporting Hitler's appointment as Chancellor of Germany () in January 1933. Initially, the DNVP had a number of ministers in Hitler's government, but the party quickly lost influence and eventually dissolved itself in June 1933, giving way to the Nazis' single-party dictatorship with the majority of its former members joining the Nazi Party. The Nazis allowed the remaining former DNVP members in the Reichstag, the civil service, and the police to continue with their jobs and left the rest of the party membership generally in peace. During the Second World War, several prominent former DNVP members, such as Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, were involved in the German resistance to Nazism and took part in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler in 1944.
History
National Opposition, 1918–1924
The party was formed in December 1918 by a merger of the German Conservative Party and the Free Conservative Party of the old monarchic German Empire. It was joined soon afterward by the most right-wing section of the former National Liberal Party, and most supporters of the dissolved radically nationalist German Fatherland Party, the antisemitic Christian Social Party and German Völkisch Party. Thus, the party united most of the formerly fragmented conservative spectrum of the Empire. The process that led to the DNVP began on 22 November 1918 when an ad appeared in a number of Berlin newspapers calling for a new right-wing party for "which we suggest the name of German National People's Party". The founding of the DNVP was a response to the November Revolution of 1918 and the sense of extreme crisis it had engendered amongst the German right, where there were widespread fears that society was on the verge of destruction. As a result of the crisis atmosphere of late 1918, a very wide assortment of different parties came together to form the DNVP. This proved to be as much weakness as a strength as the DNVP had strong fissiparous tendencies throughout its existence, which was the product of the various different streams of conservatism that found themselves flowing uneasily together in one party. There was much disagreement about who was to lead the new party, and Oskar Hergt was chosen as leader on 19 December 1918 very much as the compromise candidate, being a little-known civil servant who was thereforth acceptable to all the factions. British historian Ian Kershaw wrote that ever since the late 19th century there had been tension on the German right between traditional conservatives and the more radical populist völkisch elements, saying: "Even the German National People's Party, itself with many fascistic characteristics, could only uneasily accommodate the new strength of the populist forces on the radical Right".
At the founding convention in December 1918, Siegfried von Kardorff gave the keynote speech, in which he stated "Our new party, in which friendly right-wing parties have united, has no past and rejects any responsibility for the past. We have a present, and God willing, a good future", to which the delegates shouted "But without the Jews!" The task of writing out a common platform acceptable to all fell to a committee headed by Ulrich von Hassell. Reflecting a strong anti-Semitic orientation, right from the start Jews were banned from joining the DNVP. In the elections on 19 January 1919 for the National Assembly that was to write the new constitution, the DNVP produced a pamphlet entitled "The Jews—Germany's vampires!"
Generally hostile towards the republican Weimar constitution, the DNVP spent most of the inter-war period in opposition. Of the 19 cabinets between 1919 and 1932, the DNVP took part in only two governments and their total period in office over this 13-year period was 27 months. The party was largely supported by landowners, especially from the agricultural, conservative and Protestant Prussian east (East Elbia), and wealthy industrialists, moreover by monarchist academics, pastors, high-ranking government officials, farmers, craftsmen, small traders, nationalist white-collar and blue-collar workers. Because most of the Protestant aristocracy, high civil servants, the Lutheran clergy, the Bildungsbürgertum (the upper middle-class), university professors, and Gymnasium (high schools for these destined to go to university) teachers supported the DNVP until 1930, the party had a cultural influence on German life far beyond what its share of the vote would suggest. Because so many university professors and Gymnasium teachers supported the DNVP, everyone who went to university in Germany under the Weimar republic was exposed in some way to Deutsch-National influence. More women than men voted for the DNVP, and despite the party's traditionalist values, women were very active in the DNVP. The women in the DNVP came mostly from the evangelical Protestant church leagues, associations representing housewives who had become politically active during World War I and women who been active in groups like the Pan-German League, the Colonial League and the Navy League. The women in the DNVP tended to be most concerned with wiping out "trash and dirt" which was their term for pornography and prostitution, and was seen as especially threatening to women. The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer called the DNVP "...the party of the traditional, often radical anti-Semitic elites...." The writer Kurt Tucholsky wrote in 1924 that "Even in Jewish circles (of which a portion would still vote German-National today, were the party not so stupid to trade in anti-Semitism) and even in merchant circles, this way of thinking prevails." Extremely nationalistic and reactionary and originally favouring restoration of the Hohenzollern monarchy, it later supported the creation of an authoritarian state as a substitute. Its supporters came from dedicated nationalists, the aristocracy, parts of the middle class and big business. The DNVP had little appeal to Catholics and almost its entire support came from Protestant areas.
The Lutheran character of the party was stressed early on, with DNVP making direct appeals to Lutheran voters. Party campaigners also made anti-Catholic appeals – a DNVP political leaftlet in Berlin read: "No Romish intrigues are going to rob us of our heritage of the Reformation. Protestant spirit must remain strong in our Fatherland." The Anti-Catholic character of the DNVP is traced back to the tradition of Kulturkampf, under which Otto von Bismarck "associated the meaning of being German with Protestantism". Catholicism was portrayed as un-German and associated with foreign and "papist" influence. As such, DNVP focused solely on Protestant voters while marginalising and attacking Roman Catholics - Richard Steigmann-Gall remarks that in Weimar Germany, "the narrative of national identity in Germany was written in a distinctly Protestant language". The DNVP opposed establishing relations with the Vatican and rejected the Prussian Concordat of 1929, arguing that Germany should not make formal agreements with the Catholic Church. The party refused to court Catholic voters, and Alfred Hugenberg rejected ideas to establish local Catholic committees of the DNVP, even when advised that this may damage the electoral appeal of the party. According to historian Larry Eugene Jones, the DNVP expressed "deeply ingrained anti-Catholic sentiments", and party officials went as far as proclaiming that DNVP was "bound to Protestant structures" and "did not stand for Catholic interests." German Catholics overwhelmingly refused to participate in the 1929 German referendum, displaying their disapproval of Hugenberg and his party. The Catholic clergy was critical of the German Right and was hostile towards the DNVP; the party was openly denounced and attacked by members of the Catholic clergy, such as the Archbishop of Breslau Adolf Bertram or Bishop of Trier Franz Rudolf Bornewasser. German Catholics were also prohibited from joining right-wing paramilitary organizations such as the Young German Order and DNVP-affiliated Stahlhelm, and Catholic bishops barred Catholics and clergymen from sitting in the DNVP parliamentary delegations.
On 6 February 1919 when the National Assembly convened to write the new constitution for Germany, the DNVP's chief contribution to the debates was a lengthy defence of the former Emperor Wilhelm II by Clemens von Delbrück, and a series of long speeches by other DNVP deputies defending Germany's actions in the July Crisis of 1914, the ideology of Pan-Germanism and the decision to adopt unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917. None of these had anything to do with the task at hand, namely to write a new constitution. The DNVP made no contribution to the drafting of the new constitution. In June 1919, the Reichstag had to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in the face of a warning from the Allies that World War I would resume if it was not ratified. The DNVP made certain that the other parties in the Reichstag were going to vote for the treaty, and then voted against it. The DNVP was secure in the knowledge that its vote would not cause the resumption of the war while the odium of Versailles would be borne by the other parties. Afterwards, the DNVP started a racist campaign against the presence of Senegalese and Vietnamese troops serving in the French army of occupation in the Rhineland (the so-called "Black Horror on the Rhine"), claiming that African and Asian men were genetically programmed to rape white women with DNVP politician Käthe Schirmacher (who was also a feminist) stating in a speech: "The lust of white, yellow and black Frenchmen for German women leads to daily violence!" Schirmacher wrote in her diary in 1919 that: "The only thing uniting us with Poland is our common hatred of Juda".
It favoured a monarchist platform and was strongly opposed to the Weimar Republic in domestic affairs and Treaty of Versailles in foreign affairs. Typical of the party's views about Weimar was a 1919 pamphlet by Karl Helfferich entitled "Erzberger Must Go!", which was in equal terms violently anti-democratic, anti-Catholic and anti-Semitic. The target of the pamphlet was Matthias Erzberger of the Zentrum, whom Hellferich called "the puppet of the Jews", and called openly for his assassination to avenge his "crimes" such as signing the armistice ending World War I. Helfferich wrote that Erzberger's career was "a sordid mixing of political activity with his own pecuniary advantage... at the crucial moment of the war, acting for his Habsburg-Bourbon patrons, he cowardly attacked German policy from the rear with his July action, and thereby destroyed in the German people the belief in and therefore the will to victory" [By "July action" Helfereich was referring to the Reichstag Peace Resolution of July 1917, which Erzberger played a major role in writing]. Helfferich especially hated Erzberger for making a speech in July 1919 that blamed him for the bad shape of German budget, with Erzberger noting during the war Helfferich had decided not to raise taxes, and instead ran up colossal debts which he planned to pay off by imposing reparations on the Allies once Germany won the war. Erzberger sued Helfferich for libel over his statement that Erzberger was "dishonestly combining political activity with his own financial interests". Amid much media attention the libel trial ended on 12 March 1920 with the judge ruling that some of Helfferich's statements were true while fining Helfferich a nominal sum for technical libel for the statements that he declared that Helfferich lacked sufficient evidence to back up with. The German historian Eberhard Kolb wrote none of Helfferich's claims were true, and that the outcome of the libel case was due to a conservative judge who disliked democracy. The judge's bias could be seen in that the judge went out of his way in his ruling to praise Helfferich for his "patriotic motives" in attacking Erzberger.
In the run-up to the Kapp Putsch of March 1920, the DNVP leaders were informed by Wolfgang Kapp in February 1920 that a putsch to overthrow the government would soon occur, and asked for their support. Kapp received an equivocal answer, but the party's leaders did not inform the government a putsch was being planned. During the Kapp Putsch of March 1920, the DNVP took an ambiguous stance, reflecting a strong sympathy for the aims of the putsch without coming entirely in support out of the fear that the putsch might fail. One of the DNVP leaders, Gottfried Traub served as "Minister of Church and Cultural Affairs" in the Kapp's provisional government while Paul Bang of the Pan-German League was going to serve in the provisional government, through he backed out later on 13 March 1920 under the grounds that the putsch was "hopeless". Within the party's leadership, Count Kuno von Westarp was in favour of supporting the putsch while Oskar Hergt was opposed. After the putsch failed, the DNVP issued a statement that condemned the government far more harshly for resorting to the "lawless" method of a general strike to defeat the putsch than it did the putsch itself, which was portrayed as an understandable, if extreme response to the existence of the republic.
The outcome of the Erzberger-Helfferich libel trial encouraged the DNVP to engage in a campaign of vituperative and vitriolic attacks on leaders of the Weimar Coalition who supported the republic, usually accompanied with calls for the assassination of the "traitors", which was to be DNVP's main contribution to politics for next several years. The DNVP was well known for outrageous, often childish antics such as mailing a dead dog to the French Ambassador to protest against paying reparations to France and for launching a campaign of mailing parcels containing human excrement to Social Democratic leaders. The campaign against the "Black Horror on the Rhine" occupied much of the DNVP's time in the early 1920s. Kolb wrote that the DNVP played a major role in the "brutalization of politics" in the Weimar Republic with its relentless denigration of its enemies as "traitors" together with its insistence that murder was a perfectly acceptable procedure for dealing with one's political opponents, who the DNVP claimed did not deserve to live.
The climax of the campaign against the leaders of the Weimar Coalition occurred in February 1922 when Walther Rathenau became Foreign Minister, which led the DNVP to launch an especially vicious anti-Semitic campaign against Rathenau claiming that "German honour" had been sullied by the appointment of "the international Jew" Rathenau as Foreign Minister, which could only be avenged with Rathenau's assassination. In an article by Wilhelm Henning, it was claimed Rathenau was somehow involved with the assassination of Count Wilhelm von Mirbach, the German ambassador to the Soviet Union in 1918, and that the fact that Rathenau did not mention Mirbach's assassination during his visit to the Soviet Union in April 1922 being presented as proof that Rathenau had a hand in Mirbach's death. When Rathenau was assassinated on 24 June 1922, the Zentrum Chancellor Joseph Wirth angrily turned towards the DNVP's Reichstag delegation and with his finger pointing clearly at Helfferich, shouted "The enemy is on the right! Here are those who drip poison into the wounds of the German people!". Wirth, who was shaken by the murder of his friend Rathenau, pushed through the Reichstag the Law for the Protection of the Republic on 21 July 1922. It increased the penalties for conspiring to political assassination and allowed the government to ban organizations that attempted to undermine the constitutionally established republican form of government. Only the DNVP, the Communists and the Bavarian People's Party (BVP) voted against the law, with every other party voting for it. Wirth would have liked to use the new law to ban the DNVP, but was unable to do so because no links could be established between the DNVP and the Organisation Consul terrorist group. Faced with a possible ban for encouraging terrorism after the Rathenau assassination and a public backlash over its initially jubilant reaction to Rathenau's murder, the party started to crack down on its extreme völkisch wing, who had been the most vociferous in calling for Rathenau's blood. To stop a total break with its völkisch wing, in September 1922 a "völkisch study group" under Wilhelm Kube was set up. Despite Kube's best efforts to work out a compromise, the leading völkisch activists' Wilhelm Henning, Reinhold Wulle and Albrecht von Graefe all resigned from the party in October 1922 when the party's leader Oskar Hergt supported by Otto Hoetzsch and Count Kuno von Westarp made it clear that they wanted no more calls for assassinations, which had caused a major public relations problem. Henning, Wulle and Graefe founded the German Völkisch Freedom Party in December 1922.
In September 1923 when the DVP Chancellor Gustav Stresemann announced the end of "passive resistance" and the occupation of the Ruhr (Ruhrkampf) under the grounds that hyperinflation had destroyed the economy and the Ruhrkampf must end in order to save Germany, the DNVP found itself joining forces with the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in denouncing the end of the Ruhrkampf as treason and as a cowardly surrender to "a half-sated irreconcilable France". The DNVP announced that if they were in charge that they would continue the Ruhrkampf regardless of the economic costs and misery.
Dawes Plan vote: a change in direction
At a party conference in early April 1924, the DNVP had come out clearly against the proposed restructuring of Germany's reparations payments known as the Dawes Plan, which the DNVP denounced as the "second Versailles". Part of the restructuring was an 800 million Reichsmark loan provided primarily by a consortium of Wall Street banks led by the House of Morgan that would help stabilize the currency after the hyper-inflation of 1923 that had all but destroyed the economy. Helfferich, the DNVP's leading economic expert, had published two detailed critiques in Die Kreuzzeitung that purported to prove that the Dawes Plan existed only to "enslave" Germany by allowing the Allies to take control of and exploit the German economy forever. The spring 1924 campaign was largely led and organized by charismatic, media savvy Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz who was presented as the "savior" type figure, able to rally together the entire nation to both win the election and then restore Germany back as a great power. The ineffectual Hergt had chosen to stay on the sidelines in order to improve his party's chances. Unusually for a DNVP politician, Tirpitz based his campaign in Munich as part of an effort to win Catholic support. In the Reichstag election of 4 May 1924, the DNVP posted its best showing yet, winning 19% of the vote.
A major problem for the DNVP throughout its entire existence was the tension caused between its tendency towards a policy of total opposition to the Weimar Republic and pressure from many of its supporters for the DNVP to participate in the government. Since the DNVP was unlikely to win the majority of the seats in the Reichstag on account of the proportional representation system, as a party committed to total opposition to the republic it doomed itself to being an opposition party forever. Many of the DNVP's supporters made it clear by 1924 that they were unhappy about supporting a party whose role was purely negative in opposing everything that the government did while refusing to take part in any of the coalition governments. The British historian Sir John Wheeler-Bennett wrote "At no time during the Weimar Republic did they make a single constructive contribution to the government of the country". At the same time, there was another equally influential fraction within the DNVP who took it for granted that it was only a matter of time before the republic disintegrated, and that the best thing to do was to maintain the current course of total opposition to the republic, secure in knowing that all of the blame for the current problems would rest with the parties of the Weimar coalition who were willing to assume the burdens of office.
In the summer of 1924, these tensions came out in the open with a vigorous display of party in-fighting over the question of whether the DNVP's MdRs (German MdR: Mitglied des Reichstags—Member of the Reichstag) should vote for the Dawes Plan or not. Initially, the DNVP had promised to vote against the Dawes Plan when it came up for ratification in the Reichstag on the grounds that Germany should not have to pay any reparations at all, resulting in many of the economic lobbying groups that donated to the party such as the Landbund, the Reich Association of German Industry (RDI) and the Chamber of Industry and Commerce threatening to cease donating to the party forever if its MdRs voted against the Dawes Plan. The Dawes Plan was a crucial element in the international attempt to stabilise the German economy after hyper-inflation had destroyed the German economy in 1923, and the economic lobbying groups that supported the DNVP were appalled at the party's intention to reject the Dawes Plan, and thereby risk a return to the economic chaos of 1923. As the parties of the Weimar coalition did not have a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag, it was clear that the DNVP would have to vote for the Dawes Plan to have it ratified. The American banks had demanded as one of the conditions of the loan that the Reich government put up the state-owned Deutsche Reichsbahn railroad as collateral, but the 1919 constitution stated the Reichsbahn could not be used as collateral. Thus to receive the Dawes Plan loan required the Reich government to amend the constitution to put up the Reichsbahn as collateral, which required a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag.
At first, the DNVP tried to avoid an internal split caused by the up-coming Dawes Plan vote by insisting upon several conditions in exchange for voting for the Dawes Plan such as the appointment of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz as Chancellor, firing Stresemann as the foreign minister and the removal of Otto Braun as Prussian minister-president together with the rest of the Social Democrats from the Prussian government. The British historian Edgar Feuchtwanger commented that the demand that the Anglophobic Admiral von Tirpitz be appointed Chancellor at a time when the British government was applying heavy pressure on France to reduce reparations on Germany showed that DNVP had a stunning "lack of realism". The Chancellor Wilhelm Marx rejected all of the DNVP conditions and informed the party that they either vote for or against the Dawes Plan, thereby settling off a bitter factional battle within the DNVP. In addition, Stresemann—who had privately bristled at Admiral Tirpitz's charges that he was conducting a foreign policy of Ohnmachtspolitik (policy of powerlessness) before the Allies—asked the German embassies in London, Paris, and Washington to inquire of their respective host governments what would be their reaction to Tirpitz becoming Chancellor. The very negative international response that the prospect of Tirpitz as the Chancellor generated was then leaked by Stresemann to various Reichstag deputies as a way of showing how absurd the DNVP was in demanding that Tirpitz being appointed Chancellor, and how isolated Germany would be with Tirpitz as the leader. In an editorial, the New York World wrote "To any German who wishes his country to enjoy the benefit of an international loan, it must be sufficiently obvious that the mere mention of the bearded hero of the submarine offensive is madness pure and simple" while The Daily Telegraph of London wrote in a leader (editorial) that the prospect of Tirpitz becoming Chancellor was "a masterpiece of folly". The French government issued a statement saying Tirpitz as Chancellor would be the end of any effort to improve Franco-German relations while the American and Belgian ambassadors both issued warnings to the German government that Tirpitz as Chancellor would be a source of tension in their relations with Germany. The British Ambassador Lord D'Abernon warned that "If the Germans want to find a closed front hostile to them they cannot do anything better but to make Tirpitz Chancellor of the Reich". The clash between Stresemann and Tirpitz over the Dawes Plan marked the beginning of a long feud that was to continue until Stresemann's death in 1929. Right from the moment that Admiral Tirpitz was elected to the Reichstag in May 1924, he emerged as Stresemann's most "tenacious adversary" in the Reichstag and presented himself as the unabashed champion of German power politics, a man unafraid, indeed proud to state his belief that Germany should be the world's greatest power.
Finally, President Friedrich Ebert applied more pressure by warning the DNVP that if the Dawes Plan were rejected, he would dissolve the Reichstag for early elections, and the party would then face the wrath of angry voters. After much internal fighting between the pro- and anti-Dawes Plan factions, in order to prevent the party from splitting in two, it was announced that the vote on the Dawes Plan would be a free vote with no party discipline and accordingly DNVP MdRs would vote on the Dawes Plan as they saw fit. The vote on the Dawes Plan on 29 August 1924 was described as "one of the most dramatically moving votes ever experienced by the German Reichstag, since the final result remained uncertain until the very last minute". About half of the DNVP MdRs voted for the Dawes Plan while the other half voted against. The final vote was 49 DNVP MdRs for acceptance vs. 48 MdRs against. The support of the pro-Dawes Plan DNVP MdRs was just enough to get the Dawes Plan ratified by the Reichstag. The passage of the Dawes Plan produced much turmoil in the Reichstag with considerable cheering and jeering. One of the anti-Dawes Plan DNVP deputies, Alfred Hugenberg was so enraged by the passage of the Dawes Plan that he screamed on the floor of the Reichstag that those DNVP MdRs who voted for the Dawes Plan should be expelled from the party. The National Socialist MP General Erich Ludendorff shouted at the pro-Dawes Plan DNVP MdRs that "This is a shame for Germany! Ten years ago I won the battle of Tannenberg. Today you have made a Tannenberg victory possible for the Jews!".
The Dawes Plan vote brought to the surface the conflict between the party's pragmatic wing most closely associated with industrial interests and farmers from the western part of Germany who were prepared to work inside the system within certain limits if only to safeguard their own interests versus those who were mostly closely associated with the rural areas of East Elbia, especially the Junkers (landed nobility) and the Pan-German League who wanted to destroy democracy with no thought to the consequences. The in-fighting over the Dawes Plan together with the related bad feelings within the DNVP's Reichstag delegation led to Oskar Hergt being ousted later in 1924 as the party's leader and his replacement with the interim leader of Johann Friedrich Winckler who in turn was replaced by Count Kuno von Westarp. In the bitter aftermath of the Dawes Plan vote, the influential Land associations of Pomerania, East Prussia and Schleswig-Holstein all passed resolutions attacking Hergt for his "betrayal" of the party's principles by allowing a free vote on the "second Versailles" of the Dawes Plan, instead of imposing party discipline to force the entire caucus to vote against the bail-out. A month later in September 1924 the general Land association passed a resolution calling on Hergt to resign within a month if he could not form a government; as he failed to do this forced him to resign in October 1924.
Mid-1920s: a tack towards the centre
Initially, the change of leadership made little difference. In its platform for the Reichstag election of 7 December 1924, the party declared the following:
″Our party remains as it was: monarchist and völkisch, Christian and social. Our goals remain the same as our name: German and national. Our colours remain black, white and red: our resolution is firmer than ever: to create a Germany free of Jewish control and French domination, free from parliamentary intrigue and the populist rule of big capital".
Those parties that had voted against the Dawes Plan lost seats while that had voted for the Dawes Plan gained seats, which as half the DNVP caucus had voted for the Plan while the other half had voted against meant the DNVP made only very modest gains in the second 1924 election. The outcome of the second 1924 election together with the appointment of the nonpartisan Hans Luther as Chancellor in early 1925 allowed Count von Westarp to persuade the DNVP to join Luther's government. While it sought the ultimate demise of Weimar Republic, it participated in its politics and ruling government for a time in the mid-1920s to keep Social Democrats out of power. Before its alliance with Nazis, the party sought support of the national liberal German People's Party.
Between 1925 and 1928, the party slightly moderated its tone and actively cooperated in successive governments. In the presidential election of 1925, the DNVP supported Karl Jarres for president, who was defeated in the first round by Zentrums Wilhelm Marx, who however failed to gain a majority. Fearing that Marx would win the second round (something made the more likely by the fact that the SPD's Otto Braun had dropped out to endorse Marx), Admiral Tirpitz made a dramatic visit to the home of the retired Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg to ask him to run for the second round in order to "save" Germany by gaining the presidency for the right. Tirpitz persuaded Hindenburg to run, and though Hindenburg won the election as a non-party candidate, the DNVP strongly supported the Field Marshal. General Otto von Feldmann of the DNVP worked very closely with Hindenburg during the 1925 election as Hindenburg's "political agent". Despite the move to the center at the level of high politics, at the grass-roots of the party the opposite direction prevailed. Starting in 1924, the DNVP's newsletter for women (which was written entirely by female volunteers) started to vehemently insist that German women only marry a "Nordic man" and raise their children to be racists. From the mid-1920s onwards, the women party activists started to draft plans calling for the end of all "Jewish cultural influence" in Germany, banning Jews from working as teachers and writers, making eugenics into state policy with a new class of bureaucrats to be called "racial guardians" to be created in order to assess a couple's "racial worth" before allowing them to marry or not, and breaking German citizenship into two grades of those allowed to marry and those who would not.
In 1926, under its leader Count von Westarp the DNVP took office by joining the coalition government led by Chancellor Wilhelm Marx with the stated aim of pulling German politics towards the right. After the "betrayal" of the Dawes Plan vote, the fraction of the DNVP mostly closely associated with the Pan-German League had started a major effort to take over the party's grass-roots to prevent another "betrayal", a slow, but steady process that would ultimately prove the undoing of Count von Westarp. During its time in the government, the DNVP made a major push for higher tariffs on agricultural products from abroad, which pleased the party's powerful rural wing, but came to grief over the Locarno Treaties. By serving in a government that signed Locarno, which recognized Alsace-Lorraine as part of France and voluntarily agreed to accept the demilitarized status of the Rhineland, many party activists charged that Westarp had committed another "betrayal" by serving in a government that accepted the "robbery" of what was claimed to be German land. A result of this anger was that even through the DNVP ministers had served in the Cabinet that had signed Locarno, the party's MdRs voted against ratifying Locarno in the Reichstag, and the DNVP walked out of the government in protest at Locarno. Another problem for the DNVP was the 1926 referendum, in which the Communists proposed to confiscate without compensation all of the property belonging to the former Imperial and royal families of Germany and give it to small farmers, homeless people and those living on war pensions. The DNVP leadership was totally against the idea of expropriating the property of royalty, but many of its voters, especially small farmers, were not and voted yes on 20 June 1926, a development that strongly suggested that many DNVP voters were starting to feel that the party leadership was not representing them effectively.
Westarp's efforts to include the DNVP within the government tied himself and the party in many knots since he had to engage in compromises with his coalition partners that offended much of the party's grass-roots, especially the more hardline fraction that disapproved of participation in the government while all the time insisting that he was staying faithful to the party's original platform of relentless opposition to the republic, which made him look both insincere and unprincipled. This was particularly the case because Westarp continued to maintain that he was a monarchist utterly committed to restoring the House of Hohenzollern while his party was participating in a republican government. An especially difficult case for Westarp came in 1927 when it became time to renew the Law for the Protection of the Republic, a law passed in 1922 in the aftermath of Rathenau's assassination, and which was clearly aimed at the DNVP for its incitement of murder at the time. Section V of the law had implicitly banned the former Emperor Wilhelm II from returning to Germany, an aspect of the law that greatly offended the DNVP at the time. By 1927, many of the DNVP's supporters, especially the Junkers had concluded the restoration of the monarchy was not possible, and so successfully pressured Westarp into voting for a renewal of the law rather than see the DNVP walk out of the government and thereby lose a chance for higher tariffs on agricultural imports. Westarp attempted to justify his support of the law he had once opposed by arguing that it was really aimed at the Communists while at the same time claiming the DNVP was opposed in principle to the Law for the Protection of the Republic.
A further problem for the DNVP was the rise of rural rage in the late 1920s. By 1927, though Germany itself was overall very prosperous, a steep economic decline had begun in rural areas, which was only to greatly worsen with the coming of the Great Depression in 1929. By late 1927, it was clear that the increases in agrarian tariffs that the DNVP ministers had forced through had made no impact on the continuing economic decline in the countryside, and as result a mood of palpable anger and resentment had set in the countryside of northern Germany with many DNVP voters damning their own party. The political repercussion of rural rage was the rise of a number of small parties representing rural voters in northern Germany such as the Agricultural League, German Farmers' Party and the Christian-National Peasants' and Farmers' Party, which all took away traditional DNVP voters, a development that contributed significantly to DNVP's poor showing in the 1928 elections. Finally, Admiral Tirpitz who had done so much for the DNVP's good showing in elections in 1924, had often come into conflict with Westarp over his policy of half-hearted participation in the government, and chose not to run in 1928, claiming very publicly that the DNVP needed more aggressive leaders than Westarp. The man Tirpitz chose to continue his work of winning Bavaria for the DNVP, General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck did not have the same mass appeal and in 1928, the DNVP won only half the vote in Bavaria that it managed to do in December 1924.
Hugenberg and the national bloc: the Young Plan referendum
The disastrous showing at the polls in the Reichstag election of 20 May 1928 (the party's share of votes fell from 21% in 1924 to 14% in 1928) led to a new outbreak of party in-fighting. The immediate cause of the in-fighting was an article published in July 1928 entitled "Monarchism" (Monarchismus) by Walther Lambach, a board member of the German National Association of Commercial Employees (DHV). In his article, Lambach stated that the restoration of the monarchy was no longer possible and that for almost all Germans under the age of thirty the DNVP's incessant talk of bringing back the monarchy was irrelevant at best and downright offputting at worse. Lambach wrote that for conservative Germans President Hindenburg had long since replaced the former Kaiser as the object of their affections and that the DNVP's poor showing in the May elections was a result of the party running on a platform of restoring the monarchy, a goal that most Germans were simply not interested in. Lambach's article with its call for the DNVP to transform itself into a party of conservative republicans set off a storm, with the party's core monarchist supporters successfully pressuring Westarp to expel Lambach. Led by Alfred Hugenberg, the enraged monarchists then turned their sights on Westarp himself, claiming he was a weak leader who let republican elements into the party. Hugenberg was helped by the fact that only 15% of DVNP voters were party members, and the local party offices were dominated by members of the local aristocracy, retired civil servants from the Wilhelmine era and professional lobbyists, making the membership of the DVNP far more right-wing than its voters. The American historian John Leopold noted that the local offices "...tended to accept hard-line propaganda literally, but the interest groups which filled the party's coffers insisted on coalition and compromise. Parliamentary leaders schooled in rationalizing varied principles followed the dictates of lobbyists in the Reichstag, but then reverted to an ideological approach when on the stump...Radicals exploited the divergence of principle and practice. Had party leaders instructed their electorate in the realities of politics, the DVNP might have evolved into the dynamic conservative party that some Reichstag delegates belateldly envisioned."
In October 1928, Hugenberg, leader of the party's hardliner wing, became chairman. Hugenberg returned the party to a course of fundamental opposition against the Republic with a greater emphasis on nationalism and reluctant co-operation with the Nazi Party. Hugenberg was utterly devoid of personal charisma or charm, but he was a successful industrialist and media magnate, a fabulously wealthy man whose talents at devising business strategies which had made him a millionaire many times over were felt to be equally applicable to the arena of politics.
Hugenberg was elected leader largely through the support of the faction associated with the Pan-German League who had been steadily taking over the party's grass-roots ever since the Dawes Plan vote of 1924, and who wanted a return to the politics of the early 1920s. Hugenberg and Heinrich Class, the League's leader had been friends since the 1890s, and Hugenberg was a founding member of the League. Reflecting this background, Hugenberg proved himself to be a consistent champion of German imperialism, and one of the major themes of his time as leader was the call for Germany to resume overseas expansion and to regain the lost colonies in Africa. The other theme that he first set out in an article in the autumn of 1928 entitled "Party Bloc or Mush" (Block oder Brei) was that the DNVP should transform from a broad but heterogeneous and divided party of notables (in Hugenberg's words "mush") into a coherent and clear-cut force with a hierarchical leadership (Führerprinzip) and mass appeal, stressing plebiscitary action rather than parliamentarianism. Hugenberg declared that what was needed a "bloc" of like-minded people that would be solid as stone in upholding its values. About Hugenberg, British historian Edgar Feuchtwanger wrote:
Hugenberg was an abrasive, stubborn, difficult personality, opinionated and confrontational. His emergence into a central position in right-wing politics had a very divisive effect which in the end benefited only Hitler. Many on the right, from Hindenburg downwards, including members of the Ruhrlade, the inner cabinet of the western coal and steel industry, found him increasingly wrong-headed and impossible to work with. When Hugenberg began to attract the political limelight his characteristic slogan was "solid or mash" (Block oder Brei). Those who wanted a broad conservative party able to influence republican politics were the mash, his prescription was dynamic force through principled confrontation.
In July 1929, Hugenberg decided that the best way of regaining popularity was to use the section of the Weimar constitution that allowed upon collecting a certain number of signatures a referendum to be held, in this case on the Young Plan. Hugenberg successfully collected enough signatures to initiate a referendum on his Freedom Law which called for cancelling the Young Plan together with all reparations. The fact that the Young Plan reduced reparations and committed the Allies to exiting the Rhineland in June 1930 (which was five years earlier than what Versailles had called for) was irrelevant to Hugenberg. He argued that a properly patriotic government would not pay any reparations at all and would force the Allies to leave the Rhineland at once. As such, Hugenberg drafted "A Bill against the Enslavement of the German People" which declared acceptance of the Young Plan to be high treason under the grounds that Germany should not have to pay any reparations, and that those ministers who signed the Young Plan on behalf of the Reich government and those who voted for the Young Plan in the Reichstag should be prosecuted for high treason. Hugenberg made much of the fact that Young Plan was not scheduled to end until 1988, which he portrayed in stark terms as forcing generations of Germans to live under a crushing burden of reparations for the next sixty years (Hugenberg did not mention the fact that the Young Plan was not scheduled to end until 1988 because the plan had greatly reduced annual reparation payments, which was why the payments had been spread out over sixty years).
In pushing for the referendum on the Young Plan, Hugenberg was quite consciously seeking to polarize German politics into two extremes, namely the "national" camp opposed to the Young Plan and everyone else, believing that such a polarization would work for his own benefit. Hugenberg saw compromise and negotiation as so much weakness that led to DNVP's poor showing in the elections of May 1928 and believed that the best chances for the DNVP to come to power was by creating a political climate where no compromise and negotiation was possible by seeking to divide Germany into two diametrically opposed blocs with no middle ground in between. Hugenberg did not actually expect to win the referendum on the Young Plan, but rather the referendum was intended to be in the modern parlance a wedge issue that would polarize politics and create a situation where one would either be for or against the "national" camp. The American historian John Leopold wrote that "Hugenberg debated political issues in terms of a simplistic, philosophic disjunction—a man was either for the nation or he was against it". This was especially the case because the "Grand Coalition" government of the Social Democratic Chancellor Hermann Müller was composed of the left-wing SPD, the right of center Catholic Zentrum, the liberal DDP and the moderate conservative DVP—in short all of the parties that Hugenberg was seeking to destroy by forcing them to defend the Young Plan, and therefore making it seem they were in favor of paying reparations and the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, the parties of the "Grand Coalition" were in favor of a gradualist, step-by-step approach of doing away with Versailles by negotiation instead of the confrontational Katastrophenpolitik (catastrophe politics) of the early 1920s that led to the disastrous Ruhrkampf and hyper-inflation of 1923, a nuance that did not interest Hugenberg in the slightest. Hugenberg for his part regarded Katastrophenpolitik as a good idea that was unfortunately abandoned, and made it clear that he wanted a return to Katastrophenpolitik.
In seeking a vote on the "Freedom Law" Hugenberg was seeking nothing less than to begin the destruction of all of the middle-of-the-road parties in Germany in order to achieve a situation where the only alternatives for German voters would be the "national" parties and the Marxist parties. Hugenberg had initially planned in the winter of 1928–29 to use as his wedge issue a plan for constitutional reform, but dropped it in favor of a referendum on the Young Plan when he discovered that the idea of constitutional reform was too abstract for most people, and that portraying the Young Plan as a monstrous form of financial "slavery" for our "children's children" was much more visceral, emotional and effective way of appealing to public opinion. The Canadian historian Richard Hamilton wrote that Freedom Law was pure demagoguery since rejection of the Young Plan would not mean the end of reparations as Hugenberg claimed, but rather Germany would continue to pay higher reparations under the Dawes Plan.
As part of his polarizing gambit, Hugenberg created the Reichsausschuß (committee) for the People's Rebellion Against the Young Plan in the summer of 1929, which was intended to be a sort of counter-parliament to the Reichstag. The Reichsausschuß comprised Hugenberg, Heinrich Class of the Pan-German League, Franz Seldte of Der Stahlehlm and Adolf Hitler of the NSDAP. Hugenberg saw himself as the leader of the Reichsausschuß and believed through the Reichsausschuß he would become the leader of the entire right-wing national bloc and in turn the bloc he intended to create would at last win enough seats in the Reichstag to have a majority. In the summer of 1929, two prominent DNVP Reichstag deputies Gottfried Treviranus and Hans Schlange-Schöningen resigned from the party's caucus in protest against the "Freedom Law" as Hugenberg's referendum bill was known which they called irresponsible in the extreme. They would be joined shortly afterwards by the former chairman Count Kuno von Westarp and 20 other DNVP MdRs leaving the party in December 1929 to form the more moderate Conservative People's Party. The DNVP rebels objected in particular to the part of the "Freedom Law" which called for the prosecution of President Paul von Hindenburg on charges of high treason for fulfilling his constitutional obligation by signing the Young Plan into law after it been passed by the Reichstag. The rebels also objected to the prosecution of the entire Cabinet for endorsing the Young Plan and all of the MdRs for voting to ratify the plan, which the rebel faction called the height of demagogy. In the first 15 months of being led by the abrasive Hugenberg the DNVP was to lose 43 out of its 78 MdRs. Many Ruhr industrialists who normally supported the DNVP such as Abraham Frowein, Clemens Lammers, Carl Friedrich von Siemens, and Paul Silverberg signed a petition in the fall of 1929 objecting to the section of the "Freedom Law" calling for the prosecution of those politicians who supported the Young Plan as "detrimental" to the workings of politics and stated that a victory for the Yes side in the referendum on the Freedom Law "would frustrate all efforts at improving the German situation for the foreseeable future". Hugenberg's leadership brought about a break with the industrialists who were greatly displeased with Hugenberg's unwillingness to take part in coalition governments. As a result, from 1929 onwards the millionaire Hugenberg spent his own considerable fortune to provide the funding for the DNVP. The dependence of the DNVP on Hugenberg to provide the bulk of the election funds very much strengthened Hugenberg's leadership, making it impossible to challenge.
Hugenberg's efforts led to the Young Plan referendum on 22 December 1929. The NSDAP were one of the groups which joined Hugenberg's campaign against the Young Plan, and the resulting wave of publicity brought Adolf Hitler back into the limelight after five years of obscurity following his trial for high treason in 1924. After his trial in 1924, Hitler had been largely ignored; the 1929 edition of the diaries of Lord D'Abernon, the British ambassador to Germany 1920–26 had a footnote that read: "He [Hitler] was finally released after six months and bound over for the rest of his sentence, thereafter fading into oblivion". At the various campaign rallies against the Young Plan in the autumn of 1929, the charismatic Hitler easily out-shone the stuffy Hugenberg, who as one of his aides Reinhold Quaatz wrote in his diary had "no political sex appeal". Hugenberg was such an inept speaker that he almost never spoke before the Reichstag because his speeches induced laughter amongst those who listened to them. The fact that Admiral Tirpitz of the DNVP appeared alongside and spoke with Hitler at the anti-Young Plan rallies was taken by many of the DNVP voters as a sign that Hitler was now a respectable figure who was rubbing shoulders with war heroes. The referendum of 1929 brought about a major surge of interest in the National Socialists. Indeed, for many it marked the first time that they ever heard of Hitler, and it led during the winter of 1929–30 to a huge influx of new members into the NSDAP. Hamilton wrote that it was the 1929 referendum, which the National Socialists had treated as a gigantic 5-month-long free political ad (Hugenberg had paid for the entire referendum out of his own pocket) running from July to December 1929 that had enabled them to enter the political mainstream just as the Great Depression was beginning.
Decline and fall, 1930–1932
Hugenberg had wanted to keep the Reichsausschuß going even after the failure of the Freedom Law referendum, but the Reichsausschuß dissolved in the spring of 1930 when the National Socialists walked out of it. When Hugenberg was forced in April 1930 to temporarily vote for the "presidential government" of Chancellor Heinrich Brüning that he was otherwise opposed to, in order to prevent the entire rural wing of the DNVP from seceding over the issue of tariffs, Hitler accused Hugenberg of weakness, and terminated the NSDAP's co-operation with the DNVP.
Reflecting the changed political dynamics caused by the Young Plan referendum, in the election of 14 September 1930 the DNVP's share of the vote dropped dramatically to 7% while the NSDAP's share rose up equally dramatically to 18% (compared to the NSDAP's 2.6% of the vote in 1928). This marked the NSDAP's electoral breakthrough to the mainstream. Since the NSDAP did very well in areas that had traditionally voted for the DNVP like East Prussia and Pomerania, the German historian Martin Broszat wrote that would strongly suggest that most of the DNVP voters had deserted their old party for the NSDAP. Broszat argued that what happened between 1929 and 1932 was that the supporters of the radical right-wing DNVP had abandoned it for the even more radical right-wing NSDAP. Hugenberg had decided to use as his next wedge issue to destroy the middle-of-the-road parties that supported the Weimar Republic the theme of anti-Marxism (in the Weimar Republic the term Marxism was to describe both the SPD and the KPD). The media mogul Hugenberg used his vast press empire to wage a hysterical campaign warning his papers' mostly middle-class readers that Marxist SPD and KPD were going to mobilize the millions of unemployed created by the Great Depression to stage a bloody revolution and that only an authoritarian regime willing to use the most drastic means could save Germany. The Comintern's Third Period, which meant that the Communists spent most of their time attacking the Social Democrats as "social fascists" was not reported by the Hugenberg press, which instead portrayed the KPD and the SPD as working together for a revolution. The Hugenberg papers argued that only the DNVP could save Germany from revolution, and that democracy and civil liberties were major impediments to battling the supposed Marxist revolution that was just on the verge of happening. The major beneficiaries of the Hugenberg press's anti-Marxist campaign were not the DNVP as intended, but rather the National Socialists who were able to portray themselves as the most effective anti-Marxist fighting force.
The DNVP was declining rapidly as many workers and peasants began to support the more populist and less aristocratic NSDAP while upper-class and middle-class DNVP voters supported the NSDAP as the "party of order" best able to crush Marxism. Hugenberg pursued with a vengeance those DNVP deputies who left to form the Conservative People's Party, whom Hugenberg called Weimar-supporting "Tory democrats" (democrat being a term of abuse for Hugenberg) who he believed practiced a watered down conservatism along the line of the British Conservative Party without any völkisch or monarchist convictions. Hugenberg's vendetta against the Conservatives meant that he focused most of his time on attacking them in the 1930 election, sending the Stahlhelm in to disturb speeches by Westarp and spent little time defending the DNVP against the attacks of the NSDAP. During the 1930 election, the DNVP issued a statement proclaiming that there were no important differences between them and the NSDAP on the "Jewish Question", arguing that the few differences that did exist concerned a small number of the "radical demands of the NSDAP" which were "hardly important since in practice they cannot be implemented".
Despite the bitterness caused by the 1930 election, in February 1931 Hugenberg met with Hitler to discuss common co-operation on a referendum for early elections in Prussia that were intended to defeat the government of the Social Democrat Otto Braun, and thereby allow a NSDAP/DNVP coalition to win the resulting elections. As part of their efforts to co-operate, the NSDAP and the DNVP MdRs walked out of the Reichstag on 11 February 1931 to protest the high-handed ways of the Brüning government. During the summer of 1931, the DNVP, the NSDAP and the KPD all joined forces in campaigning for a yes vote in the Prussian referendum, which led the liberal Berliner Morgenpost newspaper to write of an alliance of "the swastika and the Soviet star" who were engaging in Katastrophenpolitik. Despite their vehemently expressed anti-communism both the DNVP and the NSDAP were prepared to co-operate with the Communists when it suited their purposes as in the case of the Prussian referendum. Hugenberg argued that Prussian referendum was necessary to force out the Braun government whom he accused of responsibility for "the decline in the German economy, the bad state of the finances and the chaos in governance". On 9 August 1931 when the Prussian referendum was held, the NSDAP, DNVP and the KPD failed in their effort to force an early election in Prussia with yes side winning 37% of the vote.
In its September 1931 platform adopted at a convention in Stettin laying out the party's principles, it was stated as follows:
Only a strong German nationality that consciously preserves its nature and essence and keeps itself free of foreign influence can provide the foundation for a strong German state. For that reason we resist the undermining, un-German spirit in all forms, whether it stems from Jewish or other circles. We are emphatically opposed to the prevalence of Judaism in the government and public life, which has emerged ever more ominously since the revolution. The flow of foreigners across our borders is to be prohibited.
The same platform called for the "liberation of Germany" (i.e. doing away with the Treaty of Versailles), restoring the monarchy under the Hohenzollern family, a return to the policy of pre-1914 navalism in order to make Germany a world power, a "strong state" to combat the Great Depression and a "moral rebirth of our people" by the "deepening of Christian awareness".
On 11 October 1931, the DNVP, the NSDAP, the Pan-German League, the Reichslandbund, the German People's Party and the Stahlhelm paramilitary organisation briefly formed an uneasy alliance known as the Harzburg Front. Attending the Bad Harzburg rally were most of the figures of the German right ranging from General Hans von Seeckt, Heinrich Class, Franz Seldte, General Walther von Lüttwitz, Admiral Adolf von Trotha, the economist Hjalmar Schacht, Crown Prince Wilhelm, Admiral Magnus von Levetzow, Prince Oskar of Prussia, Prince Eitel Friedrich, and on to figures such as Hugenberg and Hitler. The Harzburger Front was Hugenberg's attempt to create on a more institutional basis the Reichsausschuß of 1929, and under his leadership, thereby form the "national bloc" that he confidently believed would sweep him into power in the near-future. Wheeler-Bennett called the Harzburg rally "the formal declaration of war by the parties of the Right against the Brüning government-a concentration of all the forces of reaction, both past and present, in one great demonstration of hostility to the Weimar System". At the meetings to work out a policy platform for the Harzburger Front, the German historian Karl Dietrich Bracher wrote that Hugenberg made concessions to his partners in the front "with the indulgence born of assured arrogance that is fed by the certainty of being in command".
The DNVP hoped to control the NSDAP through this coalition and to curb the Nazis' extremism, but the pact only served to strengthen the NSDAP by giving it access to funding and political respectability while obscuring the DNVP's own less extreme platform. The Harzburger Front proved to be a failure, and by the end of 1931 the National Socialists were increasingly lashing out against their nominal allies. In February 1932 over the course of long talks, the DNVP and the NSDAP failed to agree on a common candidate for the presidential elections, and on 17 February 1932 Hitler unilaterally announced in a press release that he was running for president. This action effectively destroyed the Harzburger Front as Hugenberg had not been consulted before-hand. Hugenberg had much difficulty in recruiting a DVNP candidate for the presidential election as Prince Oskar of Prussia, the industrialist Albert Vögler, and General Otto vow Below all declined to run. Theodor Duesterberg was recruited as the DNVP presidential candidate more by default as he was the only one willing to run for the DNVP. In the first round of the presidential election on 13 March 1932, the DNVP supported Theodor Duesterberg, and after he withdrew from the race following his dreadful showing, endorsed no candidate for the second round on 10 April 1932. In the first round of the election, Duesterberg won only 6.8% of the vote compared to 30% of the vote won by Hitler while Hindenburg won 49.6% of the vote.
In June 1932, the DNVP became the only significant party to support Franz von Papen in his short tenure as Chancellor. Hugenberg wanted to join von Papen's government, but was vetoed by President von Hindenburg who disliked Hugenberg. However, the two DNVP men who did serve in von Papen's government, namely Baron Wilhelm von Gayl as Interior minister and Franz Gürtner as Justice Minister, where both were noted for their hostility to democracy and support for authoritarianism. The first act of the von Papen government was to dissolve the Reichstag two years into its mandate. In a speech on 26 June 1932, Hugenberg designated the Nazis as now being an opponent of the national front. One of the DNVP's members, Count Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin wrote a pamphlet for the election entitled Der Nationalsozialismus – eine Gefahr ("National Socialism—A Menace") that attacked the NSDAP for the neo-paganism of one of its members, Alfred Rosenberg, and urged voters to choose the DNVP. At the same time, the NSDAP ridiculed the DNVP as the party of monarchist reactionaries without a clue as to how to deal with the Great Depression and who cared only for the rich. On 20 July 1932, during the run-up to the Reichstag election of 31 June, the von Papen government carried out the Preußenschlag, a coup by which the Reich government deposed the SPD-dominated Prussian government of Otto Braun, usurping it by making Papen the Reich Commissar of Prussia. Baron von Gayl, the DNVP Interior Minister played a key role in planning the "Rape of Prussia" together with Chancellor von Papen and the Defense Minister General Kurt von Schleicher as part of the move towards authoritarian government by destroying one of the strongest pillars of democracy in Germany. In this way, the DNVP finally achieved its long sought goal of removing the Braun government.
In the Reichstag election of 31 July 1932, the DNVP posted its worst result ever, winning only 5.9% of the vote while the NSDAP won 37%. On 12 September 1932 the DNVP and the DVP were the only parties to vote for the von Papen government when it was defeated on a massive motion of no confidence in the Reichstag. In response to losing the motion von Papen dissolved the Reichstag again. In the elections in fall of 1932 the DNVP made overtures to the NSDAP attempting to reform the Harzburg front. The German historian Hermann Beck wrote that the election in the autumn 1932 was the "absolute nadir" of DNVP-NSDAP relations when Hitler had decided to make the DNVP the main target in the election. The National Socialist newspaper Der Angriff in an editorial written by Joseph Goebbels called for a "Reckoning with the Hugenzwerg" (a portmanteau of Hugenberg and "pygmy"), and dismissively commented that Hugenberg must be a magician since there was no other way that he could hope to "turn an insignificant heap of reactionaries" into a mass movement. DNVP election meetings were the targets of Nazi stink bombs and heckling while the DNVP politician Countess Helene von Watter was threatened with a beating by Nazis. Another DNVP politician (Theodor Duesterberg) was heckled with shouts of "Jew boy!" while Baron Axel von Freytagh-Loringhoven of the DNVP was accused of high treason for having allegedly fought against Germany as an Imperial Russian Army officer in World War I. Goebbels organized a boycott of the Scherl newspapers and press owned by Hugenberg while encouraged a strike at the Scherel press.". At a debate at the Berlin Sports Palace between Goebbels and Hugenberg's right-hand man, Otto Schmidt-Hanover, thousands of Nazis showed up to boo Schmidt-Hanover and cheer on Goebbels; who won the debate by being the only one allowed to speak for any length of time. Leopold wrote that; "the DNVP was rooted in the attitudes and traditions of the nineteenth century. It comprised men of property and education who patronized inferiors while scorning democratic idealism and loathing socialistic egalitarianism. Older men raised in the prewar era of peace and prosperity, the German Nationals identified their superiority as social, intellectual and racial. Hugenberg himself typified their Pan-German idealism and expansionism. Hitler and the Nazis were products of the twentieth century. Alienated and deprived, inured by the hardships of the war, the frustrations of inflation, and the humiliation of the depression, these were men of action. No Spenglerian historicizing for them; power was the goal". Despite this, the conflict between the Nazis and the Left Wing parties was much more intense.
Gauleiter Wilhelm Kube—who himself had once belonged to the DNVP in the years 1919–23—called in a speech to "fight the DNVP to the death". Hugenberg's main line of attack on the NSDAP in the fall of 1932 was that Germany's chief danger was "Bolshevism" and there was no difference between the "red Bolshevism" of the KPD and the "brown Bolshevism" of the NSDAP. In October 1932, the NSDAP had lost some middle-class backing when it came out in support of a strike by transport workers in Berlin, which also happened to be supported by the KPD, Goebbels reasoned that this was necessary as support from conservative aristocrats could be won back, but they would lose what little sway the Nazi party had on working-class Berlin if they didn't support the strike. In the election on 6 November 1932, the DNVP made a small improvement over its dismal showing in July, winning 8.3% of the vote, a gain made entirely at the expense of the NSDAP. Despite all the bitterness of the election battles of 1932 Hugenberg cautiously opened talks with Hitler in December 1932 with the aim of reviving the Harzburger Front of 1931. This was a reflection of the fact that it was now very hard to imagine that the DNVP could come to power without the NSDAP.
Bringing Hitler to power, January 1933
On 3 January 1933, Hitler and Von Papen had what was supposed to be a secret meeting that however was revealed by the press. Hugenberg was aware at least in general that Hitler and Von Papen were having talks on forming a new government, but was uncertain about just what exactly was happening, and did not want to see Hitler as Chancellor. In January 1933, upset that the government of General Kurt von Schleicher failed to heed its promise to raise tariffs on agriculture imports, the Agricultural League issued on 11 January 1933 a vehement press release calling Schleicher "the tool of the almighty money-bag interests of internationally oriented export industry and its satellites" and accused Schleicher of "an indifference to the impoverishment of agriculture beyond the capacity of even a purely Marxist regime". The statement attacking Schleicher was issued by the Agrarian League, not the DNVP, but as the Agrarian League was a powerful pressure group within the DNVP, the statement effectively forced the DNVP to oppose the Schleicher government and thus severely limited Hugenberg's options. On 13 January, Schleicher met with Hugenberg and offered him the chance to serve as minister of agriculture and economics, an offer that Hugenberg said he was willing to accept only if Schleicher would end his efforts to secure the support of the Zentrum, a demand that proved unacceptable. Knowing that Hitler and Von Papen were discussing a new government, and hoping for a chance to join the proposed government even through he was not quite certain who was to head it, Hugenberg decided on 21 January 1933 to send the DNVP MP Otto Schmidt-Hanover to inform General Schleicher that the DNVP was opposed to his government because of his supposed indifference to the suffering of German farmers, and it would vote for a motion of no confidence once the Reichstag reconvened at the end of January. By this move, Hugenberg hoped that this would lead to the DNVP joining the proposed "Government of National Concentration", even though he did not know who the Chancellor was going to be. Hugenberg's major fear in January 1933 was that Hitler and Von Papen might form the "Government of National Concentration" without the DNVP, and he was determined that if such a government be created that he be part of it. The American historian Henry Ashby Turner wrote that Hugenberg was driven in January 1933 by "...opportunistic considerations...a desperate desire to gain a measure of power as he approached the end of a frustrating political career".
Hugenberg himself wanted Von Papen to return to power, but found that was not an option in late January 1933 as Von Papen had abandoned his demand to once more be Chancellor on 19 January 1933 and was now supporting Hitler as Chancellor. Faced with this situation, Hugenberg decided that the best that could be hoped for was to support Hitler as Chancellor while seeking to "neutralize" the Nazis by imposing restrictions on a Hitler government that would limit its freedom of action. At a secret meeting at Joachim von Ribbentrop's house on 24 January 1933 attended by Hermann Göring, Wilhelm Frick, Ribbentrop and Von Papen, they worked out the plan that the best way of overcoming President von Hindenburg's opposition to appointing Hitler Chancellor was by creating a right-wing "government of national concentration" that would ensure the Chancellorship went to Hitler while giving the impression that Hitler's power would be limited by creating a coalition government of all the German right. From this viewpoint, it was important to include the DNVP in the proposed Hitler government as a way of reassuring Hindenburg. At the same time, Hindenburg was visited by his friend and neighbor in East Prussia, the DNVP politician Count Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, the grand old man of German conservatism and the leader of the DNVP's extreme right-wing Junker fraction, who told the President that he should appoint Hitler chancellor and that his fears about what Hitler might do as Chancellor were groundless. As Hindenburg valued Oldenburg-Januschau's advice, his opinion helped to weaken Hindenburg's resistance to appointing Hitler chancellor.
On 27 January 1933, Ribbentrop invited Hugenberg to a secret meeting at his house in an attempt to win his participation in the proposed "government of national concentration." Hugenberg had nearly scuttled Hitler's chances of getting the Chancellorship when he objected to Hitler's proposed Cabinet line-up; complaining that too many portfolios went to the Nazis and not enough to the D.N.V.P. On 28 January, Von Papen met with Hugenberg and informed him that he must drop his objections to National Socialists serving as the Reich and Prussian ministries of the Interior (the latter controlled the Prussian police), in exchange for which Von Papen promised Hugenberg that he could have his wish to be "economic dictator" by being given the Reich/Prussian ministries of economics and agriculture. On 29 January 1933, Hugenberg's aide Reinhold Quaatz wrote in his diary the following:
Within the party the ultimatum [to Schleicher] had come as an act of deliverance. With a single blow we stood at the center of events as a sort of pivot; this position however is correspondingly dangerous. If we go with Hitler, we must harness him. Otherwise we are finished, whether he succeeds in grabbing power for himself or if he fails. If a Hitler government does not come about, then Von Papen, Meissner, perhaps even Hindenburg [...] will try to hang the blame on us. We must also prevent a Hitler-Centre coalition, but also avoid a complete falling out with the Centre. It's a game of Russian roulette with five bullets. Fortunately, all the others are dependent on us. Qui vivra, verra.
The (entirely baseless) fear that Hitler might try to form a coalition with the Zentrum which would give him a majority in the Reichstag and thereby allow a dictatorship without the DNVP was the final reason why Hugenberg decided to join the Hitler government.
In the Hitler government
Performing badly in subsequent elections, the party chose to be a junior coalition partner to the NSDAP in the so-called, short-lived Regierung der nationalen Konzentration (Government of National Concentration) upon Adolf Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933. Although Hugenberg had severe doubts about Hitler as Chancellor he agreed to serve in a Hitler government provided that he was made "economic dictator" by being appointed Minister of Economics and Agriculture on both the Reich and Prussian levels. He was one of eight ministers in the government that were either members of the DNVP or were backed by it. The Nazis were limited to three seats in cabinet, and only two with portfolios—the chancellorship for Hitler and the then-powerless Interior Ministry for Frick (Göring was a minister without portfolio). The cabinet's makeup was conceived by Von Papen and Hindenburg in hopes of keeping Hitler in check and making him their puppet. On the morning of 30 January 1933 when the Hitler cabinet was going to be sworn in by President von Hindenburg, just minutes before the ceremony was going to be performed, a major dispute arouse between Hitler and the cantankerous, bad-tempered Hugenberg when the latter learned that Hitler was going to violate his promise not to call early elections, and was planning on dissolving the Reichstag as soon as possible. The shouting match between the two men delayed the swearing in of the cabinet and was only finally mediated by Presidential state secretary Otto Meissner who warned Hitler and Hugenberg that Hindenburg would not wait forever and by Von Papen who told Hugenberg that he should never doubt the word of a fellow German.
On 30 January 1933 Hugenberg was sworn in by Hindenburg to serve in Hitler's government as Economics and Agriculture minister as he had requested. During his time in Hitler's cabinet Hugenberg did not stand in the way of Hitler's efforts to make himself a dictator. As mentioned above, many prominent DNVP members had long favoured scrapping Weimar's democracy in favour of an authoritarian system. After the Reichstag fire, Hugenberg gave a speech that spoke of the necessity for "draconic measures" and of "exterminating the hotbeds in which Bolshevism can flourish". Hugenberg argued that "in these earnest times there can no longer be any half-measures...no compromise, no cowardice". At a Cabinet meeting Hugenberg together with the other DNVP cabinet ministers voted for the Reichstag Fire Decree, which effectively wiped out civil liberties. The decree was based largely on a proposal by Ludwig Grauert, a DNVP member who had recently been named chief of the Prussian state police, to provide legal cover for the mass arrests of Communists on the night of the fire. On the afternoon of 27 February—hours before the fire—Gürtner had submitted a draft decree which, like the Reichstag Fire Decree, would have imposed draconian restrictions on civil liberties in the name of curbing Communist violence. One of the few DNVP members who protested against participation in the Hitler government was Count Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin who sent Hugenberg a letter on 13 February 1933 resigning from the party in protest against the coalition with the Nazis.
On 23 March 1933, the entire DNVP Reichstag delegation voted for the Enabling Act, which gave the Cabinet the power to make laws without parliamentary consent, effectively making Hitler a dictator. Many Communist and Socialist representatives were unable to vote, being held in Nazi-organized holding camps at the time of the vote.
In early May 1933, the DNVP changed its name to the German National Front (DNF), a name change that Hugenberg argued was to better reflect the fact that the era of political parties was coming to a close in Germany. In his capacity as "economic dictator", Hugenberg named as State Secretary at the Economics Ministry Paul Bang, a man mostly noted for his "autarkic ideals and racist fanaticism" who managed to annoy industry with his strongly protectionist tendencies. During his short time as Reich/Prussian Economics and Agriculture Minister, Hugenberg worked to achieve autarky by keeping foreign products out of the German market, for various grandiose schemes for government subsidies for struggling farmers and government schemes to reduce farmers' debts. Most of these actions clashed with more populist plans of the National Socialists. The DNF, though it expressed certain reservations that the wave of anti-Semitic violence waged by the SA in the spring of 1933 was threatening the rule of law, supported all of the anti-Semitic laws brought in by the new government. As a group the DNF favored the sort of legalised, bureaucratic anti-Semitic discrimination expressed in the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. It found the sort of lawless anti-Semitic violence waged by the SA distasteful, even if the party rarely condemned that violence (by this time the more violent anti-Semites within the DNVP had long since left for the NSDAP, leaving only those who preferred legalised anti-Semitism). One of the very few examples of someone formally associated with the DNVP intervening against anti-Semitic violence occurred on 1 April 1933, the day of nationwide anti-Jewish boycott, when the Lord Mayor of Leipzig, Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, personally ordered the SA to stop enforcing the boycott. Goerdeler had been one of the rising stars of the DNVP in the 1920s, but in December 1931 he had been offered and accepted the post of Price Commissioner by Zentrum Chancellor Heinrich Brüning. Hugenberg had forbidden Goerdeler from accepting the office, which led to Goerdeler resigning from the DNVP rather than being expelled.
Hitler's patience with his conservative allies was limited, and it quickly ran out after the passage of the Enabling Act. By voting for it the DNF had served its purpose as far as Hitler was concerned and he had no further need for it. From the spring onward the Nazis started to increasingly attack their allies. In March 1933, DVNP leaders in Frankfurt, Hanover and Kiel were complaining that the police and SA were harassing them. Herbert von Bismarck, the leader of Bismarck Youth, the DVNP's youth wing, was harassed so much that he resigned from his post in the Prussian Interior ministry. In May 1933 a massive press campaign was started by the National Socialist newspapers demanding that Hugenberg resign from the Cabinet. By May 1933, in the Free City of Danzig, the local branch of the NSDAP had turned on the Danzig branch of the DNVP, joining a coalition with the Danzig branch of the Zenturm in the Danzig Senate. The way that the Nazi-dominated government of Danzig was starting to persecute those civil servants who were DNVP members who refused to join the NSDAP was from Hugenberg's viewpoint an ominious precedent.
In addition, Hugenberg, who had headed the German delegation at the London Economic Conference in June 1933 put forth a programme of German colonial expansion in both Africa and Eastern Europe as the best way of ending the Great Depression, which created a major storm at the conference. Before leaving for London Hugenberg had objected to a speech by the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath where Neurath had said about the London conference: "The National Socialist government has shown it is willing to work together with other nations in the political arena. It is in this spirit that it approaches the World Economic Conference." Hugenberg objected to Neurath's speech under the grounds that he was not going to London to work for "harmonious understanding" between nations, but rather he was seeking to assert German interests in the most aggressive manner possible. Besides his sincere belief that Germany needed an empire in Africa and Eastern Europe to recover from the Great Depression, Hugenberg's major reason for putting forth his imperialist programme at the London Economic Conference was that by late May 1933 the DNF was being increasingly persecuted by its nominal Nazi allies, and Hugenberg believed that if he could score an outstanding success in foreign policy, then Hitler would end the persecution of his party. Hugenberg believed that the case for German imperialism as a way of ending the Great Depression not just in Germany, but all over the world was so compelling that he could convert the other delegates at World Economic Conference to his way of thinking. On 16 June 1933 Hugenberg released the "Hugenberg memorandum" to the press in London, and set off a media storm. The Soviet government put forth a diplomatic note protesting against Hugenberg's idea that the Soviet Union was a backward country ripe for German colonization, while the British and French governments protested against Hugenberg's demand that they should just hand over all their colonies in Africa to Germany. The leaders of the rest of the German delegation in London comprising Neurath, the Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht and the Finance minister Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk had not been consulted about the "Hugenberg Memorandum" and felt Hugenberg's approach to foreign policy had made him into an embarrassment.
Hugenberg had made himself into an embarrassment for the new regime by being indiscreet enough to advance the claim to Germany's Lebensraum (living space) at a time when Germany was still more or less disarmed, which forced Hitler to disavow his statements in London. The Foreign Minister Baron von Neurath attempted to contain the damage caused by the "Hugenberg Memorandum" by issuing a press statement that Hugenberg's views were his own, not those of the German government, which led Hugenberg to give an interview with the press in London during which he stated that his views were those of the government and he called Neurath's press release false. In its turn, Hugenberg's interview prompted a further press release from the Foreign Office saying that Hugenberg was not speaking for the government as he claimed he was. After his return to Berlin, at a Cabinet meeting on 23 June, Hugenberg insisted on having a confrontation with Neurath over his press releases that greatly alienated the other non-Nazi members of the cabinet such as Vice-Chancellor Von Papen, finance minister Von Krosigk and Reichsbank president Schacht who all sided with Neurath. By pursuing his dispute with Neurath instead of dropping the issue as the non-Nazi ministers had urged him to do, Hugenberg had lost his last allies against the Nazi assault on the DNF.
Shortly thereafter, DNF members were either intimidated into joining the NSDAP or retiring from political life altogether. On 21 June, the police and the SA raided and shut down the DNF's youth wing offices under the grounds that they had been infiltrated by Communists. This led to furious, but futile protests by youth wing's director Admiral Adolf von Trotha asking for help from President Hindenburg while declaring his loyalty to the "national revolution" and the new regime. Unknown to Hugenberg and acting on the initiative of the party executive, Baron Axel von Freytagh-Loringhoven had opened talks with the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick in late June 1933 on what terms the DNF might best dissolve itself. On 27 June 1933 Hugenberg resigned from the government under the grounds he did not have any power and that attacks by the National Socialists on his party had made his position untenable. Under growing Nazi pressure the party dissolved itself in June 1933, and a month later the Nazi Party was declared to be the only legally permitted party in Germany. One of DNF's conditions for dissolving itself was the promise that all DNF members in the Reichstag, the civil service, and the police be allowed to continue with their jobs and that the rest of the DNF membership be left in peace, a promise that Hitler put into writing. The German historian Hermann Beck wrote that promise was one that Hitler "...kept with astonishing reliability". The National Socialist newspaper Völkischer Beobachter in an editorial on the demise of the DNF on 30 June praised Hugenberg as a fighter against the Young Plan, and called him a "tragic personality". Some of its now-former members, such as Franz Gürtner and Franz Seldte, stayed in the Hitler cabinet for years afterward and eventually joined the Nazi Party. Others, including Hugenberg, remained in the Reichstag as "guests" of the Nazis. Several prominent Nazis such as Hans Lammers, Friedrich Jeckeln, Erwin Bumke, Julius Lippert, Dietrich Klagges, Paul Giesler, Richard Kunze, Kurt Blome, Herbert von Dirksen, Ludwig Münchmeyer, Erich Neumann, Friedrich Hildebrandt, Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck, Leonardo Conti, Karl von Eberstein, Albert Brackmann, Walter Buch and Wilhelm Kube began their careers in the DNVP, as did the Nazi martyr Horst Wessel.
Several prominent former DNVP members were involved in the 20 July plot against Hitler in 1944. One of the leaders, Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, would have been Chancellor had the plot succeeded. Another, Ulrich von Hassell was considered to be a potential foreign minister in Goerdeler's government. Other former DNVP members executed after the 20 July plot included Ferdinand von Lüninck, Walter Cramer, Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin, and Paul Lejeune-Jung while Ewald Loeser was imprisoned. Many of the DNVP men who were involved in the 20 July plot had in some way served the Nazi regime in the 1930s with Goerdeler staying on as mayor of Leipzig until 1937 and working as Price Commissioner in 1934–1935, Hassell serving as ambassador to Italy until 1938, and von Lüninck serving Oberpräsident of Westphalia until 1938 and as an Army officer during the war.
Post-war
In post-war Germany, no serious attempt was made to recreate the party as a political force when conservative and centrist forces united into bigger parties like the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Christian Social Union (CSU), its Bavarian ally. Former DNVP members in the CDU claimed to have undergone "inner change", but had difficulties being accepted by some of their party colleagues who had belonged to the Catholic Centre Party during the Weimar period. In accounts of its own history and origins, the CDU tended to downplay its DNVP roots, while stressing its continuities from the Centre Party and the small Protestant Christian Social People's Service. Among the most prominent former DNVP members in the CDU were Robert Lehr (federal minister of the interior, 1950–53), Hans Schlange-Schöningen (Reich's minister 1931–32) and Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck.
A direct ideological successor of the DNVP was the tiny national-conservative and authoritarian-monarchist German Conservative Party – German Right Party (DKP-DRP), including former DNVP members like Reinhold Wulle, Eldor Borck, Wilhelm Jaeger and Otto Schmidt-Hannover, but also attracting former Nazis. Active only in Northern and Northwestern Germany, it won 1.8% of the votes and five seats in the first Bundestag election of 1949. Former DNVP members were also present in the Hanover-based German Party and the short-lived National Democratic Party (NDP) that was only active in Hesse. A federation of the three hard-right parties DKP-DRP, DP and NDP was prohibited by the Allied occupation authorities in 1949, but in 1950 DKP-DRP and NDP merged into the Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP), which enjoyed temporary representation in a few states' parliaments. The DNVP was briefly revived in 1962 as a tiny splinter party, but the new DNVP soon afterwards was merged into the far-right National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), among whose co-leaders was former DNVP member Heinrich Fassbender.
In his book, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, journalist and historian William Shirer wrote that the DNVP's status as a far-right party rather than a mainstream conservative party was one of the main reasons for the Weimar Republic's downfall. In Shirer's view, the DNVP's refusal to "take a responsible position either in the government or in the opposition" during most of Weimar's existence denied Weimar "that stability provided in many other countries by a truly conservative party." Along similar lines, conservative British historian Sir John Wheeler-Bennett wrote about in his book The Nemesis of Power about the DNVP the following:
Had the German Conservatives reconciled themselves to the Republic—bringing to it that wealth of experience and knowledge which they had accumulated in the past, and performing those invaluable services which are always fulfilled in the government of any country by an able constitutional Opposition, ready to take office should the occasion arise—they would have conferred a considerable benefit not only upon Germany—to whom they would have given that which she had so long lacked, a genuine Conservative Party—but also upon the cause of Conservatism throughout the world. They did not do this. Under the cloak of loyalty to the Monarchy, they either held aloof or sabotaged the efforts of successive Chancellors to give a stable government to the Republic. The truth is that after 1918 many German Nationalists were more influenced by feelings of disloyalty to the Republic than of loyalty to the Kaiser, and it was this motive which led them to make their fatal contribution to bringing Hitler to power. The sequel is to be found in the long list of noble names among those executed after the Putsch of July 20, 1944, when many expiated upon the scaffold the sins which they or their fathers had committed a generation earlier.
Chairmen
1918–1924 Oskar Hergt (1869–1967)
1924–1926 Johann Friedrich Winckler (1856–1943)
1926–1928 Kuno Graf von Westarp (1864–1945)
1928–1933 Alfred Hugenberg (1865–1951)
Federal election results
See also
List of German National People's Party politicians
ReferencesNotesCitationsBibliography'''
Bauer, Yehuda (2000) Rethinking the Holocaust. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Beck, Hermann "Between the Dictates of Conscience and Political Expediency: Hitler's Conservative Alliance Partner and Antisemitism during the Nazi Seizure of Power" pages 611–640 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 41, Issue # 4, October 2006.
Chanady, Attila "The Disintegration of the German National Peoples' Party 1924-1930" pages 65–91 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 39, Issue # 1, March 1967.
"German National People's Party Program" pages 348-352 from The Weimar Republic Sourcebook edited by Anton Kaes, Martin Jay and Edward Dimendberg, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994, .
Hertzman, Lewis "The Founding of the German National People's Party (DNVP), November 1918 – January 1919" pages 24–36 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 30, Issue #1, March 1958.
Jones, Larry Eugene "'The Greatest Stupidity of My Life': Alfred Hugenberg and the Formation of the Hitler Cabinet, January 1933" pages 63–87 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 27, Issue #1, January 1992.
Jones, Larry Eugene "German Conservatism at the Crossroads: Count Kuno von Westarp and the Struggle for Control of the DNVP, 1928–30" pages 147–177 from Contemporary European History, Volume 18, Issue #2, May 2009.
Jones, Larry Eugene Jones (2014) The German Right in the Weimar Republic: Studies in the History of German Conservatism, Nationalism, and Antisemitism. New York: Berghahn Books.
Scheck, Raffael (October 2001) "Women on the Weimar Right: The Role of Female Politicians in the Deutschnationale Volkspartei" pages 547-560 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 36, Issue #4.
Walker, D.C. "The German Nationalist People's Party: The Conservative Dilemma in the Weimar Republic" pages 627-647 from Journal of Contemporary History'', Volume 14, Issue 4, October 1979.
External links
Hugenberg's Disowned Land Grab Idea in Reality Rosenberg-Hitler's Special Pet Project. Account from 16 July 1933 on the Hugenberg memorandum
Extracts from the DNVP newspaper from 1919
Site about the DNVP in German
Democracy to Dictatorship. Posters from the Weimar Republic
Racist, DNVP anti-Locarno poster from 1928 featuring an African serving in the French Army
The German National People's Party (DNVP) Demonstrates against the Proposed Expropriation of Princely Estates (June 1926)
Anti Young Plan Poster by the Reich Committee for a German Referendum (September 1929)
1918 establishments in Germany
1933 disestablishments in Germany
Conservative parties in Germany
Defunct political parties in Germany
Far-right political parties in Germany
German nationalist political parties
Monarchist parties in Germany
Political parties disestablished in 1933
Political parties established in 1918
Political parties in the Weimar Republic
National conservative parties
Anti-communist parties
Right-wing parties in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Martin
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Chris Martin
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Christopher Anthony John Martin (born 2 March 1977) is an English singer, songwriter, musician and philanthropist. He is best known as the lead vocalist, pianist, rhythm guitarist and co-founder of the rock band Coldplay. Born in Exeter, Devon, he went to University College London, where he formed the band with classmates Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman and Will Champion. They found worldwide fame with the release of the song "Yellow" in 2000, receiving acclaim for albums such as A Rush of Blood to the Head (2002), Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends (2008) and others. He has won seven Grammy Awards and nine Brit Awards as part of the band. They have sold over 100 million albums worldwide as of 2021, making them the most successful group of the 21st century. Martin appeared on Debrett's 2017 list of the most influential people in the United Kingdom.
Early life
Christopher Anthony John Martin was born on 2 March 1977 in Exeter, Devon, England, being the oldest of five children. His father, Anthony John Martin, of Whitestone House, Exeter, is a retired chartered accountant, and his mother, Alison Martin, who is from Zimbabwe, is a music teacher. His family's caravan and motorhome sales business, Martin's of Exeter, was founded in 1929 by his grandfather John Besley Martin, CBE (a High Sheriff-also Mayor in 1968 of Exeter). It was sold by his father to a former employee in 1999. William Willett, the man who campaigned for and made daylight saving time a recognised practice, was Martin's great-great-grandfather. Martin's paternal aunt Elisabeth Jane (daughter of John Besley Martin) married Hon. Julian George Winston Sandys, son of Conservative politician Duncan Sandys by his wife Diana Churchill, daughter of Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The former Conservative Member of Parliament David Martin is his paternal uncle.
Martin was educated at the pre-preparatory Hylton School and the preparatory Exeter Cathedral School, where he found his passion for music. After Exeter Cathedral School, Martin boarded at Sherborne School, where he met future Coldplay manager Phil Harvey. His education then continued in University College London where he attained an Ancient World Studies degree with first-class honours in Greek and Latin. At UCL, Martin met his future Coldplay bandmates Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman, and Will Champion.
Career
Coldplay
Martin was responsible for co-founding the band along with Buckland; they met each other during UCL's orientation week in 1996. The pair spent the rest of the year planning a band and started to write their first songs together in early 1997, practising every night as well. Berryman joined the group in the following months and they recorded numerous demos without a drummer. By November, the trio was known as Big Fat Noises. In 1998, they became Starfish "in a panic", as Champion scheduled their debut live performance at The Laurel Tree only a few days after he joined the line-up. Weeks later, the band settled on the name Coldplay, which came from UCL friend Tim Crompton. He originally considered it for his own band after finding a copy of Philip Horky's Child's Reflections, Cold Play (1997), but the idea was ultimately discarded.
Since the release of their debut album Parachutes in 2000, the band have achieved internationally recognised fame and success. Their song "Yellow", from Parachutes, entered the charts at Number 4 and carried Coldplay to their aforementioned fame. To date, they have released nine studio albums in total including Parachutes, A Rush of Blood to the Head, X&Y, Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends, Mylo Xyloto, Ghost Stories, A Head Full of Dreams, Everyday Life, and Music of the Spheres. They also released several EPs, including Safety and The Blue Room.
Solo work
Martin has written songs for a variety of acts including Embrace ("Gravity") and Jamelia ("See It in a Boy's Eyes", co-written with Coldplay producer Rik Simpson). Martin has also collaborated with Ron Sexsmith, Faultline, the Streets, and Ian McCulloch. He also sang a part of the vocals for the Band Aid 20 single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" at the end of 2004. In 2005, Martin collaborated with Nelly Furtado on the track "All Good Things (Come to an End)", for her 2006 album, Loose. The two were once rumoured to be a couple, after they both performed at Glastonbury in 2002. Nelly Furtado joked about it, saying, "Yeah, he's my boyfriend — he just doesn't know it yet".
Martin's fascination with hip hop was shown in mid-2006 when he collaborated with rapper Jay-Z for the rapper's comeback album, Kingdom Come, after the two met earlier in the year. Martin put some chords together for a song known as "Beach Chair" and sent them to Jay-Z who enlisted the help of hip-hop producer Dr. Dre to mix it. Coldplay producer Rik Simpson conceived and performed the drum beats. The song was performed on 27 September 2006 by the two during Jay-Z's European tour at Royal Albert Hall. Martin has also worked on a solo collaboration with Kanye West, with whom he shared an impromptu jam session during a 2006 concert at Abbey Road Studios. He performed the chorus of "Homecoming", from Kanye West's album Graduation.
In 2015, Martin collaborated with DJ Avicii to work on two new tracks for his album Stories. Their first collaboration was officially named "Heaven". Martin wrote the lyrics, Avicii did the production, and Simon Aldred of Cherry Ghost was the vocalist. He also provided the vocals for Avicii's True Believer, also in Stories. In February 2017, Martin performed "A Different Corner" at the 2017 Brit Awards in tribute to George Michael.
A song he co-wrote called "Homesick" appears on Dua Lipa's self-titled debut album, which was released in June 2017. In 2019, Martin was featured on Avicii's posthumous album Tim. The song "Heaven" features vocals by Martin and was written by Avicii and Martin prior to Avicii's death.
Philanthropy
On 12 December 2012, Martin performed three songs, including "Losing My Religion" with Michael Stipe, as a part of the "12 12 12 Concert" which was held as a fundraiser for Hurricane Sandy relief. On 15 November 2014, Martin joined charity group Band Aid 30, performing alongside British and Irish pop acts on the latest version of the track "Do They Know It's Christmas?" at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa — this was the second time Martin has contributed to a Band Aid recording having performed in the 2004 version. Martin became the creative director of the newly established Global Citizen Festival in 2015, a role he plans to fulfil for 15 years.
Other projects
Martin and Coldplay guitarist Jonny Buckland made cameo appearances in the film Shaun of the Dead as supporters of the fictional charity ZombAid, with Martin having a second cameo in the film as a zombie. In 2006, Martin had a cameo role in the second series, episode four, of the Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant comedy Extras. He also appears singing in the closing credits of the 2009 Sacha Baron Cohen film Brüno, with Bono, Sting, Slash, Snoop Dogg, and Elton John.
In March 2015, Martin attended the televised launch of music streaming service Tidal via a video link, and revealed himself, along with other notable artists, as a shareholder in the company. In June 2015, Martin performed "Til Kingdom Come" at the funeral Mass of Beau Biden, son of United States Vice-president Joe Biden, after learning that Biden was a fan of his. In August 2017, Martin performed a live solo piano rendition of "Crawling" by Linkin Park. The performance was a tribute to Linkin Park's lead singer Chester Bennington, who died by suicide the previous month.
Influences
A major influence on Martin and Coldplay was the Scottish rock band Travis, with Martin crediting the band for the creation of his own band. The Irish rock band U2 is another important influence on Martin both musically and politically. Martin wrote for Rolling Stone Magazine'''s "100 Greatest Artists of All Time" on the band, saying: "I don't buy weekend tickets to Ireland and hang out in front of their gates, but U2 are the only band whose entire catalogue I know by heart. The first song on The Unforgettable Fire, "A Sort of Homecoming", I know backward and forward—it's so rousing, brilliant, and beautiful. It's one of the first songs I played to my unborn baby." Martin and Coldplay were also greatly influenced by the English rock band Radiohead. Speaking to Rolling Stone Magazine, Martin said of Radiohead: "Sometimes I feel like they cleared a path with a machete, and we came afterward and put up a strip mall... I would still give my left ball to write anything as good as OK Computer."
Martin is very vocal about his love for Norwegian synth-pop band a-ha. In 2005, he stated in an interview: "I found myself in Amsterdam the other day and I put a-ha's first record on. I just remembered how much I loved it. It's incredible songwriting. Everyone asks what inspired us, what we've been trying to steal from and what we listened to as we were growing up — the first band I ever loved was a-ha." Martin has also performed live together with Magne Furuholmen of a-ha, introducing him as "the best keyboard player in the world". In November 2011, he stated that "back when we didn't have any hits of our own we used to play a-ha songs."
Martin is also a fan of English rock bands Oasis and Muse, Irish pop group Westlife, English-Irish girl group Girls Aloud, English pop group Take That, and Canadian indie rock band Arcade Fire. In 2014, Martin inducted Peter Gabriel into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for his solo career, and performed live with him.
Coldplay performed R.E.M.'s "Nightswimming" with Michael Stipe during their Austin City Limits performance in 2005, as a part of the Twisted Logic Tour. Martin went on to call "Nightswimming" "the greatest song ever written". He has called Richard Ashcroft, formerly of the Verve, "the best singer in the world". He also admires the lyrics of Morrissey. Martin was quoted as calling Coldplay's song "Shiver" a rip-off Jeff Buckley influenced by Buckley's song "Grace". In 2008, Coldplay released an alternate music video for Viva la Vida, directed by Anton Corbijn as a tribute to Corbijn's 1990 video for Depeche Mode's "Enjoy the Silence". It shows Martin dressed as a king, as Dave Gahan was in the original video. The band stated: "This is our attempt at a video cover version, made out of love for Depeche Mode and the genius of Anton Corbijn".
Personal life
According to an article released by The Times in May 2023, Martin has an estimated net worth of £160 million. In a 2012 interview with the Daily Mirror, Martin revealed that he had been suffering from tinnitus since his early adult years, although he said that he had noticed the symptoms even as a teenager "while listening to loud music". As a result, Martin wears specially filtered earplugs or customised in-ear monitors while performing and has encouraged his bandmates to do the same as a preventive measure. Similarly, he has encouraged his children to wear hearing protection at concerts. Martin has also become an advocate for hearing loss awareness, having partnered with the Royal National Institute for Deaf People. PETA named Martin the World's Sexiest Vegetarian in 2005. However, he began eating meat again after his separation from Gwyneth Paltrow.
Martin is a supporter of Exeter City. He is also ambidextrous. In February 2020, a cassette tape was discovered by a former fellow pupil of Martin's. It contained a three-minute instrumental piece entitled "Electric Thunder", which was composed by Martin, aged 12, at Exeter Cathedral School. Martin played keyboards on the track accompanying other pupils performing in a group called Grandisson Ensemble. The cassette was expected to sell for £600 at auction.
Relationships
According to one source, Martin previously had a relationship with live events producer Lily Sobhani around the Parachutes album release. He and American actress Gwyneth Paltrow married on 5 December 2003 in a quiet ceremony in the presence of their friends and family. Their daughter Apple was born in May 2004 in London. Martin and the band released a song called "I am your baby's daddy" under the name "the Nappies" in anticipation of her birth. Coldplay's "Speed of Sound" was also inspired by Martin's experience and awe at becoming a father, being the lead single for the band's X&Y album.
Simon Pegg and Martin's bandmate Jonny Buckland are his daughter's godfathers, and Martin is godfather to Pegg's daughter. His second child, Moses, was born in April 2006 in New York City. The name was inspired by a song of the same name that he wrote for Paltrow. In March 2014, Martin and Paltrow announced their separation as a "conscious uncoupling" after ten years of marriage. Paltrow filed for divorce in April 2015 and it was finalised on 14 July 2016.
From August 2015 to August 2017, he was in an on-and-off relationship with actress Annabelle Wallis. Since October 2017, Martin has been in a relationship with American actress Dakota Johnson. They reside in Malibu, California.
Politics
Martin has been particularly outspoken on issues of fair trade and has campaigned for Oxfam's Make Trade Fair campaign. He travelled to Ghana and Haiti to meet farmers and view the effects of unfair trade practices. When performing he usually has variations of "Make Trade Fair", "MTF" or an equal sign written on the back of his left hand and the letters "MTF" can be seen emblazoned on his piano.
He was a vocal critic of US President George W. Bush and the war in Iraq. During the Teenage Cancer Trust show at London's Royal Albert Hall on 24 March 2003, he encouraged the sell-out crowd to "sing against war". He was a strong supporter of Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, most notably during his acceptance speech for the 2004 Grammy Awards Record of the Year, accepting for "Clocks". He supported Obama for president in 2008, giving a shout-out at the end of a performance of "Yellow" on 25 October 2008 episode of Saturday Night Live.
On 1 April 2006, The Guardian reported that Martin was backing the British Conservative Party leader David Cameron, and had written a new theme song for the party titled "Talk to David"."Talk to David" The Guardian; retrieved 26 April 2006. This was later revealed to be an April Fool's joke. While touring Australia in March 2009, Martin and the rest of Coldplay were the opening act at the Sound Relief benefit concert at the Sydney Cricket Ground in Sydney, for the victims of bushfires and floods in Victoria and Queensland. Martin appeared in a video for the "Robin Hood Tax" campaign, which proposes a tax on stock trades in the United States. This tax is aimed at levelling the field between the 1% and 99%. In June 2016, Martin supported Vote Remain in the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.
Discography
With Coldplay
Parachutes (2000)
A Rush of Blood to the Head (2002)
X&Y (2005)
Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends (2008)
Mylo Xyloto (2011)
Ghost Stories (2014)
A Head Full of Dreams (2015)
Everyday Life (2019)
Music of the Spheres'' (2021)
Solo credits
Filmography
Television
Films
See also
List of people associated with University College London
List of British Grammy winners and nominees
List of best-selling music artists
List of highest-grossing live music artists
List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-ones by British artists
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Coldplay Official Website
Coldplay on AllMusic
1977 births
Living people
20th-century British guitarists
20th-century English male musicians
20th-century English singers
21st-century British guitarists
21st-century English male musicians
21st-century English singers
Alternative rock guitarists
Alternative rock pianists
Alternative rock singers
Alumni of University College London
Atlantic Records artists
British alternative rock musicians
British male pianists
British male songwriters
Capitol Records artists
Coldplay members
English anti–Iraq War activists
English baritones
English expatriates in the United States
English male guitarists
English male singers
English male singer-songwriters
English multi-instrumentalists
English people of Zimbabwean descent
English philanthropists
English pop guitarists
English pop pianists
English pop rock singers
English pop singers
English record producers
English rock guitarists
English rock pianists
English rock singers
Liberal Democrats (UK) people
Musicians from Exeter
Musicians from London
Paltrow family
Parlophone artists
People educated at Exeter Cathedral School
People educated at Sherborne School
Rhythm guitarists
Singers from London
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Robert Stanfield
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Robert Lorne Stanfield (April 11, 1914 – December 16, 2003) was a Canadian politician who served as the 17th premier of Nova Scotia from 1956 to 1967 and the leader of the Official Opposition and leader of the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1967 to 1976.
Born into an affluent Nova Scotia clothing manufacturing and political family in Truro, Stanfield graduated from Dalhousie University and Harvard Law School in the 1930s. He was a lawyer before becoming the leader of the Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party in 1948, with the goal of reviving the party that did not have a single seat in the legislature. After a rebuilding period, Stanfield led the party to a majority government in 1956; their first victory since 1928. Leading the party to four majorities in total, Stanfield's government established Industrial Estates Limited (IEL) to attract new industry in Nova Scotia, introduced hospital insurance and a provincial sales tax (PST) to fund half of it, prioritized human rights for Black Nova Scotians, and drastically increased funding for education.
In 1967, he resigned as premier and was elected the leader of the federal Progressive Conservative (PC) Party, thus becoming the leader of the Official Opposition. In the 1968 federal election, he suffered a landslide defeat to the incumbent Liberals led by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. In 1972, Stanfield recovered the PCs' standing and narrowly lost to Trudeau for a second time. In 1974, he lost to Trudeau's Liberals for a third time by a wide margin. Stanfield was a strong supporter of bilingualism, putting him at odds with some members of the PC Party. He resigned as leader in 1976 and from politics in 1979.
In retirement, he lived mostly in Ottawa, and campaigned for the Meech Lake Accord, the Charlottetown Accord, and free trade in the 1980s and early 1990s. He died in Ottawa in 2003 from complications due to pneumonia. He was one of only several people granted the style "The Right Honourable" who were not so entitled by virtue of an office held.
Early life (1913–1947)
Stanfield was born in Truro, Nova Scotia, the son of Sarah Emma (née Thomas) and entrepreneur Frank Stanfield, and was named after Robert Borden, a fellow Nova Scotian who was prime minister at the time. Stanfield's family owned Stanfield's Limited, a large textile company. Stanfield studied economics and political science at Dalhousie University and was awarded the Governor General's Silver Medal for achieving the highest standing when he graduated in 1936 with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree.
Stanfield then studied at Harvard Law School, where he was an honours student near the top of his class and the first Canadian editor of the Harvard Law Review. During his student days in the 1930s, he witnessed the poverty that the Great Depression produced, causing him to become interested in John Maynard Keynes's economic theories. Stanfield then considered himself a socialist. Over time, he was less attached to socialism, but its influence on him remained, as he was considered a Red Tory for his appreciation of the common good. Stanfield graduated from Harvard in 1939 and was called to the bar in 1940. From 1939 to 1945 during World War II, he worked as a member of the Wartime Prices and Trade Board's Halifax staff.
Provincial politics (1947–1967)
Stanfield decided to enter Nova Scotia politics. In 1947 he became president of the Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia (PCs) which was in poor shape as it did not have a single seat in the legislature, while the Liberals dominated the province. In 1948, Stanfield was elected leader of the party, and began the process of reviving the party. In the 1949 election, the PCs won 8 seats and in 1953, they won 12. In the 1956 election, the PCs won a majority government, their first victory since 1928. This ended 23 consecutive years of Liberal rule.
Premier of Nova Scotia (1956–1967)
Known as "Honest Bob" for his straightforward manner, Stanfield served as premier of Nova Scotia, governing as a moderate and pragmatist. He led reforms on education, human rights, and health care. He led the PCs to three re-elections in 1960, 1963, and 1967, each time with larger majorities.
Economic policy
In 1957, Stanfield's government established the crown corporation Industrial Estates Limited (IEL) to attract new industry in Nova Scotia. By the time Stanfield left office in 1967, the IEL had invested $74 million into 25 new firms and created nearly 2,300 jobs in the province.
In 1963, Stanfield's government established the Nova Scotia Voluntary Planning Board to assist the minister of finance in creating measures to increase the rate of economic growth through voluntary economic planning.
Stanfield's government raised the limit on agricultural loans from $8,000 to $100,000. To aid livestock farmers in building a million dollar slaughterhouse, his government contributed three dollars for every dollar the farmers raised. His government also created a provincial parks system.
Stanfield's government introduced hospital insurance, as well as a provincial sales tax (also known as the Hospital Tax) to fund half of it (with the other half being funded by the federal government). The PST, which became effective on January 1, 1959, was initially 5 percent but was later raised to 7 percent. The PST applied to all goods and services except food and children's clothing.
Stanfield strongly opposed the Bell Telephone Company's takeover bid of Nova Scotia's Maritime Telegraph and Telephone Company (M.T. & T.) in 1966, arguing that a takeover would lead to sharp increases in the cost of the service. After the Bell declined to negotiate with his government within a five-day time frame, Stanfield called a special session in the legislature; during the session, the legislature passed a bill that prevented the Bell from taking control of M.T. & T., allowing the latter to remain in Nova Scotian control.
Human rights
Stanfield prioritized human rights, particularly for Black Nova Scotians. In 1959, Stanfield's government passed the Fair Accommodation Practices Act to protect against discrimination in public spaces. In 1962, Stanfield created and led the Interdepartmental Committee on Human Rights to support the work of Dr. William Oliver and other Black Nova Scotians. The year later, Stanfield's government codified and extended earlier legislation in the first Human Rights Act of 1963. In 1965, the Stanfield government established the Education fund for Negros and in 1967, created the Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission with Oliver.
Education policy
Stanfield's government increased funding for schools and training colleges. His government started to contribute funding towards universities beginning in 1960; between 1960 and 1967, the Stanfield government's contributions towards universities jumped from $250,000 to $25,000,000. His government also introduced a capital assistance program in which the government would fund up to 90 percent of the cost of university buildings. In addition, Stanfield's government improved French-language education in Nova Scotia by introducing French textbooks (previously, Nova Scotia schools only offered English textbooks) and expanding French-language education to Grade 12 (up from Grade 8).
Leader of the Official Opposition (1967–1976)
1967 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
Stanfield did not express interest in entering federal politics during the early and mid-1960s. He turned down the federal Progressive Conservative Party (PC Party) leader and then-prime minister John Diefenbaker's proposal that he should enter federal politics in the 1962 federal election, and did not express interest in becoming party leader (when the idea was suggested by former PC minister Alvin Hamilton) following the Diefenbaker-led PCs' second defeat in the 1965 federal election.
In the mid-1960s, the federal Progressive Conservative Party was racked by disunity between supporters and opponents of Diefenbaker. A vocal opponent of Diefenbaker was party president Dalton Camp, who forced a leadership convention for 1967. Camp was a strong proponent of a potential Stanfield leadership bid. After months of hesitating, Stanfield finally bowed to Camp's pressure and on July 17, 1967, announced his intention to run for leader, on the condition that his finance minister George Isaac Smith agrees to succeed him as premier. Stanfield had strong delegate support in the Atlantic provinces but struggled in the Prairies and Quebec. Nonetheless, on the convention that was held on September 9, he led on the first four ballots, and won on the fifth ballot, taking 54.3 percent of the delegate vote. Stanfield resigned as premier on September 13.
Early months
Stanfield was elected to the House of Commons in a by-election for the riding of Colchester—Hants on November 6, 1967. He brought the Progressive Conservatives high in the polls, prompting many to expect him to defeat the Liberal government of the aging Lester B. Pearson. In February 1968, Stanfield almost forced an election after defeating Pearson's government on a tax bill, leading to several days of confusion over whether or not this counted as a de facto motion of no confidence in the government. Ultimately, it was ruled by the Governor General, Roland Michener that it did not, and while Stanfield immediately called an explicit motion of no confidence in Pearson's government, it failed to pass after the New Democratic Party and Ralliement créditiste declined to support it.
1968 federal election
Pearson would soon retire, prompting the Liberals to choose Justice Minister Pierre Trudeau as its new leader in April 1968. Trudeau subsequently called an election for June 25. Trudeau was a charismatic intellectual and perfectly bilingual. Stanfield's unilingualism and uninspiring speaking style (according to Stanfield biographer Geoffrey Stevens) contrasted poorly with the new Liberal leader. The PCs started the election campaign with an internal poll showing them trailing the Liberals by 22 points.
Stanfield proposed introducing guaranteed annual income, though failed to explain the number of citizens that would be covered, the minimum income level, and the cost to implement it. Due to concerns that the term "guaranteed annual income" sounded socialist, he eventually switched to using the term "negative income tax". These mistakes made the policy impossible for voters to understand and harmed the PCs. What also damaged the PCs was the idea of deux nations (meaning that Canada was one country housing two nations - French Canadians and English-speaking Canadians). Marcel Faribault, the PCs' Quebec lieutenant and MP candidate, was unclear on whether he supported or opposed deux nations and Stanfield did not drop him as a candidate. This led to the Liberals positioning themselves as the party that supported one Canada. In mid-June, they ran a full-page newspaper advertisement that implied that Stanfield supported deux nations; Stanfield called the ad "a deliberate lie" and insisted he supported one Canada.
On election night, the Liberals increased their support to form a strong majority government. Though the PCs' popular vote share slightly dropped from 32.4 percent in 1965 to 31.4 percent, their seat count considerably reduced from 94 to 72. The PCs dominated Atlantic Canada but saw a significant decline in popularity in Ontario (as the party's performance in that province was the worst in their history), Quebec, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.
1968–1972
After losing the 1968 election, Stanfield vacationed in Quebec where he participated in French immersion classes. He vigorously backed official bilingualism and the Liberals' 1969 Official Languages Act which made French an official language in Canada, arguing the Act would strengthen Canadian unity. To his disappointment, 17 out of 72 PC MPs (including his predecessor as leader, John Diefenbaker), voted against the bill.
In 1969, Stanfield was one of 12 out of 72 PC MPs to vote in favour of the Trudeau government's Bill C-150, which decriminalized homosexuality and allowed abortion under certain conditions.
Stanfield initially supported the Trudeau government's October 1970 invocation of the War Measures Act to deal with the October Crisis but later regretted doing so.
1972 federal election
In the election of 1972, Stanfield's Tories campaigned on the public's perception that the Liberals were mismanaging the economy as a result of rising unemployment. Though the Liberals started with a 10-point lead over the Progressive Conservatives, the election, held on October 30, saw the PCs win 107 seats and come two seats behind the Liberals who won 109 seats; this was one of the closest elections in Canadian history. The Liberals were able to form a minority government due to them getting support from the New Democratic Party led by David Lewis. In the election, Stanfield refused to sign the nomination papers of former Moncton mayor Leonard Jones; Jones had won the party nomination but he refused to support official bilingualism which was part of PC policy.
1974 federal election
In May 1974, the House of Commons passed a motion of no confidence in the Trudeau government, defeating its budget bill after Trudeau intentionally antagonized Stanfield and Lewis. This triggered an election for July 8. The election focused mainly on the current economic recession, and Stanfield proposed to immediately introduce 90-day wage and price controls to help reduce the increasing inflation of the era. Trudeau mocked the proposal, saying to a newspaper reporter that it was the equivalent of a magician saying "Zap! You're frozen", and instead promoted a variety of small tax cuts to curb inflation. According to Trudeau’s biographer John English, NDP supporters scared of wage controls moved toward the Liberals during the campaign. Trudeau, in an abrupt reversal, would implement wage and price controls in December 1975 through the passing of the Anti-Inflation Act.
During the campaign, on May 30, 1974, a photo by photojournalist Doug Ball showing Stanfield fumbling a football thrown by Geoffrey Stevens at a stopover in North Bay, Ontario, became one of the defining images of his career. To this day, Canadian political commentators still point to this incident as one of Canada's foremost examples of "image politics", because the photo was chosen for the front pages of newspapers across Canada even though many other photos of Stanfield catching the same football were also available.
The election result showed the Liberals had boosted their support from a minority to a majority government, while the Progressive Conservatives' seat count dropped from 106 to 95. The Progressive Conservatives did well in the Atlantic provinces, and in the West, but strong Liberal support in Ontario and Quebec ensured a Liberal majority government.
Political ideology
Political science professor Ron Dart described Stanfield's political philosophy in the 1968 election as a "sort of Pink Toryism". Historian J. Murray Beck wrote about Stanfield, "Eschewing highly doctrinaire politics, his conservatism, which caused him to be called a "pink" if not a Red Tory, was above all a compassionate conservatism with a genuine concern for the disadvantaged." In a 1976 interview with Maclean's, Stanfield stated, "Increasing the size of the GNP is important, but it is not in itself a sufficient goal for a civilized society."
Retirement
On August 14, 1974, over a month after the election, Stanfield announced his intention to resign as party leader. During the news conference, he stated his preference for a French Canadian successor as leader. He served as leader of the PCs and leader of the Opposition until February 22, 1976, when he was permanently succeeded as leader by Joe Clark. Stanfield retired from Parliament in the May 1979 election which finally brought the Progressive Conservatives to power (though they would lose the February 1980 election to the Trudeau-led Liberals who won a majority).
Later years (1976–2003)
After his retirement, Stanfield stayed out of politics until the constitutional debates, when he endorsed and campaigned for the Meech Lake Accord, the Charlottetown Accord, and free trade. He said that the Meech Lake Accord was a second chance to save Canada from disaster. "I'm not at all sure that I would want to live in a country that rejected Meech Lake," he said at the time. "It wouldn't be the Canada I grew up in. It wouldn't be the country with the values that I've loved during my life." Prime Minister Brian Mulroney wanted to appoint Stanfield as U.N. ambassador saying, "I tried to engage him further but he was leading a vigorous life and a very active life and he didn't want to change after a while."
From 1983 to 1987, Stanfield served as chairman of the Institute for Research on Public Policy. He also served as the first Canadian chairman of the Commonwealth Foundation from December 1986 to 1991.
Illness and death
In 1996, Stanfield suffered a debilitating stroke that left him severely disabled. He died on December 16, 2003, at Montfort Hospital in Ottawa, from pneumonia, only nine days after the Progressive Conservative Party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the new Conservative Party of Canada. Fellow Nova Scotian — and final PC Party Leader — Peter MacKay suggested in an interview on CBC Newsworld's December 17, 2003 Morning Show that he had not personally spoken to Stanfield in regard to his opinions on the merger. It is unknown what Stanfield thought of the creation of the new Conservatives. His funeral service was held in Ottawa, and then he was buried in Camp Hill Cemetery, Halifax, Nova Scotia, next to his first wife Joyce Frazee, mother of his four children: Sarah, Max, Judith and Miriam, and with his second wife Mary Hall.
Personal life
Stanfield married Joyce Frazee in 1940, but she died in a car accident in 1954. During his term as premier, Stanfield remarried, exchanging vows with Mary Hall in 1957. Mary Stanfield died of cancer in 1977, and the following year, Stanfield married his third wife, Anne Austin. Anne Austin Stanfield died, age 89, April 22, 2021.
Honours
In July 1967, Stanfield and other provincial premiers were sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada on the occasion of Canada's centennial.
On July 1, 1992, as part of Canada's 125th anniversary celebrations, the Queen on advice of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney granted Stanfield and six former cabinet ministers (Alvin Hamilton, Ellen Fairclough, Jack Pickersgill, Paul Martin Sr., Jean-Luc Pepin and Martial Asselin) the right to use the title "The Right Honourable". He is one of nine Canadians entitled to the title without having held an office which such title is automatically conferred (the other two being former Deputy Prime Ministers Donald Mazankowski and Herb Gray).
In 2007, Halifax Robert L. Stanfield International Airport was named after him by Prime Minister Stephen Harper. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society (FRCGS).
Honorary degrees
Robert Stanfield was awarded several honorary Degrees in recognition of His service to Canada, These Include
Honorary Degrees
Archives
There is a Robert Stanfield fonds at Library and Archives Canada. Archival reference number is R4088.
Federal electoral record
Citations
References
External links
Article on Stanfield and the Nova Scotia Tories.
1914 births
2003 deaths
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian King's Counsel
Dalhousie University alumni
Deaths from pneumonia in Ontario
Harvard Law School alumni
Lawyers in Nova Scotia
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
People from Truro, Nova Scotia
Premiers of Nova Scotia
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Royal Canadian Geographical Society fellows
Nova Scotia political party leaders
20th-century Canadian politicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Ware
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Chris Ware
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Franklin Christenson "Chris" Ware (born December 28, 1967) is an American cartoonist known for his Acme Novelty Library series (begun 1994) and the graphic novels Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth (2000), Building Stories (2012) and Rusty Brown (2019). His works explore themes of social isolation, emotional torment and depression. He tends to use a vivid color palette and realistic, meticulous detail. His lettering and images are often elaborate and sometimes evoke the ragtime era or another early 20th-century American design style.
Ware often refers to himself in the publicity for his work in self-effacing, even withering tones. He is considered by some critics and fellow notable illustrators and writers, such as Dave Eggers, to be among the best currently working in the medium; Canadian graphic-novelist Seth has said, "Chris really changed the playing field. After him, a lot of [cartoonists] really started to scramble and go, 'Holy [expletive], I think I have to try harder.'"
Career
Born in Omaha, Nebraska, Ware resides in the Chicago area of Illinois. His earliest published strips appeared in the late 1980s on the comics page of The Daily Texan, the student newspaper of the University of Texas at Austin. In addition to numerous daily strips under different titles, Ware also had a weekly satirical science fiction serial in the paper titled Floyd Farland - Citizen of the Future. This was eventually published in 1988 as a prestige format comic book from Eclipse Comics, and its publication even led to a brief correspondence between Ware and Timothy Leary.
While still a sophomore at UT, Ware came to the attention of Art Spiegelman, who invited Ware to contribute to Raw, the influential anthology magazine Spiegelman was co-editing with Françoise Mouly. Ware has acknowledged that being included in Raw gave him confidence and inspired him to explore printing techniques and self-publishing. His Fantagraphics series Acme Novelty Library defied comics publishing conventions with every issue. The series featured a combination of new material as well as reprints of work Ware had done for the Texan (such as Quimby the Mouse) and the Chicago weekly paper Newcity. Ware's work appeared originally in Newcity before he moved on to his current "home", the Chicago Reader. Beginning with the 16th issue of Acme Novelty Library, Ware began self-publishing his work, while maintaining a relationship with Fantagraphics for distribution and storage. This was a return to Ware's early career, self-publishing such books as Lonely Comics and Stories as well as miniature digests of stories based on Quimby the Mouse and an unnamed potato-like creature.
In recent years he has also been involved in editing (and designing) several books and book series, including the new reprint series of Gasoline Alley from Drawn & Quarterly titled Walt and Skeezix; a reprint series of Krazy Kat by Fantagraphics; and the 13th volume of Timothy McSweeney's Quarterly Concern, which is devoted to comics. He was the editor of The Best American Comics 2007, the second installment devoted to comics in the Best American series.
In 2007, Ware curated an exhibition for the Phoenix Art Museum focused on the non-comic work of five contemporary cartoonists. The exhibition, titled "UnInked: Paintings, Sculpture and Graphic Works by Five Cartoonists", ran from April 21 through August 19. Ware also edited and designed the catalog for the exhibition.
In 2017, Ware's book Monograph appeared. It is a part-memoir, part-scrapbook retrospective of his career to that point. The New York Review of Books described it as "a grand tomb in the Egyptian mold, whose contents will tell anyone who breaks into it what this person’s life was like," adding that "it seems almost an invasion of privacy to enter this crypt."
Style
Ware's art reflects early 20th-century American styles of cartooning and graphic design, shifting through formats from traditional comic panels to faux advertisements and cut-out toys. Stylistic influences include advertising graphics from that same era; newspaper strip cartoonists Winsor McCay (Little Nemo in Slumberland) and Frank King (Gasoline Alley); Charles Schulz's post-WWII strip Peanuts and the cover designs of ragtime-era sheet music. Ware has spoken about finding inspiration in the work of artist Joseph Cornell and cites Richard McGuire's strip Here as a major influence on his use of non-linear narratives. Ware has said of his own style:I arrived at my way of "working" as a way of visually approximating what I feel the tone of fiction to be in prose versus the tone one might use to write biography; I would never do a biographical story using the deliberately synthetic way of cartooning I use to write fiction. I try to use the rules of typography to govern the way that I "draw", which keeps me at a sensible distance from the story as well as being a visual analog to the way we remember and conceptualize the world. I figured out this way of working by learning from and looking at artists I admired and whom I thought came closest to getting at what seemed to me to be the "essence" of comics, which is fundamentally the weird process of reading pictures, not just looking at them. I see the black outlines of cartoons as visual approximations of the way we remember general ideas, and I try to use naturalistic color underneath them to simultaneously suggest a perceptual experience, which I think is more or less the way we actually experience the world as adults; we don't really "see" anymore after a certain age, we spend our time naming and categorizing and identifying and figuring how everything all fits together. Unfortunately, as a result, I guess sometimes readers get a chilled or antiseptic sensation from it, which is certainly not intentional, and is something I admit as a failure, but is also something I can't completely change at the moment.
Although his precise, geometrical layouts may appear to some to be computer-generated, Ware works almost exclusively with manual drawing tools such as paper and ink, rulers and T-squares. He does, however, sometimes use photocopies and transparencies, and he employs a computer to color his strips.
Recurring characters and stories
Quimby the Mouse
Quimby the Mouse was an early character for Ware and something of a breakthrough. Rendered in the style of an early animation character like Felix the Cat, Quimby the Mouse is perhaps Ware's most autobiographical character. Quimby's relationship with a cat head named Sparky is by turns conflict-ridden and loving, and thus intended to reflect all human relationships. While Quimby exhibits mobility, Sparky remains immobile and helpless, subject to all the indignities Quimby visits upon him. Quimby also acts as a narrator for Ware's reminiscences of his youth, in particular his relationship with his grandmother. Sometimes illustrated as a two-headed mouse, Quimby embodies both Ware and his grandmother, and the duality of a young and old body. Quimby was presented in a series of smaller panels than most comics, almost providing the illusion of motion à la a zoetrope. In fact, Ware once designed a zoetrope to be cut out and constructed by the reader in order to watch a Quimby "silent movie". Ware's ingenuity is neatly shown in this willingness to break from the confines of the page. Quimby the Mouse appears in the logo of a Chicago-based bookstore "Quimby's", although their shared name was originally a coincidence.
Rusty Brown
Ware's Rusty Brown focuses on the titular character, examining his life in the present and through flashbacks of his childhood, focusing on his arrested development and attachment to cultural objects. As the story expands, it diverges into multiple storylines about Brown's father's early life in the 1950s as a science fiction writer (Acme Novelty Library #19) and his best friend Chalky White's adult home life. The first part of Rusty Brown was published in book form in 2019 by Pantheon Books.
Building Stories
Ware's Building Stories was serialized in a host of different venues. It first appeared as a monthly strip in Nest Magazine. Installments later appeared in a number of publications, including The New Yorker, Kramer's Ergot, and most notably, the Sunday New York Times Magazine. Building Stories appeared weekly in the New York Times Magazine from September 18, 2005 until April 16, 2006. A full chapter was published in Acme Novelty Library, number 18. Another installment was published under the title "Touch Sensitive" as a digital app released through McSweeneys. The entire narrative was published as a boxed set of books by Pantheon in October 2012. The boxed set holds 14 different works, in various sizes and forms, weaving through the life of an unnamed brown haired woman.
The Last Saturday
Ware's latest project, The Last Saturday, a "comic novella," began appearing online every Friday at the website of the UK newspaper The Guardian, starting in September 2014. The story follows a few people in Sandy Port, Michigan: Putnam Gray, a young boy caught up in his sci-fi and space fantasies; Sandy Grains, a young girl and classmate who is interested in Putnam; Rosie Gentry, a young girl and classmate with whom Putnam is infatuated; Mr. and Mrs. Gray and Mrs. Grains. The strip also features in the newspaper's Weekend magazine.
The serialization has now apparently ended after 54 instalments. The bottom right-hand corner of the last page has a note that says, "END, PART ONE", but , there appears to be no indication from The Guardian or from Ware that there is to be a Part Two.
Non-comics work
Ware is an ardent collector of ragtime paraphernalia and occasionally publishes a journal devoted to the music titled The Ragtime Ephemeralist. He also plays the banjo and piano. The influence of the music and the graphics of its era can be seen in Ware's work, especially in regard to logos and layout. Ware has designed album covers and posters for such ragtime performers as the Et Cetera String Band, Virginia Tichenor, Reginald R. Robinson, the Paragon Ragtime Orchestra and Guido Nielsen.
He has also designed covers and posters for non-ragtime performers such as Andrew Bird's Bowl of Fire and 5ive Style. In October 2005 Ware designed the elaborate cover art for Penguin Books' new edition of Voltaire's Candide.
Ware was commissioned by Chip Kidd to design the inner machinations of the bird on the cover of Haruki Murakami's novel The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle.
In 2003-04, Ware worked with Ira Glass of This American Life and Chicago historian Tim Samuelson to illustrate and design Lost Buildings about Samuelson and the preservation of Chicago's old buildings, particularly Louis Sullivan's buildings. Originally produced for a live "Lost in America" stage show in 2003, Lost Buildings was later published as a book and DVD. In 2007-08, he produced animations for the This American Life television series on Showtime and also contributed to the show as a color consultant. Ware created poster art for Tamara Jenkins' 2007 film The Savages and her 2018 film Private Life.
Mural for 826 Valencia
Dave Eggers commissioned Ware to design the mural for the facade of San Francisco literacy project 826 Valencia. The mural depicts "the parallel development of humans and their efforts at and motivations for communication, spoken and written." The 3.9m x 6m mural was applied by artisans to Ware’s specifications. Describing the work, Ware said "I didn’t want it to make anyone 'feel good', especially in that typically muralistic 'hands across the water' sort of way,"..."I especially wanted it to be something that people living in the neighbourhood could look at day after day and hopefully not tire of too quickly. I really hoped whomever might happen to come across it would find something that showed a respect for their intelligence, and didn’t force-feed them any 'message'."
Fortune 500 cover
In 2010, Ware designed the cover for Fortune magazine's "Fortune 500" issue, but it was rejected. Ware had mentioned the work at a panel at the Chicago Comic and Entertainment Expo on April 16, as first noted in an April 20 blog post by Matthew J. Brady. The cover, featuring the circle-shaped humans common in Ware's more broadly socially satirical comic-strips, turned the numbers 500 into skyscrapers looming over the continental United States. On the roofs, corporate bosses drink, dance, and sun themselves as a helicopter drops a shovelful of money down for them. Below, among signs reading "Credit Default Swap Flea Market," "Greenspan Lube Pro," and "401K Cemetery," a helicopter scoops money out of the US Treasury with a shovel, cars pile up in Detroit, and flag-waving citizens party around a boiling tea kettle in the shape of an elephant. In the Gulf of Mexico, homes are sinking, while hooded prisoners sit in Guantanamo, a "Factory of Exploitation" keeps going in Mexico, China is tossing American dollars into the Pacific, and the roof of bankrupted Greece's Treasury has blown off. A spokesperson for the magazine only said that, as is their practice, they had commissioned a number of possible covers from different artists, including Ware. Brady wrote in his blog that Ware said at the panel he "accepted the job because it would be like doing the [cover for the] 1929 issue of the magazine".
Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives
In 2011, Ware created the poster for the U.S. release of the 2010 film Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives by Thai director Apichatpong Weerasethakul. Describing the poster, Ware said "I wanted to get at both the transcendent solemnity of the film while keeping some sense of its loose, very unpretentious accessibility... This being a poster, however—and even worse, me not really being a designer—I realized it also had to be somewhat punchy and strange, so as to draw viewers in and pique their curiosity without, hopefully, insulting their intelligence."
Awards and honors
Over the years his work garnered several awards, including the 1999 National Cartoonists Society's Award for Best Comic Book for Acme Novelty Library and Award for Graphic Novel for Building Stories.
Ware has won numerous Eisner Awards during his career including Best Artist/Writer in 2009 (Acme Novelty Library) and 2013 (Building Stories); Best Artist/Writer-Drama in 2008; Best Continuing Series in 1996 and 2000 (Acme Novelty Library); Best Graphic Album: New in 2000 and 2013 (Building Stories); Best Graphic Album: Reprint in 2001 (Jimmy Corrigan); Best Colorist of 1996, 1998, 2001 and 2006; Best Publication Design in 1995, 1996, 1997 (Acme Novelty Library), 2001 (Jimmy Corrigan), 2002, 2006 (Acme Novelty Library Annual Report for Shareholders) and 2013 (Building Stories)
Ware has won multiple Harvey Awards including Best Continuing or Limited Series in 2000 and 2001; Best Cartoonist in 2006 (Acme Novelty Library); Best Letterer in 1996, 2000, 2002, and 2006; Best Colorist in 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002 and 2004 (Acme Novelty Datebook); and Special Award for Excellence in Presentation in 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 (Acme Novelty Library), 2001 (Jimmy Corrigan), 2004 (Acme Novelty Datebook) and 2013 (Building Stories)
In 2002, Ware became the first comics artist to be invited to exhibit at Whitney Museum of American Art biennial exhibition. With Will Eisner, Jack Kirby, Harvey Kurtzman, Robert Crumb and Gary Panter, Ware was among the artists honored in the exhibition "Masters of American Comics" at the Jewish Museum in New York City, New York, from September 16, 2006 to January 28, 2007. His work was the subject of solo exhibitions at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2006 and at the University of Nebraska's Sheldon Museum of Art, in 2007.
Ware's graphic novel Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth won the 2001 Guardian First Book Award, the first time a graphic novel has won a major United Kingdom book award. It also won the prize for best album at the 2003 Angoulême International Comics Festival in France.
In 2006, Ware received a USA Hoi Fellow grant from United States Artists.
In 2013, Ware received the 2013 Lynd Ward Graphic Novel Prize for Building Stories and was finalist for Jan Michalski Prize for Literature and Los Angeles Times Book Prize.
In 2020, Ware's Rusty Brown was nominated for the PEN/Jean Stein Book Award.
In 2021, he was awarded the Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême for his lifelong achievement.
Bibliography
Acme Novelty Datebook. Drawn & Quarterly. 2007. .
Jordan Wellington Lint. Drawn & Quarterly. 2010. .
The Acme Novelty Datebook: Sketches and Diary Pages in Facsimile. Drawn & Quarterly. 2013.
References
Sources
"The Art of Melancholy". The Guardian, October 31, 2005
Arnold, Andrew. "The Depressing Joy of Chris Ware." Time, November 27, 2001.
Onstad, Chris. "Visual Tribute to Chris Ware". Achewood, January 11, 2008.
Peters, Tim. "Chris Ware's ANL #20". The Point, Spring 2011.
Schjeldahl, Peter. "Words and Pictures: Graphic novels come of age". The New Yorker, October 17, 2005.
Wolk, Douglas. "The inimitable Chris Ware". Salon.com, September 2, 2005.
Wondrich, David. "Ragtime: No Longer a Novelty in Sepia", The New York Times, January 21, 2001.
External links
Acme Novelty Archive: Unofficial database of the works of Ware
Stripped Books: A Comics Panel – comics-form adaptation of a panel featuring Chris Ware, Seth and moderator Ivan Brunetti
Interview and evaluation of Ware by designer Chip Kidd
Chris Ware's mural for 826 Valencia's facade
The Last Saturday. A comic novella posted in weekly instalments on the website of UK newspaper The Guardian
1967 births
Alternative cartoonists
American graphic novelists
Artists from Nebraska
American comic strip cartoonists
Eisner Award winners for Best Coloring
Eisner Award winners for Best Letterer/Lettering
Eisner Award winners for Best Writer/Artist
Harvey Award winners for Best Cartoonist
Harvey Award winners for Best Colorist
Living people
Artists from Oak Park, Illinois
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Writers from Nebraska
American male novelists
The New Yorker cartoonists
American Book Award winners
Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture alumni
Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême winners
Inkpot Award winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20C.%20Slater
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John C. Slater
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John Clarke Slater (December 22, 1900 – July 25, 1976) was an American physicist who advanced the theory of the electronic structure of atoms, molecules and solids. He also made major contributions to microwave electronics. He received a B.S. in physics from the University of Rochester in 1920 and a Ph.D. in physics from Harvard in 1923, then did post-doctoral work at the universities of Cambridge (briefly) and Copenhagen. On his return to the U.S. he joined the physics department at Harvard.
In 1930, Karl Compton, the president of MIT, appointed Slater as chairman of MIT's department of physics. He recast the undergraduate physics curriculum, wrote 14 books between 1933 and 1968, and built a department of international prestige. During World War II, his work on microwave transmission, done partly at the Bell Laboratories and in association with the MIT Radiation Laboratory, was significant in the development of radar.
In 1950, Slater founded the Solid State and Molecular Theory Group (SSMTG) within the physics department. The following year, he resigned the chairmanship of the department and spent a year at the Brookhaven National Laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission. He was appointed Institute Professor of Physics and continued to direct work in the SSMTG until he retired from MIT in 1965, at the mandatory retirement age of 65.
He then joined the Quantum Theory Project of the University of Florida as research professor, where the retirement age allowed him to work for another five years. The SSMTG has been regarded as the precursor of the MIT Center for Materials Science and Engineering (CMSE). His scientific autobiography and three interviews present his views on research, education and the role of science in society.
Slater was nominated for the Nobel Prize, in both physics and chemistry, multiple times, and he received the National Medal of Science in 1970. In 1964, Slater and his then-92-year-old father, who had headed the Department of English at the University of Rochester many years earlier, were awarded honorary degrees by that university. Slater's name is part of the terms Bohr-Kramers-Slater theory, Slater determinant and Slater orbital.
Early life and education
Slater's father, born in Virginia, who had been an undergraduate at Harvard, became head of the English Department at the University of Rochester, which would also be Slater's undergraduate alma mater. Slater's youthful interests were with things mechanical, chemical, and electrical. When Slater entered the University of Rochester in 1917 he took physics courses and as a senior assisted in the physics laboratory and did his first independent research for a special honors thesis, a measurement of the dependence on pressure of the intensities of the Balmer lines of hydrogen.
He was accepted into Harvard graduate school, with the choice of a fellowship or assistantship. He chose the assistantship, during which he worked for Percy W. Bridgman. He followed Bridgman's courses in fundamental physics and was introduced into the then-new quantum physics with the courses of E. C. Kemble. He completed the work for the Ph.D. in three years by publishing his (1924) paper Compressibility of the Alkali Halides, which embodied the thesis work he had done under Bridgman. His heart was in theory, and his first publication was not his doctor's thesis, but a note (1924) to Nature on Radiation and Atoms.
After receiving his Ph.D., Slater held a Hamard Sheldon Fellowship for study in Europe. He spent a period in Cambridge, England, before going to Copenhagen. He did not have a happy time working with Bohr who he found domineering and regretted that his name was attached to the ill-fated Bohr-Kramers-Slater (BKS) theory. Slater already had the idea that it was the photon that carried radiation energy. As he relates:
On the plus side, Slater's name was now well known by association with Bohr. On returning to America, Slater joined the Harvard Physics Department.
Professional career
Chairing the Department of Physics at MIT
When he became president of MIT, Karl Compton "courted" Slater to chair the physics department. "Administration (of the Department) took up a good deal of time, more time than he (Slater) would have preferred. John was a good chairman." The following items from the successive issues of the annual MIT President's Report trace the growth and visibility of the Department under Slater's leadership, before World War II, and the ability of the department to contribute to defense during the war. The first two quotations are from chapters written by Compton in the successive reports. The other quotations come from the sections about the department, that Slater wrote. These include statements affecting policies in physics education and research at large, and show his deep commitment to both.
1930: "The selection of Dr. John C. Slater as head of the (Physics) Department will strengthen ... undergraduate and graduate work ... the limitation of space has retarded the development of graduate work ... the total number of undergraduates being 53 and ... graduate students 16." (p. 21)
1931: "This has been the first year of the Department in charge of its new Head, Professor John C. Slater ... the subjects actively (researched include) Spectroscopy, Applied Optics, Discharge of Electricity in Gases, Magneto-Optical Phenomena, Studies of Dielectrics, and various aspects of modern and classical theoretical physics." (p. 42)
1932: In the list of papers published by MIT faculty, items 293 to 340 are listed under Department of Physics. (p. 206-208)
1933: "The George Eastman Research Laboratory, into which the Department moved at the beginning of the year, provides for the first time a suitable home for research in Physics at the Institute". Slater states that outside recognition is shown by holders of six National, an International, and a Rockefeller Research Fellowship choosing to come to the department. Slater describes the dedication of the Laboratory, the hosting of meetings of the International Astronomical Union, the American Physical Society, and a Spectroscopic conference, and ends: "In general the year has been one of settling down to work under satisfactory conditions, after the more difficult transition of the preceding year." (p. 96-98)
1934: "A number of advances in undergraduate teaching have been made or planned." Among the "most conspicuous events" in the department, "we acted as host" to meetings of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Physical Society, and a national Spectroscopic Conference, where "the main topic was relation to biology and related fields." Advances in research have been "taking advantage of the unusual facilities" in the department, and include the work of Warren on structure of liquids, Mueller on dielectric properties, Stockbarger on crystal physics, Harrison on automating spectroscopic measurement, Wulff on hyperfine structure, Boyce on spectra of nebulae, Van der Graaff on high voltage and nuclear research, and Stratton and Morse on ellipsoidal wave functions. (p. 104-106)
1935: Considerable attention is given to major improvements in undergraduate teaching. The extensive comments on research mention the arrival of Robley Evans and his work on a field new to the department—radioactivity, with special attention to nuclear medicine. (p. 102-103)
1936: "The most important development of the year in the Department has been the growing recognition of the significance of applied physics. There has been a tendency in the past among physicists to take interest only in the direct line of development of their science, and to neglect its applications." Slater develops this theme at length, and describes actions within the undergraduate, graduate and faculty work of the department and at the national level to develop Applied Physics. The description of the flourishing basic research refers to ten different areas, including the upsurge in work on radioactivity. (p. 131-134).
1937 to 1941: These continue in the same vein. But world affairs begin to impact. The 1941 report ends: "The X-ray branch had as a guest Professor Rose C. L. Mooney of Newcomb College, who was prevented by the war from carrying on research in Europe under a Guggenheim Fellowship ... As the year ends, the National Defense effort is beginning to claim the services of a number of staff members. Presumably the coming year will see a large intensification of the effort, though it is hoped that the interference with the regular research and teaching will not be too severe." (p. 129)
1942: This told a very different story. The defense effort had begun to "involve a considerable number of personnel, as well as a good deal of administrative work. With the opening of the Radiation Laboratory of the National Defense Research Committee at the Institute, a number of members of the Department's staff have become associated with that laboratory" followed by a list of over 10 senior faculty who had, and several more gone to other defense projects. (p. 110-111)
1943 to 1945: Slater took leave of absence as chair, to work on topics of importance in radar. The American Mathematical Society selected him as the Josiah Willards Gibbs lecturer for 1945.
1946: Slater had returned as chair. He starts his report: "The year of reconversion from war to peace has been one of the very greatest activity. ... Physics during the war achieved an importance which has probably never before been attained by any other science. The Institute, as the leading technical institution of the country and probably the world, should properly have a physics department unequaled anywhere." He lists plans to meet this objective, that proliferate his administrative responsibilities. (p. 133-143)
Setting up interdepartmental laboratories, by restructuring existing laboratories using, as a model, the conversion of the Radiation Laboratory into the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) by Julius Stratton and Albert Hill.
Financing student assistantships and helping shape the role of government financing on an unprecedented scale.
Overseeing Robley Evans' Radioactivity Center (containing a cyclotron) and Van de Graaff's High Voltage Laboratory.
Recruiting physicists familiar with the Manhattan project to build the Laboratory for Nuclear Science and Engineering. This was directed by Jerrold Zacharias. Its first members included Bruno Rossi and Victor Weisskopf.
Setting up the Acoustics Laboratory, directed by Richard Bolt, and the Spectroscopy Laboratory directed by the chemist Richard Lord.
1947: With the hiring of staff and building of laboratories well in hand, Slater begins: "The year in the Physics Department, as in the rest of the Institute, was one of starting the large-scale teaching of returned veterans and other students whose academic careers had been interrupted by the war." He goes on to discuss the needs of students, in the entire Institute, for Physics courses and laboratories, with particular mention of the upsurge in electronics and nuclear science, and he reports briefly on the developments following from his previous report. (p. 139-141)
1948: Slater begins "The current year is the first since the war in which the department has approached normal operation. No new major projects or changes of policy have been introduced." But the department that he has built is vastly different from what it was when he started. Sixteen master's degrees and 47 doctor's degrees were granted. Twenty-five Ph.D. recipients got academic appointments in MIT and other universities. Research flourished, and many scientists visited from European universities and elsewhere in the U.S. (p. 141-143)
1949: The new-styled 'normalcy' continued. "The approach to a steady postwar state continued with few unusual occurrences." The graduate curriculum has been revised and cryogenics enhanced. The continued growth of staff, research grants, industrial contacts and volume of publication are treated as matters of continuity, recognizing at the end, that: "The administrative load of the department has grown so much (it became) wise to appoint an executive officer". Nathaniel Frank, who had worked with John Slater for nearly two decades accepted the post. (p. 149-153)
1950: The future of the department had been set. There were "few unexpected changes". And with the continued growth, "almost every research project in the Department has concerned itself with undergraduate research". (p. 189-191)
1951: Jay Stratton writes "Professor John C. Slater resigned as Head of the Department of Physics and has been appointed Harry B. Higgins Professor of the Solid State, the first appointment which will carry the title Institute Professor. Professor Slater has been granted a leave of absence for the coming year to carry on research at Brookhaven National Laboratory." (p. 30)
Throughout his Chairmanship, Slater taught, wrote books, produced ideas of major scientific importance, and interacted with colleagues throughout the local, national and international scientific communities. At the personal level, Morse states: "Through most of (the 1930s) he looked more like an undergraduate than a department head ... he could render his guests weak with laughter simply by counting ... in Danish." Much later, S.B. Trickey wrote "While I got to know him reasonably well, I was never able to call J.C. Slater by his given name. His seeming aloofness turned out more to be shyness."
Research
Atoms, molecules and solids: research preceding World War II
Returning in time to 1920, Slater had gone to Harvard to work for a Ph.D. with Percy Bridgman, who studied the behaviour of substances under very high pressures. Slater measured the compressibility of common salt and ten other alkali halides—compounds of lithium, sodium, potassium and rubidium, with fluorine, chlorine and bromine. He described the results as "exactly in accord with Bohr's recent views of the relation between electron structure and the periodic table". This brought Slater's observation concerning the mechanical properties of ionic crystals into line with the theory that Bohr had based on the spectroscopy of gaseous elements. He wrote the alkali halide paper in 1923, having "by the summer of 1922" been "thoroughly indoctrinated ... with quantum theory", in part by the courses of Edwin Kemble following a fascination with Bohr's work during his undergraduate days. In 1924, Slater went to Europe on a Harvard Sheldon Fellowship. After a brief stay at the University of Cambridge, he went on to the University of Copenhagen, where "he explained to Bohr and Kramers his idea (that was) a sort of forerunner of the duality principle, (hence) the celebrated paper" on the work that others dubbed the Bohr-Kramers-Slater (BKS) theory. "Slater suddenly became an internationally known name.". Interest in this "old-quantum-theory" paper subsided with the arrival of full quantum mechanics, but Philp M. Morse's biography states that "in recent years it has been recognized that the correct ideas in the article are those of Slater." Slater discusses his early life through the trip to Europe in a transcribed interview.
Slater joined the Harvard faculty on his return from Europe in 1925, then moved to MIT in 1930. His research papers covered many topics. A year by year selection, up to his switch to work relating to radar includes:
1924: the theoretical part of his Ph.D. work, the Bohr-Kramers-Slater (BKS) theory,
1925: widths of spectral lines; ideas that came very close to the electron spins principle,
1926 and 1927: explicit attention to electron spin, and to the Schrödinger equation;
1928: the Hartree self-consistent field, the Rydberg formula,
1929: the determinantal expression for an antisymmetric wave function,
1930: Slater type orbitals (STOs) and atomic shielding constants,
1931: linear combination of atomic orbitals, van der Waals forces (with Jack Kirkwood, as a Chemistry Research Associate).
1932 to 1935: atomic orbitals, metallic conduction, application of the Thomas–Fermi method to metals,
1936: ferromagnetism, (with Erik Rudberg, later chairman of the Nobel Prize committee for Physics) inelastic scattering, and (with his Ph.D. student William Shockley and close to his own Ph.D. topic), optical properties of alkali halides
1937 and 1938: augmented plane waves, superconductivity, ferromagnetism, electrodynamics,
1939 he published "only" a book: the definitive Introduction to Chemical Physics,
1940 the Grüneisen constant, and the Curie point,
1941 phase transition analogous to ferromagnetism in potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
In his memoir, Morse wrote "In addition to other notable papers ... on ... Hartree's self-consistent field, the quantum mechanical derivation of the Rydberg constant, and the best values of atomic shielding constants, he wrote a seminal paper on directing valency " (what became known, later, as linear combination of atomic orbitals).
In further comments, John Van Vleck pays particular attention to (1) the 1925 study of the spectra of hydrogen and ionized helium, that J.V.V. considers one sentence short of proposing electron spin (which would have led to sharing a Nobel prize), and (2) what J.V.V. regards as Slater's greatest paper, that introduced the mathematical object now called the Slater determinant. "These were some of the achievements (that led to his) election to the National Academy ... at ... thirty-one. He played a key role in lifting American theoretical physics to high international standing." Slater's doctoral students, during this time, included Nathan Rosen Ph.D. in 1932 for a theoretical study of the hydrogen molecule, and William Shockley Ph.D. 1936 for an energy band structure of sodium chloride, who later received a Nobel Prize for the discovery of the transistor.
Research during the war and the return to peace time activities
Slater, in his experimental and theoretical work on the magnetron (key elements paralleled his prior work with self-consistent fields for atoms) and on other topics at the Radiation Laboratory and at the Bell Laboratories did "more than any other person to provide the understanding requisite to progress in the microwave field", in the words of Mervin Kelley, then head of Bell Labs, quoted by Morse.
Slater' publications during the war and the post-war recovery include a book and papers on microwave transmission and microwave electronics, linear accelerators, cryogenics, and, with Francis Bitter and several other colleagues, superconductors, These publications credit the many other scientists, mathematicians and engineers who participated. Among these,
George H. Vineyard received his Ph.D. with Slater in 1943 for a study of space charge in the cavity magnetron. Later, he became director of the Brookhaven National Laboratory and President of the American Physical Society. The work of the Radiation Laboratory paralleled research at the Telecommunications Research Establishment in England and the groups maintained a productive liaison.
The Solid State and Molecular Theory Group
Activities
In the words of Robert Nesbet: "Slater founded the SSMTG with the idea of bringing together a younger generation of students and PostDocs with a common interest in the electronic structure and properties of atoms, molecules and solids. This was in part to serve as a balance for electronic physics to survive the overwhelming growth of nuclear physics following the war" .
George F. Koster soon completed his Ph.D., joined the faculty, and became the senior member of the group. He wrote "During the fifteen-year life of the group some sixty persons were members and thirty-four took doctoral degrees with theses connected with its work. In my report I have been unable to separate the work of Slater from that of the group as a whole. He was part of every aspect of the group's research efforts."
Nesbet continued "Every morning in SSMTG began with a coffee session, chaired by Professor Slater, with the junior members seated around a long table ... Every member of the group was expected to contribute a summary of his own work and ideas to the Quarterly Progress Report". The SMMTG QPRs had a wide distribution to university and industrial research libraries, and to individual laboratories. They were quoted widely for scientific and biographical content, in journal articles and government reports and libraries are starting to put them online.
To begin the work of the group, Slater "distilled his experience with the Hartree self-consistent field method" into (1) a simplification that became known as the Xα method, and (2) a relationship between a feature of this method and a magnetic property of the system. These required computations that were excessive for "pencil and paper" work. Slater was quick to avail the SSMTG of the electronic computers that were being developed. An early paper on augmented plane waves used an IBM card programmed calculator. The Whirlwind was used heavily, then the IBM 704 in the MIT Computation Center and then the IBM 709 in the Cooperative Computing Laboratory (see below).
Solid state work progressed more rapidly at first in the SSMTG, with contributions over the first few years by George F. Koster, John Wood, Arthur Freeman and Leonard Mattheis. Molecular and atomic calculations also flourished in the hands of Fernando J. Corbató, Lee Allen and Alvin Meckler. This initial work followed lines largely set by Slater. Michael Barnett came in 1958. He and John Wood were given faculty appointments. Robert Nesbet, Brian Sutcliffe, Malcolm Harrison and Levente Szasz brought in a variety of further approaches to molecular and atomic problems. Jens Dahl, Alfred Switendick, Jules Moskowitz, Donald Merrifield and Russell Pitzer did further work on molecules, and Fred Quelle on solids.
Slater rarely included his name on the papers of SSMTG members who worked with him. Major pieces of work which he did coauthor dealt with applications of (1) group theory in band structure calculations and (2) equivalent features of linear combination of atomic orbital (LCAO), tight binding and Bloch electron approximations, to interpolate results for the energy levels of solids, obtained by more accurate methods,
People
A partial list of members of the SSMTG (Ph.D. students, post-doctoral members, research staff and faculty, in some cases successively, labeled †, ‡, ৳, ¶), together with references that report their SSMTG and later activities, follows.
Leland C. Allen †‡, ab initio molecular calculations, electronegativity, Professor of Chemistry Emeritus, Princeton University (2011).
Michael P Barnett ৳¶, molecular integrals, software, phototypesetting, cognition, later in industry, Columbia U. and CUNY.
Louis Burnelle‡, molecular calculations, later professor of chemistry, New York University.
Earl Callen †
Fernando J. Corbató †, began the molecular calculations in the SSMTG; later a pioneer of time-sharing and recipient of the Turing Award.
George Coulouris ৳, worked with MPB, later professor of computer science at Queen Mary College of the University of London.
Imre Csizmadia ‡, molecular calculations (LiH), later Professor of Chemistry, U. Toronto, ab initio calculations, drug design.
Jens Dahl ‡, molecular calculations, later professor of chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, wrote quantum chemistry text.
Donald E. Ellis ৳†, molecular calculations, later Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Northwestern University, "real" materials.
Arthur Freeman †‡, orthogonalized plane wave calculations, later professor of physics and astronomy at Northwestern University
Robert P. Futrelle ৳, programming methods, later Professor of Computer and Information Science at Northeastern University.
Leon Gunther †‡ lattice vibrations in alkali halides, later Professor of Physics at Tufts University, focus on condensed matter theory in many areas, including superconductivity and seminal papers on nanoscopic physics & quantum tunneling of magnetization.
Malcolm Harrison ‡, (died 2007) co-developer of POLYATOM, later professor of computer science, New York University.
Frank Herman, band structure calculations, went into RCA then IBM Research Laboratories, wrote and edited major surveys.
David Howarth ‡, solid state, later professor of computer science, Imperial College, University of London.
John Iliffe ৳, computer scientist.
San-Ichiro Ishigura ‡, later Professor, Ochinamizu University
Arnold Karo ‡, electronic structure of small molecules, later at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory.
C.W. Kern ‡, molecular calculations, later Professor of Chemistry, Ohio State U., published extensively.
Ryoichi Kikuchi ‡
Walter H. Kleiner, solid state physics, continued at Lincoln Laboratory.
George F. Koster †¶, became Chairman of the Physics Graduate Committee at MIT and wrote two books on solid state physics.
Leonard F. Mattheiss †, augmented plane wave calculations, later at Bell Labs, published about 100 papers.
Roy McWeeny ‡, valence theory, later held chairs at several British Universities and, since 1982, at the University of Pisa, Italy.
Alvin Meckler, first major molecular calculation on Whirlwind (oxygen), later National Security Agency,
Donald Merrifield †, molecular calculations (methane), later President of Loyola University, Los Angeles.
Jules Moskowitz ‡, molecular calculations (benzene), later chairman, Department of Chemistry, NYU, published 100 papers.
Robert K. Nesbet ‡, molecular calculations, later at IBM Almaden Research Laboratories, published over 200 papers.
Robert H. Parmenter, later professor of physics, U. Arizona, crystal properties and superconductivity.
Russell M. Pitzer ‡, molecular calculations (ethane), later Chairman of Chemistry Department, Ohio State U, over 100 papers.
George W. Pratt, Jr. †‡later Professor of Electrical Engineering and CMSE, MIT, solid state electronics.
F.W. Quelle, Jr. augmented plane waves, later laser optics.
Melvin M. Saffren †
Robert Schrieffer wrote Bachelor's thesis on multiplets in heavy atoms, later shared Nobel Prize for BCS theory of superconductivity.
Edward Schultz
Harold Schweinler
Hermann Statz ‡, ferromagnetism, later director of research at Raytheon and recipient of 2004 IEEE Microwave Pioneer Award,
Levente Szasz, atomic structure, became professor of physics at Fordham University, published two books,
Brian T. Sutcliffe ‡, co-developer of POLYATOM, later professor of chemistry, University of York.
Richard E. Watson ‡៛, electronic properties of metal atoms, later at Brookhaven, published over 200 papers.
E.B. White †
John Wood †¶, augmented plane waves using Hartree–Fock methods, at Los Alamos National Laboratory (died 1986), published extensively.
Distinguished visitors included Frank Boys, Alex Dalgarno, Ugo Fano, Anders Fröman, Inga Fischer-Hjalmars, Douglas Hartree, Werner Heisenberg, Per-Olov Löwdin, Chaim Pekeris, Ivar Waller and Peter Wohlfarth.
Slater's further activities at MIT during this time
In the 1962 President's Report, Jay Stratton wrote (on p. 17) "A faculty committee under the chairmanship of Professor John C. Slater has taken primary responsibility for planning the facilities in the new Center for Materials. These include a new Cooperative Computing Laboratory completed this year and equipped with an I.B.M. 709 Computer".
The name Center for Materials Science and Engineering (CMSE) was adopted soon afterward. It embodied the ethos of interdepartmental research and teaching that Slater had espoused throughout his career. The first director was R.A. Smith, previously head of the physics division of the Royal Radar Establishment in England. He, Slater and Charles Townes, the provost, had been in close acquaintance since the early years of World War II, working on overlapping topics.
The center was set up, in accordance with Slater's plans. It "supported research and teaching in Metallurgy and Materials Science, Electrical Engineering, Physics, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering", and preserved MIT as a focus for work in solid state physics. By 1967, two years after Slater left, the MIT Physics Department "had a very, very small commitment to condensed matter physics" because it was so "heavily into high energy physics." But in the same year, the CMSE staff included 55 professors and 179 graduate students. The Center continues to flourish in the 21st century.
The Cooperative Computing Laboratory (CCL) was used, in its first year by some 400 faculty, students and staff. These included (1) members of the SSMTG and the CCL running quantum mechanical calculations and non-numeric applications directed by Slater, Koster, Wood and Barnett, (2) the computer-aided design team of Ross, Coons and Mann, (3) members of the Laboratory for Nuclear Science, (4) Charney and Phillips in theoretical meteorology, and (5) Simpson and Madden in geophysics (from 1964 President's report, p. 336-337).
Personal life and death
In 1926, he had married Helen Frankenfeld. Their three children (Louise Chapin, John Frederick, and Clarke Rothwell) all followed academic careers. Slater was divorced and in 1954 he married Rose Mooney, a physicist and crystallographer, who moved to Florida with him in 1965.
At the University of Florida (Gainesville) where the retirement age was 70, Slater was able to enjoy another five years of active research and publication as a research professor in the Quantum Theory Project (QTP). In 1975, in his scientific autobiography, he wrote: "The Florida Physics Department was a congenial one, with main emphasis on solid state physics, statistical physics and related fields. It reminded me of the MIT department in the days when I had been department head there. It was a far cry from the MIT Physics Department which I was leaving; by then it had been literally captured by the nuclear theorists." Slater published to the end of his life: his final journal paper, published with John Connolly in 1976, was on a novel approach to molecular orbital theory.
Slater died in Sanibel Island, Florida in 1976.
As an educator and advisor
Slater's concern for others is illustrated by a dialog that Richard Feynman relates. It took place at the end of Feynman's undergraduate days at MIT, when he wanted to stay on to do a Ph.D. "When I went to Professor Slater and told him of my intentions he said: 'We will not have you here'. I said 'What?' Slater said 'Why do you think you should go to graduate school at MIT?' 'Because it is the best school for science in the country' ... 'That is why you should go to some other school. You should find out how the rest of the world is.' So I went to Princeton. ... Slater was right. And I often advise my students the same way. Learn what the rest of the world is like. The variety is worthwhile."
Summary
From the memoir by Philip Morse: "He contributed significantly to the start of the quantum revolution in physics; he was one of the very few American-trained physicists to do so. He was exceptional in that he persisted in exploring atomic, molecular and solid state physics, while many of his peers were coerced by war, or tempted by novelty, to divert to nuclear mysteries."
To paraphrase John Connolly, it can be said that the contributions of John C. Slater and his students in the SSMTG and the Quantum Theory Project laid the foundations of the density functional theory approximation in quantum theory.
Slater's papers were bequeathed to the American Philosophical Society by his widow, Rose Mooney Slater, in 1980 and 1982. In August 2003, Alfred Switendick donated a collection of Quarterly Reports of the MIT Solid State and Molecular Theory Group (SSMTG), dating from 1951 to 1965.
Awards and honors
Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1927)
Elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences (1932)
Elected to the American Philosophical Society (1940)
Irving Langmuir Award (1967)
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1969)
National Medal of Science (1970)
Books
Slater, J. C. (1950). Microwave Electronics. New York: Van Nostrand.
References
External links
Biographical Memoir by Philip M. Morse, includes a photo
1900 births
1976 deaths
20th-century American physicists
University of Florida faculty
Members of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science
National Medal of Science laureates
American physical chemists
Theoretical chemists
University of Rochester alumni
Harvard University alumni
Scientists at Bell Labs
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Philosophical Society
20th-century American chemists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hula
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Hula
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Hula () is a Hawaiian dance form expressing chant (oli) or song (mele). It was developed in the Hawaiian Islands by the Native Hawaiians who settled there. The hula dramatizes or portrays the words of the oli or mele in a visual dance form.
There are many sub-styles of hula, with the two main categories being Hula ʻAuana and Hula Kahiko. Ancient hula, performed before Western encounters with Hawaii, is called kahiko. It is accompanied by chant and traditional instruments. Hula, as it evolved under Western influence in the 19th and 20th centuries, is called auana (a word that means "to wander" or "drift"). It is accompanied by song and Western-influenced musical instruments such as the guitar, the ukulele, and the double bass.
Terminology for two additional categories is beginning to enter the hula lexicon: "Monarchy" includes any hula which were composed and choreographed during the 19th century. During that time the influx of Western culture created significant changes in the formal Hawaiian arts, including hula. "Ai Kahiko", meaning "in the ancient style" are those hula written in the 20th and 21st centuries that follow the stylistic protocols of the ancient hula kahiko.
There are also two main positions of a hula dance: either sitting ( dance) or standing ( dance). Some dances utilize both forms.
Hula dancing is complex, with many hand motions used to represent the words in a song or chant. For example, hand movements can signify aspects of nature, such as the swaying of a tree in the breeze or a wave in the ocean, or a feeling or emotion, such as fondness or yearning. Foot and hip movements often pull from a basic library of steps including the , , , , , and .
There are other related dances (tamure, hura, 'aparima, 'ote'a, haka, kapa haka, poi, Fa'ataupati, Tau'olunga, and Lakalaka) that come from other Polynesian islands such as Tahiti, The Cook Islands, Samoa, Tonga and New Zealand; however, the hula is unique to the Hawaiian Islands.
Five hula genres can be placed across a spectrum with "the most ancient" on the left and "the most modern" on the right side. The Hula pahu and hula 'āla'apapa subcategories are ancient, originating before the introduction of Christianity. Thanks to well-preserved documentation, guidelines for performers to bring the poetic text back on stage remain clear in manuscript sources. On the other side of the continuum, hapa haole songs are relatively modern and they were also disseminated as notated sheet music, the joint effort of contemporary ethnomusicologists and songwriters. The other the two hula types, hula ku'i and hula 'ōlapa are a challenge to editors in terms of textualizing and representing them within a critical edition. These two genres reflect the social transformation and westernization within the region, influenced by American economics and politics. More importantly, the same strophic text format is applied in both genres, constructed with two or four lines of text, with each of them commonly set to a uniform number of beats. During performance, it is a usual practice that the songs are separated into stanzas which are repeated by a brief rhythmic interlude. Among the genres of hula, the corresponding melodic structure and the strophic musical structure make modern hula ku'i and hula 'ōlapa distinguishable from the others.
Hula kahiko
Hula kahiko, often defined as those hula composed prior to 1894 which do not include modern instrumentation (such as guitar, ʻukulele, etc.), encompasses an enormous variety of styles and moods, from the solemn and sacred to the frivolous. Many hula were created to praise the chiefs and performed in their honor, or for their entertainment. Types of hula kahiko include ālaapapa, haa, ōlapa, and many others. Today hula kahiko is simply stated as "Traditional" Hula.
Many hula dances are considered to be a religious performance, as they are dedicated to, or honoring, a Hawaiian goddess or god. As was true of ceremonies at the heiau, the platform temple, even a minor error was considered to invalidate the performance. It might even be a presage of bad luck or have dire consequences. Dancers who were learning to do such hula necessarily made many mistakes. Hence they were ritually secluded and put under the protection of the goddess Laka during the learning period. Ceremonies marked the successful learning of the hula and the emergence from seclusion.
Hula kahiko is performed today by dancing to the historical chants. Many hula kahiko are characterized by traditional costuming, by an austere look, and a reverence for their spiritual root.
Chant (Oli)
Hawaiian history was oral history. It was codified in genealogies and chants, which were memorized and passed down. In the absence of a written language, this was the only available method of ensuring accuracy. Chants told the stories of creation, mythology, royalty, and other significant events and people.
The ʻŌlelo Noʻeau (Hawaiian saying or proverb), "'O 'oe ka luaʻahi o kāu mele," translates loosely as "You bear both the good and the bad consequences of the poetry you compose" The idea behind this saying originates from the ancient Hawaiian belief that language possessed mana, or "power derived from a spiritual source" particularly when delivered through oli (chant). Therefore, skillful manipulation of language by haku mele (composers) and chanters was of utmost reverence and importance. Oli was an integral component of ancient Hawaiian society, and arose in nearly every social, political and economic aspect of life.
Traditional chant types are extremely varied in context and technical components, and cover a broad range of specific functions. Among them (in vague descending order of sacredness) exist mele pule (prayer), hula kuahu (ritual dance), kūʻauhau (cosmogeny), koʻihonua (genealogy), hānau (birth), inoa (name), maʻi (procreation/genital), kanikau (lamentation), hei (game), hoʻoipoipo (love), and kāhea (expression/call out).
An important distinction between oli, hula, and mele is as follows: mele can hold many different meanings, and is often translated to mean simply, song. However, in a more broad sense, mele can be taken to mean poetry or linguistic composition. Hula (chant with dance) and oli (chant without dance) are two general styles in which mele can be used/performed. Generally, "all mele may be performed as oli (chant without dance), but only certain types such as name chants, sex chants, love chants, and chants dedicated to the ['aumakua] gods of hula (ritual dance), may be performed as hula (chant with dance)."
Hawaiian language contains 43 different words to describe voice quality; the technique and particularity of chanting styles is crucial to understanding their function. The combination of general style (with or without dance) and the context of the performance determines what vocal style a chant will use. Kepakepa, kāwele, olioli, ho'āeae, ho'ouēuē, and 'aiha'a are examples of styles differentiated by vocal technique. Kepakepa sounds like rapid speech and is often spoken in long phrases. Olioli is a style many would liken to song, as it is melodic in nature and includes sustained pitches, often with 'i'i, or vibrato of the voice that holds vowel tones at the ends of lines.
A law passed in Hawai'i in 1896 (shortly after American overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom) banned the use of 'Ōlelo Hawai'i in schools. This, in combination with a general usurpation of Hawaiian social, political, and linguistic autonomy resulted in a mass decline of the Hawaiian language, to the near brink of extinction. As a result of Americanization, including the spread of Christianity, many traditional chants became viewed as pagan and were ultimately forgotten. But a cultural resurgence beginning in the late 1960s, and carrying through to today has revitalized many Hawaiian practices, including spoken language and chant, and has been furthered by increasing support from various institutions, including Pūnana Leo Hawaiian language immersion schools, funded by the Hawai'i State Department of Education as well as major hula competitions such as the Merrie Monarch Festival, which officially began in 1971.
In hālau hula (hula schools) asking permission to enter the space in order to partake in the knowledge of the kumu (teacher) is a key component to being a student. Many hālau use a variation of "Kūnihi," an oli kāhea, most typically done in an olioli style. Students often stand outside the entrance and chant repeatedly until the kumu decides to grant them permission to enter, and uses a different chant in response. This is an example of how oli is integrated into modern day cultural practices, within the context of hula training.
Oli is universally considered as the most typical type of indigenous music that is not constructed onto meters. In fact, the artistic expression of oli varies according to the circumstances where the performance is conducted, which is also the reason why there are five different articulatory vocal techniques were developed in oli repertoire. These five styles are:
kepakepa: A conversational patter that is expected to be performed swiftly, where the syllables are usually too short to allow pitches to be identified.
kawele: Comparing with the kepakepa, syllables are sustained a bit longer in kawele, but yet to be easily identified in pitches. It tends to be a more suitable form for recitation and declamation among Olis.
olioli: It is regarded as the most commonly used kind of oli, which the sustained pitch monotone carries the poetic form in a more vocally-embellished way.
ho'āeae: It uses sustained pitches more often and there can be multiple pitches following fundamental configuration throughout the musical context.
ho'ouweuwe: it is exclusively applied as the laments in funeral.
Oli performer does not purposely learn repertoire with the aim of merely learning the melodies, but the performative techniques. The most important thing for performer to master is decide which style the poetic text can be perfectly fitted into and figure out the way that can flawlessly combine both the text and the oli style according to the given context, such time limits and the particular situation where the oli is delivered.
Instruments and implements
Ipu—single gourd drum
Ipu heke—double gourd drum
Pahu—sharkskin covered drum; considered sacred
Puniu—small knee drum made of a coconut shell with fish skin (kala) cover
Iliili—water-worn lava stone used as castanets
Ulīulī—feathered gourd rattles (also ulili)
Pūili—split bamboo sticks
Kālaau—rhythm sticks
The dog's-tooth anklets sometimes worn by male dancers could also be considered instruments, as they underlined the sounds of stamping feet.
Dress/Outfits
Traditional female dancers wore the everyday pāū, or wrapped skirt, but were topless. Today this form of dress has been altered. As a sign of lavish display, the pāū might be much longer than the usual length of tapa, or barkcloth, which was just long enough to go around the waist. Visitors report seeing dancers swathed in many yards of tapa, enough to increase their circumference substantially. Dancers might also wear decorations such as necklaces, bracelets, and anklets, as well as many lei (in the form of headpieces (lei poʻo), necklaces, bracelets, and anklets (kupeʻe)), and other accessories.
A skirt of green kī (Cordyline fruticosa) leaves may also be worn over the pāū. They are arranged in a dense layer of around fifty leaves. Kī were sacred to the goddess of the forest and the hula dance Laka, and as such, only kahuna and aliʻi were allowed to wear kī leaf leis (lei lāʻī) during religious rituals. Similar C. fruticosa leaf skirts worn over tupenu are also used in religious dances in Tonga, where it is known as sisi. However, Tongan leaf skirts generally use red and yellow leaves.
Traditional male dancers wore the everyday malo, or loincloth. Again, they might wear bulky malo made of many yards of tapa. They also wore necklaces, bracelets, anklets, and lei.
The materials for the lei worn in performance were gathered in the forest, after prayers to Laka and the forest gods had been chanted.
The lei and tapa worn for sacred hula were considered imbued with the sacredness of the dance, and were not to be worn after the performance. Lei were typically left on the small altar to Laka found in every hālau, as offerings.
Performances
Hula performed for spontaneous daily amusement or family feasts were attended with no particular ceremony. However, hula performed as entertainment for chiefs were anxious affairs. High chiefs typically traveled from one place to another within their domains. Each locality had to house, feed, and amuse the chief and his or her entourage. Hula performances were a form of fealty, and often of flattery to the chief. During the performances the males would start off and the females would come later to close the show off. Most kahiko performances would begin with an opening dance, kai, and end with a closing dance, hoi, to state the presence of the hula. There were hula celebrating his lineage, his name, and even his genitals (hula mai). Sacred hula, celebrating Hawaiian gods, were also danced. All these performances must be completed without error (which would be both unlucky and disrespectful).
Visiting chiefs from other domains would also be honored with hula performances. This courtesy was often extended to important Western visitors.
Hula auana
Modern hula arose from adaptation of traditional hula ideas (dance and mele) to Western influences. The primary influences were Christian morality and melodic harmony. Hula auana still tells or comments on a story, but the stories may include events since the 1800s. The costumes of the women dancers are less revealing and the music is heavily Western-influenced.
Songs
The mele of hula auana are generally sung as if they were popular music. A lead voice sings in a major scale, with occasional harmony parts.
The subject of the songs is as broad as the range of human experience. People write mele hula auana to comment on significant people, places or events or simply to express an emotion or idea.
While the whole Hawaiian repertoire can be mainly categorised into two sides, hua kahiko and hula 'auana, the sound accompaniments have been regarded as one of the symbolic signs to distinguish them. In indigenous Hawaiian music, poetic text has always been an essential artistic element. It was documented that early Hawaiian musicians did not really focus on elaborating pure instrumental music but simply used the nose-blown flute that can only produce no more than four notes. However, after the Hawaiian culture met with Western music, some Hawaiian musicians developed several instrument-playing techniques in which the traditional Hawaiian repertoire was embedded. For example, the appearance of a Hawaiian guitar-playing method, named "steel guitar", was attributed to the perfect combination happened when guitarist is muting the strings with a steel bar; another guitar-playing approach, "slack key guitar", requires musician to tune the guitar by slackening the strings and pluck out main melody with the high-pitched strings when the lower-pitched strings are also worked on for the production of constant bass pattern.
Instruments
The musicians performing hula auana will typically use portable acoustic stringed instruments.
used as part of the rhythm section, or as a lead instrument
Steel guitar—accents the vocalist
Bass—maintains the rhythm
Occasional hula auana call for the dancers to use implements, in which case they will use the same instruments as for hula kahiko. Often dancers use the Ulīulī (feathered gourd rattle).
Regalia
The traditional Hawaiian hula costume includes kapa cloth skirts and men in just the malo (loincloth) however, during 1880s hula 'auana was developed from western influences. It is during this period that the grass skirt began to be seen everywhere although, Hula 'auana costumes are usually more western-looking, with dresses for women and pants for men.
Regalia plays a role in illustrating the hula instructor's interpretation of the mele. From the color of their attire to the type of adornment worn, each piece of an auana costume symbolizes a piece of the mele auana, such as the color of a significant place or flower. While there is some freedom of choice, most hālau follow the accepted costuming traditions. Women generally wear skirts or dresses of some sort. Men may wear long or short pants, skirts, or a malo (a cloth wrapped under and around the groin). For slow, graceful dances, the dancers will wear formal clothing such as a muumuu for women and a sash for men. A fast, lively, "rascal" song will be performed by dancers in more revealing or festive attire. The hula kahiko is always performed with bare feet, but the hula auana can be performed with bare feet or shoes. In the old times, they had their leis and other jewelry but their clothing was much different. Females wore a wrap called a "paʻu" made of tapa cloth and men wore loincloths, which are called "malo." Both sexes are said to have gone without a shirt. Their ankle and wrist bracelets, called "kupeʻe", were made of whalebone and dogteeth as well as other items made from nature. Some of these make music-shells and bones will rattle against each other while the dancers dance.
Women perform most Hawaiian hula dances. Female hula dancers usually wear colorful tops and skirts with lei. However, traditionally, men were just as likely to perform the hula.
A grass skirt is a skirt that hangs from the waist and covers all or part of the legs. Grass skirts were made of many different natural fibers, such as hibiscus or palm.
Training
Hula is taught in schools or groups called hālau. The teacher of hula is the kumu hula. Kumu means "source of knowledge", or literally "teacher".
Often there is a hierarchy in hula schools - starting with the (teacher), (leader), (helpers), and then the (dancers) or (students). This is not true for every hālau, but it does occur often. Most, if not all, hula hālau have a permission chant in order to enter wherever they may practice. They will collectively chant their entrance chant, then wait for the kumu to respond with the entrance chant, once he or she is finished, the students may enter. One well known and often used entrance or permission chant is Kūnihi Ka Mauna/Tūnihi Ta Mauna.
History
Legendary origins
There are various legends surrounding the origins of hula.
According to one Hawaiian legend, Laka, goddess of the hula, gave birth to the dance on the island of Molokai, at a sacred place in Kaana. After Laka died, her remains were hidden beneath the hill Puu Nana.
Another story tells of Hiiaka, who danced to appease her fiery sister, the volcano goddess Pele. This story locates the source of the hula on Hawaii, in the Puna district at the Hāena shoreline. The ancient hula Ke Haa Ala Puna describes this event.
Another story is when Pele, the goddess of fire was trying to find a home for herself running away from her sister Namakaokahaʻi (the goddess of the oceans) when she finally found an island where she couldn't be touched by the waves. There at a chain of craters on the island of Hawai'i she danced the first dance of hula signifying that she finally won.
Kumu Hula (or "hula master") Leato S. Savini of the Hawaiian cultural academy Hālau Nā Mamo O Tulipa, located in Waianae, Japan, and Virginia, believes that hula goes as far back as what the Hawaiians call the Kumulipo, or account of how the world was made first and foremost through the god of life and water, Kane. Kumu Leato is cited as saying, "When Kane and the other gods of our creation, Lono, Kū, and Kanaloa created the earth, the man, and the woman, they recited incantations which we call Oli or Chants and they used their hands and moved their legs when reciting these oli. Therefore this is the origin of hula."
19th century
American Protestant missionaries, who arrived in 1820, often denounced the hula as a heathen dance holding vestiges of paganism. The newly Christianized alii (royalty and nobility) were urged to ban the hula. In 1830 Queen Kaʻahumanu forbade public performances. However, many of them continued to privately patronize the hula. By the 1850s, public hula was regulated by a system of licensing.
The Hawaiian performing arts had a resurgence during the reign of King David Kalākaua (1874–1891), who encouraged the traditional arts. With the Princess Lili'uokalani who devoted herself to the old ways, as the patron of the ancients chants (mele, hula), she stressed the importance to revive the diminishing culture of their ancestors within the damaging influence of foreigners and modernism that was forever changing Hawaii.
Practitioners merged Hawaiian poetry, chanted vocal performance, dance movements and costumes to create the new form, the hula kui (kui means "to combine old and new"). The appears not to have been used in hula kui, evidently because its sacredness was respected by practitioners; the gourd (Lagenaria sicenaria) was the indigenous instrument most closely associated with hula kui.
Ritual and prayer surrounded all aspects of hula training and practice, even as late as the early 20th century. Teachers and students were dedicated to the goddess of the hula, Laka.
20th century hula dancing
Hula changed drastically in the early 20th century as it was featured in tourist spectacles, such as the Kodak Hula Show, and in Hollywood films. Vaudeville star Signe Paterson was instrumental in raising its profile and popularity on the American stage, performing the hula in New York and Boston, teaching society figures the dance, and touring the country with the Royal Hawaiian Orchestra. However, a more traditional hula was maintained in small circles by older practitioners. There has been a renewed interest in hula, both traditional and modern, since the 1970s and the Hawaiian Renaissance.
In response to several Pacific island sports teams using their respective native war chants and dances as pre-game ritual challenges, the University of Hawaii football team started doing a war chant and dance using the native Hawaiian language that was called the ha'a before games in 2007.
Since 1964, the Merrie Monarch Festival has become an annual one week long hula competition held in the spring that attracts visitors from all over the world. It is to honor King David Kalākaua who was known as the Merrie Monarch as he revived the art of hula. Although Merrie Monarch was seen as a competition among hula hālaus, it later became known as a tourist event because of the many people it attracted.
Films
Kumu Hula: Keepers of a Culture (1989) Directed by Robert Mugge.
Holo Mai Pele - Hālau ō Kekuhi (2000) Directed by Catherine Tatge
American Aloha : Hula Beyond Hawaii (2003) By Lisette Marie Flannery & Evann Siebens
Hula Girls (2006)
The Haumana (2013)
Kumu Hina (2014)
Books
Nathaniel Emerson, The Myth of Pele and Hi'iaka. This book includes the original Hawaiian of the Pele and Hi'iaka myth and as such provides an invaluable resource for language students and others.
Nathaniel Emerson, The Unwritten Literature of Hawaii. Many of the original Hawaiian hula chants, together with Emerson's descriptions of how they were danced in the nineteenth century.
Amy Stillman, Hula `Ala`apapa. An analysis of the `Ala`apapa style of sacred hula.
Ishmael W. Stagner: Kumu hula : roots and branches. Honolulu : Island Heritage Pub., 2011.
Jerry Hopkins, The Hula; A Revised Edition: Bess Press Inc., 2011.
Nanette Kilohana Kaihawanawana Orman, ʻʻHula Sister: A Guide to the Native Dance of Hawaiiʻʻ. Honolulu: Island Heritage Pub., 2015. .
See also
Cordyline fruticosa, the kī, a sacred plant whose leaves are traditionally used for hula skirts
References
External links
Hula Teacher On What's My Line 8/26/62
Everything Related To Hula Dancing, Hula History & Hula Theory
Hawaiian Music and Hula Archives
Hula Preservation Society
Merrie Mondarch Festival
European Hula Festival
Hula Dance fine art photography
"Where Tradition Holds Sway" Article about "Ka Hula Piko" on Molokai, by Jill Engledow. Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol. 11 No.2 (March 2007).
American Aloha : Hula Beyond Hawaii (2003) - PBS film
Hula Dance Class Salt Lake County UT
Hawaiian music
Dances of Polynesia
Tiki culture
Articles containing video clips
Dance in Hawaii
Group dances
Austronesian spirituality
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selwyn%20Lloyd
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Selwyn Lloyd
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John Selwyn Brooke Selwyn-Lloyd, Baron Selwyn-Lloyd, (28 July 1904 – 18 May 1978) was a British politician. Born and raised in Cheshire, he was an active Liberal as a young man in the 1920s. In the following decade, he practised as a barrister and served on Hoylake Urban District Council, by which time he had become a Conservative Party sympathiser. During the Second World War he rose to be Deputy Chief of Staff of Second Army, playing an important role in planning sea transport to the Normandy beachhead and reaching the acting rank of brigadier.
Elected to Parliament in 1945 as a Conservative, he held ministerial office from 1951, eventually rising to be Foreign Secretary under Prime Minister Anthony Eden from April 1955. His tenure coincided with the Suez Crisis, for which he at first attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement, before reluctantly assisting with Eden's wish to negotiate collusion with France and Israel as a prelude to military action. He continued as Foreign Secretary under the premiership of Harold Macmillan until July 1960, when he was moved to the job of Chancellor of the Exchequer. In this job he set up the NEDC, but became an increasingly unpopular figure because of the contractionary measures which he felt compelled to take, including the "Pay Pause" of July 1961, culminating in the sensational Liberal victory at the Orpington by-election in March 1962. In July 1962 Macmillan sacked him from the Cabinet, making him the highest-profile casualty in the reshuffle known as the "Night of the Long Knives".
He returned to office under Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home as Leader of the House of Commons (1963–64), and was elected Speaker of the House of Commons from 1971 until his retirement in 1976.
Early life
Lloyd was born on 28 July 1904 at Red Bank in West Kirby, Cheshire. His father, John Wesley Lloyd (1865–1954), was a dental surgeon and Methodist lay preacher of Welsh descent; his mother, Mary Rachel Warhurst (1872–1959), was distantly related to Field Marshal Sir John French. He had three sisters.
Lloyd was educated at the Leas School and as a boy was particularly interested in military history, to which he later attributed his successful military career. In 1918, aged thirteen, he won a scholarship to Fettes College. As a junior boy there, where he was nicknamed "Jezebel", after his initials JSBL, he became embroiled in a homosexual scandal, but was deemed to be the innocent party, escaping punishment, while three older boys were expelled.
Cambridge
In October 1923 he went up, as a scholar, to Magdalene College, Cambridge, where A. C. Benson was Master. There he was a friend of the future Archbishop Michael Ramsey. Lloyd acquired the nickname "Peter" at this time. Lloyd played rugby and was disappointed not to get a Blue.
In October 1924 his sister Eileen sailed to India to marry and work as a doctor. She died there the following January, aged 25.
Lloyd was an active Liberal as a young man, and in March 1925 he entertained H. H. Asquith at Magdalene after a Liberal Party meeting at the Cambridge Guildhall. He became President of the Cambridge University Liberal Club. Lloyd was also an active debater in the Cambridge Union Society, where his sparring-partners included Rab Butler, Patrick Devlin, Hugh Foot, Alan King-Hamilton and Geoffrey Lloyd. Lloyd lost his scholarship in June 1925, after obtaining a Second in Classics. He then switched to study History, in which he also obtained a Second.
During the General Strike of May 1926 Lloyd, who earlier that year had begun eating dinners at Gray's Inn with a view to qualifying as a barrister, volunteered as a Special Constable. He later became critical of the Conservative Government's clampdown on trade unions, e.g. the Trades Disputes Act of 1927. The university authorities encouraged students who had worked for the government so close to their exams to extend their studies for an extra year, which meant that Lloyd was able to spend a very rare fifth year as an undergraduate. Lloyd George had become Liberal leader and was injecting money and ideas into the Liberal Party, and was keen to attract promising young candidates. Selwyn Lloyd was a frequent speaker for the Liberal Party from 1926 onwards. In 1926 he toyed, not entirely seriously, with the idea of joining the Labour Party.
In Michaelmas Term 1926 Lloyd and Devlin (then President of the Cambridge Union) persuaded Walter Citrine to join Lloyd in opposing the motion that "The power of trade unions has increased, is increasing and ought to be diminished" (an echo of Dunning's famous motion on the power of the Crown in 1780). They had invited the miners' leader A. J. Cook, to the consternation of the town authorities, but in the event he was unable to attend. Lloyd won the debate by 378 votes to 237 and was elected Secretary for Lent Term 1927, putting him on track to be Vice-President for Easter (summer) Term 1927, then President in Michaelmas 1927. He took office as President in June 1927. At his retiring debate in November 1927 Samuel Hoare and Rab Butler (then being selected as Tory candidate for Saffron Walden) spoke.
Lloyd finally graduated with a third-class in Part II of the Law Tripos in June 1928.
Early career
Bar and local government
Lloyd was a Liberal Parliamentary candidate at Macclesfield in the 1929 general election, coming third. After this he concentrated on his legal career. He was called to the bar in 1930. As a barrister, he was an opponent of capital punishment and was not always deferential to the bench: when a judge suggested holding a special sitting on the morning of Good Friday, he withdrew his suggestion after Lloyd pointed out that the last judge to do so had been Pontius Pilate.
Like many young politicians, in 1930–1931 Lloyd was sympathetic to Oswald Mosley's New Party and was disappointed that it made so little headway. He declined to stand again for Macclesfield as a Liberal in 1931 over tariffs, and thought the rump National Liberal Party not worth joining. Lloyd voted Conservative for the first time at the 1931 election, although in that year he declined an invitation to join the Conservative Party candidates' list.
He joined Hoylake Urban District Council on 19 April 1932, as a councillor for Grange Ward. For three years he was chairman of the Estates Finance Committee, managing a budget in excess of £250,000, . At the age of 32 he became the youngest-ever chairman of the council. As chairman, in 1937, he was in charge of the local Coronation festivities, an event which he used to strengthen his links with the Territorial Army. He continued to serve on the council until 1940. In the early 1960s he was often mocked as "Mr Hoylake UDC", implying him to be a small-town lawyer and local councillor who had been promoted onto the national stage above his abilities.
Lloyd considered himself a Conservative from the mid-1930s, but did not formally join the Conservative Party until he was selected as a Parliamentary candidate in 1945; he later wrote that he would have taken a more active role in Conservative politics had it not been for the war.
Army service
Early Second World War service
Lloyd became a reserve officer in 1937. In January 1939 he helped to raise a second line unit of the Royal Horse Artillery in the North-West. He was commissioned as a regular second lieutenant on 27 June 1939, and by August, with war seeming ever more likely, he was an acting captain and acting brigade major to Brigadier Cherry, CRA (Commander, Royal Artillery) of the 55th (West Lancashire) Infantry Division, a first-line Territorial Army formation. His obituary in The Times later stated wrongly that he had begun the war as a private.
On the outbreak of war Lloyd's patron Brigadier Cherry sponsored him for the Staff College, Camberley. Many of those sent to the Staff College in 1939 were barristers, businessmen, school and university teachers thought likely to have an aptitude for staff work; Brian Horrocks was one of his instructors. Out of 110 officers in his intake, he was one of 22 passed as fit for immediate staff duty. He was appointed BMRA (Brigade major, Royal Artillery) to Brigadier Cherry, despite "not knowing anything about guns etc". By the spring of 1940 the 55th Division was on duty defending the Suffolk Coast against possible invasion.
In February 1941, by now an acting major, he was a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2) at the headquarters of Major General Charles Allfrey's 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, another first-line TA formation. The division was part of XII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Andrew Thorne, but he was replaced in April 1941 by Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, who soon noted Lloyd as a promising officer. In later life Lloyd would sometimes write nostalgically to former colleagues about the gruelling regime of physical fitness ("100% Binge" and "Binge, More Binge & Great Binge") which Montgomery expected of all those under his command, irrespective of rank. Montgomery was promoted to command South-Eastern Command at Reigate (he soon renamed it "South Eastern Army") and on 18 December 1941 Lloyd was posted to join him. By 1942, Lloyd was a lieutenant colonel (GSO1) on the staff. He wanted to see fighting, and was disappointed not to be posted to Egypt with Montgomery when the latter took command of the Eighth Army in August 1942. Montgomery told him that temporary officers lacked the aptitude of regulars for fighting, but were often better at staff work. On 6 November, Lloyd was promoted to temporary lieutenant-colonel (war-substantive major).
Second Army
In the spring of 1943 Lloyd was posted to the staff of the Second Army, whose General Officer Commanding (GOC) was Lieutenant General Sir Kenneth Anderson, which was then being formed for participation in Operation Overlord. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in June 1943. Between June and August 1943 Lloyd was sent on a fact-finding trip to Algiers, Malta and Sicily, to examine German beach defences and to learn lessons from the recent Operation Torch and Operation Husky landings, and on his return had to make presentations to senior officers. On 14 December 1943, he was promoted to acting colonel, and by February 1944 was Deputy Chief of Staff of the Second Army, now commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey. He later recalled that the work preparing for the Normandy landings was more intense than at any other time in his life. By March 1944 Montgomery, who, after commanding the Eighth Army in North Africa, Sicily and Italy, had returned to England in late December 1943 to take command of the 21st Army Group, knew him well enough to call him "Selwyn". Lloyd grew particularly close to Dempsey, with whom he crossed over to Normandy on D-Day and who remained a personal friend for the rest for their lives. He respected Dempsey very deeply.
Lloyd's particular responsibility was preparation of the "loading tables", allocating priceless shipping space to men, weapons, equipment and other supplies. As a result of Lloyd's work, the deployment to the bridgehead went almost entirely according to plan, with only minor discrepancies between the Estimated and Actual Rates of Build Up between D+4 and D+10. The only unforeseen problem was an outbreak of malaria caused by an infestation of mosquitoes around a flooded ditch in I Corps sector, for which Lloyd had to arrange the transfer of malaria vaccines from Burma. Lloyd's first sight of a dead body had been a shot-down German pilot during the Battle of Britain, but he saw the carnage of dead men and animals in the Falaise Pocket at the end of the Battle of Normandy in August 1944.
In October 1944, although not yet a member of the Conservative Party, he accepted an invitation to apply for the Conservative candidacy for the Wirral, where the sitting MP was retiring. He was selected in preference to a VC bearing rival, who refused to pledge to live in the constituency; when asked Lloyd replied that he had "never lived anywhere else". In January 1945, he was unanimously adopted as the Conservative candidate whilst home on leave.
Lloyd was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in February 1945 and was promoted to acting brigadier on 8 March 1945. He was twice mentioned in despatches, the second of these being amongst a list of soldiers honoured for the 1944-5 campaign.
Lloyd was with the Allied forces which liberated Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. He seldom spoke about Belsen, but later recalled seeing inmates living like animals, defecating in public view, and that there was no smell from the 10,000 corpses lying unburied (another 17,000 died after liberation) as they were emaciated, with no flesh to putrefy. Lloyd was also sent by Dempsey to identify Heinrich Himmler's body after his suicide. He recalled a corporal lifting Himmler's head with his boot, and then the dull thud of the head falling back as the corporal took his foot away. Lloyd ended his active army service with the honorary rank of colonel. Apart from his CBE, he was also decorated with the U.S. Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander.
Post-war
On 18 July 1947, Lloyd was appointed the honorary Colonel of 349 37th (Tyne Electrical Engineers) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery. He was awarded the Territorial Decoration (TD) in August 1951. He retired from the Territorial Army Reserve on 2 March 1955 with the honorary rank of colonel.
Early Parliamentary career
Lloyd was elected to the House of Commons to represent Wirral in the 1945 general election by a majority of 16,625.
His maiden speech on 12 February 1946 was not on an anodyne constituency matter as is usual for new MPs, but instead on the Trades Disputes and Trades Unions Bill, reflecting his interest in the subject going back to his student days. He said that the public would still oppose another General Strike, and quoted from Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure": "O, it is excellent to have a giant's strength! But it is tyrannous to use it like a giant". The Chamber was almost empty, but he received a letter of congratulations from Harold Macmillan (wrongly addressed to Toby Low, another newly-elected MP who was also a brigadier).
Lloyd's entry to Parliament gave him a headstart over other rising Conservative politicians who did not enter Parliament until 1950. He became a member of the "Young Turks" faction of the Conservative Party. He was able to stand out amongst the small contingent of Conservative MPs in the 1945-50 Parliament, and worked closely with both Anthony Eden and Rab Butler.
Lloyd continued his legal career, taking silk in 1947. He was the Recorder of Wigan between 1948 and 1951. In 1946-7 his annual earnings including his salary as an MP were £4,485, of which the bar made up £3,231 (around £150,000 and £110,000 at 2016 prices). In 1947-8 his earnings dropped to £3,140, of which £1,888 was at the bar (around £100,000 and £60,000 at 2016 prices). Thereafter his earnings continued to decline, as he was busy in Parliament and with his recordership, and he did not have time to carve out a new niche for himself as a King's Counsel either on the North-West Circuit or in London.
Lloyd expressed his opposition to capital punishment during the passage of the Criminal Justice Act 1948, and built relationships with other abolitionist MPs including Sidney Silverman. Lloyd gave a dissenting voice on the Beveridge Broadcasting Committee, and was sometimes known as "The Father of Commercial Television" after his minority report of 1949 helped inspire the setting-up of ITV in 1955. Lloyd believed that competition would help to raise standards, although in later life he came to be disappointed at how much of television time was given over to entertainment.
Ministerial offices
Minister of State for Foreign Affairs
When the Conservatives returned to power under Churchill in 1951, Lloyd served under Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1951 to 1954. Lloyd later claimed (his biographer D.R. Thorpe writes that the story had clearly grown in the telling) that on his appointment he protested: 'But, sir, there must be some mistake. I do not speak any foreign language. Except in war, I have never visited any foreign country. I do not like foreigners. I have never spoken in any foreign-affairs debate in the House. I have never listened to one.' 'Young man, these all seem to me to be positive advantages,' growled Churchill in return. Churchill initially thought Selwyn Lloyd "that most dangerous of men, the clever fool" after he signed an agreement at the UN after misunderstanding his brief, when the order was to be noncommittal. Churchill later revised his opinion upwards.
In June 1952 Lloyd and Field Marshal Lord Alexander (Minister of Defence) visited Korea, first calling on Alexander's old subordinate General Mark Clark, now UN Supreme Commander in the Region, then the South Korean leader Syngman Rhee, then the Korean battlefield. They returned via Ottawa (where Alexander had recently been Governor-General) and Washington, where they visited President Truman.
In Egypt, which had been a British client state since 1883, the pro-British King Farouk was overthrown in July 1952. Lloyd helped to negotiate the treaty (12 February 1953) which gave Sudan (in theory jointly administered by Britain and Egypt) self-government for three years as a stepping-stone to a decision on full independence. Lloyd visited Cairo in March 1953, where he met the new Egyptian leader General Neguib, and his right-hand man Colonel Nasser. In February 1954 Lloyd met Neguib again in Khartoum. His visit to the Sudan saw riots in Khartoum and worries that he might meet the same fate as General Gordon in 1885. He wrote of the Sudan: "It is futile to try and outstay one's welcome". Later in February 1954 Neguib was ousted by Nasser. The Suez Base Agreement, whereby Britain agreed to withdraw her troops from Egypt by 1956, was on 27 July 1954. Lloyd would have preferred a slower withdrawal.
Lloyd attended over a hundred Cabinet meetings, many of them whilst covering for Eden during his serious illness in 1953.
Minister of Supply and Minister of Defence
Lloyd was promoted to Minister of Supply, responsible for supplying the Armed Forces, in October 1954.
Lloyd entered the Cabinet as Minister of Defence on Eden's accession to the premiership in April 1955. Just after the 1955 election, along with Rab Butler, Lord Salisbury and Harold Macmillan, he was put on the committee to advise Eden about the upcoming summit, the first since the war.
He was Minister of Defence, a very prestigious post in Conservative eyes, for less than a year and the dates of his tenure meant that he was not in office during the annual defence white paper and defence debate; however, he made important innovations in long-term expenditure planning. The Chiefs of Staff of the three services still had direct right of access to the Prime Minister. Lloyd began a gradual process of consolidation of control of the Armed Forces which would finally come to fruition a decade or so later, with the three service ministries consolidated into a single Ministry of Defence and the three service chiefs reporting to a powerful Chief of Defence Staff.
Foreign Secretary under Eden
Appointment and early months
Lloyd was promoted to Foreign Secretary in December 1955, in place of Harold Macmillan who was seen as too strong and independent a figure for Eden's tastes. In his early days at the Foreign Office Lloyd was known to irritate his subordinates with bad puns, such as "Good for Nutting" and "You're a deb, Sir Gladwyn Jebb". The Foreign Office mandarin Sir Evelyn Shuckburgh complained in his diary (9 December 1955) that they were to "be landed with that bloody Selwyn Lloyd".
Eden and Lloyd visited Washington for talks with his American counterpart, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, on 30 January 1956, and wondered how long Britain could continue to cooperate with Colonel Nasser. Dulles was only willing to offer Britain "moral" support against Nasser. On 31 January Lloyd and Dulles had a private meeting about SEATO. Dulles took the lead in private, but would not lead or support Britain in public, although the two men got on well when Dulles realised that Lloyd could not be browbeaten.
On 21 March Lloyd obtained Cabinet approval for a policy of hostility to Nasser, who was seen as a threat to British interests in the Middle East, and of building new British alliances with Jordan and Iraq. Part of this policy was the withdrawal of American and British financial aid for the Aswan High Dam, which would trigger Nasser's nationalisation of the Canal.
Suez crisis
Crisis begins
Dulles withdrew US financial help for the building of the Aswan High Dam on 19 July, in retaliation for Colonel Nasser's recognition of Mao's regime in China. Britain did not complain at the time, despite the urging of Roger Makins (British Ambassador to the USA). Britain completed her withdrawal from the Suez Base (under the 1954 Agreement) on 20 July 1956. The Suez Crisis then began in earnest on 26 July 1956 when Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. The Cabinet met at 11.20am on 27 July in Eden's room in the House of Commons. It was decided that Nasser's action should be opposed on the grounds that the Canal was an international trust (he was entitled to nationalise the Canal Company, provided compensation was paid to shareholders) and that Britain, if necessary acting alone, should use force as a last resort.
Eden straightaway included Lloyd on the Egypt Committee, along with Salisbury, Macmillan (Chancellor of the Exchequer), Home (Commonwealth Secretary) and Walter Monckton, who was Minister of Defence at the outset of the crisis. Kilmuir (Lord Chancellor) was later added; Butler was initially ill but later took to attending and even on occasion chairing Egypt Committee meetings. The Egypt Committee met for the first time at 7pm on 27 July, and would meet 42 times between then and 9 November. Lloyd preferred negotiations to force and, with his experience of military logistics, was sceptical as to whether a successful invasion could even be mounted.
Dulles visited London on 31 July, and commented that "a way had to be found to make Nasser disgorge". British reservists were called up on 2 August, and on that day Macmillan raised with the Egypt Committee the prospect of Israel attacking Egypt. On 10 August Lloyd had a difficult meeting with the directors of the Suez Canal Company.
On 14 August Eden and Lloyd met with the Labour leaders, who were opposed to the use of force without UN authorisation; Cabinet were informed of this at 11.30am. Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies attended Cabinet at 11.30am, but stressed the need to educate public opinion. On 14 August Lloyd broadcast about the crisis to the public, and his talk was published in The Listener.
First London Conference
The first London Conference of nations with an interest in using the canal met from 16 to 23 August. Dulles laid a lot of stress on the 1888 Convention, but would have preferred it to meet in a neutral venue like Geneva, with the Soviet Foreign Minister in attendance. The conference opened at 11am on 16 August, and Lloyd was elected chairman. 18 out of the 22 nations looked likely to agree. Lloyd helped to negotiate a formula for a new convention, in which Egypt would receive increased canal revenues and would have a place on the board of a new operating company. Dulles noted that "Mr Lloyd is showing obvious emotional strain" (21 August); Macmillan at this stage was telling Dulles that he hoped to be restored to the Foreign Office soon.
Whilst Lloyd was negotiating, sections of the British press were drawing parallels between Nasser's deeds and the Chanak crisis of 1922 and the Anschluss of Austria in February 1938 and demanding action, a view shared by Eden and many other senior ministers. Monckton's outburst at the Egypt Committee on 24 August (he expressed dismay at this turn of events, after which he was moved from the Ministry of Defence) was not recorded in the minutes, but generated a great deal of correspondence between ministers. By early September the "Musketeer" Plan, which the British military had secretly been drawing up to seize Alexandria, had been replaced by "Musketeer Revise" to seize Port Said at the mouth of the Canal.
Lloyd was disappointed by the failure of the Menzies mission to Cairo. It had been undermined by President Eisenhower's press conference on 4 September, opposing the use of force. On 5 September Lloyd flew to Paris for talks with Spaak about the NATO upcoming meeting. On 7 September Lloyd was warned by his Canadian counterpart Lester Pearson that neither the USA nor Canada would allow the UN to be used as a cover for war. On 9 September Nasser rejected the proposals offered by the 18 powers at the London Conference. On 10 September the Cabinet agreed the Egypt Committee Plan to deprive Nasser of Suez Canal revenues, provided the USA agreed. At Cabinet on 11 September 1956 (where Lloyd reported that the Menzies Mission had failed) Eden gave what Lloyd later called the "clearest possible indication of intention to use force".
Second London Conference
Lloyd chaired the Second London Conference (19 - 21 September), working on Dulles' SCUA (Suez Canal Users' Association) proposal, a plan with which he was willing to cooperate. He wanted an immediate appeal to the UN to enforce rights of passage. Dulles would have preferred to get SCUA up and running before an appeal to the UN, and worried that a failed attack on Nasser would merely strengthen his position. Lloyd later wrote of Dulles that because of his experience as a corporate lawyer there was always "an escape clause". "He was devious. He would say one thing and do another. But believe it or not I liked him. We got on very well together."
After private discussion between Dulles and Lloyd, on 23 September there was an appeal to the President of the Security Council about navigation rights. On 24 September Lloyd was interviewed on Panorama, and stated that force would only be used as a last resort. On 26 September Lloyd informed the Cabinet about the failure of the Second London Conference. Eden and Lloyd flew to Paris for talks with Guy Mollet (French Prime Minister) and Christian Pineau (French Foreign Minister), without an interpreter (Eden spoke fluent French) and to which Sir Gladwyn Jebb, British Ambassador in Paris, was not invited. At dinner, Harold Macmillan rang from the IMF meeting in New York. On the morning of 27 September there were further Anglo-French talks before Eden and Lloyd returned to London. The Third London Conference opened at 11am on 1 October, but Lloyd flew to New York at 8.30pm that day, and would be out of the country until 16 October. At the UN talks, Britain and France felt that Dulles was not ruling out the use of force as a last resort.
Lloyd negotiates a settlement in New York
In New York Lloyd attended the United Nations Security Council meeting, where he met Christian Pineau and Dr Fawzi, the French and Egyptian foreign ministers. On 10 and 11 October Lloyd had various talks with Fawzi. By 13 October the Seven Points were agreed, which would become the "Six Principles". UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld had also been involved in the negotiations on the Six Principles. Whilst Lloyd was away, the Conservative Party Conference was in session at Llandudno (11 - 13 October), with loud calls for action against Nasser.
Pineau was less cooperative and left New York on 13 October. Lloyd later wrote that agreement had been reached on the Six Principles, but not on how to implement them, although he conceded that Nasser had never accepted the principle that the Canal could not be under the control of any one country. On 13 October Sir Gladwyn Jebb warned Ivone Kirkpatrick (Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office) that France appeared to be cooperating with Israel against Egypt, and had sent her ninety-five Mystère jets, possibly with French pilots.
Fawzi had been sympathetic to Lloyd's Six Principles, but with Soviet encouragement Egypt soon opposed the idea that the Canal not be controlled by any one country. Some of the Cabinet, including Lord Home, thought that Lloyd's "Six Principles" might have avoided armed conflict, while Lloyd himself thought that he had negotiated "a good-natured preamble to a missing treaty".
With Lloyd still in New York, Albert Gazier (acting French Foreign Minister while Pineau was in New York) and General Challe (Deputy Chief of French Air Staff) visited Eden for a secret meeting at Chequers on 14 October. Before the meeting Gladwyn Jebb, who was not invited, sent Eden a personal telegram to dissuade him, but the meeting merely impressed Eden with French resolve. Concerned that if war broke out in the Middle East Britain might have to take the side of her ally Jordan against France's ally Israel, the French leaders outlined "The Plan" to Eden and Nutting: in the event of Israel attacking Egypt, Britain and France would intervene jointly to protect the canal, as Britain was entitled to do under the 1954 Treaty, and enforce international law. Eden recalled Lloyd from New York after Nutting had suggested that no decision could be taken without the Foreign Secretary.
Lloyd saw Dag Hammarskjold at 10am on 15 October, then Krishna Menon at 12.30pm. He flew to London at 5pm New York time, landing at Heathrow at 11.15am (London time) on 16 October.
Eden and Lloyd go to Paris
Lloyd arrived late and jet-lagged for the 16 October meeting of the Egypt Committee in London; Anthony Nutting, junior Foreign Office minister, had stood in for him for the first part of the meeting. Nutting later claimed that on arrival Lloyd told him he'd "clinched it", i.e. achieved a deal in which the Canal would stay nationalised, with Nasser receiving revenues which would leave him better off than he would later be from World Bank loans, and that he had replied "we must have nothing to do with this" when Nutting tipped him off about the French plan. When the meeting resumed, Eden did not mention Lloyd's negotiations in New York but instead praised the French plan, which Lloyd later wrote of as "the plan for which I did not care". After an indeterminate discussion, Eden had lunch with Lloyd, and persuaded him that his New York agreement with Fawzi would never hold up and persuaded him to come to Paris to meet the French. At 4pm Eden and Lloyd flew to Paris. In Paris Eden and Lloyd had talks with their French counterparts Prime Minister Guy Mollet and Foreign Minister Christian Pineau.
Nutting later told the author Hugh Thomas that Lloyd had been "brainwashed" by Eden; Thomas toned this down in his 1967 book to "swept along". On 16 October Sir Gladwyn Jebb met Eden and Lloyd at Paris airport. In the car he asked Eden if he'd received his telegram about the French sending Mystere jets to Israel. Over Jebb's protests, the ambassadors were not invited to the Anglo-French talks.
Lloyd continued to press his doubts, but to no avail. He urged international control over toll increases, with disputes referred to an independent body. The French insisted that Dulles was double-crossing the British and that SCUA was simply intended to play for time so that the British would not formally appeal to the Security Council. Mollet also said that the Egyptians had made so many threats to exterminate Israel that Israel could legitimately attack Egypt and plead self-defence. Eden was worried that the UK might have to come to Jordan's defence in the event of a Middle Eastern War (Palestinian guerrillas were operating against Israel from the West Bank, which would be under Jordanian control until 1967).
Lloyd swallows his doubts
Lloyd and Eden returned to London on 17 October. Lloyd reported to the Egypt Committee on the Security Council meeting in New York. Fawzi had stayed behind in New York for further talks with Hammarskjold.
Lloyd later described 18 October as "an important day". Jebb had protested to Ivone Kirkpatrick at the exclusion of the ambassadors from the Anglo-French talks and had sent Lloyd a handwritten threat of resignation. Before the Cabinet meeting at 10 Downing Street that morning, Lloyd buttonholed Rab Butler outside the Cabinet Room. Butler later recorded (and Lloyd's account is similar) that Lloyd had gripped him by the arm, telling him that he had been "wafted" to Paris and warning him confidentially that there might be a preemptive strike by Israel against Jordan, Egypt and Syria. Butler's biographer Michael Jago thinks that Lloyd's behaviour was evidence that he was out of his depth. This Cabinet was thinly-attended. Lloyd reported to the Cabinet on the Security Council vote to keep the Canal insulated from the politics of any one country, despite Soviet veto of the second part of the resolution. There was to be another meeting in Geneva, with Egyptian participation. The Cabinet approved, but then moved on to Eden's disingenuous warnings that negotiations might be overtaken by hostilities between Israel and Egypt. Eden informed ministers that a plan (Operation "Musketeer Revise") was being drawn up to retake the Canal by force. "Musketeer Revise" was practicable only until the end of October, although in the event a slightly amended version was used for military operations in November. Afterwards Eden circulated a minute that he'd told the French that every effort must be made to stop Israel attacking Jordan, but that he had told Israel that Britain would not come to Egypt's aid in the event of an Israeli attack.
Lloyd lunched on 18 October with Monckton, who was also a doubter but had not opposed the decision to use force. Monckton had just been moved from the Ministry of Defence to the position of Paymaster-General (24 September, effective 11 October). That afternoon Sir Humphrey Trevelyan, British Ambassador to Egypt, telegraphed to warn that Nasser was not willing to compromise on Egyptian control of the Canal. This marked the apparent failure of Lloyd's attempt to negotiate a peaceful settlement and was, in the view of his biographer, the moment which he should perhaps have used an excuse to resign.
On Friday 19 October Lloyd had a meeting with Butler at 9.30am and informed him fully about the trip to Paris. A day of talks at 10 Downing Street then followed; topics included the impending Jordanian elections and a speech which Lloyd was due to make to Conservative activists at Liverpool the next day.
Lloyd went to Chequers on Sunday 21 October (having been summoned by Eden on the phone the previous day). The press were told that Lloyd had a cold so that he could go to Paris in secret to meet the Israelis.
Lloyd's secret trip to Sevres
Lloyd, accompanied by his Private Secretary Donald Logan, then went to Sevres, just outside Paris, on 22 October. Eden insisted that British action not be in response to Israeli demands. Logan drove Lloyd to the airport in his own car to maintain secrecy, although he was not told the destination until they were underway. David Carlton argued that this tied Lloyd into the conspiracy by getting him to meet Ben Gurion.
He nearly had a serious car accident between Paris airport and Sevres.
The discussion at Sevres was in English. He commented, in a joke which fell flat, that he ought to have turned up wearing a false moustache, a comment which Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury (French Minister of Defence) misremembered and claimed that Lloyd actually had turned up wearing a false moustache. Lloyd met Pineau, who said that the Israelis would attack Egypt but only with Anglo-French air support.
Lloyd then, at 7pm, met the Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, who like Pineau was disappointed by his obvious lack of enthusiasm for military action. General Moshe Dayan (Israeli Chief of Staff), Shimon Peres and Mordechai Bar-On were also part of the Israeli delegation. Lloyd warned that the UN, the Commonwealth and Scandinavian countries were opposed to the use of force. Israel demanded that British Canberra bombers bomb Egypt from their bases in Cyprus; Lloyd merely promised to seek the Cabinet's opinion on the matter. Lloyd demanded that British airstrikes be delayed for 48 hours after the outbreak of hostilities, so that collusion would not be too obvious, but in the end compromised on 36 hours. Lloyd was still worried about an Israeli attack on Jordan. Dayan later recalled ("Story of My Life" p218) that "[Lloyd]'s manner could not have been more antagonistic. His whole demeanour expressed distaste – for the place, the company, and the topic … His opening remarks suggested the tactics of a customer bargaining with extortionate merchants." Lloyd left towards midnight.
Protocol of Sevres
The next morning, 23 October, the newspapers were full of stories about the Hungarian uprising. At 10am Lloyd reported to a group of senior ministers (not the whole Egypt Committee), then to the Cabinet at 11am. Eden told the Cabinet that there had been secret talks with Israel in Paris. Lloyd told the Cabinet that he was still hoping for a peaceful settlement, but that the French were not interested in a peaceful settlement and that Nasser would retain his interest in the Middle East. Eden told that Cabinet that, based on what Lloyd said, and contrary to Eden's comments of 18 October, an Israeli attack on Egypt now seemed less likely. Pineau arrived in London that evening. He dined with Eden and Lloyd joined them after dinner (he was no more than "a spectator" in his biographer's words as Pineau and Eden reaffirmed their enthusiasm for the plan). Pineau outlined Dayan's plan (for Israel to attack Egypt) to Eden.
Lloyd was in the House of Commons on 24 October, so was not present when the secret Protocol of Sevres was signed. He refused to return to Sevres as he could hardly pretend to be ill again after having just appeared in public. In his instructions to Patrick Dean, who went in his place, Lloyd stressed that Britain had not asked Israel to intervene. Later that morning Eden informed the Cabinet about the consultation with Pineau the previous evening. The objective of any Anglo-French action would be to control the Canal and secondly to topple Nasser.
The Cabinet further considered the use of force on 24 October. After Cabinet, Lloyd recorded his UN Day Broadcast for the BBC, for transmission that evening. He then had a tense meeting with Ivone Kirkpatrick and Gladwyn Jebb, who was still angry at being kept in the dark. At 11pm Lloyd went to 10 Downing Street to hear Dean's report on the second Sevres meeting. Mountbatten (First Sea Lord) also attended. The French had produced three copies of a typed document, the Protocol of Sevres. Eden later tried in vain to retrieve the French and Israeli copies to destroy the evidence of collusion.
On the morning of 25 October Eden told the Cabinet that Israel would attack Egypt after all, but did not tell them about the secret Sevres Protocol. The Plan for an Anglo-French invasion was revealed to the Cabinet. Lord Salisbury was away ill. Butler did not object although Macleod would have backed him had he done so. Heathcoat Amory, Minister of Agriculture, warned of the effect on Anglo-American relations. The Egypt Committee met four times on 25 and 26 October. The Chiefs of Staff knew that the USA had broken French codes and knew of all military preparations.
Ultimatum
Israel attacked Egypt in the Sinai on 29 October; Eden was informed that night and informed the Cabinet the next day. Aldrich, US Ambassador, was unable to get a meeting with Lloyd and he and Dulles found out from the press. At Cabinet on the morning of 30 October Lloyd reported that the USA was ready to move a motion at the UN condemning Israel as an aggressor, and proposed a delay in order to bring the Americans on board. This suggestion was not adopted. At 4.30pm on 30 October Eden announced the Anglo-French ultimatum to the House of Commons. The House became so rowdy that it had to be suspended for the first time since 1924.
Britain and France began bombing Egypt on 31 October, despite hostility from the Opposition, the USA and most of the Commonwealth. The US Sixth Fleet harassed the Anglo-French taskforce as it made its way to the Eastern Mediterranean.
On 31 October William Yates, a Conservative MP, commented in the House of Commons that he had heard talk of a secret conspiracy; on 31 October Lloyd stated in the Commons that "It is quite wrong to state that Israel was incited to this action by Her Majesty's Government. There was no prior agreement between us about it." This passage is underlined in Lloyd's personal copy of Hansard (now in the library at Fettes School). He regarded it as a lawyerishly careful statement although it has been portrayed by some writers as an outright lie to the House of Commons.
Nasser proclaimed martial law and mobilisation in Egypt. In an emergency session of the UN, Dulles' motion for a ceasefire was vetoed by Britain. On 1 November Eden sent a message to Mollet urging that the French air force and navy desist from openly assisting the Israelis, as they had been doing since 31 October. Nutting resigned (2 November, but made public on 5 November) because of the breach of the 1954 Treaty, the Tripartite Treaty and the UN Charter. Lloyd resisted the temptation to join him and continued to ask questions about military logistics at Cabinet.
Decision to invade
There were two Cabinets on Friday 2 November. The USA sidestepped the Anglo-French veto on the UN Security Council by obtaining an overwhelming vote for a ceasefire in the General Assembly. The Cabinet agreed that even in the event of a ceasefire between Egypt and Israel, Anglo-French forces should still seize the Canal in a policing role until UN forces were able to take up the baton (Macleod and Heathcoat Amory were doubtful). At the 4.30pm Cabinet, records for which were closed until 2007, Lloyd was concerned about the effect on Britain's Arab client states of being seen to be too closely linked to Israel. Eden spoke about the conditions which would be necessary for the UN to take over the peacekeeping job at the canal. At the 9.30pm Cabinet Lloyd reported on the problem of arms exports to Israel, and reported that he had been asked by BP whether or not to divert a cargo of aviation fuel currently intended for Israel. At Cabinet on Friday 2 November Lloyd suggested that in the event of oil sanctions Britain might have to occupy Kuwait and Qatar.
On Saturday 3 November Lloyd was shouted down in the House of Commons, in a debate so rowdy that the Speaker had to suspend the session. By the weekend of 3–4 November, fighting between Israel and Egypt had largely ceased.
Lloyd called Sunday 4 November "one of the most dramatic days in the whole of the Suez Crisis". He spent the whole day at 10 Downing Street, first in private talks with Eden, during which he advised that to call off the operation at this late stage would lead to "dreadful consequences". Afterwards Lloyd rang Gladwyn Jebb in Paris and asked him to arrange a further meeting with Pineau, Bourges-Manoury and Jebb himself. There was then a meeting of the Egypt Committee at 12.30pm. Lloyd reported that the USA had not pushed for a vote on her UN General Assembly resolution, but that resolutions calling for a UN peacekeeping force had been proposed by Canada and by a group of African and Asian countries. Lloyd advised that Britain should respond to the Canadian but not to the Afro-Asian ultimatum, but warned of the threat of oil sanctions. There was a second meeting of the Egypt Committee at 3.30pm, at which Lloyd passed on the warning of the British Ambassador to Iraq that Britain had to condemn Israeli aggression in order to preserve her status in Arab eyes. He also raised the question of what would happen if both Israel and Egypt agreed to a ceasefire before British and French troops had gone in. There was then a meeting of the full Cabinet at 6.30pm, at which the decision to invade Egypt was taken. Butler, Kilmuir and Heathcoat Amory wanted to postpone the paratroop landings for 48 hours, while Salisbury, Buchan-Hepburn and Monckton (the latter of whom hinted that he might resign) wanted to postpone indefinitely. Lloyd was among the majority of the 18 present who wanted to push ahead with the invasion. Throughout the meetings that day the Trafalgar Square demonstration had been audible outside.
Invasion and ceasefire
British and French paratroops landed at dawn on 5 November. Lloyd was given a rough ride in the House of Commons when he announced the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian uprising. The news of Nutting's resignation came through at 6.30pm while Lloyd was attending a sherry party at 10 Downing Street ahead of the State Opening of Parliament. However, Gladwyn Jebb sent a message that Douglas Dillon, US Ambassador in Paris, had no issue with the landings and thought Dulles' policy "lamentable".
On the morning of 6 November Macmillan, who had been told by Humphrey (US Treasury Secretary) that there would be no more financial assistance until there was a ceasefire, saw Lloyd before Cabinet and told him that Britain had to stop in view of the drain of foreign exchange reserves. Macmillan had also been lobbying other ministers. Cabinet met at 9.45am at Eden's room at the House of Commons, with Marshal of the RAF Sir William Dickson, Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, in attendance. Pierson Dixon (British Ambassador to the UN) had warned that the UN were contemplating oil sanctions. In the event, Lloyd was one of three ministers (along with Anthony Head and James Stuart) to support Eden in his wish to carry on fighting. The Cabinet agreed that there was no choice but to agree a ceasefire. Royal Marines had been landing by sea and helicopter on 6 November, and British and French forces had Port Said and had advanced 23 miles to El Cap by the time a ceasefire was announced at 5pm.
Withdrawal
On 7 November the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for withdrawal of British, French and Israeli forces. Lloyd's initial position was that Britain was not prepared to withdraw her forces until they had been replaced by a peacekeeping force acceptable to Britain. The Americans met this idea with extreme hostility, insisting on total British withdrawal.
Lloyd flew to New York on Sunday 11 November and stayed until the evening of Monday 27 November. To Lloyd's displeasure Hammarskjold was visiting Nasser in Cairo at this time. Whilst Lloyd was away, on 13 November Macmillan, who was busily ingratiating himself with the Americans, told Aldrich (US Ambassador to London) that Selwyn Lloyd was "too young and inexperienced" for his position. Lloyd visited Dulles (who had been ill for the climax of the Suez Crisis) in hospital on 18 November. He recorded that Dulles asked "Why didn't you go on [i.e. to occupy the whole canal, having begun military action]?" When Lloyd replied: "Well, Foster, if you'd so much as winked we might have," Lloyd recorded that Dulles murmured that the Americans could not possibly have done that, and turned away. On 20 November 1956 the question of collusion was raised in Cabinet, with Eden and Lloyd both absent; it was agreed to stick to Lloyd's formula that Britain had not incited the Israeli attack. In Washington Lloyd managed to speak to Eisenhower's adviser Walter Bedell Smith, and addressed the UN General Assembly on Friday 23 November, the day Eden left for Jamaica. In a speech which was essentially an acceptance of an Argentinian motion, Lloyd offered to hand over to a UN peacekeeping force and claimed that Britain had prevented a small war growing into a larger one. Despite a hostile attack by Krishna Menon, the resolution was carried.
Lloyd addressed a Cabinet meeting (chaired by Butler, with Eden away in Jamaica) at 4.30pm on Wednesday 28 November. He said that the UN would continue to debate the matter and that although Britain could hold on for another three or four weeks there was nothing to be gained in antagonising world opinion any further. He offered his resignation (not mentioned in the minutes) but his colleagues refused to accept it, and was later deeply hurt when Lord Hinchingbrooke, a member of the Suez group (a group of Conservative backbenchers who had opposed Britain's original agreement to withdraw from Egypt in 1954), said that he should have resigned. Lloyd's impending divorce was given as the ostensible reason for his offer of resignation.
Throughout November and into early December Lloyd, like Butler who was acting Prime Minister from 22 November (with Eden away in Jamaica), was strongly attacked in the House of Commons both by Labour as a scapegoat for the original invasion and by Conservative backbenchers for the enforced withdrawal. On 3 December Lloyd made a statement announcing British withdrawal to a very hostile House, followed by an angry scene, then Butler made a similar announcement, leading many Conservative MPs feeling that Butler should have made the statement himself.
The House of Commons held a No Confidence debate on Suez on 5 December. Aneurin Bevan commented that Lloyd gave the impression of never having warned Israel not to attack Egypt. Bevan congratulated Lloyd on "having survived so far". The government won the confidence vote on 6 December by 327 votes to 260. In early December Lloyd again offered his resignation to the Cabinet, citing his impending divorce as the excuse.
Foreign Secretary under Macmillan
Reappointment
When Eden resigned in January 1957, Lord Salisbury interviewed the Cabinet one by one, asking each whether he preferred Butler (believed to be the favourite by most outsiders) or Macmillan (the overwhelming choice of the Cabinet) for the succession. Salisbury listed Lloyd as the only minister to abstain, shocking Lord Chancellor Kilmuir, who acted as official witness to the "soundings". Lloyd later confirmed to Butler in September 1962 that he had expressed no preference.
Macmillan retained Lloyd as Foreign Secretary, declaring that "one head on a charger is enough" (i.e. that Eden's resignation was enough of a sacrifice to appease the government's critics). Another reason was Macmillan's wish to keep Butler out of the Foreign Office. Lloyd was paradoxically a beneficiary of Suez, as Eden might well have reshuffled him away from the Foreign Office. Macmillan delegated a lot more than Eden, and allowed Lloyd to come into his own. Lloyd was allowed to use Chequers, normally the Prime Minister's country residence, although Macmillan did not formally renounce the use of the place as by law he would not have been allowed to claim it back in the space of that Parliament (Macmillan had a country home of his own, Birch Grove, and so had no need of the place). Although Lloyd was not particularly interested in the job, Macmillan tried to encourage him to think of himself as a potential Prime Minister, as a rival to Butler. Lloyd's reappointment was met, in the words of a contemporary observer, with a "long, cold arch of raised eyebrows", whilst Aneurin Bevan likened Lloyd to a monkey to Macmillan's organgrinder.
1957
As Foreign Secretary, Lloyd had to accompany the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh on their State Visit to Portugal in February 1957.
Lloyd accompanied Macmillan to Bermuda (21-4 March), where Anglo-American relations were repaired, although private discussions were more frank than the press releases might have suggested. Over dinner Lloyd launched a strong attack on Nasser; Dulles replied that the USA would not defend Nasser's regime but were not actively going to try to overthrow him. Whilst in Bermuda Macmillan, after consultation with Lloyd, agreed to release Archbishop Makarios, who had been exiled to the Seychelles in March 1956, after being advised that this might calm EOKA down. This prompted the resignation of Lord Salisbury from the Cabinet.
Lloyd's divorce was in progress between March and June 1957. He tried to resign in May 1957, citing as the reason the unfavourable publicity which his divorce might attract. In May 1957 Randolph Churchill speculated that he might be about to be removed from office. At one point that year Beaverbrook's "Daily Express" ran a picture of Lloyd with a lady on holiday in Spain, asking "Who is the senorita?" In fact the lady and her husband – who was doctored out of the photograph – were long-standing friends of Lloyd and were sharing a holiday with him.
In October 1957 he likened himself to a "human Sputnik" because of the amount of flying he was doing.
1958
Lloyd again offered his resignation after a poor performance in the two-day Foreign Affairs debate in February 1958, but Macmillan refused to accept it as he had recently had his entire Treasury team (Peter Thorneycroft, Nigel Birch and Enoch Powell) resign.
In May 1958 Lebanese President Camille Chamoun appealed for help against the United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria, both ruled by Nasser). Lloyd coordinated with Dulles and US troops were sent to Lebanon in accordance with the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Two British paratroop battalions were sent to Jordan after a request by King Hussein.
Lloyd wanted to go to the Anglo-American Washington talks in June 1958 but Dulles vetoed this, claiming that if he went it would be necessary to invite the French as well. On Monday 14 July 1958 Macmillan was at Birch Grove, and recorded that Lloyd "almost shouted down the line" about the revolution in Iraq, warning that Jordan and Syria might also fall to Nasser. Macmillan sent him to Washington to sound out Dulles. By August 1958 Lloyd publicly supported the US over Formosa whilst privately urging restraint. He also had private talks with Churchill that summer to seek his advice.
Lloyd had been very sceptical that Macmillan would be able to negotiate a Greek-Turkish agreement over Cyprus. In December 1958 at a NATO Ministerial Council Lloyd negotiated the concept of "sovereign bases" in Cyprus, where the Governor was his old Cambridge contemporary Hugh Foot, with the Greek and Turkish foreign ministers.
Macmillan wrote of Lloyd in his diary (31 December 1958) that "he really is an extraordinary (sic) capable and efficient man – as well as a wonderfully agreeable man to work with. He feels a great sense of gratitude and loyalty to me personally, for I have been able (by moral support both in private and in public) to help him through a bad time" [i.e. his divorce]. D. R. Thorpe describes Lloyd as "Sancho Panza to Macmillan's mercurial Quixote".
1959
In November 1958 Khrushchev had demanded that the western powers pull out of West Berlin within six months. This was a prime reason for Macmillan and Lloyd's trip to Moscow early in 1959, besides the desire to grandstand ahead of the impending general election. Lloyd accompanied Macmillan to Moscow in February–March 1959. Much of the planning for the summit had had to take place at the Middlesex Hospital, where Lloyd was having his tonsils out. Lloyd also attended planning meetings at Chequers in late February.
At Moscow Ambassador Sir Patrick Reilly wrote that he was "quite first class and they make an admirable team" and "the ideal second", keeping his boss supplied with facts and figures and willingly undertaking tedious detailed negotiations. Macmillan thanked Lloyd for having come up with the idea of a diplomatic cold in response to Khrushchev's diplomatic toothache. Afterwards Lloyd reported on the summit to Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer. Lloyd also accompanied Macmillan to Ottawa, where they met John Diefenbaker and Washington, DC in March 1959, where they met Eisenhower and visited the dying Dulles.
Lloyd was the leader at the Foreign Ministers' conference in Geneva in June 1959 (with Christian Herter, Maurice Couve de Murville and Andrei Gromyko) and kept it going, allowing Eisenhower to issue his invitation to Khrushchev to visit Washington in August. Whilst the conference had been in progress a false story had appeared in "The Times", fanned by Randolph Churchill and to Macmillan's apparent annoyance, that Lloyd was to be moved from the Foreign Office. The conference ended on 11 August.
During the victorious 1959 election campaign Lloyd made a national broadcast on 19 September.
1959-60
Lloyd kept a detailed diary between 1 November 1959 and his sacking from the Exchequer in July 1962. Many of the press still saw Lloyd as an insignificant Foreign Secretary, although this was no longer the opinion of many of those who knew him. Lloyd also accompanied Macmillan to a meeting in Paris in December 1959. He approved of Macmillan's "Winds of Change" speech in February 1960, which predicted the end of rule by Europeans in Africa.
In February 1960 Lloyd urged Macmillan, having rebuilt bridges with the Americans, to build bridges with France by accepting de Gaulle's invitation to visit him for a longer stay, a turn of events which Macmillan would use to try to persuade de Gaulle to support British membership of the EEC.
In March 1960 Lloyd noted that his one unfulfilled ambition was to be Lord Chancellor, but he did not consider himself a distinguished enough lawyer for the post – he was later to change his mind when Lord Dilhorne was appointed. In mid-May 1960 he accompanied Macmillan to the Four Power Summit in Paris , which broke up in disarray after the U2 had been shot down whilst flying over the USSR. Some see the failure of this summit as the moment when Macmillan's premiership went into decline.
Agreement was finally reached over Cyprus on 1 July 1960, just before the end of Lloyd's time at the Foreign Office.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
Appointment and economic backdrop
In July 1960 Macmillan moved Lloyd to the job of Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was Macmillan's third chancellor and asked for, and was given, an assurance that he would remain in place until the next General Election. Lloyd was permitted to remain at Chequers and was also allowed to keep 1, Carlton Gardens, normally the Foreign Secretary's London residence (the chancellor's usual London residence of 11 Downing Street was not available, as Downing Street was being reconstructed at the time, requiring Macmillan to live at Admiralty House for most of his premiership).
Macmillan, with bitter memories of his time as MP for Stockton in the 1930s, wanted to be free of what he saw as the economic orthodoxy of the Treasury and Bank of England, and to generate economic growth, a view which he shared with many economic thinkers at the time. He also wanted growth to increase exports, so as to improve the balance of payments without deflation or devaluing the currency. He declined to appoint David Eccles, Iain Macleod or Reginald Maudling, any of whom might have been better qualified to be chancellor, as he wanted a loyal "staff officer". Lloyd, however, warned Macmillan that he wanted to be an orthodox chancellor.
The economy had been booming as a result of the expansionary measures taken in the run-up to the 1959 General Election, with consequent risk to inflation. Furthermore, the balance of payments was moving into deficit, with Britain's share of world manufacturing falling dramatically as continental Europe, now grouped into the EEC, recovered from the effects of the war. In 1960 Britain suffered the worst balance of payments crisis since 1950, masked a little by the inflow of foreign money into London. The Treasury was already somewhat discredited. Bank Rate had already been raised to 6% by Lloyd's predecessor Heathcote Amory in June. Soon after his appointment, Lloyd asked Treasury economic advisor Robert Hall (29 July 1960) "how soon we were going bust". On 16 March 1961 Lloyd wrote to Macmillan complaining that No 10 was briefing the press than Macmillan was in real charge of economic policy, and indeed policy in other areas. Also the German Deutschmark was revalued by 5% in March 1961, leading to worries that the pound sterling might crash in the summer of 1961.
1961: Budget and July measures
Lloyd arranged government funding for the National Theatre on the South Bank. His first Budget (17 April 1961) began by saying that during the 1960-1 fiscal year there had been a deficit of £394m, £76m more than Amory had forecast in the 1960 budget. Lloyd was concerned at rising inflation and public spending. The Budget was intended to be deflationary, and to reduce the government borrowing requirement to £69m for 1961-2 (in the event it was £211m), but increased taxes by less than the Treasury wanted. The budget introduced "the Regulator", which allowed the Chancellor of the day to vary the rate of most indirect taxes by up to 10% of the existing rate (not ten percentage points) without the need for prior Parliamentary approval, although Parliament had to approve within three weeks. Another measure, effectively a second Regulator (brought in over the objections of John Boyd-Carpenter, Minister of Pensions and National Insurance) allowed the Chancellor to increase Employers' NICs by up to 4 shillings per week. Lloyd also raised the threshold for surtax on earned income, which had been unchanged since Lloyd George had introduced it in 1909, from £2,000 per annum to £5,000. This measure had actually been Macmillan's idea.
By the summer a run on the pound was threatened. Continental banks, who had been buying pounds, now announced that they had enough of a stockpile (£300m) and the Treasury demanded cuts of £300m in demand and a cancellation of the raising of the surtax threshold – the latter was a politically impossible demand. Some ministers suggested floating the pound, an option which Macmillan discussed in his diary on 23 July, although he rejected it as it would have irritated the Americans and would have had to be accompanied by deflation. In fact the balance of payments was already moving back into surplus, but based on out-of-date Treasury figures ("last year's Bradshaw" as Macmillan once famously quipped) Lloyd announced a package of measures on 25 July: bank rate was raised to 7%, public spending was cut, and $1.5bn was borrowed from the IMF, along with conditions, although not as strict as the IMF would have liked. Macmillan wrote to ministers on 28 July ordering public spending restraint. Lloyd refused to use his power to increase Employers' NICs in the July measures, saying it was "a dead rat". Cairncross, who had succeeded Robert Hall as the government's economic advisor, believed that Lloyd might have given some kind of private promise not to actually use it.
Lloyd also announced a Pay Pause on 25 July, until 31 March 1962. Labour moved into a 5-point lead in the opinion polls. The Pay Pause (effectively an incomes policy) made Lloyd a focus of public unpopularity. It mainly affected public sector employees such as nurses and teachers as many private companies had contractual arrangements for automatic pay rises or arbitration.
1961: NEDC
Lloyd had announced that there would be a new economic planning body as part of his 25 July measures. On 8 August Lloyd suggested inviting Industry and Trade Union leaders. There was a stormy meeting of the Cabinet on 21 September, at which only John Hare and Lord Hailsham supported him, but covert support for the proposal from Macmillan swung other ministers behind the scheme. On 23 September, after a period of consultation, formal invitations were issued to the TUC, the Federation of British Industry, the British Employers' Confederation, the National Union of Manufacturers and the Association of British Chambers of Commerce. He told them of his plans to set up the National Economic Development Council (NEDC) in imitation of the French Commissariat du Plan, chaired by the Chancellor, and containing a few other ministers, as well as other appointed members who would include leading trade unionists and business leaders, as well perhaps as other economic thinkers. He also proposed setting up a National Economic Development Organisation (NEDO), whose chair would be drawn from outside the civil service, to advise NEDC. Lloyd did not get on with trade unionists. The TUC, which disliked the Pay Pause, agreed to cooperate only on condition that they were not expected to preach wage restraint. Thorpe writes that Lloyd had Macmillan's backing against a sceptical Cabinet, but Williams writes that Lloyd was lukewarm about the NEDC, which was Macmillan's project.
Henry Brooke was appointed to the new position of Chief Secretary to the Treasury in October 1961 so Lloyd did not have to spend all his time arguing with Cabinet colleagues about their planned level of expenditure. The NEDC was unlikely to reap any benefits by the time of the next general election, nor to help in reining pay in. There was a big pay increase in the electricity industry in November 1961, because of the strength of the unions and the weakness of the minister Richard Wood. The Pay Pause had brought short term benefits but anomalies had made it unpopular, something it shared with later incomes policies. There was even a threat to strike by the 120 workers who made cricket balls.
1962: second budget and Orpington
On 29 January 1962 John Hare, Minister of Labour, confirmed that the Pay Pause would end on 31 March. Lloyd presented a White Paper on Incomes Policies, urging an official "Guiding Light" of 2.5%, a rate which the government expected pay to be increased by companies and tribunals. The White Paper also condemned automatic wage increases because of cost of living increases and comparability between different types of work. In presenting his White Paper on Incomes Policy Lloyd was seen as "stubborn" "wooden" "inarticulate" and "unimaginative" (Harold Evans Downing Street Diary). He also performed poorly in putting across government policy on television.
On 14 February 1962, over whisky at 10 Downing Street, Macmillan persuaded the railway union bosses to call off their planned strike, an achievement trumpeted by the press as "Mac's Triumph". The NEDC first met on 7 March 1962. The Liberals did very well at a by-election at Conservative-held Blackpool North on 13 March 1962, and took Orpington off the Conservatives at another by-election on 14 March, a sensational victory in a seat adjacent to Macmillan's own seat at Bromley. Party Chairman Iain Macleod's report blamed the Pay Pause for the defeat at Orpington.
In April 1962, on the eve of Lloyd's second and final budget, he faced a Cabinet rebellion over Schedule A tax (a tax on the theoretical rental value of a house, paid by the homeowner). The Conference Party Conference at Scarborough in October 1960 had voted for the abolition of Schedule A and the Cabinet now insisted on it. Lloyd promised to end Schedule A the following year, at a cost of £50m to the Exchequer. In his 9 April 1962 Budget Lloyd announced an agreed growth target of 4% per annum (he would have preferred 5%). This was in line with current rates of growth in continental Europe, but the Treasury were sceptical that the UK could achieve it, rightly as it turned out. The question of the growth in public spending was left unresolved. In the 1962 Budget Lloyd also increased profits tax by 2.5% and brought in a speculative gains tax, although he stopped short of introducing a capital gains tax, which he thought would discourage saving and enterprise. The budget, on 9 April 1962, reduced purchase tax on cars, TVs and washing machines but increased it on sweets, soft drinks and ice cream, leading to claims that Lloyd was "taxing children's pocket money." The tax on confectionery was expected to raise £30m that year and £50m in a full year. Rumours were already circulating that Lloyd's days in the job were numbered: the journalist William Rees-Mogg wrote that it was "Mr Lloyd's last Budget".
Macmillan appears to have agreed that the 1962 budget could not be a popular one, but the Cabinet revolt, which Lloyd lacked the eloquence to counter, was an embarrassment to Macmillan as well, which added to Macmillan's irritation with Lloyd. Lloyd also argued that confidence had been restored – a run on the pound had been averted, £225m of the $1.5bn (£535m) borrowed the previous year had been repaid to the IMF, and the balance of payments was improving.
Many industrialists also felt that Britain's economic problems, especially her balance of payments deficit, should be solved by expansion, not by contraction, a view shared by Labour Leader Hugh Gaitskell, and by Roy Jenkins, who in the budget debate quoted the "Financial Times" to the effect that the budget had done nothing for exports or for investment.
1962: Macmillan's wish for an incomes policy
Macmillan, disingenuously, as he had already decided to sack him, wrote to Lloyd on 11 April congratulating him and asking him to begin preparing an expansionary budget for 1963 to help the Conservatives win re-election. During 1962 Lloyd's credibility and that of the Treasury was further damaged when it became clear that the Treasury had overestimated the strength of the economy, meaning that the July 1961 measures had been excessively severe. Bank Rate was cut to 4.5% on 26 April, and £70m of Special Deposits were released on 31 May.
Macmillan was pushing for a full-on incomes policy, led by the NEDC, in the hope that his growth policy would not lead to inflation. He addressed the Cabinet about economic policy on 28 May 1962, stressing that he wanted Britain to achieve low unemployment, low inflation, high growth and a strong pound, and that this could best be achieved by an incomes policy to boost productivity. Lloyd was sceptical. The Liberals did very well at another by-election at West Derbyshire on 6 June.
On 19 June Macmillan presented his ideas on incomes policy to three or four colleagues at Chequers. Macmillan urged a "guiding light" (a target for wage increases as had been agreed at the beginning of the year), a Standing Commission on Pay (but with power only to give advice, not to coerce wage settlements), abolition of Resale Price Maintenance (in the end this would be done by Edward Heath in 1964) and creation of a Consumers Council; Lloyd was sceptical but the other ministers seemed in favour.
Macmillan had lunch with Butler on 21 June to discuss the impending reshuffle. Macleod, Lord Home, Martin Redmayne (Chief Whip) and Sir Norman Brook (Cabinet Secretary and Joint Permanent Secretary to the Treasury) were all urging Macmillan to change his chancellor, in Brook's case for reasons of civil service management rather than politics. Macmillan also suspected that Lloyd, Butler and/or Eccles might be plotting against him. 22 June saw ministerial discussion of Macmillan's incomes paper; 6 July saw another ministerial discussion.
Dismissal
Macmillan would have liked to appoint Lloyd Home Secretary, as he was moving Rab Butler from this post, but Lloyd had made clear when Macmillan became Prime Minister in January 1957 that as an opponent of capital punishment it would not be proper for him to accept that position (because a person sentenced to hang was entitled to appeal to the Monarch for mercy, which in practice meant that the Home Secretary, to whom the task was delegated, had the final say on whether any execution should proceed).
Macmillan planned to break the news of his impending dismissal to Lloyd, but Butler leaked it to the press first – the news appeared in the "Daily Mail" on the morning of 12 July. 12 July was also the day of the Leicester North East by-election, and Cabinet were due to discuss incomes policy. At the by election the Conservative share of the vote dropped from 48.1% in 1959 to 24.2%. That evening Lloyd was sacked from the government and returned to the backbenches, after a 45-minute meeting which Macmillan described as "a terribly difficult and emotional scene". Next morning, 13 July, Macmillan carried out the rest of his changes after hearing, from Lord Home, that Lloyd had tried in vain to get John Hare, Minister of Labour, to resign in protest. He sacked a third of his Cabinet in a brutal reshuffle which came to be known as the "Night of the Long Knives". Macmillan later claimed that he had intended to postpone the full reshuffle until the autumn.
Unless one counts Butler's removal in December 1955, Lloyd was the only Chancellor of the postwar era to be sacked outright until Norman Lamont in May 1993. He was replaced by Reginald Maudling, then seen as a potential future Leader of the Conservative Party, and whose remit was to reflate the economy going into the next General Election due by the end of 1964. Lloyd privately thought Macmillan too obsessed with unemployment, risking higher inflation. Lloyd was seen to have been badly treated. He was cheered to the echo when he reentered the Commons Chamber after his sacking, whereas Macmillan entered in silence from his own party and jeers from the Opposition, and was subjected to public criticism (then almost unprecedented) from his predecessor Lord Avon. Nigel Birch, who had resigned along with Chancellor Thorneycroft in 1958, wrote to the newspapers on 14 July 1962: "For the second time the Prime Minister has got rid of a Chancellor of the Exchequer who tried to get expenditure under control. Once is more than enough."
Having refused the offer of a peerage from Macmillan, on 20 July 1962 Lloyd was appointed a Companion of Honour. His name had been added to the list at the last minute; he would have preferred to decline, thinking it an honour more suited to alumni of the Arts, but was persuaded by friends to accept. In his unpublished memoirs he would later write that he had tried to avoid "a bitter resentment against Macmillan" for the sake of his peace of mind.
Lloyd left his black Labrador, "Sambo", for whom there was no room in his London flat, behind at Chequers, where he had been living since his divorce. At a meeting of the new Cabinet later that summer, Sambo came sniffing amongst the ministers searching for his master. Macmillan ignored the animal, which was likened by one observer to Banquo's ghost.
Out of office
Lloyd did not regard his political career as over, and declined the chairmanship of Martins Bank and other City posts. Macmillan, shaken by the hostile reaction to his moves, arranged a meeting with Lloyd on 1 August. He told him that sacking him had been a mistake and that he was looking for a way to bring him back. Lloyd attributed this to Macmillan's ruthlessness and survival instinct.
Lloyd became a popular figure with Conservative Party members after travelling the country in the bitter winter of 1962-3 (the worst since 1946-7) to write his report on party organisation. Ferdinand Mount writes that northerners recognised Selwyn as "one of their own, someone who had gone to London but had not become in the least stuck up and who never pretended to be someone he wasn't". Macmillan later compared Lloyd to Augustine Birrell for his links to the nonconformist vote of North West England. At Huddersfield he had to give a non-committal reply when Andrew Alexander, then City Editor of The Yorkshire Post, attacked Macmillan's profligate economic policy. His report, urging the proper provision of paid agents in marginal seats, was published in June 1963 so was overshadowed by the Profumo scandal. Lloyd asked John Profumo whether he had had an affair with Christine Keeler, and passed on his denial to Macmillan, adding his own opinion that he did not see how "Jack" could have had the time.
After Macmillan's impending resignation was announced in October 1963, Lloyd was one of those who pressed Alec Douglas-Home to stand for the party leadership. He was a pivotal figure in whipping up support for Home as a potential successor at the Blackpool Conference. He was also an influential figure with the Chief Whip Martin Redmayne. On a walk on the seafront at Blackpool (11 October) Lloyd and Redmayne were accosted by a socialist old age pensioner who told them that Home would make the best prime minister. He helped to dissuade Hailsham, who was initially a candidate for the leadership, from openly opposing Home. "Home was just about the only front-line politician [Lloyd] spoke of without a tinge of contempt." Lloyd visited Macmillan in hospital on Wednesday 16 October, and advised against appointing Rab Butler, who, he said, was disliked in the constituency associations.
Return to the front bench
Lloyd was called back to the government in 1963 by Alec Douglas-Home. He refused the Home Office. He also refused the Chairmanship of the Party, as he felt he had done what he could and did not want to spend "another winter traipsing around the country". In the end he was appointed Leader of the House of Commons, a job which had already been promised to John Boyd-Carpenter. He was also appointed Lord Privy Seal. On returning to office he likened himself to a man who had won a lawsuit for wrongful dismissal. As Leader of the House he was popular and well-respected across parties, paving the way for his Speakership nearly a decade later. However, Lloyd's policies as chancellor were blamed to some extent for Conservative defeat in the general election of 1964.
Lloyd helped to discourage Thorneycroft from standing for the Conservative leadership in 1965. He supported Maudling, who was defeated by Edward Heath. As Shadow Commonwealth Secretary under Heath, Lloyd visited Australia and New Zealand in late 1965. He also visited Rhodesia, whose white minority regime had recently declared unilateral independence from the UK, in February 1966. There he met 300 people, including 60 Africans, and impressed on Prime Minister Ian Smith that white minority rule could not last. On his return to the UK (in time for the general election campaign in March), Lloyd was attacked both by the left for having seemed to condone the Smith regime and from the right for not having supported it. He returned to the backbenches in 1966, at his own request.
Speaker of the House of Commons
In 1969 Lloyd was captain of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club in its centenary year.
Lloyd continued to serve on many committees and to campaign for the Conservative Party in North-West England. In the 1970 General Election organisational reforms made in response to Lloyd's report of 1963 bore fruit, especially in the North-West, and specifically the provision of more paid agents. The reforms were thought to have resulted in the gain of 10 seats, contributing to Heath's narrow victory. Lloyd was sounded out for, but declined, the Washington Embassy.
In 1971, after the Conservatives had returned to power, Lloyd became Speaker. He was elected Speaker by 294 votes to 55, the opposition coming from those who thought the election was a stitch-up between the leadership of the two main parties. Mindful that the long hours required as Speaker had broken the health of several of his predecessors, he increased the number of deputy speakers to three to ease the burden. His preference was to let as many members as possible be heard, rather than err on the side of firmness, and he also practised what Thorpe describes as "selective deafness" rather than punish every unparliamentary outburst. During tedious debates he would keep alert by constructing mental anagrams of the names of those speaking.
In the Parliamentary debate on Bloody Sunday, Lloyd refused to allow the MP for Mid-Ulster Bernadette Devlin to give her account or to ask questions of the Secretary of State, despite Devlin having been an eyewitness to events.
While he was Speaker, he became Deputy High Steward of Cambridge University in 1971, and was appointed to be a Deputy Lieutenant of Merseyside in 1974. In a break with convention, both the Labour and Liberal Parties contested his seat in both the February 1974 and October 1974 general elections, but he retained it. He retired as Speaker on 3 February 1976, when he was raised to the peerage and appointed to be the Steward of the Manor of Northstead.
Peerage and later life
On 8 March 1976 Lloyd was created a life peer as Baron Selwyn-Lloyd, of Wirral in the County of Merseyside, with a corresponding change of his surname to Selwyn-Lloyd. He sat in the House of Lords as a crossbencher.
He became an honorary fellow of his old college, Magdalene. In retirement he lived at Preston Crowmarsh, Oxfordshire. He did a great deal of charity work and was an active patron and generous host to the nearby Oxford University Conservative Association. He died at home of a brain tumour on 17 May 1978. His will was valued at £154,169 for probate (around £750,000 at 2016 prices).
Books
Lloyd remained on very friendly terms with Eden, and the two men cooperated throughout the 1960s and 1970s, over Eden's memoirs and information which they gave, often anonymously, to historians about Suez. In public they maintained the pretence that there had been no collusion with Israel.
Lloyd cooperated in secret with Terence Robinson's 1965 book on Suez and with Hugh Thomas' The Suez Affair (1967). Lloyd insisted to Hugh Thomas (1967) that Britain's priority had always been a peaceful resolution, especially as Britain had only just pulled out of Egypt prior to Suez. Richard Crossman told Hugh Thomas that any attempt to impeach Lloyd would come to nothing because Lloyd was personally popular. Thomas, who was married to Gladwyn Jebb's daughter, began with little sympathy for Eden and Lloyd and came to feel more so, especially as Lloyd told him that Suez was an issue that was simply not black and white.
Nutting (No End of a Lesson: 1967) and Harold Macmillan (whose relevant volume came out in 1971) were also publishing memoirs. Nutting accused Lloyd not of lying but of not telling the whole truth to the House of Commons. Lloyd insisted that this was perfectly legitimate and that this had been the view of Edward Grey and Ernest Bevin. Nutting's book made Lloyd more determined to release his own memoirs in due course.
Lloyd wrote two books, "Mr Speaker, sir" (1976) and "Suez 1956: a Personal View" (1978). Suez 1956 was the first British admission that the Sevres meeting had taken place (it had already been disclosed by Dayan and Pineau). Sir Donald Logan had to help finish the research as Lloyd by then was ill and could not concentrate for longer than ten or fifteen minutes at a time. He insisted that there had been no "collusion" as Britain had acted in good faith, and had not instigated the Israeli attack. Nigel Nicolson thought the book "pathetic".
Lloyd did not live to complete his memoirs, which he had planned to call "A Middle-Class Lawyer from Liverpool" after a famous sneer of Harold Macmillan's at his expense.
Personal life
Lloyd was respected for his cool and shrewd judgement. In public he was "a stiff-necked, prickly, rather off-putting figure" and even in private, after his dismissal from the Exchequer "he had a ruffled, sad look as though bad news had only just reached him." However, he could sometimes be a much more gregarious and charismatic man in private than his reserved public image would have suggested.
Sir Ferdinand Mount, 3rd Bt., wrote that he possessed "an exact appreciation of himself". "He was proud of the things he was patronised for" (being called "the Little Attorney" by Macmillan, or "Mr Hoylake UDC" by Bernard Levin). In politics, he was loyal to his (self-proclaimed) social superiors who often did not display loyalty in return.
Lloyd married his secretary Elizabeth Marshall, known as Bae, daughter of Roland Marshall of West Kirby, a family friend. Lloyd, who still lived with his parents when in the Wirral, and who had never had a serious girlfriend, was uneasy with women. Pamela Berry claimed that Selwyn had told her that he did not much care for sex. He wrote to his parents (November 1950) that "the fatal announcement" of their engagement had been made and that he felt like somebody shivering before getting into a cold bath. The marriage took place on the Wirral on 29 March 1951. Lloyd was 46 whilst Bae, a solicitor by profession, was born in 1928, making her 24 years his junior. At the reception somebody told him that he had a beautiful bride, and he responded that he had a beautiful wedding cake too. Lloyd's younger sister Rachel, and Bae's mother, both had misgivings about the marriage.
Selwyn and Bae had a daughter, Joanna, but divorced in 1957. At the time of Suez, Bae had been in a bad car crash with her lover, whom she later married. Lloyd was awarded custody of his daughter. He remained on friendly terms with his wife after his divorce, but seldom spoke of her to others, so much so that Ferdinand Mount records that he had no idea how her name was pronounced. Rab Butler quipped that Selwyn's wife had left him "because he got into bed with his sweater on".
After his divorce he was a lonely man and was sometimes known to try to persuade less than keen civil servants to accompany him to the cinema on Saturday afternoons when the week's work was done.
Homosexuality
After his divorce, rumour sometimes circulated that Lloyd had homosexual inclinations. He entertained young servicemen at Chequers. Sir Ferdinand Mount writes that he was clearly attracted to the young Jonathan Aitken (his godson, who also worked for him in the early 1960s) but showed no interest in Diana Leishman, an attractive young woman who also worked for him. Michael Bloch writes that he was "infatuated with" Aitken who "had some difficulty parrying his advances" and with the young Peter Walker.
The actor Anthony Booth (in his 1989 book Stroll On) claimed that he had been accosted on the Mall by a clearly drunk Selwyn Lloyd, who made a pass at him under the pretext of asking for a light for his cigarette, a recognised courtship ritual among gay men at the time, inviting him back to Admiralty House (which was Lloyd's official residence in 1963-4). Ferdinand Mount comments that such behaviour as alleged by Booth would have been out of character, but adds carefully that "It is not clear whether [Lloyd] was ever gay in the active sense". Charles Williams writes that Lloyd "had a dubious private life" and that his "private life was the subject of much gossip" but offers no further details.
Assessment
Lloyd's obituaries concentrated on his role in Suez. He would have preferred to have been remembered for his minority report on the Beveridge Report on broadcasting, and for setting up the NEDC.
Nigel Nicolson thought him "weak and mendacious" over Suez and recorded that Dag Hammarskjöld regarded him with contempt. However, he acquired a higher reputation as Macmillan's Foreign Secretary. Sir William Hayter, who worked with Lloyd in Ankara during the Baghdad Pact conference in January 1958, commented on how he had a higher regard for Lloyd after the latter had ceased to be Eden's assistant. "I liked him and even respected him and ... he was really a very able Minister". Thorpe argues that he was not quite in the same league as Bevin or Eden but very much in the next rung. He was happy to listen to expert advice in a way that Eden would not have been.
Edmund Dell describes Lloyd as "not up to the job" of chancellor. He was "a man with limited intellectual horizons ... fortunate to occupy two of the highest offices in the state. He was less fortunate in the timing [Foreign Secretary during Suez then Chancellor at a time of relative economic decline] … there is no evidence that he understood economic arguments … he was a man tied to his brief, lacking the conviction or understanding to make an independent contribution".
However, the real problems with the British economy at this time were, in Dell's view, short-termism (longer time was needed to get results) and an overvalued exchange rate. The immediate cause for Lloyd's dismissal was that Macmillan saw the Treasury as obstructive in drawing up a workable incomes policy, but Dell argues that the real problem was lack of political will, by Macmillan and other ministers, to enforce compulsory wage control. Macmillan wanted the "open air cure" (i.e. public moral pressure to discourage inflationary wage rises), so it is hard to see how Lloyd could have urged anything stronger. A National Incomes Commission ("Nicky") was eventually set up 26 July 1962, after Lloyd's dismissal. It was boycotted by the TUC, who claimed to have been inadequately consulted. It had no compulsory powers, but only powers to demand papers and interview people, and make criticisms of wage settlements which were deemed not in the national interest. Only three cases were ever referred to it.
Ferdinand Mount argues that Lloyd's obituary in The Times was wrong to call him unimaginative and that Lloyd was in fact an innovative chancellor. Macmillan, obsessed with economic expansion, constantly belittled Lloyd in his memoirs. In Mount's view, just as Suez was a watershed in foreign policy, so Macmillan's sacking of Lloyd was a watershed in economic policy, opening the way to the inflation of the 1970s.
Lloyd would sometimes later claim that he might have become Prime Minister if he had resigned as Foreign Secretary over Suez or if he had made more fuss over his sacking as Chancellor. His biographer D.R. Thorpe dismisses this as "wishful thinking", arguing that Lloyd was not even in the same league as Joseph Chamberlain or Rab Butler, politicians who were - in different ways - of first-rank importance despite not becoming Prime Minister. Rather, he was "more Exeter rather than Balliol", i.e. a respectable middle-ranking Oxford college, rather than a prestigious one.
Arms
References
Further reading
covers his term as Chancellor.
, essay on Selwyn Lloyd written by D.R.Thorpe
(Mount worked for Lloyd as a young man in the early 1960s)
Watry, David M. Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014.
External links
The Papers of Selwyn Lloyd held at Churchill Archives Centre
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Player
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Gary Player
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Gary James Player DMS, OIG (born 1 November 1935) is a South African retired professional golfer who is widely considered to be one of the greatest golfers of all time. During his career, Player won nine major championships on the regular tour and nine major championships on the Champions Tour. At the age of 29, Player won the 1965 U.S. Open and became the only non-American to win all four majors in a career, known as the career Grand Slam. At the time, he was the youngest player to do this, though Jack Nicklaus (26) and Tiger Woods (24) subsequently broke this record. Player became only the third golfer in history to win the Career Grand Slam, following Ben Hogan and Gene Sarazen, and only Nicklaus and Woods have performed the feat since. He won over 150 professional tournaments on six continents over seven decades and was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974.
Nicknamed the Black Knight, Mr. Fitness, and the International Ambassador of Golf, he is also a renowned golf course architect with more than 400 design projects on five continents throughout the world. Player has also authored or co-written 36 books on golf instruction, design, philosophy, motivation and fitness. On 7 January 2021, Player was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by United States President Donald Trump.
The Player Group operates The Player Foundation, which has a primary objective of promoting underprivileged education around the world. In 1983, The Player Foundation established the Blair Atholl Schools in Johannesburg, South Africa, which has educational facilities for more than 500 students from kindergarten through eighth grade. In 2013 it celebrated its 30th anniversary with charity golf events in London, Palm Beach, Shanghai and Cape Town, bringing its total of funds raised to over US$60 million.
Background and family
Player was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, the youngest of Harry and Muriel Player's three children. When he was eight years old his mother died from cancer. Although his father was often away from home working in the gold mines, he did manage to take a loan in order to buy a set of clubs for Gary to begin playing golf. The Virginia Park golf course in Johannesburg is where Player first began his love affair with golf. At the age of 14, Player played his first round of golf and parred the first three holes. At age 16, he announced that he would become number one in the world. At age 17, he became a professional golfer.
Player married wife Vivienne Verwey (sister of professional golfer Bobby Verwey) on 19 January 1957, four years after turning professional. Together they had six children: Jennifer, Marc, Wayne, Michele, Theresa, and Amanda. He also has 22 grandchildren and 2 great-grandchildren. During the early days of his career Player would travel from tournament to tournament with his wife, six children, their nanny and a tutor in tow. Vivienne died of cancer in August 2021.
Player's eldest son, Marc, owns and operates The Player Group, which exclusively represents Player in all his commercial activities, including all endorsements, licensing, merchandising, golf course design, and real estate development.
Player is the brother of Ian Player, a South African environmental educator, activist and conservationist.
Playing career
Player is one of the most successful golfers in history, tied for fourth in major championship victories with nine. Along with Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus he is often referred to as one of "The Big Three" golfers of his era – from the late 1950s through the late 1970s – when golf boomed in the United States and around the world and was greatly encouraged by expanded television coverage. Along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods, he is one of only five players to win golf's "career Grand Slam". He completed the Grand Slam in 1965 at the age of twenty-nine. Player was the second multiple majors winner from South Africa, following Bobby Locke, then was followed by Ernie Els, and Retief Goosen.
Player competed regularly on the U.S. based PGA Tour from the late 1950s. He led the Tour money list in 1961, and went on to accumulate 24 career Tour titles. He also played an exceptionally busy schedule all over the world, and he has been called the world's most traveled athlete. Player has logged more than in air travel – in 2005 it was estimated that he had "probably flown further…than any athlete in history".
He has more victories than anyone else in the South African Open (13) and the Australian Open (7). He held the record for most victories in the World Match Play Championship, with five wins, from 1973 until 1991 when this feat was equalled by Seve Ballesteros, finally losing his share of the record in 2004, when Ernie Els won the event for the sixth time. Player was in the top ten of Mark McCormack's world golf rankings from their inception in 1968 until 1981; he was ranked second in 1969, 1970 and 1972, each time to Jack Nicklaus.
He was the only player in the 20th century to win the British Open in three different decades. His first win, as a 23-year-old in 1959 at Muirfield, came after he double-bogeyed the last hole. In 1974, he became one of the few golfers in history to win two major championships in the same season. Player last won the Masters in 1978, when he started seven strokes behind 54-hole leader Hubert Green entering the final round, and won by one shot with birdies at seven of the last 10 holes for a back nine 30 and a final round 64. One week later, Player again came from seven strokes back in the final round to win the Tournament of Champions. In 1984, at the age of 48 Player nearly became the oldest ever major champion, finishing in second place behind Lee Trevino at the PGA Championship. And in gusty winds at the 1998 Masters, he became the oldest golfer ever to make the cut, breaking the 25-year-old record set by Sam Snead. Player credited this feat to his dedication to the concept of diet, health, practice and golf fitness.
Player has occasionally been accused of cheating, particularly in the 1974 Open; he has strongly denied the accusations. Later, at a skins game in Arizona in 1983, Tom Watson accused him of cheating by moving a leaf from behind his ball.
Being South African, Player never played in the Ryder Cup in which American and European golfers compete against each other. Regarding the event, Player remarked, "The things I have seen in the Ryder Cup have disappointed me. You are hearing about hatred and war." He was no longer an eligible player when the Presidents Cup was established to give international players the opportunity to compete in a similar event, but he was non-playing captain of the International Team for the Presidents Cup in 2003, which was held on a course he designed, The Links at Fancourt, in George, South Africa. After 2003 ended in a tie, he was reappointed as captain for the 2005 Presidents Cup, and his team lost to the Americans 15.5 to 18.5. Both Player and Jack Nicklaus were appointed to captain their respective teams again in 2007 in Canada; the United States won.
Augusta National green jacket
The green jacket is reserved for Augusta National members and golfers who win the Masters Tournament. Jackets are kept on club grounds, and taking them off the premises is forbidden. The exception is for the winner, who can take it home and return it to the club the following year. Player, who became the tournament's first international winner in 1961, said he did not know that. After losing a playoff in 1962 to Arnold Palmer, he packed the jacket and took it to his home in South Africa. That led to a call from club Chairman Clifford Roberts, who was a stickler for rules. "I didn't know you were supposed to leave it there," Player said. "Next thing you know, there was a call from Mr. Roberts."
Legacy
In 2000, Player was voted "Sportsman of the Century" in South Africa. In 1966, he was awarded the Bob Jones Award, the highest honour given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. The "Gary Player – A Global Journey" exhibition was launched by the Hall of Fame as of March 2006.
In 2000, Golf Digest magazine ranked Player as the eighth greatest golfer of all time.
In 2002, Player was voted as the second greatest global golfer of all time by a panel of international media, golf magazines and fellow professionals conducted by the leading Golf Asia Magazine.
On 10 April 2009, he played for the last time in the Masters, where he was playing for his record 52nd time – every year since 1957 except for 1973, when he was recovering from surgery. After Nicklaus and Palmer, he was the last of the Big Three to retire from this tournament, which is a testament to his longevity.
At age 73 on 23 July 2009, Player competed in the Senior British Open Championship at Sunningdale Golf Club, 53 years after capturing his maiden European Tour victory at the Berkshire venue.
Augusta National Golf Club and the Masters announced on 5 July 2011 that Player had been invited to join Jack Nicklaus and Arnold Palmer as an honorary starter. The Big Three were reunited in this capacity starting with the 2012 tournament.
In July 2013, he became the oldest athlete ever to pose nude in ESPN The Magazines annual Body Issue to inspire people to keep looking after themselves throughout their lives whatever their age.
Business and other interests
Gary Player's business interests are exclusively represented by Black Knight International, which includes Gary Player Design, Player Real Estate, The Player Foundation, Gary Player Academies, and Black Knight Enterprises, aspects of which include licensing, events, publishing, wine, apparel and memorabilia. The Player Group, which operates The Player Foundation, is owned and managed by Marc Player.
The Player Foundation
The Player Foundation was established in 1983 by Marc Player and began as an effort to provide education, nutrition, medical care and athletic activities, for a small community of disadvantaged children living on the outskirts of Johannesburg, South Africa. The Player Foundation has since blossomed into an organisation that circles the globe bringing aid to underprivileged children and impoverished communities. Since its establishment, The Player Foundation has donated over $65 million to the support of children's charities, the betterment of impoverished communities and the expansion of educational opportunities throughout the world.
The foundation is primarily funded by donations, grants and the four Gary Player Invitational events presented through Black Knight International and staged in the United States, China, Europe and South Africa annually. The Gary Player Invitational is a pro-am tournament that pairs celebrities and professional golfers from the PGA and Champions Tours with businessmen and other local participants. The proceeds of these tournaments and other special events provide funding for an ever-expanding number of institutions around the world, including the Blair Atholl Schools in South Africa, the Pleasant City Elementary School in Palm Beach and the Masizame Children's Shelter in Plettenberg Bay, South Africa.
Proceeds from the Gary Player Invitational have also been donated to the Lord's Taverners in the UK and the following organisations in South Africa; Wildlands Conservation Trust, Twilight Children and Bana Development Centre.
Golf course design
The Player Design firm have executed over 400 projects in 41 countries on five continents, including courses such as the Gary Player Country Club, Leopard Creek, Thracian Cliffs, Wentworth and The Links at Fancourt.The company offers three different design brands: Gary Player Design, Player Design, and Black Knight Design.
With golf accepted back into the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Gary Player Design was selected among the finalists of an official RFP in early December 2011.
Nelson Mandela Invitational
Player hosted the Nelson Mandela Invitational golf tournament staged by Black Knight International from 2000. In October 2007, media attention arose about his involvement in the 2002 design of a golf course in Burma and as a result, the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund withdrew its support. Both Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu accepted Player's position and statements on Burma. Player refused to withdraw as he and his son Marc personally built the golf event from scratch and issued a statement rebutting these claims via his website. The event continued to be staged annually at the Sun City Resort as the Gary Player Invitational until 2013.
Views
Views on apartheid
In 1966, Player espoused support for the apartheid policies of Hendrik Verwoerd in his book Grand Slam Golf, stating: "I must say now, and clearly, that I am of the South Africa of Verwoerd and apartheid ... a nation which ... is the product of its instinct and ability to maintain civilised values and standards amongst the alien barbarians. The African may well believe in witchcraft and primitive magic, practise ritual murder and polygamy; his wealth is in cattle". Activists publicly demonstrated against Player's espousal of apartheid, including protesting against Player at the 1969 PGA Championship. Australian activists also strongly protested against Player. In 1971 there were several threats to protest against Player at tournaments though they never came to fruition. Years later, in October 1974, Australian activists screamed at Player, "Go home racist", as he was lining up a putt on the 72nd hole in a tournament he had a chance to win.
However, in a 1987 interview with The Los Angeles Times, Player disavowed the system of apartheid, stating, "We have a terrible system in apartheid...it's almost a cancerous disease. I'm happy to say it's being eliminated....we've got to get rid of this apartheid." In an interview with Graham Bensinger, Player discussed his early support for apartheid stating that the South African Government had "pulled the wool over our eyes" and that the people were "brainwashed" into supporting these policies.
Other views
In July 2007, Player made statements at The Open Championship golf tournament about the use of performance-enhancing drugs in golf. He alleged that at least ten players were "taking something", citing human growth hormone, steroids and creatine as possible substances. Both the PGA Tour and European Tour were in the process of introducing random testing programmes at the time.
In June 2016, in an interview with bunkered.co.uk, Player branded as 'laughable' a report released by The R&A and USGA which said that driving distance in golf was only increasing minimally. He warned of a 'tsunami coming' due to the governing bodies' failure to address issues surrounding new golf technology. After the 2017 Alfred Dunhill Links Championship, Player reiterated these comments, taking to Twitter to say he was 'sad' to see the Old Course at St Andrews 'brought to her knees' after Ross Fisher broke the course record on a day of very low scoring during the final round.
Distinctions and honours
On 8 June 1961, Player was the guest on NBC's The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. In a comedy skit, he gives Tennessee Ernie Ford a golf lesson.
Received the 1966 Bob Jones Award from the United States Golf Association.
Named Honorary Member of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1994.
Received Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from University of St Andrews in 1995.
Received Honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland in 1997
The WGC-Bridgestone Invitational trophy is named the Gary Player Cup.
Named Honorary Member of Carnoustie in 1999
Received Honorary Doctorate in Law, University of Dundee, Scotland in 1999
South African Sportsman of the Century award in 2000
Received the 2003 Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award at the Laureus World Sports Awards in Monte Carlo.
Awarded the Order of Ikhamanga (in gold for exceptional achievement) in 2003 by President Mbeki of South Africa for excellence in golf and contribution to non-racial sport in South Africa.
He was the world's first golfer to be featured on any country's postal stamp in South Africa.
Has designed over 400 golf courses on six continents around the world.
He currently plays on the U.S. Champions Tour and European Seniors Tour occasionally.
He received the 2006 Payne Stewart Award from the PGA Tour.
Played in his 52nd Masters Tournament at Augusta National in April 2009, extending his record of for most Masters appearances
Inducted into the African American Sports Hall of Fame in May 2007, with Lifetime Achievement Award
Has played in a record 46 consecutive British Open Championships, winning 3 times over 3 decades.
Stars with Camilo Villegas in a MasterCard "priceless foursome" television commercial launched during the U.S. Open in June 2009
In November 2009 he was awarded the inaugural Breeders Cup "Sports and Racing Excellence Award" at Santa Anita Park in California which honours owners and breeders of thoroughbred race horses.
Was inducted into the Asian Pacific Golf Hall of Fame with Jack Nicklaus in 2011 at a ceremony in Pattaya, Thailand.
In December 2011, Gary Player Design was selected amongst the finalists to design the golf course for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro
He received the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award at The Players Championship in May 2012. The first international person to receive this accolade.
Received the 2020 GCSAA Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America
Received the Presidential Medal of Freedom on 7 January 2021 from then President Donald Trump.
Professional wins (159)
PGA Tour wins (24)PGA Tour playoff record (3–10)European Tour wins (4)European Tour playoff record (0–2)Southern Africa Tour wins (20)
*Note: The 1979 Lexington PGA Championship was shortened to 54 holes due to rain.Southern Africa Tour playoff record (2–0)PGA Tour of Australia wins (2)PGA Tour of Australia playoff record (0–1)Safari Circuit wins (1)
South American Golf Circuit wins (1)
Other European wins (10)
Sources:
Japan wins (2)
Other South African wins (39)
1955 East Rand Open
1956 East Rand Open, South African Open
1957 Western Province Open
1958 Natal Open
1959 East Rand Open, Natal Open, South African Professional Match Play Championship, Transvaal Open
1960 Natal Open, South African Masters, Transvaal Open, Western Province Open, South African Open
1961 Transvaal Open (Dec.)
1962 Transvaal Open
1963 Liquid Air Tournament, Richelieu Grand Prix (Cape Town), Richelieu Grand Prix (Johannesburg), Sponsored 5000
1964 South African Masters
1965 South African Open
1966 Natal Open, Transvaal Open, South African Open
1967 South African Masters, South African Open
1968 Natal Open, Western Province Open, South African Open
1969 South African PGA Championship, South African Open
1971 General Motors Open, South African Masters, Western Province Open
1974 Rand International Open
1986 Nissan Skins Game
1988 Nissan Skins Game
1991 Nissan Skins Game
Other Australasian wins (17)
Sources:
Other South American wins (2)
Other wins (11)
1955 Egyptian Matchplay
1965 World Series of Golf, NTL Challenge Cup (Canada), World Cup of Golf, World Cup of Golf Individual Trophy
1968 World Series of Golf
1972 World Series of Golf
1977 World Cup of Golf Individual Trophy
1979 PGA Grand Slam of Golf (shared title with Andy North)
1983 Skins Game
1986 Fred Meyer Challenge (with Greg Norman - team shared title with Peter Jacobsen and Curtis Strange)
Senior PGA Tour wins (22)
*Note: The 1989 GTE North Classic was shortened to 36 holes due to rain.Senior PGA Tour playoff record (5–2)European Senior Tour wins (3)European Senior Tour playoff record (1–0)'
Other senior wins (6)
1987 Northville Invitational (United States), German PGA Team Championship
1997 Dai-ichi Seimei Cup (Japan)
2000 Senior Skins Game (U.S. – unofficial event)
2009 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)
2010 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)
*The Senior British Open was retroactively recognised by the PGA Tour Champions as a senior major in 2018.
Major championships
Wins (9)
1Defeated Nagle in 18-hole playoff; Player 71 (+1), Nagle 74 (+4).
Results timeline
CUT = missed the halfway cut (3rd round cut in 1970, 1980, 1981 and 1985 Open Championships)
WD = withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place.
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 37 (1970 PGA – 1980 Masters)
Longest streak of top-10s – 6 (1962 PGA – 1964 Masters)
Results in The Players Championship
CUT = missed the halfway cut
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Senior major championships
Wins (9)
1Defeated Charles in 18-hole playoff; Player (68), Charles (70).
2Defeated Bland with a birdie on the second hole of a sudden-death playoff.
Results timeline
1The Senior Open Championship was not a Champions Tour major until 2003, though it was on the European Seniors Tour. Player won the event three times prior to this recognition.
CUT = Missed the half-way cut
NYF = Tournament not yet founded
"T" = tied
Team appearances
World Cup (representing South Africa): 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 (winners, individual winner), 1966, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1977 (individual winner)
Slazenger Trophy (representing British Commonwealth and Empire): 1956
Chrysler Cup (representing the International team): 1986 (captain), 1987 (captain, winners), 1988 (captain), 1989 (captain), 1990 (captain), 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 (winners)
Dunhill Cup (representing South Africa): 1991
Alfred Dunhill Challenge (representing Southern Africa): 1995 (non-playing captain, winners)
UBS Cup (representing the Rest of the World): 2001 (captain), 2002 (captain), 2004 (captain)
Insperity Invitational – Greats of Golf: 2012 (winners), 2014 (winners), 2015 (winners), 2017 (winners)
See also
Career Grand Slam champions
List of golfers with most Champions Tour major championship wins
List of golfers with most Champions Tour wins
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
List of longest PGA Tour win streaks
List of men's major championships winning golfers
Notes
References
External links
Gary Player Profile at Golf Legends
Gary Player Golf Course Design
Gary Player Foundation
South African male golfers
Sunshine Tour golfers
PGA Tour golfers
PGA Tour Champions golfers
Winners of men's major golf championships
Men's Career Grand Slam champion golfers
Winners of senior major golf championships
World Golf Hall of Fame inductees
Golf course architects
Golf writers and broadcasters
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
Recipients of the Order of Ikhamanga
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Alumni of King Edward VII School (Johannesburg)
White South African people
South African people of British descent
Golfers from Johannesburg
People from Pixley ka Seme District Municipality
Sportspeople from the Northern Cape
People from Jupiter Island, Florida
Sportspeople from Martin County, Florida
1935 births
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lackland%20Air%20Force%20Base
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Lackland Air Force Base
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Lackland Air Force Base is a United States Air Force (USAF) base located in Bexar County, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 802d Mission Support Group, Air Education and Training Command (AETC) and an enclave of the city of San Antonio. It is the only site for USAF and United States Space Force enlisted Basic Military Training (BMT).
Lackland AFB is part of Joint Base San Antonio (JBSA), an amalgamation of Fort Sam Houston, Randolph AFB and Lackland AFB, which were merged on 1 October 2010. JBSA was established in accordance with congressional legislation implementing the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. The legislation ordered the consolidation of the three facilities which were adjoining, but separate military installations, into a single joint base – one of 12 joint bases formed in the United States as a result of the law.
Units
United States Air Force
502nd Installation Support Group
A unit of the JBSA 502nd Air Base Wing, the 502nd ISG is the focal point for all base activities, serving and supporting the 37th and 737th Training Groups and all of its mission partners as well as the more than 24,000 retirees living in the local area.
37th Training Wing
37th Training Group
Provides professional, military and technical training in the knowledge and skills needed for graduates to perform their jobs worldwide. Joint service training for USAF, U.S. Army, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps personnel is provided in numerous courses, such as the military working dog program and security and law enforcement
737th Training Group
Provides Basic Military Training for all enlisted people entering the USAF, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard, earning Lackland the nickname, "Gateway to the Air Force." The group was the center of the United States Air Force Basic Training scandal, 2012. Since 2020, it has also provided basic training for enlisted recruits to the United States Space Force.
Sixteenth Air Force
Operates, maintains and defends the USAF information networks and directs mission critical cyber terrain, provides multisource intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance products, and is the Service Cryptologic Component responsible to the National Security Agency's Central Security Service for Air Force matters involving the conduct of cryptologic activities.
624th Operations Center
Interfaces with theater and functional Air Operations Centers to establish, plan, direct, coordinate, assess, and command & control cyber operations in support of USAF and Joint warfighting requirements. The 624th Operations Center was inactivated in 2020.
Department of Defense
Inter-American Air Forces Academy
Fostering enduring Inter-American engagement through education and training. Teaches 37 technical courses, in Spanish and in English, to students from more than 22 countries every year.
Defense Language Institute
Primary mission was to teach English to Allied pilot candidates. In 1966, its mission expanded to include other career fields, and the school moved under the Department of Defense with the U.S. Army as the executive agent.
National Security Agency
Texas Cryptologic Center
Lackland AFB hosts a collection of vintage military aircraft on static display on its parade grounds as part of the USAF Airman Heritage Museum, including a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, B-29 Superfortress, C-121 Constellation, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and a B-25 Mitchell.
Training mission
Lackland Air Force Base is home to the 37th Training Wing (37 TRW) which operates a variety of training squadrons. Within the 37th TRW is the 37th Training Group (37 TRG) which oversees the 5 technical training schools on the base, and the 737 TRG which oversees the Basic Military Training squadrons.
Basic training (enlisted)
Lackland is best known for its role in being the sole location for U.S. Air Force enlisted Basic Military Training (BMT) for the active duty Regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard. BMT is organized into nine basic training squadrons, each with their own training site on the base. Each squadron is equipped with either a dining facility or a medical clinic. Some BMT squadrons share dining facilities if they are located close enough together and the same is true for medical clinics. Each squadron also has a specific exercise area where basic trainees conduct physical readiness training (PRT). Also, AFOSI anti-terrorism teams are trained here.
In October 2008 the BMT was expanded an extra two weeks to implement more air base defense training as well as other rudimentary skills. The BMT course of training is weeks.
Officer training
Prior to 22 September 1993, Lackland AFB's Medina Annex was also home to Air Force Officer Training School (OTS), one of three USAF officer accession and commissioning sources in addition to the U.S. Air Force Academy and Air Force ROTC. On 25 September 1993, OTS permanently relocated to Maxwell AFB, Alabama.
Technical training
Lackland, like many other Air Education and Training Command (AETC) bases, trains enlisted airmen out of basic training in a specific specialty via various "tech schools." Lackland currently has six technical training squadrons on base training multiple airmen in various Air Force Specialty Codes (AFSCs).
The 37th Training Group supports the following five training squadrons and also trains technical training instructors, military training instructors and military training leaders.
The 341st Training Squadron trains military working dogs and handlers for the entire Department of Defense and several federal agencies.
The 342nd Training Squadron teaches Pararescuemen, Combat Controllers, Special Operations Weathermen, Tactical Air Control Party members, Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) Specialists, and a variety of advanced Security Forces courses.
The 343rd TRS trains airmen to become Security Forces members in a 13-week academy.
The 344th TRS provides technical training for more than 10,000 active duty, Reserve, Guard, international and civilian students annually in Career Enlisted Aviator, Vehicle Maintenance, Logistics Readiness Officer, Logistics Plans, Materiel Management, Contracting, Recruiting, Safety, Cryptological, and TEMPEST courses.
The 345th TRS trains, develops and educates technical training students into skilled graduates in the Services, Air Transportation, Hazardous Material Transportation School (HAZMAT) and Traffic Management Office career fields..
History
World War II
Construction on Lackland Air Force Base began on 15 June 1941, and it was originally part of Kelly Field. One year later, it became an independent organization—the San Antonio Aviation Cadet Center (SAAC). On 8 January 1943, the War Department constituted and activated the 78th Flying Training Wing (Preflight) at San Antonio and assigned it to the United States Army Air Force's Central Flying Training Command. The 78th Wing provided aviation cadets the mechanics and physics of flight and required the cadets to pass courses in mathematics and the hard sciences. Then the cadets were taught to apply their knowledge practically by teaching them aeronautics, deflection shooting, and thinking in three dimensions. Once completed, the graduates were designated as aviation cadets and were sent to one of the primary flight schools for pilot training.
Cold War
On 3 February 1948, the facility was named Lackland AFB after Brigadier General Frank Lackland, who was commissioned into the regular Army after serving in the District of Columbia National Guard. It shared Basic Military Training status temporarily with Sampson AFB during the Korean War and Amarillo AFB during the Vietnam War until Amarillo's closure in 1968.
As a result of the Korean War, training populations at Lackland soared to 28 basic military training squadrons (BMTS) within the 3700th Military Training Wing. Temporary facilities, to include 129 "I dormitories", were hastily erected as a quick fix to replace tents cities housing recruits. In 1955 the number of BMTS was reduced to 16, where it remained for the next two decades.
The Vietnam War buildup necessitated a "split-phase" training from August 1965 to April 1966. This program provided for 22 days at Lackland and 8 days at a technical school, with directed duty assignees receiving the full 30 days at Lackland. When BMT returned to a single phase on 1 April 1966, it was briefly cut back to 24 days from April to July 1966. After that, basic training stabilized at a length of six weeks. This was the same length as the program used by the Army Air Forces when Lackland opened as a basic training base 20 years before. Training requirements also expanded to include teaching English to Allied military members from foreign countries.
No other item in the 1960s compared to the incident that occurred at Lackland in February 1966 with the death of a basic trainee. An airman died of spinal meningitis and while ten other cases were confirmed, no other deaths were reported. Virtually all non-essential activities requiring gatherings of basic trainees were canceled. To control the issue further, a cadre of personnel was assigned to activate the 3330th Basic Military Training School at Amarillo AFB in Amarillo, Texas, in February 1966. As a result of the continuing expansion of the USAF, Amarillo AFB continued to conduct basic training until December 1968.
During the 1960s, more permanent facilities were constructed, including four 1,000-person steel and brick Recruit Housing and Training (RH&T) dormitories built between 1966 and 1970 for basic military training by the Lackland Military Training Center. These state-of-the-art buildings included living space, dining halls, and training areas for four basic training squadrons under one roof. Eventually six full-size dormitories, and two 600-person facilities, were constructed, enabling excess space to be converted to classroom use.
Air Defense Command
In late 1951, Air Defense Command selected Lackland AFB as one of twenty-eight radar stations built as part of the second segment of the permanent radar surveillance network. Prompted by the start of the Korean War, on 11 July 1950, the Secretary of the Air Force asked the Secretary of Defense for approval to expedite construction of the second segment of the permanent network. Receiving the Defense Secretary's approval on 21 July, the Air Force directed the Corps of Engineers to proceed with construction.
On 1 February 1953, the 741st Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron was activated at Lackland (P-75) with an AN/FPS-3 search radar and an AN/FPS-4 height-finder radar. In 1958 the AN/FPS-4 height-finder radar was replaced by AN/FPS-6 and AN/FPS-6A sets.
By late 1959, Lackland was also performing air-traffic-control duties for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). At this time the site hosted an AN/FPS-20A radar. One AN/FPS-6 was retired by 1963. On 31 July 1963, the site was redesignated as NORAD ID Z-75.
In addition to the main facility, Lackland operated an AN/FPS-14 Gap Filler site:
Schulenburg, TX (P-75A):
In 1965, AN/FPS-20A was upgraded to an AN/FPS-91A radar, then in 1969 it was modified to an AN/FPS-66A. The 741st Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron was inactivated in December 1969, and the FAA assumed control of the radar site.
In September 1972, the Houston-based 630th Radar Squadron sent a detachment (OL-D) to this FAA-operated site to set up an AN/FPS-6 height-finder radar to join the AN/FPS-66A search radar already in place (Z-241). The Air Force ceased using the Lackland AFB radar site on 30 September 1976.
Today, the Lackland ADC site has been taken over by the FAA (also known as 'San Antonio') and remains in operation. This now-FAA long-range radar site is now data-tied into the Joint Surveillance System. The site still operates the AN/FPS-66A search radar.
Post–Cold War era
From the end of the Cold War, Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) actions in the 1990s relocated several specialized training programs at Lackland. This included Air Education and Training Command's relocation of Air Force Officer Training School (OTS) from Lackland to Maxwell AFB in Montgomery, Alabama.
Lackland gained a flying mission when adjacent Kelly AFB closed in 2001. The two-mile-long runway is now a joint-use facility between Lackland AFB and Port San Antonio. The portion of the former Kelly AFB still under USAF control is now known as Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex and its permanently based flying units include the Air Force Reserve Command's (AFRC) 433d Airlift Wing, an Air Mobility Command (AMC)-gained unit flying the C-5 Galaxy and the 149th Fighter Wing of the Texas Air National Guard, an AETC-gained unit flying the F-16 Fighting Falcon. The civilian side of the former Kelly AFB is now known as Port San Antonio and hosts numerous major DoD defense contractors such as Boeing and Lockheed Martin, many of which directly or indirectly support major overhaul and repair of military aircraft previously conducted, and in facilities previously occupied, by the Air Force's former San Antonio Air Logistics Center (SA-ALC) when Kelly was an active Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) and Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) installation.
In addition, with the closure of Kelly AFB, Lackland gained the section of base known as Security Hill. Security Hill is home to numerous units such as Air Combat Command's 24th Air Force and 67th Network Warfare Wing and the Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency. All units on Security Hill are considered tenant units.
Lackland now consists of the Kelly airstrip, Security Hill, main base Lackland, and the old Medina officer training base now named Medina/Lackland Training Annex. With the exception of a few buildings most of the old Kelly air base including the housing has been turned over to civilian jurisdiction.
On 15 May 2009, USAF officials announced that Lackland is the preferred alternative location for the 24th Air Force.
In winter of 2009 it was decided to combine all the military bases in San Antonio into one large base named Joint Base San Antonio.
In April 2012 Lackland served as an overflow shelter for an influx of illegal immigrant minors after the Administration for Children and Families determined that all other local shelters were filled to capacity.
On 28 October 2013, the Military Working Dog Teams National Monument was unveiled during a dedication ceremony with full military fanfare. The U.S. National Monument was authorized with the passage of Public Law 110–181, Section 2877, (having been introduced to Congress by Rep. Walter B. Jones) which was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush. The monument was built next to the Basic Military Training Parade Field, that location being chosen due to the historical significance of the base as the training center and headquarters of the United States Department of Defense Military Working Dog Program.
Sexual assault scandal
In the United States Air Force Basic Training scandal, involving sexual assault on the base, dozens of female and male recruits said that they were sexually harassed or raped by their instructors from 2010 onward.
2016 shooting
On 8 April 2016, an airman on the base shot and killed a squadron commander, then killed himself.
Kelly Field Renaming
In December 2017, Lackland AFB renamed Kelly Field Annex to Kelly Field to commemorate the 100 year anniversary of the airfield becoming property of the US Government and to better fit its joint nature
Chapman Training Annex Renaming
On March 4, 2020, Medina Training Annex was renamed to Chapman Training Annex after Medal of Honor recipient Master Sgt. John A. Chapman
Demographics
Lackland Air Force Base CDP is a census-designated place (CDP) covering the permanent residential population of the Lackland Air Force Base in Bexar County, Texas, United States. Per the 2020 census, the population was 9,467. It does include the Kelly Field annex or the Lakeland training annex.
2020 census
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,123 people, 174 households, and 152 families residing on the base. The population density was 642.6/km2 (1,662.6/mi2). There were 412 housing units at an average density of 37.2/km2 (96.2/mi2). The racial makeup of the town was 65.20% White, 19.01% Black or African American, 0.86% Native American, 3.64% Asian, 0.32% Pacific Islander, 2.20% from other races, and 8.77% from two or more races. 13.77% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 174 households, out of which 79.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.0% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 12.6% were non-families. 12.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 3.49 and the average family size was 3.78.
On the base the population was spread out, with 5.3% under the age of 18, 79.8% from 18 to 24, 14.5% from 25 to 44, 0.4% from 45 to 64, and none who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 20 years. For every 100 females, there were 256 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 267.3 males.
The median income for a household in the base was $32,250, and the median income for a family was $31,923. Males had a median income of $16,435 versus $15,572 for females. The per capita income for the base was $10,048. 7.3% of the population and 6.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 7.3% of those under the age of 18 were living below the poverty line.
See also
433rd Security Forces Squadron
Texas Cryptology Center
Texas World War II Army Airfields
Air Training Command
Twenty-Fourth Air Force
United States general surveillance radar stations
References
External links
Lackland AFB official site
Lackland AFB Personnel Locator
USAF: A Narrative History of Lackland Air Force Base
USAF BMT Flight Photograph Project
802nd Force Support Squadron (formerly Lackland Services) Website
Unofficial website
Lackland Air Force Base at LacklandAFB.com (Comprehensive Lackland AFB Directory)
BRAC 2005: Closings, Realignments to Reshape Infrastructure
Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Colonel Edward B. Westermann from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Military Working Dog Teams National Monument official site
Installations of the United States Air Force in Texas
Initial United States Air Force installations
USAF Air Training Command Installations
Census-designated places in Texas
Military installations in Texas
Radar stations of the United States Air Force
Aerospace Defense Command military installations
Buildings and structures in San Antonio
1941 establishments in Texas
Military airbases established in 1941
Joint Base San Antonio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20O%27Conor%20Sloane
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T. O'Conor Sloane
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Thomas O'Conor Sloane (November 24, 1851 – August 7, 1940) was an American scientist, inventor, author, editor, educator, and linguist, perhaps best known for writing The Standard Electrical Dictionary and as the editor of Scientific American, from 1886 to 1896 and the first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, from 1929 to 1938.
Life and career
Sloane was born in New York City in 1851, eventually moving to South Orange, New Jersey while maintaining work offices in New York City.
Education
Sloane was academically exceptional, graduating with an A.B. from the College of St. Francis Xavier in NYC in 1869 at only eighteen years of age. He then earned an E.M from Columbia University in NYC in 1872, an A.M. from the College of St. Francis Xavier in 1873, a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Columbia University in 1876 and later, an LL.D. from the College of St. Francis Xavier. It has also been stated that Sloane held a Ph.D. in chemistry, although beyond his extensive professional experience in the field of chemistry there does not seem to be evidence to support this.
Early career
Sloane was employed as a chemist by the N.Y. Gas Light Co. in 1872 and in 1877 as chief engineer for Citizens' Gas Light Co. in Brooklyn.
Self-recording photometer for gas power
Sloane's best known invention, introduced in 1878, was the self-recording photometer for gas power — the first instrument to mechanically register the illuminating power of natural gas. He was granted a patent for the invention January 29, 1884. In 1877, Sloane had described a new process for determining sulphur in natural gas. He also served as a scientific expert in patent lawsuits.
Works
Sloane was the author of The Standard Electrical Dictionary, first published in 1892, as well as Arithmetic of Electricity: A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations, Electricity Simplified: The Practice and Theory of Electricity, Questions and Answers About Electricity: A First Book for Students: Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, Electric Toy Making for Amateurs, How to Become a Successful Electrician, The Electrician's Handy Book, Practical Electricity, An Electrical Library, Elementary Electrical Calculations, A Manual of Simple Engineering Mathematics: Covering the Whole Field of Direct Current Calculations, Speed and Fun with Figures, Rapid Arithmetic: Quick and Special Methods in Arithmetical Calculation, Fortunes in Formulas for Home, Farm, and Workshop, Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Formulas, Processes and Trade Secrets, Motion Picture Projection, Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases, Home Experiments in Science, Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber, Facts Worth Knowing and others; including translations into English of Saint Francis of Assisi: A Biography written by Johannes Jorgensen and The Electric Light: Its History, Production, and Applications by Alglave and Boulard.
A copy of Electric Toy Making for Amateurs is held by the Smithsonian Libraries.
Sloane was also a prodigious contributor to many and various scientific and other publications such as the Encyclopædia Britannica, Annual Cyclopedia, Alden's Cyclopedia, The Catholic Encyclopedia, The Independent, The Times newspaper (London) and Popular Science.
Scientific American
Sloane was the editor of Scientific American from 1886 to 1896, contributing over fifty scientific articles to the magazine during his tenure.
Sloane also served on the editorial staff of several other popular periodicals such as Everyday Engineering Magazine, Plumber and Sanitary Engineer, Youth's Companion, The Experimenter (formerly, Practical Electrics) and Science and Invention (formerly, The Electrical Experimenter).
Seton Hall University
Sloane was a professor of natural sciences and higher mathematics at Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey, having first joined the faculty in 1883 and teaching there non-continuously through the 1890s. In 1894, Sloane was elected to the Board of Trustees, while also continuing in his capacity as a member of the faculty.
New Jersey State Board of Education
Sloane was a member of the New Jersey State Board of Education (1905–11) and lectured in its educational series for several years.
American Chemical Society
Sloane served as treasurer for the American Chemical Society from 1882 to 1886 and wrote articles about the US mineral industry for the Journal of the American Chemical Society.
Chemical Institute of New York
For many years Sloane was the educational director of the Chemical Institute of New York, which provided a distance-learning course of study in chemistry. The courses were copyrighted. The institute advertised heavily in the periodicals of the day (magazine ad for the Chemical Institute of New York, 1922), like Popular Mechanics, Popular Science, Amazing Stories, Radio-Craft and The Experimenter.
Amazing Stories
Sloane was involved with Hugo Gernsback's Amazing Stories from the very beginning, his editorial work at The Experimenter and Science and Invention magazines, published by Gernsback's Experimenter Publishing led to Sloane's involvement with Amazing Stories when Gernsback merged the two magazines, devoting the editorial and printing time, resources and distribution from The Experimenter to the newly created Amazing Stories and retaining Sloane to edit the magazine with Gernsback having the final say over the fiction content (see also, history of US science fiction and fantasy magazines to 1950). Sloane served as the managing editor for the first issue of Amazing Stories (April 1926) and as the associate editor from the second issue (May 1926) on. His role in the magazine production continued to grow and in 1929 when B. A. MacKinnon purchased Experimenter Publishing then sold it to Bernarr Macfadden, Sloane was named editor (November 1929 issue).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Asimov |first1=Isaac |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |date=1995 |publisher=Bantam / Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-553-56997-1 |page=280 |edition=Bantam paperback |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4k-DwAAQBAJ&q=catholic+who%27s+who+t.+o%27conor+sloane&pg=PA280 |access-date=April 19, 2020 |quote=The subject of book titles came up after T. O'Conor Sloane of Doubleday (who was the grandson of the man who succeeded Hugo Gernsback as editor of Amazing) suggested I prepare a book of short biographies... }}</ref> Of note, Sloane's managing editor at Amazing Stories was Miriam Bourne, in a time when women were particularly underrepresented in the science fiction publishing world; as well, Sloane and later, Raymond A. Palmer, advanced and expanded upon Gernsback's mandate for the magazine, actively publishing women SF writers, poets and science journalists, progressing the industry.
Sloane was one of several stockholders owning significant shares in the Experimenter Publishing Company, Inc., New York, NY.
Sloane published first stories by science fiction authors including John W. Campbell, Jr., Eando Binder, John Russell Fearn, S. P. Meek, John Benyon Harris, Henry Hasse and E. E. "Doc" Smith and a first poem by Frederik Pohl. Sloane published a first science fiction story by Howard Fast, early work by Neil R. Jones, Charles R. Tanner, Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, Edmond Hamilton, Harold Vincent Schoepflin (Harl Vincent), David H. Keller, Miles J. Breuer, Stanton A. Coblentz, George Henry Weiss (Francis Flagg), Alfred Johannes Olsen (Bob Olsen) and Leslie Francis Silberberg (Leslie F. Stone), one of the first women writing science fiction pulp; and as associate editor was directly involved in the publication of first stories by Philip Francis Nowlan, Jack Williamson, Alpheus Hyatt Verrill and many other important science fiction writers, including Clare Winger Harris, one of the first women writing science fiction and who is credited with being the first woman to publish stories using her own name in science fiction magazines. During Sloane's tenure as associate editor, the magazine published "The Colour Out of Space" by H. P. Lovecraft, in the September 1927 issue. As editor, Sloane is credited with accepting but not publishing the first science fiction story written by Clifford D. Simak who submitted "Cubes of Ganymede" to Amazing Stories early in 1931. Sloane held onto the story for years, finally returning it to Simak as being outdated.
Sloane also managed to publish a story, "The Universal Merry-Go-Round" by Roger Bird in the April 1933 edition of Amazing Stories that science fiction historian Mike Ashley refers to as "what could arguably be called the worst story ever published in an American sf magazine....This story is so bad as to be compulsive reading, and no plot summary can do it justice." On the other hand, he published the only stories of the equally unknown W. K. Sonneman, who science fiction historian Sam Moskowitz considered to be a "writer among writers" and a "'master' of science fiction."
Professor Jameson
Sloane published the first Professor Jameson story by Neil R. Jones, "The Jameson Satellite," launching the series and publishing the next eleven stories. The series was among the most popular in the science fiction pulp magazines of the 1930s and Isaac Asimov credits it as being an influence on his own science fiction writing.Ashley, Mike (April 1989). "The Immortal Professor". Astro Adventures (7): 3. Frederik Pohl was also a fan of the Professor Jameson stories which have become the longest surviving series in science fiction.
Buck Rogers
Sloane was the associate editor of Amazing Stories when the first Buck Rogers story, a novella, "Armageddon - 2419 A.D." by Phillip Francis Nowlan was published in the August 1928 edition of Amazing Stories. By early 1929, Buck Rogers was appearing as a syndicated comic strip and inspired the creation of Flash Gordon, John Carter of Mars and others. "The Airlords of Han," a sequel, was published in the March 1929 issue of Amazing Stories. In 1960, these two novellas were combined into one novel, titled Armageddon 2419 A.D.(no longer included the dash in the title).
The first space opera
Sloane was the associate editor of Amazing Stories when the first space opera, "The Skylark of Space" by E. E. "Doc" Smith was published in the August 1928 edition of Amazing Stories. Science fiction historians Sam Moskowitz and Joe Sanders state that Sloane, while associate editor, accepted "The Skylark of Space" for publication. As editor, Sloane published the second installment, "Skylark Three," as a three-part serial in the August to October 1930 issues of Amazing Stories. Smith's novel, Spacehounds of IPC, serialized in the August, September, and October 1931 issues of the magazine, introduced the term "tractor beam" to the popular culture.
The scholarly octogenarian
Much discussion by science fiction fans and historians has surrounded assigning credit during the Gernsback era to the various editors of Amazing Stories for publishing first works by writers during this early period of the genre, who then went on to become giants of science fiction, based on the chronology of their job title on the masthead of Amazing Stories. Additionally, the octogenarian Sloane has been criticized for routinely taking an inordinate amount of time to respond to writers anxious to hear back from Amazing Stories on the status of their submission, such as with Simak's work or that of Malcolm Afford and Raymond Z. Gallun, and on one occasion famously losing a manuscript, Invaders from the Infinite by John W. Campbell, Jr. (later found, Sloane published it in Amazing Stories Quarterly). Some context provides a measure of insight regarding these matters. Science fiction historian Mike Ashley writes in The Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the Beginning to 1950 (Liverpool University Press, 2000): "Essentially Sloane was the editor. He read the new fiction and moulded the magazine's contents, leaving the gimmickry and ideas to Gernsback." During the subsequent transition of Amazing Stories' ownership, Ashley writes: "Gernsback was no longer its editor. Although Miriam Bourne was by now Managing Editor, Arthur Lynch was brought in as Editor-in-Chief. However the main job was done by Sloane. The change came with the May 1929 issue, and by the November 1929 issue Sloane was fully in charge." Science fiction historians Peter Nicholls and John Clute support Ashley's work in their book The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (Granada, 1979) by stating that Sloane "carried much responsibility for the actual running of the magazines [Amazing Stories and Amazing Stories Quarterly], though they were in the overall charge of, successively, Hugo Gernsback and Arthur Lynch. He succeeded to the editorship...in 1929." Eric Davin in Pioneers of Wonder (Prometheus Books, 1999) states "and T. O'Conor Sloane, Amazing's associate editor (who handled the actual editorial chores)...." Alexei Panshin, writing in Fantastic Stories and with Cory Panshin in SF in Dimension: A Book of Explorations, states that Sloane had been "editor-in-fact" for Gernsback. This is also treated by science fiction historian Gary Westfahl, writing in DePauw University's journal Science Fiction Studies.
Cover art
In 1933, Sloane experimented with a series of surreal cover art for Amazing Stories by artist A. Sigmond which science fiction historian Mike Ashley states were revolutionary for their time but were not warmly received by the readership. Leo Morey was a prodigious producer of cover art for Amazing Stories; Hans Waldemar Wessolowski (Wesso) also produced cover art for the magazine.
Space travel
Sloane's editorial essays for the March and July 1930 issues of Amazing Stories detail why he did not believe that space travel was possible. His doubt in the matter was a scientific one, believing that the pilot of a rocket ship attaining escape velocity would be crushed by the g-force experienced. It was not until the high-altitude and centrifuge tests of the late 1950s that this question was answered.
Gernsback and Sloane
Gernsback and Sloane had a long and productive working relationship that began in 1920 and continued through Gernsback's departure from Amazing Stories. Gernsback and Sloane believed that science fiction should promote science and technology and that the stories published in Amazing Stories should be as scientifically plausible as possible, with Sloane in particular emphasizing this. Sloane may have collaborated with Gernsback in originating the term "scientifiction" which was superseded by "science fiction" to describe this genre, as suggested in part by the first issue of Amazing Stories.
Ziff-Davis
In 1938, publisher Ziff-Davis bought the magazine and moved its production from New York City to Chicago, naming Raymond A. Palmer as Sloane's successor.
Amazing Stories Quarterly
From 1929 to 1934, Sloane was the editor of Amazing Stories Quarterly, which had begun publication in 1928 with Sloane serving as the associate editor, it was the companion publication to Amazing Stories and the successor to Amazing Stories Annual; it ceased production in 1934. Featuring a complete novel in each edition as well as short stories, Amazing Stories Quarterly published, particularly during the early 1930s, what science fiction historians Mike Ashley, Brian Stableford, Milton Wolf, Robert Silverberg and others regard to be important work in the genre and among the best early pulp science fiction novels.
2014 Retro Hugo Award
Sloane was nominated for the 2014 Retro Hugo Award in the Best Editor, Short Form award category but fell below the nominations cutoff by one vote.
Family
Sloane married Isabel Mitchel, who was born (September 1852) in Van Diemen's Land to John Mitchel and Jane "Jenny" Mitchel; she died in childbirth (1879). Sloane's son, T. O'Conor Sloane, Jr. became a well-known photographer; another son, John Eyre Sloane, an airplane factory owner, married Thomas Alva Edison's daughter Madeleine in 1914; their four sons were Edison's only grandchildren. Sloane's grandson was T. O'Conor Sloane III, a senior editor at Doubleday. Sloane's grandfather was Thomas O'Conor, a journalist and author who established three newspapers, the Military Monitor, the Shamrock and the Globe.
Death
Sloane died in 1940 in South Orange, New Jersey.
BibliographyThe Standard Electrical DictionaryArithmetic of Electricity: A Practical Treatise on Electrical CalculationsElectricity Simplified: The Practice and Theory of ElectricityQuestions and Answers About Electricity: A First Book for Students: Theory of Electricity and MagnetismElectric Toy Making for AmateursHow to Become a Successful ElectricianThe Electrician's Handy BookPractical ElectricityAn Electrical LibraryElementary Electrical CalculationsA Manual of Simple Engineering Mathematics: Covering the Whole Field of Direct Current CalculationsSpeed and Fun with FiguresRapid Arithmetic: Quick and Special Methods in Arithmetical CalculationFortunes in Formulas for Home, Farm, and WorkshopHenley's Twentieth Century Book of Formulas, Processes and Trade SecretsMotion Picture ProjectionLiquid Air and the Liquefaction of GasesHome Experiments in ScienceRubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India RubberFacts Worth Knowing''
References
External links
1851 births
1940 deaths
Science fiction editors
Seton Hall University faculty
Amazing Stories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FUNCINPEC
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FUNCINPEC
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The National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia, commonly referred to as FUNCINPEC, is a royalist political party in Cambodia. Founded in 1981 by Norodom Sihanouk, it began as a resistance movement against the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) government. In 1982, it formed a resistance pact with the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK), together with the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) and the Khmer Rouge. It became a political party in 1992.
FUNCINPEC was one of the signatories of the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, which paved the way for the formation of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC). The party participated in the 1993 general elections organised by UNTAC. It won the elections, and formed a coalition government with the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), with which it jointly headed. Norodom Ranariddh, Sihanouk's son who had succeeded him as the party president, became First Prime Minister while Hun Sen, who was from the CPP, became Second Prime Minister.
In July 1997, violent clashes occurred between factional forces separately allied to FUNCINPEC and the CPP, leading to Ranariddh's ouster from his position as First Prime Minister. Ranariddh subsequently returned from exile in March 1998 and led the party to the 1998 general elections, which was won by CPP with FUNCINPEC as the first runner-up. Subsequently, FUNCINPEC joined CPP again, this time as a junior partner in a coalition government. Ranariddh was appointed as the President of the National Assembly, a post which he held until 2006 when he was ousted from FUNCINPEC by the party's former secretary-general Nhek Bun Chhay. At the same time, FUNCINPEC continued to see its share of voters and seats in the national assembly drop over the general elections of 2003, 2008 and 2013, with the party failing to win a single seat in the National Assembly at the 2013 general elections. In January 2015, Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC, and was re-appointed as the party's president. The current acting president is Norodom Ranariddh's son, Prince Norodom Chakravuth.
Name
FUNCINPEC is a French acronym for Front uni national pour un Cambodge indépendant, neutre, pacifique, et coopératif, which translates as "National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia" in English. However, the party is commonly known by its acronym, used in the form of a word.
History
Formative years
On 21 March 1981, Sihanouk founded FUNCINPEC, a royalist resistance movement, from Pyongyang, North Korea. Over the next few months, Sihanouk forged closer ties with the Chinese government as he saw the need of gathering resistance armies sympathetic to FUNCINPEC, such as MOULINAKA (Movement for the National Liberation of Kampuchea). He had resisted earlier attempts between 1979 till 1981 by the Chinese government for him to forge political alliances with the Khmer Rouge, whom he had accused of killing his own family members during the Cambodian genocide. However, he reconsidered his position over allying with the Khmer Rouge, with whom they shared a common goal of ousting the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) government, which was under Vietnam's influence. In September 1981, Sihanouk met with Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) leader Son Sann and Khmer Rouge leader Khieu Samphan to establish the framework for a coalition government-in-exile. Subsequently, on 22 June 1982, the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) was formed, and Sihanouk was made its President.
In September 1982, (ANS) was formed by the merger of several pro-FUNCINPEC resistance armies, including MOULINAKA. However, ties between FUNCINPEC with the KPNLF and Khmer Rouge remained tenuous. On the one hand, Son Sann publicly criticised Sihanouk on several occasions, while on the other hand, the Khmer Rouge army periodically attacked the ANS, prompting Sihanouk in threatening to quit as CGDK's president on at least two occasions in June 1983 and July 1985. In December 1987, Sihanouk met with the Prime Minister of the PRK government, Hun Sen in France. The following year in July 1988, the first informal meeting was held in Jakarta, Indonesia between the four warring Cambodian factions consisting of FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge, KPNLF and the PRK government. The meetings were held with a view to end the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, and two additional meetings were later held which became known as the Jakarta Informal Meetings (JIM).
In August 1989, Sihanouk stepped down as the President of FUNCINPEC and was succeeded by Nhiek Tioulong. At the same time, Ranariddh was made the Secretary-General of the party. In September 1990, the four warring Cambodian factions reached an agreement to form the Supreme National Council (SNC), an organisation designed to oversee Cambodia's sovereign affairs in the United Nations on an interim basis. The SNC consisted of twelve members from the four warring Cambodian factions, with two seats going to FUNCINPEC. Sihanouk negotiated to become the 13th member of the SNC, a proposal which Hun Sen initially rejected, but later acceded after Sihanouk relinquished his FUNCINPEC party membership in July 1991. Sihanouk was elected as the chairman of the SNC, and the SNC seats under FUNCINPEC's quota were filled up by Ranariddh and Sam Rainsy. When the Paris Peace Accords were signed in October 1991, Ranariddh represented the party as its signatory.
1993 elections
Ranariddh was elected as FUNCINPEC's president in February 1992. Subsequently, in August 1992, FUNCINPEC formally registered itself as a political party under the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) administration, and started opening party offices across Cambodia the following month. However, party offices and officials faced harassment and attacks from State of Cambodia (SOC) secret police and military intelligence officials. Between November 1992 and January 1993, 18 FUNCINPEC officials were killed and another 22 officials wounded, prompting Ranariddh to call on UNTAC to intervene and end the violence. UNTAC responded by setting up a special prosecutor's office to investigate cases of political violence, but faced resistance from the SOC police in arresting and prosecuting offenders. Most of the violent attacks occurred in the Kampong Cham and Battambang provinces, whereby the governor in the latter province, Ung Sami was found to have been directly involved in the attacks. When UNTAC allowed election campaigns to start in April 1993, FUNCINPEC held few election rallies due to intimidations from SOC police. They campaigned through low-key methods, such as using pick-up trucks to travel around the country and broadcast political messages as well as sending party workers to visit villages in the countryside.
FUNCINPEC had 400,000 members by the time UNTAC allowed political parties to start election campaigns on 7 April 1993. They campaigned on the party's historical relations with Sihanouk as well as Ranariddh's blood ties to his father. Party supporters wore yellow T-shirts depicting Sihanouk, and made rallying calls that "a vote for FUNCINPEC was a vote for Sihanouk". Sihanouk remained popular with the majority of the Cambodian electorate, and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), the successor party to the PRK and SOC governments, was aware of such voter sentiments. In their editorials, the CPP emphasised their efforts to bring about Sihanouk's return to the country in 1991, as well as policy parallels between the CPP and the Sangkum, the political organisation which Sihanouk had led in the 1950s and 1960s.
Voting was carried out between 23 and 28 May 1993 and FUNCINPEC secured 45.47% of all valid votes cast, which entitled them to take up 58 out of 120 seats in the constituent assembly FUNCINPEC obtained the most seats in Kampong Cham, Kandal and Phnom Penh. The CPP came in second place and secured 38.23% of valid votes, and were unhappy with the outcome of the elections. On 3 June 1993, CPP leaders Chea Sim and Hun Sen met with Sihanouk to propose that he should lead a new interim government, and also demanding power-sharing for the CPP with FUNCINPEC on a fifty-fifty basis. Sihanouk agreed to the CPP's proposal and announced the formation of an interim government that evening. Ranariddh and other FUNCINPEC leaders were not consulted over Sihanouk's proposal, and the announcement caught them by surprise. Ranariddh sent a fax to his father to disapprove of the CPP's proposal, and the United States expressed a similar stance. Sihanouk publicly rescinded his earlier announcement of the interim government's formation the following day.
On 10 June 1993, Chakrapong led a secession movement and threatened to form a breakaway state consisting of seven eastern Cambodian provinces. Chakrapong had by then joined the CPP was supported by the interior minister, General Sin Song and Hun Sen's older brother, Hun Neng. The secession movement pressured Ranariddh to accede to CPP's request for power-sharing, and Hun Sen subsequently persuaded his brother to drop the secession movement. Four days later, the first constituent assembly meeting was held which saw an interim government being formed, with Hun Sen and Ranariddh serving as co-Prime Ministers in a dual Prime Ministership arrangement. There were a total of thirty-three cabinet posts available, while the CPP got sixteen, FUNCINPEC got thirteen and the other coalition partners got the four remaining posts available. When Sihanouk was re-instated as the King of Cambodia on 24 September 1993, he formalised the power-sharing arrangement by appointing Ranariddh as the First Prime Minister and Hun Sen as the Second Prime Minister in the new government.
FUNCINPEC under Ranariddh's co-premiership
The new government shrunk the number of cabinet portfolios to twenty-three, which were equally divided between FUNCINPEC and CPP, each getting eleven ministries under their charge while the BLDP was allocated one cabinet post. The CPP gave away half of all provincial governor posts available to FUNCINPEC, but kept most of the local government posts consisting of district and commune chiefs as well as civil service positions to its party appointees. Ranariddh developed a good working relationship with Hun Sen, which was maintained until March 1996. The UN secretary-general's representative to Cambodia, Benny Widyono noted that while both of them appeared together in public functions, Hun Sen held more political sway as compared to Ranariddh in the government. In October 1994, Ranariddh and Hun Sen sacked Sam Rainsy as FUNCINPEC's finance minister after he repeatedly leaked confidential documents and corruption in a public manner. Rainsy's sacking upset Norodom Sirivudh, the secretary-general for FUNCINPEC and Minister of Foreign Affairs to resign from his ministerial post at the same time. Rainsy continued to criticise the government in his capacity as a Member of Parliament (MP), and Ranariddh introduced a motion to expel Rainsy from the National Assembly and FUNCINPEC.
In October 1995, Sirivudh talked about his desire to assassinate Hun Sen during an interview with So Naro, who was the secretary-general of the Khmer Journalists Association. A few days later Ung Phan, a FUNCINPEC minister who had close ties with Hun Sen, called Sirivudh and accused him of getting involved in receiving kickbacks for printing Cambodian passports. Sirivudh angrily denied the accusations and threatened to kill Hun Sen over the phone. The phone conversation was recorded, and Ung Phan passed the recorded phone conversation to CPP co-minister of the interior Sar Kheng. Hun Sen learnt of the conversation and became enraged at Sirivudh's comments, and pressured Ranariddh and other FUNCINPEC ministers to strip his parliamentary immunity so that he could be arrested. Sirivudh was arrested and briefly placed in detention, but subsequently exiled to France when Sihanouk intervened in the case.
The following January, FUNCINPEC held a closed-door seminar at Sihanoukville, attended by selected party members close to Ranariddh. The attendees expressed concern of CPP's attempts to dominate over FUNCINPEC, and a resolution was adopted to build up the military strength of pro-FUNCINPEC forces within the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF). At the same time, party members had become increasingly resentful at Ranariddh for not getting party posts despite campaigning for the party in the 1993 elections. When the party congress was held on 22 March 1996, Ranariddh criticized the CPP, complaining over a range of issues that ranged from delays in allocating local government posts to FUNCINPEC officials, to the lack of executive authority of FUNCINPEC cabinet ministers vis-a-vis their CPP counterparts. Ranariddh threatened to dissolve the National Assembly and hold elections, should FUNCINPEC's concerns be ignored. Subsequently, the CPP issue an official statement to protest Ranariddh's criticisms.
Hun Sen developed a belligerent attitude towards Ranariddh and FUNCINPEC, calling Ranariddh a "real dog" at a CPP party meeting in June 1996. Several months later in January 1997, Ranariddh led FUNCINPEC to forge a political alliance, the National United Front (NUF), with the Khmer Nation Party, Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party and the Khmer Neutral Party. The CPP condemned NUF's formation, and proceeded to form a rival political coalition consisting of political parties ideologically aligned to the former Khmer Republic. Tensions between FUNCINPEC and the CPP worsened even further when armed clashes between Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) troops separately aligned to FUNCINPEC and CPP broke out at Battambang Province on 10 February 1997. On that day, troops under the command of the FUNCINPEC provincial deputy governor, Serey Kosal encountered a convoy of 200 pro-CPP troops who were travelling en route to Samlout. After Serey Kosal's troops disarmed the pro-CPP troops, news of the incident spread to nearby areas and fighting soon broke out between troops from both rival factions, leaving at least 21 troops dead.
On 14 April 1997, Ung Phan announced that he and twelve other FUNCINPEC MPs had decided to break away from the party. Hun Sen applauded the move, pledging support for any initiative within the party to oust Ranariddh as its president. Subsequently, FUNCINPEC's steering committee quickly moved to woo back the defecting MPs, successfully getting back eight of them. At the same time, they expelled the five remaining MPs who refused to comply, including Ung Phan. Subsequently, on 1 June 1997, the renegade MPs convened a rival party congress dubbed as "FUNCINPEC II", which was attended by 800 people. At the congress, the attendees voted for Toan Chhay, the governor of Siem Reap province, as its new president. At the same time, the attendees accused Ranariddh of gross incompetence, who in return declared the congress as illegal and accused the CPP of interfering in the party's affairs.
Ranariddh's ouster and 1998 elections
On 5 July 1997, RCAF troops separately aligned to CPP and FUNCINPEC fought in Phnom Penh, leading to the latter's defeat the following day. Ranariddh, who had sought refuge in France just two days before the fighting was labelled as a "criminal" and "traitor" by Hun Sen for attempting to "destabilise Cambodia". Subsequently, on 11 July 1997, Loy Sim Chheang, FUNCINPEC's First Vice President of the National Assembly, proposed for another FUNCINPEC MP to replace Ranariddh as the First Prime Minister. Five days later, FUNCINPEC's foreign minister Ung Huot was nominated to take his place. When a National Assembly session was held on 6 August 1997, Ung Huot's appointment was endorsed by 90 MPs, consisting of CPP MPs and FUNCINPEC MPs who have switched allegiances to Hun Sen. At the same time, 29 FUNCINPEC MPs who remained loyal to Ranariddh, boycotted the session.
Shortly after Ung Huot's appointment, Toan Chhay who had proclaimed himself as the president of the FUNCINPEC at a rival congress in June 1997, jockeyed for control over the party leadership with Nady Tan, another FUNCINPEC leader who remained sympathetic to Ranariddh. In October 1997, FUNCINPEC supporters allied to Nady Tan proposed renaming the party to "Sangkum Thmei", hoping to capitalise on the electorate's popularity with the Sangkum Reastr Niyum, Sihanouk's political party when he was in power. While FUNCINPEC did not adopt a new name, the name "Sangkum Thmei" was adopted by a splinter party, led by Loy Sim Chheang who later left FUNCINPEC by February 1998. At the same time, Ung Huot followed suit, and formed another splinter party known as "Reastr Niyum".
In early March 1998, a military court convicted Ranariddh guilty of smuggling weapons and causing instability to the country, sentencing him to a total of 35 years of imprisonment. After ASEAN and the European Union stepped in to condemn the sentences, Ranariddh was pardoned of all charges, allowing him to return to Cambodia on 30 March 1998 to prepare for the general elections scheduled to be held in July 1998, allowing Ranariddh to spearhead FUNCINPEC's election campaign. When campaigning for started in late June 1998, FUNCINPEC focused on pro-monarchial sentiments, improving living standards and anti-Vietnamese rhetoric. However, the party faced numerous obstacles, including loss of access to television and radio channels which had come under CPP's exclusive control following the 1997 clashes, and the difficulties of its supporters in getting to party rallies. When the results were announced on 5 August 1998, FUNCINPEC secured 31.7% of all valid votes, which translates to 43 seats in the National Assembly, lagging behind the CPP which polled 41.4% of the votes and secured 64 seats.
As the CPP required a two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to form a government, it offered FUNCINPEC and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), which had come in third place in the elections, to become joint partners of a coalition government. Both Ranariddh and Rainsy, now the leader of his eponymous party refused, and filed complaints against election irregularities to the National Election Committee (NEC). When the NEC turned down their complaints, they organised public protests between 24 August until 7 September 1998, when riot police stepped in to break them up. Subsequently, Sihanouk meditated two meetings in September and November 1998, leading to a political deal being struck between CPP and FUNCINPEC in the second meeting. The deal provided for another coalition government between CPP and FUNCINPEC, with the latter as a junior coalition partner controlling the tourism, justice, education, health, culture and women's-cum-veteran's affairs portfolios. In exchange for FUNCINPEC's support for Hun Sen to become the sole Prime Minister, Ranariddh was made the President of the National Assembly.
Continued co-operation with CPP and Ranariddh's sacking
After becoming the President of the National Assembly, Ranariddh supported the creation of the Cambodian Senate, which was formally established in March 1999. The senate had a total of 61 seats, of which 21 seats were allocated to FUNCINPEC, based on proportional representation vis-a-vis the National Assembly. Over the next few years until 2002, FUNCINPEC maintained cordial ties with the CPP, to which Ranariddh described it as an "eternal partner" during FUNCINPEC's party congress in March 2001. Subsequently, in July 2001, Ranariddh welcomed Sirivudh back into the FUNCINPEC and reappointed him as its secretary-general. The following month, FUNCINPEC replaced several cabinet ministers, governors, and deputy governors from its party. As the deputy secretary general of FUNCINPEC, Nhek Bun Chhay saw it, the reshuffles were done to increase the voters' confidence in the party and prepare for the commune council elections and general elections, which were scheduled to take place in 2002 and 2003 respectively.
When the commune elections were held in February 2002, FUNCINPEC performed poorly, winning control over 10 out of a total of 1,621 communes across Cambodia. Subsequently, rifts within the party boiled into the open as Khan Savoeun, a Deputy Commander-in-chief of the RCAF, accused its co-Minister of the Interior, You Hockry of practising nepotism and corruption. At the same time, Hang Dara and Norodom Chakrapong – the latter had returned to FUNCINPEC in March 1999 – formed their own splinter parties and took along a large number of FUNCINPEC party members. A year later in July 2003, The general elections were held, and took 20.8% of the votes, which entitled them to 26 seats in the National Assembly. While the CPP won the election, it still lacked the constitutional requirement of having a two-thirds majority on its own in forming a new government without the support of other coalition partners.
Subsequently, in August 2003, Ranariddh and Rainsy joined hands once again, forming a political alliance known as the "Alliance of Democrats". While the AD agreed to the idea of a coalition government between the CPP, FUNCINPEC and Rainsy's SRP, they also called for Hun Sen to step down as Prime Minister, and reforming the NEC, which the AD claimed that it was filled with CPP's appointees. Hun Sen balked at accepting AD's demands, leading to several months of political stalemate. During this time, several party activists from FUNCINPEC and SRP were killed, purportedly by henchmen linked to the CPP. At the same time, several FUNCINPEC officials have obtained loans from CPP-linked businessmen which they had used for financing their own election campaigns. These officials lobbied Ranariddh into accepting the idea of a CPP-FUNCINPEC coalition government so as to secure government positions and repay their loans.
Ranariddh eventually acceded in June 2004, walking out of his political alliance with Rainsy and agreed to the idea of a CPP-FUNCINPEC coalition government with Hun Sen remaining in his position as Prime Minister. At the same time, Hun Sen coaxed Ranariddh into supporting a constitutional amendment known as a "package vote", which required MPs to support legislation and ministerial appointments by an open show of hands. While Ranariddh acquiesced to Hun Sen's demand, the "package vote" amendment was opposed by the SRP, Sihanouk and CPP President Chea Sim. Ranariddh's decision to join hands with the CPP was criticised by many FUNCINPEC leaders such as Mu Sochua, subsequently leading to their resignation from the party. On 2 March 2006, the National Assembly passed a constitutional amendment which required only a simple majority of parliamentarians to support a government, instead of the two-thirds majority that was previously stipulated. After the amendment was passed, Hun Sen abruptly fired Norodom Sirivudh and Nhek Bun Chhay, who were FUNCINPEC's co-minister of interior and co-minister of defense. Ranariddh protested the dismissals, resigning as the President of the National Assembly and left Cambodia for France.
After Ranariddh's departure, FUNCINPEC splintered into two camps – one camp by members loyal to Ranariddh, while another camp consisted of members that were allied to Nhek Bun Chhay, who by now had become the party's secretary-general and closely associated with Hun Sen. Hun Sen started attacking Ranariddh, accusing the latter of eloping with Ouk Phalla, a former Apsara dancer in getting her own friends and family members into government posts. At the same time, party leaders from both rival camps started quarreling publicly, with Serey Kosal, a FUNCINPEC minister seen to be allied to Ranariddh, accusing Nhek Bun Chhay of attempting to topple Ranariddh. When an extraordinary congress was held on 18 October 2006, Ranariddh was dismissed as FUNCINPEC's president, who was in turn replaced by his brother-in-law, Keo Puth Rasmey. Nhek Bun Chhay justified Ranariddh's ouster on the grounds of his deteriorating relations with Hun Sen as well as his practice of spending prolonged periods of time overseas.
Interregnum years
On 9 November 2006, Nhek Bun Chhay filed a lawsuit accusing Ranariddh of pocketing $3.6 million from the sale of its headquarters to the French embassy in 2005. Within days, Ranariddh returned to Cambodia, and announced the formation of the Norodom Ranariddh Party (NRP) which he positioned it as an opposition party vis-a-vis the CPP and FUNCINPEC. In March 2007 Ranariddh, who feared the prospect of imprisonment from the embezzlement suit, left Cambodia. Subsequently, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court ruled in Nhek Bun Chhay's favour, ruling Ranariddh guilty and sentencing the latter to 18 months of imprisonment. In October 2007, FUNCINPEC endorsed Norodom Arunrasmy, the wife of Keo Puth Rasmey, as the party's candidate for the post of Prime Minister in the general elections slated to be held in 2008. At the same time, Nhek Bun Chhay mooted the possibility of getting back Ranariddh into FUNCINPEC, fearing that the party might have lost its popularity following Ranariddh's ouster.
When the general elections were held in July 2008, FUNCINPEC won 2 seats in the National Assembly as most of the party's supporters voted for the CPP, which won the elections and secured 90 seats in the National Assembly. As a result of its losses incurred in the general election, the CPP took over ministerial positions which were formerly held by FUNCINPEC MPs since 2004, although it still allowed Nhek Bun Chhay to remain in his position as Deputy Prime Minister, while 32 senior party members were appointed as secretary-of-state and undersecretary-of-state positions. In the next few months after the elections, the Phnom Penh Post reported that at least 10 percent of its members defected to the CPP, including its former ministers Pou Sothirak and Sun Chhanthol. In February 2009, FUNCINPEC signed an agreement with the NRP to cooperate for the commune council elections that was slated to take place in May 2009. When the elections took place in that month, the FUNCINPEC-NRP alliance only secured less than 0.1% of all votes cast for the provincial, municipal and district-level seats.
Both FUNCINPEC and NRP held tentative discussions on the possibility of a party merger in June 2009 and April 2010, with both parties agreeing to an electoral alliance in June 2010 as a first step towards an eventual merger. In December 2010, Ranariddh publicly for FUNCINPEC and NRP to merge, suggesting that the new party borne out of the merger be named "FUNCINPEC 81", with "81" as a reference point to the year which Sihanouk founded FUNCINPEC in 1981. Sihanouk quickly distanced himself from any association with the party, and posted a website on his website iterating his unequivocal support for Hun Sen and the CPP government. In response, Ranariddh pledged that he would similarly support Hun Sen should the party merger be realised. Nhek Bun Chhay balked at Ranariddh's suggestion, saying that the party merger would cause "difficulties" with the party's continued partnership with the CPP, while the party issued an official statement rejecting Ranariddh's proposal.
In April 2011, Nhek Bun Chhay was elected as the party's president, replacing Keo Puth Rasmey who in turn was appointed the party's chairperson. Thirteen months later, Nhek Bun Chhay and Ranariddh signed an agreement to merge NRP into FUNCINPEC, which provided for Ranariddh to become FUNCINPEC's president with Nhek Bun Chhay as his deputy. The agreement was brokered by Hun Sen, who wanted both parties to reunite. However, the merger agreement fell apart, as Nhek Bun Chhay and Ranariddh accused each other of harbouring thoughts of supporting other opposition parties. Subsequently, in March 2013, Nhek Bun Chhay was succeeded by Norodom Arunrasmy as the party's president, who in turn resumed his former role as the party's secretary-general. When general elections were held in July 2013, FUNCINPEC suffered defeat as it lost its remaining two seats which it held in the National Assembly. In turn, Nhek Bun Chhay relinquished his Deputy Prime Minister position and was made a government adviser, although the CPP-led government appointed 28 FUNCINPEC members as undersecretaries of state.
Ranariddh's return
In early January 2015, Ranariddh expressed his intent to return to FUNCINPEC. At the party congress held on 19 January 2015, Ranariddh was reappointed as FUNCINPEC president, succeeding Arunrasmy who was appointed as its first vice-president, while Nhek Bun Chhay was appointed as second vice-president. However, rifts between Nhek Bun Chhay and Ranariddh quickly surfaced as the both of them sparred with each other over the right to use the party stamp and the appointment of Say Hak as the party's secretary general. Ranariddh eventually gained the upper hand, and Say Hak's appointment was reaffirmed at another party congress held in March 2015. He also managed to convince party delegates present at the congress to adopt a new party logo. At the same time, Ranariddh appointed four more vice-presidents to the party's executive committee, namely You Hockry, Por Bun Sreu, Nuth Sokhom and Nhep Bun Chin.
In July 2015, FUNCINPEC announced the formation of the Cambodian Royalist Youth Movement, a youth organisation aimed at garnering electoral support for the party from younger voters. Meanwhile, tension persisted between Nhek Bun Chhay and Ranariddh, which erupted into a public spat, as Ranariddh threatened to expelled Nhek Bun Chhay who in turn, accused the party president of holding a grudge against him. Subsequently, on 3 February 2016, Nhek Bun Chhay announced that he was quitting the party, and went on to form his new party, the Khmer National United Party (KNUP). The KNUP adopted a logo which was similar to a former logo of FUNCINPEC, featuring the Cambodian Independence Monument. The secretary-general, Say Hak accepted Nhek Bun Chhay's resignation, while at the same time challenged KNUP's use of its new logo as he lodged a successful complaint with the interior ministry.
FUNCINPEC declared on 1 June 2017 that it is open to legalizing same-sex marriage. The party came runners-up to the Cambodian People's Party in the 2018 general election but did not win any seats in a vote described by multiple observers as a "formality".
Military
FUNCINPEC had its own military forces, which was first known as the (ANS) when it was formed on 4 September 1982. The ANS was an amalgamation of several armed resistance movements that have pledged alliances with Sihanouk. They consisted of MOULINAKA, Kleang Moeung, Oddar Tus and Khmer Angkor, giving the ANS a combined strength of 7,000 troops. In Tam, a former Prime Minister of the Khmer Republic, was appointed as the Commander-in-chief of the ANS in its founding year. In the initial years of after its formation, the ANS received weapons and equipment from China, as well as medical supplies and combat training for its troops from Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. At the same time, the ANS regularly faced attacks from the Khmer Rouge forces until 1987, suffering heavy casualties as a result.
In March 1985, Sihanouk appointed one of his sons, Norodom Chakrapong as the deputy chief-of-staff of ANS. The following January, Sihanouk appointed another son, Norodom Ranariddh as the ANS chief-of-staff. Ranariddh was also made the Commander-in-chief of the ANS, replacing In Tam. When the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1991, the ANS had a total of 17,500 troops under its command, although it was reduced to 14,000 after the UNTAC attempted a demobilisation exercise that lasted between May and September 1992. In 1993, the ANS was amalgamated into the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), together with the Cambodian People's Armed Forces (CPAF) and KPNLF armed forces, under UNTAC supervision. However, troops from each of the three former armies retained their factional loyalties to their respective former resistance affiliations. The ex-ANS troops came under the command of General Nhek Bun Chhay, who served as the deputy chief of staff for the RCAF between 1993 and 1997.
In the years between 1993 till 1996, the Cambodian defence ministry attempted to integrate the different factions together, but were unsuccessful. In a dossier written by Nhek Bun Chhay around mid-1997, there were 80,800 pro-FUNCINPEC troops, which were divided into 11 battalions across the country. Nhek also express concern of the inferior troop strength of the pro-FUNCINPEC forces, as they were slightly outnumbered compared to 90,000 pro-CPP troops. In November 1996, armed skirmishes occurred between RCAF troops separately aligned to CPP and FUNCINPEC, after a pro-CPP general, Keo Pong accused a pro-FUNCINPEC general, Serey Kosal of attempting to kill him, who in turn accused Keo Pong of recruiting Khmer Rouge defectors into his ranks. More armed skirmishes broke out until February 1997, leaving 14 pro-CPP and 2 pro-FUNCINPEC troops wounded. Subsequently, Ke Kim Yan, the chief-of-staff of the RCAF stepped in to meditate the conflict, and a directive was issued to prohibit movement of troops without the explicit permission of the government. In late March 1997, the two co-defense ministers, Tea Banh of the CPP and Tea Chamrath of FUNCINPEC, together with Ke Kim Yan and Nhek Bun Chhay formed a bipartisan defence committee was formed to prevent the RCAF from getting embroiled into the political conflict between Ranariddh and Hun Sen.
However, even the defence committee was formed, the Cambodian media reported of continued and unusual troop movements positioning themselves in Phnom Penh, and minor skirmishes between troops from both sides occurred sporadically until June 1997. On 4 July 1997, Nhek Bun Chhay signed a military pact with the Khmer Rouge at Anlong Veng, prompting pro-CPP troops to strike their pro-FUNCINPEC counterparts the following day. Violent clashes erupted between pro-CPP and pro-FUNCINPEC forces at FUNCINPEC headquarters, Pochentong Airport and Ranariddh's residence in Phnom Penh. The pro-FUNCINPEC forces, led by Nhek Bun Chhay initially gained an advantage as they were able to control up to half of the city, but were soon overwhelmed and defeated the following day after pro-CPP forces sent in additional troops. Over the next three days, pro-CPP troops arrested and several at least 33 pro-FUNCINPEC senior military officers. Among those who were executed included Ly Seng Hong, deputy chief-of-staff of RCAF; Ho Sok, secretary of state of the Interior Ministry and Chao Sambath, deputy chief of the espionage and military intelligence department of RCAF.
In subsequent days after the clashes, pro-CPP troops continued their military offensives against pro-FUNCINPEC troops in the northwestern parts of Cambodia, which controlled the towns of Sisophon, Banteay Meanchey and Poipet. The pro-FUNCINPEC troops, who were outmatched against their pro-CPP counterparts, retreated to O Smach in Oddar Meanchey Province, where they held out against pro-CPP troops which continued military offensives against them. At O Smach, pro-FUNCINPEC forces met the Khmer Rouge forces led by Khieu Samphan, who proclaimed Nhek Bun Chhay as the chief-of-staff of the resistance forces. Fighting continued between pro-CPP and pro-FUNCINPEC troops until February 1998, when both sides agreed to a ceasefire brokered by the Japanese government. After general elections were held in July 1998, Nhek Bun Chhay called for the 20,000 pro-FUNCINPEC forces to be reintegrated into the RCAF. Subsequently, Nhek Bun Chhay left O Smach, returned to Phnom Penh and was appointed as a senator. Khan Savoeun, a former subordinate of Nhek Bun Chhay, was subsequently appointed as one of the four deputy commander-in-chief of the RCAF in February 1999.
List of party presidents
List of officeholders
Recent electoral history
General election
Communal elections
Senate elections
See also
:Category:FUNCINPEC politicians
References
Bibliography
Books
Reports
1981 establishments in Cambodia
Classical liberal parties
Conservative parties in Cambodia
Factions of the Third Indochina War
Liberal parties in Cambodia
Monarchist parties in Cambodia
Nationalist parties in Cambodia
Political history of Cambodia
Political parties established in 1981
Political parties in Cambodia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20of%20Chile
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Socialist Party of Chile
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The Socialist Party of Chile (, or PS) is a centre-left political party founded in 1933. Its historic leader was President of Chile Salvador Allende, who was deposed in a coup d'état by General Augusto Pinochet in 1973. The military junta immediately banned socialist, Marxist and other leftist political parties. Members of the Socialist party and other leftists were subject to violent suppression, including torture and murder, under the Pinochet dictatorship, and many went into exile. Twenty-seven years after the 1973 coup, Ricardo Lagos Escobar won the Presidency as the Socialist Party candidate in the 1999–2000 Chilean presidential election. Socialist Michelle Bachelet won the 2005–06 Chilean presidential election. She was the first female president of Chile and was succeeded by Sebastián Piñera in 2010. In the 2013 Chilean general election, she was again elected president, leaving office in 2018.
History
Beginnings
The Socialist Party of Chile was co-founded on 19 April 1933, by Colonel Marmaduque Grove, who had already led several governments, Oscar Schnake, Carlos Alberto Martínez, future President Salvador Allende, and other personalities. After the Chilean coup of 1973 it was proscribed (along with the other leftist parties constituting the Popular Unity coalition) and the party split into several groups which would not reunite until after the return to civilian rule in 1990.
Socialist thought in Chile goes back to the mid-19th century, when Francisco Bilbao and Santiago Arcos opened a debate on civil rights and social equality in Chile. These ideas took hold in the labour movement at the beginning of the 20th century and, along with them, the various communist, anarchist, socialist, and mutualist ideals of the time were diffused by writers and leaders such as Luis Emilio Recabarren. The impact of the 1917 October Revolution in Russia imparted new vigor to Chile's revolutionary movements, which in the 1920s were mostly identified with the global Communist movement; the Communist Party of Chile was formed.
The Great Depression in the 1930s plunged the country's working and middle classes into a serious crisis that led them to sympathize with socialist ideas, which found expression in the establishment of the short-lived Socialist Republic of Chile in 1932. The idea of founding a political party to unite the different movements identified with socialism took shape in the foundation of the Socialist Party of Chile, on 19 April 1933. At a conference in Santiago, at 150 Serrano, 14 delegates from the Socialist Marxist Party led by Eduardo Rodriguez Mazer; 18 from the New Public Action, headed by the lawyer Eugenio Matte Stolen; 12 delegates of the Socialist Order, whose main exponent was the architect Arturo Bianchi Gundian; and 26 representatives of the Revolutionary Socialist Action of Óscar Schnake formulated the new party's founding document and its short-term action plan, and elected Óscar Schnake as its first executive Secretary General.
The Party's Statement of Principles was:
The Socialist Party embodies Marxism, enriched by scientific and social progress.
The Capitalist exploitation based on the doctrine of private property regarding land, industry, resource, and transportation, necessarily must be replaced by an economically socialist state in which said private property be transformed into collective.
During the process of total transformation of the system of government, a representative revolutionary government of the manual and intellectual labourers' class is necessary. The new socialist state only can be born of the initiative and the revolutionary action of the proletariat masses.
The socialist doctrine is of an international character and requires the support of all the workers of the world. The Socialist Party will support their revolutionary goals in economics and politics across Latin America in order to pursue a vision of a Confederacy of the Socialist Republics of the Continent, the first step toward the World Socialist Confederation.
The Party quickly obtained popular support. Its partisan structure exhibits some singularities, such as the creation of "brigades" that group their militants according to environment of activity; brigades that live together organically, and brigades of militant youths such as the Confederacy of the Socialist Youth, and the Confederacy of Socialist Women. In the later 1930s they included the "Left Communist" faction, formed by a split of the Communist Party of Chile, headed by Manuel Noble Plaza and comprising the journalist Oscar Waiss, the lawyer Tomás Chadwick and the first secretary of the PS, Ramón Sepúlveda Loyal, among others.
In 1934, the Socialists, along with the Radical-Socialist Party and the Democratic Party, formed the "Leftist Bloc". In the first parliamentary election (March 1937) they obtained 22 representatives (19 representatives and 3 senators), among them its Secretary general Oscar Schnake Vergara, elected senator of Tarapacá-Antofagasta, placed by the PS in a noticeable place inside the political giants of the epoch. For the 1938 presidential election, the PS participated in the formation of the Popular Front, withdrawing its presidential candidate, the colonel Marmaduque Grove, and supporting the Radical Party's candidate, Pedro Aguirre Cerda, who narrowly defeated the right-wing candidate following an attempted coup by the National Socialist Movement of Chile. In the government of Aguirre Cerda the socialists obtained the Ministries of Public Health, Forecast and Social Assistance, given to Salvador Allende, the Minister of Promotion, trusted to Oscar Schnake, and the Ministers of Lands and Colonization, handed out to Rolando Merino.
The participation of the Socialist Party in the government of Aguirre Cerda reached an end on 15 December 1940, due to internal conflicts among the Popular Front coalition, in particular with the Communist Party. In the parliamentary elections of March 1941 the PS advanced outside of the Popular Front and obtained 17,9% of the votes, 17 representatives and 2 senators. The PS integrated into the new leftist coalition following Cerda's death, now named Democratic Alliance, which supported the candidacy of the Radical Juan Antonio Ríos, who was triumphantly elected. The Socialists participated in his cabinet, alongside Radicals, members of the Democratic Party and of the Liberal Party and even of the Falange. Oscar Schnake occupied once again the post of Promotion and the socialist Pedro Populate Vera and Eduardo Escudero Forrastal assumed the positions of Lands and Colonization and Social Assistance, respectively.
The youth of the party assumed a very critical attitude toward these changes and mergers, which caused the expulsion of all the Central Committee of the FJS, among them Raúl Vásquez (its secretary general), Raúl Ampuero, Mario Palestro and Carlos Briones. In the IX Congress of the PS of the year 1943 Salvador Allende displaced Marmaduque Grove as Secretary General and withdrew his party from the government of Ríos. Grove did not accept this situation, and was expelled from the PS and formed the Authentic Socialist Party. These conflicts caused the PS to drop violently to only 7% of the votes in the parliamentary elections of March 1945, diminishing significantly its parliamentary strength.
After World War II
There was complete confusion in the Socialist Party for the presidential election of 1946. The PS decided to put up its own candidate; its secretary general Bernardo Ibáñez. However, many militants supported the radical candidate Gabriel González Videla, while the Authentic Socialist Party of Grove stopped supporting the liberal Fernando Alessandri.
After the failure of the candidacy of Ibáñez (who obtained barely a 2.5% of the votes), the purges continued. In the XI Ordinary Congress the current "revolution" of Raúl Ampuero was imposed and he assigned to academic Eugenio González the making of the Program of the Socialist Party which defined its north; the Democratic Republic of Workers.
The promulgation, in 1948, of the Law 8.987 "Defense of Democracy Law" that banned the communists, was again a factor of division among the socialists. Bernardo Ibáñez, Oscar Schnake, Juan Bautista Rosseti and other anticommunist socialists supported it with enthusiasm; while the board of directors of the party directed by Raúl Ampuero and Eugenio González rejected it. The anticommunist group of Ibáñez was expelled from the PS and they constituted the Socialist Party of the Workers; nevertheless the Conservative of the electoral Roll assigned to the group of Ibáñez the name Socialist Party of Chile, forcing the group of Ampuero to adopt the name Socialist Popular Party.
The Socialist Popular Party proclamation, in its XIV Congress, carried out in Chillán in May 1952, as its presidential standard bearer to Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, despite the refusal of the senators Salvador Allende and Tomás Chadwick. Allende abandoned the party and united the Socialist Party of Chile, which, as a group with the Communist Party (outlawed), raised the candidacy of Allende for the Front of the People. The triumph of Ibáñez permitted the popular socialists to have important departments such as that of Work (Clodomiro Almeyda) and Estate (Felipe Herrera).
After the parliamentary elections of 1953; where the Socialist Popular Party obtained 5 senators and 19 representatives, the popular socialists abandoned the government of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo and proclaimed the need to establish a Front of Workers, in conjunction with the Democratic Party of the People, the socialists of Chile and the outlawed communists.
Finally, on 1 March 1956, the two socialist parties (Socialist Party of Chile and Socialist Popular Party), the Party of the Workers (communist outlawed), Democratic Party of the People and the Democratic Party all signed the minutes of constitution of the Front of Popular Action (FRAP) with Salvador Allende Gossens as the president of the coalition, which participated successfully in the municipal elections of April 1956.
After the parliamentary elections of March 1957 the "Congress of Unity" was carried to power, formed from the Popular Socialist Party directed by Rául Ampuero and the Socialist Party of Chile of Salvador, directed by Allende Gossens. These chose the secretary general of the unified Socialist Party; Salomón Corbalán.
On 31 July 1958, the Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy was derogated by the National Congress, therefore the ban of the Communist Party was repealed. In the presidential elections of 1958, the standard bearer of the Front of Popular Action (FRAP), the socialist Salvador Allende, lost the presidential election narrowly to Jorge Alessandri. In spite of the loss, the unification of the socialist parties had a new leader, and Chile was one of the few countries of the world in which a Marxist had clear possibilities to win the presidency of the Republic through democratic elections.
The overwhelming triumph of Eduardo Frei Montalva over the candidate of the FRAP Salvador Allende Gossens in the presidential elections of September 1964 caused demoralization among the followers of the "Chilean way to socialism". The National Democratic Party (PADENA) abandoned the coalition of left; and the influence of the Cuban revolution and above all of the "guerrilla way of Ernesto Guevara" they were left to feel the heart of the Socialist Party. The discrepancies of the party were perceived clearly. In July from 1967 the senators Raúl Ampuero and Tomás Chadwick and the representatives Ramón Silva Ulloa, Eduardo Osorio Pardo and Oscar Naranjo Arias were expelled, and founded the popular socialist union (USOPO).
In the XXII Congress, which took place in Chillán in November 1967, the political became more radical, under the influence of Carlos Altamirano Orrego and the leader of the Ranquil Rural Confederation, Rolando Calderón Aránguiz. The party now officially adhered to Marxism-Leninism, declared itself in favour of revolutionary, anticapitalist and anti-imperialist changes.
Popular Unity government
In 1969, skepticism about the "Chilean way to socialism" prevailed in the Central Committee of the Socialist Party. Salvador Allende Gossens was proclaimed as the party's presidential candidate, with 13 votes in favor and 14 abstentions, among them that of its secretary general, Aniceto Rodriguez, of Carlos Altamirano Orrego, and of Clodomiro Almeyda Medina. Nevertheless, the candidacy of Allende galvanized the forces of the left, who formed, in October 1969, the Popular Unity coalition including the Socialist Party, Communist Party, Radical Party, Popular Unitary Action Movement (which had split from the Christian Democrat Party), and Independent Popular Action, consisting of former supporters of Carlos Ibáñez. Popular Unity triumphed in the presidential election of September 1970.
On 24 October 1970 Salvador Allende Gossens was officially proclaimed President of the Republic of Chile. There was world expectation; he agreed to manage the coalition and to be a Marxist president with the explicit commitment to build socialism, while respecting the democratic and institutional mechanisms.
The position of the PS on joining the government of the UP became more radical when senator Carlos Altamirano Orrego took over as party leader, having been elected at the XXIII Congress in La Serena in January 1971. He proclaimed that the party should become "the Chilean vanguard in the march toward socialism".
In the municipal elections of April 1971, the leftist coalition achieved an absolute majority in the election of local councillors, which caused growing polarization due to the alliance of the Christian Democrats with the sectors of the right in the country. The withdrawal of the Party of Radical Left from the government, with its 6 representatives and 5 senators, meant that the government of Allende was left with less than one third of both houses of the parliament.
In the parliamentary elections of March 1973, the Popular Unity ruler coalition managed to block a move by the opposing Democratic Confederation to impeach Allende. This initiative did not attain the required two-thirds majority.
Coup d'état and political suppression
The serious economic problems facing the government only deepened the country's political divisions. The Socialist Party, which had posted its highest electoral showing in history, was opposed, along with MAPU, to any dialogue with the right-wing opposition. Meanwhile, from the United States, a concerted plan was underway to prevent socialists from gaining power around the world, including CIA backing for the right wing in Chile. On 11 September 1973, Augusto Pinochet led the military coup against Allende's government, putting an end to the Presidential Republic Era begun in 1924. President Salvador Allende refused to relinquish power to the Armed Forces, and ultimately committed suicide in his office at the Palace of La Moneda, during an intensive air bombardment of the historic edifice.
The military coup d'état was devastating to the organization of the Chilean Socialist Party. Within a few weeks of the coup, four members of their Central Committee and seven regional secretaries of the Partido Social had been murdered. A further twelve members of the Central Committee were imprisoned, while the remaining members took refuge in various foreign embassies. The Socialist Party's Secretary General, Carlos Altamirano, managed to escape from Chile, appearing in Havana on 1 January 1974, during the anniversary of the Cuban Revolution.
Lack of experience working 'underground' during the ban led to the breakup of the Party's Secret Directorate. The secret services of the military state managed to infiltrate the organization and, one by one, arrested its principal leaders. The bodies of Exequiel Ponce Vicencio, Carlos Lorca Tobar (disappeared 1975), Ricardo Lagos Salinas and Víctor Zerega Ponce were never found.
Other victims of repression were the former home Secretary, José Tohá González and the former Minister of National Defense, Orlando Letelier del Solar. Having reviewed the consequences of the defeat of the Unidad Popular, and observed the experiences of refugees of "true socialism" in Eastern Europe, and seeing the lack of a cohesive strategy to continue against Pinochet's regime, there was deep dissent within its exterior organization, whose central management was in the German Democratic Republic.
In April 1979, the Tercer Pleno Exterior, the majority sector of the party, named Clodomiro Almeyda as the new Secretary General, Galo Gómez as the Assistant Secretary and expelled Carlos Altamirano, Jorge Arrate, Jaime Suaréz, Luis Meneses and Erich Schnake from the party, charging them with being "remnants of a past which is in the process of being overcome who testify to the survival of a nucleus which is irreducible and resistant to the superior qualitative development of a true revolutionary vanguard".
Altamirano, not accepting this, declared a re-organization of the party and called a Conference. The XXIV Conference took place in France in 1980 and Altamirano declared there that, "Only a very deep and rigorous renewal of definitions and proposals for action, language, style and methods of "doing politics" will make our revolutionary action effective (...) It does not force us to "relaunch" the Partido Social (Socialist Party) of Chile. Yes, it means we must "renew it", understand it as our most precious instrument of change, as an option for power, as an alternative to transformation."
1980s reemergence under dictatorship
In the 1980s socialist factions reemerged as active opponents to the Pinochet government. A sector, from among the so-called "renewed socialist", founded the Convergencia Socialista (the Socialist Convergence), which contributed to the Movimiento de Acción Popular Unitaria – MAPU (Unified Movement of Popular Action), the peasant worker MAPU, and the Christian Leftists. They aimed, in conjunction with the Christian Democracy, to end dictatorship through "non-disruptive methods". The other sector (majority from among the socialist militants in the interior of the country) formed the "popular rebellion" alliance – an agreement with the Communist Party, the Leftist Revolutionary Movement and the Radical Party of Anselmo Sule. The objectives were the same. After the First National Protest against the Pinochet regime, which occurred on 11 May 1983, the efforts of the different factions of the Socialist Party intensified.
The XXIV ("renewed") Socialist Party Congress, directed by Ricardo Ñúnez, decided to form the Democratic Alliance. This was a coalition of Christian Democrats, Silva Cimma radicals, and sectors from the republican and democratic right wing. They convened the Fourth National Protest Day (11 August 1983) and proposed, in September 1983, the formation of the Socialist Bloc, the first attempt at a unification of Chilean socialism under the slogan "Democracy Now!".
In the meantime, the "Almeyda" Partido Social, in conjunction with the Communist Party, Aníbal Palm radicals and the Leftist Revolutionary Movement, founded the "Movimiento Democrático Popular" (MDP) (Popular Democratic Movement) on 6 September 1983, which caused the Fifth Day of National Protest.
The signing of the National Accord in late August 1985, between the Democratic Alliance and sectors of the right wing aligned to the military regime, deepened divisions among the Chilean left wing. The most radical politico-military arm opposed the method of gradual transition towards democracy. Their primary exponent was the Frente Patriótico Manuel Rodríguez (FPMR) (the Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front).
The MAPU-OC, whose main figures were Jaime Gazmuri, Jorge Molina and Jaime Estévez, was added to the "renewed" Partido Social, now directed by Carlos Briones.
In September 1986, the politico-military method of "mass violent insurrectionist uprisings" was finally aborted after the failure of "Operation 20th century", as the assassination attempt on Pinochet by the FPMR was called. Some of the top leaders from among the revolutionary sectors of the "Almeyda" Partido Social, along with conciliators and opportunists, on realizing that the idea of overthrowing the dictatorship was not a viable strategy, began to take control of the party and distance themselves from the Communist Party. As a result, the socialist left wing realized that a "negotiated solution" to the conflict could not be found outside of the provisions of the 1980 Constitution.
In March 1987, Clodomiro Almeyda entered Chile secretly and presented himself before the court to rectify his situation. He was deported to Chile Chico, condemned and deprived of his civic rights.
In April 1987, Ricardo Núñez, new leader of the "renewed" Partido Social, announced, at the 54th Anniversary of the party, "We are not going to remove Pinochet from the political scene using weapons. We shall defeat him with the ballot boxes (..) We are convinced that the town is going to stop Pinochet with the ballot boxes. We are going to build that army of seven million citizens to embrace different alternatives to the Chilean political landscape."
In December 1987 the "renewed" Partido Social founded the Partido por la Democracia (PPD) (Party for Democracy), an "instrumental" party serving as a tool to enable legally democratic forces to participate in the 1988 Plebiscite (Referendum) and in subsequent elections. Ricardo Lagos was appointed as the president. Some radicals, dissident communists, and even democratic liberals joined this party.
In February 1988 the Concertación de Partidos por el No (Coalition of Parties for the 'No') was formed. 17 political parties and movements in Chile joined this coalition. Among them were the members of the Alianza Democrática (the Democratic Alliance), the Almeyda Partido Social, and the Christian Left. The political direction of the campaign fell on the Christian Democratic leader, Patricio Aylwin, and Ricardo Lagos from the PPD. They achieved successful results in the 5 October 1988, Plebiscite, where close to 56% of the valid votes cast rejected the idea that Pinochet would continue as the President of the Republic.
After the October 1988 Plebiscite, the Concertación called for constitutional reform to remove the "authoritarian clauses" of the 1980 Constitution. This proposal by the democratic opposition was partly accepted by the authoritarian government via the 30 July 1989, Plebiscite, where 54 reforms to the existing Constitution were approved. Among these reforms were the revocation of the controversial article 8, which served as the basis for the exclusion of the socialist leader, Clodomiro Almeyda, from political involvement.
In November 1988 the Almeyda Partido Social, the Christian Left and the Communist Party, among other left wing organizations, formed an "instrumental" party called Partido Amplio de Izquierda Socialista (PAIS) (the Broad Left Socialist Party), with Luis Maira as the president and Ricardo Solari as the secretary general.
Concertación
In May 1989, the "renewed" PS held internal elections by secret ballot by its nationwide membership, for the first time in the history of Chilean socialism. The list composed of Jorge Arrate and Luis Alvarado won, against the competing lists of Erich Schnake and Akím Soto, and of Heraldo Muñoz (supported by Ricardo Lagos' faction within the party).
The winning list of Jorge Arrate represented the tendency of the "socialist renewal", upholding a permanent alliance with the Christian Democrats within the Concertación, and strongly defending the unity of the party, in contrast to other internal tendencies. After the elections the XXV Congress was convoked at Costa Azul, which took the momentous decision for Chilean socialism to abandon its traditional isolationism and join the Socialist International.
In June 1989, the Concertación appointed the Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin as its standard bearer for the presidential elections. Aylwin had beaten Gabriel Valdés and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle in the party's internal elections, and a few weeks before the election he received the support of the radicals of Silva Cimma and even of the former Almeyda supporters (PS-Almeyda). Finally the PS-Arrate (or "renewal" PS) dropped its candidate Ricardo Lagos and added itself to the candidacy of Aylwin, who as president of the Christian Democratic Party was one of the main opponents of the Popular Unity government.
Aylwin won easily in the presidential elections of 1989, gaining more than the 55% of the valid votes. "Renewal Socialism" was strengthened as 16 representatives of the PPD were elected, 13 of whom were members of the PS-Arrate. In the matter of senators, three of their members were chosen (Ricardo Núñez Muñoz, Jaime Gazmuri and Hernán Vodanovic), but there was regret over the rout of Ricardo Lagos in his candidacy of Santiago West.
PS-Almeyda obtained seven representatives, two of them standing for the PAIS, and the other five elected as independents within the Concertación list. Rolando Calderon Aránguiz was elected as senator in Magallanes.
The fall of the wall of Berlin, on 9 November 1989, deeply affected the Chilean left, especially in its more orthodox sector. This accelerated the process of unification within the party, which was finalized on 27 December 1989. The Movimiento de Acción Popular Unitaria, led by Oscar Guillermo Garretón, took this chance to join the united PS.
Between 22 and 25 November 1990 the "Salvador Allende Unity Congress" was held, with past leaders such as Raúl Ampuero and Aniceto Rodriguez and the Christian Left headed by its president Luis Maira and its two representatives (Sergio Aguiló and Jaime Naranjo) joining the party. In that Congress Jorge Arrate was chosen as president, Ricardo Núñez Muñoz as vice president and Manuel Almeyda Medina as secretary general.
Hortensia Bussi, the widow of Allende, sent a message to the Congress from Mexico:
The first challenges for the unified socialists were the exercise of power and the "double membership" status of the "renewal socialists" as members of both the PS and the PPD. Finally, the Socialist Party decided to have itself recorded under its own name and symbols in the electoral rolls, and gave a two-year time limit to its members to opt for the PS or the PPD. A significant number of "renewal socialists" did not return to the PS; among them Erich Schnake, Sergio Bitar, Guido Girardi, Jorge Molina, Vicente Sotta, Víctor Barrueto and Octavio Jara.
In power, the socialists Enrique Correa (as the minister General Secretary of Government), Carlos Ominami (Economy), Germán Correa (Transportation), Ricardo Lagos and Jorge Arrate (Education) and Luis Alvarado (National Resources) entered the cabinets of President Aylwin, while in the House of Representatives, the socialists José Antonio Viera-Gallo and Jaime Estevéz exercised its presidency.
In the elections of 1992, Germán Correa was chosen as president of the PS, supported by the "renewal" group around Ricardo Núñez Muñoz and the "third way" faction within the Almeyda tendency. They prevailed against Camilo Escalona, Clodomiro Almeyda and Jaime Estevez, representing an alliance between the traditional supporters of Clodomiro Almeyda and one faction of Jorge Arrate's "renewal" tendency.
Concertación under Christian Democrat leadership (1990–2000)
The left (PS-PPD) backed Ricardo Lagos as the Concertación candidate for the 1993 presidential elections, but he was defeated by the Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, gaining only 36.6% of the vote in the primary on 23 May. After Frei became president, the Socialists took up senior posts in his first cabinet: Interior (Germán Correa), Planining (Luis Maira), Labor (Jorge Arrate), and Public Works (Ricardo Lagos).
In the parliamentary elections of December 1997, the PS did badly: its deputies decreased from 16 to 11, and its senators from 5 to 4. Its senatorial candidate Camilo Escalona obtained a mere 16% of the vote in Santiago West.
The detention of Pinochet in London in October 1998 caused tensions within the PS. The Socialist foreign affairs ministers José Miguel Insulza and Juan Gabriel Valdés pressed to have the ex-dictator returned to Chile, while a group of leading Socialists including Isabel Allende Bussi, Juan Pablo Letelier, Fanny Pollarolo and Juan Bustos Ramírez travelled to London to support judge Baltasar Garzón's proceedings for extradition to Spain.
Leading up to the 1999 presidential elections, the PS, PPD and Radical Social-Democratic Party again supported Lagos as candidate. This time Lagos won the primary on 30 May, with 70.2% of votes. In the general election, he won 48.0% in the first round of voting and was elected with 51.3% in the second round.
Despite the party having been reunified in 1990 the Socialist Party had five internal factions; Nueva Izquierda, Generacional, Tercerismo, Arratismo and Nuñismo. By 1998 Arratismo and Nuñismo had merged into Megatendencia while Generacional, a brief tendency called Almeydismo and elements of Nueva Izquierda had merged into Colectivo de Identidad Socialista. Nueva Izquierda and Tercerismo remained as relatively stable factions by 1998.
Concertación under Socialist governments (2000–2010)
Lagos was elected president in 1999, defeating the rightwing candidate Joaquín Lavín with 51.3% of the vote, thus becoming the first president in thirty years to have Socialist support – even though Lagos himself was a PD member. Socialist ministers in his first cabinet were José Miguel Insulza (Interior), Ricardo Solari (Labor), Carlos Cruz (Public Works), and Michelle Bachelet (Health).
In the 2001 Chilean parliamentary election, as part of the Coalition of Parties for Democracy, the party won 10 out of 117 seats in the Chamber of Deputies of Chile and 5 out of 38 elected seats in the Senate. The 2001 parliamentary elections were a setback for the Socialists and for the Concertación as a whole. The PS increased its representation by only one deputy and one senator, while the Concertación vote sank below 50% for the first time in its existence.
In September 2003, marking 30 years since the coup against Allende, the Socialist Party issued a document accepting responsibility for the events:
The outcome of the 2005 parliamentary elections was favorable both for the Socialists and for the Concertación: the PS increased its deputies from 12 to 15, and its senators from 5 to 8, giving it the largest block it had ever had in the Senate. Moreover, Michelle Bachelet was elected as president of Chile. For its part, the Concertación regained its electoral hegemony, with an absolute majority in both chambers of parliament.
Bachelet took over as president on 11 March 2006. She was the first woman president in the country's history, and the fourth successive president from the Concertación. Her initially high popularity dropped considerably as a result of the 2006 student mobilization known as the "Penguin Revolution", the Transantiago crisis, and various conflicts within the governing coalition. Described as a "social contract", her government reformed pensions and the social security system, aiming to help thousands of Chileans to improve their quality of life. Her government had to confront the world economic crisis of 2008, but her popularity figures recovered as Chileans formed a positive opinion of her leadership, and her final approval rating of 84% had never before been attained by any Chilean head of state on leaving their post.
Within the Party, divisions widened, with dissident factions opposing the policy of Camilo Escalona. Prominent figures including Jorge Arrate, senator Alejandro Navarro and deputy Marco Enriquez-Ominami quit the party in 2008 and 2009.
In the 2009 parliamentary elections, the PS led by Escalona suffered a serious defeat: it lost its dominance of the Senate, holding just 5 seats, and its deputies reduced in number form 15 to 11. Meanwhile, in new presidential elections, the Concertación candidate Eduardo Frei lost to the rightwinger Sebastián Piñera, putting an end to twenty years of Concertación rule.
Nueva Mayoría
Michelle Bachelet won the second round of the 2013 Chilean presidential election with 62% of the votes. She was the candidate of Nueva Mayoría ("New Majority"), a broadened version of the Concertación now including the Communist Party and others.
Presidents elected
1970 – Salvador Allende
2000 – Ricardo Lagos (with dual membership in the Party for Democracy)
2006 – Michelle Bachelet
2014 – Michelle Bachelet
Election results
Due to its membership in the Concert of Parties for Democracy, the party has endorsed the candidates of other parties on several occasions. Presidential elections in Chile are held using a two-round system, the results of which are displayed below.
Presidential elections
See also
Government Junta of Chile (1973)
Human rights violations in Pinochet's Chile
Víctor Olea Alegria, disappeared in 1974
Carlos Lorca, disappeared in 1975
Carlos Altamirano, general secretary between 1971 and 1979
Chamber of Deputies of Chile Resolution of 22 August 1973
References
External links
Partido Socialista de Chile
Declaración de Principios del Partido Socialista de Chile
Centre-left parties in South America
Left-wing nationalist parties
Political parties in Chile
Progressive parties
Social democratic parties in South America
Socialist parties in Chile
1933 establishments in Chile
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided%20dispatch
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Computer-aided dispatch
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Computer-aided dispatch (CAD), also called computer-assisted dispatch, is a method of dispatching taxicabs, couriers, field service technicians, mass transit vehicles or emergency services assisted by computer. It can either be used to send messages to the dispatchee via a mobile data terminal (MDT) and/or used to store and retrieve data (i.e. radio logs, field interviews, client information, schedules, etc.). A dispatcher may announce the call details to field units over a two-way radio. Some systems communicate using a two-way radio system's selective calling features. CAD systems may send text messages with call-for-service details to alphanumeric pagers or wireless telephony text services like SMS. The central idea is that persons in a dispatch center are able to easily view and understand the status of all units being dispatched. CAD provides displays and tools so that the dispatcher has an opportunity to handle calls-for-service as efficiently as possible.
CAD typically consists of a suite of software packages used to initiate public safety calls for service, dispatch, and maintain the status of responding resources in the field. It is generally used by emergency communications dispatchers, call-takers, and 911 operators in centralized, public-safety call centers, as well as by field personnel utilizing mobile data terminals (MDTs) or mobile data computers (MDCs).
CAD systems consist of several modules that provide services at multiple levels in a dispatch center and in the field of public safety. These services include call input, call dispatching, call status maintenance, event notes, field unit status and tracking, and call resolution and disposition. CAD systems also include interfaces that permit the software to provide services to dispatchers, call takers, and field personnel with respect to control and use of analog radio and telephone equipment, as well as logger-recorder functions.
Methodology
Computer-assisted dispatch systems use one or more servers located in a central dispatch office, which communicate with computer terminals in a communications center or with mobile data terminals installed in vehicles. There are a multitude of CAD programs that suit different department needs, but the fundamentals of each system are the same. They include:
Log on/off times of police personnel (sworn/non-sworn)
Generating and archiving incidents that begin with a phone call from a citizen or originate from personnel in the field
Assigning field personnel to incidents
Updating Incidents and logging those updates
Generating case numbers for incidents that require an investigation
Timestamping every action taken by the dispatcher at the terminal
In an ideal setting, a call is received by a call-taker and information about the call is inputted into the CAD template. Simply, location, reporting party and incident are the main fields that have to be populated by type-codes. For example, if there was a burglary in progress, the type-code for that incident could be "BURG"; when BURG is typed out, then the program will spell out "BURGLARY (in progress)". If the location was at the 1400 block of Madison, the type-code could be "14MAD." The reporting party information would be populated by the call-taker including last name, first name, call-back number, etc.
A typical CAD printout looks something like this based on the example above:
-----------------------------------
LOCATION - 1400 Madison
RP - Doe, John, 555-5555, 1404 Madison
INCIDENT - BURGLARY (in progress)
SYNOPSIS - "Caller reports a possible burglary in progress based on seeing individuals
inside the residence/Caller advises 2 persons inside the location and call advises
the current residents are on vacation."
-----------------------------------
Again, granted as it can be seen that the fields are spelled out, the call-taker uses those abbreviations that are already predetermined in order to quickly gather and transmit the information.
The dispatcher then receives the call from the call-taker and is able to dispatch the call to those available. The dispatcher's screen would show the available personnel that are dispatchable. A typical setting can be exemplified by this:
-----------------------------------
INCIDENT # - 110001
LOCATION - 1400 Madison
RP - Doe, John, 555-5555
INCIDENT - BURGLARY (In Progress)
SYNOPSIS - "Caller reports a possible burglary in progress based on seeing individuals
inside the residence/Caller advises 2 persons inside the location and call advises
the current residents are on vacation."
UNITS - 746 (Pri), 749 (Cov)
-----------------------------------
Units available - (3)
Units out of service - (2)
745 - Avail.
746 - Not Avail. Inc # 554121
747 - Avail.
748 - Avail.
749 - Not Avail. Inc # 554122
-----------------------------------
Everything that is gathered, dispatched and disposed is usually stored in a central server in which the type codes reside, or possibly another server. All of these calls which have incident numbers attached to them can be recalled by an internal search engine. For example, a request for a printout of all calls to Madison in the past hour could be gathered by querying the CAD program by location:
Search by: Location
LOCATION [ ]
---
Result:
(Now filled in)
Search by: Location
LOCATION [14MAD ]
---
Result: (1) Incidents
CAD can be used in a multitude of ways, whether it is for radio logs, call logs or statistical analysis.
Consoles
Typical of local government dispatching facilities, the Denver RTD's facility is one example of a transit dispatch center. Communications consoles are mounted in desk-style electronics racks. Features include multi-line telephones. Modern facilities usually include a variety of computing systems for operational and administrative purposes.
Consoles serve as a human interface and connect to push-to-talk dispatch radio systems. Audio from all channels is processed through audio level compression circuits and is routed to two separate speakers identified as select and unselect. Each has a volume control. The select channel or channels carry the highest priority communications. To prevent missed messages on critical channels, the select volume may be configured so it cannot be set to an inaudible level. Unselect channels may be used for special events, other agencies, or purposes that do not involve dispatch and may be inaudible. By pressing a button, any channel on the console can be toggled between select and unselect status. Each channel has an independent push-to-talk button, allowing the dispatcher to talk over one channel at a time. For broadcast messages, a single button transmits over all selected channels at the same time. A digital clock and an LED bar-graph or VU meter are included.
Each channel has a label identifying it and indicator lights and buttons to control settings. A typical channel has a busy light, a call light, select light, select button, and a transmit button. The steady, red busy light indicates another dispatch position is transmitting on the channel. The flashing yellow call light indicates a field unit is talking on the channel. The call light usually blinks for several seconds after a transmission ends allowing a busy dispatcher to look up from a telephone call and determine which channel the last message came from.
Some console dispatch panels are actually a PC-based application. Such is the case of Zetron's Acom system and Avtec's Scout system. This allows for easy customization and modification of the dispatch key layout.
Service levels and geographic information
Computerized mapping, automatic vehicle location, automatic number identification and caller-identification technology are often used to enhance the service by pinpointing the locations of both the client and the most suitable vehicle for serving the client.
Some CAD systems allow several sources of information to be combined. For example, adding automatic vehicle location (AVL) and geographic information (GIS) could improve service by getting units to a service call location faster. Ideally, CAD is connected to monitor vehicle locations provided by an AVL system. This information is used to suggest the closest vehicle to an event. How is the closest unit determined?
Basic zone system
The simplest system is a beat or zone map system. For example, in a community with four fire stations, a grid is overlaid on a community map. Each zone of the grid is identified with a progression of police beats, ambulance zones, transit zones, or fire stations. One grid might be labeled: AB241. This means fire station 2, then 4, then 1, then 3 would respond to a fire call occurring inside this zone. The predefined order is created by persons with expertise in the service being provided, local geography, traffic, and patterns in calls for service.
Since only basic GIS information is included, if AVL was available, it would simply display service vehicle locations on a map. The closest unit would be interpreted by the dispatcher looking at vehicle locations projected on the map.
Where detailed geographic data are not available, units may be assigned based on the center of a district. To make the computing problem easier, the CAD system may use centroids to evaluate service vehicle locations. Centroids are estimated center points within a zone. The system calculates a distance from a fire station or AVL location to a centroid point. The closest fire station, according to CAD system rules, would be assigned. Systems may use centroids that are not exactly centered in order to skew or weight system decisions. Staff based at a fire station that is physically closer by drawing a straight line on the map may be slower to reach a zone. This can occur because responding units must drive around freeways, lakes, or terrain obstructions in order to reach a zone. A centroid may be moved because 200-car freight trains often block a railroad crossing used to access a particular zone.
This is the cheapest system to develop because it requires the least detailed geographic information and the simplest calculations. Another problem occurs where several services use the same system. Police and transit, for example, may have different ideas about what boundaries define the ideal zone or how centroids should be weighted.
CAD using geocoding
Geocoding is a translation system allowing addresses to be converted to X- and Y-coordinates. Someone placing a call for service has an address attached to a wired phone number or tells the dispatcher their address. For example, suppose the caller's address is 123 Main Street.
The GIS or CAD system includes a look-up table. The table may identify odd-numbered addresses in the community as being on the north and east sides of streets. Addresses from 113 to 157 Main Street are identified as being along Main Street's center line between Broadway and Washington. 123 is estimated to be on the north side of Main Street somewhere closer to 113 than 157. This estimate produces a latitude and longitude, or a set of Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates. The coordinates are close enough to identify the closest service vehicle. This system may automatically append the name of the nearest cross-street or intersecting street.
Again, the system uses a straight-line distance to determine which service vehicle is closest to a call for service. If an AVL system is used, the CAD system will look through a list of most recent reported vehicle positions. Next, the positions are compared to the service vehicle status. The CAD system may identify several of the closest units that have a status of available. The dispatcher makes an ideal choice from the CAD system shortlist.
This type of system is significantly more expensive than a zone system. The basic system may start with maps from the US Census Bureau or a county assessor's office. The quality of these maps may be good but will not be ideal for dispatching. There would normally be one or more persons on staff who would deal with data changes from new development, new streets, or data quality problems. The person would compile addresses and generate street centerlines in mapping software. Geocoding varies in accuracy depending on data sources and vendors. It normally takes years of work and planning before a system is implemented. Modern geocoded systems will often display service vehicle locations, the location of service calls, and the locations of callers on a map. This helps to disambiguate calls for service and reduces the likelihood of dispatching two reports of a single call for service as two separate calls.
Another problem comes from technologies using differing datums or coordinate systems. For example, suppose your AVL system uses degrees-decimal degrees format. The AVL display for a vehicle at the Heart Butte Post Office in Montana shows a latitude and longitude of 48.28333 N, -112.83583 W. The CAD system uses degrees-minutes-seconds format data and shows the same location as 481700N, 1125009W. How do you translate? This is sometimes a problem with neighboring CAD systems. Ideally, you should be able to send and receive calls to and from CAD systems in neighboring areas. What if the state or provincial government has standardized on a different coordinate system?
Full GIS/AVL integration
The most expensive and technically challenging systems fully utilize the capabilities of geographic information systems (GIS) and automatic vehicle location (AVL). In these systems, the street centerlines are described as routable. In addition to geocoding and accurate street centerlines, intersections have attributes or scores. Can a service vehicle turn left from eastbound Carnegie Street onto northbound Hooligan Boulevard? A scoring system is used to assess the difficulty of making the turn. At one end of the scoring system there might be an interchange where service vehicles had unrestricted access in making the turn. Perhaps both streets are one-way, making it relatively easy to turn from one onto another. In the middle scores, a left turn might be blocked occasionally by heavy traffic, a draw bridge, or street cars. At the most difficult score, the two streets may cross but the lack of any interchange does not allow service vehicles to get from one to the other.
To calculate the closest service vehicles, the CAD system does a network analysis of the road system based on these routable street centerlines. It assesses the path from the service call to the AVL location of available vehicles. The system recommends the service vehicles with the shortest path.
Routable street centerlines take into account differences between northbound and southbound lanes on a freeway or turnpike. For example, to reach a point in the southbound lanes of a turnpike, service vehicles may need to drive north to the next exit then return on the southbound side. The analysis of a routable street network takes this into account so long as the event location is accurately reported. Routable systems account for barriers like lakes by calculating the distance of the driven route rather than a straight-line distance. It is assumed the service vehicle driver knows the shortest path or that all drivers make similar numbers of wrong turns.
Concentration
CAD systems require support staff with special skills. This can lead to concentration of dispatch facilities, particularly where there is population growth or where automation is required to meet defined service objectives.
In any system, concentration of facilities increases risks of outages or massive failures. In a system where the call traffic is so high that advanced technology is needed to handle routine levels of day-to-day calls, relatively minor failures can have major effects on service levels. For example, where everyone is used to the convenience of automatic vehicle location (AVL), an AVL outage can suddenly increase staff workloads. Suppose a failure causes a condition where CAD cannot recommend a closest unit. How will the dispatcher efficiently assess which unit to assign?
Data exchange (EDI)
In public safety systems, standards are under discussion to allow disparate systems to exchange call information. For example, a call taker at the county fire department receives a call for an auto accident inside a city limit. Evolving standards will allow CAD systems to send messages to one another for calls originating outside local jurisdiction. Some entities have arrangements that already support data exchange between systems, but standards aim to make these interconnections more common. Because of auditing trail and fail-safe needs, the problem is more complex than it sounds.
The usage of EDI applied to CAD is specific to the law enforcement community and should not be confused with Electronic Document Interchange (EDI) standards for eCommerce. Within law enforcement EDI is used as a buzzword to represent all electronic automated messaging.
More mature efforts to interconnect CAD can be found in the standards developed for the Intelligent Transportation Initiatives program of Department of Transportation. This initiative sponsored the IEEE 1512 series of protocols for emergency management which provides sophisticated means to coordinate incidents across operations centers using CAD software.
Additional work is occurring under the National Information Exchange Model to link homeland security with CAD. Also the OASIS international standards body has produced standards funded in part by the DHS and the disaster management e-gov initiative to communicate in emergencies.
Other interoperability technologies can bridge disparities between the data-format, software, and hardware that constitute various computer-aided dispatch systems in various jurisdictions. Middleware, software and servers (data brokers), can translate and integrate various systems into a seamless automated dispatch system. One example of such middleware (provided by Utah-based FATPOT Technologies/CII) exists in Orange County, Calif., where the Fire Authority has integrated different emergency service answering points into a seamless dispatching network. A similar project was completed for the Silicon Valley Regional Interoperability Project (SVRIP), and is part of the Dept. of Homeland Security's CADIP report.
Australia and New Zealand use the ICEMS protocol for messaging between different CAD systems operated by various emergency services organisations.
Part of business enterprise computing system
In business use of CAD, the dispatch system may be a module or part of a larger enterprise computing system. Rather than having multiple infrastructures, being able to have a single infrastructure with many applications running on it is important.
At the high end of enterprise integration for CAD there is SOS. SOS or systems of systems is a methodology and a set of technology for linking distributed independent applications into one meta-system or system of systems. These methods were originally being used at DOD for command and control (C2) but have now been applied to dispatch in efforts like the Department of Transportation Intelligent Transportation System at the Transportation Management Centers and other efforts involving DHS counterterrorism or fusion centers. Some local jurisdictions have also integrated their dispatch systems using EAI (Electronic Application Integration) software.
Recent developments
Computer aided call handling (CACH) is built on the premise that effective call handling is the foundation for an efficient dispatch response. By using structured call handling and a series of risk calculations, such systems can make objective dispatch recommendations based on information provided by the caller.
See also
Emergency medical dispatcher
EDXL Sharp
Incident Command System
Logistics
Resource Ordering Status System
Selective calling
References
Original article
Horn, D. W., (2005). An Integrated Public-Safety Computer-Aided Dispatch System. In-press Master's Thesis Project, Regis University, Denver, CO.
Notes
12.^ https://www.intrado.com/life-safety# is an example of an Emergency Call Handling system that feeds CADs
External links
California Highway Patrol Online CAD Logs.
NASA research into future console designs.
Modern Private Security Dispatch System.
Logistics
Unified communications
Applications of geographic information systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20complexity
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Time complexity
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In theoretical computer science, the time complexity is the computational complexity that describes the amount of computer time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to be related by a constant factor.
Since an algorithm's running time may vary among different inputs of the same size, one commonly considers the worst-case time complexity, which is the maximum amount of time required for inputs of a given size. Less common, and usually specified explicitly, is the average-case complexity, which is the average of the time taken on inputs of a given size (this makes sense because there are only a finite number of possible inputs of a given size). In both cases, the time complexity is generally expressed as a function of the size of the input. Since this function is generally difficult to compute exactly, and the running time for small inputs is usually not consequential, one commonly focuses on the behavior of the complexity when the input size increases—that is, the asymptotic behavior of the complexity. Therefore, the time complexity is commonly expressed using big O notation, typically etc., where is the size in units of bits needed to represent the input.
Algorithmic complexities are classified according to the type of function appearing in the big O notation. For example, an algorithm with time complexity is a linear time algorithm and an algorithm with time complexity for some constant is a polynomial time algorithm.
Table of common time complexities
The following table summarizes some classes of commonly encountered time complexities. In the table, , i.e., polynomial in x.
Constant time
An algorithm is said to be constant time (also written as time) if the value of (the complexity of the algorithm) is bounded by a value that does not depend on the size of the input. For example, accessing any single element in an array takes constant time as only one operation has to be performed to locate it. In a similar manner, finding the minimal value in an array sorted in ascending order; it is the first element. However, finding the minimal value in an unordered array is not a constant time operation as scanning over each element in the array is needed in order to determine the minimal value. Hence it is a linear time operation, taking time. If the number of elements is known in advance and does not change, however, such an algorithm can still be said to run in constant time.
Despite the name "constant time", the running time does not have to be independent of the problem size, but an upper bound for the running time has to be independent of the problem size. For example, the task "exchange the values of and if necessary so that " is called constant time even though the time may depend on whether or not it is already true that . However, there is some constant such that the time required is always at most .
Logarithmic time
An algorithm is said to take logarithmic time when . Since and are related by a constant multiplier, and such a multiplier is irrelevant to big O classification, the standard usage for logarithmic-time algorithms is regardless of the base of the logarithm appearing in the expression of .
Algorithms taking logarithmic time are commonly found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search.
An algorithm is considered highly efficient, as the ratio of the number of operations to the size of the input decreases and tends to zero when increases. An algorithm that must access all elements of its input cannot take logarithmic time, as the time taken for reading an input of size is of the order of .
An example of logarithmic time is given by dictionary search. Consider a dictionary which contains entries, sorted by alphabetical order. We suppose that, for , one may access the th entry of the dictionary in a constant time. Let denote this th entry. Under these hypotheses, the test to see if a word is in the dictionary may be done in logarithmic time: consider , where denotes the floor function. If , then we are done. Else, if , continue the search in the same way in the left half of the dictionary, otherwise continue similarly with the right half of the dictionary. This algorithm is similar to the method often used to find an entry in a paper dictionary.
Polylogarithmic time
An algorithm is said to run in polylogarithmic time if its time is for some constant . Another way to write this is .
For example, matrix chain ordering can be solved in polylogarithmic time on a parallel random-access machine, and a graph can be determined to be planar in a fully dynamic way in time per insert/delete operation.
Sub-linear time
An algorithm is said to run in sub-linear time (often spelled sublinear time) if . In particular this includes algorithms with the time complexities defined above.
The specific term sublinear time algorithm commonly refers to randomized algorithms that sample a small fraction of their inputs and process them efficiently to approximately infer properties of the entire instance. This type of sublinear time algorithm is closely related to property testing and statistics.
Other settings where algorithms can run in sublinear time include:
Parallel algorithms that have linear or greater total work (allowing them to read the entire input), but sub-linear depth.
Algorithms that have guaranteed assumptions on the input structure. An important example are operations on data structures, e.g. binary search in a sorted array.
Algorithms that search for local structure in the input, for example finding a local minimum in a 1-D array (can be solved in time using a variant of binary search). A closely related notion is that of Local Computation Algorithms (LCA) where the algorithm receives a large input and queries to local information about some valid large output.
Linear time
An algorithm is said to take linear time, or time, if its time complexity is . Informally, this means that the running time increases at most linearly with the size of the input. More precisely, this means that there is a constant such that the running time is at most for every input of size . For example, a procedure that adds up all elements of a list requires time proportional to the length of the list, if the adding time is constant, or, at least, bounded by a constant.
Linear time is the best possible time complexity in situations where the algorithm has to sequentially read its entire input. Therefore, much research has been invested into discovering algorithms exhibiting linear time or, at least, nearly linear time. This research includes both software and hardware methods. There are several hardware technologies which exploit parallelism to provide this. An example is content-addressable memory. This concept of linear time is used in string matching algorithms such as the Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm and Ukkonen's algorithm.
Quasilinear time
An algorithm is said to run in quasilinear time (also referred to as log-linear time) if for some positive constant ; linearithmic time is the case . Using soft O notation these algorithms are . Quasilinear time algorithms are also for every constant and thus run faster than any polynomial time algorithm whose time bound includes a term for any .
Algorithms which run in quasilinear time include:
In-place merge sort,
Quicksort, , in its randomized version, has a running time that is in expectation on the worst-case input. Its non-randomized version has an running time only when considering average case complexity.
Heapsort, , merge sort, introsort, binary tree sort, smoothsort, patience sorting, etc. in the worst case
Fast Fourier transforms,
Monge array calculation,
In many cases, the running time is simply the result of performing a operation times (for the notation, see ). For example, binary tree sort creates a binary tree by inserting each element of the -sized array one by one. Since the insert operation on a self-balancing binary search tree takes time, the entire algorithm takes time.
Comparison sorts require at least comparisons in the worst case because , by Stirling's approximation. They also frequently arise from the recurrence relation .
Sub-quadratic time
An algorithm is said to be subquadratic time if .
For example, simple, comparison-based sorting algorithms are quadratic (e.g. insertion sort), but more advanced algorithms can be found that are subquadratic (e.g. shell sort). No general-purpose sorts run in linear time, but the change from quadratic to sub-quadratic is of great practical importance.
Polynomial time
An algorithm is said to be of polynomial time if its running time is upper bounded by a polynomial expression in the size of the input for the algorithm, that is, for some positive constant k. Problems for which a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm exists belong to the complexity class P, which is central in the field of computational complexity theory. Cobham's thesis states that polynomial time is a synonym for "tractable", "feasible", "efficient", or "fast".
Some examples of polynomial-time algorithms:
The selection sort sorting algorithm on n integers performs operations for some constant A. Thus it runs in time and is a polynomial-time algorithm.
All the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparison) can be done in polynomial time.
Maximum matchings in graphs can be found in polynomial time.
Strongly and weakly polynomial time
In some contexts, especially in optimization, one differentiates between strongly polynomial time and weakly polynomial time algorithms. These two concepts are only relevant if the inputs to the algorithms consist of integers.
Strongly polynomial time is defined in the arithmetic model of computation. In this model of computation the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparison) take a unit time step to perform, regardless of the sizes of the operands. The algorithm runs in strongly polynomial time if:
the number of operations in the arithmetic model of computation is bounded by a polynomial in the number of integers in the input instance; and
the space used by the algorithm is bounded by a polynomial in the size of the input.
Any algorithm with these two properties can be converted to a polynomial time algorithm by replacing the arithmetic operations by suitable algorithms for performing the arithmetic operations on a Turing machine. The second condition is strictly necessary: given the integer (which takes up space proportional to n in the Turing machine model), it is possible to compute with n multiplications using repeated squaring. However, the space used to represent is proportional to , and thus exponential rather than polynomial in the space used to represent the input. Hence, it is not possible to carry out this computation in polynomial time on a Turing machine, but it is possible to compute it by polynomially many arithmetic operations.
However, for the first condition, there are algorithms that run in a number of Turing machine steps bounded by a polynomial in the length of binary-encoded input, but do not take a number of arithmetic operations bounded by a polynomial in the number of input numbers. The Euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor of two integers is one example. Given two integers and , the algorithm performs arithmetic operations on numbers with
at most bits. At the same time, the number of arithmetic operations cannot be bounded by the number of integers in the input (which is constant in this case, there are always only two integers in the input). Due to the latter observation, the algorithm does not run in strongly polynomial time. Its real running time depends on the lengths of and in bits and not only on the number of integers in the input.
An algorithm that runs in polynomial time but that is not strongly polynomial is said to run in weakly polynomial time.
A well-known example of a problem for which a weakly polynomial-time algorithm is known, but is not known to admit a strongly polynomial-time algorithm, is linear programming. Weakly polynomial time should not be confused with pseudo-polynomial time, which depends on the magnitudes of values in the problem instead of the lengths and is not truly polynomial time.
Complexity classes
The concept of polynomial time leads to several complexity classes in computational complexity theory. Some important classes defined using polynomial time are the following.
P: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time
NP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a non-deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time
ZPP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with zero error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time
RP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 1-sided error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time.
BPP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 2-sided error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time
BQP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 2-sided error on a quantum Turing machine in polynomial time
P is the smallest time-complexity class on a deterministic machine which is robust in terms of machine model changes. (For example, a change from a single-tape Turing machine to a multi-tape machine can lead to a quadratic speedup, but any algorithm that runs in polynomial time under one model also does so on the other.) Any given abstract machine will have a complexity class corresponding to the problems which can be solved in polynomial time on that machine.
Superpolynomial time
An algorithm is defined to take superpolynomial time if T(n) is not bounded above by any polynomial. Using little omega notation, it is ω(nc) time for all constants c, where n is the input parameter, typically the number of bits in the input.
For example, an algorithm that runs for 2n steps on an input of size n requires superpolynomial time (more specifically, exponential time).
An algorithm that uses exponential resources is clearly superpolynomial, but some algorithms are only very weakly superpolynomial. For example, the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test runs for time on n-bit inputs; this grows faster than any polynomial for large enough n, but the input size must become impractically large before it cannot be dominated by a polynomial with small degree.
An algorithm that requires superpolynomial time lies outside the complexity class P. Cobham's thesis posits that these algorithms are impractical, and in many cases they are. Since the P versus NP problem is unresolved, it is unknown whether NP-complete problems require superpolynomial time.
Quasi-polynomial time
Quasi-polynomial time algorithms are algorithms that run longer than polynomial time, yet not so long as to be exponential time. The worst case running time of a quasi-polynomial time algorithm is for some fixed For we get a polynomial time algorithm, for we get a sub-linear time algorithm.
There are some problems for which we know quasi-polynomial time algorithms, but no polynomial time algorithm is known. Such problems arise in approximation algorithms; a famous example is the directed Steiner tree problem, for which there is a quasi-polynomial time approximation algorithm achieving an approximation factor of (n being the number of vertices), but showing the existence of such a polynomial time algorithm is an open problem.
Other computational problems with quasi-polynomial time solutions but no known polynomial time solution include the planted clique problem in which the goal is to find a large clique in the union of a clique and a random graph. Although quasi-polynomially solvable, it has been conjectured that the planted clique problem has no polynomial time solution; this planted clique conjecture has been used as a computational hardness assumption to prove the difficulty of several other problems in computational game theory, property testing, and machine learning.
The complexity class QP consists of all problems that have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. It can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.
Relation to NP-complete problems
In complexity theory, the unsolved P versus NP problem asks if all problems in NP have polynomial-time algorithms. All the best-known algorithms for NP-complete problems like 3SAT etc. take exponential time. Indeed, it is conjectured for many natural NP-complete problems that they do not have sub-exponential time algorithms. Here "sub-exponential time" is taken to mean the second definition presented below. (On the other hand, many graph problems represented in the natural way by adjacency matrices are solvable in subexponential time simply because the size of the input is the square of the number of vertices.) This conjecture (for the k-SAT problem) is known as the exponential time hypothesis. Since it is conjectured that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms, some inapproximability results in the field of approximation algorithms make the assumption that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. For example, see the known inapproximability results for the set cover problem.
Sub-exponential time
The term sub-exponential time is used to express that the running time of some algorithm may grow faster than any polynomial but is still significantly smaller than an exponential. In this sense, problems that have sub-exponential time algorithms are somewhat more tractable than those that only have exponential algorithms. The precise definition of "sub-exponential" is not generally agreed upon, however the two most widely used are below.
First definition
A problem is said to be sub-exponential time solvable if it can be solved in running times whose logarithms grow smaller than any given polynomial. More precisely, a problem is in sub-exponential time if for every there exists an algorithm which solves the problem in time O(2nε). The set of all such problems is the complexity class SUBEXP which can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.
This notion of sub-exponential is non-uniform in terms of ε in the sense that ε is not part of the input and each ε may have its own algorithm for the problem.
Second definition
Some authors define sub-exponential time as running times in . This definition allows larger running times than the first definition of sub-exponential time. An example of such a sub-exponential time algorithm is the best-known classical algorithm for integer factorization, the general number field sieve, which runs in time about where the length of the input is . Another example was the graph isomorphism problem, which the best known algorithm from 1982 to 2016 solved in However, at STOC 2016 a quasi-polynomial time algorithm was presented.
It makes a difference whether the algorithm is allowed to be sub-exponential in the size of the instance, the number of vertices, or the number of edges. In parameterized complexity, this difference is made explicit by considering pairs of decision problems and parameters k. SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems that run in time sub-exponential in k and polynomial in the input size n:
More precisely, SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems for which there is a computable function with and an algorithm that decides L in time .
Exponential time hypothesis
The exponential time hypothesis (ETH) is that 3SAT, the satisfiability problem of Boolean formulas in conjunctive normal form with at most three literals per clause and with n variables, cannot be solved in time 2o(n). More precisely, the hypothesis is that there is some absolute constant such that 3SAT cannot be decided in time 2cn by any deterministic Turing machine. With m denoting the number of clauses, ETH is equivalent to the hypothesis that kSAT cannot be solved in time 2o(m) for any integer . The exponential time hypothesis implies P ≠ NP.
Exponential time
An algorithm is said to be exponential time, if T(n) is upper bounded by 2poly(n), where poly(n) is some polynomial in n. More formally, an algorithm is exponential time if T(n) is bounded by O(2nk) for some constant k. Problems which admit exponential time algorithms on a deterministic Turing machine form the complexity class known as EXP.
Sometimes, exponential time is used to refer to algorithms that have T(n) = 2O(n), where the exponent is at most a linear function of n. This gives rise to the complexity class E.
Factorial time
An algorithm is said to be factorial time if T(n) is upper bounded by the factorial function n!. Factorial time is a subset of exponential time (EXP) because for all . However, it is not a subset of E.
An example of an algorithm that runs in factorial time is bogosort, a notoriously inefficient sorting algorithm based on trial and error. Bogosort sorts a list of n items by repeatedly shuffling the list until it is found to be sorted. In the average case, each pass through the bogosort algorithm will examine one of the n! orderings of the n items. If the items are distinct, only one such ordering is sorted. Bogosort shares patrimony with the infinite monkey theorem.
Double exponential time
An algorithm is said to be double exponential time if T(n) is upper bounded by 22poly(n), where poly(n) is some polynomial in n. Such algorithms belong to the complexity class 2-EXPTIME.
Well-known double exponential time algorithms include:
Decision procedures for Presburger arithmetic
Computing a Gröbner basis (in the worst case)
Quantifier elimination on real closed fields takes at least double exponential time, and can be done in this time.
See also
L-notation
Space complexity
References
Analysis of algorithms
Computational complexity theory
Computational resources
Time
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant%27s%20Tomb
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Grant's Tomb
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Grant's Tomb, officially the General Grant National Memorial, is the final resting place of Ulysses S. Grant, the 18th president of the United States, and of his wife Julia. It is a classical domed mausoleum in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City, New York, United States. The structure is in the middle of Riverside Drive at 122nd Street, adjacent to Riverside Park. In addition to being a national memorial since 1958, Grant's Tomb is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and its facade and interior are New York City designated landmarks.
Upon Grant's death in July 1885, his widow indicated his wish to be interred in New York. Within days, a site in Riverside Park was selected, and the Grant Monument Association (GMA) was established to appeal for funds. Although the GMA raised $100,000 in its first three months, the group only raised an additional $55,000 in the next five years. After two architectural competitions in 1889 and 1890, the GMA selected a proposal by John Hemenway Duncan for a tomb modeled after the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Following a renewed fundraising campaign, the cornerstone was laid in 1892, and the tomb was completed on April 27, 1897, Grant's 75th birthday.
Initially, the GMA managed the tomb with a $7,000 annual appropriation from the city. The tomb was extensively renovated in the late 1930s with help from Works Progress Administration workers, who added murals and restored the interior. The National Park Service took over the operation of Grant's Tomb in 1959. After a period of neglect and vandalism, the tomb was restored in the 1990s following a campaign led by college student Frank Scaturro. Despite various modifications over the years, some portions of the monument were never completed, including a planned equestrian statue outside the tomb.
The mausoleum's base is shaped like a rectangle with colonnades on three sides and a portico in front, on the south side. The upper section consists of a cylindrical shaft with a colonnade, as well as a stepped dome. Inside, the main level of the memorial is shaped like a Greek cross, with four barrel-vaulted exhibition spaces extending off a domed central area. The Grants' bodies are placed in red-granite sarcophagi above ground in a lower-level crypt. Over the years, the design of Grant's Tomb has received mixed commentary, and the tomb has been depicted in several films.
Context and planning
Ulysses S. Grant was born in 1822 and led the Union Army to victory during the American Civil War, then served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. Grant had gone bankrupt at the end of his life. A few days after publishing his memoirs to raise money, he died of throat cancer at age 63 in Wilton, New York, on July 23, 1885. The American public still held Grant in high regard when he died: his empty casket drew 15,000 mourners on July 26, and Americans and foreigners alike wrote thousands of letters expressing their condolences.
In his will, Grant had indicated that he wished to be interred in St. Louis, Missouri, or Galena, Illinois, where his family owned plots in local cemeteries, or in New York City, where he had lived in his final years. His friend, publisher George William Childs, said the president had previously expressed a desire to be buried at the Old Soldier's Home in Washington, D.C., or at West Point. Ulysses wanted his wife Julia to eventually be interred next to him; this eliminated military cemeteries and installations such as West Point, as they did not permit women to be interred. The Grant family decided against burying him at Galena because that site was not easily accessible, and other sites in Springfield, Illinois, and Troy, New York, were also rejected.
Creation of Grant Monument Association
Because the public still held Grant in high esteem when he died, there were many calls for a monument honoring him. On the same day as Ulysses's death, William Russell Grace, the mayor of New York City, sent a telegram to Julia offering New York City as the burial ground for both Grants. Grace gave Julia a list of city parks where her husband could be buried, and she agreed to have Ulysses's remains interred in New York City. Grace wrote a letter to prominent New Yorkers on July 24, 1885, to gather support for a national monument in Grant's honor:
The preliminary meeting was attended by 85 New Yorkers who established the Committee on Organization. Twenty of the attendees created an executive committee, which was to make decisions on the group's behalf. On July 29, the Committee on Organization was incorporated as the Grant Monument Association (GMA). Its chairman was Chester A. Arthur, the 21st U.S. president, and its secretary was Richard Theodore Greener, the first black alumnus of Harvard College. In addition, mayor Grace and former U.S. secretary of state Hamilton Fish were named as vice chairmen, as was financier J. P. Morgan of Drexel, Morgan & Co.. The association had "between 100 and 150" members in total, including numerous sitting and retired politicians. The Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York allowed the GMA to use an office in one of its buildings.
Site selection and temporary tomb
City officials initially planned to bury Ulysses in Central Park, and the Grant family examined three sites in the park. The general public greatly opposed the plans, and the Grant family believed the sites in Central Park were too small to fit both Ulysses and Julia. The family then considered another site in Riverside Park on Manhattan's Upper West Side; though the site was undeveloped, many local businessmen and politicians endorsed the park as the Grants' burial site. On July 28, city officials decided to bury Ulysses in Riverside Park after his family agreed to the change. The Riverside Park site was perched atop a bluff.
The day after the Grant family decided on the site, Jacob Wrey Mould designed a temporary tomb. The structure was rectangular in plan, with a door and a Christian cross facing the Hudson River. It was enclosed by brick walls and a barrel-vaulted roof. Grant's coffin was to be placed slightly below ground level, and a semicircular driveway was built around the tomb. Work on the temporary tomb began on July 29 and took nine days to complete. Grant was interred on August 8, following a funeral that attracted up to 1.5 million mourners. The temporary tomb briefly became one of the city's most popular sites, with an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 visitors on August 16 alone. Benches were installed in the area, and guidebooks were sold to visitors. Thirty soldiers were stationed outside the tomb, which was nicknamed "Camp Grant". Many passersby tried to obtain pieces of the tomb. The public continued to visit and leave mementos during late 1885.
The site of the permanent tomb had yet to be finalized when Grant was interred. The city's park commissioners had tentatively decided to place the tomb in Riverside Park between 122nd and 127th Streets, but Frederick Law Olmsted, who had co-designed Riverside Park with Calvert Vaux, was unenthusiastic about this plan. By mid-August, the city's park commissioners had asked Vaux and engineer William Barclay Parsons to determine the boundaries of a permanent memorial site for Grant's tomb. Officials also planned to construct a road north of the tomb to separate it from the rest of Riverside Park. The park commissioners set aside a site on Riverside Drive, between 121st and 124th Streets, for the monument in October 1885. The tomb had spurred real estate development in the area, and the Manhattan Railway Company had proposed constructing an elevated line to the tomb by the end of 1886. Some members of the public claimed the relatively remote site had been selected only to attract tourists and encourage real estate development, although the surrounding area was built up in the 1890s.
Fundraising
Initial efforts and opposition
The Grant Monument Association did not originally announce the function or structure of the monument, but the idea drew public support nonetheless. The New-York Tribune had suggested the idea of a permanent monument on July 26, three days after he died. On July 29, the day the GMA was established, Western Union donated $5,000 to the association's fund. The GMA continued to receive large and small donations, and the fund surpassed $50,000 in less than a month. At a membership meeting on August 20, the committee set a fundraising goal of $1 million (equivalent to $ million in ), spurred by a suggestion from former governor Alonzo B. Cornell. Funding came from such sources as private companies and benefit concerts. Fundraising had slowed down by the end of August 1885, in part because of the GMA members' lackadaisical attitude, as well as the existence of a competing association with the same name in Illinois.
Although there was great enthusiasm for a monument to Grant, early fundraising efforts were stifled by growing negative public opinion expressed by out-of-state press. The opposition was vocal in the view that the monument should be in Washington, D.C. Grace tried to calm the controversy by publicly releasing Julia's justification for the Riverside Park site as the resting place for her husband in October 1885. Even though many major newspapers published Julia's statement, this failed to boost fundraising.
There was also discontent with the management of the GMA, whose members were among the city's wealthiest but made comparatively small donations. The New York Times characterized the members as "sitting quietly in an office and signing receipts for money voluntarily tendered". Furthermore, the GMA still had no definite plan for the monument, which frustrated and discouraged donors. Joan Waugh wrote in her book, U.S. Grant: American Hero, American Myth: "Why should citizens give money to build a monument whose shape was still a mystery?" Many of the GMA's members also had responsibilities of their own and could not devote their full attention to the project. Ten of the GMA's executive meetings were canceled in four months because there were not enough members to form a quorum. The GMA had raised $100,000 by November, and the fund totaled $111,000 by the end of the year, following lackluster fundraising efforts that netted as little as $1.50 on some days.
Slowdown in fundraising
A bill was proposed in the United States Congress in January 1886, which would have provided $500,000 for the project (later reduced to $250,000). This allocation would have been provided after the GMA had independently raised $250,000, but the bill failed because it did not receive unanimous consent. By February 1886, the fund had raised $115,000, much less than the $500,000 that the association had expected by that time. A new Grant Monument Association was legally incorporated that month, with 29 trustees and four politicians who were ex officio members. The reorganized GMA held its first meeting in March, superseding the old association, and had raised either $123,000 or $129,000 by the first anniversary of Grant's death. Despite uncertainty over the permanent tomb's fate, the temporary tomb hosted events such as a Memorial Day ceremony in May 1886.
U.S. troops continued to patrol Grant's tomb until June 1886, when city park police began patrolling the tomb. Although the presence of Grant's temporary tomb had attracted visitors to Riverside Park, the number of visitors to the tomb had tapered off by the middle of that year. The fund continued to receive small donations from such sources as a benefit concert at the Metropolitan Opera House and the Nickel Fund Association of Montclair, New Jersey. Julia donated $987.50, while a puzzle contest at the end of 1886 raised another $1,000. The fund had raised only $10,000 during the entire 1886–1887 fiscal year, and it raised the same amount during the following fiscal year. By the late 1880s, some trustees had resigned because of frustration over the fund, and the Grant family was considering interring the former president somewhere else.
Design and construction
Unsolicited plans
As fundraising slowed down, people began to lose confidence in the Grant Monument Association, and members of the public offered their own proposals for the memorial. American Architect and Building News hosted a design competition in late 1885, although some members of the public erroneously thought the competition was an official one. Although the American Institute of Architects (AIA) recommended that the GMA host a formal architectural design competition, the association ignored this advice and did not contact other groups that had built similar monuments. Instead, in October 1885, the GMA started requesting proposals from "artists, architects, and all others". Richard Greener had drafted plans for a design competition with a $400,000 budget, but the invitations never went out. Although the GMA promised in January 1886 to select a design "at once", this did not happen.
The association continued to receive proposals through 1886. According to historian David Kahn, one plan by Calvert Vaux was "so complicated that written descriptions give little idea of what it was actually intended to look like", while The New York Times said another plan would "frighten people ... completely away from the fund". By November 1886, the GMA was planning to erect a permanent memorial. Within a few months, the GMA had received "a number of designs, sketches and suggestions" from across America and Europe, with 14 plans being submitted by February 1887. Among the plans the association received were those by American sculptor William Wetmore Story, German sculptor Joseph Echteler, and architect George Matthias. Greener began writing to other groups, such as the Garfield National Monument Association, for advice in early 1887, and he hired Napoleon LeBrun as consulting architect.
Design competitions
First design competition
In June 1887, the GMA formally announced a design competition for the memorial, with a deadline of October 31. Under the terms of the competition, the memorial was to be made in bronze, marble, granite, or "other appropriate material". The GMA did not respond to several requests for clarification, and some days after the deadline, Greener claimed that "no time line had ever been fixed". The editorial team of The New York Times contrasted the GMA's inefficiency against the rapid development of the nearby Cathedral of St. John the Divine.
On February 4, 1888, after a year's delay, the GMA publicly announced a design competition with a budget of $500,000, although the budget could be increased if necessary. As was common practice at the time, architects were requested to submit their proposals anonymously; the five best plans would receive cash prizes. The AIA objected to the rules of the competition; the GMA ignored both the AIA's complaints and those of other architectural associations, though it changed the rules slightly. After many of the competitors requested extra time for their designs, the original deadline of November 1, 1888, was rescheduled twice to January 10, 1889. The GMA had raised $130,000 at the time of the competition.
The first competition received 65 entries, of which 42 came from outside the United States. Some of the plans had been submitted to the American Architect and Building News three years earlier, and about one-third of these entries had intact drawings or illustrations by the late 20th century. A panel of six judges selected five winners in April 1889. The winning plan, by Cluss & Schulze of Washington, D.C., called for a mausoleum measuring about across at its base, with a pinnacle measuring high. An equestrian statue of Grant was to be placed in front of the shaft. Though the judges gave out five awards, they did not recommend any of these entries, and many major newspapers, including the Times, derided the plans. The Weekly Mail and Express donated $10,000 at the end of 1889, increasing the fund to $140,000, and the GMA distributed awards for the competition in February 1890.
Second design competition
The failure of the first competition damaged the GMA's reputation further. The Grand Army of the Republic had proposed a competing plan for a temple on the site, and many out-of-state supported the idea of moving Grant's remains to Arlington National Cemetery. The judges for the first competition had recommended in December 1889 that qualified architects be invited to compete in a second competition with more specific rules, and Adolph L. Sanger of the GMA announced at the end of March 1890 that the association would launch a second competition. At the beginning of April, the GMA formally sent out letters to potential competitors. John H. Duncan, Carrère & Hastings, Charles W. Clinton, John Ord, and Napoleon LeBrun were selected to participate. Each contestant was required to design a tall monument with space for a memorial hall and for Ulysses and Julia Grant's coffins. In addition, the plans could not cost more than $500,000.
A bill was introduced in Congress in May 1890, which would provide $250,000 for the monument if the GMA raised $200,000. The same month, the GMA opened a gift shop next to the temporary tomb. Though few details of the second competition were publicly announced, numerous architects attempted to compete anyway. The five competitors wanted the deadline to be extended from July to October, but the GMA only gave each competitor until September 1, as the United States Senate had passed a resolution in August to move Grant's remains to Arlington. Each architect was invited to explain his plan in front of the GMA's executive committee; the designs varied in complexity. On September 9, 1890, the GMA awarded the commission to Duncan, who estimated his design would cost between $496,000 and $900,000. Duncan wrote that he wanted "to produce a monumental structure that should be unmistakably a tomb of military character" and that he wanted to avoid "resemblance of a habitable dwelling". Duncan's plans called for a square base, a cylindrical shaft, and a pyramidal dome, with a portico in the front and an apse in the rear. The runners-up each received $500 checks.
That October, the GMA signed a contract with Duncan. Although there were continued efforts to relocate Grant's remains to Arlington, the House of Representatives voted down the Senate's resolution in December 1890. While representatives from other states favored relocating the president's remains, New York representatives, including Roswell P. Flower and John Raines, were opposed. The GMA had raised only about $150,000 by the start of 1891; the previous four years had netted just $40,000. All "nonessential" design elements, including a $54,000 approach from the Hudson River, were removed from the plans to save money. Although the GMA's members had assumed that the permanent tomb would be built on the same site as the temporary tomb, the city's park commissioners favored a site slightly to the east, within Claremont Park.
Construction
Foundation and fundraising
A groundbreaking ceremony was hosted on April 27, 1891, on what would have been Grant's 69th birthday, despite confusion over the site. The next week, the GMA awarded a $18,875 contract to John T. Brady for the foundation's construction, and Cornelius Vanderbilt II established a second fund for the Grant Monument. Brady signed a contract for the northern half of the foundation on June 10, and excavations for the foundation began shortly thereafter. The park commissioners and GMA also agreed to build the permanent tomb on the temporary site. Duncan continued to refine and simplify his design through July. After preliminary excavations were completed in August 1891, Brady started constructing the foundation. That October, Brady received a contract for the southern half of the foundation, and the vault holding Grant's coffin was relocated. Over the next month, Brady carefully lifted the vault onto the new concrete foundation.
Meanwhile, the GMA was embroiled in internal disputes over leadership, prompting the resignation of its fourth president William H. Grace and several trustees in late 1891. Grant's friend Horace Porter took over the organization in early 1892 and served in that position for 27 years. Porter soon moved the organization's headquarters, tripled the number of trustees to 100, and discontinued trustees' salaries. The New York State Legislature did not approve a proposal to rename the organization to the Grant Tomb and Monument Association due to a clerical error. The foundations were completed in March. The same month, Brady received a contract to erect the lowest part of the facade with granite from the Union Granite Company's quarries. The GMA's new leadership asked Duncan to downsize the monument to save money. Porter also tried to convince the state legislature to give $500,000 for the monument, but the bill was withdrawn after legislators requested a 10% kickback.
The GMA's funds had stalled at $155,000, so Porter enlisted businessman Edward F. Cragin to raise money and announced plans on March 22 to raise another $350,000 in four weeks. The group reached out to various businesses and trades across the city. The campaign began nine days later, raising funds through newspaper advertisements and public donation boxes, as well as from 185 committees. Mayor Hugh J. Grant (who was unelated to the Grants) encouraged everyone to give to the fund on April 8. U.S. president Benjamin Harrison laid the permanent cornerstone on April 27, 1892, at which point the campaign had raised $202,800. Another attempt to obtain $250,000 from Congress failed in late May 1892. The total fund exceeded $500,000 by the end of May, more than enough for the entire project; the GMA had raised $350,000 in these two months. The vast majority of the money came from New Yorkers, and the fundraiser had incurred less than $18,000 in expenses. Fundraising continued through early 1893, at which point $600,000 had been raised from over 90,000 individual donors, making it the world's largest fundraiser ever at the time.
Progress and completion
The temporary tomb was relocated north in May 1892, allowing visitors to see the tomb without disrupting work. A stonecutters' strike in New England delayed construction for much of that year, lasting six months. Duncan and Porter began acquiring of granite from New England, and Brady was awarded a $104,482 contract to construct the rest of the structure in early 1893. At their annual meeting that February, the GMA's trustees awarded a granite contract to the Maine and New Hampshire Granite Company, with a completion date of late 1895. The company was ready to deliver granite for the superstructure by June 1893. However, Brady could not accept the granite because the monument's water table needed to be fixed. In response to a media inquiry that October, Duncan blamed the contractors for the delays. By the end of 1893, the water table was the only completed above-ground portion of the tomb.
At the GMA's 1894 annual meeting, the trustees changed the completion date to early 1896. Trains began delivering granite to the site in May 1894. After finding that some of the stone had coal-dust stains, Duncan threatened to reject any granite that was stained, and he returned any stones with stains greater than in diameter. The monument had been built to a height of by December 1894, when work was paused due to cold weather. Further slowdowns occurred in early 1895 due to delays in delivering granite and disputes over smoke from a construction hoist. The base had topped out by that May, and the monument had reached when work was paused at the end of the year. Duncan had also begun soliciting estimates for interior work.
The GMA reported at its 1896 meeting that the completion date had been changed to early 1897. Although a dedication was supposed to occur on April 25, before the tomb was even complete, one newspaper reported that "not a flower was to be seen" on Grant's birthday two days later. Work on the steel frame of the monument's roof had resumed in early 1896, and the roof was completed by the middle of that year, with the scaffolding being removed in July. The Department of Parks announced plans that August to spend $120,000 on terraces and paths around the monument, although the department did not approve several other proposals for the area, which included a system of boulevards leading to the monument. The stonework on the facade was completed the next month. Brady received the contract for the interior work. Although there was originally supposed to be one sarcophagus for both Grants, this was changed to two sarcophagi before the monument was finished. The red granite for Grant's sarcophagus was delivered in March 1897. The front doors were installed on April 12, marking the completion of all work.
Use as monument
Opening
The New York City Board of Estimate budgeted $50,000 in 1896 just for the monument's opening ceremony. Grant's remains were transferred to the sarcophagus on April 17, 1897, and placed in the mausoleum. Brady was awarded a $20,250 contract to build a temporary triumphal arch and a grandstand for the ceremony. On April 25, two days before the dedication, the tomb had an estimated 200,000 visitors. The state legislature had declared the day of the dedication, April 27, 1897, as a state holiday in four New York City-area counties. The dedication marked what would have been Grant's 75th birthday. Despite inclement weather, the dedication drew an estimated one million spectators, as well as more than 50,000 marchers who paraded to the tomb from Madison Square Park to the south.
The grandstand was disassembled after the ceremony, although the temporary arch remained for another month. Bricks from the temporary tomb were sent to Grand Army posts across the U.S.; other members of the public also requested the temporary tomb's bricks but were denied. To avoid stampedes, the tomb was closed to the public until the day after the dedication, when between ten and fifteen thousand people entered the monument. Policemen were stationed outside the monument to direct crowds, although a 24-hour patrol of Grant's Tomb was withdrawn shortly after the monument opened. Chinese diplomat Yang Yü planted a ginkgo biloba tree next to the tomb in May 1897, honoring Grant on behalf of Li Hongzhang. A memorial tablet was placed near the tree that September.
GMA operation
The New York City government initially did not provide any appropriation for the tomb's maintenance. In November 1897, the Department of Parks agreed to pay the GMA $7,000 annually to maintain the monument for 11 years. George D. Burnside, who had been a foreman during the monument's construction, was hired as the first curator, serving for nearly five decades. Julia's sarcophagus was placed in the tomb in January 1898. The monument's policies included a loud-talking ban and a requirement that men take off their hats. Grant's Tomb attracted 560,000 visitors in its first eight months, and it consistently recorded at least 500,000 annual visitors over the next few years. Most visitors arrived to the site by either elevated railway, carriage, bicycle, or boat, although some traveled there on foot. The Grand Army of the Republic hosted annual ceremonies at the tomb on Grant's birthday and on Memorial Day until 1929.
1900s to mid-1920s
Most visitors in the early 20th century generally adhered to the monument's strict rules. Some visitors talked loudly, loitered, vandalized, or roller-skated on the steps, and there were also "relic hunters" who took pieces of the monument. The New York City Board of Estimate provided $300,000 in early 1901 for "general improvements" to the area around Grant's Tomb. Julia died on December 14, 1902, and she was placed in her sarcophagus the week afterward. The Grant family also donated to the GMA several thousand letters that Ulysses had written, and battle flags were placed in the reliquary rooms at the tomb's northwest and northeast corners in 1903. The GMA requested in early 1904 that the state fund a heating plant in the tomb. The monument had also started to leak, causing the plaster to flake off. As such, in late 1904, workers coated the interior with paraffin wax to reduce leaks; the work was completed the next year.
In its early years, Grant's Tomb attracted more visitors than the Statue of Liberty did, with around 600,000 visitors in 1906. The monument also attracted many foreign delegations, as well as ceremonies and demonstrations. The city renewed its contract with the GMA in 1908 for 21 years, continuing to pay the association $7,000 annually. The next year, three policemen were temporarily stationed outside the tomb to deter vandals. A pavilion with restrooms was erected to the west of Grant's Tomb in 1910 at a cost of $45,000, replacing a temporary wooden structure there. A set of Japanese cherry trees were planted behind the tomb in 1912. The same year, Duncan recommended "urgent" repairs to the tomb and surrounding pavement, as he believed the foundations had been undermined due to improper drainage. The GMA paid Louis Comfort Tiffany $975 for nine purple stained-glass windows on the monument, which were installed in March 1913. The Parks Department also planned to repair the pavement, and there were plans to install statuary once sufficient funds had been raised. A wooden booth for the staff was installed next to the entrance in 1915.
The number of visitors was in decline by the 1910s, in part since many Civil War veterans were dying, and many younger Americans were unaware of Grant's importance to previous generations. World War I and the growing popularity of amusement parks, theaters, and sports also negatively impacted visitor numbers; by the end of the 1910s, the tomb had only 300,000 annual visitors. The tomb was originally illuminated by gas jets at night, but these were replaced by electric lamps in 1923. Additionally, the tomb continued to have drainage problems: by 1925, one corner was sagging by . This prompted the city to rebuild the plaza outside the tomb in a project which was completed in 1927. During the 1920s, there were several plans to complete the statuary on the tomb, but this had been complicated by Duncan's indecision over the designs. A grove of trees outside the tomb was dedicated in 1928.
1920s and 1930s renovation
Multiple modifications, including a statue of Grant on horseback outside Grant's Tomb, were announced in February 1929. This was part of a larger plan designed by John Russell Pope, which included a pediment above the main entrance and an expanded entrance plaza. The GMA began raising funds that month, with plans to obtain $400,000, and the city's Municipal Art Commission approved Pope's plans that March. Pope signed a contract to design the renovation in June 1929, and the GMA had raised $121,000 by September. With the Wall Street Crash of 1929 later the same year, fundraising slowed significantly, but the project was not officially canceled until 1933. Grant's Tomb recorded fewer than 100,000 annual visitors for the first time in its history in 1933, and visitor counts had decreased to fewer than 500 a day. The annual ceremonies at Grant's Tomb were drawing fewer and fewer people, and vandalism was becoming more common. The facade had also become dirty over time.
In 1934, the city again renewed its contract with the GMA for 21 years; the $7,000 annual payment was not changed to adjust for inflation. Some of Pope's plans were carried out later in the decade. There were plans to clean the monument by July 1935, and Works Progress Administration (WPA) laborers installed new marble flooring that December. According to Joan Waugh, WPA funding and the sale of souvenirs helped keep the tomb solvent. Exposed cables were relocated inside the walls during 1936, and workers completed a 14-month renovation of the roof and part of the interior in May 1937 at a cost of $22,500. In June, the GMA hired Dean Fausett to design two murals of battle maps, which were completed the next year. Swinging racks, bronze markers, a lamp, and a brass lectern were also added for visitors' benefit. The GMA announced in late 1937 that it would complete the renovation before the 1939 New York World's Fair started.
Numerous modifications were made to Grant's Tomb in 1938, including the installation of a heating plant and an air-conditioning system. Workers also installed anti-bird screens, built a plaza around the monument, cleaned the interior of the dome, and relocated the curator's office to the southeast corner. Two eagle statues from the New York City Post Office were relocated to the tomb, and the purple stained-glass panels in nine windows were replaced with amber panels. Artists William Mues and Jeno Juszko designed five busts of Union Army generals around the crypt as part of the Federal Art Project. Four hundred and fifty WPA workers ultimately completed the project by January 1939. Workers installed two flagpoles and exterior floodlights in early April 1939, and the GMA rededicated the tomb on Grant's 117th birthday. The renovation cost either $300,000 or $450,000, of which the GMA paid around $90,000.
1940s and 1950s
During the 1930s renovation, the GMA had attempted to add an equestrian statue outside the tomb, which never occurred. The GMA first proposed relocating an existing statue in Brooklyn in 1938; although parks commissioner Robert Moses supported this plan, residents of the borough heavily opposed it. GMA president Herbert L. Satterlee and Grant's grandson Ulysses S. Grant III rejected a model of the statue created by a sculptor named Flinta, as well as another design from William Mues. George D. Burnside's son George G. Burnside took over as the monument's curator in 1940. After the American entry into World War II. the GMA considered closing the monument. The monument ultimately remained open, but the sarcophagi were covered by tarpaulin sheets at night between 1942 and 1945 to protect them from air raid damage. In addition, a silk sheet donated by Japanese citizens was removed in 1944. Vandalism continued to occur, as in 1942 when the cork tree next to the tomb was damaged, and the tomb also saw fewer visitors over the years.
By the end of World War II, the tomb was only guarded by New York City Police Department officers when they patrolled the neighborhood. Although annual attendance increased to about 125,000 by the late 1940s, the tomb was becoming dilapidated. There were continued efforts to fund an equestrian statue outside the tomb after the war. The city finally increased its annual appropriation to the GMA in the early 1950s, but even with the increased appropriation, the GMA recorded a net profit of only $230 in 1952. Much of the organization's funding still came from the city, and annual maintenance costs had reached $11,635 by the mid-1950s.
At its 1953 and 1954 meetings, GMA trustees discussed the possibility of transferring the monument to the federal government, but no action was taken in either case. The GMA also wrote a letter to U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower, whose secretary rejected the plan, though Eisenhower sent a team to look at the site in late 1955. State lawmakers introduced two bills to transfer the land and the tomb's operation to the federal government in January 1956, and the governor signed the land-transfer bill that March. U.S. representative Herbert Zelenko introduced a bill in early 1957 to transfer the tomb's operation to the United States Department of the Interior, and Eisenhower signed the bill in August 1958 after Congress approved it. The move was expected to save the city $13,000 per year and would cost the federal government $19,000 annually. The Board of Estimate voted to give the site to the federal government in November; the tomb had recorded over 18.6 million all-time visitors at the time.
NPS operation
The National Park Service (NPS) took over the operations of Grant's Tomb on May 1, 1959, without any ceremony. The structure was officially renamed the General Grant National Memorial. Thomas Pitkin, the tomb's newly appointed historian, wanted to renovate Grant's Tomb to emphasize its role as a memorial rather than as a tomb. Ulysses S. Grant III requested that the NPS keep his grandparents' bodies there.
1960s and 1970s renovations
After taking over Grant's Tomb, the NPS wanted to add an equestrian statue, install a pediment, modify the roof, and improve pedestrian flow around the memorial. In 1961, the NPS announced plans to spend $200,000 on an equestrian statue and repairs to the tomb. The NPS dropped plans for the pediment that year, but it did make some minor changes, such as the addition of new labels and a telephone, as well as replacement of display panels. Paul Manship, who had designed a model of a statue for the GMA three decades earlier, was hired to design the statue; amid strong opposition, the statue was canceled in 1962. Pitkin proposed installing colorful lunette murals within the memorial in 1962, and the NPS also installed floodlights to deter loitering. The memorial was documented in the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1963. Grant's Tomb continued to record 300,000 annual visitors during the mid-1960s, even as it was being vandalized frequently.
The GMA transferred $20,000 to the NPS in 1964 to help pay for the installation of two mosaic murals; the NPS also spent $10,000 on a third mural. The NPS hired Allyn Cox to design the murals. The GMA officially dissolved itself in April 1965, using its last $9,095.50 to buy a model of an equestrian statue by Manship, which was then displayed in the tomb. Cox's murals were dedicated in May 1966, and additional modifications took place throughout the decade. The tomb was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, at which point annual patronage dropped to 120,000. The NPS also loosened restrictions within the memorial, allowing visitors to see the crypt and take pictures for the first time. In the late 1960s, the NPS painted over two of the WPA-era murals and replaced them with portraits; two other murals were revised to include portraits of African Americans. By the end of the decade, annual patronage had declined to 95,300.
In 1970, NPS workers demolished bronze cases that had displayed battle flags. The flags themselves, as well as some letters and other documents, were placed into storage; the documents were stored under a water heater, where they were damaged significantly. That year, more floodlights were added to the memorial. Beginning in 1972, the granite benches around the memorial were replaced with mosaic-tile benches designed by Pedro Silva. The benches were intended to discourage graffiti on the tomb, which by then cost $11,000 a year to remove. Initially budgeted at $20,000, the benches ended up costing $50,000 and took two years to complete. The NPS added fans and reinforced the steel frame of the roof from 1973 to early 1974. This was followed later the same year by a repainting of the dome and barrel vaults inside the monument, which required a two-month closure of Grant's Tomb in late 1974. Both the facade and interior of the tomb were designated as city landmarks in 1975.
Late 1970s to early 1990s
By the 1970s, the tomb was vandalized and graffitied on a regular basis, and homeless persons, drug users, and muggers frequented the memorial. Local residents reported that the sculptures around the tomb were generally spared from graffiti, though there were calls to remove the sculptures, which had decreased by the 1980s. The visitor pavilion west of Grant's Tomb closed in the 1970s, and annual patronage bottomed out at just over 35,000 in 1979. Meanwhile, the NPS was largely unsuccessful in its attempts to prevent graffiti and other damage. Even when the tomb was repaired, it was often damaged again; for example, the eagle statues were damaged so frequently that the NPS procured several replacement beaks for these sculptures. The NPS spent $50,000 to renovate the tomb from 1982 to 1984, at which point the tomb averaged 75,000 visitors per year. Although the NPS hired security guards to patrol the tomb, this merely prompted graffiti vandals to wait until the guards' shifts ended. The tomb's entire staff consisted of two janitors and one person handing out pamphlets, and there were no longer guided tours. The upper level was closed because of staff shortages.
Newspapers regularly reported on crimes at the tomb in the late 1980s and early 1990s, describing the monument as a frequent site for public urination, drug use, and muggings. Funding cuts forced the NPS to close the memorial on Sundays starting in 1986. There was no nighttime security in the early 1990s, and the memorial was open for only eight hours on Wednesdays through Sundays. The exhibits had become neglected, and the public had largely forgotten about the tomb itself: according to The Washington Post, many tourists did not know whose tomb it was. One rare photo of Grant was not replaced after being stolen, while another photo depicted the wrong person. Preservationists estimated in 1993 that the monument only had 40,000 annual visitors, even though the NPS claimed the memorial had 100,000 visitors per year.
The federal government gave the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation $300,000 for a restoration of the tomb's long-closed visitor pavilion in 1989. Meanwhile, the monument itself continued to fall into disrepair. NPS superintendent Georgette Nelms said the graffiti on the facade was deterring visitors and prompting concerned letters from around the world. The memorial also had leaks in its roof and cracks on its pillars. The interior had peeling paint, and the facade was being damaged by the chemical solution that was used to wipe away the graffiti. By contrast, Robert E. Lee's burial site at University Chapel was well-maintained and open seven days a week. The dilapidated conditions at Grant's Tomb also contrasted with the well-kept nature of Columbia University's campus a few blocks away, as well as nearby churches such as Riverside Church.
1990s restoration
Frank Scaturro, a Columbia University student, launched an effort to restore the tomb after he became a volunteer park ranger in 1991. Scaturro recalled that homeless people and drug users still congregated around the tomb and that it was common to smell human waste there. Early the next year, the NPS proposed several options for improving the exhibits in Grant's Tomb. Scaturro sent weekly memos to the NPS for over two years, to no avail. He published a 325-page whistleblower report in 1993 and sent it to news media, as well as government officials including U.S. president Bill Clinton and members of Congress. After WNBC aired a report on the tomb's condition in November 1993, the NPS fired Scaturro, who said "whistle-blowing was the last resort". Grant's descendants called Scaturro a hero for his advocacy. The same year, George M. Craig formed a group known as the Friends of Grant's Tomb to advocate for the memorial's restoration; the group could not raise the $11.5 million that the NPS said was required for the tomb.
By the end of 1993, the NPS's Manhattan office was considering numerous options to restore the monument. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported in March 1994 that Scaturro had spent $2,000 of his own money to improve the tomb's condition. He also reestablished the Grant Monument Association, although the newly reconstituted GMA was not involved in the tomb's operation. The bad condition of the tomb had prompted several proposals to relocate the Grants' remains. The Illinois General Assembly approved a resolution by lawmaker Judy Baar Topinka in March 1994, asking the NPS to either restore Grant's Tomb or move the remains to Illinois. Scaturro and one of Grant's descendants, Ulysses Grant Deitz, sued the NPS the next month, claiming the agency had left the structure to rot. A bill to relocate the Grants' remains was also introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives. Politicians from Grant's birth state of Ohio wanted the remains to be relocated there instead.
Following the lawsuit and relocation proposals, the NPS requested $850,000 in federal funds to renovate the tomb over the next two years. The agency was also working on a long-term plan for Grant's Tomb and needed $250,000 per year for extra security around the monument. The same year, the U.S. House of Representatives introduced legislation to restore the tomb before its centennial. This plan provided up to $375,000 for the memorial's renovation, a move that Scaturro and Deitz criticized as insufficient. Deitz still threatened to move Ulysses and Julia Grant's remains elsewhere unless the memorial was fully restored before 1997. Ultimately, $1.8 million was provided for the tomb's renovation.
The exterior was renovated first, followed by the interior. The NPS used an abrasive and chemicals to clean the facade, and it replaced the leaking roof. In addition, new displays and mechanical systems were added, and the NPS spent $80,000 to restore one of Fausett's two murals. Bronze trophy cases were placed in the memorial to replace older cases that had been destroyed. During the restoration, the NPS attempted to disassemble The Rolling Bench; this prompted protests, so the NPS ultimately kept the benches. The facade and roof modifications had been completed by 1995, and the NPS had hired additional guards to patrol the memorial 24 hours a day. The tomb was rededicated on April 27, 1997, its 100th anniversary and Grant's 175th birthday, with a parade and a two-day-long celebration attended by 1,300 people.
Post-renovation and 21st century
The renovated Grant's Tomb recorded 126,432 visitors in 1997, a 32-year high, and the memorial also recorded over 100,000 annual visitors during the next two years. Although the Grants' descendants were satisfied with the renovation, Topinka continued to advocate for relocating the Grants' remains. During the early 21st century, the memorial continued to record about 100,000 annual visitors, or fewer than 300 daily visitors. Many of the visitors were American Civil War enthusiasts. The visitor center on the western side of Riverside Drive remained abandoned through the early 2000s. The New York City government gave the NPS an easement in 2004, allowing the NPS to begin restoring the pavilion. The visitor center reopened on April 27, 2011. By then, the tomb recorded 120,000 annual visitors.
Parts of the memorial had again begun to fall into disrepair by the late 2010s, with such issues as peeling paint, cracks, rusted flagpoles, and water damage. AM New York Metro reported in 2018 that the memorial needed $777,355 for repainting and for repairs to the stairs and pathways. Although U.S. senator Chuck Schumer had pledged money to restore the memorial in 2019, it still saw occasional vandalism, such as during the early 2019 federal government shutdown when the memorial was vandalized. Scaturro, who by then was the president of the Grant Monument Association, advocated for federal and city officials to add security and refurbish the memorial. Due to staffing shortages, the memorial had to close on Mondays and Tuesdays; even on days when Grant's Tomb was open, visitors were only allowed into the memorial on alternating hours. Scaturro also wanted the city and federal governments to help fund the addition of a finial atop the tomb.
Description
The design of Grant's Tomb was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman structures, in particular the Pantheon, Rome. Duncan may have taken some elements of his design, such as dimensions, from his onetime classmate Henry O. Avery, who created a drawing for the monument in 1885. This has not been substantiated, as Avery died in 1890 before construction started. The Ionic colonnade of the upper section may have been inspired by a design created by an architect named Bernier, although Bernier's blueprints were not published until 1892 at the earliest.
Site
Grant's Tomb is at the intersection of Riverside Drive and 122nd Street in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It occupies a high bluff, standing above mean high water. The northbound lanes of Riverside Drive abut the memorial to the east, while the southbound lanes are to the west. The area near the memorial is served by the M5, M4, and M104 routes of MTA Regional Bus Operations, while the of the New York City Subway stops at 125th Street and Broadway. The mausoleum is not wheelchair-accessible. It is generally open Wednesday through Sunday, year-round, although the tomb is closed on Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year's Day.
A granite plaza, dating from the late 1930s, surrounds the tomb. Two flagpoles with brass plaques were erected within the plaza during the 1930s. The western flagpole commemorates Frederick Dent Grant—the first son of Ulysses and Julia Grant—and contains an American flag. The eastern flagpole commemorates Horace Porter and contains Grant's four-star general's flag. There is also a grove of trees, which was not part of the original design for the memorial's grounds. The area north of Grant's Tomb has several ginkgo trees, as well as a Chinese cork, which date from Li Hongzhang's visit to the United States in 1897. There is also a commemorative tablet from Li's visit.
A visitor center or pavilion is located across Riverside Drive to the west of the mausoleum and contains a bookstore, a community space, and restrooms. This pavilion displays memorabilia and a movie about Grant's life. The visitor center, dating from 1910, is a classical-style pavilion designed by Theodore E. Videto. The structure is made of granite and supported by Doric columns, with restrooms on a lower level. The visitor center is wheelchair-accessible.
Art and other memorials
According to NYC Parks, "some popular local folk art in Riverside Park contrasts strikingly with the Tomb's severity". Among these is The Rolling Bench, a sculpture consisting of 17 concrete benches bearing colorful mosaics. Completed in 1972, it was designed by artist Pedro Silva and built with help from local residents. The benches depict various scenes, animals, people, objects, and fictional characters in addition to Grant himself. The project was sponsored by the nonprofit organization CITYarts. The sculpture was restored during mid-2008 under Silva's supervision.
There are two other memorials in the vicinity of Grant's Tomb. The General Horace Porter memorial, at 122nd Street, is a flagpole on a pedestal dedicated in 1939. Another flagpole on a pedestal, Major General Frederick D. Grant, was also dedicated at 122nd Street in 1939.
Form and facade
The structure is tall and was designed with as little glass as possible to give the impression that the monument "would last through the ages". The total height was downsized from to save money. Until Riverside Church to the east was completed in 1930, Grant's Tomb was the tallest structure in the area.
The exterior is made of North Jay, Maine, granite. The facade is modeled after the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, with some differences, including the design of the roofline. The base of the tomb is shaped almost like a cube (actually a rectangular prism), measuring high. The base measures ; it was originally intended to be but was downsized to save money. Although the upper section of Grant's Tomb is cylindrical, in contrast to the square Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, both structures had a similarly proportioned base and peristyle. Due to the tomb's design, early visitors mistook it for a bank, house of worship, library, post office, or mansion, while later visitors confused it with the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument to the south.
Base
The main entrance is through a -wide set of stairs facing a plaza to the south, which leads to a hexastyle portico with fluted columns in the Doric order. The portico is supported by ten columns, which are grouped into two rows. There are six columns at the front of the portico. Atop the columns is a Doric entablature with wreaths and circular bosses, as well as stone blocks above each column on the portico's cornice. Early plans for Grant's Tomb called for the installation of equestrian statues, depicting generals who led the Union Army, on each stone block. The wooden entrance doors, made by Borkelt & Debevoise, measure wide by tall and weigh in total. The doors are covered with 296 rosettes, which conceal parchment papers with dozens of New Yorkers' signatures.
Behind the portico is the memorial's rectangular base. There is a cornice and a sloped parapet running around the perimeter of the rectangular base. At the center of the base's southern elevation, above the portico, is a plaque with the inscription "Let us have peace", referring to Grant's acceptance statement after the Republican Party nominated him as its candidate for the 1868 United States presidential election. On either side of the plaque are female figures, which may have been derived from those on the Medici Tomb; these were designed by J. Massey Rhind and represent peace and victory. The western, northern, and eastern elevations have colonnades of Doric columns supporting an entablature, with six columns on each elevation. In contrast to the southern elevation, the other three elevations have small square openings between each column, and the parapet above each colonnade is flat. There is a fret molding below the northern elevation's colonnade. A similar fret molding on the western and eastern elevations was scrapped for lack of money.
Upper section
The memorial's upper section contains a cylindrical drum with an Ionic colonnade, which measures about across. Behind the colonnade is an inner wall that rises to the monument's roof. The columns support an entablature, as well as a cornice with palmettes and bosses. Above the cornice, there are pilasters and panels on the inner wall of the colonnade. There is a stepped cone above the inner wall, with a capstone weighing . When Duncan designed Grant's Tomb, he had intended for the cone's shape to evoke that of the Egyptian pyramids, where Egyptian monarchs were buried. Early plans for the monument called for a statue of Grant to be placed atop the cone, although it was not built. There is also an observation deck about above ground.
Interior
The interior has a cruciform layout, with arms extending off all four sides of a rectangular space. It is clad with white marble from Lee, Massachusetts. The maximum distance from arm to arm is . The design was strongly inspired by the interior of Napoleon's tomb at Les Invalides, Paris. Rhind was responsible for the original interior decorations. The entire tomb rests on a foundation measuring deep.
Main level
The center of the memorial's main room is topped by a circular dome with coffers. The dome measures across and is surrounded by a balcony or gallery. The gallery contains 12 openings, separated by pilasters with eagle sculptures at their capitals. Each opening contains a pair of Ionic columns, topped by pairs of panels with wreaths and shields. There were originally supposed to be 13 openings to represent the Thirteen Colonies, with seals in each opening. At each corner of the room, the dome is supported by piers measuring high. Above these piers are pendentives depicting various eras of Grant's life, which include allegorical figures sculpted by Rhind. The southeast pendentive represents Grant's birth; the southwest pendentive depicts his time in the military; the northwest pendentive symbolizes his time as a politician and statesman; and the northeast pendentive signifies his death.
There are barrel vaults with coffered panels above each of the arms; these vaults measure high. The western, northern, and eastern arms each have three square windows with amber-colored glass, which date to a 1930s renovation. The southern arm contains a pair of bronze doors. The lunettes above the windows, and below the barrel vaults, feature mosaics designed in 1966 by Allyn Cox. These mosaic murals measure high by across. The battles of Chattanooga, Appomattox, and Vicksburg are depicted in the murals on the western, northern, and eastern walls respectively.
At the southwestern and southeastern corners of the main room are spiral staircases under quarter-domed skylights, which lead to the gallery. Before the tomb opened, Duncan decided not to open the gallery to the public. There are circular reliquary rooms with false domes to the northwest and northeast of the main room. The reliquary rooms contained murals by Dean Fausett, which each measured and depicted maps of Civil War battle sites. The northwestern room's mural depicted battles between Pennsylvania and North Carolina, while the northeastern room's mural depicted battles between North Carolina and Florida. The murals were painted over in the 1960s, but one mural was restored in the 1990s. By the 1990s, there were exhibits about the monument's construction, the Black community of Upper Manhattan, and the lifetime of Ulysses S. Grant.
Crypt
The northern arm contains a double staircase descending to the crypt, which is at ground level. Ulysses and Julia Grant are placed in identical separate red-granite sarcophagi placed side by side beneath the center of the dome. The granite was quarried by the Berlin and Montello Granite Company of Wisconsin and was selected for its visual similarity to the material used in Napoleon's tomb. Each sarcophagus measures across. Under both sarcophagi is a single gray-blue granite pedestal measuring high and across. A plaque with the name of each Grant is placed on either sarcophagus. A balustrade separates the sarcophagi from a corridor that wraps around the crypt.
The outer wall of the crypt is divided by square piers, which support an entablature and a ceiling with paneling. On the wall are five niches with busts depicting Union generals in the Civil War. The busts depict William T. Sherman, Phillip H. Sheridan, George H. Thomas, James B. McPherson, and Edward Ord. William Mues designed the busts of Sheridan and Sherman, while Jens Juszko designed the other three.
Activities
Jazz concerts have been hosted outside the tomb since at least 1975. Since then, concerts have regularly been held at or just outside Grant's Tomb. Examples include Jazzmobile, Inc.'s annual Free Outdoor Summer Mobile Concerts at Grant's Tomb. The annual Grant's Tomb Summer Concert also featured West Point's United States Military Academy Band in 2009. A ceremony is held at the memorial every year on April 27, Grant's birthday.
Starting in the late 20th century, "Harlem Week" events took place outside Grant's Tomb. According to About...Time magazine, "While many African Americans may never have visited the lesser-known sites, everybody in the New York City area knows Grant's Tomb" because of Harlem Week. During the late 20th and 21st centuries, television station WNBC-TV also hosted Independence Day television specials featuring Grant's Tomb in the background. These specials have showcased performers such as Bon Jovi and Beyoncé. Other events at the tomb have included a spring picnic hosted by Bette Midler's New York Restoration Project.
Impact
Critical reception
Contemporary commentary
When the design for Grant's Tomb was announced in 1890, The New York Times wrote that "disinterested and competent observers must agree that the choice was well made", while the Brooklyn Citizen called the design "worthy of the man and a credit to the great metropolis". Architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler described the design as "by far the best" of the five submitted in the second design competition. Duncan received several architectural awards in the years after he received the commission. The New York Herald wrote in 1895: "It is a comparatively easy task to construct a mere tomb or monument, but a very great difficulty is presented in a monumental tomb, and the task has been successfully accomplished."
David Kahn wrote that, after Grant's Tomb opened, the site "was praised as being superior to that of Napoleon's, Hadrian's or Theoderic's mausoleums". One newspaper called the structure "our one great memorial of the struggle for union", while another described it as "remarkably white and marble-like in appearance". Park and Cemetery magazine wrote in May 1897 that Grant's Tomb was "an appropriate memorial to a man worthy of a nation's tribute". During the 1900s, the design of Grant's Tomb inspired that of the McKinley National Memorial in Ohio.
Not all reception was positive: local newspapers variously referred to the design as "cheap", "flimsy", "squat", "ugly", "clumsy", "heavy", and "awkward". A critic for the Cincinnati Enquirer wrote in 1896 that the monument "is hardly harmonious height. A cenotaph stands rather irrelevantly upon a temple ... The profile lines are stiff, and the feeling is not flowing ..." After the tomb opened, one magazine praised the interior and called the facade "imposing, well proportioned and dignified", but it labeled the western and eastern elevations as "lacking in interest" and described the tomb's two sections as being out of scale with each other. The Builder magazine similarly took issue with the scale of the exterior, and it described the "motif of the interior" as plainer than that of Les Invalides, but still wrote that "it is entitled to rank among the most notable monuments in America". One editorial in the Times in 1910 dubbed the structure a "mausoleum monstrosity".
Later commentary
After the benches around Grant's Tomb were added in 1974, they were controversial. Ulysses Grant's great-granddaughter Edith Grant Griffiths, who said "they certainly clash with that severe and dignified building", while the Ulysses S. Grant Association's president compared the benches to having a roller coaster outside the Lincoln Memorial. Conversely, architecture critic Paul Goldberger praised the benches as "perhaps Manhattan's finest piece of folk art of our time", and the AIA compared the benches to the buildings designed by Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona.
Of the monument itself, the WPA Guide to New York City wrote in 1939: "The high conical roof slopes downward to a circular colonnade atop the cube of the main hall; the difficult problem of uniting the three forms harmoniously remains unsolved." Former city parks commissioner August Heckscher II wrote in 1977 that the tomb was "among the comparatively few structures in the city that are absolutely safe" and that "one feels that the city is better for these evocations of a patriotic spirit so at odds with modernity". In 1980, Goldberger called the monument "more pompous than graceful, but it is imposing, particularly from within..." Robert A. M. Stern and the co-authors of his 1983 book New York 1900 said Duncan's design "embodied not so much the character of Grant, a character who outlived his reputation, but to create an American Valhalla, a shrine to American power".
The 2010 edition of the AIA Guide to New York City described the tomb as a "pompous sepulcher" and the benches "a populist huzzah for the solemn Grants". The same year, an author for The Record of New Jersey wrote that "chances are you can't think of anyone—not even your rich Uncle Midas—who has a final resting place grander than Ulysses S. Grant's". Ralph Gardner Jr. of The Wall Street Journal wrote in 2015: "The tomb, designed by John Duncan and based on an ancient Greek mausoleum, is relatively stark without being uninviting."
Media
The author Louis Picone wrote that, after Grant's Tomb was completed, it was "one of the most recognizable structures in America". In its early years, the memorial was featured in many commemorative postcards, as well as the short films Personal (1904) and How a French Nobleman Got a Wife through the 'New York Herald' Personal Column (1905). In the mid-20th century, Grant's Tomb continued to be mentioned in such media works as Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936). As Grant's Tomb declined physically at the end of the century, it was also shown in movies such as the 1991 crime thriller New Jack City. During the 21st century, Grant's Tomb was also featured in shows such as Pan Am, where it stood in for a location in Paris.
When the comedian Groucho Marx's quiz show You Bet Your Life aired from 1950 to 1959, he often asked contestants, "Who was buried in Grant's Tomb?" The correct answer is "no one"; since neither of the Grants' sarcophagi is underground, nobody is buried in Grant's Tomb. Marx accepted the answer "Grant" and awarded a consolation prize to those who gave it. The riddle dates to at least the 1930s.
See also
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
List of national memorials of the United States
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street
Presidential memorials in the United States
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Official NPS website: General Grant National Memorial
Grant Monument Association
1897 establishments in New York City
1897 sculptures
Biographical museums in New York City
General Grant National Memorial ("Grant's Tomb")
Buildings and structures completed in 1897
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
History museums in New York City
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Mausoleums on the National Register of Historic Places
Monuments and memorials in Manhattan
Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Morningside Heights, Manhattan
Museums in Manhattan
National Memorials of the United States
National Park Service National Monuments in New York City
Neoclassical architecture in New York City
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
New York City interior landmarks
Presidential museums in New York (state)
Riverside Park (Manhattan)
Tombs of presidents of the United States
Tourist attractions in Manhattan
General Grant NM ("Grant's Tomb")
New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County
Domes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Dutch
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Middle Dutch
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Middle Dutch is a collective name for a number of closely related West Germanic dialects whose ancestor was Old Dutch. It was spoken and written between 1150 and 1500. Until the advent of Modern Dutch after 1500 or , there was no overarching standard language, but all dialects were mutually intelligible. During that period, a rich Medieval Dutch literature developed, which had not yet existed during Old Dutch. The various literary works of the time are often very readable for speakers of Modern Dutch since Dutch is a rather conservative language.
Phonology
Differences with Old Dutch
Several phonological changes occurred leading up to the Middle Dutch period.
Earlier Old Dutch , , merge into already in Old Dutch.
Voiceless fricatives become voiced syllable-initially: > , > (merging with from Proto-Germanic ), > . (10th or 11th century)
>
> or . The outcome is dialect-specific, with found in more western dialects and further east. This results in later pairs such as dietsc versus duitsc .
Various dialects also show > , while others retain . Compare southeastern Middle Dutch hiwen with modern Dutch huwen .
In word-initial position, some northern dialects also show a change from a falling to a rising diphthong ( > ) like Old Frisian. Cf. the accusative second-person plural pronoun iu > northern jou versus southern u .
Phonemisation of umlaut for back vowels, resulting in a new phoneme (from earlier Old Dutch before or ). Unlike most other Germanic languages, umlaut was only phonemicised for short vowels in all but the easternmost areas; long vowels and diphthongs are unaffected.
Insertion of between and a vowel.
Syllable-final > in some areas. This created pairs such as duwen versus douwen , or nu versus nou .
Lowering of > when not umlauted.
This change did not (fully) occur in the southwestern (Flemish) dialects. Hence, these dialects retain sunne "sun" where others have sonne.
Fronting of , > , . In some dialects, remained syllable-finally or before .
This change did not occur in Limburgish.
In Flemish, this change also affected cases that escaped the lowering in the previous change, hence sunne .
Vowel reduction: Vowels in unstressed syllables are weakened and merge into , spelled . (11th or 12th century) Long vowels seem to have remained as such, at least is known to have remained in certain suffixes (such as -kijn ).
Diphthongisation of the long mid vowels: , > , , .
Non-phonemic lowering of short , > , .
Open syllable lengthening: Short vowels in stressed open syllables become long. As a result, all stressed syllables in polysyllabic words become heavy. Old Dutch (original) long vowels are called "sharp-long" and indicated with a circumflex (â, ê, î, ô). Lengthened vowels are "soft-long" and are indicated with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ō).
Lengthened vowels initially have the same vowel quality as the short variants, so this produces , , , , .
and are then lowered to and respectively.
Lengthened , , remain distinct from the previously diphthongised long mid vowels.
In most dialects, lengthened merges with original , but in some, a distinction in backness develops.
This introduces many length alternations in grammatical paradigms, e.g. singular dag , plural .
Dental fricatives become stops: > , > , merging with existing and . (around 12th century)
The geminate (originating from Germanic *-þj-) develops into : > , > .
L-vocalisation: and > before dentals.
This change does not occur in Limburgish, which retains the distinction but undergoes its own round of vocalisation in modern times, producing and respectively.
Lengthening of vowels before + dental consonant. This did not occur in all dialects, and in some, was lengthened to . E.g. farth > vāert , ertha > āerde , wort > wōort .
Syncope of schwa in certain environments, particularly inflectional endings. This phonemicises the soft-long vowels produced by open syllable lengthening, which can now also occur in closed syllables. E.g. hēvet > hēeft.
Consonants
The consonants of Middle Dutch differed little from those of Old Dutch. The most prominent change is the loss of dental fricatives. The sound was also phonemicised during this period, judging from loanwords that retain to this day.
For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the headings.
Notes:
All obstruents underwent final-obstruent devoicing as in Old and Modern Dutch.
During the first part of the Middle Dutch period, geminated varieties of most consonants still occurred. Geminated was a plosive , retained in modern Limburgish as .
were most likely bilabial, whereas were most likely labiodental.
could have been either dental or alveolar .
had a velar allophone when it occurred before the velars .
After , was realized as a plosive .
was most likely alveolar, either a trill or a tap .
Vowels
Most notable in the Middle Dutch vowel system, when compared to Old Dutch, is the appearance of phonemic rounded front vowels, and the merger of all unstressed short vowels.
Short vowels
The exact height of is not certain, and may have varied between actual and a lower or even .
and could have also been and , as in modern Dutch.
was a back in most varieties, but front probably occurred in some western dialects.
Long vowels and diphthongs
Long vowels and diphthongs cannot be clearly distinguished in Middle Dutch, as many long vowels had or developed a diphthongal quality, while existing diphthongs could also develop into monophthongs. Sometimes, this occurred only in restricted dialects, other developments were widespread.
The rounded front vowels in brackets only occurred in the eastern dialects, where umlaut of long vowels and diphthongs occurred.
The rounded back vowel only occurred in the Limburgish dialects.
Many details of the exact phonetics are uncertain, and seemed to have differed by dialect. The overall system is clear, however, as almost all the vowels remain distinct in modern Limburgish: , , , and appear in modern Limburgish as , , , and respectively.
The vowels , and developed from Old Dutch opening diphthongs, but their exact character in Middle Dutch is unclear. The following can be said:
In eastern Brabant, and all of Limburg, the pronunciation remained diphthongal.
is frequently found written with just , which may indicate a monophthongal pronunciation. never merged with the long vowel , however, as no rhyme pairs between these vowels are found.
In the coastal areas (Flanders, Holland), seems to have been a monophthong or . Before velar and labial consonants, the pronunciation was a close . This is revealed by the distinction in spelling between and .
In western Brabant, the pronunciation of was more close, probably monophthongal .
The vowels , and , termed "sharp-long" and denoted with a circumflex ê ô, developed from Old Dutch long vowels. The opening diphthong pronunciation was probably widespread, and perhaps once universal, as it is nowadays still found in both West Flemish and in Limburgish, at opposite ends of the Middle Dutch language area. In the general area in between, including standard Dutch, the vowels merged with the "soft-long" vowels during the early modern Dutch period.
In southern Flanders, southern Brabant and Holland, appears spelled with (e.g. stien for steen), while appears with (e.g. speghel for spieghel), suggesting a merger between these phonemes.
is sometimes found to rhyme with . It is possible that the two vowels merged under some conditions, while remaining distinct in other cases.
In Brabant, occasionally rhymes with . In western Brabant, this implies a close monophthongal pronunciation .
The vowels , and , termed "soft-long" and denoted with a macron ē ō, developed through the lengthening of Old Dutch short vowels in open syllables, but also frequently before . They were simple monophthongs in all Middle Dutch dialects, with the exception of western Flanders where later developed into . They might have been close-mid but also perhaps open-mid , and , as in modern Limburgish.
There were two open vowels, with "sharp-long" â developed from the Old Dutch long ā, and "soft-long" ā being the result of lengthening. These two vowels were distinguished only in Limburgish and Low Rhenish at the eastern end, and in western Flemish and coastal Hollandic on the western end. The relative backness of the two vowels was opposite in the two areas that distinguished them.
On the coast, â was front or , while ā was central or back .
In the eastern varieties, â was back , while ā was front or central . merged into during Middle Dutch, first in Low Rhenish, then later also in Limburgish further south.
In all dialects between, the two vowels were not distinguished. The phonetic realisation ranged from back (in Brabant) to front (Holland further inland).
The closing diphthong remained from the corresponding Old Dutch diphthong. It occurred primarily in umlauting environments, with appearing otherwise. Some dialects, particularly further west, had in all environments (thus cleene next to cleine). Limburgish preserved the diphthong wherever it was preserved in High German.
The closing diphthong has two different origins. In the vast majority of the Middle Dutch area, it developed through l-vocalization from older and followed by a dental consonant. In the eastern area, Limburg in particular, it was a remnant of the older diphthong as in High German, which had developed into elsewhere. L-vocalization occurred only in the modern period in Limburgish, and the distinction between and was preserved, being reflected as ów and aa respectively.
Changes during the Middle Dutch period
Phonological changes that occurred during Middle Dutch:
> , > . This eliminated the sound from the language altogether.
and originating from and through final devoicing were not affected. This therefore resulted in alternations such as singular coninc versus plural coninghe , singular lamp versus plural lammere .
> (spelled or later ). It is unclear when this change happened, as the spelling does not seem to differentiate the two sounds (that is, and could both represent either sound).
> before plus another consonant, merging with original Old Dutch (< Proto-Germanic ). E.g. ende > einde, pensen > peinsen (from Old French penser). This change is found sporadically in Old Dutch already, but becomes more frequent in some Middle Dutch areas.
Epenthesis of in various clusters of sonorants. E.g. donre > donder, solre > solder, bunre > bunder. In modern Dutch, this change has become grammaticalised for the -er (comparative, agent noun) suffix when attached to a word ending in -r.
Shortening of geminate consonants, e.g. for bidden > , which reintroduces stressed light syllables in polysyllabic words.
Early diphthongisation of long high vowels: > and > except before and , probably beginning around the 14th century.
The diphthongal quality of these vowels became stronger over time, and eventually the former merged with ei. But the diphthongal pronunciation was still perceived as unrefined and 'southern' by educated speakers in the sixteenth century, showing that the change had not yet spread to all areas and layers of Dutch society by that time.
Following the previous change, monophthongisation of opening diphthongs: > , > . The result might have also been a short vowel (as in most Dutch dialects today), but they are known to have remained long at least before .
Beginning in late Middle Dutch and continuing into the early Modern Dutch period, schwa was slowly lost word-finally and in some other unstressed syllables: vrouwe > vrouw, hevet > heeft. This did not apply consistently however, and sometimes both forms continued to exist side by side, such as mate and maat.
Word-final schwa was restored in the past singular of weak verbs, to avoid homophony with the present third-person singular because of word-final devoicing. However, it was lost in all irregular weak verbs, in which this homophony was not an issue: irregular dachte > dacht (present tense denkt), but regular opende did not become * because it would become indistinguishable from opent.
During the 15th century at the earliest, begins to disappear when between a non-short vowel and a schwa.
The actual outcome of this change differed between dialects. In the more northern varieties and in Holland, the was simply lost, along with any schwa that followed it: > lui, lade > la, mede > mee. In the southeast, intervocalic instead often became : mede > meej.
The change was not applied consistently, and even in modern Dutch today many words have been retained in both forms. In some cases the forms with lost were perceived as uneducated and disappeared again, such as in Nederland and neer, both from neder (the form Neerland does exist, but is rather archaic in modern Dutch).
Dialects
Middle Dutch was not a single homogeneous language. The language differed by area, with different areas having a different pronunciation and often using different vocabulary. The dialect areas were affected by political boundaries. The sphere of political influence of a certain ruler also created a sphere of linguistic influence, with the language within the area becoming more homogeneous. Following, more or less, the political divisions of the time, several large dialect groups can be distinguished. However, the borders between them were not strong, and a dialect continuum existed between them, with spoken varieties near the edges of each dialect area showing more features of the neighbouring areas.
Middle Dutch has four major dialects groups:
Flemish in Flanders and Zeeuws in Zeeland,
Brabantic in Brussels, Leuven, Antwerp, Mechelen, Breda,
Hollandic in the county of Holland,
Limburgic in the East.
Flemish, Brabantic and Hollandic are known as West Franconian, while Limburgic is known as East Franconian (not to be confused with the High German dialect East Franconian).
In a finer classification there are:
Flemish
West Flemish
East Flemish
Brabantic
West Brabantic
East Brabantic
Hollandic
Utrechts
Limburgic
Brabantian
Brabantian was spoken primarily in the Duchy of Brabant. It was an influential dialect during most of the Middle Ages, during the so-called "Brabantian expansion" in which the influence of Brabant was extended outwards into other areas. Compared to the other dialects, Brabantian was a kind of "middle ground" between the coastal areas on one hand, and the Rhineland and Limburg on the other. Brabantian Middle Dutch has the following characteristics compared to other dialects:
Merger of â and ā, articulated as a back vowel.
Use of the form for the second-person plural pronoun.
>
Early diphthongization of and .
Tended towards Rhinelandic and/or Limburgish in the easternmost areas, with umlaut of long vowels and diphthongs. This in turn led to stronger use of umlaut as a grammatical feature, in for example diminutives.
Lack of umlaut > before , in western varieties.
Flemish
Flemish, consisting today of West and East Flemish and Zeelandic, was spoken in the County of Flanders, northern parts of the County of Artois and areas around the towns of Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer. Though due to their intermediary position between West Flemish and Brabantian, the East Flemish dialects have also been grouped with the latter. Flemish had been influential during the earlier Middle Ages (the "Flemish expansion") but lost prestige to the neighbouring Brabantian in the 13th century. Its characteristics are:
Fronted realisation for â.
Unrounding of rounded front vowels.
Loss of , with the occasional hypercorrection found in texts.
Opening diphthong articulation of ê and ô, often spelled and .
Old Dutch developed into instead of , thus giving forms such as vier ("fire") where other dialects have vuur.
Lowering of to before + consonant, often also with lengthening. The change is generally limited to West Flemish before dentals, while before labials and velars it is more widespread.
Lack of umlaut > before .
> in some words.
> sometimes before + consonant in West Flemish.
Hollandic
Hollandic was spoken in the County of Holland. It was less influential during most of the Middle Ages but became more so in the 16th century during the "Hollandic expansion", during which the Eighty Years' War took place in the south. It shows the following properties:
Strong Ingvaeonic influence from earlier Frisian presence in the area. This became more apparent closer to the coast and further north (West Friesland).
â and ā merged and had a fronted articulation (which forms the basis for the modern standard Dutch pronunciation).
Occasional occurrence of the Ingvaeonic nasal-spirant law. Seen in some place names, such as -mude ("mouth") where more southwestern areas retain the nasal: -monde.
Use of the form ji for the second-person plural pronoun.
Retention of .
Lack of umlaut > before .
Limburgish
Limburgish was spoken by the people in the provinces of modern Dutch and Belgian Limburg. It was not clearly tied to one political area, instead being divided among various areas, including the Duchy of Limburg (which was south of modern Limburg). It was also the most divergent of the dialects.
Generally, a strong "southeastern" influence, tying it more to Middle High German in some respects ("Colognian expansion"). The effects of the High German consonant shift are occasionally found.
Umlaut affects all vowels and is morphologically significant.
Retention of the older Germanic diphthongs and where other Middle Dutch dialects have monophthongized these to ê and ô.
Retention of (did not merge with ) and (remained as a back vowel).
Orthography is also more eastern. represents a back vowel, and vowel length in closed syllables is not marked.
Full use of du as the second-person singular pronoun.
Long a in words ending in a single consonant, e.g. for , for , etc. and before , , , + dental,
Rhinelandic
Rhinelandic ("Kleverlands") was spoken around the area of the Duchy of Cleves, around the Lower Rhine. It represented a transitional dialect between Limburgish and Middle Low German.
Like Limburgish, it had an eastern influence, with a more eastern-tinted orthography. Umlaut was a regular grammatical feature.
Stronger Middle Low German influence.
Back and often rounded articulation of â, with a tendency to confuse it with ō, a feature shared with Low German, to the north.
Orthography
Middle Dutch was written in the Latin alphabet, which was not designed for writing Middle Dutch so different scribes used different methods of representing the sounds of their language in writing. The traditions of neighbouring scribes and their languages led to a multitude of ways to write Middle Dutch. Consequently, spelling was not standardised but was highly variable and could differ by both time and place as various "trends" in spelling waxed and waned. Furthermore, a word could be found spelled differently in different occurrences within the same text. There was the matter of personal taste, and many writers thought it was more aesthetic to follow French or Latin practice, leading to sometimes rather unusual spellings.
The spelling was generally phonetic, and words were written based on how they were spoken rather than based on underlying phonemes or morphology. Final-obstruent devoicing was reflected in the spelling, and clitic pronouns and articles were frequently joined to the preceding or following word. Scribes wrote in their own dialect, and their spelling reflected the pronunciation of that particular scribe or of some prestige dialect by which the scribe was influenced. The modern Dutch word maagd ("maiden") for example was sometimes written as maghet or , but also meget, magt, maget, magd, and . Some spellings, such as magd, reflect an early tendency to write the underlying phonemic value. However, by and large, spelling was phonetic, which is logical as people usually read texts out loud.
Modern dictionaries tend to represent words in a normalised spelling to form a compromise between the variable spellings on one hand and to represent the sounds of the language consistently. Thus, normalised spellings attempt to be a general or "average" spelling but still being accurate and true to the language.
Vowels
The general practice was to write long vowels with a single letter in an open syllable and with two letters in a closed syllable. Which two letters were used varied among texts. Some texts, especially those in the east, do not do so and write long vowels with a single letter in all cases (as is the predominant rule in modern German).
Consonants
Grammar
Nouns
Middle Dutch nouns inflected for number as well as case. The weakening of unstressed syllables merged many different Old Dutch classes of nominal declension. The result was a general distinction between strong and weak nouns. Eventually even these started to become confused, with the strong and weak endings slowly beginning to merge into a single declension class by the beginning of the modern Dutch period.
Strong nouns
The strong nouns generally originated from the Old Dutch a-stem, i-stem and u-stem inflections. They mostly had a nominative singular with no ending, and a nominative plural in -e or, for some neuter nouns, with no ending. Most strong nouns were masculine or neuter. Feminines in this class were former i-stems, and could lack an ending in the dative singular, a remnant of the late Old Dutch inflection. In some rare occasions, the genitive singular was also endingless. Some nouns ended in -e in the singular also; these were primarily former ja-stems, which were masculine or neuter. A few were former i-stems with short stems. Nouns of this type tended to be drawn into the weak inflection by analogy.
The following table shows the inflection of the masculine noun "day", feminine "deed" and neuter "bread".
Weak nouns
Weak nouns were characterised by the ending -en throughout the plural. The singular ended in -e.
The following table shows the inflection of the masculine noun "bow, arc".
Adjectives
Middle Dutch adjectives inflected according to the gender, case and number of the noun they modified.
The Germanic distinction between strong and weak, or indefinite and definite inflection, was fairly minimal in Middle Dutch, appearing only in the masculine and neuter nominative singular. These forms received an -e ending when a definite word (demonstrative, article) preceded, and had no ending otherwise. Adjectives were uninflected when connected through a copula. Thus, even for feminine nouns, no ending appeared: die vrouwe is goet "the lady is good".
Some adjectives, namely the former ja-stems, had an -e even in the strong and copular form, e.g. die vrouwe is cleine "the lady is small".
Pronouns
Middle Dutch pronouns differed little from their modern counterparts. The main differences were in the second person with the development of a T-V distinction. The second-person plural pronoun ghi slowly gained use as a respectful second-person singular form. The original singular pronoun du gradually fell out of use during the Middle Dutch period. A new second person plural pronoun was created by contraction of gij/jij and lui ('people') forming gullie/jullie (literally, 'you people').
Note: There are several other forms.
Determiners
Definite Article
(die, dat = the)
Verbs
Middle Dutch mostly retained the Old Dutch verb system. Like all Germanic languages, it distinguished strong, weak and preterite-present verbs as the three main inflectional classes. Verbs were inflected in present and past tense, and in three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative.
The weakening of unstressed vowels affected the distinction between the indicative and subjunctive moods, which had largely been determined by the vowel of the inflectional suffix in Old Dutch. In Middle Dutch, with all unstressed vowels merging into one, the subjunctive became distinguished from the indicative only in the singular but was identical to it in the plural, and also in the past tense of weak verbs. That led to a gradual decline in the use of the subjunctive, and it has been all but lost entirely in modern Dutch.
Strong verbs
The seven classes of strong verb common to the Germanic languages were retained. The four principal parts were the present tense, first- and third-person singular past tense, remaining past tense, and the past participle.
In classes 6 and 7, there was no distinction between the two different vowels of the past tense. In classes 4 and 5, the difference was primarily one of length, since ā and â were not distinguished in most dialects. The difference between ê and ē, and between ô and ō, found in classes 1 and 2, was a bit more robust, but also eventually waned in the development to modern Dutch. Consequently, the distinction was mostly lost. Class 3, which retained a clear distinction that did not rely on vowel length, was levelled in favour of the o of the plural.
In classes with a lengthened vowel in the present, the singular imperative often appears with a short vowel instead, e.g. les, drach. An alternative form, with final -e by analogy with the weak verbs, also occurs.
The eastern dialects occasionally show i in the second- and third-person singular present indicative forms, instead of e. This is a remnant of older i-mutation in these forms. Umlaut is also sometimes found in the past subjunctive in the east.
Weak verbs
Middle Dutch retained weak verbs as the only productive class of verbs. While Old Dutch still had two different classes of weak verbs (and remnants of a third), this distinction was lost in Middle Dutch with the weakening of unstressed syllables.
The past tense was formed with a suffix -ed-, which generally lost its e through syncope and thus came to be directly attached to the preceding stem. This triggered voicing assimilation, so that t appeared whenever the preceding stem ended in a voiceless consonant. This phenomenon remains in modern Dutch. Unsyncopated forms, which retain the fuller suffix -ed-, are sometimes found, especially with stems ending in a labial or velar consonant.
Some former class 1 weak verbs retained so-called Rückumlaut. These verbs had undergone umlaut in the present tense, but the umlaut-triggering vowel was syncopated in the past tense already in Old Dutch, preventing umlaut from taking hold there. Thus, senden had the first- and third-person singular past tense sande. These verbs tended to be reinterpreted as strong verbs in later Middle Dutch; sande itself gave rise to the modern zond, mirroring strong class 3.
Literature
Notes
External links
Middle Dutch text database (TITUS)
Grammatical information on Middle Dutch (in Dutch)
Spoken examples of Old Dutch, Middle Dutch and Old Frisian (in Dutch)
History of the Dutch language
Languages attested from the 12th century
Low Franconian languages
Dutch, Middle
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothers%20of%20the%20Plaza%20de%20Mayo
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Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo
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The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo is an Argentine human rights association formed in response to the National Reorganization Process, the military dictatorship by Jorge Rafael Videla, with the goal of finding the desaparecidos, initially, and then determining the culprits of crimes against humanity to promote their trial and sentencing.
The Mothers began demonstrating in the Plaza de Mayo, the public square located in front of the Casa Rosada presidential palace, in the city of Buenos Aires, on April 30, 1977, to petition for the alive reappearance of their disappeared children. Originally, they would remain there seated, but by declaring a state of emergency, police expelled them from the public square.
In September 1977, in order to provide themselves with an opportunity to share their stories with other Argentinians, the mothers decided to join the annual pilgrimage to Our Lady of Luján, located 30 miles outside Buenos Aires. In order to stand out among the crowds, the mothers decided to wear their children's nappies (diapers) as headscarves. Following the pilgrimage, the mothers decided to continue wearing these headscarves during their meetings and weekly demonstrations at the Plaza. On them, they embroidered the names of their children and wrote “Aparición con Vida” (Alive reappearance).
During the years of the Dirty War, the name used by the military junta in Argentina from 1976 to 1983 as a part of Operation Condor, military and security forces and right-wing death squads in the form of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (AAA, or Triple A) hunted down political dissidents and anyone believed to be associated with socialism, left-wing Peronism or the Montoneros guerrillero movement. The Mothers constantly opposed the de facto government and suffered persecution, including kidnappings and forced disappearances, most notably in the cases of founders Azucena Villaflor, Esther Ballestrino, María Ponce de Bianco, and French nun supporters Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet, perpetrated by a group led by Alfredo Astiz, a former commander, intelligence officer, and naval commando who served in the Argentine Navy during the military dictatorship. The Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, known for having found and identified the remains of Che Guevara, would later find their bodies to have been killed on a death flight and their bodies disposed of in the sea.
On the first days of December, 1980, the first "March of Resistance" was held, consisting of marching around the public square for 24 hours.
Despite democracy being re-established in the 1983 general election, the movement continued to hold marches and demonstrations, demanding sentences for the military personnel that participated in the government that overthrew Isabel Perón in the 1976 coup d'état. This would eventually culminate in the Trial of the Juntas of 1985.
They have received widespread support and recognition from many international organizations, including being the first organization laureated by the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, and helping several human rights groups throughout their history. The 1980 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Adolfo Pérez Esquivel was an active supporter of the association, for which he was the subject of harassment by the dictatorship.
Since 1986 the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo have been divided into two factions, the majority group "Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo Association" (presided by Hebe de Bonafini) and "Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo — Founding Line". Ceremonially, every Thursday at 3:30 p.m the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, led by Hebe de Bonafini, march around the May Pyramid at the central hub of the Plaza de Mayo, and at 4:00 p.m they give speeches from the Equestrian monument to General Manuel Belgrano, where they opine over the current national and global situation.
Purpose
Women had organized to gather, holding a vigil, while also trying to learn what had happened to their adult children during the 1970s and 1980s. They began to gather for this every Thursday, from 1977 at the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires, in front of the Casa Rosada presidential palace, in public defiance of the government's law against mass assemblies. Wearing white headscarves to symbolize the diapers (nappies) of their lost children, embroidered with the names and dates of birth of their offspring, now young adults, the mothers marched in twos in solidarity to protest the denials of their children's existence or their mistreatment by the military regime. Despite personal risks, they wanted to hold the government accountable for the human rights violations which were committed in the Dirty War.
Activism and reaction
The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo were the first major group to organize against the Argentina regime's human rights violations. Together, the women created a dynamic and unexpected force, which existed in opposition to traditional constraints on women in Latin America. These mothers came together to push for information on their own children and this highlighted the human rights violations and the scale of the protest drew press attention, raising awareness on a local and global scale. Their persistence to publicly remember and try to find their children, the sustained group organisation, the use of symbols and slogans, and the silent weekly protests attracted reactive measures from those in power.
The military government considered these women to be politically subversive; the founder of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Azucena Villaflor De Vincenti, placed the names of 'the missing' in a newspaper in December 1977 (on International Human Rights Day) was kidnapped, tortured and murdered (later found to have been killed on a 'death flight' and her body disposed of in the sea), along with French nuns Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet who also supported the movement. This was done at the command of Alfredo Astiz and Jorge Rafael Videla (who was a senior commander in the Argentine Army and dictator of Argentina from 1976 to 1981), both of whom were later sentenced to life in prison for their roles in the repression of dissidents during the Dirty War.
Esther Ballestrino and María Ponce de Bianco, two other founders of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, also "disappeared".
In 1983, former military officers began to reveal information about some of the regime's human rights violations. Eventually, the military has admitted that over 9,000 of those abducted are still unaccounted for, but the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo say that the number of missing is closer to 30,000. Most are presumed dead. Many of these prisoners were high school students, young professionals, and union workers who were suspected of having opposed the government. Those 'taken' were generally below the age of 35, as were the members of the regime who tortured and murdered them. There were a disproportionate number of Jewish "disappeared" as the military was anti-Semitic, as documented in Prisoner Without a Name, Cell Without a Number. This documented the testimony of Jacobo Timerman and his experience being arrested and tortured during this time.
It took until 2005 and DNA identification for many of the mass graves and human remains to be exhumed and cremated or buried; Azucena's ashes were interred in the Plaza de Mayo itself.
Today, the Mothers are engaged in the struggle for human, political, and civil rights in Latin America and elsewhere.
Origins of the movement
On April 30, 1977, Azucena Villaflor de De Vincenti and a dozen other mothers walked to the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina's capital city.
The original founders of the group were Azucena Villaflor de De Vincenti, Berta Braverman, Haydée García Buelas; María Adela Gard de Antokoletz, Julia, María Mercedes and Cándida Gard (four sisters); Delicia González, Pepa Noia, Mirta Acuña de Baravalle, Kety Neuhaus, Raquel Arcushin, and Senora De Caimi.
When the disappearances began, each mother thought that their child's disappearance was a single unique case. Initially, the lack of media attention on the disappearances led the mothers to believe that they were alone in their plight. As each mother visited prisons, hospitals, and police stations searching for their children, they each began to notice other mothers who were also searching for their children. The women began to realize that these disappearances were systematic, organized, and planned. Most of the women came from traditional working-class backgrounds and had limited knowledge of political processes. These women banded together to confront the regime as a unified front of mothers seeking answers about their missing children.
These women shared the experience of each having had at least one child who had been 'taken' by the military government. The mothers declared that between 1970 and 1980, more than 30,000 individuals became "Desaparecidos" or "the disappeared." These people were erased from public records with no government traces of arrests or evidence of charges against them.
The women decided to risk a public protest, although gatherings of more than three people were banned, by linking arms in pairs, as if on a stroll just across the street from the presidential office building, the Casa Rosada (the Pink House). The mothers chose this site for its high visibility, and they were hoping for information on their whereabouts to recover imprisoned or to properly bury their children.
The "disappeared" were believed to have been abducted by agents of the Argentine government during the years known as the Dirty War (1976–1983). Those whose locations were found, often had been tortured and killed and their bodies disposed of in rural areas or unmarked graves.
Becoming a movement
As growing numbers joined weekly marches on Thursdays, the day the first few met, the Mothers also began an international campaign to defy the propaganda distributed by the military regime. This campaign brought the attention of the world to Argentina.
One year after the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo was founded, hundreds of women were participating, gathering in the Plaza for weekly demonstrations. They found strength in each other by marching in public, and attracting some press. They made signs with photos of their children and publicized their children's names. They wore white headscarves embroidered with the names and dates of births of their lost children.
The government tried to trivialize their action calling them "las locas" (the madwomen).
As the number of disappeared grew, the movement grew, and the Mothers were getting international attention. They began to try to build pressure from outside governments against the Argentine dictatorship, by sharing the many stories of the "disappeared".
On 10 December 1977, International Human Rights Day, the Mothers published a newspaper advertisement with the names of their missing children. That same night, Azucena Villaflor (one of the original founders) was kidnapped from her home in Avellaneda by a group of armed men. She is reported to have been taken to the infamous ESMA torture centre, and from there on a "death flight" over the ocean. In-flight, the abducted were drugged, stripped, and flung into the sea or killed and thrown overboard.
Also an estimated 500 of the missing are the children who were born in concentration camps or prisons to pregnant 'disappeared' women; many of these babies were given in illegal adoptions to military families and others associated with the regime. Their birth mothers were generally believed to have been killed. The numbers are hard to determine due to the secrecy surrounding the abductions.
Global impact
In 1978, when Argentina hosted the World Cup, the Mothers' demonstrations at the Plaza were covered by the international press in town for the sporting event.
Later when Adolfo Scilingo spoke at the National Commission on Disappeared People, he described how many prisoners were drugged and thrown out of planes to their deaths in the Atlantic Ocean. For years following the regime, from early 1978 onwards, residents who lived along the Río de la Plata have found human remains of those abducted, murdered and dumped at sea.
Some of the movement's most prominent supporters' bodies were never found, such as French national Léonie Duquet. Duquet and her sister Alice Domon, both French nuns, were taken during the Dirty War. Their disappearance attracted international attention and outrage, with demands for a United Nations investigation of human rights abuses in the country. France demanded information on the sisters, but the Argentine government denied all responsibility for them.
In 2005, forensic anthropologists dug up some remains of bodies that had been buried in an unmarked grave after washing ashore (in late December 1977) near the beach resort of Santa Teresita, south of Buenos Aires. DNA testing identified among them Azucena Villaflor, Esther Careaga and María Eugenia Bianco, three pioneer Mothers of the Plaza who had "disappeared". In December 2005, Azucena Villaflor's ashes were buried in the Plaza de Mayo itself.
Divisions and radicalization
Never giving up their pressure on the regime, after the military gave up its authority to a civilian government in 1983, the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo rekindled hopes that they might learn the fates of their children, pushing again for the information.
Beginning in 1984, teams assisted by the American geneticist Mary-Claire King began to use DNA testing to identify remains, when bodies of the "disappeared" were found.
The government then conducted a national commission to collect testimony about the "disappeared", hearing from hundreds of witnesses. In 1985, it began the prosecution of men indicted for crimes, beginning with the Trial of the Juntas, in which several high-ranking military officers were convicted and sentenced.
The military threatened a coup to prevent a widening of prosecutions. In 1986, Congress passed Ley de Punto Final, which stopped the prosecutions for some years.
But in 2003, Congress repealed the Pardon Laws, and in 2005 the Argentine Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional. During the Kirchner administration, the prosecution of war crimes was re-opened. Former high-ranking military and security officers have been convicted and sentenced in new cases. Among the charges is the stealing of babies of the disappeared. The first major figure, Miguel Etchecolatz, was convicted and sentenced in 2006. Most of the members of the Junta were imprisoned for crimes against humanity.
With the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo, a group set up in 1977, the Mothers have identified 256 missing children who were adopted soon after being born to mothers in prison or camps who later "disappeared". Seven of the identified children have died. At the beginning of 2018, 137 of those children, now grown adults, were found and were offered to meet their biological families. Some Mothers and Grandmothers suffered disappointments when the grandchildren, now adults, did not want to know their hidden history, or refused to be tested. Parents who were judged in court to be guilty of adopting – or "appropriating" – the children of the disappeared, while knowing the truth about their origins, were susceptible to imprisonment.
In 1986, the Mothers split into two factions. One group, called the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo-Founding Line, focused on legislation, the recovery of the remains of their children, and bringing ex-officials to justice. Hebe de Bonafini continued to lead a more radical faction under the name Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo Association. These mothers felt responsible for carrying on their children's political work and assumed the agenda that originally led to the disappearance of the dissidents. Unlike the Founding Line, the association refused government help or compensation. They pledged not to recognize the deaths of their children until the government would admit its fault.
A scholar of the movement, Marguerite Guzman Bouvard, wrote that the association faction wanted "a complete transformation of Argentine political culture" and "envisions a socialist system free of the domination of special interests". The Mothers Association is now backed by younger militants who support socialism.
In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, Bonafini said "I was happy when I first heard the news, that for once they were the ones attacked, I'm not going to lie." and "being the U.S.A the most terrorist of all countries, throwing bombs everywhere around the world" but "felt bad for the innocent workers dead (because of the terrorist attack)." Her remarks led to some criticism in mainstream media.
Speaking for the Mothers, she rejected the investigations of alleged Iranian involvement in the 1994 AMIA Bombing (the terrorist attack on the AMIA Jewish community center), saying the CIA and Mossad were misleading the investigation; making a statement that they repudiate "the tragic attack, but respect for the victims and their families requires to investigate and do justice," without being "politically manipulated in the service of US interests."
'Final' March of Resistance
On 26 January 2006, members of the Madres de la Plaza de Mayo Association faction announced what they said was their final annual March of Resistance at the Plaza de Mayo, saying "the enemy isn't in the Government House anymore." They acknowledged the significance of President Néstor Kirchner's success in having the Full Stop Law (Ley de Punto Final) and the Law of Due Obedience repealed and declared unconstitutional. They said they would continue weekly Thursday marches in pursuit of action on other social causes.
The Founding Line faction announced that it would continue both the Thursday marches and the annual marches to commemorate the long struggle of resistance to the dictatorship.
Social involvement and political controversies
The association faction remained close to Kirchnerism. They established a newspaper (La Voz de las Madres), a radio station, and a university (Popular University of the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo).
The association at one time managed a federally funded housing program, Sueños Compartidos ("Shared Dreams"), which it founded in 2008. By 2011, Sueños Compartidos had completed 5,600 housing units earmarked for slum residents, and numerous other facilities in six provinces and the city of Buenos Aires.
Its growing budgets, which totaled around US$300 million allocated between 2008 and 2011 (of which $190 million had been spent), came under scrutiny. There was controversy when the chief financial officer of Sueños Compartidos, Sergio Schoklender, and his brother Pablo (the firm's attorney) were alleged to have embezzled funds. The Schoklender brothers had been convicted in 1981 for the murder of their parents and served 15 years in prison. After gaining Bonafini's confidence, they were managing the project's finances with little oversight from the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo or the program's licensor, the Secretary of Public Works. Their friendship with the association ended in June 2011 after Bonafini learned of irregularities in their handling of the group's finances. Following an investigation ordered by Federal Judge Norberto Oyarbide, the Secretary of Public Works canceled the Sueños Compartidos contract in August 2011. The outstanding projects were transferred to the Undersecretary of Housing and Urban Development.
Gender and motherhood
Issues of gender and motherhood were embedded in this movement. From its inception, the Mothers has been a strictly women-only organization, as the mothers who lost their children were asserting their existence in the embroidery scarves, posters and demands for restoration. In the later political movement, the women felt it had to be women-only partly to ensure their voices and actions would not be lost in a male-dominated movement, and partly out of a belief that men would insist on a lengthy bureaucratic process rather than immediate action. They also believed that women were more tireless and had more emotional strength than men.
Gender separatism reaffirmed its status as a women's movement, although it also raised the question among some scholars of whether the movement truly challenged the notion of female passivity, and whether or not it would have sent a more powerful message to have had male family members involved as well.
The Mothers movement also raised questions of women in political space and the boundaries surrounding that space. The socially constructed gender roles prevalent in Argentine society restricted the arena of politics, political mobilisation, and confrontation to men. When the Mothers entered the Plaza de Mayo, a public space with historical significance, they politicised their role as mothers in society and redefined the values associated with both politics and motherhood itself. Although they did not challenge the patriarchal structure of Argentine society, by crossing boundaries into the masculinised political sphere, they expanded spaces of representation for Argentine women and opened the way for new forms of civic participation.
The Mothers were committed to child-centred politics, symbolised by the white scarves they wore on their heads. The scarves were originally nappies, or to represent diapers, and were embroidered with the names of their disappeared children or relatives. These headscarves identified the Mothers and symbolised children, and thus life, as well as hope and maternal care. The colour white also symbolised their refusal to wear a black mantilla and go into mourning. Children were at the heart of the movement, as the Mothers fought for a system that would respect human life and honour its preservation.
The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo politicised and gave new value to the traditional role of mothers. They used motherhood to frame their protest, demanding the rights inherent to their role: to conserve life. They protested not only what had been done to their children, but also to themselves as mothers by taking them away. The heart of the movement was always "women's feelings, mother's feelings", according to Hebe de Bonafini. She further stated that "it was the strength of women, of mothers, that kept us going." The women's identity as mothers did not restrict them from participating or making an impact in a masculinised political space.
Their public protests contradicted the traditional, private domain of motherhood, and by mobilising themselves, they politicised their consciousness as women. They restricted themselves to a conservative representation of motherhood, which avoided controversy and attracted the support of international media. They refuted the concept that to be taken seriously or to be successful, a movement either has to be gender-neutral, or masculine: femininity and motherhood was integral to the Mothers' protest.
Grandmothers
The Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo () is an organization which has the aim of finding the "stolen" babies, whose mothers were killed during the Junta's dictatorship in 1977. Its president is Estela Barnes de Carlotto. As of June 2019, their efforts have resulted in finding 130 grandchildren.
Awards and prizes
In 1992, all members of the Mothers' association were awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought.
In 1997, María Adela Gard de Antokoletz was awarded the Gleitsman International Activist Award by the Gleitsman Foundation.
In 1997, the organization was awarded the Geuzenpenning in Vlaardingen, Netherlands
In 1999, the organization was awarded the United Nations Prize for Peace Education.
On 10 December 2003, the Grandmothers' president, Estela Barnes de Carlotto, was awarded the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights.
Representation in other media
The Official Story is a film related to the "stolen babies" cases.
Cautiva is another film related to the "stolen babies" cases.
An opera entitled Las Madres de la Plaza (2008) premiered in Leffler Chapel at Elizabethtown College in Pennsylvania. It was written in a collaboration of students, staff, and faculty of the school, headed up by James Haines and John Rohrkemper.
In an episode of Destinos set in Argentina, protagonist Raquel is told about the Mothers of the Plaza and sees a portion of a march.
On "Little Steven" Van Zandt's 1984 release, "Voice of America", he pays tribute to Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo with his song, "Los Desaparecidos".
Rock band U2 wrote a song, "Mothers of the Disappeared", inspired by, and in tribute to, their cause. The song appeared on their 1987 album The Joshua Tree.
The Mothers of Plaza de Mayo (Spanish: Las Madres de la Plaza de Mayo) is a 1985 Argentine documentary film directed by Susana Blaustein Muñoz and Lourdes Portillo about the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.
The documentary Los Desaparecidos (The Disappeared, 2008) relives the horrors of Argentina’s Dirty War. The film follows a child of the disappeared and his involvement in Los Madres is touched on throughout the documentary.
See also
Black Sash
Films depicting Latin American military dictatorships
Ladies in White
Maria Eugenia Sampallo
Mourning Mothers
Saturday Mothers
Tiananmen Mothers
Women in Black
Jorge Rafael Videla
Estela de Carlotto
Laura Carlotto
Alice Domon
Léonie Duquet
Alfredo Astiz
References
Further reading
Mothers of the Disappeared, by Jo Fisher (1989).
Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, by Marguerite Guzman Bouvard (1994).
Circle of Love Over Death: Testimonies of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, by Matilde Mellibovsky, trans. by Maria & Matthew Proser (1997).
Searching for Life: The Grandmothers of the Plaza De Mayo and the Disappeared Children of Argentina, by Rita Arditti (1999).
A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture, by Marguerite Feitlowitz (1998)
"Las cenizas de Azucena, junto a la Pirámide", Página/12, 9 December 2005 .
"Claiming the Public Space: The Mothers of Plaza de Mayo." by Susan Torre. In The Sex of Architecture, edited by Diana Agrest, Patricia Conway, and Lesile Weisman, 241–250. New York: Harry N. Adams, 1996.
External links
Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo
Madres de Plaza de Mayo – Línea Fundadora
Asociación Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo
Buenos Aires
Political movements in Argentina
Dirty War
Women's organisations based in Argentina
Enforced disappearance
Argentine human rights activists
Organizations established in 1977
Sakharov Prize laureates
Missing people organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Cartier-Bresson
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Henri Cartier-Bresson
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Henri Cartier-Bresson (; 22 August 1908 – 3 August 2004) was a French artist and humanist photographer considered a master of candid photography, and an early user of 35mm film. He pioneered the genre of street photography, and viewed photography as capturing a decisive moment.
Cartier-Bresson was one of the founding members of Magnum Photos in 1947. In the 1970s, he largely discontinued his photographic work, instead opting to paint.
Early life
Henri Cartier-Bresson was born in Chanteloup-en-Brie, Seine-et-Marne, France. His father was a wealthy textile manufacturer, whose Cartier-Bresson thread was a staple of French sewing kits. His mother's family were cotton merchants and landowners from Normandy, where Henri spent part of his childhood. His mother was descended from Charlotte Corday.
The Cartier-Bresson family lived in a bourgeois neighborhood in Paris, Rue de Lisbonne, near Place de l'Europe and Parc Monceau. Since his parents were providing financial support, Henri pursued photography more freely than his contemporaries. Henri also sketched.
Young Henri took holiday snapshots with a Box Brownie; he later experimented with a 3×4 inch view camera. He was raised in traditional French bourgeois fashion, and was required to address his parents with formal vous rather than tu. His father assumed that his son would take up the family business, but Henri was strong-willed and also feared this prospect.
Cartier-Bresson attended École Fénelon, a Catholic school that prepared students for the Lycée Condorcet. A governess called "Miss Kitty" who came from across the Channel, instilled in him the love of - and competence in - the English language. The proctor caught him reading a book by Rimbaud or Mallarmé, and reprimanded him, "Let's have no disorder in your studies!". Cartier-Bresson said, "He used the informal 'tu', which usually meant you were about to get a good thrashing. But he went on, 'You're going to read in my office.' Well, that wasn't an offer he had to repeat."
Painting
He studied painting when he was just 5 years old, taking an apprenticeship in his uncle Louis' studio. After trying to learn music, Cartier-Bresson was introduced to oil painting by his uncle Louis, a gifted painter and winner of the Prix de Rome in 1910. But his painting lessons were cut short when uncle Louis was killed in World War I.
In 1927, Cartier-Bresson entered a private art school and the Lhote Academy, the Parisian studio of the Cubist painter and sculptor André Lhote. Lhote's ambition was to integrate the Cubists' approach to reality with classical artistic forms; he wanted to link the French classical tradition of Nicolas Poussin and Jacques-Louis David to Modernism. Cartier-Bresson also studied painting with society portraitist Jacques Émile Blanche.
During that period, he read Dostoevsky, Schopenhauer, Rimbaud, Nietzsche, Mallarmé, Freud, Proust, Joyce, Hegel, Engels and Marx. Lhote took his pupils to the Louvre to study classical artists and to Paris galleries to study contemporary art. Cartier-Bresson's interest in modern art was combined with an admiration for the works of the Renaissance masters: Jan van Eyck, Paolo Uccello, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca. Cartier-Bresson regarded Lhote as his teacher of "photography without a camera."
Surrealists photography influence
Although Cartier-Bresson became frustrated with Lhote's "rule-laden" approach to art, the rigorous theoretical training later helped him identify and resolve problems of artistic form and composition in photography. In the 1920s, schools of photographic realism were popping up throughout Europe but each had a different view on the direction photography should take. The Surrealist movement, founded in 1924, was a catalyst for this paradigm shift. Cartier-Bresson began socializing with the Surrealists at the Café Cyrano, in the Place Blanche. He met a number of the movement's leading protagonists, and was drawn to the Surrealist movement's technique of using the subconscious and the immediate to influence their work. The historian Peter Galassi explains:
Cartier-Bresson matured artistically in this stormy cultural and political atmosphere. But, although he knew the concepts, he couldn't express them; dissatisfied with his experiments, he destroyed most of his early paintings.
Cambridge and army
From 1928 to 1929, Cartier-Bresson studied art, literature, and English at the University of Cambridge, where he became bilingual. In 1930 he was conscripted into the French Army and stationed at Le Bourget near Paris, a time about which he later remarked: "And I had quite a hard time of it, too, because I was toting Joyce under my arm and a Lebel rifle on my shoulder."
Receives first camera
In 1929, Cartier-Bresson's air squadron commandant placed him under house arrest for hunting without a licence. Cartier-Bresson met American expatriate Harry Crosby at Le Bourget, who persuaded the commandant to release Cartier-Bresson into his custody for a few days. The two men both had an interest in photography, and Harry presented Henri with his first camera. They spent their time together taking and printing pictures at Crosby's home, Le Moulin du Soleil (The Sun Mill), near Paris in Ermenonville, France. Crosby later said Cartier-Bresson "looked like a fledgling, shy and frail, and mild as whey." Embracing the open sexuality offered by Crosby and his wife Caresse, Cartier-Bresson fell into an intense sexual relationship with her that lasted until 1931.
Escape to Africa
Two years after Harry Crosby died by suicide, Cartier-Bresson's affair with Caresse Crosby ended in 1931, leaving him broken-hearted. During conscription he read Conrad's Heart of Darkness. This gave him the idea of escaping and finding adventure on the Côte d'Ivoire in French colonial Africa. He survived by shooting game and selling it to local villagers. From hunting, he learned methods which he later used in photography. On the Côte d'Ivoire, he contracted blackwater fever, which nearly killed him. While still feverish, he sent instructions to his grandfather for his own funeral, asking to be buried in Normandy, at the edge of the Eawy Forest while Debussy's String Quartet was played. Although Cartier-Bresson took a portable camera (smaller than a Brownie Box) to Côte d'Ivoire, only seven photographs survived the tropics.
Photography
Returning to France, Cartier-Bresson recuperated in Marseille in late 1931 and deepened his relationship with the Surrealists. He became inspired by a 1930 photograph by Hungarian photojournalist Martin Munkacsi showing three naked young African boys, caught in near-silhouette, running into the surf of Lake Tanganyika. Titled Three Boys at Lake Tanganyika, this captured the freedom, grace and spontaneity of their movement and their joy at being alive. That photograph inspired him to stop painting and to take up photography seriously. He explained, "I suddenly understood that a photograph could fix eternity in an instant."
He acquired the Leica camera with 50 mm lens in Marseilles that would accompany him for many years. The anonymity that the small camera gave him in a crowd or during an intimate moment was essential in overcoming the formal and unnatural behavior of those who were aware of being photographed. He enhanced his anonymity by painting all shiny parts of the Leica with black paint. The Leica opened up new possibilities in photography—the ability to capture the world in its actual state of movement and transformation. Restless, he photographed in Berlin, Brussels, Warsaw, Prague, Budapest and Madrid. His photographs were first exhibited at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York in 1933, and subsequently at the Ateneo Club in Madrid. In 1934 in Mexico, he shared an exhibition with Manuel Álvarez Bravo. In the beginning, he did not photograph much in his native France. It would be years before he photographed there extensively.
In 1934, Cartier-Bresson met a young Polish intellectual, a photographer named David Szymin who was called "Chim" because his name was difficult to pronounce. Szymin later changed his name to David Seymour. The two had much in common culturally. Through Chim, Cartier-Bresson met a Hungarian photographer named Endré Friedmann, who later changed his name to Robert Capa.
United States exhibits
Cartier-Bresson traveled to the United States in 1935 with an invitation to exhibit his work at New York's Julien Levy Gallery. He shared display space with fellow photographers Walker Evans and Manuel Álvarez Bravo. Carmel Snow of Harper's Bazaar gave him a fashion assignment, but he fared poorly since he had no idea how to direct or interact with the models. Nevertheless, Snow was the first American editor to publish Cartier-Bresson's photographs in a magazine. While in New York, he met photographer Paul Strand, who did camerawork for the Depression-era documentary The Plow That Broke the Plains.
Filmmaking
When he returned to France, Cartier-Bresson applied for a job with renowned French film director Jean Renoir. He acted in Renoir's 1936 film Partie de campagne and in the 1939 La Règle du jeu, for which he played a butler and served as second assistant. Renoir made Cartier-Bresson act so he could understand how it felt to be on the other side of the camera. Cartier-Bresson also helped Renoir make a film for the Communist party on the 200 families, including his own, who ran France. During the Spanish civil war, Cartier-Bresson co-directed an anti-fascist film with Herbert Kline, to promote the Republican medical services.
Photojournalism start
Cartier-Bresson's first photojournalist photos to be published came in 1937 when he covered the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, for the French weekly Regards. He focused on the new monarch's adoring subjects lining the London streets, and took no pictures of the king. His photo credit read "Cartier", as he was hesitant to use his full family name.
Marriage
In 1937, Cartier-Bresson married a Javanese dancer, Ratna Mohini. They lived in a fourth-floor servants' flat in Paris at 19, rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs (now rue Danielle Casanova), a large studio with a small bedroom, kitchen, and bathroom where Cartier-Bresson developed film. Between 1937 and 1939, Cartier-Bresson worked as a photographer for the French Communists' evening paper, Ce soir. With Chim and Capa, Cartier-Bresson was a leftist, but he did not join the French Communist party. In 1967, he was divorced from Ratna "Elie".
In 1970 Cartier-Bresson married Magnum photographer Martine Franck and in May 1972, the couple had a daughter, Mélanie.
World War II service
When World War II broke out in September 1939, Cartier-Bresson joined the French Army as a Corporal in the Film and Photo unit. During the Battle of France, in June 1940 at St. Dié in the Vosges Mountains, he was captured by German soldiers and spent 35 months in prisoner-of-war camps doing forced labor under the Nazis. He twice tried and failed to escape from the prison camp, and was punished by solitary confinement. His third escape was successful and he hid on a farm in Touraine before getting false papers that allowed him to travel in France. In France, he worked for the underground, aiding other escapees and working secretly with other photographers to cover the Occupation and then the Liberation of France. In 1943, he dug up his beloved Leica camera, which he had buried in farmland near Vosges. At the end of the war he was asked by the American Office of War Information to make a documentary, Le Retour (The Return) about returning French prisoners and displaced persons.
Toward the end of the War, rumors had reached America that Cartier-Bresson had been killed. His film on returning war refugees (released in the United States in 1947) spurred a retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) instead of the posthumous show that MoMA had been preparing. The show debuted in 1947 together with the publication of his first book, The Photographs of Henri Cartier-Bresson. Lincoln Kirstein and Beaumont Newhall wrote the book's text.
Magnum Photos
In early 1947, Cartier-Bresson, with Robert Capa, David Seymour, William Vandivert and George Rodger founded Magnum Photos. Capa's brainchild, Magnum was a cooperative picture agency owned by its members. The team split photo assignments among the members. Rodger, who had quit Life in London after covering World War II, would cover Africa and the Middle East. Chim, who spoke a variety of European languages, would work in Europe. Cartier-Bresson would be assigned to India and China. Vandivert, who had also left Life, would work in America, and Capa would work anywhere that had an assignment. Maria Eisner managed the Paris office and Rita Vandivert, Vandivert's wife, managed the New York office and became Magnum's first president.
Cartier-Bresson achieved international recognition for his coverage of Gandhi's funeral in India in 1948 and the last stage of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. He covered the last six months of the Kuomintang administration and the first six months of the Maoist People's Republic. He also photographed the last surviving Imperial eunuchs in Beijing, as the city was being liberated by the communists. In Shanghai, he often worked in the company of photojournalist Sam Tata, whom Cartier-Bresson had previously befriended in Bombay. From China, he went on to Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), where he documented the gaining of independence from the Dutch. In 1950, Cartier-Bresson had traveled to the South India. He had visited Tiruvannamalai, a town in the Indian State of Tamil Nadu and photographed the last moments of Ramana Maharishi, Sri Ramana Ashram and its surroundings. A few days later he also visited and photographed Sri Aurobindo, Mother and Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry.
Magnum's mission was to "feel the pulse" of the times and some of its first projects were People Live Everywhere, Youth of the World, Women of the World and The Child Generation. Magnum aimed to use photography in the service of humanity, and provided arresting, widely viewed images.
The Decisive Moment
In 1952, Cartier-Bresson published his book Images à la sauvette, whose English-language edition was titled The Decisive Moment, although the French language title actually translates as "images on the sly" or "hastily taken images", Images à la sauvette included a portfolio of 126 of his photos from the East and the West. The book's cover was drawn by Henri Matisse. For his 4,500-word philosophical preface, Cartier-Bresson took his keynote text from the 17th century Cardinal de Retz, "Il n'y a rien dans ce monde qui n'ait un moment decisif" ("There is nothing in this world that does not have a decisive moment"). Cartier-Bresson applied this to his photographic style. He said: "Photographier: c'est dans un même instant et en une fraction de seconde reconnaître un fait et l'organisation rigoureuse de formes perçues visuellement qui expriment et signifient ce fait" ("To me, photography is the simultaneous recognition, in a fraction of a second, of the significance of an event as well as of a precise organization of forms which give that event its proper expression.").
Both titles came from Tériade, the Greek-born French publisher whom Cartier-Bresson admired. He gave the book its French title, Images à la Sauvette, loosely translated as "images on the run" or "stolen images." Dick Simon of Simon & Schuster came up with the English title The Decisive Moment. Margot Shore, Magnum's Paris bureau chief, translated Cartier-Bresson's French preface into English.
"Photography is not like painting," Cartier-Bresson told the Washington Post in 1957. "There is a creative fraction of a second when you are taking a picture. Your eye must see a composition or an expression that life itself offers you, and you must know with intuition when to click the camera. That is the moment the photographer is creative," he said. "Oop! The Moment! Once you miss it, it is gone forever."
The photo Rue Mouffetard, Paris, taken in 1954, has since become a classic example of Cartier-Bresson's ability to capture a decisive moment. He held his first exhibition in France at the Pavillon de Marsan in 1955.
Later career
Cartier-Bresson's photography took him to many places, including China, Mexico, Canada, the United States, India, Japan, Portugal and the Soviet Union. He became the first Western photographer to photograph "freely" in the post-war Soviet Union.
In 1962, on behalf of Vogue, he went to Sardinia for about twenty days. There he visited Nuoro, Oliena, Orgosolo Mamoiada Desulo, Orosei, Cala Gonone, Orani (hosted by his friend Costantino Nivola), San Leonardo di Siete Fuentes, and Cagliari.
Cartier-Bresson withdrew as a principal of Magnum (which still distributes his photographs) in 1966 to concentrate on portraiture and landscapes.
In 1967, he was divorced from his first wife of 30 years, Ratna (known as "Elie"). In 1968, he began to turn away from photography and return to his passion for drawing and painting. He admitted that perhaps he had said all he could through photography. He married Magnum photographer Martine Franck, thirty years younger than himself, in 1970. The couple had a daughter, Mélanie, in May 1972.
Cartier-Bresson retired from photography in the early 1970s, and by 1975 no longer took pictures other than an occasional private portrait; he said he kept his camera in a safe at his house and rarely took it out. He returned to drawing, mainly using pencil, pen and ink, and to painting. He held his first exhibition of drawings at the Carlton Gallery in New York in 1975.
Death and legacy
Cartier-Bresson died in Céreste (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France) on August 3, 2004, aged 95. No cause of death was announced. He was buried in the local cemetery nearby in Montjustin and was survived by his wife, Martine Franck, and daughter, Mélanie.
Cartier-Bresson spent more than three decades on assignment for Life and other journals. He traveled without bounds, documenting some of the great upheavals of the 20th century — the Spanish Civil War, the liberation of Paris in 1944, the fall of the Kuomintang in China to the communists, the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, the May 1968 events in Paris, the Berlin Wall. And along the way he paused to document portraits of Camus, Picasso, Colette, Matisse, Pound and Giacometti. But many of his most renowned photographs, such as Behind the Gare Saint-Lazare, are of seemingly unimportant moments of ordinary daily life.
Cartier-Bresson did not like to be photographed and treasured his privacy. Photographs of Cartier-Bresson are scant. When he accepted an honorary degree from Oxford University in 1975, he held a paper in front of his face to avoid being photographed.
In a Charlie Rose interview in 2000, Cartier-Bresson noted that it wasn't necessarily that he hated to be photographed, but it was that he was embarrassed by the notion of being photographed for being famous.
Cartier-Bresson believed that what went on beneath the surface was nobody's business but his own. He did recall that he once confided his innermost secrets to a Paris taxi driver, certain that he would never meet the man again.
In 2003, he created the Henri Cartier-Bresson Foundation in Paris with his wife, the Belgian photographer Martine Franck and his daughter to preserve and share his legacy. In 2018, the foundation relocated from the Montparnasse district to Le Marais.
The highest price reached by one of his photographs was when Behind the Gare Saint-Lazare sold at Christie's, on November 17, 2011, by $590,455.
Cinéma vérité
Cartier-Bresson's photographs were also influential in the development of cinéma vérité film. In particular, he is credited as the inspiration for the National Film Board of Canada's early work in this genre with its 1958 Candid Eye series.
Technique
Cartier-Bresson almost always used a Leica 35 mm rangefinder camera fitted with a normal 50 mm lens, or occasionally a wide-angle lens for landscapes. He often wrapped black tape around the camera's chrome body to make it less conspicuous. With fast black and white film and sharp lenses, he was able to photograph events unnoticed. No longer bound by a 4×5 press camera or a medium format twin-lens reflex camera, miniature-format cameras gave Cartier-Bresson what he called "the velvet hand...the hawk's eye."
He never photographed with flash, a practice he saw as "impolite...like coming to a concert with a pistol in your hand."
He believed in composing his photographs in the viewfinder, not in the darkroom. He showcased this belief by having nearly all his photographs printed only at full-frame and completely free of any cropping or other darkroom manipulation. He insisted that his prints be left uncropped so as to include a few millimeters of the unexposed negative around the image area, resulting in a black frame around the developed picture.
Cartier-Bresson worked exclusively in black and white, other than a few experiments in color. He disliked developing or making his own prints and showed a considerable lack of interest in the process of photography in general, likening photography with the small camera to an "instant drawing". Technical aspects of photography were valid for him only where they allowed him to express what he saw:
He started a tradition of testing new camera lenses by taking photographs of ducks in urban parks. He never published the images but referred to them as 'my only superstition' as he considered it a 'baptism' of the lens.
Cartier-Bresson is regarded as one of the art world's most unassuming personalities. He disliked publicity and exhibited a ferocious shyness since his days of hiding from the Nazis during World War II. Although he took many famous portraits, his face was little known to the world at large. This, presumably, helped allow him to work on the street undisturbed. He denied that the term "art" applied to his photographs. Instead, he thought that they were merely his gut reactions to fleeting situations that he had happened upon.
Publications
1947: The Photographs of Henri Cartier-Bresson. Text by Lincoln Kirstein. New York: Museum of Modern Art.
1952: The Decisive Moment. Texts and photographs by Cartier-Bresson. Cover by Henri Matisse. New York: Simon & Schuster. French edition
2014: Göttingen: Steidl. . Facsimile edition. First edition, 2014. Third edition, 2018. Includes booklet with an essay by Clément Chéroux, "A Bible for Photographers".
1954: Les Danses à Bali. Texts by Antonin Artaud on Balinese theater and commentary by Béryl de Zoete Paris: Delpire. German edition.
1955: The Europeans. Text and photographs by Cartier-Bresson. Cover by Joan Miró. New York: Simon & Schuster. French edition.
1955: People of Moscow. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German and Italian editions.
1956: China in Transition. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German and Italian editions.
1958: Henri Cartier-Bresson: Fotografie. Prague and Bratislava: Statni nakladatelstvi krasné. Text by Anna Farova.
1963: Photographs by Henri Cartier-Bresson. New York: Grossman Publisher. French, English, Japanese and Swiss editions.
1964: China. Photographs and notes on fifteen months spent in China. Text by Barbara Miller. New York: Bantam. French edition.
1966: Henri Cartier-Bresson and the Artless Art. Text by Jean-Pierre Montier. Translated from the French L'Art sans art d'Henri Cartier-Bresson by Ruth Taylor. New York: Bulfinch Press.
1968: The World of HCB. New York: Viking Press. French, German and Swiss editions.
1969: Man and Machine. Commissioned by IBM. French, German, Italian and Spanish editions.
1970: France. Text by François Nourissier. London: Thames & Hudson. French and German editions.
1972: The Face of Asia. Introduction by Robert Shaplen. New York and Tokyo: John Weatherhill; Hong Kong: Orientations. French edition.
1973: About Russia. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German and Swiss editions.
1976: Henri Cartier-Bresson. Texts by Cartier-Bresson. History of Photography Series. History of Photography Series. French, German, Italian, Japanese and Italian editions.
1979: Henri Cartier-Bresson Photographer. Text by Yves Bonnefoy. New York: Bulfinch. French, English, German, Japanese and Italian editions.
1983: Henri Cartier-Bresson. Ritratti = Henri Cartier-Bresson. Portraits. Texts by André Pieyre de Mandiargues and Ferdinando Scianna, "I Grandi Fotografi". Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri. English and Spanish editions.
1985:
Henri Cartier-Bresson en Inde. Introduction by Satyajit Ray, photographs and notes by Cartier-Bresson. Text by Yves Véquaud. Paris: Centre national de la photographie. English edition.
Photoportraits. Texts by André Pieyre de Mandiargues. London: Thames & Hudson. French and German editions.
1987:
Henri Cartier-Bresson. The Early Work. Texts by Peter Galassi. New York: Museum of Modern Art. French edition.
Henri Cartier-Bresson in India. Introduction by Satyajit Ray, photographs and notes by Cartier-Bresson, texts by Yves Véquaud. London: Thames & Hudson. French edition.
1989:
L'Autre Chine. Introduction by Robert Guillain. Collection Photo Notes. Paris: Centre National de la Photographie.
Line by Line. Henri Cartier-Bresson's drawings. Introduction by Jean Clair and John Russell. London: Thames & Hudson. French and German editions.
1991:
America in Passing. Introduction by Gilles Mora. New York: Bulfinch. French, English, German, Italian, Portuguese and Danish editions.
Alberto Giacometti photographié par Henri Cartier-Bresson. Texts by Cartier-Bresson and Louis Clayeux. Milan: Franco Sciardelli.
1994:
A propos de Paris. Texts by Véra Feyder and André Pieyre de Mandiargues. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German and Japanese editions.
Double regard. Drawings and photographs. Texts by Jean Leymarie. Amiens: Le Nyctalope. French and English editions.
Mexican Notebooks 1934–1964. Text by Carlos Fuentes. London: Thames & Hudson. French, Italian, and German editions.
L'Art sans art. Text de Jean-Pierre Montier. Paris: Editions Flammarion. English, German and Italian editions.
1996: L'Imaginaire d'après nature. Text by Cartier-Bresson. Paris: Fata Morgana. German and English editions'
1997: Europeans. Texts by Jean Clair. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German, Italian and Portuguese editions.
1998: Tête à tête. Texts by Ernst H. Gombrich. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German, Italian and Portuguese editions.
1999: The Mind's Eye. Text by Cartier-Bresson. New York: Aperture. French and German editions.
1999: Henri Cartier-Bresson: A Biography. Text by Pierre Assouline, translated by David Wilson. London: Thames and Hudson.
2001: Landscape Townscape. Texts by Erik Orsenna and Gérard Macé. London: Thames & Hudson. French, German and Italian editions.
2003: The Man, the Image and the World. Texts by Philippe Arbaizar, Jean Clair, Claude Cookman, Robert Delpire, Jean Leymarie, Jean-Noel Jeanneney and Serge Toubiana. London: Thames & Hudson, 2003. German, French, Korean, Italian and Spanish editions.
2005:
Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Mind's Eye: Writings on Photography and Photographers, Aperture; 1st edition.
Henri Cartier-Bresson: Masters of Photography Series, Aperture; Third edition.
2006: An Inner SIlence: The portraits of Henri Cartier-Bresson, New York: Thames & Hudson. Texts by Agnès Sire and Jean-Luc Nancy.
2010: Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Modern Century, The Museum of Modern Art, New York; Reprint edition.
2015: Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Decisive Moment, Steidl; Pck Slp Ha edition.
2017: Henri Cartier-Bresson Fotógrafo. Delpire.
Filmography
Films directed by Cartier-Bresson
Cartier-Bresson was second assistant director to Jean Renoir in 1936 for La vie est à nous and Une partie de campagne, and in 1939 for La Règle du Jeu.
1937: Victoire de la vie. Documentary on the hospitals of Republican Spain: Running time: 49 minutes. Black and white.
1938: L’Espagne Vivra. Documentary on the Spanish Civil War and the post-war period. Running time: 43 minutes and 32 seconds. Black and white.
1938 Avec la brigade Abraham Lincoln en Espagne, Henri Cartier-Bresson ja Herbert Kline. Running time 21 minutes. Black and white.
1944–45: Le Retour. Documentary on prisoners of war and detainees. Running time: 32 minutes and 37 seconds. Black and white.
1969–70: Impressions of California. Running time: 23 minutes and 20 seconds. Color.
1969–70: Southern Exposures. Running time: 22 minutes and 25 seconds. Color.
Films compiled from photographs by Cartier-Bresson
1956: A Travers le Monde avec Henri Cartier-Bresson. Directed by Jean-Marie Drot and Henri Cartier-Bresson. Running time: 21 minutes. Black and white.
1963: Midlands at Play and at Work. Produced by ABC Television, London. Running time : 19 minutes. Black and white.
1963–65: Five fifteen-minute films on Germany for the Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Munich.
1967: Flagrants délits. Directed by Robert Delpire. Original music score by Diego Masson. Delpire production, Paris. Running time: 22 minutes. Black and white.
1969: Québec vu par Cartier-Bresson / Le Québec as seen by Cartier-Bresson. Directed by Wolff Kœnig. Produced by the Canadian Film Board. Running time: 10 minutes. Black and white.
1970: Images de France.
1991: Contre l'oubli : Lettre à Mamadou Bâ, Mauritanie. Short film directed by Martine Franck for Amnesty International. Editing : Roger Ikhlef. Running time: 3 minutes. Black and white.
1992: Henri Cartier-Bresson dessins et photos. Director: Annick Alexandre. Short film produced by FR3 Dijon, commentary by the artist. Running time: 2 minutes and 33 seconds. Color.
1997: Série "100 photos du siècle": L'Araignée d'amour: broadcast by Arte. Produced by Capa Télévision. Running time: 6 minutes and 15 seconds. Color.
Films about Cartier-Bresson
"Henri Cartier-Bresson, point d'interrogation" by Sarah Moon, screened at Rencontres d'Arles festival in 1994
Henri Cartier-Bresson: L'amour Tout Court (70 mins, 2001. Interviews with Cartier-Bresson.)
Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Impassioned Eye (72 mins, 2006. Late interviews with Cartier-Bresson.)
Exhibitions
1933 Cercle Ateneo, Madrid
1933 Julien Levy Gallery, New York
1934 Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City (with Manuel Alvarez Bravo)
1947 Museum of Modern Art, New York, Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin, Germany; Museum of Modern Art, Rome, Italy; Dean Gallery, Edinburgh; Museum of Modern Art, New York City; Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago, Chile
1952 Institute of Contemporary Arts, London
1955 Retrospektive – Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris
1956 Photokina, Cologne, Germany
1963 Photokina, Cologne, Germany
1964 The Phillips Collection, Washington
1965–1967 2nd retrospective, Tokyo, Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, New York, London, Amsterdam, Rome, Zurich, Cologne and other cities.
1970 En France – Grand Palais, Paris. Later in the US, USSR, Australia and Japan
1971 Les Rencontres d'Arles festival. Movies screened at Théatre Antique.
1972 Les Rencontres d'Arles festival. "Flagrant Délit " (Production Delpire) screened at Théatre Antique.
1974 Exhibition about the USSR, International Center of Photography, New York
1974–1997 Galerie Claude Bernard, Paris
1975 Carlton Gallery, New York
1975 Galerie Bischofberger, Zurich, Switzerland
1980 Brooklyn Museum, New York
1980 Photographs, Art Institute of Chicago
1980 Portraits – Galerie Eric Franck, Geneva, Switzerland
1981 Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, France
1982 Hommage à Henri Cartier-Bresson – Centre National de la Photographie, Palais de Tokyo, Paris
1983 Printemps Ginza – Tokyo
1984 Osaka University of Arts, Japan
1984–1985 Paris à vue d’œil – Musée Carnavalet, Paris
1985 Henri Cartier-Bresson en Inde – Centre National de la Photographie, Palais de Tokyo, Paris
1985 Museo de Arte Moderno de México, Mexico
1986 L'Institut Français de Stockholm
1986 Pavillon d'Arte contemporanea, Milan, Italy
1986 Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
1987 Museum of Modern Art, Oxford, UK (drawings and photography)
1987 Early Photographs – Museum of Modern Art, New York
1988 Institut Français, Athen, Greece
1988 Palais Lichtenstein, Vienna, Austria
1988 Salzburger Landessammlung, Austria
1988 Group exhibition: "Magnum en Chine" at Rencontres d'Arles, France.
1989 Chapelle de l'École des Beaux-Arts, Paris
1989 Fondation Pierre Gianadda, Martigny, Switzerland (drawings and photographs)
1989 Mannheimer Kunstverein, Mannheim, Germany (drawings and photography)
1989 Printemps Ginza, Tokyo, Japan
1990 Galerie Arnold Herstand, New York
1991 Taipei Fine Arts Museum, Taiwan (drawings and photographs)
1992 Centro de Exposiciones, Saragossa and Logrono, Spain
1992 Hommage à Henri Cartier-Bresson – International Center of Photography, New York
1992 L'Amérique – FNAC, Paris
1992 Musée de Noyers-sur-Serein, France
1992 Palazzo San Vitale, Parma, Italy
1993 Photo Dessin – Dessin Photo, Arles, France
1994 "Henri Cartier-Bresson, point d'interrogation" by Sarah Moon screened at Rencontres d'Arles festival, France.
1994 Dessins et premières photos – La Caridad, Barcelona, Spain
1995 Dessins et Hommage à Henri Cartier-Bresson – CRAC (Centre Régional d’Art Contemporain) Valence, Drome, France
1996 Henri Cartier-Bresson: Pen, Brush and Cameras – The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, US
1997 Les Européens – Maison Européenne de la Photographie, Paris
1997 Henri Cartier-Bresson, dessins – Musée des Beaux-Arts, Montreal
1998 Galerie Beyeler, Basel, Switzerland
1998 Galerie Löhrl, Mönchengladbach, Germany
1998 Howard Greenberg Gallery, New York
1998 Kunsthaus Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
1998 Kunstverein für die Rheinlande und Westfalen, Düsseldorf, Germany
1998 Line by Line – Royal College of Art, London
1998 Tête à Tête – National Portrait Gallery, London
1998–1999 Photographien und Zeichnungen – Baukunst Galerie, Cologne, Germany
2003–2005 Rétrospective, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris; La Caixa, Barcelona; Martin Gropius Bau, Berlin; Museum of Modern Art, Rome; Dean Gallery, Edinburgh; Museum of Modern Art, New York; Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago, Chile
2004 Baukunst Galerie, Cologne
2004 Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin
2004 Museum Ludwig, Cologne
2008 Henri Cartier-Bresson's Scrapbook Photographs 1932–46, National Media Museum, Bradford, UK
2008 National Gallery of Modern Art, Mumbai, India
2008 Santa Catalina Castle, Cadiz, Spain
2009 Musée de l'Art Moderne, Paris
2010 Museum of Modern Art, New York
2010 The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago
2011 Museum of Design Zürich
2011 High Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA
2011 Maison de la Photo, Toulon, France
2011 Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, Germany
2011 Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane, Australia
2011-2012 KunstHausWien, Vienna, Austria
2014 Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.
2015 Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City
2015 Ateneum, Helsinki
2017 Leica Gallery, San Francisco.
2017 Museo Botero/Banco de la Republica, Bogota Colombia
2018 International Center of Photography, New York
2021 Le Grand jeu, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, France
2022 Cina 1948-49/1958, MUDEC, Milan, Italy
2022 L'expérience du paysage, Fondation Henri Cartier-Bresson, Paris, France
Public collections
Cartier-Bresson's work is held in the following public collections:
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, France
De Menil Collection, Houston, Texas, US
Foundation Henri Cartier-Bresson, Paris, France
University of Fine Arts, Osaka, Japan
Victoria and Albert Museum, London, United Kingdom
Maison Européenne de la Photographie, Paris, France
Musée Carnavalet, Paris, France
Museum of Modern Art, New York City
The Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois, US
Jeu de Paume, Paris, France
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Institute for Contemporary Photography, New York City
The Philadelphia Art Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US
Kahitsukan Kyoto Museum of Contemporary Art, Kyoto, Japan
Museum of Modern Art, Tel Aviv, Israel
Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden
International Photography Hall of Fame, St.Louis, Missouri
Awards
1948: Overseas Press Club of America Award
1953: The A.S.M.P. Award
1954: Overseas Press Club of America Award
1959: The Prix de la Société française de photographie
1960: Overseas Press Club of America Award
1964: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society
1964: Overseas Press Club of America Award
1967: The Cultural Award from the German Society for Photography (DGPh), with Edwin H. Land
1981: Grand Prix National de la Photographie
1982: Hasselblad Award
2003: Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lucie Awards
2006: Prix Nadar for the photobook Henri Cartier-Bresson: Scrapbook
References
Sources
Assouline, P. (2005). Henri Cartier-Bresson: A Biography. London: Thames & Hudson.
Galassi, Peter (2010). Henri Cartier-Bresson: the Modern Century. London: Thames & Hudson.
Montier, J. (1996). Portrait: First Sketch. Henri Cartier-Bresson and the Artless Art (p. 12). New York: Bulfinch Press.
Warren, J (2005), Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography. Routledge
External links
Fondation Henri Cartier-Bresson
Cartier-Bresson's portfolio at Magnum Photos
Magnum Photos
Special Report: Henri Cartier-Bresson (1908–2004) – by Eamonn McCabe in The Guardian
Tête à Tête: Portraits by Henri Cartier-Bresson at the National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC
Henri Cartier-Bresson at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY
Henri Cartier-Bresson (1908 – 2004): When photography becomes art
"John Berger pays tribute to his good friend", in The Observer.
Henri Cartier-Bresson's Cats
1908 births
2004 deaths
20th-century French artists
20th-century photographers
Escapees from German detention
Fine art photographers
French Army personnel of World War II
French Resistance members
French escapees
French expatriates in India
French photographers
French photojournalists
French prisoners of war in World War II
Humanist photographers
Lycée Condorcet alumni
Magnum photographers
The New Yorker people
People from Seine-et-Marne
Photography in China
Photography in India
Photography in Indonesia
Photography in Russia
Photography in the Soviet Union
Street photographers
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
Yaddo alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave%20Whitehead
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Gustave Whitehead
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Gustave Albin Whitehead (born Gustav Albin Weisskopf; 1 January 1874 – 10 October 1927) was an aviation pioneer who emigrated from Germany to the United States where he designed and built gliders, flying machines, and engines between 1897 and 1915. Controversy surrounds published accounts and Whitehead's own claims that he flew a powered machine successfully several times in 1901 and 1902, predating the first flights by the Wright Brothers in 1903.
Much of Whitehead's reputation rests on a newspaper article which was written as an eyewitness report and describes his powered and sustained flight in Connecticut on 14 August 1901. Over a hundred newspapers in the U.S. and around the world soon repeated information from the article. Several local newspapers also reported on other flight experiments that Whitehead made in 1901 and subsequent years. Whitehead's aircraft designs and experiments were described or mentioned in Scientific American articles and a 1904 book about industrial progress. His public profile faded after about 1915, however, and he died in relative obscurity in 1927.
In the 1930s, a magazine article and book asserted that Whitehead had made powered flights in 1901–02, and the book includes statements from people who said that they had seen various Whitehead flights decades earlier. These published accounts triggered debate among scholars, researchers, and aviation enthusiasts, and Orville Wright was among those who questioned whether Whitehead was first in powered flight. Mainstream historians dismissed the Whitehead flight claims.
No photograph is known to exist showing Whitehead making a powered controlled flight, although reports in the early 1900s said such photos had been publicly displayed. Researchers have studied and attempted to copy Whitehead aircraft. Since the 1980s, enthusiasts in the U.S. and Germany have built and flown replicas of Whitehead's "Number 21" machine using modern engines and modern propellers, although with fundamental changes to the aircraft structure and control systems.
Early life and career
Whitehead was born in Leutershausen, Bavaria, the second child of Karl Weisskopf and his wife Babetta. As a boy he showed an interest in flight, experimenting with kites and earning the nickname "the flyer". He and a friend caught and tethered birds in an attempt to learn how they flew, an activity which the police soon stopped.
His parents died in 1886 and 1887, when he was a boy. He then trained as a mechanic and traveled to Hamburg, where in 1888 he was forced to join the crew of a sailing ship. A year later he returned to Germany, then journeyed with a family to Brazil. He went to sea again for several years, learning more about wind, weather and bird flight.
Weisskopf arrived in the U.S. in 1893. He soon anglicized his name to Gustave Whitehead. The New York toy manufacturer E. J. Horsman hired Whitehead to build and operate advertising kites and model gliders. Whitehead also made plans to add a motor to propel one of his gliders. In 1893, Whitehead was in Boston where he experimented with gliders, kites, and models, and where he worked at Harvard's kite-flying meteorological station.
In 1896, Whitehead was hired as a mechanic for the Boston Aeronautical Society. He and mechanic Albert B. C. Horn built a Lilienthal-type glider and an ornithopter. Whitehead made a few short and low flights in the glider, but did not succeed in flying the ornithopter. Also in 1896, founding Society member Samuel Cabot employed Whitehead and carpenter James Crowell to build a Lilienthal glider. Cabot reported to the Society that tests with this glider were unsuccessful.
Claims to powered flight
1899
According to an affidavit given in 1934 by Louis Darvarich, a friend of Whitehead, the two men made a motorized flight of about half a mile in Pittsburgh's Schenley Park in April or May 1899. Darvarich said they flew at a height of in a steam-powered monoplane aircraft and crashed into a brick building. Darvarich said he was stoking the aircraft's boiler aboard the craft and was badly scalded in the accident, requiring several weeks in a hospital. Because of this incident, Whitehead was forbidden by the police to perform any more experiments in Pittsburgh. Aviation historian William F. Trimble, pointing to a lack of contemporary proof, dismissed this story in 1982 as a case of "overactive imaginations." Whitehead's stated control method – a shifting of body weight – was said by Trimble to be insufficient to control a powered aircraft, and the supposed charcoal-fired steam powerplant could not have been powerful enough to lift itself off the ground. Whitehead was quoted in Pittsburgh newspapers in December 1899 as still constructing an aircraft, although he did say that he had flown it in Boston. A local historian claimed in 2015 that his research has uncovered evidence of the purported 1899 flight.
Whitehead and Darvarich traveled to Bridgeport, Connecticut, to find factory jobs.
1901
A description and photographs of Whitehead's aircraft appeared in Scientific American in June 1901, stating that the "novel flying machine" had just been completed, and was "now ready for preliminary trials."
Whitehead said he tested his unmanned machine on 3 May, according to a newspaper report.
He said in the first test the machine carried 220 pounds of sand ballast and flew to an altitude of 40 to 50 feet for 1/8 of a mile (). On the second test Whitehead said the machine flew a distance of 1/2 mile () for one and a half minutes before crashing into a tree. The report said Andrew Cellie and Daniel Varovi were Whitehead's financial backers and assistants. Whitehead expressed his desire to keep the location of any future experiments hidden to avoid drawing a crowd that might make a "snap-shot verdict of failure".
The aviation event for which Whitehead is now best known reportedly took place in Fairfield, Connecticut, on 14 August 1901 and was described at length in an article in the edition of 18 August 1901 of the weekly Bridgeport Herald newspaper. The article, written as an eyewitness report, stated that Whitehead piloted his Number 21 aircraft in a controlled powered flight for about half a mile, reaching a height of and landing safely. The unsigned article is widely attributed to journalist Richard Howell, later the newspaper's editor. The flight, if it actually took place, preceded the Wright brothers' first powered flights near Kitty Hawk in 1903 by more than two years, and exceeded the best one, which covered at a height of about .
The article was accompanied by a drawing, also credited by some Whitehead researchers to Howell, which depicted the aircraft in flight. The drawing was purportedly based on a photograph, which is believed not to exist. Information from the article was reprinted in the New York Herald, Boston Transcript and The Washington Times, which ran it on 23 August 1901. In the following months, dozens of other newspapers around the world published articles mentioning the reported flight or other aviation activity by Whitehead.
The Bridgeport Herald reported that Whitehead and another man drove to the testing area in the machine, which, when the wings were folded along its sides, functioned as a car. Two other people, including the newspaper reporter, followed on bicycles. For short distances, the Number 21's speed was close to thirty miles an hour on the uneven road, and the article said, "there seems no doubt that the machine can reel off forty miles an hour and not exert the engine to its fullest capacity.".
The newspaper reported that before attempting to pilot the aircraft, Whitehead successfully test flew it unmanned, using tether ropes and sandbag ballast. When Whitehead was ready to make a manned flight, the article said: "By this time the light was good. Faint traces of the rising sun began to suggest themselves in the east."
According to the newspaper article, trees blocked the way after the flight had started. Whitehead was quoted as saying, "I knew that I could not clear them by rising higher, and also that I had no means of steering around them by using the machinery." The article said Whitehead quickly thought of a solution to steer around the trees:
He simply shifted his weight more to one side than the other. This careened the ship to one side. She turned her nose away from the clump of sprouts when within fifty yards of them and took her course around them as prettily as a yacht on the sea avoids a bar. The ability to control the air ship in this manner appeared to give Whitehead confidence, for he was seen to take time to look at the landscape about him. He looked back and waved his hand exclaiming, 'I've got it at last.'
When Whitehead neared the end of a field, the article said he turned off the motor and the aircraft landed "so lightly that Whitehead was not jarred in the least."
Junius Harworth, who as a boy was one of Whitehead's helpers, said Whitehead flew the airplane at another time in mid-1901 from Howard Avenue East to Wordin Avenue, along the edge of property belonging to the local gas company. Upon landing, Harworth said, the machine was turned around and another hop was made back to the starting point.
On 21 September 1901, Collier's Weekly ran a picture of Whitehead's "latest flying machine" and said that he "recently made a successful flight of half a mile". On 19 November 1901, The Evening World (New York) ran a story about Whitehead's achievements and included a photograph of him sitting on his new flying machine. The article quotes him saying, "within a year people will be buying airships as freely as they are buying automobiles today and the sky will be dotted with figures skimming the air". On 7 December 1901, the Coconino Sun ran a story that stated Gustave Whitehead was the "inventor of the flying machine" and was planning a flight to New York.
During this period of activity, Whitehead also reportedly tested an unmanned and unpowered flying machine, towed by men pulling ropes. A witness said the craft rose above telephone lines, flew across a road and landed undamaged. The distance covered was later measured at approximately 1,000 ft (305 m).
1902
Whitehead claimed two spectacular flights on 17 January 1902 in his improved Number 22, with a 40 hp (30 kW) motor instead of the 20 hp (15 kW) used in the Number 21, and aluminum instead of bamboo for structural components. In two published letters he wrote to American Inventor magazine,
Whitehead said the flights took place over Long Island Sound. He said the distance of the first flight was about two miles (3.2 km) and the second was seven miles (11 km) in a circle at heights up to 200 ft (61 m). He said the airplane, which had a boat-like fuselage, landed safely in the water near the shore.
For steering, Whitehead said he varied the speed of the two propellers and also used the aircraft rudder. He said the techniques worked well on his second flight and enabled him to fly a big circle back to the shore where his helpers waited. In his first letter, he expressed pride in the accomplishment: "... as I successfully returned to my starting place with a machine hitherto untried and heavier than air, I consider the trip quite a success. To my knowledge it is the first of its kind. This matter has so far never been published."
In his second letter he wrote, "This coming Spring I will have photographs made of Machine No. 22 in the air." He said snapshots, apparently taken during his claimed flights of 17 January 1902, "did not come out right" because of cloudy and rainy weather. The magazine editor replied that he and readers would "await with interest the promised photographs of the machine in the air," but there were no further letters nor any photographs from Whitehead.
Anton Pruckner, a mechanic and assistant to Whitehead, signed an affidavit concerning the claimed 17 January 1902 flight: "... I knew that the flight took place because of talk by those who had seen it and because Whitehead himself had told me he made it ... I believe Whitehead made that flight, as his aircraft did fly well and with the bigger engine we had built, the plane was capable of such a flight. Whitehead was of fine moral character and never in all the long time I was associated with him or knew him did he ever appear to exaggerate. I never knew him to lie; he was a very truthful man ... I saw his aircraft fly on many occasions."
Gustave Whitehead's brother John arrived in Connecticut from California in April 1902, intending to offer help. He saw his brother's aircraft only on the ground, not in powered flight.
He gave a description 33 years later of the engine and aircraft, including details of the steering apparatus:
Rudder was a combination of horizontal and vertical fin-like affair, the principle the same as in the up-to-date airplanes. For steering there was a rope from one of the foremost wing tip ribs to the opposite, running over a pulley. In front of the operator was a lever connected to a pulley: the same pulley also controlled the tail rudder at the same time.
A 1935 article in Popular Aviation magazine, which renewed interest in Whitehead, said winter weather ruined the Number 22 airplane after Whitehead placed it unprotected in his yard following his claimed flights of January 1902. The article said Whitehead did not have money to build a shelter for the aircraft because of a quarrel with his financial backer. The article also reported that in early 1903, Whitehead built a 200-horsepower eight-cylinder engine, intended to power a new aircraft. Another financial backer insisted on testing the engine in a boat on Long Island Sound, but lost control and capsized, sending the engine to the bottom.
1903
19 September 1903, Scientific American reported Whitehead made powered glider flights in a triplane machine towed by an assistant pulling a rope: "By running with the machine against the wind after the motor had been started, the aeroplane was made to skim along above the ground at heights of from 3 to 16 feet for a distance, without the operator touching, of about 350 yards. It was possible to have traveled a much longer distance, without the operator touching terra firma, but for the operator's desire not to get too far above it. Although the motor was not developing its full power, owing to the speed not exceeding 1,000 R.P.M., it developed sufficient to move the machine against the wind." The article said a two-cycle motor powered a two-bladed diameter tractor propeller. The engine shown in the article was exhibited by Whitehead at the Second Annual Exhibit of the Aero Club of America in December 1906.
Aerial machines
Whitehead did not give identifiers to his first aircraft, but according to Randolph and Harvey to the end of 1901 he had built "fifty-six airplanes".
Whitehead's Number 21 monoplane had a wingspan of 36 ft (11 m). The fabric-covered wings were ribbed with bamboo, supported by steel wires and were very similar to the shape of the Lilienthal glider's wings. The arrangement for folding the wings also closely followed the Lilienthal design. The craft was powered by two engines: a ground engine of 10 hp (7.5 kW), intended to propel the front wheels to reach takeoff speed, and a 20 hp (15 kW) acetylene engine powering two propellers, which were designed to counter-rotate for stability.
Whitehead described his No. 22 aircraft and compared some of its features to the No. 21 in a letter he wrote to the editor of American Inventor magazine, published 1 April 1902. He said the No. 22 had a five-cylinder 40 hp kerosene motor of his own design, weighing 120 lbs. He said ignition was "accomplished by its own heat and compression." He described the aircraft as long, made mostly of steel and aluminum with wing ribs made of steel tubing, rather than bamboo, which was used in the Number 21 aircraft. He explained that the two front wheels were connected to the kerosene motor, and the rear wheels were used for steering while on the ground. He said the wing area was , and the covering was "the best silk obtainable." The propellers were "6 feet in diameter ... made of wood ... covered with very thin aluminum sheeting." He said the tail and wings could all be "folded up ... and laid against the sides of the body."
In 1905, he and Stanley Beach jointly filed for a patent – issued 1908 – for an "improved aeroplane" with a V-shaped trough body and fixed bird-like wings, the pilot hanging below supported by a swing seat. A jointly-designed biplane was built by Whitehead and fitted with a Whitehead 5-cylinder, water-cooled 50 hp motor. The pointed bow of the craft comprised a metal water tank, with hot water being sprayed against the sides inside for cooling.
Whitehead also built gliders until about 1906 and was photographed flying them.
Later career
In addition to his work on flying machines, Whitehead built engines. In 1904, he attended the St. Louis World's Fair and displayed an aeronautical motor. Air Enthusiast wrote: "Weisskopf's ability and mechanical skill could have made him a wealthy man at a time when there was an ever-increasing demand for lightweight engines, but he was far more interested in flying." Instead, Whitehead only accepted enough engine orders to sustain aviation experiments.
His aeronautical work was described in a chapter titled "The Conquest of the Air" in a 1904 book, Modern Industrial Progress, by Charles Henry Cochrane. The book said Whitehead had experimented with a "three-deck machine" and attached a 12 hp motor driving a tractor propeller after tests showed the craft could carry more than his weight. Test of the machine were described as "sufficiently satisfactory that another is being built."
In 1908, Whitehead designed and built a 75 hp lightweight two-cycle motor at the suggestion of aviation pioneer George A. Lawrence, who was having difficulty obtaining an aeronautic engine. The water-cooled machine was designed so that functional cylinders continued to work if others failed, a safety factor to help avoid accidents due to engine failure. The men formed Whitehead Motor Works with an office in New York City and a factory in Bridgeport, Connecticut, that built motors in three sizes: 25, 40 and 75 hp, weighing 95, 145 and 200 pounds respectively.
Whitehead's business practices were unsophisticated and he was sued by a customer, resulting in a threat that his tools and equipment would be seized. He hid his engines and most of his tools in a neighbor's cellar and continued his aviation work. One of his engines was installed by aviation pioneer Charles Wittemann in a helicopter built by Lee Burridge of the Aero Club of America, but the craft failed to fly.
Whitehead's own 1911 studies of the vertical flight problem resulted in a 60-bladed helicopter, which, unmanned, lifted itself off the ground.
He lost an eye in a factory accident and also suffered a severe blow to the chest from a piece of factory equipment, an injury that may have led to increasing attacks of angina. Despite these setbacks, he exhibited an aircraft at Hempstead, New York, as late as 1915. He continued to work and invent. He designed a braking safety device, hoping to win a prize offered by a railroad. He demonstrated it as a scale model but won nothing. He constructed an "automatic" concrete-laying machine, which he used to help build a road north of Bridgeport. These inventions brought him no more profit than did his airplanes and engines. Around 1915 Whitehead worked in a factory as a laborer and repaired motors to support his family.
He died of a heart attack, on 10 October 1927, after attempting to lift an engine out of a car he was repairing. He stumbled onto his front porch and into his home, then collapsed dead in the house.
Rediscovery
Whitehead's work remained mostly unknown to the public and aeronautical community after 1911 until a 1935 article was published in Popular Aviation magazine, co-authored by educator and journalist Stella Randolph and aviation history buff Harvey Phillips. Randolph expanded the article into the book Lost Flights of Gustave Whitehead, published in 1937. She sought out people who had known Whitehead and had seen his flying machines and engines, and she obtained 16 affidavits from 14 people and included the text of their statements in the book. Four people said that they did not see flights, while the others said that they saw flights of various types, ranging from a few feet to hundreds of feet to more than a mile.
Harvard University economics professor John B. Crane wrote an article for National Aeronautic Magazine in December 1936 disputing claims and reports that Whitehead flew, but he adopted a different tone the following year, after further research. He told reporters, "There are several people still living in Bridgeport who testified to me under oath, they had seen Whitehead make flights along the streets of Bridgeport in the early 1900s." Crane reported Harworth's claim of having witnessed a 1½- mile airplane flight made by Whitehead on 14 August 1901, and he suggested that a Congressional investigation should consider the claims. In 1949, Crane published a new article in Air Affairs magazine which supported claims that Whitehead flew, but he made no reference to his first article, nor did he refute his previous evidence.
In 1963, reserve Air Force major William O'Dwyer discovered photographs in the attic of a Connecticut house showing a 1910 Whitehead "Large Albatross"-type biplane aircraft at rest on the ground. The Connecticut Aeronautical Historical Association (CAHA) asked him and his 9315th U.S. Air Force Reserve Squadron to investigate whether Whitehead had made powered flights. O'Dwyer continued his research for years and became convinced that Whitehead did fly before the Wright brothers. Former CAHA president Harvey Lippincott said in 1981 that Whitehead "may have flown 100 to 200 feet, 10 to 15 feet off the ground. This is confirmed by the witnesses that we have interviewed and talked with, and this seems reasonable for the state of the art in aviation at that time." O'Dwyer later contributed interviews of reputed flight witnesses to a second book by Stella Randolph The Story of Gustave Whitehead, Before the Wrights Flew, published in 1966. O'Dwyer and Randolph also co-authored History by Contract, published in 1978, which criticized the Smithsonian Institution for signing an agreement with the estate of Orville Wright, requiring the Smithsonian to credit only the 1903 Wright Flyer for the first powered controlled flight.
In 1968, Connecticut officially recognized Whitehead as "Father of Connecticut Aviation". The North Carolina General Assembly passed a resolution in 1985 which repudiated the Connecticut statement and gave "no credence" to the assertion that Whitehead was first to fly, citing "leading aviation historians and the world's largest aviation museum" who determined that there was "no historic fact, documentation, record or research to support the claim".
In 2013, Jane's All the World's Aircraft published an editorial which asserted that Whitehead was first to make a powered controlled flight. The editorial reignited debate over who flew first and motivated Connecticut to establish "Powered Flight Day" to honor Gustave Whitehead, rather than the Wright Brothers. The editorial relied heavily on researcher John Brown, whose claim that a vintage photo showed Whitehead's machine in powered flight was disproved by another researcher, Carroll F. Gray. Jane's corporate owner later issued a disclaimer concerning the editorial, stating that it contained the views of the editor but not necessarily the publisher.
Evidence
Claimed witnesses
Andrew Cellie and James Dickie were named in the Bridgeport Herald article as two witnesses to Whitehead's early-morning flight. The article was published without a byline, but researchers and scholars on both sides of the controversy attribute it to Richard "Dick" Howell, the sports editor. James Dickie denied seeing a flight in a 1937 affidavit, taken during Stella Randolph's research. He said that he was not present at the flight on 14 August 1901, and that he thought that the newspaper story was "imaginary". He said that he did not know Andrew Cellie, the other associate of Whitehead who was supposed to be there, and that none of Whitehead's aircraft ever flew, as far as he knew. An article in Air Enthusiast, however, pointed out that Dickie's description of the airplane did not match Whitehead's Number 21.
O'Dwyer had known Dickie since childhood and wrote that he spoke to him by telephone, and that Dickie had a grudge against Whitehead:
His mood changed to anger when I asked him about Gustave Whitehead. He flatly refused to talk about Whitehead, and when I asked him why, he said: "That SOB never paid me what he owed me. My father had a hauling business and I often hitched up the horses and helped Whitehead take his airplane to where he wanted to go. I will never give Whitehead credit for anything. I did a lot of work for him and he never paid me a dime.
O'Dwyer wrote that Dickie's 1937 affidavit had "little value" and that there were inconsistencies between the affidavit and his interview with Dickie. There is no known transcript or recording of his interview.
Andrew Cellie was the other eyewitness to the flight on 14 August 1901 named by the Bridgeport Herald, but Randolph could not locate him for an interview in the 1930s. O'Dwyer searched through old Bridgeport city directories in the 1970s and concluded that the newspaper likely misspelled the man's name. He surmised that it was Andrew Suelli, a Swiss or German immigrant also known as Zulli and Whitehead's nextdoor neighbor before moving to the Pittsburgh area in 1902. Suelli's former neighbors in Fairfield told O'Dwyer that Suelli had "always claimed he was present when Whitehead flew in 1901."
Junius Harworth and Anton Pruckner sometimes worked for Whitehead, and they gave statements to Stella Randolph that they saw him fly on 14 August 1901. Anton Pruckner was a tool maker who worked for a few years with Whitehead, and he attested in 1934 to the flight. He also attested to a January 1902 flight by Whitehead over Long Island Sound; the 1988 Air Enthusiast article, however, said that "Pruckner was not present on the occasion, though he was told of the events by Weisskopf himself."
Whitehead claimed in his first letter to American Inventor that he made four trips in the airplane on 14 August 1901, and that the longest was 1½ miles. Witnesses reported seeing several different flights on 14 August 1901. The Bridgeport Herald reported that a half-mile flight occurred early in the morning on 14 August, and Whitehead and Harworth said that a one and a half-mile flight was made later that day. In all, witnesses reported that four flights took place on 14 August 1901.
The following are from the affidavits that Stella Randolph collected in the 1930s, quoted in part:
Affidavit: Joe Ratzenberger – 28 January 1936:
I recall a time, which I think was probably July or August 1901 or 1902, when this plane was started in flight on the lot between Pine and Cherry Streets. The plane flew at a height of about twelve feet from the ground, I should judge, and traveled the distance to Bostwick Avenue before it came to the ground.
Affidavit: Thomas Schweibert – 15 June 1936:
I ... recall seeing an airplane flight made by the late Gustave Whitehead approximately thirty-five years ago. I was a boy at the time, playing on a lot near the Whitehead shop on Cherry Street, and recall the incident well as we were surprised to see the plane leave the ground. It traveled a distance of approximately three hundred feet, and at a height of approximately fifteen feet in the air, to the best of my recollection.
Affidavit by Junius Harworth – 21 August 1934:
On August, fourteenth, Nineteen Hundred and One I was present and assisted on the occasion when Mr. Whitehead succeeded in flying his machine, propelled by a motor, to a height of two hundred feet off the ground or sea beach at Lordship Manor, Connecticut. The distance flown was approximately one mile and a half.
Other witnesses signed affidavits reporting additional powered flights in 1902. Elizabeth Koteles stated that she had witnessed a flight at Gypsy Spring which was 5 feet off the ground for a distance of 150 to 250 feet, and John Lesko also stated that he had witnessed a flight in Gypsy Spring. Other people signed affidavits saying that they saw short flights of varying altitudes and distances in the 1901–02 time period.
O'Dwyer organized a survey of surviving witnesses to the flights. Members of the Connecticut Aeronautical Historical Association (CAHA) and the 9315th Squadron (O'Dwyer's Air Force Reserve unit) went door-to-door in Bridgeport, Fairfield, Stratford, and Milford, Connecticut to track down Whitehead's long-ago neighbors and helpers, and they also traced some who had moved away. Of an estimated 30 persons interviewed for affidavits or on tape, 20 said that they had seen flights, eight indicated that they had heard of the flights, and two said that Whitehead did not fly.
Photos
No photograph has been found conclusively showing any manned Whitehead machine in powered flight, although such photographs have been reported to exist. The Bridgeport Daily Standard reported on 1 October 1904 that pictures were exhibited in the window of Lyon and Grumman's hardware store on Main Street in Bridgeport, Connecticut "showing Whitehead in his aeroplane about 20 feet from the ground and sailing along". The article said: "Of course he has not perfected his invention but says that he has frequently flown over half a mile. There are people who believe Whitehead is all that the newspapers have represented him to be. The photographs show that he has the ability to make short flights".
A photo was displayed in the 1906 First Annual Exhibit of the Aero Club of America at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City which showed an unpiloted Whitehead aircraft in flight. The photo was mentioned in a 27 January 1906 Scientific American article which stated that the walls of the exhibit were covered with a large collection of photographs showing the machines of various inventors. The report said, "No photographs of ... man-carrying machines in flight were shown, nor has any trustworthy account of their reported achievements ever been published. A single blurred photograph of a large birdlike machine propelled by compressed air constructed by Whitehead in 1901 was the only other photograph besides that of Samuel Pierpont Langley's scale model machines of a motor-driven aeroplane in successful flight." Peter L. Jakab, National Air and Space Museum (NASM) Associate Director and Curator of Early Flight, suggested that the image "may very well have been an in-flight photograph" of one of Whitehead's gliders.
In 2013, Australian researcher John Brown analyzed a panoramic photograph from the 1906 Aero Club Exhibit room which shows photographic images on the wall in the background. Brown concluded that one of the images, which he examined by greatly enlarging it, was "the long lost photo of Whitehead's No. 21 in powered flight". He said that the image also correlated with the drawing that was published in the 1901 Bridgeport Herald article which reported a Whitehead flight. Brown's conclusion was disputed by aviation historian Carroll Gray, who said that a clear archival photograph is virtually identical to the enlarged image and proved "beyond any reasonable doubt" that the wall image from the 1906 exhibit showed the glider The California, built by aviation pioneer John Joseph Montgomery, on display suspended between trees at an exhibit in a California park in 1905.
Controversy
Bridgeport Herald article and drawing
Stella Randolph stated in Lost Flights of Gustave Whitehead (1937) that Richard Howell wrote the article about a Whitehead flight in the Bridgeport Herald, although the article carried no byline. O'Dwyer wrote that Howell made the drawing of the No. 21 in flight which accompanied the newspaper article, saying that Howell was "an artist before he became a reporter." O'Dwyer spent hours in the Bridgeport Library studying virtually everything that Howell wrote, and he concluded: "Howell was always a very serious writer. He always used sketches rather than photographs with his features on inventions. He was highly regarded by his peers on other local newspapers. He used the florid style of the day, but was not one to exaggerate."
Andy Kosch, who built and flew a replica of No. 21, said, "If you look at the reputation of the editor of the Bridgeport Herald in those days, you find that he was a reputable man. He wouldn't make this stuff up." Howell died before the controversy began concerning Whitehead.
Gibbs-Smith doubted the veracity of the account and complained that the newspaper article "reads like a work of juvenile fiction." Aviation historian Carroll Gray asserts that similarities in the Bridgeport Herald newspaper story show that it is a broad rewrite of an article published in the New York Sun newspaper on 9 June 1901. Gray points out that the Sun article described an unmanned test of a Whitehead flying machine on 3 May 1901, but the Bridgeport Herald changed this to a manned flight.
Mrs. Whitehead and skeptics
An early source of ammunition for both sides of the debate was a 1940 interview with Whitehead's wife Louise. In the Bridgeport Sunday Post, she quoted her husband's excited first words upon returning from Fairfield on 14 August 1901: "Mama, we went up!" She said that her husband was always busy with motors and flying machines when he was not working in coal yards or factories, but she never saw any of her husband's reported flights.
Smithsonian Institution Curator of Aeronautics Peter L. Jakab said that Whitehead's wife and family did not know about his August 1901 flights. Louise Whitehead told Randolph that she sewed the material for the wings on the plane and took care of the household, but did not watch any experiments. Whitehead's daughter Rose was three years old at the time of the controversial 1901 powered flight, and the other children had not yet been born.
Stanley Yale Beach
Stanley Yale Beach was the son of Scientific American'''s editor (he became editor himself), and he had a long personal association with Whitehead. His father Frederick Converse Beach contributed thousands of dollars to support Whitehead's work on Stanley Beach's airplane designs from 1903–1910.History by Contract, O'Dwyer and Randolph (1978), p. 124 Beach also claimed to have taken most of the photos that appeared in Randolph's 1937 book Lost Flights of Gustave Whitehead. In 1908, Beach and Whitehead received a patent for a monoplane glider.
There were multiple articles published in Scientific American under Beach's editorship in 1903, 1906, and 1908 which stated that Whitehead had conducted "short flights" and flew "short distances" in 1901, similar to the hops made by Maxim and Herring.Sci. American, 27 January 1906"The Second Annual Exhibition of the Aero Club of America", Sci. Am, 15 December 1906, p. 448-449 Beach gave an extensive description of a "novel flying machine" in the 8 June 1901 issue and included two photographs of a "batlike craft" on the ground, not flying.
Beach drafted a statement in 1939 concerning his relationship with Whitehead, at the request of Major Lester D. Gardner, Secretary of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences in New York. It was not published, but Beach gave permission for changes to be made in the statement, and it was edited by Gardner and aviation publisher Earl Findley, a close friend of Orville Wright. Researcher Susan O'Dwyer Brinchman suggests that Findley and Gardner hoped that the statement would help to defend the Wright brothers' primacy in flight against the recent challenge in Randolph's article and book. Beach's edited statement was sent to Wright, who relied on it in 1945 to rebut renewed publicity about Whitehead. The edited statement said: "I do not believe that any of his machines ever left the ground under their own power in spite of the assertions of many persons who think they saw him fly." It also said that Whitehead never told Beach that he had flown. The statement offered some words of praise, saying that Whitehead "deserves a place in early aviation, due to his having gone ahead and built extremely light engines and aeroplanes. The five-cylinder kerosene one, with which he claims to have flown over Long Island Sound on 17 January 1902 was, I believe, the first aviation Diesel."
O'Dwyer believed that Beach had "recanted" his earlier view that Whitehead had flown, as indicated by the Scientific American articles. He asserted that Beach became a "politician", "rarely missing an opportunity to mingle with the Wright tide that had turned against Whitehead, notably after Whitehead's death in 1927." O'Dwyer argued in History by Contract that Beach's statement was self-contradictory. In one part, it claims that Whitehead did not fly, and in another it describes how Whitehead's machine always landed safely in "pancaking" fashion.
Smithsonian Institution
Reports that Whitehead made a flight in Connecticut were noticed by the Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Langley was at the time building his manned aircraft, the Langley Aerodrome "A". Langley's chief engineer, Charles M. Manly, suspected claims for the Whitehead machine were "fraudulent". He asked Smithsonian employee F.W. Hodge to inspect the Number 21 aircraft, which Whitehead had put on display in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Hodge reported the machine did not appear to be airworthy.
For many years the Smithsonian Institution did not formally recognize the 1903 Wright Flyer as the first successful aircraft. Instead, it proclaimed the Langley Aerodrome as first to be capable of manned powered flight. This policy offended the surviving Wright brother, Orville, who sent the Wright Flyer to the Science Museum in London on long-term loan, rather than donate it to the Smithsonian. In 1942 the Smithsonian publicly recanted its position, and Orville agreed to bring back the Flyer.
As a condition for receiving the airplane, the Smithsonian signed an agreement in 1948 with executors of Orville Wright's estate. Popularly called a "contract," the agreement required the Smithsonian to recognize only the 1903 Wright Flyer, and no other aircraft, as first to make a manned, powered, controlled flight. The agreement, which was not made public, allowed the Wright family to reclaim the Flyer if the Smithsonian failed to comply. of the agreement is on this of the "glennhcurtiss.com" website. The Agreement is also available upon request from the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution.
In 1975, O'Dwyer learned about the agreement from Harold S. Miller, an executor of the Orville Wright estate. O'Dwyer obtained release of the document with help from Connecticut U.S. Senator Lowell Weicker and the U.S. Freedom of Information Act. O'Dwyer said that during an earlier 1969 conversation with Paul E. Garber, a Smithsonian curator of early aircraft, Garber denied that a contract existed and said he "could never agree to such a thing."
The 1978 book co-authored by O'Dwyer and Randolph, History by Contract argued that the Smithsonian compromised its objectivity when it signed a 1948 agreement with the estate of Orville Wright requiring the Institution to recognize the 1903 Wright Flyer as the first aircraft to make a manned, powered, controlled flight or forfeit possession of the aircraft. The book published correspondence between O'Dwyer and the Smithsonian in which he asked the Institution to look at the evidence and to attend interviews of people who said they saw Whitehead fly. The book called for nullification of the agreement.
George Gunther, a Connecticut state senator, said History by Contract was too heavy-handed. Gunther said he had been having "cordial" conversations with the Smithsonian about giving some credit to Whitehead, "but after O'Dwyer blasted them in his book, well, that totally turned them off."
According to the Smithsonian, the agreement was implemented to close the long-running feud with the Wright family over the Institution's false claims for the Aerodrome. Brinchman documented that Gardner and Findley, who helped Orville rebut the Whitehead claims, also participated in crafting text in the agreement that the Institution is required to use in its labeling of the Wright Flyer.
The agreement remains in effect to the present day. In 2005, Peter Jakab of the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum (NASM) said the agreement would not stop the Smithsonian from recognizing anyone as inventor of the first airplane if indisputable evidence were found: "We would present as accurate a presentation of the history of the invention of the airplane as possible, regardless of the consequences this might incur involving the agreement. Having said that, however, at this time, as in 1948, there is no compelling evidence that Whitehead or anyone else flew before the Wright brothers." In 2013 senior aeronautics curator Tom Crouch of NASM said, "I can only hope that, should persuasive evidence for a prior flight be presented, my colleagues and I would have the courage and the honesty to admit the new evidence and risk the loss of the Wright Flyer."
Purported meeting with the Wright brothers
In the 1930s, Whitehead was said by three witnesses to have helped the Wright brothers by revealing his secrets perhaps two years prior to their first powered flights.
Statements obtained by Stella Randolph in the 1930s from two of Whitehead's workers, Cecil Steeves and Anton Pruckner, claimed that the Wright brothers visited Whitehead's shop a year or two before their 1903 flights. The January 1988 Air Enthusiast magazine states: "Both Cecil Steeves and Junius Harworth remember the Wrights; Steeves described them and recalled their telling Weisskopf that they had received his letter indicating an exchange of correspondence." Steeves said that the Wright brothers, "under the guise of offering to help finance his inventions, actually received inside information that aided them materially in completing their own plane." Steeves related that Whitehead said to him, "Now since I have given them the secrets of my invention they will probably never do anything in the way of financing me."
Orville Wright denied that he or his brother ever visited Whitehead at his shop and stated that the first time they were in Bridgeport was 1909 "and then only in passing through on the train." This position is supported by Library of Congress historian Fred Howard, co-editor of the Wright brothers' papers, and by aviation writers Martin Caidin and Harry B. Combs.
O'Dwyer said Octave Chanute "encouraged" the Wrights to look into engines built by Whitehead. In a letter to Wilbur Wright on 3 July 1901, Chanute made a single reference to Whitehead, saying: "I have a letter from Carl E. Myers, the balloon maker, stating that a Mr. Whitehead has invented a light weight motor, and has engaged to build for Mr. Arnot of Elmira 'a motor of 10 I.H.P. ... '""To Fly Is Everything". Library: Source:Chanute-Wright Correspondence. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
Orville's rebuttal
In 1945, Whitehead's son Charles was interviewed on Joseph Nathan Kane's national radio program Famous Firsts as the son of the first man to fly. That claim was repeated in a Liberty magazine article, which was condensed in a Reader's Digest article that reached a very large audience. Orville Wright, then in his seventies, countered the magazine articles by writing "The Mythical Whitehead Flight", which appeared in the August 1945 issue of U.S. Air Services, a publication with a far smaller but very influential readership.
Orville began by questioning why the Bridgeport Herald "withheld" such important aeronautical news for four days and suggested the story thus must not be true. Whitehead researchers have pointed out that the Herald was not a daily newspaper but a weekly, published only on Sundays. Orville noted that James Dickie, named as a witness by the Herald, had declared in an affidavit that he was not present at the event, did not know the other named witness and never saw a Whitehead aircraft fly. Orville discussed John J. Dvorak, a physics professor at Washington University in St. Louis, who had designed an engine and hired Whitehead to build it after praising him publicly. Dvorak became dissatisfied with Whitehead's progress on the engine and severed the business relationship. Orville quoted Dvorak's 1936 affidavit: "I personally do not believe that Whitehead ever succeeded in making any airplane flights." Dvorak's negative comments that Orville quoted included the phrases: "Whitehead did not possess sufficient mechanical skill ... was given to gross exaggeration ... He had delusions."
Orville also relied on the unpublished statement by Stanley Beach. Orville wrote that Whitehead never told Beach he had flown, and that Beach believed none of Whitehead's aircraft ever left the ground under their own power. Orville asserted that if Whitehead had flown, Beach would surely have known about it after associating frequently with Whitehead for nine years and helping him financially.
Orville's critical comments were later quoted by both the Smithsonian Institution and British aviation historian Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith.
Replica aircraft
To show that the No. 21 aircraft might have flown, Connecticut high school science teacher Andy Kosch, a pilot, built a replica of the craft, using existing photos and blueprints created by experts working with O'Dwyer in a project called "Hangar 21". The replica used modern ultralight engines and included other substantive changes. On December 29, 1986, Kosch flew the replica and claimed a distance of about 330 feet at six feet above the ground.
On 18 February 1998, another reproduction of No. 21 was flown in Germany. The director of the aerospace department at Deutsches Museum noted that such a replica was not proof that the original did actually fly. The 1998 reproduction used modern research and materials such as fiberglass, and had modern engines, along with other changes.
Honors
Connecticut Governor John N. Dempsey designated 14 August as "Gustave Whitehead Day" in 1964 and 1968. A large headstone replaced the bronze marker of his grave at a formal dedication ceremony on 15 August 1964 attended by elected officials, members of every branch of the armed services, Clarence Chamberlain – famed aviator, CAHA, the 9315th Air Force Reserves Squadron, and surviving members of his family, his three daughters, and his assistant Anton Pruckner, commemorating Whitehead as "Father of Connecticut Aviation".
The "Aviation Pioneer Gustav Weißkopf Museum" was established in Leutershausen, Germany, in 1974.
A memorial fountain and sculpture commemorating Whitehead's "aviation first" was dedicated in May 2012 and is located on a traffic island at the intersection of Fairfield Avenue and State Street in Bridgeport
On 25 June 2013, Connecticut Governor Dan Malloy signed into state law House Bill 6671 recognizing Gustave Whitehead as the first person to achieve powered flight.
See also
History by Contract''
Early flying machines
Timeline of aviation
List of firsts in aviation
List of years in aviation
List of German inventors and discoverers
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Gustave Whitehead's Flying Machines
Gustave Whitehead – Pioneer Aviator
Gustave Whitehead – What Did He Do?
Hargrave The Pioneers
NPR "Activists Push Flight Claims of Wrights' Rival"
The German Aviation Pioneer Museum Gustav Weißkopf
German aerospace engineers
Aviation inventors
Aviation pioneers
Steam-powered aircraft
Aviators from Connecticut
Discovery and invention controversies
German aviators
Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States
19th-century German inventors
Glider pilots
Gliding in the United States
People from Ansbach (district)
People from Bridgeport, Connecticut
1874 births
1927 deaths
Engineers from Bavaria
Aircraft designers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Pratt%2C%201st%20Earl%20Camden
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Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden
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Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, PC (baptised 21 March 1714 – 18 April 1794) was an English lawyer, judge and Whig politician who was first to hold the title of Earl Camden. As a lawyer and judge he was a leading proponent of civil liberties, championing the rights of the jury, and limiting the powers of the State in leading cases such as Entick v Carrington.
He held the offices of Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, Attorney-General and Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, and was a confidant of Pitt the Elder, supporting Pitt in the controversies over John Wilkes and American independence. However, he clung to office himself, even when Pitt was out of power, serving in the cabinet for fifteen years and under five different prime ministers.
During his life, Pratt played a leading role in opposing perpetual copyright, resolving the regency crisis of 1788 and championing Fox's Libel Bill. He started the development of the settlement that was later to become Camden Town in London.
Early life
Born in Kensington in 1714, he was a descendant of an old Devon family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, Chief Justice of the King's Bench in the reign of George I. Charles's mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Rev. Hugh Wilson of Trefeglwys, and the aunt of landscape painter Richard Wilson. He received his early education at Eton, where he became acquainted with William Pitt, and King's College, Cambridge. He had already developed an interest in constitutional law and civil liberties. In 1734 he became a fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of BA. Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the Middle Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the Bar.
Early years at the Bar
He practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling also the western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he became so much discouraged that he seriously thought of turning his back on the law and entering the church. He listened, however, to the advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, and persevered, working on and waiting for success. Reputedly, once instructed as Henley's junior, Henley feigned illness so that Pratt could lead and earn the credit.
He was further aided by an advantageous marriage on 5 October 1749 to Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Jeffreys of the Priory, Brecknock, by whom he had a son John Jeffreys, his successor in title and estates, and four daughters, of whom the eldest, Frances, married Robert Stewart, 1st Marquess of Londonderry on 7 June 1775.
The first case which brought him prominently into notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen. Owen had published a book The Case of Alexander Murray, Esq; in an Appeal to the people of Great Britain which the House of Commons had, by resolution of the House, condemned as "an impudent, malicious, scandalous and seditious libel". The author had left the country so the weight of the government's censure fell on Owen. Pratt appeared in Owen's defence and his novel argument was that it was not the sole role of the jury to determine the fact of publication but that it was further their right to assess the intent of a libel. In his summing up, the judge, Lord Chief Justice Sir William Lee directed the jury to find Owen guilty as publication was proved and the intent of the contents was a question of law for the judge, not a question of fact for the jury. The jury disagreed and acquitted Owen. Pratt was appointed King's Counsel in 1755, and knighted in December 1761.
Political career
Since their youthful meeting at Eton, Pitt had continued to consult Pratt on legal and constitutional matters and Pratt became involved in the group that met at the Leicester House home of George Prince of Wales and who were opposed to the government of Prime Minister the Duke of Newcastle. In 1756, Newcastle offered Pratt a judgeship but Pratt preferred to take the role of Attorney General to the Prince of Wales.
In July 1757, Pitt formed a coalition government with Newcastle and insisted on Pratt's appointment as Attorney-General. Pratt was preferred over Solicitor General Charles Yorke. Yorke was the son of Lord Hardwicke, a political ally of Newcastle who, as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain had obstructed Pratt's career in favour of his own son. Though this led to an uncomfortable relationship between the two law officers of the Crown, it led to the landmark Pratt-Yorke opinion of 24 December 1757 whereby the pair distinguished overseas territories acquired by conquest from those acquired by private treaty. They asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown. Though the original opinion related to the British East India Company, it came to be applied elsewhere in the developing British Empire.
The same year he entered the House of Commons as Member of Parliament (MP) for the borough of Downton in Wiltshire. He sat in Parliament for four years, but did not distinguish himself as a debater. He introduced the Habeas corpus Amendment Bill of 1758, which was intended to extend the writ of Habeas corpus from criminal law to civil and political cases. Despite Pitt's support, the Bill fell in the House of Lords. At the same time, his professional practice increased, particularly his Chancery practice which made him financially secure and enabled him to purchase the Camden Place estate in Kent.
As Attorney-General, Pratt prosecuted Florence Hensey, an Irishman who had spied for France, and John Shebbeare, a violent party writer of the day. Shebbeare had published a libel against the government contained in his Letters to the People of England, which were published in 1756–58. As evidence of Pratt's moderation in a period of passionate party warfare and frequent state trials, it is notable that this was the only official prosecution for libel that he started and that he maintained his earlier insistence that the decision lay with the jury. He led for the Crown in the prosecution of Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers for the murder of a servant, a case that shocked European society.
Wilkes and Entick
Pratt lost his patron when Pitt left office in October 1761 but in January 1762, he resigned from the Commons, was raised to the bench as Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, received the customary knighthood and was sworn into the Privy Council.
The Common Pleas was not an obvious forum for a jurist with constitutional interest, dealing as it did principally with disputes between private parties. However, on 30 April 1763, Member of Parliament John Wilkes was arrested under a general warrant for alleged seditious libel in issue No.45 of The North Briton. Pratt freed Wilkes holding that parliamentary privilege gave him immunity from arrest on such a charge. The decision earned Pratt some favour with the radical faction in London and seems to have spurred him, over the summer of that year to encourage juries to award disproportionate and excessive damages to printers unlawfully arrested over the same matter. Wilkes was awarded £1,000 (£127,000 at 2003 prices) and Pratt condemned the use of general warrants for entry and search. Pratt pronounced with decisive and almost passionate energy against their legality, thus giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation and winning for himself an extraordinary degree of popularity as one of the maintainers of English civil liberties. Honours fell thick upon him in the form of addresses from the City of London and many large towns, and of presentations of freedom from various corporate bodies.
In 1762, the home of John Entick had been raided by officers of the Crown, searching for evidence of sedition. In the case of Entick v Carrington (1765), Pratt held that the raids were unlawful as they were without authority in statute or in common law.
The American Stamp Act crisis
On 17 July 1765 Pratt was created Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in Chislehurst, Kent, becoming a member of the House of Lords. Prime Minister Lord Rockingham had unsuccessfully made this, and other appointments, to curry favour with Pitt but Camden was not over-eager to get involved in the crisis surrounding the Stamp Act 1765. Camden did attend the Commons on 14 January 1766 and his subsequent speeches on the matter in the Lords are so similar to Pitt's that he had clearly adopted the party line. He was one of only five Lords who voted against the Declaratory Act, a resolution of the House insisting on parliament's right to tax colonies overseas. Camden insisted that taxation was predicated on consent and that consent needed representation. However, when he came to support the government over the Act's repeal, he rather unconvincingly purported to base his opinion on the actual hardship caused by the Act rather than its constitutional basis.
Lord Chancellor
In May 1766, Pitt again became prime minister and advanced Camden from the court of common pleas to take his seat as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain on 30 July. Camden managed to negotiate an additional allowance of £1500 and a position for his son John. Camden carried out the role in an efficient manner, without any great legal innovation. He presided over the Court of Chancery from which only one of his decisions was overturned on appeal. He also presided over the judicial functions of the House of Lords where in 1767 he approved Lord Mansfield's ruling that the City of London could not fine dissenters who refused to serve the corporation. Dissenters were in any case prohibited from serving under the Corporation Act 1661. In 1768 in the House of Lords he again sat in a case involving John Wilkes, this time rejecting his appeal and finding that his consecutive, rather than concurrent sentences were lawful. He gave a controversial judgment in the Douglas Peerage case.
"A forty days tyranny"
However, Camden the politician was less of a champion of civil rights than Pratt the judge. The poor harvest of 1766 led to fears of high grain prices and starvation but parliament was prorogued and could not renew the export ban that expired on 26 August. Pitt, with Camden's support, called the Privy Council to issue a royal proclamation on 26 September to prohibit grain exports until parliament met. However, despite Camden's record on civil liberties, this proclamation was unlawful, contrary to art.2 of the Bill of Rights 1689 and both houses of parliament ultimately accused Pitt and Camden of tyranny. Camden pleaded necessity, a justification he had rejected in the Wilkes and Carrington trials, and styled it "a forty days tyranny". Ultimately the government was forced to suppress the parliamentary attacks by an act indemnifying those involved from legal action.
America
In 1767, the cabinet, of which Camden was a member, approved Charles Townshend's attempt to settle the American protest and revolt over taxation. Benjamin Franklin reportedly observed that it was "internal" taxes that the colonists objected to and Townshend took this to suggest that there would be little opposition to import duties imposed at the ports. Camden's support for the tax proposals would return to embarrass him.
Pitt and his followers had, after their initial opposition, come to support the Declaratory Act of 1766 which asserted Great Britain's sovereignty over the American colonies. Further, continued unrest in America, stemming from Townshend's 1767 taxation scheme, brought a robust response from Pitt and Camden was his spokesman in the Lords. However, towards the end of 1767, Pitt, now raised to the Lords as Earl Chatham, fell ill and the Duke of Grafton stepped in as caretaker. Camden became indecisive in his own political role, writing to Grafton on 4 October 1768:
Pitt resigned on 14 October and Camden, who continued to sit in the cabinet as Lord Chancellor, now took up a position of uncompromising hostility to the governments of Grafton and Lord North on America and on Wilkes. Camden opposed Lord Hillsborough's confrontational approach to the Americas, favouring conciliation and working on the development of reformed tax proposals. Camden personally promised the colonies that no further taxes would be levied, and voted in the cabinet minority who sought to repeal the tea duty.
John Wilkes MP
On 28 March 1768, Wilkes was surprisingly elected as member for Middlesex, much to Grafton's distaste. Grafton canvassed Camden on whether Wilkes could be removed from parliament and Camden responded that, under the parliamentary privilege of the House to regulate its own membership, Wilkes could, though lawfully elected, be lawfully expelled. However, Camden saw that this was only likely to lead to Wilkes's re-election and an escalating crisis. The cabinet decided to seek Wilkes's expulsion but Camden was not content with the policy. By the end of 1769, he was in open opposition to the government and was making little contribution to discussions in cabinet. Only Royal pressure kept him in post. However, by the beginning of 1770, Chatham had returned to the fray, opposing government policies on Wilkes and America. On 9 January 1770, Chatham moved a motion opposing the government's policies and Camden stepped down from the woolsack to give a speech in support of the motion. However, he did not resign as Lord Chancellor until King George III, outraged by his conduct, demanded his dismissal on 17 January. He seems also to have resigned as a Chancery judge in late 1769.
Working Lord
Into opposition
Chatham, Rockingham and Grenville were expected to combine to bring down Grafton, when it was expected that Lord Camden would return to the woolsack. However, though Grafton resigned, Lord North managed to form a successor administration and Camden was left to the opposition, continuing to sit in the Lords. From 1770 onwards, Chatham neglected parliamentary attendance and left leadership of the house to Lord Shelburne with whom Camden could manage only the coolest of relationships.
During 1770–71, Camden tussled with Lord Mansfield over the law of libel, Camden maintaining that the jury should not only decide whether the work in question was published but also whether the words themselves were defamatory or innocent. He opposed the extension of the Royal Marriages Act 1772 to all descendants of King George II, believing it to be impractical. In 1774, in the House of Lords appeal in the case of Donaldson v Beckett, Camden spoke against the concept of perpetual copyright for fear of inhibiting the advancement of learning. This was a key influence on the ultimate rejection of that year's Booksellers' Bill.
The American crisis of 1774
The year 1774 brought a renewed crisis over America. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 led Lord North to seek a blockade of the city through the Boston Port Bill. Camden roundly criticised the taxes that had led to the American protests, as he had opposed them in Cabinet from 1767 to 1769, but was reminded that he was Lord Chancellor when they were imposed. The Chathamite faction went on to support the Bill and further to support the Massachusetts Government Act, Camden's inherent patriotism bringing him into line. However, by May, fears that the Bill would focus and strengthen American resistance led Camden to oppose the measure.
On 16 February 1775, Camden made his major speech on the crisis, opposing public opinion and the New England Trade and Fishery Bill, a speech often believed to have been drafted in collaboration with Benjamin Franklin for an American audience. Camden invoked John Locke's dictum that resistance to tyranny was justified and called the Bill:
Thomas Hutchinson observed:
How Camden voted on the Quebec Act is unknown but in May 1775, and in response to a petition from a small number of settlers, he unsuccessfully moved its repeal. However, he seems to have been in the grip of a conspiracy theory that the Act's ulterior objective was to create an army of militant Roman Catholics in Canada to suppress the Protestant British colonists.
American War of Independence
The American War of Independence broke out in 1775 and Chatham's faction were dismayed. Their official line was to advocate mediation, refusing to think of either American independence or continued English hegemony. Camden continued to speak on the dilemma in parliament. He continued steadfastly to oppose the taxation of the American colonists, and signed, in 1778, the protest of the Lords in favour of an address to the King on the subject of the manifesto of the commissioners to America. In 1782 he was appointed Lord President of the Council under the Rockingham-Shelburne administration, supporting the government economic programme and anti-corruption drive, and championing repeal of the Declaratory Act 1720 in Ireland. Once Rockingham died in July, the Chathamite residue could only lose the Commons vote over the American peace terms the following February. Camden resigned and persuaded Shelburne to do the same.
The Younger Pitt
Camden was a leading opponent of the ensuing Fox-North Coalition, denouncing it for patronage and leading the opposition to Fox's East India Bill that brought down the administration on 9 December 1783. William Pitt the Younger, the son of his former patron, came to power and within a few months, Camden was reinstated as Lord President, holding the post until his death. He was created Earl Camden on 13 May 1786 and granted a further peerage as Viscount Bayham to lend his son a courtesy title.
Camden took an animated part in the debates on important public matters until within two years of his death, in particular supporting Pitt's 1785 Parliamentary Reform Bill and the Irish trade proposals that same year. Camden continued to attend cabinet meetings and, after he moved to Hill Street, Berkeley Square on account of his ill health, cabinet meetings were sometimes held at his home.
Regency crisis of 1788
In November 1788, King George III fell ill and insanity was feared. Lord Chancellor Thurlow hesitated over what action to take, thereby precipitating the regency crisis of 1788. As Lord President, Camden led the Privy Council examination of the King's doctors' opinions. With Thurlow unwilling to lead the legislature, Camden grasped the challenge of inviting parliament to appoint a regent, in the face of the opposition's support for the automatic appointment of their ally the Prince of Wales. Camden's resolution that appointment rested with parliament was carried in the Lords by 99 votes to 66 on 23 December 1788. Moreover, on 22 January 1789, Camden's motion to appoint the Prince of Wales, but with restrictions in case of the King's recovery, was carried by 94 to 68 votes. The King recovered the following month before the Regency Bill contained the force of law.
Fox's Libel Act
To the last, Camden zealously defended his early views on the functions of juries, especially of their right to decide on all questions of libel. In the Lords debate on the second reading of the Libel Act 1792 on 16 May, Camden contended that intention was an essential element of libel and should be decided by the jury as in murder cases. Broadening the legal argument to the constitutional and political Camden charged press freedom to the hands of the jury as the representatives of the people. The judges he held were too prone to government pressure to guarantee essential freedoms. Despite the unanimous opposition of the Law Lords, Camden's speech helped secure a majority of 57 to 32.
Reputation and legacy
Camden was short in stature but of a fine physique. For recreation he enjoyed music, theatre, romantic fiction, conversation and food. His vices were sloth and gluttony rather than womanising or gambling. The Earl Camden died in London on 18 April 1794. His remains were interred in Seal church in Kent. Camden died a wealthy man, much of his wealth deriving from his wife.
Both Lord Campbell and Sir William Holdsworth held Camden a great Lord Chancellor.
By the 20th century, Camden's legal opinions were seen as subservient to Chatham's politics and Camden certainly followed the party line on Wilkes and America. However, his party loyalty was tempered by a self-serving interest in power. He served under five prime ministers and on two occasions clung to office after Chatham had resigned.
In his last years, he took a great interest in the career of Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, his daughter's stepson. Camden, whose own son was not to prove much of a statesman, recognised young Robert's potential and treated him very much as though he was his actual grandson.
In 1788 he obtained an Act of Parliament granting permission to develop some fields he owned just to the north of London. In 1791 he laid out the land in plots and leased them for the construction of 1,400 houses, the beginnings of Camden Town.
The town of Camden, Maine in the United States, was named for him in 1791. This is one of several cities, towns, and counties bearing his name, including Camden, South Carolina, Camden, North Carolina, and Camden, New Jersey, as well as Camden Counties in New Jersey (of which the eponymous city is the seat and largest city), Missouri and Georgia. In turn, Camden, South Carolina gave its name both to the Battle of Camden and Camden, Alabama. Camden, Tennessee was named for the battle, and Camden, Arkansas took its name from the town in Alabama. Furthermore, Pratt Street, a major thoroughfare in Baltimore, is also named partially after him.
Cases
Chapman v Pickersgill (1762) 2 Wilson 145, 146, "I wish never to hear this objection again. This action is for a tort: torts are infinitely various; not limited or confined, for there is nothing in nature but may be an instrument of mischief".
Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030, right to security and property without arbitrary official interference
Donaldson v Beckett 98 ER 257 (1774)
References
Bibliography
Campbell, J. L. (1851a) Life of Lord Chancellor Camden from his Birth till the Death of George II, Blanchard & Lea
— (1851b) Continuation of the Life of Lord Chancellor Camden till he became and Ex-Chancellor, Blanchard & Lea
Eeles, H. S. (1934) Lord Chancellor Camden and his Family
(Google Books)
Thomas, P. D. G. (2008) "Pratt, Charles, first Earl Camden (1714–1794)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, online edn, accessed 15 February 2008
1714 births
1794 deaths
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Attorneys General for England and Wales
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Chief Justices of the Common Pleas
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
English knights
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Lord chancellors of Great Britain
Lord Presidents of the Council
Whig members of the Parliament of Great Britain
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
People from Kensington
Whig (British political party) MPs for English constituencies
People educated at Eton College
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Greenleaf%20Whittier
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John Greenleaf Whittier
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John Greenleaf Whittier (December 17, 1807 – September 7, 1892) was an American Quaker poet and advocate of the abolition of slavery in the United States. Frequently listed as one of the fireside poets, he was influenced by the Scottish poet Robert Burns. Whittier is remembered particularly for his anti-slavery writings, as well as his 1866 book Snow-Bound.
Early life and education
Whittier was born to John and Abigail ( Hussey) Whittier at their rural homestead in Haverhill, Massachusetts, on December 17, 1807. His middle name is thought to mean feuillevert, after his Huguenot forebears. He grew up on the farm in a household with his parents, a brother and two sisters, a maternal aunt and paternal uncle, and a constant flow of visitors and hired hands for the farm. As a boy, it was discovered that Whittier was color-blind when he was unable to see a difference between ripe and unripe strawberries.
The farm was not very profitable, and there was only enough money to get by. Whittier himself was not cut out for hard farm labor and suffered from bad health and physical frailty his whole life. Although he received little formal education, he was an avid reader who studied his father's six books on Quakerism until their teachings became the foundation of his ideology. Whittier was heavily influenced by the doctrines of his religion, particularly its stress on humanitarianism, compassion, and social responsibility.
Career
Whittier was first introduced to poetry by a teacher. His sister Mary Whittier sent his first poem, "The Deity", to the Newburyport Free Press without his permission, and its editor, William Lloyd Garrison, published it on June 8, 1826. Garrison as well as another local editor encouraged Whittier to attend the recently opened Haverhill Academy. To raise money to attend the school, Whittier became a shoemaker for a time, and a deal was made to pay part of his tuition with food from the family farm. Before his second term, he earned money to cover tuition by serving as a teacher in a one-room schoolhouse in what is now Merrimac, Massachusetts. He attended Haverhill Academy from 1827 to 1828 and completed a high school education in only two terms.
Whittier received the first substantial public praise for his work from critic John Neal via Neal's magazine The Yankee in 1828. Whittier valued the opinion of the older and more established writer, pledging that if Neal did not like his writing, "I will quit poetry, and everything also of a literary nature, for I am sick at heart of the business." In an 1829 letter, Neal told Whittier to "Persevere, and I am sure you will have your reward in every way." Reading Neal's 1828 novel Rachel Dyer inspired Whittier to weave New England witchcraft lore into his own stories and poems.
Garrison gave Whittier the job of editor of the National Philanthropist, a Boston-based temperance weekly. Shortly after a change in management, Garrison reassigned him as editor of the weekly American Manufacturer in Boston. Whittier became an outspoken critic of President Andrew Jackson, and by 1830 was editor of the prominent New England Weekly Review in Hartford, Connecticut, the most influential Whig journal in New England. He published "The Song of the Vermonters, 1779" anonymously in The New-England Magazine in 1838. The poem was mistakenly attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years. Whittier acknowledged his authorship in 1858.
Abolitionist activity
During the 1830s, Whittier became interested in politics, but after losing a congressional election at age 25, he suffered a nervous breakdown and returned home. The year 1833 was a turning point for Whittier; he resurrected his correspondence with Garrison, and the passionate abolitionist began to encourage the young Quaker to join his cause.
In 1833, Whittier published the antislavery pamphlet Justice and Expediency, and from there dedicated the next twenty years of his life to the abolitionist cause. The controversial pamphlet destroyed all of his political hopes, as his demand for immediate emancipation alienated both Northern businessmen and Southern slaveholders, but it also sealed his commitment to a cause that he deemed morally correct and socially necessary. He was a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society and signed the Anti-Slavery Declaration of 1833, which he often considered the most significant action of his life.
Whittier's political skill made him useful as a lobbyist, and his willingness to badger anti-slavery congressional leaders into joining the abolitionist cause was invaluable. From 1835 to 1838, he traveled widely in the North, attending conventions, securing votes, speaking to the public, and lobbying politicians. As he did so, Whittier received his fair share of violent responses, being several times mobbed, stoned, and run out of town.
From 1838 to 1840, he was editor of the Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia, one of the leading antislavery papers in the North, formerly known as the National Enquirer. In May 1838, the publication moved its offices to the newly opened Pennsylvania Hall on North Sixth Street, which was shortly after burned by a pro-slavery mob. Whittier continued to write poetry, and nearly all of his poems then dealt with the problem of slavery.
In 1838, Charles G. Atherton of New Hampshire presented five resolutions that were adopted and created a new resolution that barred Congress from discussing petitions that mentioned bringing slavery to an end. Congress approved them on December 12, 1838, which became known as the "Atherton Gag"; Whittier referred to Atherton in one of his many abolition poems as "vile" by having allied himself so closely with his fellow Democrats from pro-slavery South. It was not until 1844 the House rescinded that gag rule on a motion made by John Quincy Adams.
By the end of the 1830s, the unity of the abolitionist movement had begun to fracture. Whittier stuck to his belief that moral action apart from political effort was futile. He knew that success required legislative change, not merely moral suasion. That opinion alone engendered a bitter split from Garrison, and Whittier went on to become a founding member of the Liberty Party in 1839. In 1840, he attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. By 1843, he was announcing the triumph of the fledgling party: "Liberty party is no longer an experiment. It is vigorous reality, exerting... a powerful influence." Whittier unsuccessfully encouraged Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to join the party. He took editing jobs with the Middlesex Standard in Lowell, Massachusetts, and the Essex Transcript in Amesbury until 1844. While in Lowell, he met Lucy Larcom, who became a lifelong friend.
In 1845, he began writing his essay "The Black Man" which included an anecdote about John Fountain, a free black who was jailed in Virginia for helping slaves to escape. After his release, Fountain went on a speaking tour and thanked Whittier for writing his story.
Around then, the stresses of editorial duties, worsening health, and dangerous mob violence caused Whittier to have a physical breakdown. He went home to Amesbury and remained there for the rest of his life, ending his active participation in abolition. Even so, he continued to believe that the best way to gain abolitionist support was to broaden the Liberty Party's political appeal, and Whittier persisted in advocating the addition of other issues to its platform. He eventually participated in the evolution of the Liberty Party into the Free Soil Party, and some say his greatest political feat was convincing Charles Sumner to run on the Free-Soil ticket for the U.S. Senate in 1850.
Beginning in 1847, Whittier was the editor of Gamaliel Bailey's The National Era, one of the most influential abolitionist newspapers in the North. For the next ten years, it featured the best of his writing, both as prose and poetry. Being confined to his home and away from the action offered Whittier a chance to write better abolitionist poetry, and he was even poet laureate for his party. Whittier's poems often used slavery to represent all kinds of oppression (physical, spiritual, economic), and his poems stirred up popular response because they appealed to feelings, rather than logic.
Whittier produced two collections of antislavery poetry: Poems Written during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States, between 1830 and 1838 and Voices of Freedom (1846).
Civil War years
He was an elector in the presidential election of 1860 and of 1864 for Abraham Lincoln both times. In the months leading up to the American Civil War, Whittier built a strong national audience. In January 1861, The Atlantic Monthly, which had previous spurned his poetry, praised him for his "keen and discriminating love of right" and his "love of freedom".
In 1864, the North American Review responded to Whittier's collection In War Time, and Other Poems, by calling him "on the whole, the most American of all our poets, and there is a fire of warlike patriotism in him that burns all the more intensely that is smothered by his [Quaker] creed".
The passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 ended both slavery and his public cause, and so Whittier turned to other forms of poetry for the remainder of his life.
Later life
One of his most enduring works, Snow-Bound, was first published in 1866. Whittier was surprised by its financial success; he earned $10,000 from the first edition. In 1867, Whittier asked James T. Fields to get him a ticket to a reading by Charles Dickens during the British author's visit to the United States. After the event, Whittier wrote a letter describing his experience:
He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1870.
Whittier spent the last winters of his life, from 1876 to 1892, at Oak Knoll, the home of his cousins in Danvers, Massachusetts.
Whittier spent the summer of 1892 at the home of a cousin in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire, where he wrote his last poem (a tribute to Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.) and where he was captured in a final photograph. He died at this home on September 7, 1892, and was buried in Amesbury, Massachusetts.
Poetry
Whittier's first two published books were Legends of New England (1831) and the poem Moll Pitcher (1832). In 1833 he published The Song of the Vermonters, 1779, which he had anonymously inserted in The New England Magazine. The poem was erroneously attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years. This use of poetry in the service of his political beliefs is illustrated by his book Poems Written during the Progress of the Abolition Question.
Highly regarded in his lifetime and for a period thereafter, he is now largely remembered for his anti-slavery writings and his poems Barbara Frietchie, "The Barefoot Boy", "Maud Muller" and Snow-Bound.
A number of his poems have been turned into hymns, including Dear Lord and Father of Mankind, taken from his poem "The Brewing of Soma". The latter part of the poem was set in 1924 by Dr. George Gilbert Stocks to the tune of Repton by English composer Hubert Parry from the 1888 oratorio Judith. It is also sung as the hymn Rest by Frederick Maker, and Charles Ives also set a part of it to music in his song "Serenity".
Whittier's Quakerism is better illustrated, however, by the hymn that begins:
His sometimes contrasting sense of the need for strong action against injustice can be seen in his poem "To Rönge" in honor of Johannes Ronge, the German religious figure and rebel leader of the 1848 rebellion in Germany:
Whittier's "At Port Royal 1861" describes the experience of Northern abolitionists arriving at Port Royal, South Carolina, as teachers and missionaries for the slaves who had been left behind when their owners fled because the Union Navy would arrive to blockade the coast. The poem includes the "Song of the Negro Boatmen," written in dialect:
Of all the poetry inspired by the Civil War, the "Song of the Negro Boatmen" was one of the most widely printed, and, although Whittier never actually visited Port Royal, an abolitionist working there described his "Song of the Negro Boatmen" as "wonderfully applicable as we were being rowed across Hilton Head Harbor among United States gunboats."
Criticism
Nathaniel Hawthorne dismissed Whittier's Literary Recreations and Miscellanies (1854): "Whittier's book is poor stuff! I like the man, but have no high opinion either of his poetry or his prose." Editor George Ripley, however, found Whittier's poetry refreshing and said it had a "stately movement of versification, grandeur of imagery, a vein of tender and solemn pathos, cheerful trust" and a "pure and ennobling character". Boston critic Edwin Percy Whipple noted Whittier's moral and ethical tone mingled with sincere emotion. He wrote, "In reading this last volume, I feel as if my soul had taken a bath in holy water." Later scholars and critics questioned the depth of Whittier's poetry. One was Karl Keller, who noted, "Whittier has been a writer to love, not to belabor."
Influence and legacy
Whittier was particularly supportive of women writers, including Alice Cary, Phoebe Cary, Sarah Orne Jewett, Lucy Larcom, and Celia Thaxter. He was especially influential on prose writings by Jewett, with whom he shared a belief in the moral quality of literature and an interest in New England folklore. Jewett dedicated one of her books to him and modeled several of her characters after people in Whittier's life.
Whittier's family farm, known as the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead or simply "Whittier's Birthplace", is now a historic site open to the public. His later residence in Amesbury, where he lived for 56 years, is also open to the public, and is now known as the John Greenleaf Whittier Home. Whittier's hometown of Haverhill has named many buildings and landmarks in his honor including J.G. Whittier Middle School, Greenleaf Elementary, and Whittier Regional Vocational Technical High School. Numerous other schools around the country also bear his name.
The John Greenleaf Whittier Bridge, built in the style of the Sagamore and Bourne bridges, carries Interstate 95 from Amesbury to Newburyport over the Merrimack River. A covered bridge spanning the Bearcamp River in Ossipee, New Hampshire, is also named for Whittier.
The city of Whittier, California, is named after the poet, as are the communities of Whittier, Alaska, and Whittier, Iowa; the Minneapolis neighborhood of Whittier; the Whittier neighborhoods of Denver and Boulder, Colorado, as well as a school and a park there. Both Whittier College and Whittier Law School are named after him. A park in the Saint Boniface area of Winnipeg is named after the poet in recognition of his poem "The Red River Voyageur". Whittier Education Campus in Washington, DC, is named in his honor. SS Whittier Victory a World War 2 ship named after Whittier College. Whittier Peak and Mount Whittier in Washington and Mount Whittier in New Hampshire are mountains named after him.
The alternate history story P.'s Correspondence (1846) by Nathaniel Hawthorne, considered the first such story ever published in English, includes the notice "Whittier, a fiery Quaker youth, to whom the muse had perversely assigned a battle-trumpet, got himself lynched, in South Carolina". The date of that event in Hawthorne's invented timeline was 1835.
Whittier was one of thirteen writers in the 1897 card game Authors, which referenced his writings "Laus Deo", "Among the Hills", Snow-bound, and "The Eternal Goodness". He was removed from the card game when it was reissued in 1987.
Whitter's poem "Twilight" was set to music in 1932 by Edwin Fowles.
In 2020, a statue previously erected in his honor in Whittier, California, was defaced with antislavery and Black Lives Matter slogans by vandals. He had never owned slaves.
List of works
Poetry collections
Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States (1837)
Lays of My Home (1843)
Voices of Freedom (1846)
Songs of Labor (1850)
The Chapel of the Hermits (1853)
Le Marais du Cygne (September 1858 Atlantic Monthly)
Home Ballads (1860)
The Furnace Blast (1862)
Maud Muller (1856)
In War Time (1864)
Snow-Bound (1866)
The Tent on the Beach (1867)
Among the Hills (1869)
Ballads of New England (1870)
Whittier's Poems Complete (1874)
The Pennsylvania Pilgrim (1872)
The Vision of Echard (1878)
The King's Missive (1881)
Saint Gregory's Guest (1886)
At Sundown (1890)
Prose
The Stranger in Lowell (1845)
The Supernaturalism of New England (1847)
Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal (1849)
Old Portraits and Modern Sketches (1850)
Literary Recreations and Miscellanies (1854)
Notes
Sources
Laurie, Bruce. Beyond Garrison: Antislavery and Social Reform. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Wagenknecht, Edward. John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Woodwell, Roland H. John Greenleaf Whittier: A Biography. Haverhill, Massachusetts: Trustees of the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead, 1985.
Further reading
Pickard, John B. John Greenleaf Whittier: An Introduction and Interpretation. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1961.
External links
"Reminiscences of the Poet Whittier", Part 1 in May 1895 edition of The Bookman (New York)
"Reminiscences of the Poet Whittier", Part 2 in June 1895 edition of The Bookman (New York)
Letters and papers
John Greenleaf Whittier letters. Available online through Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera.
John Greenleaf Whittier Manuscript Collection held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College
John G. Whittier Photograph Collection held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College
John Greenleaf Whittier letterbook held by Haverford College Quaker & Special Collections
John Greenleaf Whittier Research Papers held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College
Sites
Whittier Family Homestead and Birthplace of John Greenleaf Whittier
John Greenleaf Whittier Home, Amesbury, Massachusetts
1807 births
1892 deaths
19th-century American poets
American abolitionists
American Quakers
Massachusetts Libertyites
Massachusetts Republicans
People from Haverhill, Massachusetts
Whittier, California
Writers from Massachusetts
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Burials in Massachusetts
American male poets
19th-century American male writers
Whittier College
Quaker abolitionists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Ryan
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Leo Ryan
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Leo Joseph Ryan Jr. (May 5, 1925 – November 18, 1978) was an American teacher and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as the U.S. representative from California's 11th congressional district from 1973 until his assassination during the Jonestown massacre in 1978. Before that, he served in the California State Assembly, representing the state's 27th district.
After the 1965 Watts riots, Ryan took a job as a substitute school teacher to investigate and document conditions in the Los Angeles area. In 1970, he launched an investigation into California prisons. While presiding as chairman of the Assembly committee that oversaw prison reform, he used a pseudonym to enter Folsom State Prison as an inmate. During his time in Congress, Ryan traveled to Newfoundland to investigate the practice of seal hunting. He was also known for his vocal criticism of the lack of congressional oversight of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and co-authored the Hughes–Ryan Amendment, passed in 1974, which requires the president of the United States to report covert CIA activity to Congress.
In 1978, Ryan traveled to Guyana to investigate claims that people were being held against their will at the Peoples Temple Jonestown settlement. He was shot and killed at an airstrip on November 18, as he and his party were attempting to leave. Shortly after the airstrip shootings, 909 members of the Jonestown settlement died in a mass murder–suicide by drinking cyanide-laced Flavor Aid. Ryan was the second sitting member of the U.S. House of Representatives to be assassinated in office, after James M. Hinds in 1868.
Ryan was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1983.
Early life and education
Ryan was born in Lincoln, Nebraska. During his early life his family moved frequently, through Illinois, Florida, New York, Wisconsin, and Massachusetts. Ryan graduated from Campion Jesuit High School in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, in 1943. He then received V-12 officer training at Bates College and served with the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946 as a submariner.
Ryan graduated from Nebraska's Creighton University with a B.A. in 1949 and an M.S. in 1951. He served as a teacher, school administrator and South San Francisco city councilman from 1956 to 1962. He taught English at Capuchino High School, and chaperoned the marching band in 1961 to Washington, D.C., to participate in President John F. Kennedy's inaugural parade. Ryan was inspired by Kennedy's call to service in his inaugural address and decided to run for higher office.
Career
State of California
In 1962 Ryan was elected mayor of South San Francisco. He served less than a year before being elected to the California State Assembly, winning the 27th district race by 20,000 votes. He had run for the Assembly's 25th district in 1958, but lost to Republican Louis Francis. Ryan served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1964 and 1968 and held his Assembly seat until 1972, when he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. He was reelected three times.
Ryan aide Jackie Speier, who later served in Congress, described Ryan's style of investigation as "experiential legislating". After the Watts riots of 1965, Ryan went to the area and took a job as a substitute school teacher to investigate and document conditions there. In 1970, using a pseudonym, Ryan had himself arrested, detained, and strip-searched to investigate conditions in California's prisons. He stayed for ten days as an inmate at Folsom State Prison while presiding as chairman on the Assembly committee that oversaw prison reform.
As a California assemblyman, Ryan also chaired legislative subcommittee hearings and presided over hearings involving Tom Lantos, his eventual successor in the House. Ryan pushed through significant educational policies and authored what came to be known as the Ryan Act, which established an independent regulatory commission to monitor educational credentialing in California.
United States Congress
During his time in Congress, Ryan went to Newfoundland with James Jeffords to investigate the inhumane killing of seals, and became famous for his vocal criticism of the lack of Congressional oversight of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), authoring the Hughes–Ryan Amendment, which would have required extensive CIA notification of Congress about covert operations. Ryan once told Dick Cheney that leaking a state secret was an appropriate way for a member of Congress to block an "ill-conceived operation". He supported Patty Hearst, and along with Senator S. I. Hayakawa, delivered Hearst's application for a presidential commutation to the Pardon Attorney.
Peoples Temple
First investigations
In 1978, reports of widespread abuse and human rights violations in Jonestown at the Peoples Temple, led by cult leader Jim Jones, began to filter out of its Guyana enclaves. Ryan was friends with the father of former Temple member Bob Houston, whose mutilated body was found near train tracks on October 5, 1976, three days after a taped telephone conversation with Houston's ex-wife in which they discussed his leaving the Temple. Ryan's interest was further aroused by the custody battle between the leader of a "Concerned Relatives" group, Timothy Stoen, and Jones following a Congressional "white paper" by Stoen detailing the events. Ryan was one of 91 congressmen to write Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham on Stoen's behalf.
After reading an article in The San Francisco Examiner, Ryan declared his intention to go to Jonestown, an agricultural commune in Guyana where Jones and roughly 1,000 Temple members resided. His decision was also influenced both by the Concerned Relatives group, which consisted primarily of Californians, as did the Temple, and by his own distaste for social injustice. According to the San Francisco Chronicle, while he investigated, the United States Department of State "repeatedly stonewalled Ryan's attempts to find out what was going on in Jonestown" and told him that "everything was fine".
The State Department characterized possible United States government action in Guyana against Jonestown as a potential "legal controversy", but Ryan at least partially rejected this viewpoint. In a later article in The Chronicle, Ryan was described as having "bucked the local Democratic establishment and the Jimmy Carter administration's State Department" in order to prepare for his own investigation.
Travel to Jonestown
In November 1978, Ryan led an investigative delegation to Jonestown as part of a government investigation, with governmental permission and funding, in his role as chair of a congressional subcommittee with jurisdiction over U.S. citizens living in foreign countries. He asked the other members of the Bay Area congressional delegation to join him on the trip to Jonestown, but they all declined. Ryan also invited his friend, Indiana Congressman and future Vice President Dan Quayle, who had served with Ryan on the Government Operations Committee, but Quayle was unable to go.
The investigative group was initially to consist only of press and a few members of Ryan's staff, but once the media learned of the trip the entourage ballooned to include, among others, concerned relatives of Temple members. Ryan traveled to Jonestown with 17 Bay Area relatives of Peoples Temple members, several newspaper reporters and an NBC TV team. When Jones's legal counsel attempted to impose restrictive conditions on the visit, Ryan responded that he would go to Jonestown whether Jones permitted it or not. Ryan's stated position was that a "settlement deep in the bush might be reasonably run on authoritarian lines" but that its residents must be allowed to come and go as they pleased. He further asserted that if the place had become "a gulag", he would do everything he could to "free the captives".
On November 14, Ryan left Washington and arrived in Georgetown, the capital of Guyana, from Jonestown, with his congressional delegation of government officials, media representatives and some members of the "Concerned Relatives".
That night the delegation stayed at a local hotel where, despite confirmed reservations, most of the rooms had been canceled and reassigned, leaving the delegation to sleep in the lobby. For three days, Ryan continued to negotiate with Jones's legal counsel and held perfunctory meetings with embassy personnel and Guyanese officials.
While in Georgetown, Ryan visited the Temple's Georgetown headquarters in the suburb of Lamaha Gardens. He asked to speak to Jones by radio. Sharon Amos, the highest-ranking Temple member present, told Ryan that he could not, because his visit was unscheduled. On November 17, Ryan's aide Jackie Speier (who became a Congresswoman in 2008), the United States embassy Deputy Chief of Mission Richard Dwyer, a Guyanese Ministry of Information officer, nine journalists, and four Concerned Relatives representatives of the delegation boarded a small plane for the flight to Port Kaituma Airport, a few miles outside of Jonestown.
At first, only the Temple legal counsel was allowed off the plane, but eventually the entire entourage, including Gordon Lindsay, reporting for NBC, was allowed in. Initially, the group was warmly welcomed, but Temple member Vernon Gosney handed NBC correspondent Don Harris (mistaking him for Ryan) a note that read "Vernon Gosney and (Temple member) Monica Bagby: please help us get out of Jonestown". Jones was made aware of the note, and Gosney tried and failed to impress upon Ryan the extreme danger that his delegation was now in.
That night the media and the delegation returned to the airfield for accommodations after Jones refused to let them stay the night. The rest of the group remained. The next morning, Ryan, Speier, and Dwyer continued their interviews, and met a woman who secretly expressed her wish to leave Jonestown with her family and another family. Around 11:00 a.m., the media and the delegation returned and took part in interviewing Peoples Temple members. Around 3:00 p.m., 14 Temple defectors, and Larry Layton posing as a defector, boarded a truck and were taken to the airstrip, with Ryan wishing to stay another night to assist any others who wanted to leave. Shortly thereafter, a knife attack on Ryan failed while he was arbitrating a family dispute on leaving. Against Ryan's protests, Dwyer ordered Ryan to leave, but he promised to return later to address the dispute.
Jungle ambush and assassination
The entire group left Jonestown and arrived at the Kaituma airstrip by 4:45 p.m. Their exit transport planes, a twin-engine Otter and a Cessna, did not arrive until 5:10 p.m. The smaller six-seat Cessna was taxiing to the end of the runway when one of its occupants, Larry Layton, opened fire on those inside, wounding several.
Concurrently, several other Peoples Temple members who had escorted the group out began to open fire on the transport plane, killing Ryan, three journalists and a defecting Temple member, while wounding nine others, including Speier. The gunmen riddled Ryan's body with over 20 bullets before shooting him in the face. The passengers on the Cessna subdued Layton and the survivors on both planes fled into nearby fields during and after the attack.
That afternoon, before the news became public, the wife of Ryan's aide William Holsinger received three threatening phone calls. The caller allegedly said, "Tell your husband that his meal ticket just had his brains blown out, and he better be careful." The Holsingers then fled to Lake Tahoe and later Houston.
After taking off, the Cessna radioed in a report of the attack, and U.S. Ambassador John R. Burke went to the residence of Prime Minister Burnham. It was not until the next morning that the Guyanese army could cut through the jungle and reach Jonestown. They discovered 909 of its inhabitants dead. They died in what the United States House of Representatives described as a "mass suicide/murder ritual".
Conviction of Larry Layton
Larry Layton (born January 11, 1946), brother of Deborah Layton, a former Peoples Temple member and author of Seductive Poison, was convicted in 1986 of conspiracy in Ryan's murder. Temple defectors boarding the truck to Port Kaituma had said of Layton that "there's no way he's a defector. He's too close to Jones." Layton was the only former Temple member to be tried in the United States for criminal acts relating to the murders at Jonestown. He was convicted on four different murder-related counts.
On March 3, 1987, Layton was sentenced to concurrent sentences of life in prison for "aiding and abetting the murder of Congressman Leo Ryan", "conspiracy to murder an internationally protected person, Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission for the United States in the Republic of Guyana", as well as 15 years in prison on other related counts. He was eligible for parole in five years. On June 3, 1987, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California denied Layton's motion to set aside the conviction "on the ground that he was denied the effective assistance of counsel during his second trial". After 18 years in prison, Layton was released from custody in April 2002.
Memorial
Veterans for Peace Chapter 124 was named the Leo J. Ryan Memorial chapter.
Burial
Ryan's body was returned to the United States and interred at Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno, California. His official Congressional Memorial Services were compiled into a book, Leo J. Ryan – Memorial Services – Held In The House Of Representatives & Senate Of The U.S., Together With Remarks. Ryan's younger sister Shannon said she was surprised both by the number of supporters who attended the funeral and by the "outgrowth of real, honest sorrow".
Legacy and honors
In 1983, the United States Congress posthumously awarded Ryan a Congressional Gold Medal, as the only member of Congress killed in the line of duty; President Ronald Reagan signed the bill. In Reagan's remarks about the medal, he said: "It was typical of Leo Ryan's concern for his constituents that he would investigate personally the rumors of mistreatment in Jonestown that reportedly affected so many from his district." Ryan's daughters Patricia and Erin helped garner support for the medal in time for the fifth anniversary of his death.
In 1984, the National Archives and Records Center in San Bruno, California was named the Leo J. Ryan Federal Building in his honor, through a Congressional bill passed unanimously and signed by Reagan.
In 1998, Jackie Speier, Ryan's former aide, was elected to the California State Senate. In 2008, she won a special election to the US Congress from California's 12th congressional district, much of it formerly Ryan's constituency. Since 2013, it has been the state's 14th congressional district.
Daughters
Shannon Jo Ryan (born 1952), Ryan's eldest daughter, joined the Rajneesh movement. After the Bhagwan moved to Oregon in 1981, she joined his commune, which became known as Rajneeshpuram. Taking the name Ma Amrita Pritam, by December 1982 she had married another member, who also lived at the commune.
Patricia Ryan (born 1953) received her master's degree in public administration from George Washington University in Washington, D.C., and served from 2001 to 2012 as executive director of the California Mental Health Directors Association (now the County Behavioral Health Directors Association of California). During the 1980s she became involved as a volunteer and eventually served as president of the board of the national Cult Awareness Network.
Erin Ryan (born 1958) graduated from University of California, Hastings College of the Law and worked as an intelligence analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency until 1992. She next worked in New York as a pastry chef for eight years. In 2000, Erin Ryan became an aide to her father's former aide, California Senator Jackie Speier.
Anniversaries
On the 25th anniversary of Ryan's death, a special memorial tribute was held in his honor in Foster City, California. His family and friends, including his three daughters and Jackie Speier, attended. The San Francisco Chronicle reported, "Over and over today, people described a great man who continually exceeded his constituents' expectations."
Near the end of the memorial service, parents of those who had died in Jonestown stood to honor and thank Ryan for giving his life while trying to save their children. After the service ended, mounted police escorted the family and friends into Foster City's Leo J. Ryan Memorial Park. A wreath was laid next to a commemorative rock that honors Ryan.
The same year, his daughter Erin Ryan, an aide to Speier, attended a memorial for those who died at Jonestown, held at the Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland. On each anniversary of Leo Ryan's death, Jackie Speier and Patricia Ryan visit his grave at the Golden Gate National Cemetery.
For the 30th anniversary, Speier sponsored a bill to designate the United States Postal Service facility at 210 South Ellsworth Avenue in San Mateo, California, the "Leo J. Ryan Post Office Building". President George W. Bush signed it into law on October 21, 2008. On November 17, 2008, Speier spoke at the dedication ceremony at the post office. In part, she said,
There are those – still, thirty years after his passing – who question his motives, or the wisdom of his actions. But criticism was just fine with Leo. Leo Ryan never did anything because he thought it would make him popular. He was more interested in doing what he knew was right.
In popular culture
Ryan has been portrayed in films about the Jonestown mass murder/suicide, including by actor Gene Barry in the 1979 film Guyana: Crime of the Century, and by Ned Beatty in the 1980 made-for-TV miniseries Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones.
His assassination was discussed in the documentaries Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple (2006), on The History Channel documentaries Cults: Dangerous Devotion and Jonestown: Paradise Lost (2006), and the MSNBC production Witness to Jonestown (2008), which aired on the 30th anniversary of Ryan's assassination and the mass suicides at Jonestown. In 2012, National Geographic's Seconds From Disaster aired the sixth-season episode "Jonestown Cult Suicide", which recreated Ryan's assassination.
Electoral history
Source
1978 election for U.S. House of Representatives (CD 11)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 60.5%
Dave Welch (R), 35.6%
Nicholas W. Kudrovzeff (American Independent) 3.9%
1976 election for U.S. House of Representatives (CD 11)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 61.1%
Bob Jones (R), 35.4%
Nicholas W. Kudrovzeff (American Independent) 3.5%
1974 election for U.S. House of Representatives (CD 11)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 75.8%
Brainard G. "Bee" Merdinger (R), 21.3%
Nicholas W. Kudrovzeff (American Independent) 2.9%
1972 election for U.S. House of Representatives (CD 11)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 60.4%
Charles E. Chase (R), 37%
Nicholas W. Kudrovzeff (American Independent) 2.6%
1970 Race for California State Assembly (AD 27)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 73.2%
John R. Sherman (R), 23.1%
John Lynch (American Independent) 3.8%
1968 election for California State Assembly (AD 27)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 99.8%
Will Slocum (I), 0.2%
1966 election for California State Assembly (AD 27)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 56.9%
Robert N. Miller (R), 43.1%
1964 election for California State Assembly (AD 27)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 69%
Andrew C. Byrd (R), 31%
1962 election for California State Assembly (AD 27)
Leo J. Ryan (D), 63.5%
Andrew C. Byrd (R), 36.5%
1958 election for California State Assembly (AD 25)
Louis Francis (R), 50.6%
Leo J. Ryan (D), 49.4%
Published works
Books
USA/From Where We Stand: Readings in Contemporary American Problems, paperback book, Fearon Publishers (1970)
Understanding California Government and Politics, 152 pages, Fearon Publishers (1966)
Congressional reports
NATO, pressures from the southern tier: report of a study mission to Europe, August 5–27, 1975, pursuant to H. Res. 315, 22 pages, published by United States Government Print Office, 1975
Vietnam and Korea: Human rights and U.S. assistance: a study mission report of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 15 pages, published by United States Government Print Office, 1975
The United States oil shortage and the Arab-Israeli conflict: report of a study mission to the Middle East from October 22 to November 3, 1973, 76 pages, published by United States Government Print Office, 1973
See also
Cult § Destructive cults
List of assassinated American politicians
List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients
List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office
List of United States Congress members who died in office
Notes
References
Further reading
Biography, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Congressional Gold Medal, Text of the act issuing the Congressional Gold Medal and an FBI report summary as well as an article on both Jones and his involvement and the investigation
, 2003, Press release from Rep. Tom Lantos, California 12th Congressional District
External links
JoinCalifornia, Election History for the State of California
Congressman Leo J Ryan Memorial Page, hosted by Arnaldo Lerma
Leo J Ryan Memorial park in Foster City, California
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1925 births
1978 deaths
1978 murders in Guyana
20th-century American politicians
American people murdered abroad
Assassinated American politicians
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Burials at Golden Gate National Cemetery
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Creighton University alumni
Critics of Scientology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Tripoli
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Treaty of Tripoli
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The Treaty of Tripoli (Treaty of Peace and Friendship between the United States of America and the Bey and Subjects of Tripoli of Barbary) was signed in 1796. It was the first treaty between the United States and Tripoli (now Libya) to secure commercial shipping rights and protect American ships in the Mediterranean Sea from local Barbary pirates.
It was authored by Joel Barlow, an ardent Jeffersonian republican, and signed in Tripoli on November 4, 1796, and at Algiers (for a third-party witness) on January 3, 1797. It was ratified by the United States Senate unanimously without debate on June 7, 1797, taking effect June 10, 1797, with the signature of President John Adams. The treaty was broken by Tripoli, leading to the First Barbary War. A superseding treaty, the Treaty of Peace and Amity, was signed on June 4, 1805.
The Treaty is often cited in discussions regarding the role of religion in United States government for a clause in Article 11 of the English language American version which states that "the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion."
Barbary pirates
For three centuries up to the time of the Treaty, the Mediterranean Sea lanes had been preyed on by the North African Muslim states of the Barbary Coast (Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco and Tunis) through privateering (government-sanctioned piracy). Hostages captured by the Barbary pirates were either ransomed or forced into slavery, contributing to the greater Ottoman slave trade (of which the Barbary states were a segment). Life for the captives often was harsh, especially for Christian captives, and many died from their treatment.
Before the American Revolution (1775–1783), the British colonies in North America were protected from the Barbary pirates by British warships of the Royal Navy and treaties. During the Revolution, the Kingdom of France formed an alliance with the former British colonies in 1778, now the proclaimed independent United States of America and assumed the responsibility of providing protection of U.S. merchant ships in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic Ocean against the Barbary pirates with the French Navy. After the Revolutionary War ended and the new United States won its independence with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), it had to face the threat of the Barbary pirates on its own. Two American ships were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery, their ransom set at $60,000. A rumor that Benjamin Franklin, who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time, had been captured by Barbary pirates, caused considerable upset in the U.S. With the disbanding of the former Continental Navy and the selling of its last warship by the Confederation Congress in 1785, now without a standing navy, much less a navy capable of projecting force across an ocean, the U.S. was forced to pay tribute monies and goods to the Barbary nations for the security of its ships and the freedom of its captured citizens. As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800, "It is a maxim of the Barbary States, that 'The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well.'"
Soon after the formation of the United States, privateering in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the nations of the Barbary Coast prompted the U.S. to initiate a series of so-called peace treaties, collectively known as the Barbary Treaties. Individual treaties were negotiated with Morocco (1786), Algiers (1795), Tripoli (1797) and Tunis (1797), all of them more than once. The United States consul-general to the Barbary states of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis was Joel Barlow, who dealt with the text of various treaties (including the Treaty of Tripoli) and supported U.S. diplomatic efforts on the Barbary Coast. Commissioner Plenipotentiary (and Minister to the Kingdom of Spain in Madrid) of the United States, David Humphreys, was given the right to establish a treaty with Tripoli and assigned Joel Barlow and Joseph Donaldson to broker it. It was Joel Barlow who certified the signatures on the Arabic original and the English copy provided to him. Later, Captain Richard O'Brien, USN established the original transport of the negotiated goods along with the Treaty, but it was the American Consul James Leander Cathcart who delivered the final requirements of payment for the treaty.
Signing and ratification
The first U.S. President, George Washington, appointed his old colleague David Humphreys as Commissioner Plenipotentiary on March 30, 1795, in order to negotiate a treaty with the Barbary powers. On February 10, 1796, Humphreys appointed Joel Barlow and Joseph Donaldson as "Junior Agents" to forge a "Treaty of Peace and Friendship". Under Humphreys' authority, the treaty was signed at Tripoli on November 4, 1796, and certified at Algiers on January 3, 1797. Humphreys reviewed the treaty and approved it in Lisbon on February 10, 1797.
The official treaty was in Arabic, and a translated version by Consul-General Barlow was ratified by the United States on June 10, 1797. Article 11 of the treaty was said to have not been part of the original Arabic version of the treaty; in its place is a letter from the Dey of Algiers to the Pasha of Tripoli. However, it is the English text which was ratified by Congress. Miller says, "the Barlow translation is that which was submitted to the Senate (American State Papers, Foreign Relations, II, 18–19) and which is printed in the Statutes at Large and in treaty collections generally; it is that English text which in the United States has always been deemed the text of the treaty."
The Treaty had spent seven months traveling from Tripoli to Algiers to Portugal and, finally westward across the North Atlantic Ocean, to the United States, and had been signed by officials at each stop along the way. There is no record of discussion or debate of the Treaty of Tripoli at the time that it was ratified. However, there is a statement made by President John Adams on the document that reads:
Now be it known, That I John Adams, President of the United States of America, having seen and considered the said Treaty do, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, accept, ratify, and confirm the same, and every clause and article thereof. And to the End that the said Treaty may be observed, and performed with good Faith on the part of the United States, I have ordered the premises to be made public; And I do hereby enjoin and require all persons bearing office civil or military within the United States, and all other citizens or inhabitants thereof, faithfully to observe and fulfill the said Treaty and every clause and article thereof.
Official records show that after President John Adams sent the treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification in May 1797, the entire treaty was read aloud on the Senate floor, and copies were printed for every Senator. A committee considered the treaty and recommended ratification. Twenty-three of the thirty-two sitting Senators were present for the June 7th vote which unanimously approved the ratification recommendation.
However, before anyone in the United States saw the Treaty, its required payments, in the form of goods and money, had been made in part. As Barlow declared: "The present writing done by our hand and delivered to the American Captain O'Brien makes known that he has delivered to us forty thousand Spanish dollars,-thirteen watches of gold, silver & pinsbach,-five rings, of which three of diamonds, one of saphire and one with a watch in it, One hundred & forty piques of cloth, and four caftans of brocade,-and these on account of the peace concluded with the Americans." However, this was an incomplete amount of goods stipulated under the treaty (according to the Pasha of Tripoli) and an additional $18,000 had to be paid by the American Consul James Leander Cathcart at his arrival on April 10, 1799.
It was not until these final goods were delivered that the Pasha of Tripoli recognized the Treaty as official. In Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America by David Hunter Miller, which is regarded as an authoritative collection of international agreements of the United States between 1776 and 1937, Hunter Miller describes, "While the original ratification remained in the hands of Cathcart ... it is possible that a copy thereof was delivered upon the settlement of April 10, 1799, and further possible that there was something almost in the nature of an exchange of ratifications of the treaty on or about April 10, 1799, the day of the agreed settlement." It is then that the Pasha declares in a Letter to John Adams on April 15, 1799, "Whereby we have consummated the Peace which shall, on our side, be inviolate, provided You are Willing to treat us as You do other Regencies, without any difference being made between Us. Which is the whole of what We have, at present, to say to You, wishing you at the same time the most unlimited prosperity."
Article 11
Article 11 has been and is a point of contention in popular culture disputes on the doctrine of separation of church and state as it applies to the founding principles of the United States. Some religious spokesmen claim that—despite unanimous ratification by the U.S. Senate of the text in English which contained —the page containing Article 11 is missing from the Arabic version of the treaty. The contemporaneous purpose of Article 11 was to make clear that the United States was a secular state and to reassure the Muslims that the agreement was not with an extension of earlier Christian nations that took part in the Crusades.
Article 11 reads:
Art. 11. As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquility, of Mussulmen (Muslims); and as the said States never entered into any war or act of hostility against any Mahometan (Mohammedan) nation, it is declared by the parties that no pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries.
According to Frank Lambert, Professor of History at Purdue University, the assurances in Article 11 were "intended to allay the fears of the Muslim state by insisting that religion would not govern how the treaty was interpreted and enforced. John Adams and the Senate made clear that the pact was between two sovereign states, not between two religious powers." Lambert writes,
By their actions, the Founding Fathers made clear that their primary concern was religious freedom, not the advancement of a state religion. Individuals, not the government, would define religious faith and practice in the United States. Thus the Founders ensured that in no official sense would America be a Christian Republic. Ten years after the Constitutional Convention ended its work, the country assured the world that the United States was a secular state, and that its negotiations would adhere to the rule of law, not the dictates of the Christian faith. The assurances were contained in the Treaty of Tripoli of 1797 and were intended to allay the fears of the Muslim state by insisting that religion would not govern how the treaty was interpreted and enforced. John Adams and the Senate made clear that the pact was between two sovereign states, not between two religious powers.
The treaty was printed in the Philadelphia Gazette and two New York papers, with only scant public dissent, most notably from William Cobbett.
Later dissent
A prominent member of Adams' cabinet, Secretary of War James McHenry, claimed that he protested the language of Article 11 before its ratification. He wrote to Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott Jr., September 26, 1800: "The Senate, my good friend, and I said so at the time, ought never to have ratified the treaty alluded to, with the declaration that 'the government of the United States, is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion.' What else is it founded on? This act always appeared to me like trampling upon the cross. I do not recollect that Barlow was even reprimanded for this outrage upon the government and religion."
Translation and Article 11
The translation of the Treaty of Tripoli by Barlow has been questioned, and it has been disputed whether Article 11 in the English version of the treaty ratified by the U.S. Senate corresponds to anything of the same purport in the Arabic version.
In 1931 Hunter Miller completed a commission by the United States government to analyze United States' treaties and to explain how they function and what they mean to the United States' legal position in relationship with the rest of the world. According to Hunter Miller's notes, "the Barlow translation is at best a poor attempt at a paraphrase or summary of the sense of the Arabic" and "Article 11 ... does not exist at all."
After comparing the United States' version by Barlow with the Arabic and the Italian version, Miller continues by claiming that:
The Arabic text which is between Articles 10 and 12 is in form a letter, crude and flamboyant and withal quite unimportant, from the Dey of Algiers to the Pasha of Tripoli. How that script came to be written and to be regarded, as in the Barlow translation, as Article 11 of the treaty as there written, is a mystery and seemingly must remain so. Nothing in the diplomatic correspondence of the time throws any light whatever on the point.
From this, Miller concludes: "A further and perhaps equal mystery is the fact that since 1797 the Barlow translation has been trustfully and universally accepted as the just equivalent of the Arabic ... yet evidence of the erroneous character of the Barlow translation has been in the archives of the Department of State since perhaps 1800 or thereabouts ..." However, as Miller noted:
It is to be remembered that the Barlow translation is that which was submitted to the Senate (American State Papers, Foreign Relations, II, 18–19) and which is printed in the Statutes at Large and in treaty collections generally; it is that English text which in the United States has always been deemed the text of the treaty.
However the Arabic and English texts differ, the Barlow translation (Article 11 included) was the text presented by the President and ratified unanimously in 1797 by the U.S. Senate following strict constitutional procedures. According to the American legal scholar Francis Wharton the original document was framed by an ex-Congregational preacher.
Barbary wars
The treaty was broken in 1801 by Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha of Tripoli, over President Thomas Jefferson's refusal to submit to the Pasha's demands for increased payments.
Through subsequent battles, Tripoli eventually agreed to terms of peace with the United States. Tobias Lear negotiated a second "Treaty of Peace and Amity" with the Pasha Yusuf on June 4, 1805. To the dismay of many Americans, the new settlement included a ransom of $60,000 (equal to $ today) paid for the release of prisoners from the USS Philadelphia and several U.S. merchant ships. By 1807, Algiers had gone back to taking U.S. ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812 and the war itself, the United States was unable to respond to the provocations until 1815, with the Second Barbary War, thereby concluding the First and the Second Barbary Wars (1800–1815).
References
External links
Treaties with The Barbary Powers: 1786–1836
1796 Treaty Text and Related Documents
Treaty – The 1930 Annotated Translation from Arabic
1805 Treaty Text and Related Documents
American State Papers, Senate, 5th Congress, 1st Session (scroll down)
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1796 treaties
1797 treaties
1796 in Africa
1797 in Africa
1796 in the Ottoman Empire
1797 in the Ottoman Empire
1796 in American law
1797 in the United States
Barbary Wars
Bilateral treaties of the United States
Bilateral treaties of the Ottoman Empire
Separation of church and state in the United States
Christianity and law in the 18th century
History of religion in the United States
History of Tripoli, Libya
5th United States Congress
Libya–United States relations
Ottoman Empire–United States relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonov%20An-225%20Mriya
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Antonov An-225 Mriya
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The Antonov An-225 Mriya (; NATO reporting name: Cossack) was a strategic airlift cargo aircraft designed and produced by the Antonov Design Bureau in the Soviet Union.
It was originally developed during the 1980s as an enlarged derivative of the Antonov An-124 airlifter for the express purpose of transporting Buran-class orbiters. On 21 December 1988, the An-225 performed its maiden flight; only one aircraft was ever completed, although a second airframe with a slightly different configuration was partially built. After a brief period of use supporting the Soviet space program, the aircraft was mothballed during the early 1990s. Towards the turn of the century, it was decided to refurbish the An-225 and reintroduce it for commercial operations, carrying oversized payloads for the operator Antonov Airlines. Multiple announcements were made regarding the potential completion of the second airframe, though its construction largely remained on hold due to a lack of funding. By 2009, it had reportedly been brought up to 60–70% completion.
With a maximum takeoff weight of , the An-225 held several records, including heaviest aircraft ever built and largest wingspan of any aircraft in operational service. It was commonly used to transport objects once thought impossible to move by air, such as 130-ton generators, wind turbine blades, and diesel locomotives. Additionally, both Chinese and Russian officials had announced separate plans to adapt the An-225 for use in their respective space programmes. The Mriya routinely attracted a high degree of public interest, attaining a global following due to its size and its uniqueness.
The only completed An-225 was destroyed in the Battle of Antonov Airport during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. On 20 May 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy announced plans to complete the second An-225 to replace the destroyed aircraft; Antonov announced plans to rebuild the destroyed aircraft in November 2022.
Development
Work on what would become the Antonov An-225 would begin in 1984 with a request from the Soviet government for a large airlifter as a replacement for the Myasishchev VM-T. The specifics of this request included the ability to carry a maximum payload of , both externally and internally, while operating from any runway of at least . As originally set out, the mission and objectives were broadly identical to that of the United States' Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, having been designed to airlift the Energia rocket's boosters and the Buran-class orbiters for the Soviet space program. Furthermore, a relatively short timetable for the delivery of the completed aircraft meant that development would have to proceed at a rapid pace.
Accordingly, the Antonov Design Bureau decided to produce a derivative of their existing Antonov An-124 Ruslan airlifter, although its payload capacity was almost half of what was required. The aircraft was stretched via the addition of fore and aft fuselage barrel sections, while a new enlarged wing centre was designed that facilitated the carriage of an additional pair of Progress D-18T turbofan engines, increasing the total from four to six powerplants. A completely new tail was also required to handle the wake turbulence generated by the bulky external loads that would be carried on the aircraft's upper fuselage. Despite the novelty of its scale, the design of the An 225 was largely conventional. The lead designer of the An-225 (and the An-124) was Viktor Tolmachev.
On 21 December 1988, the An-225 performed its maiden flight. It made its first public appearance outside the Soviet Union at the 1989 Paris Air Show where it was presented while carrying a Buran orbiter. One year later, it performed a flying display for the public days at the Farnborough Air Show. While two aircraft had been ordered, only a single An-225, (registration CCCP-82060, later UR-82060) was finished. It could carry ultra-heavy and oversized freight weighing up to internally or on the upper fuselage. Cargo on the upper fuselage can be up to in length.
A second An-225 was partially built during the late 1980s for the Soviet space program, however, work on the airframe was suspended following the collapse of the Soviet Union. By 2000, the need for additional An-225 capacity had become apparent; during September 2006, it was decided that the second An-225 would be completed, a feat that was at one point scheduled to occur around 2008. However, the work was subject to repeated delays. By August 2009, the aircraft had not been completed and work had been abandoned. In May 2011, the Antonov CEO reportedly stated that the completion of the second An-225, which would have a carrying capacity of 250 tons, requires at least $300 million; upon the provision of sufficient financing, its completion could be achieved in three years. According to different sources, the second aircraft was 60–70% complete by 2016.
The revival of space activities involving the An-225 was repeatedly announced and speculated upon throughout its life. During the early 2000s, studies were conducted into the production of an even larger An-225 derivative, the eight-engined Antonov An-325, which was intended to be used in conjunction with Russia's in-development MAKS space plane. In April 2013, the Russian government announced plans to revive Soviet-era air launch projects that would use a purpose-built modification to the An-225 as a midair launchpad.
In May 2017, Airspace Industry Corporation of China (AICC)'s president, Zhang You-Sheng, informed a BBC reporter that AICC had first contemplated cooperation with Antonov in 2009 and made contact with them two years later. AICC intends to modernize the second unfinished An-225 and develop it into an air launch to orbit platform for commercial satellites at altitudes up to . The aviation media cast doubt on the production restart, speculating that the ongoing Russia–Ukraine conflict would prevent various necessary components that would have been sourced from Russia from being delivered; it may be possible that China could manufacture them instead. That project did not move forward but UkrOboronProm, the parent company of Antonov, had continued to seek partners to finish the second airframe.
On 25 March 2020, the first An-225 commenced a series of test flights from Hostomel Airport near Kyiv, after more than a year out of service, for the installation of a domestically designed power management and control system.
Design
The Antonov An-225 was a strategic airlift cargo aircraft that retained many similarities with the preceding An-124 airlifter that it was derived from. It has a longer fuselage and cargo deck due to the addition of fuselage barrel extensions that were fitted both fore and aft of the wings. The wings, which are anhedral, also received root extensions to increase their span. The flight control surfaces are controlled via fly-by-wire and powered by triple-redundant hydraulics. Furthermore, the empennage of the An-225 is a twin tail with an oversized, swept-back horizontal stabilizer, having been redesigned from the single vertical stabilizer of the An-124. The use of a twin tail arrangement was essential to enable the aircraft to carry its bulky external loads that would generate wake turbulence, disturbing the airflow around a conventional tail.
The An-225 is powered by a total of six Progress D-18T turbofan engines, two more than the An-124, the addition of which was facilitated by the redesigned wing root area. An increased-capacity landing gear system with 32 wheels was designed, some of which are steerable; these enable the airlifter to turn within a runway. Akin to its An-124 predecessor, the An-225 incorporated a nose gear designed to "kneel" so cargo can be more easily loaded and unloaded. Additional measures to ease loading and unloading activities included the four overhead cargo cranes that could move along the whole length of the cargo hold, each of which was capable of lifting up to . To facilitate the attachment of external loads, such as the Buran orbiter, various mounting points were present along the upper surface of the fuselage.
Unlike the An-124, the An-225 was not intended for tactical airlifting and was not designed for short-field operations. Accordingly, the An-225 does not have a rear cargo door or ramp, as are present on the An-124, these features having been eliminated in order to save weight. The cargo hold was in volume; wide, high, and long—longer than the first flight of the Wright Flyer. The cargo hold, which is pressurized and furnished with extensive soundproofing, could contain up to 80 standard-dimension cars, 16 intermodal containers, or up to of general cargo.
The flight deck of the An-225 is at the front of the upper deck, which is accessed via a ladder from the lower deck. This flight deck is largely identical to that of the An-124, save for the presence of additional controls to manage the additional pair of engines. To the rear of the flight deck is an array of compartments which, amongst other things, accommodate the crew stations for the aircraft's two flight engineers, navigator, and communication specialist, along with off-duty rest areas, including beds, which facilitate long range missions to be flown. Even when fully loaded, the An-225 was capable of flying non-stop across great distances, such as between New York and Los Angeles.
As originally constructed, the An-225 had a maximum gross weight of , however, between 2000 and 2001, the aircraft received numerous modifications at a cost of million, such as the addition of a reinforced floor, which increased the maximum gross weight to . Both the earlier and later takeoff weights establish the An-225 as the world's heaviest aircraft, exceeding the weight of the double-deck Airbus A380 airliner. Airbus claims to have improved upon the An-225's maximum landing weight by landing an A380 at during testing.
Operational history
The Antonov An-225 Mriya was originally operated between 1988 and 1991 as the prime method of transporting Buran-class orbiters for the Soviet space program. Its first pilot was Oleksandr Halunenko, who continued flying it until 2004. "Antonov Airlines" was concurrently founded in 1989 after it was set up as a holding company by the Antonov Design Bureau as a heavy airlift shipping corporation. This company was to be based in Kyiv, Ukraine, and operate from London Luton Airport in partnership with Air Foyle HeavyLift. While operations began with a fleet of four An-124-100s and three Antonov An-12s, the need for aircraft larger than the An-124 became apparent by the late 1990s.
By this time, the Soviet Union was no longer in existence and the Buran programme had been terminated; consequentially, the sole completed An-225 was left unused and without a purpose. As early as 1990, Antonov officials were openly speaking on their ambitions for the aircraft to enter commercial use. Despite this, in 1994, it was decided to put the An-225 into long-term storage. During this time, all six of its engines were removed for use on various An-124s, while the second uncompleted An-225 airframe was also stored. As the 1990s progressed, it became clear that there was sufficient demand for a cargoliner even bigger than the An-124. Accordingly, it was decided that the first An-225 would be restored.
The aircraft was re-engined, received modifications to modernise and better adapt it to heavy cargo transport operations, and placed back in service under the management of Antonov Airlines. It became the workhorse of the Antonov Airlines fleet, transporting objects once thought impossible to move by air, such as 130-ton generators, wind turbine blades, and even diesel locomotives. It also became an asset to international relief organizations for its ability to quickly transport huge quantities of emergency supplies during multiple disaster-relief operations.
Under Antonov Airlines, the An-225 received its type certificate from the Interstate Aviation Committee Aviation Register (IAC AR) on 23 May 2001. The type's first flight in commercial service departed from Stuttgart, Germany, on 3 January 2002, and flew to Thumrait, Oman, with 216,000 prepared meals for American military personnel based in the region. This vast number of ready meals was transported on 375 pallets and weighed 187.5 tons. The An-225 was later contracted by the Canadian and U.S. governments to transport military supplies to the Middle East in support of coalition forces. An example of the cost of shipping cargo by An-225 was over (about ) for flying a chimney duct from Billund, Denmark, to Kazakhstan in 2004.
During 2016, Antonov Airlines ceased cooperation with Air Foyle and partnered with Volga-Dnepr instead. This in turn led to the An-225's blue and yellow paint scheme, was added in 2009. These matched the colors of the Ukrainian flag and led to the An-225 becoming "Ukraine's winged ambassador to the world," in the words of The New York Times.
When the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the world in early 2020, the An-225 participated in the relief effort by conducting flights to deliver medical supplies from China to other parts of the world.
The aircraft was popular with aviation enthusiasts, who frequently visited airports to view its scheduled arrivals and departures.
Records
On 11 August 2009, the heaviest single cargo item ever sent by air was loaded onto the An-225. At long and wide, its consignment, a generator for a gas power plant in Armenia along with its loading frame, represented a payload of , It also transported a total payload of on a commercial flight.
On 11 September 2001, carrying four main battle tanks at a record load of of cargo, the An-225 flew at an altitude of up to over a closed circuit of at a speed of . During 2017, the hired cost was () per hour.
On 11 June 2010, the An-225 carried the world's longest piece of air cargo, two test wind turbine blades from Tianjin, China, to Skrydstrup, Denmark.
On 27 September 2012, the An-225 hosted the highest altitude art exhibition in the world at above sea level during the AviaSvit-XX1 Aerospace Show at Antonov Airport. The exhibition was part of the Globus Gallery based in Kyiv and consisted of 500 artworks by 120 Ukrainian artists.
In total, the An-225 has set 240 world records, which is unique in aviation.
Destruction
The aircraft's last commercial mission was from 2 to 5 February 2022, to collect almost 90 tons of COVID-19 test kits from Tianjin, China, and deliver them to Billund, Denmark, via Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. From there, it returned on 5 February to its base at Antonov Airport in Hostomel, where it underwent an engine swap. On the advice of NATO it was prepared for evacuation, scheduled for the morning of 24 February, but on that day Russia invaded, with the airfield being one of their first targets. A ban on civilian flights was quickly enacted by Ukrainian authorities. During the ensuing Battle of Antonov Airport, the runway was rendered unusable.
On 24 February, the An-225 was said to be intact. On 27 February, a photo was posted on Twitter of an object tentatively identified as the An-225 on fire in its hangar. A report by the Ukrainian edition of Radio Liberty stated that the airplane was destroyed during the Battle of Antonov Airport, which was repeated by Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba and by Ukroboronprom, Antonov's parent organisation. The Antonov company initially refused to confirm or deny the reports, and said it was still investigating them.
Also on 27 February, a press release by Ukroboronprom stated that the An-225 had been destroyed by Russian forces. Several other aircraft were in the same hangar as the An-225 at the time of its destruction, and were also destroyed or damaged during the battle; these include a Hungarian-registered Cessna 152, which was crushed by the An-225's left wingtip after the latter fell on top of it.
Ukroboronprom said that they planned to rebuild the plane at the Russians' expense. The statement said: "The restoration is estimated to take over 3 billion USD and over five years. Our task is to ensure that these costs are covered by the Russian Federation, which has caused intentional damage to Ukraine's aviation and the air cargo sector." The Ukrainian government also said that it would be rebuilt.
Aftermath
On 1 March, a new photograph, taken since the initial conflict, was tentatively identified as the tail of the aircraft protruding from its hangar, suggesting that it remained at least partly intact, however, further evidence proved to show that the aircraft is inoperable due to the extreme damage it sustained. On 3 March, a video circulated on social media, showing the aircraft burning inside the hangar alongside several Russian trucks, confirming its likely destruction. Nonetheless, Antonov stated again that until the aircraft is inspected by experts, its official status could not be fully known. On 4 March, footage on Russian state television Channel One showed the first clear ground images of the destroyed aircraft, with much of the front section missing. Following Russia's withdrawal from northern Ukraine, the second unfinished aircraft airframe was reported to be intact, despite Russian artillery strikes on the hangar housing it at the Antonov factory at Sviatoshyn Airfield.
Major Dmytro Antonov, the pilot of the An-225, alleged on 19 March 2022 that Antonov Airlines knew that an invasion was imminent for quite some time, but did nothing to prevent the loss of the aircraft. On his YouTube channel, Antonov accused company management of not doing enough to prevent the destruction of the aircraft, after having been advised by NATO to move the aircraft (ready to fly status) to Leipzig, Germany, in advance. Multiple Antonov staff have denied his allegations.
On 1 April, drone footage of Hostomel Airport showed the destroyed Mriya, with the forward fuselage completely burned and destroyed, but with the wings partly intact. It was later revealed that the right wing had been broken, but was held up only by its engines resting on the ground.
Investigations into rebuilding the An-225 are being undertaken, including the possibilities of cannibalising the second, incomplete An-225, or salvaging the remnants of the first plane to finish the second. However, there are several obstacles to rebuilding. Many of the aircraft's Soviet-made components were from the 1980s and are no longer made. Engineers quote a price of US$350–500 million, although there is uncertainty regarding whether or not it would be commercially viable and worth the cost. However, Andrii Sovenko, a former An-225 pilot and aviation author, said:
On 20 May 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy announced his intentions to complete the second An-225, to replace the destroyed aircraft and as a tribute to all the Ukrainian pilots killed during the war. In November 2022, Antonov confirmed plans to rebuild the aircraft at an estimated cost of $500 million. At the time, the company did not state whether parts from the wrecked aircraft and the incomplete airframe would be combined to create a new flying aircraft or where funding might come from. Four months later, Antonov confirmed that parts had been removed from the wrecked aircraft for future mating to the unfinished fuselage.
In March 2023, the Ukrainian government announced that it detained two of three Antonov officials suspected of preventing the Ukrainian National Guard from setting up defenses at Hostomel Airport in anticipation of an invasion.
In April 2023, Ukrainian prosecutors charged the former head of Antonov, Serhii Bychkov, with "official negligence" for failing to order the aircraft flown to Leipzig, Germany, ahead of the Russian invasion. The Ukraine Security Service (SBU) who investigated the case stated, "according to the investigation, on the eve of the full-scale invasion, the An-225 was in proper technical condition, which allowed it to fly outside Ukraine. Instead, the general director of the company did not give appropriate instruction regarding the evacuation of Mriya abroad. Such criminal actions of the official led to the destruction of the Ukrainian transport plane."
Former operators
Antonov Airlines for Soviet Buran program, the company (and aircraft) passed to Ukraine after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Antonov Airlines for commercial operations from 3 January 2002, until 24 February 2022, the sole aircraft was destroyed during the Battle of Antonov Airport.
Variants
An-224
Original proposal with a rear cargo door. Not built.
An-225
Variant without the rear cargo door. One built, second aircraft incomplete.
An-225-100
Designation applied to the An-225 after its 2000 modernization. Upgrades included a traffic collision avoidance system, improved communications and navigation equipment, and noise reduction features.
An-325
Proposed enlarged, eight-engined aircraft, specifically designed to launch spacecraft of various purposes into orbit. Initially designed for the MAKS program, the An-325 eventually evolved to a joint cooperation between British Aerospace and the Soviet Ministry of Aviation Industry as a part of the Interim HOTOL program. It remains unbuilt.
AKS
Intended to carry the Tupolev OOS air-launch-to-orbit spaceplane; a twin-fuselage design consisting of two An-225 fuselages, with the OOS to be carried under the raised center wing. Multiple engine configurations were proposed, ranging from 18 Progress D-18T turbofans to as many as 40 engines, with placements both above and below the wings. An alternative design for the AKS was to use entirely new fuselages, each with a single tail. The AKS was deemed unfeasible, and no prototypes were ever built.
Specifications
See also
Further reading
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Official An-225 web page
An-225 – buran-energia.com
An-225
Buran program
1980s Soviet cargo aircraft
Six-engined jet aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1988
Aircraft related to spaceflight
Twin-tail aircraft
Individual aircraft
Events affected by the Russian invasion of Ukraine
February 2022 events in Ukraine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20remediation
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Environmental remediation
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Environmental remediation is the cleanup of hazardous substances dealing with the removal, treatment and containment of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment. Remediation may be required by regulations before development of land revitalization projects. Developers who agree to voluntary cleanup may be offered incentives under state or municipal programs like New York State's Brownfield Cleanup Program. If remediation is done by removal the waste materials are simply transported off-site for disposal at another location. The waste material can also be contained by physical barriers like slurry walls. The use of slurry walls is well-established in the construction industry. The application of (low) pressure grouting, used to mitigate soil liquefaction risks in San Francisco and other earthquake zones, has achieved mixed results in field tests to create barriers, and site-specific results depend upon many variable conditions that can greatly impact outcomes.
Remedial action is generally subject to an array of regulatory requirements, and may also be based on assessments of human health and ecological risks where no legislative standards exist, or where standards are advisory.
Remediation standards
In the United States, the most comprehensive set of Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs) is from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Regional Screening Levels (RSLs). A set of standards used in Europe exists and is often called the Dutch standards. The European Union (EU) is rapidly moving towards Europe-wide standards, although most of the industrialised nations in Europe have their own standards at present. In Canada, most standards for remediation are set by the provinces individually, but the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment provides guidance at a federal level in the form of the Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines and the Canada-Wide Standards|Canada-Wide Standard for Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soil.
Site assessment
Once a site is suspected of being contaminated there is a need to assess the contamination. Often the assessment begins with preparation of a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment. The historical use of the site and the materials used and produced on site will guide the assessment strategy and type of sampling and chemical analysis to be done. Often nearby sites owned by the same company or which are nearby and have been reclaimed, levelled or filled are also contaminated even where the current land use seems innocuous. For example, a car park may have been levelled by using contaminated waste in the fill. Also important is to consider off site contamination of nearby sites often through decades of emissions to soil, groundwater, and air. Ceiling dust, topsoil, surface and groundwater of nearby properties should also be tested, both before and after any remediation. This is a controversial step as:
No one wants to have to pay for the cleanup of the site;
If nearby properties are found to be contaminated it may have to be noted on their property title, potentially affecting the value;
No one wants to pay for the cost of assessment.
Often corporations which do voluntary testing of their sites are protected from the reports to environmental agencies becoming public under Freedom of Information Acts, however a "Freedom of Information" inquiry will often produce other documents that are not protected or will produce references to the reports.
Funding remediation
In the US there has been a mechanism for taxing polluting industries to form a Superfund to remediate abandoned sites, or to litigate to force corporations to remediate their contaminated sites. Other countries have other mechanisms and commonly sites are rezoned to "higher" uses such as high density housing, to give the land a higher value so that after deducting cleanup costs there is still an incentive for a developer to purchase the land, clean it up, redevelop it and sell it on, often as apartments (home units).
Mapping remediation
There are several tools for mapping these sites and which allow the user to view additional information. One such tool is TOXMAP, a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund and Toxics Release Inventory programs.
Technologies
Remediation technologies are many and varied but can generally be categorized into ex-situ and in-situ methods. Ex-situ methods involve excavation of affected soils and subsequent treatment at the surface as well as extraction of contaminated groundwater and treatment at the surface. In-situ methods seek to treat the contamination without removing the soils or groundwater. Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil/sediments.
Traditional remediation approaches consist of soil excavation and disposal to landfill and groundwater "pump and treat". In-situ technologies include but are not limited to: solidification and stabilization, soil vapor extraction, permeable reactive barriers, monitored natural attenuation, bioremediation-phytoremediation, chemical oxidation, steam-enhanced extraction and in situ thermal desorption and have been used extensively in the USA.
Barriers
Contaminants can be removed from a site or controlled. One option for control are barrier walls, which can be temporary to prevent contamination during treatment and removal, or more permanent. Techniques to construct barrier walls are deep soil mixing, jet grouting, low pressure grouting with cement and chemicals, freezing and slurry walls. Barrier walls must be constructed of impermeable materials and resistant to deterioration from contact with waste, for the lifespan of the barrier wall. It wasn't until the use of newer polymer and chemical grouts in the 1950s and 1960s that Federal agencies of the US government recognized the need to establish a minimum project life of 50 years in real world applications.
The Department of Energy is one US government agency that sponsors research to formulate, test and determine use applications for innovative polymer grouts used in waste containment barriers. Portland cement was used in the past, however cracking and poor performance under wet-dry conditions at arid sites need improved materials to remedy. Sites that need remediation have variable humidity, moisture and soil conditions. Field implementation remains challenging: different environmental and site conditions require different materials and the placement technologies are specific to the characteristics of the compounds used which vary in viscosity, gel time and density:
"The selection of subsurface barriers for any given site which needs remediation, and the selection of a particular barrier technology must be done, however, by means of the Superfund Process, with special emphasis on the remedial investigation and feasibility study portions. The chemical compatibility of the material with the wastes, leachates and geology with which it is likely to come in contact is of particular importance for barriers constructed from fluids which are supposed to set in-situ. EPA emphasizes this compatibility in its guidance documents, noting that thorough characterization of the waste, leachate, barrier material chemistry, site geochemistry, and compatibility testing of the barrier material with the likely disposal site chemical environment are all required."
These guidelines are for all materials - experimental and traditional.
Thermal desorption
Thermal desorption is a technology for soil remediation. During the process a desorber volatilizes the contaminants (e.g. oil, mercury or hydrocarbon) to separate them from especially soil or sludge. After that the contaminants can either be collected or destroyed in an offgas treatment system.
Excavation or dredging
Excavation processes can be as simple as hauling the contaminated soil to a regulated landfill, but can also involve aerating the excavated material in the case of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Recent advancements in bioaugmentation and biostimulation of the excavated material have also proven to be able to remediate semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) onsite. If the contamination affects a river or bay bottom, then dredging of bay mud or other silty clays containing contaminants (including sewage sludge with harmful microorganisms) may be conducted.
Recently, ExSitu Chemical oxidation has also been utilized in the remediation of contaminated soil. This process involves the excavation of the contaminated area into large bermed areas where they are treated using chemical oxidation methods.
Surfactant enhanced aquifer remediation (SEAR)
This is used in removing non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) from aquifer. This is done by pumping surfactant solution into contaminated aquifer using injection wells which are passed through contaminated zones to the extraction wells. The Surfactant solution containing contaminants is then captured and pumped out by extraction wells for further treatment at the surface. Then the water after treatment is discharged into surface water or re-injected into groundwater.
In geologic formations that allow delivery of hydrocarbon mitigation agents or specialty surfactants, this approach provides a cost-effective and permanent solution to sites that have been previously unsuccessful utilizing other remedial approaches. This technology is also successful when utilized as the initial step in a multi-faceted remedial approach utilizing SEAR then In situ Oxidation, bioremediation enhancement or soil vapor extraction (SVE).
Pump and treat
Pump and treat involves pumping out contaminated groundwater with the use of a submersible or vacuum pump, and allowing the extracted groundwater to be purified by slowly proceeding through a series of vessels that contain materials designed to adsorb the contaminants from the groundwater. For petroleum-contaminated sites this material is usually activated carbon in granular form. Chemical reagents such as flocculants followed by sand filters may also be used to decrease the contamination of groundwater. Air stripping is a method that can be effective for volatile pollutants such as BTEX compounds found in gasoline.
For most biodegradable materials like BTEX, MTBE and most hydrocarbons, bioreactors can be used to clean the contaminated water to non-detectable levels. With fluidized bed bioreactors it is possible to achieve very low discharge concentrations which will meet or exceed discharge requirements for most pollutants.
Depending on geology and soil type, pump and treat may be a good method to quickly reduce high concentrations of pollutants. It is more difficult to reach sufficiently low concentrations to satisfy remediation standards, due to the equilibrium of absorption/desorption processes in the soil. However, pump and treat is typically not the best form of remediation. It is expensive to treat the groundwater, and typically is a very slow process to clean up a release with pump and treat. It is best suited to control the hydraulic gradient and keep a release from spreading further. Better options of in-situ treatment often include air sparge/soil vapor extraction (AS/SVE) or dual phase extraction/multiphase extraction (DPE/MPE). Other methods include trying to increase the dissolved oxygen content of the groundwater to support microbial degradation of the compound (especially petroleum) by direct injection of oxygen into the subsurface, or the direct injection of a slurry that slowly releases oxygen over time (typically magnesium peroxide or calcium oxy-hydroxide).
Solidification and stabilization
Solidification and stabilization work has a reasonably good track record but also a set of serious deficiencies related to durability of solutions and potential long-term effects. In addition CO2 emissions due to the use of cement are also becoming a major obstacle to its widespread use in solidification/stabilization projects.
Stabilization/solidification (S/S) is a remediation and treatment technology that relies on the reaction between a binder and soil to stop/prevent or reduce the mobility of contaminants.
Stabilization involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material (e.g. soil or sludge) to produce more chemically stable constituents; and
Solidification involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material to impart physical/dimensional stability to contain contaminants in a solid product and reduce access by external agents (e.g. air, rainfall).
Conventional S/S is an established remediation technology for contaminated soils and treatment technology for hazardous wastes in many countries in the world. However, the uptake of S/S technologies has been relatively modest, and a number of barriers have been identified including:
the relatively low cost and widespread use of disposal to landfill;
the lack of authoritative technical guidance on S/S;
uncertainty over the durability and rate of contaminant release from S/S-treated material;
experiences of past poor practice in the application of cement stabilization processes used in waste disposal in the 1980s and 1990s (ENDS, 1992); and
residual liability associated with immobilized contaminants remaining on-site, rather than their removal or destruction.
In situ oxidation
New in situ oxidation technologies have become popular for remediation of a wide range of soil and groundwater contaminants. Remediation by chemical oxidation involves the injection of strong oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone gas, potassium permanganate or persulfates.
Oxygen gas or ambient air can also be injected to promote growth of aerobic bacteria which accelerate natural attenuation of organic contaminants. One disadvantage of this approach is the possibility of decreasing anaerobic contaminant destruction natural attenuation where existing conditions enhance anaerobic bacteria which normally live in the soil prefer a reducing environment. In general, aerobic activity is much faster than anaerobic and overall destruction rates are typically greater when aerobic activity can be successfully promoted.
The injection of gases into the groundwater may also cause contamination to spread faster than normal depending on the hydrogeology of the site. In these cases, injections downgradient of groundwater flow may provide adequate microbial destruction of contaminants prior to exposure to surface waters or drinking water supply wells.
Migration of metal contaminants must also be considered whenever modifying subsurface oxidation-reduction potential. Certain metals are more soluble in oxidizing environments while others are more mobile in reducing environments.
Soil vapor extraction
Soil vapor extraction (SVE) is an effective remediation technology for soil. "Multi Phase Extraction" (MPE) is also an effective remediation technology when soil and groundwater are to be remediated coincidentally. SVE and MPE utilize different technologies to treat the off-gas volatile organic compounds (VOCs) generated after vacuum removal of air and vapors (and VOCs) from the subsurface and include granular activated carbon (most commonly used historically), thermal and/or catalytic oxidation and vapor condensation. Generally, carbon is used for low (below 500 ppmV) VOC concentration vapor streams, oxidation is used for moderate (up to 4,000 ppmV) VOC concentration streams, and vapor condensation is used for high (over 4,000 ppmV) VOC concentration vapor streams. Below is a brief summary of each technology.
Granular activated carbon (GAC) is used as a filter for air or water. Commonly used to filter tap water in household sinks. GAC is a highly porous adsorbent material, produced by heating organic matter, such as coal, wood and coconut shell, in the absence of air, which is then crushed into granules. Activated carbon is positively charged and therefore able to remove negative ions from the water such as organic ions, ozone, chlorine, fluorides and dissolved organic solutes by adsorption onto the activated carbon. The activated carbon must be replaced periodically as it may become saturated and unable to adsorb (i.e. reduced absorption efficiency with loading). Activated carbon is not effective in removing heavy metals.
Thermal oxidation (or incineration) can also be an effective remediation technology. This approach is somewhat controversial because of the risks of dioxins released in the atmosphere through the exhaust gases or effluent off-gas. Controlled, high temperature incineration with filtering of exhaust gases however should not pose any risks. Two different technologies can be employed to oxidize the contaminants of an extracted vapor stream. The selection of either thermal or catalytic depends on the type and concentration in parts per million by volume of constituent in the vapor stream. Thermal oxidation is more useful for higher concentration (~4,000 ppmV) influent vapor streams (which require less natural gas usage) than catalytic oxidation at ~2,000 ppmV.
Thermal oxidation which uses a system that acts as a furnace and maintains temperatures ranging from .
Catalytic oxidation which uses a catalyst on a support to facilitate a lower temperature oxidation. This system usually maintains temperatures ranging from .
Vapor condensation is the most effective off-gas treatment technology for high (over 4,000 ppmV) VOC concentration vapor streams. The process involves cryogenically cooling the vapor stream to below 40 degrees C such that the VOCs condensate out of the vapor stream and into liquid form where it is collected in steel containers. The liquid form of the VOCs is referred to as dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) when the source of the liquid consists predominantly of solvents or light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPL) when the source of the liquid consists predominantly of petroleum or fuel products. This recovered chemical can then be reused or recycled in a more environmentally sustainable or green manner than the alternatives described above. This technology is also known as cryogenic cooling and compression (C3-Technology).
Nanoremediation
Using nano-sized reactive agents to degrade or immobilize contaminants is termed nanoremediation. In soil or groundwater nanoremediation, nanoparticles are brought into contact with the contaminant through either in situ injection or a pump-and-treat process. The nanomaterials then degrade organic contaminants through redox reactions or adsorb to and immobilize metals such as lead or arsenic. In commercial settings, this technology has been dominantly applied to groundwater remediation, with research into wastewater treatment. Research is also investigating how nanoparticles may be applied to cleanup of soil and gases.
Nanomaterials are highly reactive because of their high surface area per unit mass, and due to this reactivity nanomaterials may react with target contaminants at a faster rate than would larger particles. Most field applications of nanoremediation have used nano zero-valent iron (nZVI), which may be emulsified or mixed with another metal to enhance dispersion.
That nanoparticles are highly reactive can mean that they rapidly clump together or react with soil particles or other material in the environment, limiting their dispersal to target contaminants. Some of the important challenges currently limiting nanoremediation technologies include identifying coatings or other formulations that increase dispersal of the nanoparticle agents to better reach target contaminants while limiting any potential toxicity to bioremediation agents, wildlife, or people.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a process that treats a polluted area either by altering environmental conditions to stimulate growth of microorganisms or through natural microorganism activity, resulting in the degradation of the target pollutants. Broad categories of bioremediation include biostimulation, bioaugmentation, and natural recovery (natural attenuation). Bioremediation is either done on the contaminated site (in situ) or after the removal of contaminated soils at another more controlled site (ex situ).
In the past, it has been difficult to turn to bioremediation as an implemented policy solution, as lack of adequate production of remediating microbes led to little options for implementation. Those that manufacture microbes for bioremediation must be approved by the EPA; however, the EPA traditionally has been more cautious about negative externalities that may or may not arise from the introduction of these species. One of their concerns is that the toxic chemicals would lead to the microbe's gene degradation, which would then be passed on to other harmful bacteria, creating more issues, if the pathogens evolve the ability to feed off of pollutants.
Entomoremediation
Entomoremediation is a variant of bioremediation in which insects decontaminate soils. Entomoremediation techniques engage microorganisms, collembolans, ants, flies, beetles, and termites. It is dependent on saprophytic insect larvae, resistant to adverse environmental conditions and able to bioaccumulate toxic heavy metal contaminants.
Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly - BSF) is an important entomoremediation participant. H. illucens has been observed to reduce polluted substrate dry weight by 49%. H. illucens larvae have been observed to accumulate cadmium at a concentration of 93% and bioaccumulation factor of 5.6, lead, mercury, zinc with a bioaccumulation factor of 3.6, and arsenic at a concentration of 22%. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have also been used to monitor the degradation and reduction of anthropogenic oil contamination in the environment.
Entomoremediation is considered viable as an accessible low-energy, low-carbon, and highly renewable method for environmental decontamination.
Collapsing air microbubbles
Cleaning of oil contaminated sediments with self collapsing air microbubbles have been recently explored as a chemical free technology. Air microbubbles generated in water without adding any surfactant could be used to clean oil contaminated sediments. This technology holds promise over the use of chemicals (mainly surfactant) for traditional washing of oil contaminated sediments.
Community consultation and information
In preparation for any significant remediation there should be extensive community consultation. The proponent should both present information to and seek information from the community. The proponent needs to learn about "sensitive" (future) uses like childcare, schools, hospitals, and playgrounds as well as community concerns and interests information. Consultation should be open, on a group basis so that each member of the community is informed about issues they may not have individually thought about. An independent chairperson acceptable to both the proponent and the community should be engaged (at proponent expense if a fee is required). Minutes of meetings including questions asked and the answers to them and copies of presentations by the proponent should be available both on the internet and at a local library (even a school library) or community centre.
Incremental health risk
Incremental health risk is the increased risk that a receptor (normally a human being living nearby) will face from (the lack of) a remediation project. The use of incremental health risk is based on carcinogenic and other (e.g., mutagenic, teratogenic) effects and often involves value judgements about the acceptable projected rate of increase in cancer. In some jurisdictions this is 1 in 1,000,000 but in other jurisdictions the acceptable projected rate of increase is 1 in 100,000. A relatively small incremental health risk from a single project is not of much comfort if the area already has a relatively high health risk from other operations like incinerators or other emissions, or if other projects exist at the same time causing a greater cumulative risk or an unacceptably high total risk. An analogy often used by remediators is to compare the risk of the remediation on nearby residents to the risks of death through car accidents or tobacco smoking.
Emissions standards
Standards are set for the levels of dust, noise, odour, emissions to air and groundwater, and discharge to sewers or waterways of all chemicals of concern or chemicals likely to be produced during the remediation by processing of the contaminants. These are compared against both natural background levels in the area and standards for areas zoned as nearby areas are zoned and against standards used in other recent remediations. Just because the emission is emanating from an area zoned industrial does not mean that in a nearby residential area there should be permitted any exceedances of the appropriate residential standards.
Monitoring for compliance against each standards is critical to ensure that exceedances are detected and reported both to authorities and the local community.
Enforcement is necessary to ensure that continued or significant breaches result in fines or even a jail sentence for the polluter.
Penalties must be significant as otherwise fines are treated as a normal expense of doing business. Compliance must be cheaper than to have continuous breaches.
Transport and emergency safety assessment
Assessment should be made of the risks of operations, transporting contaminated material, disposal of waste which may be contaminated including workers' clothes, and a formal emergency response plan should be developed. Every worker and visitor entering the site should have a safety induction personalised to their involvement with the site.
Impacts of funding remediation
The rezoning is often resisted by local communities and local government because of the adverse effects on the local amenity of the remediation and the new development. The main impacts during remediation are noise, dust, odour and incremental health risk. Then there is the noise, dust and traffic of developments. Then there is the impact on local traffic, schools, playing fields, and other public facilities of the often vastly increased local population.
Examples of major remediation projects
Homebush Bay, New South Wales, Australia
Dioxins from Union Carbide used in the production of now-banned pesticide 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid and defoliant Agent Orange polluted Homebush Bay. Remediation was completed in 2010, but fishing will continue to be banned for decades.
Bakar, Croatia
An EU contract for immobilization of a polluted area of 20,000 m3 in Bakar, Croatia based on solidification/stabilization with ImmoCem is currently in progress. After three years of intensive research by the Croatian government, the EU funded the immobilization project in Bakar. The area is contaminated with large amounts of TPH, PAH, and metals. For the immobilization, the contractor chose to use the mix-in-plant procedure.
See also
General links
Biodegradation
Bioremediation
In-situ capping of subaqueous waste
In Situ Oxidation
In-situ thermal desorption
Ecotoxicity
Electrokinetic remediation
Electrical resistance heating
Environmental degradation
Environmental restoration
Groundwater remediation
Natural attenuation
Mold Remediation
Phase I Environmental Site Assessment
Phytoremediation
Restoration ecology
Soil contamination
Soil vapor extraction
Solidification / Stabilization (S/S) with Cement
Legislation about remediation
Superfund (United States)
Contaminated Land Management Act (New South Wales, Australia)
Contaminated Sites Act 2003 (Western Australia, Australia)
'Wet Bodembescherming' (Soil Protection Act, Netherlands)
'Wet Verontreiniging Oppervlaktewater' (Surfacewater Pollution Act, Netherlands)
'Environmental Management Act' (Canada)
Environmental groups with information
CHEJ (US - Grew out of Love Canal controversy)
Greenpeace (International organisation with National sites)
Environmental protection agencies
United States Environmental Protection Agency
NSW EPA (NSW, Australia)
Environment Canada
Canadian EPA Summary Table
See also
List of cleaning companies
References
External links
U.S. EPA's Contaminated Site Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN)
Pollution control technologies
Cleaning and the environment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menu
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Menu
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In a restaurant, the menu is a list of food and beverages offered to customers and the prices. A menu may be à la carte – which presents a list of options from which customers choose – or table d'hôte, in which case a pre-established sequence of courses is offered. Menus may be printed on paper sheets provided to the diners, put on a large poster or display board inside the establishment, displayed outside the restaurant, or put on a digital screen. Since the late 1990s, some restaurants have put their menus online.
Menus are also often a feature of very formal meals other than in restaurants, for example at weddings. In the 19th and 20th centuries printed menus were often used for society dinner-parties in homes; indeed this was their original use in Europe.
History
Menus, as lists of prepared foods, have been discovered dating back to the Song dynasty in China. In the larger cities of the time, merchants found a way to cater to busy customers who had little time or energy to prepare an evening meal. The variation in Chinese cuisine from different regions led caterers to create a list or menu for their patrons.
The word "menu", like much of the terminology of cuisine, is French in origin. It ultimately derives from Latin "minutus", something made small; in French, it came to be applied to a detailed list or résumé of any kind. The original menus that offered consumers choices were prepared on a small chalkboard, in French a carte; so foods chosen from a bill of fare are described as "à la carte", "according to the board".
The earliest European menus, several of which survive from 1751 onwards, appear to have been for the relatively intimate and informal soupers intimes ("intimate suppers") given by King Louis XV of France at the Château de Choisy for between 31 and 36 guests. Several seem to have been placed on the table, listing four courses, each with several dishes, plus dessert.
During the second half of the 18th century, and especially after the French Revolution in 1789, they spread to restaurants. Before then, eating establishments or tables d'hôte served dishes chosen by the chef or proprietors. Customers ate what the house was serving that day, as in contemporary banquets or buffets, and meals were served from a common table. The establishment of restaurants and restaurant menus allowed customers to choose from a list of unseen dishes, which were produced to order according to the customer's selection. A table d'hôte establishment charged its customers a fixed price; the menu allowed customers to spend as much or as little money as they chose.
Price-less
Menus for private functions, pre-paid meals and the like do not have prices. In normal restaurants, there are two types of menus without prices that were mostly used until the 1970s and 1980s: the "blind menu" and the "women's menu". These menus contained all of the same items as the regular menu, except that the prices were not listed. The "blind menu" was distributed to guests at business meals where the hosts did not want the diners to see the prices, or to any type of dinner where the host felt that having the prices not listed would make the guests feel more comfortable ordering.
Until the early 1980s, some high-end restaurants had two menus divided by gender: a regular menu with the prices listed for men and a second menu for women, which did not have the prices listed (it was called the "ladies' menu"), so that the female diner would not know the prices of the items. In 1980, Kathleen Bick took a male business partner out to dinner at L'Orangerie in West Hollywood; after Bick got a women's menu without prices and her guest got the menu with prices, Bick hired lawyer Gloria Allred to file a discrimination lawsuit, on the grounds that the women's menu went against the California Civil Rights Act. Bick stated that getting a women's menu without prices left her feeling "humiliated and incensed". The owners of the restaurant defended the practice, saying it was done as a courtesy, like the way men would stand up when a woman enters the room. Even though the lawsuit was dropped, the restaurant ended its gender-based menu policy. While price-less menus for women generally disappeared after the 1980s, in 2010, Tracey MacLeod reported that Le Gavroche in London (UK) still had a price-less women's menu for women who eat at tables booked by men, with tables booked by women getting a regular menu for the woman.
Economics of menu production
As early as the mid-20th century, some restaurants have relied on "menu specialists" to design and print their menus. Prior to the emergence of digital printing, these niche printing companies printed full-color menus on offset presses. The economics of full-color offset made it impractical to print short press runs. The solution was to print a "menu shell" with everything but the prices. The prices would later be printed on a less costly black-only press. In a typical order, the printer might produce 600 menu shells, then finish and laminate 150 menus with prices. When the restaurant needed to reorder, the printer would add prices and laminate some of the remaining shells.
With the advent of digital presses, it became practical in the 1990s to print full-color menus affordably in short press runs, sometimes as few as 25 menus. Because of limits on sheet size, larger laminated menus were impractical for single-location independent restaurants to produce press runs of as few as 300 menus, but some restaurants may want to place far fewer menus into service. Some menu printers continue to use shells. The disadvantage for the restaurant is that it is unable to update anything but prices without creating a new shell.
During the economic crisis in the 1970s, many restaurants found it costly to reprint the menu as inflation caused prices to increase. Economists noted this, and it has become part of economic theory, under the term "menu costs". In general, such "menu costs" may be incurred by a range of businesses, not just restaurants; for example, during a period of inflation, any company that prints catalogs or product price lists will have to reprint these items with new price figures.
To avoid having to reprint the menus throughout the year as prices changed, some restaurants began to display their menus on chalkboards, with the menu items and prices written in chalk. This way, the restaurant could easily modify the prices without going to the expense of reprinting the paper menus. A similar tactic continued to be used in the 2000s with certain items that are sensitive to changing supply, fuel costs, and so on: the use of the term "market price" or "Please ask the server" instead of stating the price. This allows restaurants to modify the price of lobster, fresh fish and other foods subject to rapid changes in cost.
The latest trend in menus is to display them on handheld tablets; customers can browse through these and look at the photographs of the dishes.
Writing style
The main categories within a typical menu in the US are appetizers, "side orders and à la carte", entrées, desserts and beverages. Sides and à la carte may include such items as soups, salads, and dips. There may be special age-restricted sections for "seniors" or for children, presenting smaller portions at lower prices. Any of these sections may be pulled out as a separate menu, such as desserts and/or beverages, or a wine list. A children's menu may also be presented as a placemat with games and puzzles, to help keep children entertained.
Menus can provide other useful information to diners. Some menus describe the chef's or proprietor's food philosophy, the chef's résumé (British: CV), or the mission statement of the restaurant. Menus often present a restaurant's policies about ID checks for alcohol, lost items, or gratuities for larger parties. In the United States, county health departments frequently require restaurants to include health warnings about raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and seafood.
Puffery
As a form of advertising, the prose found on printed menus is famous for the degree of its puffery. Menus frequently emphasize the processes used to prepare foods, call attention to exotic ingredients, and add French or other foreign language expressions to make the dishes appear sophisticated and exotic. "Menu language, with its hyphens, quotation marks, and random outbursts of foreign words, serves less to describe food than to manage your expectations"; restaurants are often "plopping in foreign words (80 percent of them French) like "spring mushroom civet", "pain of rabbit", "orange-jaggery gastrique".
Part of the function of menu prose is to impress customers with the notion that the dishes served at the restaurant require such skill, equipment, and exotic ingredients that the diners could not prepare similar foods at home. In some cases, ordinary foods are made to sound more exciting by replacing everyday terms with their French equivalents. For example, instead of stating that a pork chop has a dollop of apple sauce, a high-end restaurant menu might say "Tenderloin of pork avec compote de Pommes." Although "avec compote de Pommes" translates directly as "with apple sauce", it sounds more exotic—and more worthy of an inflated price tag. Menus may use the culinary terms concassé to describe coarsely chopped vegetables, coulis to describe a purée of vegetables or fruit, or au jus, to describe meat served with its own natural gravy of pan drippings.
Types
Paper
Menus vary in length and detail depending on the type of restaurant. The simplest hand-held menus are printed on a single sheet of paper, though menus with multiple pages or "views" are common. In some cafeteria-style restaurants and chain restaurants, a single-page menu may double as a disposable placemat. To protect a menu from spills and wear, it may be protected by heat-sealed vinyl page protectors, lamination or menu covers. Restaurants consider their positioning in the marketplace (e.g. fine dining, fast food, informal) in deciding which style of menu to use.
Some restaurants use a single menu as the sole source of information about the food for customers, but in other cases, the main menu is supplemented by ancillary menus, such as:
An appetizer menu (nachos, chips and salsa, vegetables and dip, etc.)
A wine list
A liquor and mixed drinks menu
A beer list
A dessert menu (which may also include a list of tea and coffee options)
Some restaurants use only text in their menus. In other cases, restaurants include illustrations and photos, either of the dishes or of an element of the culture which is associated with the restaurant. For instance a Lebanese kebab restaurant might decorate its menu with photos of Lebanese mountains and beaches. Particularly with the ancillary menu types, the menu may be provided in alternative formats, because these menus (other than wine lists) tend to be much shorter than food menus. For example, an appetizer menu or a dessert menu may be displayed on a folded paper table tent, a hard plastic table stand, a flipchart style wooden "table stand", or even, in the case of a pizza restaurant with a limited wine selection, a wine list glued to an empty bottle.
Take-out restaurants often leave paper menus in the lobbies and doorsteps of nearby homes as advertisements. The first to do so may have been New York City's Empire Szechuan chain, founded in 1976. The chain and other restaurants' aggressive menu distribution in the Upper West Side of Manhattan caused the "Menu Wars" of the 1990s, including invasions of Empire Szechuan by the "Menu Vigilantes", the revoking of its cafe license, several lawsuits, and physical attacks on menu distributors.
Menu board
Some restaurants – typically fast-food restaurants and cafeteria-style establishments – provide their menu in a large poster or display board format up high on the wall or above the service counter. This way, all of the patrons can see all of the choices, and the restaurant does not have to provide printed menus. This large format menu may also be set up outside (see the next section). The simplest large format menu boards have the menu printed or painted on a large flat board. More expensive large format menu boards include boards that have a metal housing, a translucent surface, and a backlight (which facilitates the reading of the menu in low light) and boards that have removable numbers for the prices. This enables the restaurant to change prices without having to have the board reprinted or repainted.
Some restaurants such as cafes and small eateries use a large chalkboard to display the entire menu. The advantage of using a chalkboard is that the menu items and prices can be changed; the downside is that the chalk may be hard to read in lower light or glare, and the restaurant has to have a staff member who has attractive, clear handwriting.
A high-tech successor to the chalkboard menu is the 'write-on wipe-off" illuminated sign, using LED technology. The text appears in a vibrant color against a black background.
Outdoor
Some restaurants provide a copy of their menu outside the restaurant. Fast-food restaurants that have a drive-through or walk-up window will often put the entire menu on a board, lit-up sign, or poster outside so that patrons can select their meal choices. High-end restaurants may also provide a copy of their menu outside the restaurant, with the pages of the menu placed in a lit-up glass display case; this way, prospective patrons can see if the menu choices are to their liking. Also, some mid-level and high-end restaurants may provide a partial indication of their menu listings–the "specials"–on a chalkboard displayed outside the restaurant. The chalkboard will typically provide a list of seasonal items or dishes that are the specialty of the chef which is only available for a few days.
Digital displays
With the invention of LCD and Plasma displays, some menus have moved from a static printed model to one which can change dynamically. By using a flat LCD screen and a computer server, menus can be digitally displayed allowing moving images, animated effects and the ability to edit details and prices.
For fast food restaurants, a benefit is the ability to update prices and menu items as frequently as needed, across an entire chain. Digital menu boards also allow restaurant owners to control the day parting of their menus, converting from a breakfast menu in the late morning. Some platforms support the ability allow local operators to control their own pricing while the design aesthetic is controlled by the corporate entity.
Various software tools and hardware developments have been created for the specific purpose of managing a digital menu board system. Digital menu screens can also alternate between displaying the full menu and showing video commercials to promote specific dishes or menu items.
Online menu
Websites featuring online restaurant menus have been on the Internet for nearly a decade. In recent years, however, more and more restaurants outside of large metropolitan areas have been able to feature their menus online as a result of this trend.
Several restaurant-owned and startup online food ordering websites already included menus on their websites, yet due to the limitations of which restaurants could handle online orders, many restaurants were left invisible to the Internet aside from an address listing. Multiple companies came up with the idea of posting menus online simultaneously, and it is difficult to ascertain who was first. Menus and online food ordering have been available online since at least 1997. Since 1997, hundreds of online restaurant menu web sites have appeared on the Internet. Some sites are city-specific, some list by region, state or province.
Digital menu
The idea of the digital menu is very new and differs from an online menu. An online menu is a website presenting a food menu on an e-commerce platform but has no interface with meal production except sometimes receiving the order. A digital menu is a fully integrated food menu where the front-end is presented online as a web application, but as well as facilitating orders it is also linked to the kitchen or other production facility. A digital menu can generate a variety of reports and is connected with the finance/point of sale system. It may also be integrated with inventory and accounting software.
Secret menu
Another phenomenon is the so-called secret menu where some fast food restaurants are known for having unofficial and unadvertised selections that customers learn by word of mouth, or by looking them up online. Fast food restaurants will often prepare variations on items already available, but to have them all on the menu would create clutter. This can also occur in high-end restaurants, which may be willing to prepare certain items which are not listed on the menu (e.g., dishes that have long been favorites of regular clientele). Sometimes restaurants may name foods often ordered by regular clientele after them, for either convenience or prestige. At some fast food restaurants, 'secret menu' items exist which were once part of the regular menu but are no longer advertised. These items may still be rung up as a regular menu item, and are assembled from ingredients that are still in use in other menu items.
See also
Menu engineering
Literature
Jim Heimann (ed.): Menu Design in America: 1850-1985, English/German/French. Taschen, Köln, Germany 2011.
References
External links
University of Nevada, Las Vegas Digital Collection; Menus: The Art of Dining
University of Washington Library - Menus Collection
Ocean Liner Vintage Menus Collection GG Archives
What's on the Menu (New York Public Library)
Ephemera Helvetica (Swiss association dedicated to the promotion and valorisation of cheap prints, such as posters, restaurant menus, chapbooks, tickets, etc.)
Chinese inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changi
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Changi
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Changi () is a planning area located in the geographical region of Tanah Merah in the East Region of Singapore. Sharing borders with Pasir Ris and Tampines to the west, Changi Bay to the southeast, the South China Sea to the east and the Serangoon Harbour to the north. Changi, excluding the two water catchments and islands of Singapore, is the largest planning area by land size.
Today, Changi is an aviation hub. It is the location of both the Changi Airport and Changi Air Base. Also located within Changi is Singapore's largest prison, Changi Prison. It was used as a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp during the occupation of Singapore in World War II. The prison is Singapore's oldest operating internment facility.
Etymology
The early Malay place name of Changi was Tanjong Rusa (English: Deer cape), as written in the 1604 Godinho de Eredia map of Singapore.
The name Changi was known in the early 19th century. In the 1828 map by Franklin and Jackson, the extreme southeastern tip of the island is referred to as Tanjong Changi. Vessels using the Johor Straits would have to pass by Changi.
There are many versions of the etymological roots of the name Changi. The first director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens Henry Ridley suggested that it gets its name from a tall tree, Pokok Chengal or Cengal (Malay for Neobalanocarpus heimii, also known as Balanscorpus heimii or Balano scorpas), which was common in the area in the early nineteenth century. It is also written and pronounced as "Chengai". Its heavy timber is commonly used for buildings and furniture and noted for its strength and deep rich colour. Other sources suggests that it comes from a climbing shrub found in the area, the changi ular (Hopea sangal), or chengal asir (Apama corymbosa).
During the early surveys in the 1820s to 1830s of Singapore island, Changi was also named Franklin Point after Captain Franklin who was involved in these early surveys.
History
Early Changi was mostly a malaria mosquito infested swampland and jungle that had several kampongs spread across the vast area. Several of these kampongs included from north to south, Kampong Changi, Kampong Telok Paku, Kampong Ayer Gemuroh, Kampong Somapah, Kampong Mata Ikan and Kampong Padang Terbakar, although the exact founding dates of many of these kampongs are unknown. The place was first redeveloped by the British as a summer house and a getaway location from the city centre of Singapore in the 1890s, and was prized for its tranquillity and remoteness. The existence of the resorts there today still bear testament to the original redevelopments there.
Starting from the 1920s due to increasing tension across Asia and Europe in anticipation for war, the British starting building up its military presence at the area and this included the construction of military barracks and the infamous Changi Hospital, with Chinese and Indian labourers brought in from the city. Defences along Changi's southern coast were also beefed up with the construction of machine-gun pillboxes in anticipation of the Imperial Japanese Army arrival by sea. Construction was briefly halted during the Great Depression but was subsequently resumed as these structures were considered vital for the defence of Singapore.
During World War II (WWII), the area saw mass mobilisation of Allied troops in anticipation of a Japanese invasion from the north-eastern coasts of Singapore as the Japanese had moved to capture the neighbouring Pulau Ubin from Malaysia. However it was a bluff that drew vital resources from the west of Singapore that was the eventual landing site used by the Japanese. The area also saw action of three giant artillery guns called the Johore Battery, though their usefulness in defending Singapore has been questionable.
In 1942, after the surrender of the British in Singapore, Allied Prisoners-of-Wars (POW) were made to march from the city to Changi Prison and the surrounding barracks where they were interned. The POW Camps were overcrowded and life as described by those who were interned there was unbearable, multiple incidents including the Selarang Barracks incident took place. Civilians were also not spared, the Sook Ching massacre which targeted mainly the Chinese population, took place at multiple locations in Changi, most notably at Changi Beach Park. Thousands were believed to have been executed in these areas. It was during this time too that the Japanese were also involved in the planning and construction of Changi Air Base.
After the war in 1945, the British continued to maintain Changi for military purposes, while rebuilding up the area to include accommodations, schools and resorts. They continued to do so even after the independence of Singapore in 1965, as with other areas like Seletar and Tengah. The coast along the eastern side of Changi also saw government bungalows and resorts opened for civil servants use. In 1971, because of the East of Suez policy that was announced by the British earlier in 1968, there was a sudden and large withdrawal of British troops from Changi. The vacated area saw many people whose livelihood and businesses depended on providing for the British forces becoming jobless and unsustainable. However, there were still contingents of ANZUK troops that were left in its place and the government of New Zealand even bolstered its presence in Singapore in the wake of the British withdrawal to maintain its interest in the region. The area then later became home to several of Singapore Armed Forces units too.
Changi was then revitalised with Changi Village and Somapah spruced up and Changi Airport being constructed in the area after land reclamation took place. However, this caused further disruptions to the livelihood of the residents as they had to make way for the airport and later the many other redevelopments in the area including high tech industrial estates. Finally in 1989, the last of New Zealand troops withdrew and all its remaining assets were handed over to the Singapore government. Redevelopment works continued into the 21st century with the progressive opening of the airport's terminal 3, 4 in 2008 and 2017, and the new Changi Prison Complex in 2004. Despite the strong progress of these developments, there were several ventures that were eventually stalled, like the Changi Motorsports Hub, which was expected to open as Singapore's first permanent motor racing circuit, but was halted in 2013.
Future development of Changi is in the pipelines with a mega-sized Terminal 5 and the Changi East Industrial Zone expected to be ready before 2030.
Geography
The terrain in Changi is generally flat because most of Changi today sits on reclaimed land, there are however three notable hills in the Changi Village area, Battery (Biggin) Hill, Fairy Point Hill and Temple Hill. The ground conditions on reclaimed land however were soft marine clay which could not support the runway and taxiways of the airport, and thus works had to carried out accordingly to drain the water and strengthen them. There are also two reservoirs located in Changi, the Changi Creek Reservoir and South End Reservoir which are located to the north and south of Changi Airport respectively. The Changi planning area as defined by the Urban Redevelopment Authority encompasses the subzone of Changi Airport, Changi Point and Changi West, although in comparison to the parliamentary electoral boundaries or the Changi Estate that is commonly known in public they all differ from one another slightly.
Amenities
There are numerous amenities spread around Changi. They include shopping malls like Changi City Point and even Changi Airport, which is considered to be a shoppers' paradise with duty-free shopping available inside the airport's transit area. Besides those, the Changi Village hawker centre is renowned for its food options, with shophouses also found around the area for the convenience of its residents. Food and amenity centres are also found all around the industrial estates, including the airfreight centre.
Places of worship in the area include Changi Bethany Church, Maranatha Bible Presbyterian Church, Sree Ramar Hindu Temple and Yan Kit Village Chinese Temple.
Education
Currently the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Singapore's fourth autonomous university, is located at its permanent campus in Changi. Otherwise there are presently no public government schools in Changi but there were several that used to operate in its history. Additionally there are also several private and international schools operating in the area like BNP Paribus Campus, One World International School and Singapore Aviation Academy.
These were the schools that used to operate from Changi and most were cleared away for the construction of Changi Airport. All but one of them are now defunct, namely:
Red Swastika Primary School, from 1951 to 1981, the site was near the present-day junction of Changi Business Park Vista and Changi South Avenue 1, it now stands at Bedok North
Ayer Gemuroh Malay Primary School, from c.1949 to 1975, the site is now occupied by the south portion of Changi Airport
Chong Sing Chinese School, from 1910 to 1974, it was reconstructed in 1941 and the site is now occupied by Singapore Aviation Academy
Jeevanantham Tamil School/ Changi Tamil School, from 1946 to 1974, it was reconstructed twice in 1952 and 1966 with the site situated opposite the Japanese School
Min Chong Chinese School, from 1945 to 1981, it was formed from a merge between Bo Wen, Pei Nan School and was reconstructed in 1948 and 1959, the site was near the present-day junction of Changi Business Park Vista and Changi Business Park Crescent
Padang Terbakar Malay School, from 1883 to 1975, the site was approximately before the ECP slip road on Xilin Avenue
Telok Paku Primary School, from 1951 to 1975, the site is now occupied by the Airline House
Ting Ying Chinese School, from 1933 to c.1973, the site is now occupied by runway 02L/20R of Changi Airport
Additionally the British and later the Australian and New Zealand (ANZ) government opened schools for children of servicemen deployed in Singapore:
British Army's Children School (Selarang), from c.1950 to 1971, later converted to ANZ Primary School Selarang, which lasted from 1971 to 1973, the site was near Selarang Camp
Changi Junior and Infant School, until 1971, the site is now occupied by the north portion of Changi Air Base West
RAF Changi Grammar School, from 1963 to 1971, later converted to ANZ High School Changi, which lasted from 1971 to 1973, the site at 1800 Upper Changi Road North is now state property
Changi Campus is located in Loyang on the outskirts of the Changi Estate.
Leisure
There are a number of leisure facilities in Changi, including resorts, nature and sports facilities. Such facilities generally cater to a weekend getaway for Singaporeans.
Economy
Airlines
Changi Airport is a hub for FedEx Express, Jetstar Asia Airways, Qantas, Scoot, Singapore Airlines, Singapore Airlines Cargo, Tiger Airways and Valuair. These airlines' head offices are located as follows: Singapore Airlines in Airline House, Singapore Airlines Cargo in the SATS Airfreight Cargo Terminal 5, Jetstar Asia, Scoot and Valuair in Terminal 1 of the airport Singapore Air Operators." (Archive) Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore. Retrieved 31 October 2012.</ref>
Airport Industries
The Changi Airfreight Centre (formerly known as Airport Cargo Complex) and the Airport Logistics Park (ALPS) Terminal are two main facilities that handle the airport-related goods and services daily. This may include inflown and outflown cargo, as well as aeroplane maintenance related services. The Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA) also maintains its presence there to enforce customs, inspect and even quarantine goods entering Singapore. There are other smaller industries located nearer to the passenger terminals in Changi like the DNATA and SATS Inflight Catering Centre which also cater to the airports' needs, which may include aeroplane food catering, providing manpower and goods for operation as well as the maintenance of the airport itself. By 2030 the construction of Changi East Industrial Zone is also expected to be completed on par with the opening of Terminal 5 to be able to handle the increase in cargo volume.
Other Industries
Changi Business Park and Changi North Industrial Park are industrial estates located within Changi that have aeroplane related businesses housed in them, like Collins Aerospace, but the industrial parks also contain many other businesses that are unrelated to the operations of Changi Airport. The businesses there may range from logistical, to electronics and even banking. There is also the Singapore Expo which provides companies with a place to hold conventions and exhibitions.
Security
Changi, except for its airport, falls under the jurisdiction of the Bedok Police Division, and the Loyang Fire Post that is supplemented by the 2nd Singapore Civil Defence Force DIV HQ. Immigration and custom controls at all ferry terminals are controlled by ICA.
Airport
The Airport Police Division is responsible for the overall security of Changi Airport. It is supported by auxiliary police like AETOS, Certis CISCO and SATS Security, that are usually deployed as front line officers for baggage and personnel screening as well as controlling entry points into transit areas, including the airfreight centre. The airport police is further supported by the Police K9 Changi Base and the 9 SIR infantry soldiers to maintain protection of the airport. ICA works independently from the airport police and maintains control over immigration and customs in all terminals and air cargo entry points. It works with the Singapore Customs in customs and excise related issues. The airport has its own firefighting and rescue services, the Airport Emergency Service (AES) that operates two fire stations and one fire substation that are located around the airport's runway. It also has two casualty clearance stations and one sea rescue base located at Changi Airport Fuel Hydrant Installation (CAFHI) Jetty. AES operates 18 firefighting vehicles, two hovercraft and two fire boats.
Military
Changi houses several military installations of all three branches of Singapore's defence forces. Installations for the army in the area include Hendon Camp and the SAF Changi Ferry Terminal, while for the air force include, Changi Air Base East and West, and finally for the navy include Changi Naval Base. With plans to move Paya Lebar Air Base to Changi come 2030 and as well as the construction of Changi Airport Terminal 5, Changi Air Base is undergoing significant redevelopment works which include the lengthening of the runway. The SAF Ferry Terminal is also the starting point for the famous 24 km route march for new army recruits before they head in the direction of The Float @ Marina Bay for their passing out parade, besides being the typical connecting point for military personnel travelling between Pulau Tekong and Singapore.
Prison
Singapore Prison Service (SPS) is headquartered in Changi and most of its departments are located in the vicinity of its headquarters, like the Prison Logistics Branch. SPS operates two prisons in Changi, Changi Prison Complex and Tanah Merah Prison School. Changi Prison is the main premises for the incarcerated in Singapore. It is currently operating from a new building site with various clusters that hold offenders of various classification. Additionally, the Tanah Merah Prison School, which took over Kaki Bukit Prison School in 2011, is the only prison school in Singapore, where inmates can sit for either the GCE 'O', 'N' or 'A' Levels Examinations. Besides prisons, Changi also has rehabilitation centres like the Lloyd Leas Community Supervision Centre, which recently saw the nearby Selarang Park Community Supervision Centre being relocated into it so that and the site can be redeveloped to a halfway house. Past prisons and rehabilitation centres in the area include Abingdon Prison/Drug Rehabilitation Centre and Changi Women's Prison. The Changi Women's Prison was merged into the new Changi Prison Complex in October 2017.
Transportation
Air
Changi is the home of Singapore Changi International Airport, which is considered to be the leading aviation hub in the region and serves many regional and international destinations. Most of Singapore's international arrival and departure are made via this airport. It is one of two civilian airports in Singapore, the other being Seletar Airport.
Land
Bus
There are three bus terminals in Changi, the Changi Airport Bus Terminal, Changi Business Park Bus Terminal and Changi Village Bus Terminal. In Changi Airport Bus Terminal, the main bus terminal is located in the basement of Terminal 2 but most public buses run to all terminals. Bus services 24, 27, 34, 36, 53, 110 and 858, operate from the airport's Terminal 1,2 and 3, while only bus services 24, 34, 36 and 110 operate from Terminal 4 of the airport. Private buses and coaches also operate from the airport via dedicated coach boarding bays and include services like Transtar Cross Border Service (TS1) to Johor Bahru, Malaysia. The Changi Business Park Bus Terminal is located north of SUTD and there are only two bus services, 47 and 118. However, there are more bus services that ply within the Changi Business Park that do not call at this terminal, which include public bus service 20 and other private bus services. The Changi Village Bus Terminal is located adjacent to the hawker centre and has bus services 2, 29, 59 and 109 operating from it.
There used to be another bus terminal, the Somapah Bus Terminal located near the present-day Expo. It was opened in 1981 and demolished in 1989 to make way for redevelopments in the Expo area. Its bus services used to serve the east including the newly built Changi Airport which didn't have a bus terminal then.
There are many more bus services that ply within the entire Changi Estate. Several notable locations with bus services running to them include, the Changi Airfreight Centre that have services 9, 19 and 89, operating within it. Access to the airfreight centre is restricted and all buses entering the centre are individually checked by auxiliary police officers to ensure that all passengers have valid passes. Commuters wishing to enter the airfreight centre and do not have the required passes are to alight at the Police Pass Office bus stop to obtain their passes. The ALPS Terminal, which is next to the airfreight centre, as well as the Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal are only accessible via bus service 35. However access to both of the locations are not restricted.
Train
Changi is served by 3 MRT stations, Changi Airport on the East West MRT line, Upper Changi on the Downtown MRT line and Expo which is an interchange station for both lines. All of the stations are located in the south or central of Changi, hence there are no MRT stations in the vicinity of Changi Village or the airfreight centre, located in the north. Xilin MRT station is under construction as part of the Downtown line extension and would bring greater connectivity to Changi Business Park when it opens in 2025. There are however plans for the northern part of Changi as well as the upcoming Changi Airport Terminal 5 to be linked via the Cross Island MRT line and Thomson-East Coast MRT line.
Changi Airport is served internally by the Changi Airport Skytrain system that operates between Terminals 1, 2 and 3, both in the transit as well as public areas. Terminal 3 additionally has a Skytrain in the transit area that operates between the ends of the terminal for travellers convenience. The Skytrain is free of charge and is operationally between 5 am and 2.30 am, and at all other times travellers can take shuttle buses or travel on foot between terminals. Terminal 4 does not have a SkyTrain connection and the shuttle bus from Terminal 2 is available as a possible connection.
There exists the Changi Railway for a period of time in the 1930s to the 1940s which was used by the British prior to and during World War II, its primary function was to transport ammunition from the piers near Fairy Point Hill to the Johore batteries located around Changi. However they have since been dismantled.
Road
The East Coast Parkway (ECP), Pan Island Expressway (PIE) and Tampines Expressway (TPE) all start from the end of Airport just south of the perimeter of the airport. Airport Boulevard is the only road available for travellers wishing to enter or exit Changi Airport via road and it branches out to all four terminals inside the airport. There are dedicated roads for arrival, departure, coaches, public buses and taxis within each terminal. Taxi surcharge to and from the airport is $3 per ride or $5 per ride on Friday to Sunday, between 5 pm and 12 am.
There are three major roads that head to Changi Village, Loyang Avenue and Upper Changi Road North, which is located to the west of Changi Airport, and Tanah Merah Coast Road which is located to the east of the airport. There is no expressway that heads for a similar direction.
Sea
There are multiple points of entry to Singapore via sea. The Changi Ferry Terminal, Changi Point Ferry Terminal, and Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal are for civilian use while the CAFHI Jetty, Changi Naval Base, and SAF Changi Ferry Terminal are for private or military use and access is restricted. Destinations reachable from the Changi and Changi Point Ferry Terminals include Tanjung Belungkor on the eastern side of Johor, Malaysia, in addition, bumboat ferries operate to Pulau Ubin only from Changi Point. Batam and Bintan, Indonesia, are reachable via Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal. All civilian ferry terminals are operated locally except for Changi Ferry Terminal which is managed by the Johor Port Authority.
SAF Changi Ferry Terminal
SAF Changi Ferry Terminal, also known as Singapore Armed Forces Ferry Terminal (SAFFT) is a jetty that provides ferry services between Singapore's main island and Pulau Tekong, the site of SAF's Basic Military Training Centre.
Incidents
On 17 March 2012, a Malaysian Indian cleaner was killed when he was hit by a taxi hijacked by a Chinese national at Changi Airport Budget Terminal. Following his death, his widow and children received donations and insurance claims amounting to almost a million dollars. However, two years later it was reported his widow had spent all the money.
On 29 November 2015, 97 passengers aboard a ferry heading from Batam to Singapore were evacuated onto life rafts after their ferry collided with an object in the water at about 7.40pm. However, their life rafts also began taking in water, and they were eventually brought back to the Indonesian shores by villagers' boats. The passengers finally arrived at Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal, their intended location, at 12.20am the next day.
On 21 December 2017, 49 passengers on a ferry from Desaru, Malaysia were stranded at Changi Ferry Terminal for more than two hours after a contractor's barge blocked the jetty. The police had to be called in to help the passengers to disembarking safely.
See also
Infrastructure of Singapore Changi Airport
References
Sources
Victor R Savage, Brenda S A Yeoh (2003), Toponymics – A Study of Singapore Street Names, Eastern Universities Press,
Places in Singapore
East Region, Singapore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20%28given%20name%29
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John (given name)
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John (; ) is a common male given name in the English language ultimately of Hebrew origin. The English form is from Middle English Ion, Ihon, Jon, Jan (mid-12c.), itself from Old French Jan, Jean, Jehan (Modern French Jean), from Medieval Latin Johannes, altered form of Late Latin Ioannes, or the Middle English personal name is directly from Medieval Latin, which is from the Greek name Ioannis (Ιωάννης), originally borne by Hellenized Jews transliterating the Hebrew name Yochanan (), the contracted form of the longer name (), meaning "Yahweh is Gracious" or "Yahweh is Merciful". There are numerous forms of the name in different languages; these were formerly often simply translated as "John" in English, but are increasingly left in their native forms (see sidebar).
It is among the most commonly given names in Anglophone, Arabic, European, Latin American, Iranian, and Turkic countries. Traditionally in the Anglosphere, it was the most common, although it has not been since the latter half of the 20th century. John owes its unique popularity to two highly revered saints, John the Baptist (forerunner of Jesus Christ) and the apostle John (traditionally considered the author of the Gospel of John); the name has since been chosen as the regnal or religious name of many emperors, kings, popes and patriarchs. Initially, it was a favorite name among the Greeks, but it flourished in all of Europe after the First Crusade.
Origins
The name John is a theophoric name originating from the Hebrew name (), or in its longer form (), meaning "Yahweh has been gracious". Several obscure figures in the Old Testament bore this name, and it grew in popularity once borne by the high priest Johanan and especially by King John Hyrcanus In the second temple period, it was the fifth most popular male name among Jews in Judaea and was borne by several important rabbis, such as Yochanan ben Zakai and Yochanan ben Nuri.
Germanic derivatives
The Germanic languages (including German, English and Scandinavian) produced the masculine Johann (also Johan (Dutch)), Joan, Jan and Janke (Dutch), Jannis, Jens (Danish and Frisian), Jóhannes, Jóhann, (Icelandic and Faroese), Jöns (Swedish), Hans (German, Dutch and Scandinavian).
Name statistics
John was the most popular name given to male infants in the United States until 1924, and though its use has fallen off gradually since then, John was still the 20th most common name for boys on the Social Security Administration's list of names given in 2006.
John was also among the most common masculine names in the United Kingdom, but by 2004 it had fallen out of the top 50 names for newborn boys in England and Wales. By contrast Jack, which was a nickname for John but is now established as a name in its own right, was the most popular name given to newborn boys in England and Wales every year from 1995 to 2005. It is also the third most common name in the United States, with an estimated 3.18 million individuals as of 2021 according to the Social Security Administration.
In other languages
People with name John
Royalty
John, King of England (1166–1216)
Prince John of the United Kingdom (1905–1919), youngest son of King George V
John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall (1316–1336), second son of Edward II
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (1340–1399), third son of Edward III
John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford (1389–1435), second son of Henry IV
Prince Alexander John of Wales (1871), third son and youngest child of Edward VII
John I of Aragon, (1350–1396), King of Aragon
John II of Aragon, (1398–1479), King of Aragon
John of Bohemia, (1296–1346), Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia
John I of Castile, (1358–1390), King of Castile
John II of Castile, (1405–1454), King of Castile
John I of France, (1316), King of France and Navarre
John II of France, (1319–1364), King of France
John Sigismund Zápolya, (1540–1571), King of Hungary
John I of Münsterberg, (1380–1284), Duke of Münsterberg
John III of Navarre, (1469–1516), King of Navarre
John I Albert (1459–1501), King of Poland
John II Casimir Vasa (1609–1672), King of Poland
John III Sobieski (1629–1696), King of Poland
John I of Portugal, (1357–1433), King of Portugal
John II of Portugal, (1455–1495), King of Portugal
John III of Portugal, (1502–1557), King of Portugal
John IV of Portugal, (1604–1656), King of Portugal
John V of Portugal, (1689–1750), King of Portugal
John VI of Portugal, (1767–1826), King of Portugal
John, Duke of Valencia de Campos (1349–1396), son of Peter I of Portugal and Inês de Castro
John, Constable of Portugal (1400–1442), son of John I of Portugal
John I of Sweden, (1201–1222), King of Sweden
John II of Sweden, (1455–1513), King of Denmark and king of Sweden during the Kalmar Union
John III of Sweden, (1537–1592), King of Sweden
Charles XIV John, (1763–1844), King of Sweden and king of Norway, first king in the Bernadotte dynasty
Politicians
John Acclom (14th-century politician)
John Acclom (15th-century politician) (1395–1458)
John Adams (1735–1826), American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801
John Adams (Virginia politician) (1773–1825), Mayor of Richmond, Virginia
John Adams (New York politician) (1778–1854), Congressman from New York
John Adams (Ohio politician) (born 1960), Ohio House of Representatives
John Adams (journalist) (1819–1???), American lawyer, politician and journalist in Maine
John Adams Sr. (1691–1761), father of John Adams and grandfather of John Quincy Adams
John Adams Sr. (Nebraska politician) (1876–1962), American minister, lawyer, and politician
John Adams Jr. (Nebraska politician) (1906–1999), American lawyer and politician
John Adams II (1803–1834), American government functionary and businessman, son of John Quincy Adams and grandson of John Adams
John Quincy Adams (1767–1848), American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States from 1825 to 1829, son of John Adams
John Quincy Adams II (1833–1894), American lawyer, politician, and member of the Adams political family, grandson of John Quincy Adams II, great-grandson of John Adams
John J. Allen Jr. (1899–1995), U.S. representative from California's seventh congressional district
John Judson Ames (1821–1861), American politician and California Pioneer
John Anderson (New Jersey politician) (1665–1736), colonel who served as acting governor of New Jersey in 1736
John Anderson (Maine politician) (1792–1853), United States Representative from Maine
John T. Anderson (1804–1879), American politician in Virginia
John Alexander Anderson (1834–1892), United States Representative from Kansas
John C. Anderson (Wisconsin politician) (1862–1???), Wisconsin state assemblyman
John Anderson (Wisconsin senator) (1870–1954), Wisconsin state senator
Jack Z. Anderson (1904–1981), United States Representative from California
John Hope Anderson (1912–2005), American politician in Pennsylvania
John Anderson Jr. (1917–2014), Governor of Kansas, 1961–1965
John B. Anderson (1922–2017), United States Representative from Illinois and 1980 presidential candidate
John C. Anderson (lawyer) (born 1975), United States Attorney for the District of New Mexico
John N. Anderson, American politician in California
Johnny Anderson (politician), member of the Utah House of Representatives
Sir John Anderson, 1st Baronet, of Mill Hill (died 1813), British politician, MP for City of London, 1793–1806
John Anderson (diplomatic writer) (1795–1845), Scottish diplomatic writer
John Anderson (colonial administrator) (1858–1918), British governor of Straits Settlements and later of Ceylon
John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley (1882–1958), British civil servant and politician
John Anderson, 3rd Viscount Waverley (born 1949), British peer
John Anderson (trade unionist), British trade union leader
John Hawkins Anderson (1805–1870), member of the Canadian Senate
John Anderson (Newfoundland politician) (1855–1930), Newfoundland businessman and politician
John Victor Anderson (1918–1982), Canadian politician in Alberta
John Gerard Anderson (1836–1911), Scottish-born educationalist and public servant in colonial Queensland
John Anderson (Australian politician) (born 1956), Deputy Prime Minister of Australia and Leader of the National Party 1999–2005
John Anderson (mayor) (1820–1897), mayor of Christchurch, New Zealand, blacksmith, engineer, businessman
Crawford Anderson (John Crawford Anderson, c. 1848–1930), New Zealand politician, MP for Bruce electorate
John Attygalle (1906–1981), Inspector-General of Sri Lanka Police from 1966 to 1967
John Bacon (Massachusetts politician) (1738–1820), US Representative from Massachusetts
John F. Bacon (1789–1860), Clerk of the New York State Senate, and U.S. Consul at Nassau, Bahamas
John L. Bacon (1878–1961), mayor of San Diego, California
John Bailey (MP) (died 1436), MP for Cricklade and Calne
John Bailey (Australian politician) (born 1954), Australian politician
John Bailey (Massachusetts politician) (1786–1835), Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts
John Edgar Bailey (1897–1958), Northern Irish politician
John H. Bailey (1864–1940), American politician, senator and representative in Texas
John Moran Bailey (1904–1975), United States politician, chair of the Democratic National Committee
John Mosher Bailey (1838–1916), U.S. Representative from New York
John Bailey (Irish politician) (1945–2019), member of Dun Laoghaire/Rathdown County Council
John Bailey (Victorian politician) (1826–1871), Australian politician
John D. Bailey (1928–2018), American mayor of St. Augustine, Florida
John Baker (fl. 1407), English MP for Lyme Regis, 1407
John Baker (fl. 1421), English MP for Devizes, 1421
John Baker (died 1544) (by 1503–44), English MP for Radnorshire
Sir John Baker (died 1558) (1488–1558), English speaker of the House of Commons
John Baker (MP for Bedford) (by 1501–1538 or later), English mayor and MP of Bedford
John Baker (by 1531–1604/6), English MP for Horsham and Bramber
John Baker (MP for Canterbury) ( – 1831), British MP for Canterbury
John Baker (representative) (1769–1823), United States congressman from Virginia
John Baker (Baker Brook) (1796–1868), Canadian political activist in Baker Brook, New Brunswick
John Baker (Australian politician) (1813–1872), briefly the Premier of South Australia
Sir John Baker (Portsmouth MP) (1828–1909), British MP for Portsmouth
John Tamatoa Baker (1852–1921), Hawaiian rancher, sheriff and governor
John Baker (Labour politician) (1867–1939), British Labour MP for Bilston
John Baker (Wisconsin politician) (1869–1???), American politician from Wisconsin
John Baker (defensive lineman, born 1935) (1935–2007), American football player and then sheriff of Wake County, North Carolina
John Baker (Indiana politician) (1832–1915), United States congressman from Indiana
John S. Baker (1861–1955), American politician from Washington
Sir John Baker, 2nd Baronet (1608–1653), English politician
John A. Baker Jr. (1927–1994), U.S. diplomat
John Arnold Baker (1925–2016), British judge and politician
John Baker II (1780–1843), sheriff of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, 1834–1843
John All Barham (1843–1926), American politician
John Bear (politician), American politician and businessman
John Black (Wisconsin politician) (1830–1899), French American immigrant and Democratic politician
John Bidwell (1819–1900), Californian politician
John M. Bolton (1901–1936), American businessman and politician
John Boscawen (born c.1957), New Zealand politician
John Boozman (born 1950), American politician
John C. Breckinridge (1821–1875), American vice president
John Y. Brown Sr. (1900–1985), American attorney and politician
John H. Bryden (born 1943), Canadian politician
Jeb Bush (John Ellis Bush, born 1953), American politician who served as the 43rd Governor of Florida from 1999 to 2007
John V. Byrne (born 1928), American Republican
John Moors Cabot (1901–1981), American diplomat and U.S. Ambassador
John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (1845–1926), American politician and businessman from Vermont, father of Calvin Coolidge
John C. Calhoun (1782–1850), American vice president
John Coleman Calhoun (1871–1950), Canadian politician in Alberta
John F. Carew (1873–1951), U.S. Representative from New York
John M. Carroll (politician) (1823–1901), U.S. Representative from New York
John Lee Carroll (1830–1911), American politician in Maryland
John Carroll (mayor) (1836–1903), mayor of Dunedin
John E. Carroll (1877–1955), Mayor of Seattle
John A. Carroll (1901–1983), American jurist and politician in Colorado
John Carroll (Ohio politician) (died 1985), member of the Ohio House of Representatives
John Carroll (Manitoba politician) (1921–1986), Canadian politician in Manitoba
John Carroll (Hawaii politician) (1929–2021), member of the Hawaii Senate and House of Representatives
John Carroll (trade unionist) (active 1969–1990), Irish trade unionist and senator
John Chafee (1922–1999), American politician
John Chong (beekeeper), Singaporean beekeeper
Calvin Coolidge (John Calvin Coolidge Jr., 1872–1933), American politician and lawyer, 30th President of the United States from 1923 to 1929
John Tyler Cooper (1844–1912), American politician
John R. Culbreath (1926–2013), American politician
John F. Cusack (1937–2014), American politician from Massachusetts
John Cusack (Australian politician) (1868–1956), Australian politician
John Davies (British businessman) (1916–1979), British businessman, director-general of the CBI, and Conservative MP and cabinet minister
John Bennett Dawson (1798–1845), American politician
John Diehl (politician) (born 1965), American politician
John Dodd (1717–1782), English politician
John Driscoll (Montana politician) (born 1946), American writer and politician
John Porter East (1931–1986), American Republican U.S. senator
John Edgar (politician) (1750–1832), Irish-American pioneer and politician
John Edwards
Johan Elferink (born 1965), Australian politician
John Patton Erwin (1795–1857), American Whig politician
John De Saram (born 1929), Permanent Representative of Sri Lanka to the United Nations from 1998 to 2002
John Fetterman (born 1969), American politician, U.S. Senator Elect from Pennsylvania
John F. Fitzgerald (1863–1950), American politician
John Garang (1945–2005), Sudanese politician and revolutionary leader
John P. Garfield (born 1949), American former member of the Michigan House of Representatives
John Nance Garner (1868–1967), American vice president
John Glen (mayor) (1809–1895), mayor of Atlanta in 1855
John Glenn (Alberta) (1833–1886), early Alberta settler
John Thomas Glenn (1845–1899), mayor of Atlanta from 1889 to 1891
John Glen (politician) (born 1974), British politician
John Gomomo (1945–2008), South African Unionist and activist.
John H. Hager (1936–2020), American politician
John Henry Hager (Iowa politician) (1871–1952), American politician
John Church Hamilton (1792–1882), American historian, biographer, and lawyer
John P. Harllee (1942–2017), American politician
John Willie Kofi Harlley (1919–1980s), Ghanaian senior police officer and politician
John Joseph Harper (1951–1988), Canadian aboriginal leader
John Harrison (diplomat), 17th-century English diplomat
John Harrison (died 1669) (1590–1669), English politician who sat in the House of Commons as MP for Lancaster variously between 1640 and 1669
John Harrison (Canadian politician) (1908–1964), member of Parliament for Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan
John Harrison (mayor), mayor of North Tyneside, England
John Scott Harrison (1804–1878), American Congressman for Ohio, 1853–1857; son of President William Henry Harrison and the father of President Benjamin Harrison
John Hart (1879–1957), 23rd premier of British Columbia
John Isaac Heard (1787–1862), Irish Member of the UK Parliament for Kinsale
John T. Heard (1840–1927), American politician
John Henry, Margrave of Moravia (1322–1375), Royal family member of the Holy Roman Empire
John Henry (Maryland politician) (1750–1798), U.S. senator from and governor of Maryland
John Vernon Henry (1767–1829), American politician, New York State comptroller
John Flournoy Henry (1793–1873), U.S. representative from Kentucky
John Henry (representative) (1800–1882), U.S. representative from Illinois
John Snowdon Henry (1824–1896), British politician from South-East Lancashire
J. L. Henry (John Lane Henry, 1831–1907), Supreme Court of Texas judge
John Henry (Australian politician) (1834–1912), Tasmanian House of Assembly member and treasurer of Tasmania
Prince Johannes Heinrich of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1931–2010), Hungarian prince
John Henry (Ontario politician) (born 1960), Canadian politician, mayor of Oshawa, Ontario
John Henry (Cook Islands politician), Cook Islander politician
John Hicks (politician) (1715–1790), land agent and politician in Nova Scotia
John Hill (North Carolina politician) (1797–1861), United States Representative from North Carolina
John Y. Hill (1799–1859), American builder and Kentucky state legislator
John Hill (Australian politician) (born 1949), member of the South Australian House of Assembly
John Hill (Florida politician) (born 1931), American politician
John Hill (New Jersey politician) (1821–1884), United States Representative from New Jersey
John Hill (Texas politician) (1923–2007), American lawyer and politician
John Hill (Virginia politician) (1800–1880), United States Representative from Virginia
John Fremont Hill (1855–1912), governor of Maine
John Jerome Hill (1918–1986), American politician
John Philip Hill (1879–1941), United States Representative from Maryland
John H. Holdridge (1924–2001), U.S. Ambassador to Singapore and Indonesia
John T. Hoffman (1828–1888), Governor of New York from 1869 to 1872
John Hoffman (Minnesota politician) (born 1965), Minnesota state senator
John Hopkins (Bristol MP), member of the English House of Commons in 1601
John Hopkins (died 1732), English merchant, Member of Parliament (MP) for St Ives 1710–15 and Ilchester 1715–22
John Hopkins (lieutenant governor), lieutenant governor of South Carolina, 1806-1808
John Patrick Hopkins (1858–1918), mayor of Chicago 1893–1895
John Rout Hopkins (1829–1897), politician of Victoria, Australia
Sir John Hopkins, 1st Baronet (1863–1946), English Conservative Party politician, Member of Parliament (MP) for St Pancras South East 1918–23 and 1924–29
John Marquis Hopkins (1870–1912), Australian politician
John Horgan (born 1959), Canadian politician and the current Premier of British Columbia
John Horgan (Australian politician) (1834–1907), Australian politician, Western Australia MLC
John Horgan (Irish politician) (1876–1955), Irish politician
John Horgan (Irish nationalist) (1881–1967), Irish Cork-born nationalist politician, solicitor and author
John Herbert Ilangatileke, Sri Lankan Sinhala member of the 2nd State Council of Ceylon for Puttalam
John Ince (activist) (born 1952), Canadian activist, politician, author, and lawyer
John Jansen (politician) (born 1947), Canadian former politician
John Jay, American politician, statesman, revolutionary, diplomat, and the first Chief Justice of the United States
John Johnson (Ohio congressman) (1805–1867), politician
John A. Johnson (Minnesota politician) (1883–1962), Minnesota politician
John A. Johnson (Wisconsin), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Madison
John Albert Johnson (1861–1909), 16th governor of Minnesota
John Anders Johnson (1832–1901), Wisconsin state senator
John E. Johnson (Brandon) (1873–1951), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Brandon, Wisconsin
John E. Johnson (Utica) (fl. circa 1868), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Utica, Wisconsin
John J. Johnson (1926–2016), Missouri state senator
John Warren Johnson (1929–2023), Minnesota state legislator
John Telemachus Johnson (1788–1856), U.S. Representative from Kentucky
John Johnson (Kansas City mayor) (1816–1903), mayor of Kansas City, Missouri
J. Neely Johnson (1825–1872), California politician and politician
John Johnson (b. 1833) (1833–1892), Wisconsin State Assemblyman
John Johnson (Ohio state representative) (born 1937), member of the Ohio House of Representatives
John Johnson Sr. (1770–1824), Chancellor of Maryland
John Johnson Jr. (1798–1856), Chancellor of Maryland
John Johnson (Indiana judge) (1776–1817), associate justice of the Indiana Supreme Court
John T. Johnson (Oklahoma judge) (1856–1???), associate justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court
John B. Johnson (politician) (1885–1985), American politician in the South Dakota State Senate
John Ramsey Johnson, associate judge of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia
J. B. Johnson (Florida politician) (1868–1940), 23rd Florida Attorney General
John S. Johnson (North Dakota politician) (1854–1941), member of the North Dakota House of Representatives
John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), American politician, served as the 35th President of the United States from 1961 to 1963
John Kerry (born 1943), American politician and diplomat who served as the 68th United States Secretary of State from 2013 to 2017
John Lionel Kotelawala (1895–1980), Prime Minister of Sri Lanka from 1953 to 1956
John Lansing Jr. (1754–1829?), American politician who disappeared
John Lee (government official) (born 1957), Hong Kong politician
John Limbert (born 1943), American diplomat
John H. Long, Canadian political figure
John B. Macy (1799–1856), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin
John Macy (1917–1986), United States Government administrator and civil servant
John Mahama (born 1958), Ghanaian politician and former president of Ghana
John Major (born 1943), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1990 to 1997
John Major (17th-century English MP), English politician and Member of Parliament
Sir John Major, 1st Baronet (1698–1781), English merchant and Member of Parliament
John Cyril Malloy (1930–2014), American politician
John Manley (born 1950), Canadian politician who served as the eighth deputy prime minister of Canada from 2002 to 2003
John S. Marmaduke (1833–1887), American politician
John McCain (1936–2018), American statesman and US Navy officer, United States Senator for Arizona from 1987 to 2018
John McConnel (1806–1899), Australian politician
John Foster McCreight (1827–1913), first premier of British Columbia
John Duncan McRae, member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, 1949–1952
John J. McRae, American politician in Mississippi
John McRae (British Columbia politician), member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, 1920–1924
John Moore (Louisiana politician) (1788–1867), American statesman
John Marks Moore (1853–1901) Secretary of State of Texas, 1887–1891
John Matthew Moore (1862–1940) U.S. congressman
John Fru Ndi (born 1941), Cameroonian politician
John Verdun Newton (1916–1944), Australian politician
John Nilson, Canadian politician
John Nkadimeng (1927–2020), South African politician and anti-apartheid activist
John Paul (judge) (1839–1901), US politician and judge
John Paul Jr. (judge) (1883–1964), US politician and judge
John Paul (minister) (1795–1873), Scottish minister
John Paul (pioneer) (1758–1830), US politician and city founder
John Prescott (Indiana politician), American politician
John Gladstone Rajakulendran (1907–1950), Sri Lankan Tamil teacher and politician
John Reagan (New Hampshire politician) (born 1946), New Hampshire politician
John Henninger Reagan (1818–1905), American politician
John Roberts (born 1955), American lawyer and jurist who serves as Chief Justice of the United States
John Robbins (congressman) (1808–1880), American congressman from Pennsylvania
John Robson (1824–1892), Canadian politician, who served as the ninth premier of British Columbia
John Senhouse Goldie-Taubman (1838–1898), Manx politician
John Sidoti, Australian independent politician
John Streltzer (1901–1985), Colorado legislator
John H. Tolan (1877–1947), American politician and lawyer
John H. Trumbull (1873–1961), American politician who served as the 70th Governor of Connecticut from 1925 to 1931
John V. Tunney (1934–2018), American politician
John Herbert Turner (1834–1923), 11th premier of British Columbia
John Tyler (1790–1862), tenth president of the United States
John Tyler Sr., 15th governor of Virginia, United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Virginia, father of John Tyler
John Van Buren, United States lawyer, official, politician, son of Martin Van Buren
John Walker (Arkansas politician) (1937–2019), member of the Arkansas House of Representatives
John Walker (Missouri politician) (1770–1838), State Treasurer of Missouri
John Walker (Virginia politician) (1744–1809), U.S. Senator, public official, and soldier
John A. Walker (Iowa politician) (1912–2012), American politician
John M. Walker Jr. (born 1940), chief judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
John M. Walker (Pennsylvania politician) (1905–1976), Pennsylvania State Senator and lieutenant-gubernatorial nominee
John Randall Walker (1874–1942), U.S. Representative from Georgia
John Smith Walker (1826–1893), Minister of Finance of the Kingdom of Hawaii
John Williams Walker (1783–1823), U.S. Senator from Alabama
John Crompton Weems (1777–1862), American politician
John Weir (politician) (1904–1995), Australian politician
John Wemyss, 1st Earl of Wemyss (1586–1649), Scottish politician
John Yakabuski (born 1957), Canadian politician
John Geesnell Yap (born 1977), Filipino politician
John Yap (born 1959), Canadian politician
John Young (died 1589) (by 1519–1589), of Bristol, MP for Devizes, West Looe, etc.
John Young (MP for Marlborough), in 1559, MP for Marlborough
John Young (MP for New Shoreham) (fl. 1586–1597), MP for New Shoreham, Sussex
John Allan Young (1895–1961), politician in Saskatchewan, Canada
John Andrew Young (1916–2002), American politician from Texas
John Duncan Young (1823–1910), US congressman from Kentucky
John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar (1807–1876), UK MP, NSW Governor, Canadian Governor General
John Young (Canadian politician) (1811–1878), member of the Canadian House of Commons
John Young (governor) (1802–1852), Governor of New York
John Young (advisor) (–1835), British-born government advisor of Kamehameha I
John Young (Australian politician) (1842–1893), New South Wales politician
John Young (judge), Federal Court of Australia judge
John Young (jurist) (1919–2008), Australian jurist
John Young (Scottish politician) (1930–2011), Conservative and Unionist Member of the Scottish Parliament
John Young (seigneur) (–1819), Scottish-born Canadian land entrepreneur, jurist, and politician
John Darling Young (1910–1988), Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire, 1969–1984
John M. Young (1926–2010), American politician from Wisconsin
John Young (Indiana politician), American politician
John Young (New Brunswick politician, born 1841) (1841–1907), Canadian politician
John Young (New Brunswick politician, born 1854) (1854–1934), Canadian politician
Businessmen
John G. Agar (lawyer) (1856–1935), American lawyer
John Anderson (Scottish businessman) (1747–1820), Scottish merchant and founder of Fermoy, Ireland
John Aspinall (zoo owner) (1926–2000), British casino and zoo owner
John Wilford Blackstone Sr. (1796–1868), American lawyer
John Vernou Bouvier Jr.
John Vernou Bouvier III
John W. Brady (1869 or 1870–1943), American lawyer
John Cameron, Lord Abernethy (born 1938), Scottish lawyer
John Cameron, Lord Cameron (1900–1996), Scottish judge
John Cameron, Lord Coulsfield (1934–2016), Scottish judge
John Coolidge
John Davis (British businessman) (1906–1993), English managing director of the Rank Organization, later Chairman
John A. Eastman (1821–1895), American lawyer
John Eastman, American lawyer
John F. Grundhofer (1939–2021), American businessman
John M. Harrell (1828–1907), American lawyer
John W. Henry (born 1949), American businessman and owner of sports teams
John Henry Hill (1791–1882), American businessman, educator and missionary
John Hill (planter) (1824–1910), Scottish-born American industrialist and planter
John Hill (businessman) (1847–1926), Australian coach-horse operator
John J. Hill (1853–1952), English-born American stonemason and builder
John A. Hill (1858–1916), American editor and publisher, co-founder of McGraw-Hill
John Sprunt Hill (1869–1961), American lawyer, banker and philanthropist
John W. Hill (1890–1977), American public relations executive
John Hindley, 1st Viscount Hyndley (1883–1963), British businessman
John E. Irving (1932–2010), Canadian businessman
John Jay (lawyer) (1817–1894), American diplomat and lawyer, grandson of John Jay, the American Founding Father and statesman
John Wayles Jefferson (1835–1892), American businessman
John Sackville Labatt (1880–1952), Canadian businessman
John F. McGee (1861–1925), United States district judge
John C. Major (born 1931), former Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
John Marshall (Kansas judge) (1858–1931), American justice of the Kansas Supreme Court
John McAfee, (1945–2021), British-American computer programmer, businessman and prisoner
John Preston, Lord Fentonbarns (died 1616), Scottish lawyer and judge
John Paul (judge) (1839–1901), US politician and judge
Jack W. Robbins (1919–2005), American prosecutor at Nuremberg trials
John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), American business tycoon
John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960), American financier, philanthropist, son of John D. Rockefeller
John D. Rockefeller III (1906–1978), American philanthropist, son of John D. Rockefeller Jr.
John Aspinwall Roosevelt (1916–1981), American businessman, sixth and youngest son of Franklin D. Roosevelt
John Ellis Roosevelt, Roosevelt family member
John de Verdion (d. 1802), London-based bookseller
John Alexander Weir (1894–1942), Canadian lawyer and professor
Military
John Joseph Abercrombie (1798–1877), American brigadier general
John Worthington Adams (1764–1837), British general in India
John Giles Adams (1792–1832), U.S. commander at the Battle of Stillman's Run during the 1832 Black Hawk War
John Adams (Confederate Army officer) (1825–1864), US Army officer
John G. B. Adams (1841–1900), Civil War Medal of Honor recipient
John Mapes Adams (1871–1921), Boxer Rebellion Medal of Honor recipient
John Adams (Royal Navy officer) (1918–2008), British rear admiral
John G. Adams (1932–2003), Army counsel in the Army-McCarthy hearings
John Adams (Canadian general) (born 1942), Canadian military leader
John F. Aiso (1909–1987), American nisei military leader
John Aiken (RAF officer) (1921–2005), Royal Air Force officer
John Alcock (RAF officer) (1892–1919), Royal Air Force officer
John Andrews (Medal of Honor) (1821–1???), United States Navy Ordinary Seaman
John Taylor Arms (1887–1953), United States Navy officer and etcher
John H. Aulick (1787–1791–1873), United States Navy officer
John Cushing Aylwin (1780–1813), Officer in the United States Navy during the War of 1812
John Babcock (1900–2010), last known surviving veteran of the Canadian military to have served in the First World War
John M. Bacon (1844–1913), American general
John Bacon (loyalist) (died 1783), Loyalist guerilla fighter during the American Revolutionary War
John Baker (American Revolutionary War) (1731–1787), American Revolutionary War hero, for whom Baker County, Georgia was named
John Baker (RAF officer) (1897–1978), British air marshal
John Drayton Baker (1915–1942), United States Navy officer
John Baker (general) (1936–2007), Australian Chief of the Defence Force
John F. Baker Jr. (1945–2012), American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient
John Baker (Royal Navy officer) (1660–1716), English naval officer, MP for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis
John Baker (Medal of Honor, 1876) (1853–1???), American soldier
John Henry Balch (1896–1980), United States Naval Reserve officer
John Balmer (1910–1944), senior officer and bomber pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force
John Sanford Barnes (1836–1911), United States Navy officer
John Barrington (British Army officer) (c. 1722–1764), British Army officer
John D. Barry (1839–1867), officer in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War
John R. Baylor (1822–1894), Senior officer of the Confederate States Army
John Bello (born 1946), United States Navy officer
John Bell Blish (1860–1921), United States Navy officer
John Bigelow Jr. (1854–1936), United States Army lieutenant colonel
John L. Borling (born 1940), retired major general of the United States Air Force
John Buford (1826–1863), United States Army cavalry officer
John Bush (Royal Navy officer) (1914–2013), British Royal Navy officer
John Cameron (British Army officer), British military officer and commander during the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic Wars
John Cameron (Royal Navy officer) (1874–1939)
John Du Cameron (died 1753), Scottish sergeant in the French army
John Cameron of Fassiefern, Scottish military commander
John Cooke (Royal Navy officer) (1762–1805), English Royal Navy officer
John G. Cowell (1785–1814), officer in the United States Navy during the War of 1812
John Cubbon (1911–1997), British Army officer and entrepreneur
John Owen Donaldson (1897–1930), American World War I flying ace
John A. Dramesi (1933–2017), United States Air Force Colonel
John Dundas (RAF officer) (1915–1940), Royal Air Force fighter pilot and flying ace of the Second World War
John Eglit (1874–1914), United States Navy seaman serving in the
John Eisenhower, United States Army officer, diplomat, and military historian, second and youngest son of Dwight D. Eisenhower
John C. England (1920–1941), United States Navy officer
John Heaphy Fellowes (1932–2010), United States Navy captain and pilot
John P. Flynn (1922–1997), United States Air Force officer
John D. Foley (1918–1999), United States Army Air Forces gunner
John Franklin (1786–1847), British Royal Navy officer
John M. Franklin (1896–1975), American general
John Frost (British Army officer) (1912–1993), airborne officer of the British Army
John Gingell (1925–2009), senior Royal Air Force commander
John Harllee (admiral) (1914–2005), American admiral
John Harrison (VC 1857) (1832–1865), Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross
John B. Henry Jr., United States Air Force general
John Joseph Henry (1758–1811), American Revolutionary War soldier
John Hamar Hill or Johnnie Hill (1912–1998), British Royal Air Force officer
John Hill (courtier) (before 1690–1735), British general and courtier, brother of Abigail Masham, Baroness Masham
John Hill (British Army officer) (fl. 1777–1783), British Army officer during the American War of Independence
John Hill (Royal Navy officer) (c. 1774–1855)
John Hill (Indian Army officer) (1866–1935), British general
John Thomas Hill (1811–1902), British Army officer
John Hotaling (1824–1886), American soldier
John Martin Howard (1917–1942), United States Navy officer
John Illingworth (1903–1980), English naval engineer in the Royal Navy
John Irving (Royal Navy officer) (1815–c. 1848), British officer in the Royal Navy
John Johnson, 8th Seigneur of Sark (died 1723), Seigneur of Sark, 1720–1723
Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet (1741–1830), loyalist leader during the American Revolution
John "Liver-Eating" Johnson (1824–1900), American frontier figure
John Johnson (Medal of Honor, 1839) (1839–1???), United States Navy sailor
John Johnson (Medal of Honor, 1842) (1842–1907), Norwegian-American Medal of Honor recipient
John D. Johnson (general), U.S. Army general
John Paul Jones (1747–1792), Scottish-American naval captain who was the United States' first well-known naval commander in the American Revolutionary War
John Kennedy (Medal of Honor) (1834–1910), American soldier
John Doby Kennedy (1840–1896), general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War
John J. Kennedy (Republic of Texas politician) (1814–1880), soldier, lawyer and sheriff
Sir John Kennedy (British Army officer, born 1878) (1878–1948), British general
Sir John Kennedy (British Army officer, born 1893) (1893–1970), British general
John Pitt Kennedy (1796–1879), British military engineer
John Thomas Kennedy (1885–1969), American soldier
John Kirby (admiral) (born 1963), United States retired Navy admiral
John A. Kjellstrom (1923–2015), American lieutenant general
John Kelvin Koelsch (1923–1951), United States Navy officer
John Lerew (1912–1996), Royal Australian Air Force officer
John B. Magruder (1807–1871), American and Confederate military officer
John Minor Maury (1795–1824), Lieutenant in the United States Navy
John S. McCain Jr. (1911–1981), United States Navy admiral who served in conflicts from the 1940s through the 1970s, including as the Commander, United States Pacific Command, father of John McCain
John S. McCain Sr. (1884–1945), U.S. Navy admiral and the patriarch of the McCain military family, grandfather of John McCain
John Neville (general) (1731–1803), American Revolutionary War officer later prominent in the Whiskey Rebellion
John T. Newton (1793–1857), United States Navy officer
John Verdun Newton (1916–1944), Australian Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) officer
John Pitcairn (1722–1775), Marine Service officer
John R. Redman (1898–1970), United States Navy admiral
John Hamilton Roberts (1881–1962), Canadian Army two-star general
John Q. Roberts (1914–1942), United States Navy officer, pilot, and Navy Cross recipient
John W. Roberts (1921–1999), United States Air Force four-star general
John Roberts (Royal Navy officer) (born 1924), British admiral
John Schneidler (1868–1958), Swedish Navy vice admiral
John K. Singlaub (1921–2022), United States Army general
John Alexander Tyler, Son of John Tyler
John P. Van Leer (1825–1862), Union Army officer
John Walker (RAF officer) (born 1936), Chief of Defence Intelligence
John Walker (Medal of Honor) (1845–1???), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
John Walker (officer of arms) (1913–1984), English officer of arms
John Anthony Walker (1937–2014), American communications specialist convicted in 1985 of spying for the Soviet Union
John C. Walker, Indiana physician and officer during the American Civil War
John George Walker (1821–1893), general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War
John Grimes Walker (1835–1907), United States Navy admiral
John T. Walker (USMC) (1893–1955), United States Marine Corp general
John Young (naval officer) (1740–1781), United States captain in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War
Musicians
John Abercrombie (guitarist) (1944–2017), American jazz guitarist
John Adams (born 1947), American composer
John Luther Adams (born 1953), American composer
John Addison (1920–1998), English composer
John Anderson (jazz trumpeter) (1921–1974), American jazz musician
John Anderson (producer) (born 1948), Northern Irish composer and producer
John Anderson (musician) (born 1954), American country musician
John Anderson, vocalist for the British rock band Charlie (founded 1971)
John Bailey (luthier) (1931–2011), maker of fine guitars in England
John Bailey (producer), Canadian recording engineer, producer
John Barry (1933–2011), English film composer
John Beal (composer), American film composer
John Berry (Beastie Boys), American hardcore punk musician
John Blow (1649–1708), English composer
John Bonham (1948–1980), drummer/percussionist for Led Zeppelin
John Bull (1562–1628), English composer
John Bush (musician) (born 1963), American metal vocalist for Armored Saint and Anthrax
John Cage (1912–1992), American composer
John Allan Cameron (1938–2006), Canadian folk singer
John Casken (born 1949), English composer
John Colianni (born 1966), American jazz pianist
John Coltrane (1926–1967), American jazz saxophonist and composer
John Cooper (musician) (born 1975), American bassist and vocalist for Skillet
John Corabi (born 1959), American hard rock singer and guitarist
John Corigliano (born 1938), American composer
John Dankworth (1927–2010), English jazz musician
John Darnielle (born 1967), American singer-guitarist, founder of The Mountain Goats and half of The Extra Lens
John David Davis (1867–1942), English composer
John D'earth (born 1950), American post-bop/hard bop jazz trumpeter
John Debney (born 1956), American composer and conductor of film, television, and video game scores
John Denver (1943–1997), American folk and country singer
John Deacon (born 1951), British bass player for Queen
John Doe (musician) (born 1953), American singer, songwriter, actor, and poet
John Dowland (1563–1626), English composer
John W. Duarte (1919–2004), English composer and guitarist
John Dunstaple (1390–1453), English composer
John Entwistle (1944–2002), English bassist for The Who
John Fahey (1939–2001), American fingerstyle guitarist and composer
John Farmer (c.1570–c.1601), English madrigal composer
John Field (1782–1837), Irish composer
John L. Finley (1935–2006), American astronaut
John Finley (musician) (born 1945), Canadian musician
John Conant Flansburgh (born 1960), American singer-guitarist, founder of Mono Puff, and one half of They Might Be Giants
John Frusciante (born 1970), guitarist for Red Hot Chili Peppers
John Fogerty (born 1945), lead singer and guitarist for Creedence Clearwater Revival
John Foreman (musician) (born 1972), Australian musician
John Foulds (1880–1939), English composer
John Gardner (1917–2011), English composer
John Maxwell Geddes (1941–2017), Scottish composer and academic
John D. H. Greenwood (1889–1975), English composer
John Harbison (born 1938), American composer
John Heard (musician) (1938–2021), jazz bassist
John Hicks (pianist) (1941–2006), American jazz pianist and composer
John Hill (conductor) (born 1843), Australian church organist and choirmaster
John Hill (musician) (active from 1993), American guitarist with the Apples in Stereo and Dressy Bessy
John Hill (record producer) (active 2008 and after), American record producer, songwriter, and musician
John Idan, American guitarist
John Ireland (1879–1962), English composer
John Jarrard (1953–2001), American country music songwriter
John Jenkins (1592–1678), English composer
John Joubert (1927–2019), English composer
John Kander (born 1927), American musical theatre composer
John Kinsella (1932–2021), Irish composer
John Lanchbery (1923–2003), English-Australian composer
John Legend (born 1978), American singer, songwriter, pianist, and record producer
John Lennon (1940–1980), English singer-songwriter and founding member of the Beatles
John Charles Julian Lennon (born 1963), English singer, son of John Lennon
John Sidney Linnell (born 1959), American singer-songwriter and one half of They Might Be Giants
John Lowe (musician) (born 1942), English pianist
John Henry Maunder (1858–1920), English composer and organist
John McCabe (1939–2015), British composer and classical pianist
John McCarthy (born 1961), Canadian composer for film and television
John Blackwood McEwen (1868–1948), Scottish composer
John Newman (singer) (born 1990), English singer, musician, songwriter and record producer
John Oates (born 1948), American musician, half of Hall & Oates
John O'Neill (guitarist) (born 1957), Irish rhythm guitarist
John Knowles Paine (1839–1906), American composer
John Pickard (born 1963), British composer
John Prine (1946–2020), American singer-songwriter
John Rutter (born 1945), English composer, conductor and choral arranger
John Scofield (born 1951), American guitarist and composer
John Sebastian (born 1944), American singer-songwriter, guitarist and harmonicist
John Sebastian (classical harmonica player) (1914–1980), American musician and composer
John Philip Shenale, Canadian composer, arranger, musician and producer
John Philip Sousa (1854–1932), American composer
John Stainer (1840–1901), British composer
John Stanley (1712–1786), English composer
John Sykes (1909–1962), English composer
John Sykes (born 1959), guitarist for Thin Lizzy and Whitesnake
John Tavener (1944–2013), 20th century English composer
John Taverner (1490–1545), 16th century English composer
John Veale (1922–2006), English composer
John Wesley (guitarist) (born 1962), American rock singer and guitarist
John White (born 1936), English experimental composer
John Whitehead (singer) (1948–2004), American singer and songwriter
John Wilbye (1574–1638), English composer
John Williams (born 1932), American composer, conductor, and pianist
John Woolrich (born 1954), English composer
John York (musician) (born 1946), American bassist and guitarist
John Zorn (born 1953), American composer, saxophonist and bandleader
Scientists
John Abercrombie (physician) (1780–1844), Scottish physician and philosopher
John Adams (physicist) (1920–1984), British accelerator physicist
John Couch Adams (1819–1892), British mathematician and astronomer
John Franklin Adams (1843–1912), British amateur astronomer and author of stellar maps
John Stacey Adams, behavioral psychologist known for equity theory
John Till Adams (1748–1786), English Quaker physician
John Alderson (physician) (1758–1829), English physician
John Lawrence Angel (1915–1986), British-American biological anthropologist
John Baker (biologist) (1900–1984), British biologist and anthropologist
John Baker, Baron Baker (1901–1985), British engineer
John Gilbert Baker (1834–1920), British botanist
John Norman Leonard Baker (1893–1971), British geographer
John Holland Baker (1841–1930), New Zealand surveyor and public servant
John Berkenhout (1726–1791), English physician
John Roosevelt Boettiger, grandson of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Sir John Carroll (astronomer) (1899–1974), British astronomer
John Alexander Carroll (died 2000), American history professor
John Bissell Carroll (1916–2003), American cognitive scientist
John L. Carroll, American legal academic
John M. Carroll (information scientist) (active since born 1950), American information scientist
John Clauser (born 1942), American theoretical and experimental physicist
John Clements Davis (born 1938), American geologist
John Dee (1527– 1608 or 1609), English mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, teacher, occultist, and alchemist
John Fothergill (physician) (1712–1780), English physician
John Goodsir (1814–1867), Scottish anatomist and a pioneer in the formulation of cell theory
John Henry (toxicologist) (1939–2007), English toxicologist
John Hill (botanist) (1716–1775), English botanist, editor, journalist, and novelist
John Christopher Columbus Hill (1828–1904), American engineer
John Edwards Hill (1928–1997), British mammalogist
Sir John McGregor Hill (1921–2008), British nuclear physicist and administrator
John Hill (physician) (1931–1972), American plastic surgeon
John R. Lukacs (born 1947), American anthropologist
John McKean (1941–1996), Australian ornithologist
John Mearsheimer (born 1947), American political scientist
John von Neumann (1903–1957), Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, computer scientist, engineer and polymath
John Robbins (congressman) (1808–1880), American congressman from Pennsylvania
John G. Trump, uncle of Donald Trump
John Truss (born 1947), British mathematician
John Van Denburgh (1872–1924), American herpetologist
John Weir (geologist) (1896–1978), Scottish geologist and palaeontologist
John Wood (surgeon) (1825–1891), British surgeon at King's College Hospital
John Henry Wood (1841–1914), English entomologist
John L. Wood (born 1964), American chemist
John Ligertwood Paterson (1820–1882), Scottish medical doctor known for working in Bahia, Brazil
John S. Fossey, British chemist and professor at the University of Birmingham
John Medley Wood (1827–1915), South African botanist
John Nicholas Wood, British neurobiologist
John Turtle Wood (1821–1890), British architect, engineer, and archaeologist
Writers
John Richard Alden (1908–1991), American author
John David Anderson (born 1975), American writer
John J. Anderson (1956–1989), writer and editor covering computers and technology
J. Redwood Anderson (1883–1964), English poet
John Baker (author) (born 1942), British novelist
John Baker (legal historian) (born 1944), English legal historian and academic
John Roman Baker (born 1944), British playwright and activist
John Kendrick Bangs (1862–1922), American author
John Banville (born 1945), Irish writer
John Barth (born 1930), American writer
John Batki (born 1942), American short story writer, poet, and translator
John Tucker Battle (1902–1962), American screenwriter
John Betjeman (1906–1984), English poet, writer and broadcaster
John Braine (1922–1986), English writer
John Bunyan (1628–1688), English writer and preacher
John Bryant (journalist) (1944–2020), British journalist
John Buchan (1875–1940), British author and politician
John Carroll (author) (born 1944), Australian conservative writer
John Carroll (journalist) (1942–2015), American journalist and editor
John Cochran (born 1987), American television writer, and former reality television personality
John Francis Carroll (1858–1917), newspaper publisher and editor
John Cheever (1912–1982), American novelist and short story writer
John Clare (1793–1964), English poet
John Maxwell Coetzee (born 1940), South African-Australian novelist and essayist
John Cunliffe (author), English children's book author
John Donne (1572–1631), English poet and cleric
John Dryden (1631–1700), English poet and playwright
John T. Dugan (1920–1994), American screenwriter
John Dunkel (1915–2001), American screenwriter
John Englehardt (born 1987), American fiction writer and educator
John Fetterman (1920–1975), American journalist
John Fowles (1926–2005), English novelist
John Galsworthy (1867–1933), English novelist and playwright
John Gardner (1933–1982), American novelist and educator
John Gardner (1926–2007), English spy and thriller novelist
John Gray (1866–1934), English poet
John Grant (author) (1949–2020), pseudonym used by science fiction writer Paul Le Page Barnett
John Grant (1930–2014), Scottish author and illustrator
John L. Greene (1912–1995), American screenwriter
John Grisham (born 1955), American writer
John Gunther (1901–1970), American journalist and author
M. John Harrison (born 1945), author
John Hersey (1914–1993), American journalist and novelist
John Hill (screenwriter) (1947–2017), American screenwriter
John Hockenberry (born 1956), American journalist and author
John Irving (born 1942), American novelist and screenwriter
John Major Jenkins (born 1964), American author and populariser of the Maya calendar
John Keats (1795–1821), English romantic poet
John le Carré (1931–2020), British-Irish author
John Masefield (1878–1967), English poet and writer
John McClain, American sportswriter
John McPhee (born 1931), American writer
John Milton (1608–1674), English poet and intellectual
John Muir (1838–1914), Scottish-born American naturalist and author
John Mulaney (born 1982), American comedian known for his work on Saturday Night Live
John Munonye (1929–1999), Igbo writer
John Dos Passos (1896–1970), American novelist
John Pearson (author) (1930–2021), English novelist
John Preston (English author) (born 1953), English journalist and novelist
John Pudney (1909–1977), British poet, journalist and author
John Rappaport (screenwriter), American screenwriter
John Rechy (born 1931), Mexican-American novelist and essayist
John Romita Sr., father of John Romita Jr.
John Romita Jr., son of John Romita Sr.
John Robbins (author) (born 1947), American author, known for his books on food and health
John Scalzi (born 1969), American science fiction author
John Steinbeck (1902–1968), American writer
John Suchet (born 1944), English author
John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (1892–1973), English writer and philologist
John Updike (1932–2009), American novelist
John Verney (author) (1913–1993), English author and illustrator
John Weir (writer) (born 1959), American writer
John Whittington, American screenwriter
John Wyndham (1903–1969), English writer
John Younger (writer) (1785–1860), writer, shoemaker, and poet
Actors
John Aasen (1890–1938), American actor
John G. Adolfi (1888–1933), American actor
John Agar (1921–2002), American film and television actor
John Alderton (born 1940), English retired actor
John Ales (born 1969), American actor
John Alvin (actor) (1917–2009), American actor
John Patrick Amedori (born 19??), American actor and musician
John Amos (born 1939), American actor
John Amplas (born 1949), American actor
John Anderson (actor), (1922–1992), American actor
John Anderson (director) (born 1954), American documentary film director, producer, editor and writer
John Anderson (sportscaster) (born 1965), American ESPN television sports journalist and co-host of Wipeout
John Anderson (TV personality) (born 1931), Scottish television personality, referee on the series Gladiators
John H. Anderson, American set decorator
John Murray Anderson (1886–1954), Newfoundland-American theater director
John Aniston (1933–2022), Greek-born American actor father of actress Jennifer Aniston
John W. Anson (1817–1881), British actor
John Aprea (born 1941), American actor and comedian
John Arledge (1906–1947), American actor
John Asher (born 1971), American actor
John Ashley (actor) (1934–1997), American actor
John Astin (born 1930), American actor
John Aylward (1946–2022), American actor
John Baer (actor) (1923–2006), American actor
John Bailey (1947–1994), American actor
John Barrowman (born 1967), British-American actor
John Barrymore (1882–1942), American actor
John Blyth Barrymore (born 1954), American actor son of John Drew Barrymore
John Drew Barrymore (1932–2004), American actor son of John Barrymore
John Beasley (actor) (1943–2023), American actor
John Belushi (1949–1982), American actor and comedian
John Boncore (1952–2013), American actor
John Bowers (actor) (1885–1936), American actor
John Boyega (born 1992), English actor
John Brandon (actor) (1929–2014), American film and television actor
John Byner (born 1938), American actor, comedian and impressionist
John Candy (1950–1994), Canadian actor
John Carlisle (actor) (1935–2011), British actor
John Carradine (1906–1988), American actor
John David Carson (1952–2009), American actor
John Challis (1942–2021), English actor
John Davis Chandler (1935–2010), American actor
John Cho (born 1972), American actor
John Cliff (actor) (1918–2001), American film and television actor
John Cornell (1941–2021), Australian actor
John Cusack (born 1966), American actor, producer, and screenwriter
John Dearth (1920–1984), British actor
John DeSantis, Canadian actor
John Deverell (1880–1965), British actor
John Diehl (born 1950), American actor
John DiMaggio (born 1968), American actor and voice actor
John Ducey (born 1969), American actor
John Duda (born 1977), American actor
John Dullaghan (1930–2009), American film, stage and television actor
John Erwin (born 1936), American voice actor
John Estrada (born 1973), Filipino actor
John Forsythe (1918–2010), American actor
John Franklin (actor) (born 1959), American actor
John Garfield (1913–1952), American actor
John Gielgud (1904–2000), English actor
John Goodman (born 1952), American actor
John Gordon Sinclair (born 1962), British voice actor
John Bregar (born 1985), Canadian actor
John Hannah (born 1962), Scottish actor
John Hasler (born 1974), English actor and voice actor
John Heard (actor) (1946–2017), American actor
John Heffernan (American actor) (1934–2018), American film, stage and television actor
John Henry (actor) (1738–1794), Irish and early American actor
John Hensley (born 1977), American actor
John Hill (actor) (born 1977), American actor
John Stephen Hill (born 1953), Canadian actor
John Hill (actor) (born 1978), American actor
John Hillerman (1932–2017), American actor
John Robert Hoffman, American actor, screenwriter, director and producer
John Hora (1940–2021), American actor
John Hostetter (1946–2016), American actor and visual artist
John Houseman (1902–1988), Romanian-born British-American actor
John Hoyt (1905–1991), American actor
John Hurt (1940–2017), English actor
John Ireland (1914–1992), Canadian actor
John M. Jackson (born 1950), American actor
John Kapelos (born 1956), Canadian actor
John Kassir (born 1957), American actor, voice actor and stand-up comedian
John Krasinski (born 1979), American actor, director and producer
John Lasell (born 1928), American film and television actor
John Lawlor (actor), (born 1941), American actor and assistant director
John Lebar, British actor
John Lone (born 1952), Hong Kong-born American actor
John Lithgow (born 1945), American actor, author, musician, poet and singer
John Carroll Lynch (born 1963), American actor
John MacAndrews, British actor
John Magaro (born 1983), American actor
John Mahon (actor) (1938–2020), American film, stage and television actor
John Malkovich (born 1953), American actor, voice actor, producer, director and fashion designer
John Martin (actor) (born 1951), American film and television actor
John C. McGinley (born 1959), American actor
John Cameron Mitchell (born A1963), two-time Tony Award winning American actor
John Miljan (1892–1960), American actor
John Alexander Luft "Xander" Mobus, American voice actor
John Moore (stage manager) (1814–1893), British actor
John Mulaney (born 1982), American actor and stand-up comedian
John Neville (actor) (1925–2011), English theatre and film actor
John Ford Noonan (1941–2018), American actor, playwright, and screenwriter
John O'Hurley (born 1954), American actor, comedian, author, game show host and television personality
John Pankow (born 1954), American actor
John Paragon (1954–2021), American actor, writer, and director
John Paul (actor) (1921–1995), British actor
John Pinette (1964–2014), American stand-up comedian, actor, and Broadway performer
John Pleshette (born 1942), American actor and screenwriter
John Robert Powers (1892–1977), American actor
John Ratzenberger (born 1947), American actor, voice actor, director and entrepreneur
John C. Reilly (born 1965), American actor, comedian, screenwriter, producer and musician
John Reynolds (born 1991), American actor
John Ritter (1948–2003), American actor
John Richardson (actor) (1934–2021), English actor
John Franklyn-Robbins, British actor
John Robbins (illustrator) (died 2016), host of the public television program Cover to Cover
John Russell (actor) (1921–1991), American film and television actor
John Paul Ruttan (born 2001), Canadian actor
John P. Ryan (1936–2007), American actor
John Sayles (born 1950), American actor
John Saxon (1936–2020), American actor
John Schlesinger (1926–2003), English film and stage director, and actor
John Schwab (born 1972), American actor, voice actor, musician and producer
John Wesley Shipp (born 1955), American actor
John Slattery (born 1962), American actor
John Snee (born 1974), American former film and television actor
John Stahl (1953–2022), Scottish actor
John Stamos (born 1963), American actor and musician
John Stephenson (1923/1924–2015), American actor
John Stocker (voice actor) (born 1947), Canadian voice actor
John Todd (1876–1957), American actor
John Travolta (born 1954), American actor and singer
John Vernon (1932–2005), Canadian actor
John Viener (born 1972), American actor, comedian, writer, and producer
John Vivyan (1915–1983), American stage and television actor
John Wayne (1907–1979), American actor and filmmaker
John Wesley (actor) (1947–2019), American actor
John Westley (actor) (1878–1948), American stage actor
John J. York (born 1958), American actor
John Zacherle (1918–2016), American actor
John Zenda (1944–1994), American film and television actor
Sportsmen
John (footballer) (John Victor Maciel Furtado, born 1996), Brazilian footballer
John Abercrombie (cricketer) (1817–1892), English cricketer
John H. Adams (jockey) (1914–1995), American Hall of Fame jockey
John Adams (basketball) (1917–1979), All-American basketball player from Arkansas
John Adams (drummer) (1951–2023), perennial attendee of Cleveland Indians baseball home games
John Adams (golfer) (born 1954), American professional golfer
John Adams (judoka) (born 1960), Dominican Republic judoka
John Adams (ice hockey, born 1920) (1920–1996), Canadian ice hockey winger in the NHL with the Montreal Canadiens
John Adams (ice hockey, born 1946), Canadian ice hockey goaltender
John Aeta (born 2000), Solomon Islands footballer
John Albert (canoeist) (born 1949), British slalom canoer
John Albert (fighter) (born 1986), American mixed martial artist
John Albert (ice hockey) (born 1989), American ice hockey player
John Alderton (American football) (1931–2013), American professional football defensive lineman
John Andrews (American football) (born 1948), American football player
John Anson (born 1949), Canadian retired professional wrestler
John Askey (born 1964), English professional football manager and former player
John Babcock (wrestler) (fl. 1904), American Olympic wrestler
John Bacon (footballer) (born 1973), Irish footballer
John Bacon (cricketer) (1871–1942), English cricketer
John Badham (sportscaster) (1937–2016), Canadian sportscaster and radio announcer
John Bailey (footballer, born 1950), English footballer and chairman
John Bailey (footballer, born 1957), English footballer
John Bailey (footballer, born 1969), English footballer
John Bailey (rugby league) (born 1954), Australian rugby league footballer and coach
John Bailey (English cricketer) (born 1940), English cricketer
John Bailey (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1941), New Zealand cricketer
John Bates (American football) (born 1997), American football player
John Beale (footballer) (1930–1995), English footballer
John Beedell (1933–2014), New Zealand-born, Canadian sprint canoer
John Biolo (1916–2003), American football player
John Bonica (1917–1994), Italian professional wrestler
John Brannon (American football) (born 1998), American football player
John Brown (wide receiver) (born 1990), American football wide receiver
John Bruhin (1964–2022), American football guard
John Cameron (athlete) (1881–1953), Canadian athlete
John Cameron (footballer, born 1868) (1868–1???), Scottish footballer
John Cameron (footballer, born 1872) (1872–1935), Scottish footballer, played for Queen's Park, Everton & Scotland; player-manager for Tottenham Hotspur
John Cameron (footballer, born 1875) (1875–1944), Scottish footballer
Jock Cameron (footballer) (1881–1???), played for St. Mirren, Blackburn Rovers and Scotland
John Cameron (footballer, born 1929), English footballer for Motherwell and Bradford Park Avenue
John Cameron (New Zealand cricketer) (1898–1988), New Zealand cricketer
John Cameron (Rangers footballer), played for Rangers and made one appearance for Scotland in 1886
John Cameron (West Indian cricketer) (1914–2000), West Indian cricketer
John Joseph Cameron (1882–1954), West Indian cricketer
John Cena (born 1977), American professional wrestler, actor, television presenter and rapper
John Childs (cricketer) (born 1951), English cricketer
John Condrone (1960–2020), American professional wrestler
John Cone (born 1974), American professional wrestling referee
John Cuffe (1880–1931), Australian-born English first-class cricketer
John Cusack (hurler) (1925–2002), Irish hurler, active in the 1940s and 1950s
John Diehl (American football) (1936–2012), American football player
Johnny Dodd (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1950s for New Zealand, and Wellington
John-John Dohmen (born 1988), Belgian field hockey player
John Duffy (soccer), U.S. soccer player at 1928 Summer Olympics
John Edgar (English footballer) (1930–2006), English footballer
John Edgar (Scottish footballer), Scottish footballer
John John Florence (born 1992), American surfer
John Hawley Edwards (1850–1893), footballer; a founder of Welsh Football Association
John Dunlop Edwards (1860–1911), Jack Edwards, Australian cricketer
John Edwards (footballer, born 1875) (1875–1???), English footballer
John Edwards (Canadian football) (1912–2005), Canadian football player
John Edwards (cricketer, born 1928) (1928–2002), Australian cricketer
John Edwards (Barbadian cricketer) (1909–1976), Barbadian cricketer
John Edwards (Australian footballer) (born 1942), Australian rules footballer
John Edwards (canoeist) (born 1954), Canadian sprint canoer
John Edwards (basketball) (born 1981), American basketball player
John Edwards (racing driver) (born 1991), American racing driver
John Eustace (born 1979), English professional football manager and former player
John Farragher (born 1957), Australian former professional rugby league footballer
John Ferguson Sr. (1938–2007) American professional ice hockey player and executive
John Fitzpatrick (athlete) (1907–1989), Canadian athlete who competed in the 1928 Summer Olympics
John Franklin (cyclist), British cyclist
John Franklin (footballer) (1924–2005), English football forward
John "Johnny" Gargano (born 1987), American professional wrestler
John Garlington (1946–2000), American football linebacker
John Goodner (1944–2005), American football coach
John Gunter (football manager), American football manager
John Heard (basketball) (born 1939), Australian Olympic basketball player
John Henderson (darts player) (born 1973), Scottish darts player
John Henry (catcher) (1889–1941), American baseball catcher
John Henry (footballer) (born 1971), Scottish footballer
John Henry (outfielder/pitcher) (1863–1939), American baseball outfielder/pitcher
John Hicks (American football) (1951–2016), lineman
John Hicks (baseball) (born 1989), American professional baseball catcher and first baseman
John Hicks (cricketer) (1850–1912), English first-class cricketer
John Hicks (field hockey) (born 1938), New Zealand field hockey player
John Ethan Hill (1865–1941), American mathematician and college football coach
John Hill (Scottish footballer) (fl. 1891–1892), Scottish footballer
Johnny Hill (footballer) (1884–1???), Scottish footballer
Jack Hill (footballer, born 1897) (1897–1972), English football player and manager
John Hill (rugby union) (fl. 1925), Australian rugby union player
John Hill (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1940s and 1950s
John Hill (American football) (1950–2018), American football player
John Hill (New Zealand footballer) (born 1950), Irish-born New Zealand footballer
John Mac Hill (1925–1995), Australian rules footballer for Collingwood
John Tye Hill (born 1982), American football player
John Hill (boat racer) (1933–1993), British powerboat racer
John Hill (ice hockey) (born 1960), American ice hockey coach
John Hill (wrestler) (1941–2010), Canadian professional wrestler
John Hindley (born 1965), real name of retired British professional wrestler Johnny Smith
John Hoffman (defensive end) (born 1943), American football defensive end
John Hoffman (running back) (1925–1987), American football running back
John Hoffman (baseball) (1943–2001), Major League Baseball catcher
John Hopkins (cricketer) (born 1953), former Welsh cricketer
John Hopkins (American football) (born c. 1969), American football placekicker
John Hopkins (motorcyclist) (born 1983), American motorcycle racer
John Horgan (hurler) (1950–2016), Irish sportsperson
John G. Horgan (1866–1921), pocket billiards (pool) player
John Houseman (baseball) (1870–1922), European Major League Baseball player
John Hurd (1914–2001), American fencer
John Isner (born 1985), American professional tennis player
John Kiley (1912–1993), organist at Fenway Park from 1953 to 1989 and at the Boston Garden from 1941 to 1984
John Kiley (baseball) (1859–1940), Major League Baseball outfielder and pitcher
John Klug (born 1965), Australian rules former professional footballer
John Kronus (1969–2007), American professional wrestler
John Lindsay (Paralympian) (born 1970), Australian Paralympic athlete
John Laurinaitis (born 1962), American retired professional wrestler
John Layfield (born 1966), American retired professional wrestler
John Madden (1936–2021), American football coach and television announcer
John Madden (hurler) (born 1968), Irish hurling selector and player
John Madden (ice hockey) (born 1973), Canadian ice hockey player
John Major (cricketer) (1861–1930), English cricketer
John Major (rugby union) (born 1940), New Zealand rugby union player
John Matuszak (1950–1989), American football defensive end
John McFall (athlete) (born 1981), British Paralympic sprinter
John McMullin (baseball) (1849–1881), American baseball player
John McMullin (golfer), American golfer
John McSeveney (1931–2020), Scottish footballer and manager
John Major (cricketer) (1861–1930), English cricketer
John Minton (1948–1995), real name of American professional wrestler Big John Studd
John Moeti (1967–2023), South African professional footballer
John John Molina (born 1965), Puerto Rican boxer
John Morrison (born 1979), American professional wrestler
John Moll (1913–1942), English rugby union player
John Morkel (1928–2010), South African born Rhodesian international rugby union player
John Wayne Murdoch (born 1988), American professional wrestler
John Moshoeu (1965–2015), South African professional footballer
John Naber (born 1956), American former competitive swimmer
John Hunter Nemechek (born 1997), American racing driver
John Nogowski (born 1993), American baseball player
John Nord (born 1959), American retired professional wrestler
John Paul (footballer), 19th century British footballer
John Paul Sr. (racing driver) (1939–????), American automobile racing driver
John Paul Jr. (racing driver) (1960–2020), American automobile racing driver
John Pearson (cricketer) (1915–2007), English cricketer
John Pearson (curler) (active 1959), Scottish curler
John Pearson (footballer, born 1868) (1868–1931), English football player and referee
John Pearson (footballer, born 1892) (1892–1937), Scottish football player
John Pearson (footballer, born 1896) (1896–1979), English football player
John Pearson (footballer, born 1935), English football player
John Pearson (footballer, born 1946), English football player
John Pearson (footballer, born 1963), English football player
John Pearson (gymnast) (1902–1984), American gymnast
John Pearson (sport shooter) (1926–1994), British Olympic shooter
John Pesek (1894–1978), American professional wrestler
John Maunsell Richardson (1846–1912), English cricketer, Member of Parliament and twice winner of the English Grand National
John Richardson (Derbyshire cricketer) (1856–1940), English cricketer for Derbyshire County Cricket Club
John Richardson (tennis) (1873–1???), South African Olympic tennis player
Mick Richardson (John Mettham Richardson, 1874–1920), English footballer active in the 1890s
John Richardson (Yorkshire cricketer) (1908–1985), English cricketer for Yorkshire County Cricket Club
John Richardson (South African cricketer) (born 1935), South African cricketer for North Eastern Transvaal
Jock Richardson (1906–1986), Scottish footballer
John Richardson (American football) (born 1945), American football player for the Miami Dolphins
John Richardson (baseball), American baseball player
John Richardson (footballer, born 1949) (1949–1984), English football player for Brentford, Fulham and Aldershot
John Richardson (footballer, born 1966), English football player for Colchester
John Richardson (rower) (born 1944), Canadian rower who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics
John Roberts (footballer, born 1956), Australian rules footballer who played for South Melbourne/Sydney Swans and in South Australia
John Roberts (footballer, born 1881) (1881–1956), Australian rules footballer who played for South Melbourne
John Roberts Jr. (billiards player) (1847–1919), player of English billiards
John Roberts (Shropshire cricketer) (born 1948), Shropshire cricketer
John Roberts (Lancashire cricketer) (1933–2019), English cricketer
John Roberts (Somerset cricketer) (born 1949), Somerset cricketer
John Roberts (footballer, born 1857) (1857–1???), Welsh (from Llangollen) international footballer
John Roberts (footballer, born 1858) (1858–1???), Welsh international footballer
John Roberts (footballer, born 1885) (1885–19??), English footballer who played for Wolverhampton Wanderers and Bristol Rovers
John Roberts (footballer, born 1887) (1887–19??), English-born footballer active in Italy for Milan and Modena
John Roberts (footballer, born 1891) (1891–19??), Scottish footballer
John Roberts (footballer, born 1944), Australian soccer player
John Roberts (footballer, born 1946) (1946–2016), Welsh international footballer who played for Wrexham and Arsenal
John Roberts (hurler) (1895–1987), Irish hurler
John Roberts (rower) (born 1953), British Olympic rower
John Roberts (rugby player) (1906–1965), Welsh rugby player
John Roberts (American football) (1920–2012), American football, wrestling and track coach
Jack Robson (football manager) (1860–1922), English full-time secretary manager of football clubs, including Middlesbrough and Manchester United
Jack Robson (footballer), English footballer
John Robson (Australian footballer) (1933–2011), played with Richmond and St Kilda in the VFL
John Robson (footballer, born 1950) (1950–2004), English football full-back for Derby County and Aston Villa
John Robson (athlete) (born 1957), British middle-distance runner
John Robson (canoeist), British canoe sailor
Doug Robson (1942–2020), born John Douglas Robson and listed as John Robson in some databases, English football centre half for Darlington
John de Saulles (1878–1917), American football player and coach
John Silver (wrestler), American professional wrestler
John Stones (born 1994), English footballer
John Tatum (born 1959), American retired professional wrestler
John Tavares (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey player
John Tenta (1963–2006), Canadian professional wrestler and sumo wrestler
John Terry (born 1980), English professional football coach and former player
John Terry (baseball) (1877–1958), Major League Baseball pitcher who played for the Detroit Tigers
John Terry (gridiron football) (born 1968), American football player
John Terry (weightlifter) (1908–1970), American Olympic weightlifter
John Thompson (basketball) (1941–2020), American college basketball coach
John Thompson III (born 1966), American men's national basketball team
John Kennedy Tod (1852–1925), Scottish rugby union player
John Todd (footballer) (born 1938), Australian rules football player and coach
John Todd (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1910s and 1920s
John Tolos (1930–2009), Canadian professional wrestler
John Tortorella (born 1958), American professional ice hockey coach and former player
John Voight (athlete) (1926–1993), American sprinter
John Weir (footballer), Scottish footballer
John Williams (mixed martial artist) (1940–2015), Canadian retired mixed martial artist
John Wood (baseball) (1872–1929), baseball player
John Wood (canoeist) (1950–2013), Canadian Olympic flatwater canoer
John Wood (racing driver) (born 1952), CART driver
John Wood (rugby league) (born 1956), English rugby league footballer who played for Great Britain
John Young (first baseman) (1949–2016), American baseball first baseman
John Young (cricketer, born 1863) (1863–1933), English cricketer
John Young (cricketer, born 1876) (1876–1913), English cricketer
John Young (cricketer, born 1884) (1884–1960), English cricketer
John Young (cyclist) (1936–2013), Australian cyclist
John Young (field hockey) (born 1934), Canadian Olympic hockey player
John Young (footballer, born 1888) (1888–1915), Scottish footballer
John Young (footballer, born 1889) (1889–1???), Scottish footballer
John Young (footballer, born 1891) (1891–1947), Scottish footballer
John Young (footballer, born 1951), Scottish footballer and manager
John Young (footballer, born 1957), Scottish footballer (Denver Avalanche)
John Young (ice hockey), American ice hockey and roller hockey player
John Young (rugby union) (1937–2020), English rugby union player
John Young (swimmer) (1917–2006), Bermudian swimmer
John Zimmerman (figure skater) (born 1973), American professional pair skater and coach
Criminals
John Arthur Ackroyd (died 2016), American murderer
John Bodkin Adams (1899–1983), British criminal
John Patrick Addis (1950–2006), American parental child kidnapper
John Agrue (1947–2009), American serial killer
John Alite (born 1962), Albanian American former Gambino crime family associate
John Allen (1934–2015), British criminal
John Eric Armstrong (born 1973), American serial killer
John Ashley (1888 or 1895–1924), American outlaw
John Balaban (serial killer) (1924–1953), Romanian-born serial killer
John Battaglia (1955–2018), American murderer
John Baughman (1941–2000), American murderer
John Baxter (explorer) (1799–1841), Irish convict
John C. Beale (born 1948), former senior policy advisor convicted of fraud and theft
John William Bean (1824–1882), British criminal who attempted to assassinate Queen Victoria
John Billee (1873–1890), American outlaw and Creek Indian
John Bittrolff (born 1966), American murderer
John Bodkin (c. 1720 – 1742), Irish murder
John Charles Bolsinger (1957–1988), American serial killer
John T. Bone (1947–2019), British pornographic film director who became a drug dealer
John Wilkes Booth (1838–1865), American who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln
John Ronald Brown (1922– 2010), American murderer
John Bull (gunman) (1836–1929), English gunman
John Dwight Canaday (1945–2012), American serial killer
John Cannan (born 1954), British murderer, serial rapist, and serial abductor
John Paul Chase (1901–1973), American robber
John Childs, British hit man and serial killer
John William Clouser (born 1932), American robber
John Cooper (born 1944), Welsh serial killer
John Coxon, pirate and fugitive
John Martin Crawford (1962–2020), Canadian serial killer
John Christie (1899–1953), English serial killer
John Crenshaw (1797–1871), American kidnapper
John Brennan Crutchley (1946–2002), American convicted kidnapper, rapist, and suspected serial killer
John Cunningham, Irish drug smuggler and kidnapper
John D'Amato (died 1992), American murder mobster
John Darwin (born 1950), British criminal
John Dickman (1864–1910), English murderer
John DiFronzo (1928–2018), American mobster and the reputed former boss of the Chicago Outfit
John Dillinger (1903–1934), American gangster of the Great Depression
John Duffy (born 1958), British serial rapist
John David Duty (1952–2010), American murderer
John Eichinger (born 1972), American murderer
John Ewell (born 1957), American serial killer
John Factor (1892–1984), American prohibition-era gangster and con artist
John Fautenberry (1963–2009), American serial killer
John Linley Frazier (1946–2009), American mass murderer
John Wayne Gacy (1942–1994), American serial killer and sex offender
John Albert Gardner (born 1979), American convicted double murderer, rapist, and child molester
John Geoghan (1935–2003), American serial child rapist
John Getreu (1944–2023), American serial killer
John Charles Gilkey (born 1968), American prolific serial thief
John K. Giles (1895–1979), American inmate at Alcatraz prison
John Gotti (1940–2002), American gangster
John Haigh (1909–1949), English serial killer
John Hamilton (gangster) (1899–1934), Canadian fugitive
John Patrick Hannan (born 1933), Irish prison fugitive who holds the record for the longest escape from custody
John Wesley Hardin (1853–1895), American Old West outlaw
John Ruthell Henry (1951–2014), American serial killer
John R. Hicks (1956–2005), American murderer
John Hinckley Jr. (born 1955), American criminal
John Hirst (born 1950), British convicted murderer
John Michael Hooker (1953–2003), American serial killer
John W. Hopkins (1953–2000), American serial killer and kidnapper
John Jamelske (born 1935), American serial rapist-kidnapper
John Joubert (1963–1996), American serial killer
John Allen Kendrick (1901–1960), American criminal, escape artist, and bank robber
John Kinney (outlaw) (1847–1919), American outlaw of the Old West, who formed the John Kinney Gang
John Kiriamiti (born 1950), Kenyan former bank robber
John M. Larn (1849–1878), American lawman and later outlaw
John Walker Lindh (born 1981), American who was captured as an enemy combatant during the United States' invasion of Afghanistan in November 2001
John List (1925–2008), American mass murderer and fugitive
John Ingvar Lövgren (1930–2002), Swedish serial killer
John Makin (1845–1893), Australian murderer
John Peter Malveaux (born 1964), American serial killer
John Marek (murderer) (1961–2009), American murderer
John Mason (outlaw) (18??–April 1866), American fugitive and one of the leaders of the Mason Henry Gang
John McAfee (1945–2021), British-American computer programmer and businessman who committed suicide in prison
John McCaffary (1820–1851), Irish-American murderer
John Rodney McRae, American murderer and suspected serial killer
John Middleton (1854–1885), American outlaw and friend of Billy the Kid
John Murrell (bandit) (1806–1844), American outlaw
John Palmer (criminal) (1950–2015), English gangster
John Felton Parish (1933–1982), American mass murderer
John Paul Sr. (racing driver) (born 1939), American racing driver, convicted felon and fugitive whose whereabouts are unknown
John Parsons (born 1971), American fugitive
John du Pont (1938–2010), American convicted murderer
John M. Pyle (born 1956), American fugitive
John Richardson (convict) (1797–1882), Australian convict who accompanied several exploring expeditions as a botanical collector
John Edward Robinson (born 1943), American serial killer, con man, embezzler, kidnapper, and forger
John Wesley Robinson (1867–1915), American serial killer
John Roselli (1905–1976), American influential mobster for the Chicago Outfit
John Ruffo (born 1954), American fugitive whose whereabouts are unknown
John Salvi (1972–1996), American anti-abortion extremist and murderer
John Selman (1839–1896), American fugitive
John Paul Scott (1927–1987), American criminal
John Sontag (1861–1893), American outlaw
John Svahlstedt (born 1947), Swedish serial rapist
John Edward Swindler (1944–1990), American murderer
John Thanos (1949–1994), American spree killer
John Tillmann (1961–2018), Canadian art thief
John Jairo Moreno Torres (1979–1998), Colombian serial killer
John Wojtowicz (1945–2006), American bank robber
John Younger (1851–1874), American outlaw
Colonial people
John Custis (1678–1749), North American Colonial British politician
John Parke Custis (1754–1781), son of Martha Washington
John Weddell (1583–1642), English sea captain of the East India Company
John Wayles (1715–1773), American colonial planter and slave trader
Others
John O. Aalberg (1897–1984), Hollywood sound technician
John Abercromby (monk) (fl. 1561), 16th-century Roman Catholic martyr, maybe fictitious
John Samuel Agar (1773–1858), English portrait painter and engraver
John Judson Ames (1821–1861), California Pioneer
John Anderson (classical scholar) (1870–1952), Camden Professor of Ancient History at the University of Oxford
John Anderson (escaped slave), American slave who escaped to Canada in the 1860s, leading to a famous extradition case
John S. Apperson (1878–1963), General Electric engineer
John Asman, American sound engineer
John N. Berry (1933–2020), American librarian
John Billings (1918–2007), Australian physician
John Shaw Billings (1838–1913, American librarian, building designer, and surgeon
John Shaw Billings (editor) (1891–1975), first editor of Life magazine and first managing editor of Time-Life
John de Borman (born 1954), French born British cinematographer
John Bowen (pirate) (16??–1704), pirate of Créole origin active during the Golden Age of Piracy
John Bozeman (1835–1867), American pioneer and frontiersman
John J. Brooks, American lawman
John Bush (set decorator), British set decorator
John Buxton (ornithologist) (1912–1989), British scholar, university teacher, poet and an ornithologist
John Cabot (145–c. 1500), Italian navigator and explorer
John Cameron (farmer), Scottish farmer involved with ScotRail
John E. Cameron (died 1852), American pioneer and politician
John Cameron (1817–1878), executive officer and director-general of the Ordnance Survey
John William Cameron (1841–1896), English brewer
John Brewer Cameron, geodetic surveyor in Australia
John Cameron (chief), Mississauga Ojibwa chief
John Cantlie (born 1970), British war photographer and correspondent
John F. Carroll (1932–1969), one of 23 known people in medical history to have reached a height of 8 feet
John Casali, American sound engineer
John Cashman (journalist) (died 1945), American war correspondent for the International News Service
John Cavanagh (designer) (1914–2003), Irish couturier
John Filby Childs (1783–1853), English printer and political radical
John Childs (historian) (born 1949), professor of military history
John L. Childs (1899–1985), American educator and author
John Chong (beekeeper), Singaporean beekeeper
John Clavie (died 1607), Scottish apothecary
John Climacus (579–649), Christian monk
John Chaffee, American gold miner
John W. Chaffee (born 1948), American historian
John Chambers (make-up artist) (1922–2001), American make-up artist
John Cotton Dana (1856–1929), American library and museum director
John Charles Darke (1806–1844), English surveyor and explorer
John Davidson (traveller) (1797–1836), English traveller in Africa
John Davis (sculptor) (1936–1999), Australian sculptor
John F. Davis (artist) (born 1958), Australian artist, painter and video editor
John Philip Davis (1784–1862), British portrait and subject painter
John Scarlett Davis (1804–1845), English painter
John Dawson Dewhirst (1952–1978), British teacher
John E. Douglas (born 1944/1945), American retired special agent
John Price Durbin (1800–1876), Chaplain of the Sentae, president of Dickinson College
John R. Ellis, American visual effects artist
John M. Falcone (1967–2011), American police officer
John Favara (1929–1983), American person missing since 1980
John Gallagher (cartoonist) (1926–2005), American cartoonist and illustrator
John Paul Getty Jr. (1932–2003), American philanthropist and book collector
John Paul Getty III (1956–2011), American grandson of American oil tycoon J. Paul Getty
John L. Gihon (1839–1878), Philadelphia photographer
John Goosey (died 2009), American murder victim
John Graham (Canadian activist), Canadian former Native American activist
John Gray (died 1858), owner of Greyfriars Bobby
John Gregory (engineer) (1806–c.1848), English railway and naval engineer
John F. Grundhofer (1939–2021), director of Donaldson Company
John Gunther (public servant) (1910–1984), Australian public servant
John Hancock (1737–1793), American Founding Father remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence
John Gordon Harris (1947–2019), Canadian policeman
John Hartwell Harrison, M.D. (1909–1984), urologic surgeon
John Harrison (director) (born 1948), writer, director, producer, and music composer
John Harrison (Leeds) (1579–1656), benefactor of the Yorkshire town
John C. Harrison, American law professor
John Kent Harrison, television producer, director and writer
John Leonard Harrison (1917–1972), British zoologist
John Harrison (historian) (1847–1922), Scottish merchant, master tailor and historical author
John Harrison (engraver) (1872–1954), British stamp engraver
John Harrison (ice cream taster) (born 1942), American ice cream taster
John B. Harrison (1861–1947), justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court
John Vernon Harrison (1892–1972), British structural geologist, explorer and cartographer
John Henry, American folk hero whose existence is disputed
John Henry (spy) (c. 1776–1853), British spy
John Raymond Henry (1943–2022), American sculptor
John Hejduk (1929–2000), American architect, artist, and educator
John Hill (cartoonist) (1889–1974), New Zealand cartoonist
John William Hill (1812–1879), British-born American artist
John Hill (game designer) (1945–2015), American designer of Squad Leader and other wargames
John Horgan (academic) (born 1940), Irish press ombudsman, former journalist, politician and professor
John Horgan (journalist) (born 1953), American science journalist
John Horgan (psychologist) (born 1974), Irish political psychologist, terrorism researcher, and professor
John Horgan, chairman of the Western Australian Development Corporation
John Hubley (1914–1977), American animation director, art director, producer and writer
John Hurt (chaplain) (1752–1824), American Episcopal minister
John Ibrahim, (born 1970), Kings Cross former nightclub owner in Australia
John Inglis (shipbuilder) (1842–1919), Scottish engineer and shipbuilder
John Jay (builder) (1805–1888), British stonemason and builder in the nineteenth century
John Clarkson Jay (1808–1891), physician and grandson of John Jay, the American Founding Father and statesman
John Jay (filmmaker) (1915–2000), American ski filmmaker
John F. Kennedy Jr. (1960–1999), American political-family member and journalist, son of John F. Kennedy
John Knight (seafarer) (died 1606), British explorer
John Kostuck (1892–1960), American salesman, piano tuner, and legislator
John Lake (journalist) (born 1930), American sports journalist and editor who disappeared in 1967
John Layfield (theologian) (died 1617), English scholar and Bible translator
John Lounsbery (1911–1976), American animator and director
John A. List (born 1968), American economist at the University of Chicago
John M. Lloyd (1835–1892), American police officer, tavern owner, and bricklayer, known for testifying in the Abraham Lincoln assassination conspiracy trials
John Majhor (1953–2007), Canadian radio and television host
John William Mackail (1859–1945), Scottish academic
John Masius (born 1950), American screenwriter
John Means (comedian), American stand-up comedian
John McMullin (silversmith) (1765–1843), American silversmith
John McSweeney Jr. (1915–1999), American film editor
John Middleton (giant) (1578–1623), English giant
John Mosman (apothecary), apothecary at the Scottish court
John Mosman (goldsmith), Scottish goldsmith based in Edinburgh
John Mulaney (born 1982), American stand-up comedian
John Dodo Nangkiriny (c. 1910-2003), Indigenous Australian cultural leader and artist
John Elliott Neville, prisoner who died in 2019 after being restrained at the Forsyth County, North Carolina jail
John Nevill, 3rd Earl of Abergavenny (1789–1845), English peer
John Nevill, 5th Marquess of Abergavenny (1914–2000), British peer
John Nevill, 10th Baron Bergavenny (c. 1614–1662), English peer
John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890), Irish poet, journalist, author and activist
John G. Palfrey (1796–1881), American clergyman and historian
John Palfrey (born 1972), American educator, scholar, and law professor
John Pasquin (born 1944), American director of film, television and theatre
John Otunba Payne (1839–1906), Nigerian sheriff
John Pitcairn Jr. (1841–1916), Scottish-born American industrialist
John Gordon Purvis (born 1942), American man who spent nine years in prison for a murder he did not commit
John Rando, American stage director
John Neil Reagan (1908–1996), American radio station manager, elder brother of Ronald Reagan
John Rich (director) (1925–2012), American film and television director
John Ridge (c. 1802–1839), member of the Cherokee Nation
John Robins (comedian) (born 1982), British comedian
John Rogan (c. 1867–1905), American who was the second-tallest person ever
John Rosengrant, American make-up and special effects artist
John Schubeck (1936–1997), American television reporter and anchor
John Smith (1825–1910), Scottish dentist
John Snorri Sigurjónsson (1973–2021), Icelandic high-altitude mountaineer
John Solecki, American head of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
John Sturges (1910–1992), American film director
John Payne Todd (1792–1852), first son of Dolley Madison, adopted son of James Madison
John V. Tolan (born 1959), American historian
John Traill (1835–1897), Scottish coffee house owner
John Anderson Truman (1851–1914), father of Harry S. Truman
John Varvatos (born 1954), American menswear designer
John M. Wallace (1815–1880), granduncle of Bess Truman
John Warhurst (sound editor), American sound editor
John F. Warren (1909–2000), American cinematographer
John Weldon (animator) (born 1945), Canadian actor, composer, animator and movie director
John Wesley (artist) (1928–2022), American modern painter
John B. Wood (1827–1884), American journalist
John H. Wood Jr. (1916–1979), U.S. federal judge
John Wood (millowner) (1758–1???), created the Howard Town Mills complex in Glossop, England
John Wood (Bradford manufacturer) (1793–1871), English industrialist and factory reformer
John Wood (explorer) (1812–1871), Scottish explorer of central Asia
John Wood (photographer), Civil War photographer for Union Army
John C. Young (pastor) (1803–1857), Centre College president
Pseudonyms
Bible John, unidentified serial killer
Chicken John (born 1967 or 1968), musician, showman, activist, and author
Jihadi John (1988–2015), nickname for Kuwaiti–born British militant Mohammed Emwazi
John 5 (guitarist), American guitarist
John Doe, placeholder name for an anonymous person
John Zegrus, unidentified criminal
Fictional characters
John-117, also known as Master Chief, the protagonist of the Halo franchise
John, a character in the Care Bears Movie II: A New Generation
John, a character in the Doctor Who comic strip
John, a character in the children's science-fiction series The Tomorrow People
John-Boy, eldest son in The Waltons
John, in the 1994 American black-comedy film The Ref
John, in the American miniseries V
John "Jack" Arnold, a character in the American coming-of-age, comedy-drama television series The Wonder Years
John Barton, a character in the British soap opera Emmerdale
John Bates, a character from Downton Abbey, married to Anna
John Bender, a character from the film The Breakfast Club
John Boscombe, a character in the 1934 film The Man Who Changed His Name
John Carik, also known as Bible John, a character from Marvel Comics
John Clark, a character in Tom Clancy's Ryanverse
John Connor, a character in the Terminator franchise
John Constantine, a fictional character appearing in DC Comics franchise, including Hellblazer
John Darling, one of the Darling children and the main character in the 1953 Walt Disney's animated film Peter Pan
John Davis, a character on British soap opera, EastEnders
John Davis, character in After Many Years
Sergeant John Davis, a playable character in Call of Duty 2
John Diggle (Arrowverse), from the Arrowerse franchise
John Dillermand, the titular protagonist of John Dillermand
John Doe, a character in the video game Batman: The Enemy Within
John (Thunderbolt) Doherty, fictional character in the 1974 film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot
John Dough, a gingerbread man brought to life in the Frank Baum book John Dough and the Cherub
John Michael Dorian (J.D.), the main character and protagonist of the comedy-drama Scrubs
John Drake (Danger Man), in the TV series Danger Man
John Ellis, a character in the Netflix series Grand Army
John Egbert, a character in the webcomic Homestuck
John Worthington Foulfellow, also known as Honest John, a main character in the 1940 Walt Disney's animated film Pinocchio
John Ross Ewing III, character from the American prime time soap opera Dallas and its 2012 continuation series
President John Harker, a character in the 1981 American science fiction action movie Escape from New York
John Herbert, a character in the animated television series Family Guy
John Henry, a character/stage name of the comedian Norman Clapham, popular in BBC radio in the 1920s
John Henry, a character in the 2006 comic series The Transformers: Evolutions
John Henry, a character in the Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles science-fiction series
John Henry, alter ego of John Wilson, character in DC Comics
John Henry Irons, also known as Steel, a character from DC Comics
John Jonah Jameson, a newspaper publisher in Marvel Comics
John Kramer, also known as Jigsaw, a character in the Saw franchise
John Kimble, the protagonist in the 1990 American action comedy film Kindergarten Cop
John Locke, one of the central characters in the American television series Lost
John Marston, a central character in the Red Dead franchise
John "Soap" MacTavish, a character in the Call of Duty franchise
John McBain, a character in the American daytime dramas One Life to Live and General Hospital
John McClane, the main protagonist of the Die Hard franchise
John Paul McQueen, a character from the British soap opera Hollyoaks
John "Ace" Merrill, a character in the 1986 American coming-of-age film Stand by Me
John Milner, a character in the 1973 American coming-of-age comedy-drama film American Graffiti
John Milton, a character from the 2000 American horror film Scream 3
Father John Patrick Francis Mulcahy and Trapper John McIntyre, characters in the American war comedy-drama television series M*A*S*H
John Murphy, in the TV series The 100
JohnNana, the main character in the 1988 American science-fiction action thriller film They Live
John Perry, a character in the 1925 American silent comedy Introduce Me
John Pierce, a character in the 1988 American comedy-drama movie Beaches
John Rainbird, in the 1984 American science fiction horror film Firestarter
John Rambo, the titular protagonist in the Rambo franchise
John Redcorn, a character in the Fox animated series King of the Hill
John Philip Reid III, a character in the Canadian drama television series Neon Rider
John Ridd, main character of the 1869 historical novel by R. D. Blackmore Lorna Doone: A Romance of Exmoor
John Riggs, a character in the 1989 American-Canadian fantasy drama film Prancer
John Riley, a character in the 1996 American legal crime drama movie Sleepers
Jack Robbins, a character in the British soap opera EastEnders
Major John Russell, a character in the 1997 American science fiction drama film Contact
John Shaunessy, a character in the 1979 American drama film Kramer vs. Kramer
Long John Silver, antagonist of the Robert Louis Stevenson novel Treasure Island
Sergeant John Spartan, a character in the 1993 American science fiction action film Demolition Man
John "Hannibal" Smith, a character in the 1980s action-adventure television series The A-Team
John Smith, a character in Mr. & Mrs. Smith
John Stewart, a character in DC Comics, one of several characters known as Green Lantern
John L. Sullivan, protagonist in the film Sullivan's Travels
John 'Sully' Sullivan, from the television series Third Watch
John Beresford Tipton, the title benefactor of The Millionaire (TV series), a 1955–1960 American television series
John Walker, also known as U.S. Agent, a superhero in Marvel Comics
John "John-Boy" Walton Jr and John Walton Sr., characters in the American historical drama television series The Waltons
John Warner and "Little John" Warner, characters in the American sitcom Jesse
John H. Watson, associate of Sherlock Holmes
John Wick, the titular protagonist of the John Wick franchise
John Witter, a character from Dawson's Creek: Pacey's father
See also
Hanan (given name)
Jonathan (name)
Johnathan, a given name
Johnson (surname)
References
English masculine given names
English-language masculine given names
Given names
Modern names of Hebrew origin
Irish masculine given names
Masculine given names
Norwegian masculine given names
Scottish masculine given names
Swedish masculine given names
Theophoric names
Welsh masculine given names
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary%20Waters%20Canoe%20Area%20Wilderness
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Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness
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The Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW or BWCA) comprises within the Superior National Forest in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota. The wilderness area is under the administration of the United States Forest Service. A mixture of forests, glacial lakes, and streams, the BWCAW's preservation as a primitive wilderness began in the 1900s and culminated in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act of 1978. It is a popular destination for canoeing, hiking, and fishing, and is the most visited wilderness in the United States.
Geography
The BWCAW extends along of the U.S.–Canada border in the Arrowhead Region of Minnesota. The combined region of the BWCAW, Superior National Forest, Voyageurs National Park, and Ontario's Quetico and La Verendrye Provincial Parks make up a large area of contiguous wilderness lakes and forests called the "Quetico-Superior country", or simply the Boundary Waters. Lake Superior lies to the south and east of the Boundary Waters.
, nearly 20% of the BWCAW's total area, is water. Within the borders of the area are over 1,100 lakes and hundreds of miles of rivers and streams. Much of the other 80% of the area is forest. The BWCAW contains the largest remaining area of uncut forest in the eastern portion of the United States.
The Laurentian Divide between the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay watersheds runs northeast–southwest through the east side of the BWCAW, following the crest of the Superior Upland and Gunflint Range. The crossing of the divide at Height of Land Portage was an occasion for ceremony and initiation rites for the fur-trading Voyageurs of the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wilderness also includes the highest peak in Minnesota, Eagle Mountain (), part of the Misquah Hills.
Located around the perimeter of the BWCAW are six ranger stations: in Cook, Aurora, Ely, Isabella, Tofte and Grand Marais. The two nearby communities with most visitor services are Ely and Grand Marais. Several historic roads such as the Gunflint Trail, Echo Trail (County Road 116) and Fernberg Road (County Road 18) allow access to many wilderness entry points.
Climate
The weather station Ely 25E is on the southern edge of Snowbank Lake (Minnesota), a lake in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has a dry winter humid continental climate (Köppen Dwb), bordering on a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).
Natural history
Geology
The lakes of the BWCAW are located in depressions formed by differential erosion of the tilted layers of the Canadian Shield. For the past two million years, massive sheets of ice have repeatedly scoured the landscape. The last glacial period ended with the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet from the Boundary Waters about 17,000 years ago. The resulting depressions in the landscape later filled with water, becoming the lakes of today.
Many varieties of Precambrian bedrock are exposed including: granite, basalt, greenstone, gneiss, as well as metamorphic rocks derived from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Greenstone of the Superior craton located near Ely, Minnesota, is up to 2.7 billion years old. Igneous rocks of the Duluth Complex comprise the bedrock of the eastern Boundary Waters. Ancient microfossils have been found in the banded iron formations of the Gunflint Chert.
Forest ecology
The Boundary Waters area is near the border of the true boreal forest and the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province (commonly called the "North Woods"), a transitional zone between the boreal forest to the north and the temperate hardwood forest to the south that contains characteristics of each. Trees found within the wilderness area include conifers such as red pine, eastern white pine, jack pine, balsam fir, white spruce, black spruce, and white-cedar, as well as deciduous birch, aspen, ash, and maple. Blueberries and raspberries can be found in cleared areas. The BWCAW is estimated to contain of old growth forest, woods that may have burned but have never been logged. Before fire suppression efforts began during the 20th century, forest fires were a natural part of the Boundary Waters ecosystem, with recurrence intervals of 30 to 300 years in most areas.
On July 4, 1999, a powerful wind storm, or derecho, swept across Minnesota, central Ontario, and southern Quebec. Winds as high as knocked down millions of trees, affecting about within the BWCAW and injuring 60 people. This event became known officially as the Boundary Waters – Canadian derecho, commonly referred to as "the Boundary Waters blowdown". Although campsites and portages were quickly cleared after the storm, an increased risk of wildfire due to the large number of downed trees became a concern. The U.S. Forest Service undertook a schedule of prescribed burns to reduce the forest fuel load in the event of a wildfire.
The first major wildfire within the blowdown area occurred in August 2005, burning between Alpine Lake and Seagull Lake in the northeastern BWCAW. In 2006, two fires at Cavity Lake and Turtle Lake burned more than . In May 2007, the Ham Lake Fire started near the location of the Cavity Lake fire, eventually covering in Minnesota and Ontario and becoming the most extensive wildfire in Minnesota in 90 years. In 2011, the Pagami Creek Fire ultimately grew to over , spreading beyond the wilderness boundary to threaten homes and businesses. Smoke from the Pagami Creek Fire drifted east and south as far as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Ontario, Chicago, Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. In 2021, it was closed due to wildfire for the first time since the 1970s, as the Greenwood Fire threatened access and spread rapidly to the south of its origin, and other smaller fires were burning within the wilderness.
Wildlife
Animals found in the BWCAW include deer, moose, beaver, timber wolves, black bears, bobcats, bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and loons. It is within the range of the largest population of wolves in the contiguous United States, as well as an unknown number of Canada lynx. It has also been identified by the American Bird Conservancy as a globally important bird habitat.
Woodland caribou once inhabited the region but have disappeared due to encroachment by deer, and the effects of a brainworm parasite carried by deer which is harmful to both caribou and moose populations. Very rare sightings have been reported in nearby areas as recently as the 1980s.
Human history
Native Americans
The north country was inhabited by the Paleo Indian culture circa 8000 BC. Limited artifacts have been found in the BWCAW from that era and the subsequent Archaic period circa 6000 years ago. Artifacts from the Early Woodland Era (circa 1300 years ago) have not been found there, but pottery and clay pipes from the Later Woodland Indians have been found there.
The area was then sparsely populated by the Sioux. Then the Ojibwe arrived and the Sioux migrated westward. The area then became a part of the homeland of the Ojibwe people, who traveled the waterways in canoes made of birch bark. Within the BWCAW are hundreds of prehistoric pictographs and petroglyphs on rock ledges and cliffs. It is thought that the Hegman Lake Pictograph located on a large overlooking rock wall on North Hegman Lake was most likely created by the Ojibwe. The pictograph appears to represent Ojibwe meridian constellations visible in winter during the early evening, knowledge of which may have been useful for navigating in the deep woods during the winter hunting season. The Grand Portage Indian Reservation, just east of the BWCAW at the community of Grand Portage, is home to a number of Ojibwe to this day.
European exploration and development
In 1688 the French explorer Jacques de Noyon became the first European known to have traveled through the BWCAW area. Later, during the 1730s, La Vérendrye and others opened the region to trade, mainly in beaver pelts. By the end of the 18th century, the fur trade had been organized into groups of canoe-paddling voyageurs working for the competing North West and Hudson's Bay Companies, with a North West Company fort located at the Grand Portage on Lake Superior. The final rendezvous was held at Grand Portage in 1803, after which the North West Company moved its operations further north to Fort William (now Thunder Bay). In 1821 the North West Company merged with the Hudson's Bay Company and the center of the fur trade moved even further north to the posts around Hudson Bay.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the area's legal and political status was disputed. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War in 1783, had defined the northern border between the United States and Canada based on the inaccurate Mitchell Map. Ownership of the area between Lake of the Woods and Lake Superior was unclear, with the United States claiming the border was further north at the Kaministiquia River and Canada claiming it was further south beginning at the Saint Louis River. In 1842, the Webster–Ashburton Treaty clarified the border between the United States and Canada using the old trading route running along the Pigeon River and Rainy River (today the BWCAW's northern border).
The BWCAW area remained largely undeveloped until gold, silver and iron were found in the surrounding area during the 1870s, 1880s and 1890s. Logging in the area began around the same time to supply lumber to support the mining industries, with production peaking in the late 1910s and gradually trailing off during the 1920s and 1930s.
Protection
In 1902, Minnesota's Forest Commissioner Christopher C. Andrews persuaded the state to reserve of land near the BWCAW from being sold to loggers. In 1905 he visited the area on a canoe trip and was impressed by the area's natural beauty. He was able to save another from being sold for development. He soon reached out to the Ontario government to encourage them to preserve some of the area's land on their side of the border, noting that the area could be "an international forest reserve and park of very great beauty and interest". This collaboration led to the creation of the Superior National Forest and the Quetico Provincial Park in 1909.
The BWCAW itself was formed gradually through a series of actions. By the early 1920s, roads had begun to be built through the Superior National Forest to promote public access to the area for recreation. In 1926 a section of within the Superior National Forest was set aside as a roadless wilderness area by Secretary of Agriculture William Marion Jardine. This area became the nucleus of the BWCAW. In 1930, Congress passed the Shipstead-Newton-Nolan Act, which prohibited logging and dams within the area to preserve its natural water levels. Through additional land purchases and shifts in boundaries, the amount of protected land owned by the government in the area grew even further. In 1938, the area's borders were expanded and altered (roughly matching those of the present day BWCAW), and it was renamed the Superior Roadless Primitive Area.
Additional laws focused on protecting the area's rustic and undeveloped character. In 1948, the Thye-Blatnik Bill authorized the government to purchase the few remaining privately owned homes and resorts within the area. In 1949, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 10092 which prohibited aircraft from flying over the area below 4,000 feet. The area was officially named the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in 1958. The Wilderness Act of 1964 organized it as a unit of the National Wilderness Preservation System. The 1978 Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act established the Boundary Waters regulations much as they are today, with limitations on motorboats and snowmobiles, a permit-based quota system for recreational access, and restrictions on logging and mining within the area. That same year the Forest Service began referring to it as "BWCAW" to recognize its wilderness character.<ref>[https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/superior/learning/history-culture/?cid=fsm91_049843 Heritage History: BWCAW timeline], Superior National Forest, United States Forest Service.</ref>
Land use disputes
Some aspects of the BWCAW's management and conservation have been controversial. A 1971 rule limiting visitors to "designated campsites" on heavy-use routes is instituted by the U.S. Forest Service. Cans and glass bottles are prohibited from the Boundary Waters. According to the U.S. Forest Service, the measure is expected to reduce refuse by , saving $90,000 per year on cleanup.
October 1975, Eighth District Representative James Oberstar (D-MN) introduced a bill that if passed would have established a Boundary Waters Wilderness Area of and a Boundary Waters National Recreation Area (NRA) of , permitting logging and mechanized travel in the latter area and removing from wilderness designation a number of large scenic lakes such as La Croix, Basswood, Saganaga, and Seagull. The bill was strongly opposed by environmentalists.
October 21, 1978, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act, U.S. Public Law 95-495, was signed by President Jimmy Carter. The act added to the Boundary Waters, to then encompasses , and extended greater wilderness protection to the area. The name was changed from the Boundary Waters Canoe Area to the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. The Act banned logging, mineral prospecting, and mining, and all but bans snowmobile use (two snowmobile routes remain to access Canada). The act limited motorboat use to about two dozen lakes, limited the size of motors, and regulated the number of motorboats and long established motorized portages. It called for limiting the number of motorized lakes to 16 in 1984, and 14 in 1999, totaling about 24% of the area's water acreage.
1989 Truck portage testing. According to the 1978 BWCAW Act: Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to require the termination of the existing operation of motor vehicles to assist in the transport of boats across the portages from Sucker Lake to Basswood Lake, from Fall Lake to Basswood Lake, and from Lake Vermilion to Trout Lake, during the period ending January 1, 1984. Following said date, unless the Secretary determines that there is no feasible non-motorized means of transporting boats across the portages to reach the lakes previously served by the portages listed above, he shall terminate all such motorized use of each portage listed above.
1989 – U S Forest Service with the University of MN conduct feasibility tests on the three truck portages. It is determined that trucks should remain.
1990 – Friends of the Boundary Waters, Sierra Club and six other environmental groups sue to have trucks removed; CWCS joins the U S Forest Service as intervenors.
1992 – Appeals court sides with U S Forest Service that trucks should remain. Friends of the Boundary Waters and coalition appeal to 8th Circuit Court of Appeals. Trucks are removed from the three truck portages.
1994 – As a result of the Friends of the Boundary Waters lawsuit against the 1992 BWCAW Management Plan, canoe rests, pontoon boats and sailboats are banned from the Boundary Waters.
1999 – As a result of the Friends of the Boundary Waters lawsuit against the 1992 BWCAW Management Plan, the courts redefined the phrase ‘that particular lake’ and exempt permits were eliminated for property owners, resorts and outfitters on the Moose, Farm and Seagull Chain of Lakes.
1999 – Trucks return to two of the three truck portages, Prairie and Trout Lake portages, as a result of Congressman Oberstar including this provision in his 1998 Transportation Bill.
A snowmobile trail located from the border provoked a lawsuit in 2006. In 2015, a judge ruled that the snowmobile trail did not violate the Wilderness Act.
Proposed Twin Metals Mine
It has been known for decades that there are about four billion tons of copper and nickel ore, "one of the world's largest undeveloped mineral deposits", in the Duluth Complex, which underlies part of northeastern Minnesota."Minnesota's Vast Mineral Resources", Mining Minnesota. Accessed July 3, 2019. Resource companies have proposed mines south and west of the BWCAW upstream of the wilderness and within its watershed, leading to concerns that surface runoff could damage the wilderness. In December 2016 the federal government proposed banning mining for 20 years while the subject was studied. The Trump Administration cancelled the study in September 2018, clearing the way for mining leases in the national forest. The Antofagasta PLC subsidiary Twin Metals Minnesota would operate a proposed mine. In October 2021, the Biden administration filed an application for a "mineral withdrawal" that will put a hold on the development of the mine proposal while the environmental impacts are studied. The completed study could lead to a 20-year ban on mining upstream from the BWCAW.
Recreation
The BWCAW attracts over 150,000 visitors per year. It contains more than 2,000 backcountry campsites, of canoe routes, and 12 different hiking trails and is popular for canoeing, canoe touring, fishing, backpacking, dog sledding, and enjoying the area's remote wilderness character.
Permits are required for all overnight visits to the BWCAW. Quota permits are required for groups taking an overnight paddle, motor, or hiking trip, or a motorized day-use trip into the BWCAW from May 1 through September 30. These permits must be reserved in advance. Day use paddle and hiking permits do not require advance reservation and can be filled out at BWCAW entry points. From October 1 through April 30, permit reservations are not necessary, but a permit must be filled out at the permit stations located at each entry point. Each permit must specify the trip leader, the specific entry point and the day of entry. The permits are for an indefinite length, although visitors are only allowed one entry into the wilderness and cannot stay in one campsite for more than 14 nights.
Hiking
The BWCAW contains a variety of hiking trails. Shorter hikes include the trail to Eagle Mountain (). Loop trails include the Pow Wow Trail, the Snowbank Trail, and the Sioux-Hustler Trail. The Border Route Trail and Kekekabic Trail are the two longest trails running through the BWCAW. The Border Route Trail runs east–west for over through the eastern BWCAW, beginning at the northern end of the Superior Hiking Trail and following ridges and cliffs west until it connects with the Kekekabic Trail. The Kekekabic Trail continues for another , beginning near the Gunflint Trail and passing through the center of the BWCAW before exiting it near Snowbank Lake. Both the Border Route and the Kekekabic Trail are part of the longer North Country National Scenic Trail.
Canoeing
Canoeing or other non-motorized boating is the most popular method of exploring the BWCAW. A 2007 study found more than 94% of overnight visitors used a non-motorized boat to travel through the park. The BWCAW's size and abundance of campsites, lakes, rivers and portage trails allow for almost countless options for different routes. Many online maps and guidebooks offer suggested routes based on entry point, duration and difficulty.
Fishing
Fishing is a popular activity in the BWCAW. Game species include northern pike, walleye, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, and occasional panfish. Trout including brook trout, lake trout, rainbow trout and splake are also found. White sucker, burbot, and whitefish also occur. Limited stocking of walleye and lake trout is done on some lakes where natural recruitment is limited. The wilderness contains one of the largest concentrations of native lake trout lakes in the lower 48 states.
Night sky viewing
In 2020 the BWCA became a designated Dark Sky Sanctuary, one of 15 in the world. "It differs from other Dark Sky designations in that sanctuaries are the most remote and often darkest places in the world whose conservation state is 'most fragile'." The U.S. Forest Service had been working towards gaining this status for the BWCAW since 2008. According to the US forest service "This designation confirms what people in the area have enjoyed for thousands of years. Dark skies, starry nights, and astonishing northern lights displays have been part of the experience long before the area was designated wilderness..."
Notable people associated with the BWCAW
Benny Ambrose, one of the last two residents of BWCAW.
Justine Kerfoot, local author and renowned outdoorswoman who moved to the Boundary Waters in 1928 and helped establish the Gunflint Lodge.Minnesota Historical Society Minnesota Environmental Issues Oral History Project: Interview with Justine Kerfoot http://collections.mnhs.org/cms/display?irn=10318525 Retrieved 6/19/20
Dorothy Molter, known as the "Rootbeer Lady", lived in the BWCAW for 56 years (alone after 1948) until her death in 1986, and was the last resident of the BWCA.
Ernest Oberholtzer, is recognized today as a leading advocate for the preservation of the Quetico-Superior lake area and what would become the BWCA.
Sigurd Olson, Minnesota author and conservationist, wrote extensively about the Boundary Waters and worked to ensure preservation of the wilderness.
References
Further reading
Fox, Porter, "On the Water, and into the Wild". The New York Times, October 21, 2016, p. 1.
Proescholdt, Kevin; Rapson, Rip: and Heinselman, Miron L. (1995). Troubled Waters''. North Star Press of St. Cloud. .
External links
Superior National Forest: BWCAW
Friends of the Boundary Waters Wilderness (political advocacy)
Boundary Waters Canoe Area Information Resource
Save the Boundary Waters (political advocacy)
List of outfitters
Canoeing and kayaking venues in the United States
Protected areas of Cook County, Minnesota
Protected areas of Lake County, Minnesota
Protected areas of St. Louis County, Minnesota
Wilderness areas of Minnesota
Protected areas established in 1964
Superior National Forest
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Low%20German
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Middle Low German
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Middle Low German (Low German: Middelsassisk/Middelsassisch/Middelnedderdüüsch/Middelneaderdüütsk, , ) is a developmental stage of Low German. It developed from the Old Saxon language in the Middle Ages and has been documented in writing since about 1225/34 (Sachsenspiegel). During the Hanseatic period (from about 1300 to about 1600), Middle Low German was the leading written language in the north of Central Europe and served as a lingua franca in the northern half of Europe. It was used parallel to medieval Latin also for purposes of diplomacy and for deeds.
Terminology
While Middle Low German (MLG) is a scholarly term developed in hindsight, speakers in their time referred to the language mainly as (Saxon) or (the Saxon language). This terminology was also still known in Luther's time in the adjacent Central German-speaking areas. Its Latin equivalent was also used as meaning 'Low German' (among other meanings).
In contrast to Latin as the primary written language, speakers also referred to discourse in Saxon as speaking/writing , i.e. 'clearly, intelligibly'. This contains the same root as 'German' (cf. High German: , Dutch (archaically N(i)ederduytsche to mean the contemporary version of the Dutch language) both from Proto-Germanic "of the people"; 'popular, vernacular') which could also be used for Low German if the context was clear. Compare also the modern colloquial term (from 'plain, simple') denoting Low (or West Central) German dialects in contrast to the written standard.
Another medieval term is (lit. 'East-ish') which was at first applied to the Hanseatic cities of the Baltic Sea (the 'East Sea'), their territory being called ('East-land'), their inhabitants ('Eastlings'). This appellation was later expanded to other German Hanseatic cities and it was a general name for Hanseatic merchants in the Netherlands, e.g. in Bruges where they had their (office; see Kontor).
In the 16th century, the term (lit. 'Lowland-ish, Netherlandish') gained ground, contrasting Saxon with the German dialects in the uplands to the south. It became dominant in the High German dialects (as ENHG , which could also refer to the modern Netherlands), while remained the most widespread term within MLG. The equivalent of 'Low German' (NHG ) seems to have been introduced later on by High German speakers and at first applied especially to Netherlanders.
Middle Low German is a modern term used with varying degrees of inclusivity. It is distinguished from Middle High German, spoken to the south, which was later replaced by Early New High German. Though Middle Dutch is today usually excluded from MLG (although very closely related), it is sometimes, especially in older literature, included in MLG, which then encompasses the dialect continuum of all high-medieval Continental Germanic dialects outside MHG, from Flanders in the West to the eastern Baltic.
Extent
Middle Low German covered a wider area than the Old Saxon language of the preceding period, due to expansion to the East and, to a lesser degree, to the North.
In the East, the MLG-speaking area expanded greatly as part of the Ostsiedlung (settlement of the East) in the 12th to 14th century and came to include Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania and (Old) Prussia, which were hitherto dominated by Slavic and Baltic tribes. Some pockets of these native peoples persisted for quite some time, e.g. the Wends along the lower Elbe until about 1700 or the Kashubians of Eastern Pomerania up to modern times.
In the North, the Frisian-speaking areas along the North Sea diminished in favour of Saxon, esp. in East Frisia which largely switched to MLG since the mid-14th century. North of the Elbe, MLG advanced slowly into Sleswick, against Danish and North Frisian, although the whole region was ruled by Denmark. MLG exerted a huge influence upon Scandinavia (cf. History), even if native speakers of Low German were mostly confined to the cities where they formed colonies of merchants and craftsmen. It was an official language of Old Livonia, whose population consisted mostly of Baltic and Finnic tribes.
In the West, at the Zuiderzee, the forests of the Veluwe and close to the Lower Rhine, MLG bordered on closely related Low Franconian dialects whose written language was mainly Middle Dutch. In earlier times, these were sometimes included in the modern definition of MLG (cf. Terminology).
In the South, MLG bordered on High German dialects roughly along the northern borders of Hesse and Thuringia. The language border then ran eastwards across the plain of the middle Elbe until it met the (then more extensive) Sorb-speaking area along the upper Spree that separated it from High German. The border was never a sharp one, rather a continuum. The modern convention is to use the pronunciation of northern maken vs. southern machen ('to make') for determining an exact border. Along the middle Elbe and lower Saale rivers, Low German began to retreat in favour of High German dialects already during Late Medieval times (cf. Wittenberg whose name is Low German but whose inhabitants already spoke mostly/exclusively High German when the Reformation set in).
History
Sub-periods of Middle Low German are:
Early Middle Low German (Standard High German: ): 1200–1350, or 1200–1370
Classical Middle Low German (): 1350–1500, or 1370–1530
Late Middle Low German (): 1500–1600, or 1530–1650
Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. It used to be thought that the language of Lübeck was dominant enough to become a normative standard (the so-called ) for an emergent spoken and written standard, but more recent work has established that there is no evidence for this and that Middle Low German was non-standardised.
Middle Low German provided a large number of loanwords to languages spoken around the Baltic Sea as a result of the activities of Hanseatic traders. Its traces can be seen in the Scandinavian, Finnic, and Baltic languages, as well as Standard High German and English. It is considered the largest single source of loanwords in Danish, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Swedish.
Beginning in the 15th century, Middle Low German fell out of favour compared to Early Modern High German, which was first used by elites as a written and, later, a spoken language. Reasons for this loss of prestige include the decline of the Hanseatic League, followed by political heteronomy of Northern Germany and the cultural predominance of Central and Southern Germany during the Protestant Reformation and Luther's translation of the Bible.
Phonology and orthography
The description is based on Lasch (1914) which continues to be the authoritative comprehensive grammar of the language but is not necessarily up-to-date in every detail.
Consonants
Square brackets indicate allophones.
Round brackets indicate phonemes that do not have phoneme status in the whole language area or are marginal in the phonological system.
It has to be noted that it is not rare to find the same word in MLG affected by one of the following phonological processes in one text and unaffected by it in another text because the lack of a written standard, the dialectal variation and ongoing linguistic change during the Middle Low German (MLG) era.
General notes
Final devoicing: Voiced obstruents in the syllable coda are devoiced, e.g. geven (to give) but gift (gift). The change took place early in MLG but is not always represented in writing. Proclitic words like mid (with) might remain voiced before a vowel because they are perceived as one phonological unit with the following word. Also, as can already be seen in Old Saxon, lenited is devoiced to before syllabic nasals or liquids, e.g. gaffel (fork) from PG *gabalō.
Grammatischer Wechsel: Because of sound changes in Proto-Germanic (cf. Verner's law), some words had different sounds in different grammatical forms. In MLG, there were only fossilised remnants of the "grammatischer wechsel" (grammatical change), namely for and , e.g. kêsen (to choose) but koren ((they) chose), and for and , e.g. vân < PG *fanhaną (to take hold, to catch) but gevangen < PG *fanganaz (taken hold of, caught).
Assimilation: A sound becoming more similar to a (usually) neighbouring sound, usually in place or manner of articulation, is very common across all languages. Early MLG did mark assimilation much more often in writing than later periods, e.g. vamme instead of van deme (of the).
Dissimilation: In MLG, it frequently happened with vs. or vs. , e.g. balbêrer < barbêrer (barber), or knuflôk < kluflôk (garlic). Both forms frequently co-existed. The complete loss of a sound in proximity to an identical sound can also be explained in such a way, e.g. the loss of in Willem (William) < Wilhelm.
Metathesis: Some sounds tended to switch their places, especially the "liquids" and . Both forms may co-exist, e.g. brennen vs. (metathesised) bernen (to burn).
Gemination: In MLG, geminate consonants, which came into being by assimilation or syncope, were no longer pronounced as such. Instead, geminate spelling marks the preceding vowel as short. Many variants exist, like combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (e.g. letters, Sundays). Late MLG tended to use clusters of similar consonants after short as well as long vowels for no apparent reason, e.g. for (time).
h spellings: A mute h appeared sporadically after consonants already in Old Saxon. Its use greatly increased in MLG, first at the end of a word, when it often marked the preceding vowel as long, but it later appears largely randomly. In very late times, the use of h directly after the vowel is sometimes adopted from Modern High German as a sign of vowel length.
Specific notes on nasals
(Indented notes refer to orthography.)
had a tendency to shift to in the coda, e.g. dem > den (the (dat.sg.m.)).
Intervocalic is sometimes spelled mb whether or not it developed from Old Saxon .
assimilated to before velars and .
Final often dropped out in unstressed position before consonants, e.g., (we have), cf. Modern Dutch for a similar process. Similarly, it often dropped from -clusters after unstressed vowels, especially in Westphalian, e.g. jârlix (annually) < jârlings.
Furthermore, had been deleted in certain coda positions several centuries earlier (the so-called Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law), but there were many exceptions and restorations through analogy: the shifted form gôs (goose < PG *gans) with an unshifted plural gense (geese) was quite common. Non-shifted forms have been common in the more innovative Eastern dialects.
Specific notes on stops and fricatives
as a stop is always word-initially (blôme flower, bloom), at the onset of stressed syllables (barbêrer barber) and (historically) geminated (ebbe ebb, low tide). Its allophones in other cases are word-internal and word-final (e.g. drêven to drive, vs. drêf drive (n.)).
Voiceless usually appeared word-initially (e.g. vader father), word-finally (merged with historical , see above), otherwise between short vowels and nasals/liquids (also from historical , e.g. gaffel fork) and in loans (e.g. straffen to tighten, from High German).
It was mostly written v in the syllable onset, in the coda. Exceptions include loans (figûre), some proper names (Frederik), cases like gaffel as mentioned earlier and sporadically before u (where v would be too similar graphically) and before l and r. Sometimes, w is used for v, and ph for f.
It has to be noted that in MLG (like in other medieval) texts, there is usually no clear graphic distinction between v and u. The distinction between both (consonant value as v, vocalic value as u) is used in modern dictionaries, in grammars and in this article simply for better readability. Thus, in the manuscripts, e.g. auer is aver (but).
was originally an approximant but seems to have later shifted towards a fricative. Its exact articulation likely differed from dialect to dialect, and many of them merged word-internally with , an allophone of .
In writing, w for word-internal was kept strictly separate from at first, but the use of w later also expanded to .
The clusters , , , were originally often written with v/u (svager brother-in-law) but later mostly shifted to a w-spelling, except for , which kept qu from Latin influence.
The dentals and tended to drop out between unstressed vowels, e.g. antwēr (either) instead of antwēder, and in word-final clusters like , or , e.g. often rech next to recht (law, right), schrîf next to schrîft ((he/she) writes).
Remnants of Old Saxon shifted via into in the early MLG era. After and , it was the case already in late Old Saxon. For , word-final and some frequent words like dat (that, the (neut.)), the change also happened very early. The changes happened earliest in Westphalian and latest in North Low Saxon.
was voiced intervocalically as . Whether it was voiced word-initially is not fully clear. There seems to have been dialectal variation, with voiceless more likely for Westphalian and voiced more likely for East Elbian dialects.
Because of the variation, voiceless (for example in loans from Romance or Slavic) was often written tz, cz, c etc. for clarity.
The phonemic status of is difficult to determine because of the extremely irregular orthography. Its status likely differed between the dialects, with early MLG having (Westphalian keeping it until modern times) and no phonemic , and e.g. East Elbian and in general many later dialects had from earlier . If there is phonemic , it often replaces of in clusters like and .
Connected with the status of is the manner of articulation of . Orthographic variants and some modern dialects seem to point to a more retracted, more sh-like pronunciation (perhaps ), especially if there was no need to distinguish and . That is shown up by modern Westphalian.
is at best a marginal role as a phoneme and appears in loans or develops because of compounding or epenthesis. Note the palatalised (next point).
In writing, it was often marked by copious clustering, e.g. ertzcebischope (archbishop).
before front vowels is strongly palatalised in Old Saxon (note the similar situation in the closely related Old English) and at least some of early MLG, as can be seen from spellings like zint for kint (child) and the variation of placename spellings, especially in Nordalbingian and Eastphalian, e.g. Tzellingehusen for modern Kellinghusen. The palatalisation, perhaps as or , persisted until the High Middle Ages but was later mostly reversed. Thus, for instance, the old affricate in the Slavic placename Liubici could be reinterpreted as a velar stop, giving the modern name Lübeck. A few words and placenames completely palatalised and shifted their velar into a sibilant (sever beetle, chafer, from PG *kebrô; the city of Celle < Old Saxon Kiellu).
Early MLG frequently used c for (cleyn small), which later became rarer. However, geminate k (after historically short vowels and consonants) continued to be written ck (e.g. klocke bell), more rarely kk or gk.
gk otherwise appeared often after nasal (ringk ring, (ice) rink).
was often written x, especially in the West.
usually came as qu, under Latin influence (quêmen to come).
Furthermore, after unstressed , often changed into , e.g. in the frequent derivational suffix -lik (vrüntligen friendly (infl.)) or, with final devoicing, in sich instead of sik (him-/her-/itself, themselves).
Sometimes, ch was used for a syllable-final (ôch also, too). The h can be seen a sign of lengthening of the preceding vowel, not of spirantisation (see "h-spelling" below).
was a fricative. Its exact articulation probably differed by dialect. Broadly, there seems to have been dialects that distinguished a voiced palatal and a voiced velar , depending on surrounding vowels (: word-initially before front vowels, word-internally after front vowels; in those positions, but with back vowels), and dialects that always used word-initially and word-internally (Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, e.g. word-internally after a back vowel: vogt, reeve). Nevertheless, was kept separate from old . In the coda position, came as a dorsal fricative (palatal or velar , depending on the preceding sound), which thus merging with .
The spelling gh was at first used almost exclusively before e or word-finally but began to spread to other positions, notably before i. It did not indicate a different pronunciation but was part of an orthographic pattern seen in many other parts of Europe. Furtherore, in early western traditions of MLG, sometimes ch was used for in all positions, also word-initially.
Coda was mostly spelled ch because it completely merged with historic (see below).
After nasals and as a geminate, appeared as a stop , e.g. seggen "to say", penninghe "pennies". In contrast to modern varieties, it remained audible after a nasal. Pronouncing g word-initially as a stop is likely a comparatively recent innovation under High German influence.
could be used for in older MLG, e.g. Dudiggerode for the town of Düringerode.
frequently dropped between sonorants (except after nasals), e.g. bormêster (burgomaster, mayor) < borgermêster.
was often epenthetised between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, e.g. neigen (to sew) < Old Saxon *nāian, or vrûghe (lady, woman) < Old Saxon frūa. In Westphalian, this sound could harden into [g], e.g. eggere (eggs).
in the onset was a glottal fricative , and it merged with historic in the coda (see above). Word-final after consonant or long vowel was frequently dropped, e.g. hôch or hô (high). In a compound or phrase, it often became silent (Willem < Wilhelm William).
Onset was written h, while coda = was mostly written ch but also and the like because of its merger with .
Coda = frequently dropped between and , e.g. Engelbert (a first name) with the common component -bert < Old Saxon (bright, famous). In unstressed syllables, it could also occur between a vowel and , e.g. nit (not) < Old Saxon niowiht (not a thing).
Often, h was used for other purposes than its actual sound value: to mark vowel length (see h-spelling under "General Notes" above), to "strengthen" short words (ghân to go), to mark a vocalic onset ( our (infl.)) or vowel hiatus (sêhes (of the) lake).
Specific notes on approximants
was a palatal approximant and remained separate from , the palatal allophone of .
It was often spelled g before front vowels and was not confused with gh = . The variant y was sometimes used (yöget youth).
was likely an alveolar trill or flap , like in most traditional Low German dialects until recently. Post-vocalic sometimes dropped, especially before .
was originally probably velarised, i.e. a "dark l" , at least in the coda, judging from its influence on surrounding vowels, but it was never extensively vocalised as Dutch was. During the MLG era, it seems to have shifted to a "clear l" in many dialects and tended to be dropped in some usually unstressed words, especially in Westphalian, e.g., , instead of (as).
Vowels
Modern renderings of MLG (like this article) often use circumflex or macron to mark vowel length (e.g. â or ā) to help the modern reader, but original MLG texts marked vowel length not by accents but by doubling vowels, by adding a lengthening e or i, by doubling the following consonants (after short vowels) or by adding h after the following consonants.
Morphology
Noun
Verb
Dialects
Lasch distinguished the following large dialect groups, emphasising that she based it strictly on the orthography, which may often omit strongly dialectal phenomena in favour of more prestigious/"standard" forms. Nevertheless, the dialect groups broadly correspond with modern ones.
Westphalian (HG: Westfälisch, Dutch: Westfaals): Broadly speaking, the area between the middle Weser and lower Rhine. Main cities: Münster, Paderborn, Dortmund, Bielefeld, Osnabrück. Some Saxon dialects in the modern Netherlands (esp. modern Gelderland and Overijssel) belonged to this group. Dutch influence on them strongly increased since the 15th century.
Some features: In the West, strong influence from Low Franconian orthographic patterns (e.g. e or i as a sign of length, like oi = ). The "breaking" of old short vowels in open syllables and before was often marked in writing (e.g. karn instead of korn). Old geminated and sometimes was hardened into ; frequently shifted to (sometimes reversed in writing); instead of (sal vs schal). The native present plural verbs was -et but the written norm often impressed -en. Similarly, the participle prefix ge- was usually written, though probably only spoken in the Southwest. Lexically, strong connections with adjacent dialects further north (East Frisian and Oldenburgish), e.g. ('Wednesday') instead of . Westphalian was and is often thought to be altogether the most conservative dialect group.
North Low Saxon (HG: Nordniedersächsisch, Dutch: Noord-Nedersaksisch): Spoken in a long stretch of coastal regions from the Zuiderzee in the West to East Prussia in the East. Its orthographic habits come closest to what was traditionally perceived as a MLG standard (the Lübeck standard, nowadays disputed).
Some features: Short and in open syllables are stretched into a -like vowel. The personal suffixes -er and -ald appear as -ar and -old. The pronouns mî (1.sg.), dî (2.sg.) and jû (2.pl.) are used for both dative and accusative.
Three subgroups can be distinguished:
(1) East Frisian and Oldenburgish, i.e. the areas west of the lower Weser, in the North including dialects on Frisian substrate. As can be expected, there is much Westphalian, Dutch and Frisian influence (hem next to em 'him'; plurals in -s; vrent next to vrünt 'friend').
(2) Nordalbingian, between the lower Weser and the lower Elbe, and also Holstein on the right bank of the lower Elbe. main towns: Hamburg, Bremen, Lunenburg, Kiel.
(3) East Elbian, including Lübeck and the areas further east, like Mecklenburg, Pomerania, northern Brandenburg (Prignitz, Uckermark, Altmark), Old Prussia, Livonia. Very close to Nordalbingian. While the Eastern dialects are today clearly distinguished from the West by their uniform present plural verb ending in -en (against Western uniform ), in MLG times, both endings competed against each other in West and East. Main towns: Lübeck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund. High German influence was strong in the Teutonic Order, due to the diverse regional origins of its chivalric elite, therefore MLG written culture was neglected early on.
Eastphalian (HG: Ostfälisch): Roughly the area east of the middle Weser, north and partly west of the Harz mountains, reaching the middle Elbe, but leaving out the Altmark region. In the north, the sparsely populated Lunenburg Heath forms something of a natural border. Main cities: Hanover, Hildesheim, Brunswick, Goslar, Göttingen, Magdeburg, Halle (early times). The area within the Elbe's drainage was established by colonisation and is in many ways special. The southern part of this Elbe Eastphalian (HG: Elbostfälisch) area switched to High German already in Late Medieval times.
Some features: Umlaut is more productive, occurring before -ich and -isch (e.g. 'Saxon, Low German') and shifting also e to i (e.g. stidde for stêde 'place'). Diphthongised short is rarely marked as such, contrary to other dialects. Before , e and a are frequently interchanged for each other. Unstressed o (as in the suffix -schop) frequently changes into u (-schup). The modal verb for 'shall/should' features , not (i.e. schal). The past participle's prefix was commonly spoken e- but mostly written ge- under prescriptive influence. The local form ek ('I' (pron. 1.sg.)) competed with "standard" ik; in a similar way the oblique form mik ('me') with "standard" mî. Unusually, there is also a dative pronoun (1.sg. mê). Lexically, close connections with Nordalbingian. Unusual plural menne ('men').
(South) Brandenburgish (HG: (Süd-)Brandenburgisch) and East Anhaltish (HG: Ostanhaltisch): Roughly between the middle Elbe and the middle Oder, and along the middle Havel, bordering old Sorbian territory to the Southeast. Main cities: Berlin, Frankfurt/Oder, Zerbst. A colonial dialect strongly influenced by settlers speaking Low Franconian. Also strongly influenced by High German early on.
Some features: Old long ê and ô were diphthongised into and , written i and u. Old Germanic coda is restored, contrary to Ingvaeonic sound changes, e.g. gans 'goose'. Present plural of verbs features the suffix -en. Lack of negative determiner nên ('no' (attr.)), instead: keyn, similar to High German. The past participle retains the prefix ge-. Lack of gaderen ('to gather') and tőgen ('to show'); instead of them, forms close to High German, i.e. and . In East Anhaltish, distinction of dative and accusative pronouns (e.g. mi vs mik, cf. HG mir and mich).
Literature
Bible translations into German
The Sachsenspiegel
Reynke de Vos, a version of Reynard (at wikisource)
Low German Incunable prints in Low German as catalogued in the Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke, including the Low German Ship of Fools, Danse Macabre and the novel Paris und Vienne
Sample texts
References
External links
A grammar and chrestomathy of Middle Low German by Heinrich August Lübben (1882) (in German), at the Internet Archive
A grammar of Middle Low German (1914) by Agathe Lasch (in German), at the Internet Archive
Schiller-Lübben: A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Schiller/Lübben (1875–1881) at Mediaevum.de and at the Internet Archive
Project TITUS, including texts in Middle Low German
A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Gerhard Köbler (2010)
Middle Low German influence on the Scandinavian languages
Middle Low German corpus. Still under construction, but the website contains a very concise sketch of MLG grammar also based on Lasch
Low German
German dialects
Hanseatic League
History of the German language
Low German, Middle
Languages attested from the 12th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Caprice
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Chevrolet Caprice
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The Chevrolet Caprice is a full-size car produced by Chevrolet in North America for the 1965 to 1996 model years. Full-size Chevrolet sales peaked in 1965 with over a million sold. It was the most popular car in the U.S. in the 1960s and early 1970s, which, during its lifetime, included the Biscayne, Bel Air, and Impala.
Introduced in mid-1965 as a luxury trim package for the Impala four-door hardtop, Chevrolet offered a full line of Caprice models for the 1966 and subsequent model years, including a "formal hardtop" coupe and an Estate station wagon. The 1971 to 1976 models are the largest Chevrolets ever built. The downsized 1977 and restyled 1991 models were awarded Motor Trend Car of the Year. Production ended in 1996.
From 2011 to 2017, the Caprice nameplate returned to North America as a full-size, rear wheel drive police vehicle, a captive import from Australia built by General Motors's subsidiary Holden—the police vehicle is a rebadged version of the Holden WM/WN Caprice. The nameplate also had a civilian and police presence in the Middle East from 1999 to 2017, where the imported Holden Statesman/Caprice built by Holden was marketed as the Chevrolet Caprice in markets such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
Early history
There are differing accounts of the origin of the Caprice name. One states that it was coined by Bob Lund, Chevrolet's General Sales Manager, after a classy restaurant he frequented in New York City. Another says the car was named after Caprice Chapman, the daughter of auto executive James P. Chapman.
A Caprice Custom Sedan option package (RPO Z18) was offered on the 1965 Chevrolet Impala 4-door hardtop, adding to the price tag. The Caprice option included a heavier frame, suspension changes, black-accented front grille and rear trim panel with Caprice nameplate, slender body sill moldings, Fleur-de-lis roof quarter emblems, color-keyed bodyside stripes and Caprice hood and dash emblems. Full wheel covers were the same as that year's Super Sport, but the "SS" emblem in the center of the spinner was replaced by a Chevy bowtie. The Super Sport's blackout rear trim panel was also used, without the "Impala SS" nameplate. The interior featured a higher-grade cloth and vinyl seat and door trim (as well as thicker, higher-grade carpeting), faux walnut trim on the dashboard and door panels, pull straps on the doors, and extra convenience lights. A full vinyl roof was optional. A , V8 engine was standard, as was a column-mounted 3-speed manual transmission.
The Caprice was intended to compete with the Ford LTD, Plymouth VIP, or AMC's Ambassador DPL. These models included luxuriously upholstered interiors with simulated wood dashboard and door-panel trim, thicker carpeting, sound insulation, courtesy lighting, and more upscale exterior trims.
First generation (1966–1970)
1966
Caprice gained series status for the 1966 model year and was positioned as the top-line full-size Chevrolet. It included a four-door hardtop, six- or nine-passenger station wagon, and a two-door hardtop with a squared-off formal roofline in contrast to the Impala/SS Sport Coupe's fastback roof styling. All four Caprice models were marketed as "Caprice Custom."
The Caprice Custom Estate, a new station wagon model with simulated woodgrain exterior trim was the first Chevrolet with such a design since its real woodie wagon was offered in 1954 on the Chevrolet Bel Air. All wagons included an all-vinyl upholstered two-row bench seat interior with an optional third rear-facing seat for two. The Custom Estate became the full-sized station wagon when the Buick LeSabre Estate was discontinued in 1964. The V8 engine was standard for Caprice models with the "Turbo Jet" V8 optional. It was possible to have Regular Production Option (RPO) L72, a 425-hp big block V8 with solid lifters, special camshaft and carburetor, and 11 to 1 compression. An automatic transmission, power steering, white sidewall tires, and a vinyl top (on the hardtops) were extra-cost options, but most were built with them. Additionally, air conditioning, power windows, Cruise-Master speed control, power seats, an automatic headlight dimmer (1965 only) and stereo radios were available. The standard transmission was a Synchro-Mesh three-speed manual, mounted on the steering column. It remained standard throughout this generation.
The 1966 Caprice featured a revised grille and front bumper, and new rectangular taillights which replaced the Chevrolet-traditional triple round taillights used on Impalas since 1958, with the exception of the 1959 model. Lenses and silver trim on Caprices differed slightly from the other full-sized models. Sedans and coupe models included luxurious cloth and vinyl bench seats with a folding center armrest in the rear seat. Optional on both was a "Strato bench" seat which combined bucket-style seat backs and a center armrest with a bench cushion for six-passenger seating. Caprices had unique standard wheel covers, although some of the optional wheels and wheel covers on full-sized models were optional.
New options included the "Comfortron" air conditioning system where the driver could set a constant year-round temperature. A "Tilt/Telescopic" steering wheel option could be adjusted vertically in six positions, as well as be telescoped farther out from the steering column. Coupes could also be ordered with an all-vinyl interior featuring Strato bucket seats and center console with floor shifter, storage compartment, courtesy lighting, and full instrumentation at the front end of the console that was integrated with the lower instrument panel.
The 1965-70 GM B platform is the fourth best-selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T, and the Lada Riva.
1967–1968
The 1967 Caprice received a restyling with more rounded body lines and revised grilles and taillights, optional front fender corner lamps which illuminated with the headlamps, as well as a revised instrument panel with round instruments and a new steering wheel. Taillamp lenses were all red as the backup lamps were relocated into the rear bumper, unlike in the lesser full-size models that had their backup lamps in the center of the taillamps. A dual-master brake cylinder was now included, while front disc brakes were optional. Other new options included a stereo 8-track tape player, power door locks, and a fiber optic exterior light monitoring system. The same seating selections continued as before with revisions to trim patterns plus the new addition of all-vinyl upholstery as a no-cost option for conventional and Strato bench seats in sedans and coupes. Engines and transmission offerings were carried over from the previous year. The exception was the optional Turbo Jet V8 was no longer listed, leaving the 427 as the top engine. The three-speed Turbo Hydramatic transmission that previously only available with the and V8s was now optional with the Turbo Fire V8. As with all 1967 cars sold in the U.S., Caprices featured occupant protection safety features that included an energy-absorbing steering column, soft or recessed interior control knobs, and front outboard shoulder belt anchors.
The "100 millionth GM car" was a light blue metallic 1967 Caprice coupe. It was assembled on April 21, 1967 at the Janesville, Wisconsin plant. It was actually the 100 millionth GM car built in the United States; production including Canadian plants had actually passed the 100 million mark in March 1966, with an Oldsmobile Toronado being the car in question.
The 1968 Caprice received a minor facelift that included a new grille with taillights set into the bumper and optional hidden headlamps. Caprice coupes now came standard with the new Astro Ventilation system, which included extra vents in the dash, and the removal of vent (wing) windows. Side marker lamps became standard on all U.S. cars and the Caprice carried over the optional white corner marker lamps at the forward edge of the fenders in addition to the amber parking lamps which were illuminated with the headlights. All 1968 Chevrolets got front side marker lamps on the fender; cars with an optional engine were identified with its cubic inch displacement listed on half the bezel; the lamp itself occupied the other half. The fiber optics monitoring system was offered again as an option. The Caprice Coupe got serious competition when Chevrolet offered the car's formal roofline in the Impala series as well. The Impala Custom Coupe became the best-selling model in the line. The L72 Turbo-Jet V8 returned to the option list after a one-year hiatus. A new Turbo Fire V8 rated at replaced the small block as the standard engine. Inside, the instrument panel was revised with a return to the horizontal sweep speedometer and a revised three-spoke steering wheel. An optional instrument cluster had a narrow speedometer within its opening and flanking it with engine-turned instruments in the place of warning lamps. The fuel gauge, placed next to the speedometer within its own pod in the base models, was moved to its new place next to the speedometer. A tachometer took the place of the fuel gauge in the large opening left by the fuel gauge.
1969–1970
The 1969 Caprice and other full-sized Chevrolets were restyled with new body lines and front bumpers that wrapped around the grille (again with optional concealed headlamps, for which washers could be added as a new "one year only" option) along with ventless front windows on all models. The wheelbase, inner bodyshell and framework were carried over from the 1965 model. The station wagon was renamed the Kingswood Estate and continued to use exterior wood grain trim along with the interior trim of the Caprice sedans and coupes. Front seat headrests were now standard equipment to meet federal safety standards and the ignition switch moved from the dashboard to the steering column and also locked the steering wheel when the key was removed. This was part of a Federal mandate for the 1970 models, but introduced a year earlier on all General Motors cars except the Corvair.
The 1969 Caprice also offered a new GM-designed variable-ratio power steering unit as optional equipment along with a seldom-ordered "Liquid Tire Chain" option, which was a vacuum activated button that would spray ice melt on the rear tires (UPC option code is "V75"). The standard engine was enlarged to a V8 with optional engine choices including a new Turbo Fire V8 in 255 or versions, a cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8, as well as a cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8s rated at or . All V8 engines were now available with the three-speed Turbo Hydramatic transmission for the first time though the two-speed Powerglide was still offered with the 327 and 350 V8s.
The 1970 Caprice received a minor facelift featuring a more conventional under the grille bumper replacing the wrap-around unit used in 1969, along with new triple vertical taillamps in the rear bumper. Power front disc brakes and fiberglass-belted tires on wheels were made standard equipment along with a 350 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8. Optional V8s included a 350 and a new Turbo Fire V8. The top engine was a new Turbo Jet V8 offered in or versions. Both the 250- and Turbo Fire engines were designed to use regular gasoline while the 350 Turbo Fire and both 454 Turbo Jet engines required premium fuel. A three-speed manual transmission with column shift was standard equipment as in previous years but the floor-mounted four-speed manual with Hurst shifter was dropped from the option list for 1970 as were the Strato bucket seats and center console previously offered on coupes. Automatic transmission options included the two-speed Powerglide on 350 V8s and Turbo Hydra-Matic with all engines.
Second generation (1971–1976)
1971–1972
For 1971 the top-of-the-line Caprice was completely redesigned on a longer wheelbase and featured bold, Chrysler-like fuselage styling. Flush exterior door handles and double-shell roofs were new on the Caprice – both features first appearing on the 1970½ Camaro and Pontiac Firebird. The new styling was highlighted by a Cadillac-like "egg-crate" grille with a "Caprice" emblem in the center and brushed metal trim surrounding the taillights on the rear deck. The "Full-Perimeter" frame and all-coil suspension were refined for improvements in ride and noise reduction.
Inside were revised interiors featuring a two-spoke cushioned steering wheel and new instrument panel with horizontal sweep speedometer and instrument placement similar to previous full-sized Chevrolets. Caprices continued with higher grade interiors than their Impala counterparts with luxurious cloth-and-vinyl upholstery, wood grain trim on the dash, steering wheel, and door panels as well as carpeting on lower door panels on both sedans and coupes. A center front seat armrest was also featured on sedans.
Station wagons now used a unique wheelbase and were larger than ever before. Station wagons continued to use unique model names. The Kingswood Estate wagon was considered to be equivalent to the Chevrolet Caprice being the top-level wagon. Unlike previous years, station wagons used unique rear suspension using a solid axle with leaf springs as opposed to coil springs and trailing arms on sedans and coupes.
Wagons featured a 'clamshell' design marketed as the Glide-away tailgate, also called a "disappearing" tailgate because when open, the tailgate was completely out of view. On the clamshell design, the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof and the lower tailgate (with either manual or optional power operation), lowered completely below the load floor. The manual lower tailgate was counterbalanced by a torque rod similar to the torque rods used in holding a trunk lid open, requiring a 35 lb push to fully lower the gate. Raising the manual gate required a 5 lb pull via a handhold integral to the top edge of the retractable gate. The power operation of both upper glass and lower tailgate became standard equipment in later model years. Wagons with the design featured an optional third row of forward-facing seats accessed by the rear side doors and a folding second-row seat — and could accommodate a sheet of building material with rear seats folded. The clamshell design required no increased footprint or operational area to open, allowing a user to stand at the cargo opening without the impediment of a door — for example, in a closed garage.
The Kingswood Estate had the two-barrel engine as standard with the same engine options as the coupes and sedans. Station wagon models came only with single exhaust systems which meant lesser power ratings than coupes and sedans.
Power front disc brakes were standard equipment, along with a larger gross ( net) 400 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8. This engine, along with all optional power plants, was designed to run on regular leaded, low-lead or unleaded gasoline of 91 research octane or higher. To achieve this, all engines had the compression ratios lowered to 8.5:1. General Motors was the first of the big three to have all engines run on regular fuel and these changes were made to help meet the increasingly stringent emission regulations that were to come into place in years to come.
Optional engines included 300 horsepower (206 net) 402 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8 (marketed as "Turbo Jet 400 on full-size cars, and as "Turbo Jet 396 on intermediate cars) and gross ( net) 454 Turbo Jet V8 which came standard with dual exhaust. When equipped with dual exhaust, the 400 Turbo Jet was rated at . At year's beginning, a three-speed manual transmission was standard when the model was introduced in the fall of 1970, although at mid-year, the Turbo Hydramatic transmission and variable-ratio power steering became standard equipment on all Caprice models and lower-line models fitted with a V8 engine.
Chevrolet specifications included both "gross" and "net" horsepower figures in 1971, which was a year before the industry-wide transition to SAE net horsepower figures. SAE net horsepower standardized horsepower ratings in accord with SAE standard J1349 figures to get a more accurate horsepower figure. "Net" horsepower was measured "as installed" in a vehicle with power using accessories and emission equipment installed, exhaust systems, and air cleaners, leading to lower power ratings. For 1971, the 400 Turbo-Jet engine was rated at 300 gross horsepower with and without dual exhaust, while the more accurate net figures show it rated at with a single exhaust and 260 with dual exhaust. Beginning in 1972, automakers would follow SAE standard J1349 and the "net" horsepower ratings were the only advertised ratings.
In its May 1971 issue, Motor Trend magazine published a comparison road test that included a Caprice Coupe and a Cadillac Sedan de Ville. The tested Caprice was powered by the 454 V8 and loaded with virtually all available options. Though testers noted that the Cadillac had a higher level of quality than the Chevrolet along with a far more luxurious interior (the DeVille was upholstered in leather while the Caprice had the standard cloth trim), the magazine ultimately considered the Chevy as the better value at $5,550 compared to the Cadillac's $9,081 price mainly due to the fact the $3,500 price difference bought only a modest-quality addition and a few more luxury features.
The 1972 Caprice received a facelift with a revised grille that was lower in height than the '71 model flanked by a new bumper with increased protection one year ahead of the Federal mandate. This was done by a bumper within the bumper design. Heavy gauge beams reinforced the bumper and attached to the frame. The rear bumper also featured this design and now had the triple taillights now mounted in the bumper. Engine offerings were carried over from 1971 with the switch to "net" horsepower ratings including for the standard two-barrel Turbo Fire V8, ( with optional dual exhaust) for the four-barrel Turbo Jet 400 big-block V8 and for the four-barrel dual exhaust Turbo Jet V8 (rated at in wagons with single exhaust). Turbo Hydramatic transmission, variable-ratio power steering and power front disc brakes continued as standard equipment. New to the Caprice lineup was a pillared four-door sedan. All models also featured a revised "Astro Ventilation" system utilizing vents in the doorjambs that replaced the troublesome 1971 version that used vents in the trunk lid and turned out to be a major source of complaints to Chevy (and other GM divisions) dealers from customers. 6-way power seats, 8-track tape players, and air conditioning were optional.
1973–1974
The Caprice models were renamed to Caprice Classic for the 1973 model year. The Kingswood Estate model with simulated wood-grain body side trim was now named the Caprice Estate. The convertible was moved from the Impala to the Caprice lineup for the first time in 1973.
The 1973 facelift included a new cross-hatch grille, energy-absorbing front bumper and revised square taillights, again mounted in the bumper. New emission standards added EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) valves to engines (with a new roller camshaft), and horsepower ratings were reduced. The standard Turbo-Fire two-barrel was now rated at while the only optional engine was the Turbo-Jet V8 produced with dual exhaust with single exhaust used in station wagons. A new option on sedans and coupes was a 50/50 bench seat with recliner on the passenger side. The instrument panel and steering wheel were now offered in a variety of colors to harmonize the interior, and the wheel featured a new "soft-grip" rim. Front seats were also re-positioned to give more legroom for taller drivers, but shorter people found the driving position awkward.
The 1974 models featured a new formal, upright grille while turn signals moved from the bumper and were now inset of the dual headlights. The taillights were moved above the new rear bumper. New thick "B" pillars and fixed rear quarter opera windows were new on two-door coupes, which essentially eliminated pillar-less hardtop design much like the GM intermediates did the previous year. Other body styles including the four-door pillared and hardtop sedans, convertible and Estate Wagon were carried over with only minor changes from 1973. New to the engine roster was a four-barrel version of the small block 400 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8 rated at (which was the standard engine on wagons and all cars sold in California, optional on other models in 49 states). All other engines were carried over from 1973 although the 454 Turbo Jet lost , now rated at Also new for 1974 were integrated lap and shoulder seat belts and an "interlock" system required the driver and front seat passengers to fasten seat belts to be able to start the engine. The interlock feature proved so unpopular that Congress rescinded it shortly after the introduction of the 1975 models. A new option this year was a remote control for the passenger-side outside rear-view mirror. Instrument panels and steering wheels offered
1975–1976
The 1975 models received a new front end with swept-back headlights, revised grille, and turn signals returned to the bumper which also angles backward at both ends. New taillights now wrap around rear fenders. Caprice Classic Sport sedans now feature opera windows in the D-pillars. The dashboard, radio and climate control graphics were revised; the speedometer read up to , and had smaller numbers for kilometers per hour. The Caprice convertible would be discontinued after the 1975 model year along with its full-size B-body counterparts including the Oldsmobile Delta 88, Buick Centurion, and Pontiac Grand Ville. Just about 8,350 Caprice Classic convertibles found buyers in 1975.
As fuel economy became a bigger priority among Americans following the Arab Oil Embargo of late 1973 and early 1974, Chevy made the smaller small block V8 with two-barrel carburetor standard on all Caprice models except wagons for 1975. In California, the four-barrel 350 V8 was the base engine and this engine was unavailable elsewhere. Optional engines included the small block V8 (standard on wagons) and big block, the last was not available in California. All engines except for the 454 were single exhaust systems with the introduction of the catalytic converter. Station wagons that used the 454 now featured dual exhaust as well. Also introduced this year were GM's "High Energy" electronic ignition and radial tires that were advertised as part of "Chevrolet's New Efficiency System." The theme of economy continued through to the new options this year: A new "Econominder" gauge package included a temperature gauge and a "fuel econominder", the second being a gauge alerting drivers as to when their driving habits caused the engine to use more or less fuel. Also new on the options list: intermittent windshield wipers, and 50/50 seating options on the Impala coupe/sedan and Caprice Classic convertible models.
"Landau" model was also introduced in 1975, and was primarily an appearance package. Carried over unchanged into 1976, the Landau featured a choice of special paint colors, sports-styled dual remote outside rear-view mirrors, color-keyed wheel covers, a landau vinyl roof (with chrome band across the roof), a vinyl bodyside molding insert, and pinstriping. Inside there were color-keyed seat belts and floor mats. Fender and dashboard emblems rounded out the package. With minor changes, the Landau model would be carried over into the 1977 generation coupe models.
The 1976 Caprice Classic marked the sixth and final year of a body style introduced for the 1971 model year. 1976 models weighed approximately and was long, growing considerably from the 1971s and length. Only minor changes were made for 1976, including an eggcrate grille similar to that of the 1976 Cadillac Calais/DeVille/Fleetwood flanked by new rectangular headlights, along with revised exterior and interior trimmings. Engine options remained virtually unchanged with the 350 two-barrel remained standard in everywhere but California where the 350 four-barrel was standard. The only change was the 350 four-barrel was available in sedans and coupes nationwide and rated at . The dual exhaust equipped 454 increased , rated at and was still unavailable in California. Also available was the four-barrel 400 V8 standard on wagons and optional on all other models. This was the final year for the big block 454 V8 to be offered, along with hardtop body styles and the clam shell-tailgate design for the station wagon. The 1976 4-door hardtop Sport Sedan was the last pillarless model offered by Chevrolet; it was offered in both the Caprice Classic and Impala series. All subsequent Caprice passenger cars were pillared sedans and coupes.
Third generation (1977–1990)
1977–1979
Launched in late September 1976, the 1977 Caprice Classic was drastically downsized, which reduced its weight and exterior dimensions, while increasing headroom, rear-seat legroom and trunk space compared to 1976 models. GM called its downsizing program Project 77 and invested $600 million to develop the most changed full-size Chevrolet to date. The weight reductions from the 1976 models were for coupes, for sedans and for wagons. The 1977 Caprice coupe and sedan were over shorter while the wagon was shorter. Wheelbases were reduced to from for coupes and sedans and for wagons. Width was reduced by for sedans and coupes; the wagon's width remained virtually unchanged. Heights were increased by and trunk capacities were increased to for sedans and for coupes.
Size comparison between 1976–77 Caprice:
Although by modern standards, the 1977 downsized Chevrolet cars are quite large, the new Chevrolet had exterior dimensions closer to the intermediates of its day. The 1977 Caprice shared the same wheelbase of the intermediate-sized Chevrolet Chevelle; 1977 also marked the first model year in history that a midsized car, the Monte Carlo, was larger than a full-sized car; this would be repeated in the 1980s by GM and Chrysler on multiple vehicles, then by Nissan in the early 2000s when the third generation Nissan Altima was bigger than the concurrent fifth-generation Nissan Maxima. The introduction of a downsized full-size car was considered quite a risk for General Motors. To help ensure the car was a success, preview clinics were held by Chevrolet that returned very positive results. Furthermore, the design process for this car was revolutionized.
Ford would respond with advertising the Ford LTD's traditional full-size attributes. In 1978, Ford released a true downsized full-size car with the introduction of the 1979 Ford LTD. Chrysler responded in 1978 when it re-engineered its intermediate B-body cars, and designated them the full-size R-bodies. However, these were not true downsized cars like GM and Ford introduced. 1977 models included a four-door sedan, two-door sedan, six-passenger two-seat station wagon, and an eight-passenger three-seat station wagon. All models had window-framed doors. No hardtop models were offered.
Two-door models featured a unique rear window that created a semi-fastback. This glass had sharp corners giving it three sides. This was done through a "hot-wire" bending process. The Caprice was available as either the "Sport Coupe" or as the "Landau Coupe". The Landau Coupe features a partially covered vinyl roof.
Station wagon models received a new three-way tailgate for 1977; the clamshell tailgate was gone. The three-seat models featured a rear-facing third seat for two occupants making these cars eight-passenger models. The cargo capacity was reduced to , and although the station wagon could still carry a sheet of plywood, this could now only be done with the tailgate down. The station wagons use the coil spring suspension in the rear, as for the sedans and coupes.
The headlight dimmer switch was also removed from the floor and incorporated into the turn signal lever for all 1977 models. All 1977 models were named Caprice Classics. A V8 engine was no longer standard equipment for the first time since 1965. The base engine for 1977 Chevrolet Caprice coupes and sedans was Chevy's long-running 250 cu in (4.1 L) six-cylinder powerplant rated at . This engine was last available in a full-size Chevy in 1973 in the lower-line Bel Air. Standard on station wagons and optional on other Caprice models was a 2-barrel version of the Chevy's small-block V8. This was the first model year the 305 cu in had been used in a full-size Chevrolet; it was first introduced in 1976 in compact and mid-sized Chevrolet lines. A V8 with four-barrel carburetor was now the top engine offering as the larger and V8s were discontinued. Standard for all models was the three-speed Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmission.
With the new lighter weight and smaller engines, Chevrolet promised increase fuel economy without great loss of performance compared to 1976 models. The EPA estimates for 1977 Chevrolet was city and highway for six-cylinder models. Ford's 1977 LTD was rated at city and highway with its smallest engine, the V8. By the same EPA estimates, Plymouth's Gran Fury returned 13 MPG city and 18 MPG highway with the 318 V8. Performance was good when comparing the smaller 1977 Caprice to the 1976 Caprice. A 1976 350 two-bbl powered Chevrolet ran 0–60 mph in 12.9 seconds, while a 400 powered model ran 10.7 seconds. 1977 models ran 11.4 seconds to with the 305 engine and 10.8 seconds with the 350 engine. Car and Driver tested a 1977 Chevrolet Impala with the 350 engine and 3.08:1 axle running a 9.6 second 0–60 mph time and obtaining a top speed. The 350 was available with a 2.56:1 axle ratio and a 3.08 axle ratio which may explain the difference in performance times.
The 1977 models became the number one selling car in the United States. (In 1976, the previous generation full-size Chevrolet was the third best-seller). More than 660,000 full-size Chevrolets were produced for the 1977 model year, with the most popular model being the four-door Caprice Classic sedan (212,840 produced). By 1978 more than 1 million downsized Chevrolets had been produced. Auto publications agreed with the public reception, with Motor Trend awarding the 1977 Chevrolet Caprice Car of the Year.
Car and Driver declared "Even the most jaded car critics are in fact tripping over each other trying to be the first to anoint this sedan to be the best full-sized Chevrolet ever made." Car and Driver commented on the F41 suspension option which included stiffer springs, larger sway bars, wheels, and tires to say, "It will make you think your Chevy came from the Black Forest instead of Detroit."
1978 models had minor front and rear styling revisions. The engine line-up remained unchanged, but numerically lower axle ratios were used in an attempt to boost fuel economy. The 305 and 350 engines went from a standard 2.56:1 axle for 1977 (2.73:1 for wagons), to a 2.41:1 axle for 1978 (2.56:1 for wagons). An optional 3.08 axle was also available for 350 powered Caprices. The 305 V8 engine received an aluminum intake manifold which reduced engine weight by 35 pounds. A larger brake booster was also added to help reduce braking effort. New options included a steel sliding moonroof and 40-channel CB radio built into the AM/FM radio.
The 1979 models continued with only minor refinements. Again the front and rear styling was refreshed slightly. The 250 six gained five horsepower, while the 305 V8 lost . The change to the 305 was a result of switching from the larger Rochester 2GC carburetor to the smaller Rochester Dualjet carburetor. The 350 engine was unchanged.
1980–1985
The 1980 Caprice Classic saw its first major revision since the 1977 downsizing. To further improve the fuel economy of the car, efforts were made to reduce weight and improve aerodynamics. The Caprice received new exterior sheet metal, without drastically changing the look of the car. To improve aerodynamics the hood was tapered lower, while the trunk area was higher. The grille was now an egg crate style while the tail-light panel featured three separate square lights per side. All the doors and components within were redesigned to be lighter, including the window-crank mechanisms, which now used a tape-drive mechanism. Greater use of aluminum including in-bumper reinforcement and in-sedan/coupe radiators helped to further reduce the overall weight of the vehicle. 1980 models were approximately lighter than 1979 models.
The new styling increased the trunk capacity of both coupes and sedans to . This increase was also partially achieved with a now-standard compact spare tire on a wheel. A new frame lift jack replaced the bumper-mounted model. A larger fuel tank was standard equipment in sedans and coupes. Easy-roll radial tires, improved anti-corrosion measures, low-friction ball joints, and larger front-suspension bushings were also new for 1980. Puncture-sealant tires and cornering lights were new options.
The six was replaced by a new 90-degree Chevrolet 3.8 L (229 cu in) V6 as the base engine for sedans and coupes. This engine shared the same bore and stroke as the 305 cu in V8. California emission cars used the Buick 3.8 L (231 cu in) V6 engine. The Chevrolet 3.8 L was rated at while the Buick V6 engine had a rating. Although the 3.8 L V6 had the same horsepower rating as the 250 six used in 1979, the 250 had more torque than the 3.8 L (200 lb·ft vs 175 lb·ft). The 3.8 L V6 did boost Chevrolet Caprice's fuel economy to an EPA estimated city and highway, the highest a full-size Chevrolet had been rated to date.
The base-V8 engine was new for 1980. The 4.4 L 267 cu in V8 rated at and was the standard engine for station wagons. This engine had a Rochester Dualjet carburetor and was not available in California. The two-barrel carburetor on the V8 was replaced with a four-barrel, increasing the 305's output to . This was now the most powerful engine option (standard on California station wagons), as the V8 was no longer available except as part of the police-package option. The Oldsmobile-built 350 cu in Diesel V8 was added to the option list for station wagons. This engine was rated at and . To further increase fuel economy, all transmissions were equipped with an electronically controlled lock-up torque converter clutch.
1981 models saw only minor revisions. Styling was unchanged other than the grille which remained egg crate style but now had larger sections. Refinements included redesigned front disc brakes for less drag and a translucent plastic master cylinder reservoir. The cruise control became equipped with a resume feature, while wire-wheel covers had locking bolts to secure them in place. This was the last year for the Delco GM 40-channel CB radio built into the AM/FM radio option.
The engine line-up remained unchanged, although the 3.8 L 229 cu in V6 was now rated at and the 5.0 L 305 cu in V8 was rated at . All engines were updated with the Computer Command Control (CCC) system which included an electronically metered carburetor. This change occurred in 1980 for California emission cars and did not occur to Canadian emission cars until 1987. The Oldsmobile-built 350 cu in Diesel V8 was added to the option list for the coupe and sedan models during the model year.
1982 models saw only minor styling revisions. The model line-up was reduced by one, with the Caprice Landau coupe dropped. Remaining were the sedan, sport coupe, six-passenger wagon, and the eight-passenger wagon. A new four-speed automatic overdrive transmission with a lock-up torque converter joined the powertrain line-up. This transmission helped boost highway fuel economy, while improving city performance with a 3.08:1 rear axle ratio. The overdrive transmission was only available with the 305 cu in V8, and was a mandatory option for this engine.
The engine line-up and power ratings remained unchanged. The 350 cubic-inch Diesel V8 engine was now available on all models.
1983 was marked with the fewest models to date. No two-door models were produced, leaving only the four-door and the eight-passenger station wagon, since the 6-passenger wagon also left the line-up. The 4.4 L 267 cu in engine was discontinued, but all other engines remained unchanged. The 305 cu in engine and the automatic overdrive transmission was standard on station wagons. The 350 cu in diesel was available with the automatic overdrive transmission at extra cost, while the 305 cu in V8 came equipped only with the automatic overdrive transmission. The 1983 Chevrolet Caprice Classic was selected on the Car and Driver Ten Best list.
The 1984 model year saw the return of the two-door sport coupe making a three model line-up. Styling remained unchanged. 1984 models were virtually identical to the 1981 models. The windshield washer controls were moved from the dashboard to the turn signal stalk to create the multi-stalk. The optional cruise control (which continued to be mounted on the turn signal stalk) now featured acceleration/deceleration in increments. An optional Landau package included a vinyl roof, sport mirrors, and reveal moldings.
Powertrain availability and power ratings were unchanged for 1984. The 350 cu in diesel engine came standard with an automatic overdrive transmission when equipped in station wagons.
1983 saw the introduction of a Caprice clone from Canada, the Pontiac Parisienne. While this car bore Pontiac emblems and trim similar to the pre-1982 Bonneville, it was a Caprice in every other way. Pontiac dealers gained a full-size car again and buyers did not seem to mind that the car was virtually the same as the contemporary Caprice. It sold well enough to remain available until 1986 for the sedan and 1989 for the Safari station wagon.
1985 models received minor updates while styling remained unchanged. The interior was updated for 1985, marking its most significant update since 1977. The simulated woodgrain appliqué used on the dash was replaced with a simulated silver metallic appliqué. The shaft-style radio was replaced with a more modern DIN-and-a-half style radio, while the pull-out headlight switch was replaced by a push-button style switch. The climate controls were updated with rotary switches for the fan and rear window defroster replacing the toggle style switches. The instruments were updated to have a more modern appearance, with a horizontal speedometer while a round speedometer was included with the optional gauge package.
The engine line-up saw major changes for 1985. The 4.3 L V6 engine (262 cu in) with throttle body fuel injection (RPO LB4) replaced both 3.8 L V6s in 1985 as the base engine for sedans and coupes. The 4.3 L engine was rated at and , producing more than the 229 cu in V6. The 4.3 L V6 shared its bore and stroke with the 350 cu in Chevrolet V8. This engine came standard with a three-speed automatic but was available with the four-speed automatic overdrive transmission. The 5.0 L 305 cu in V8 engine received an electronic spark control and compression was increased from 8.6:1 to 9.5:1. This caused the 305's output to jump to . The 350 cu in diesel engine remained unchanged, as it was dropped in January.
1986–1990
1986 marked the first major exterior restyle since 1980. From 1986 to 1990, the Caprice was the only sedan riding on the B platform; all other sedans had been discontinued or transferred to the smaller, front-wheel-drive H platform. The front fascia was restyled to have a more aerodynamic look: the Caprice emblem was no longer a standup hood ornament, but was an emblem located on the vertical area directly above the grill in the center of the front fascia. A smaller grille with prominent vertical chrome divider bars replaced the larger previous egg-crate grille. The redesigned front end still had two side-by-side rectangular sealed beam headlamps, as had been used on the Caprice since 1976; the taillights were restyled, but continued to have three chambers—another long-running Caprice styling cue. New aerodynamic side-view mirrors were used. The car's sheetmetal remained otherwise unchanged.
The former Impala was rebranded as "Caprice" (without "Classic" appended), unifying all full-size Chevrolets under a single model name for the first time since the early 1930s. Still available was a Caprice Classic four-door sedan, coupe and eight-passenger station wagon, while a new Brougham four-door sedan joined the model line-up. Brougham models featured a 55/45 front seat with armrest, and a new "pillow design" with velour fabrics. Broughams featured woodgrain appliqué on its dash fascia, a dome map light, front-door courtesy lights and 20 oz carpeting. Power window controls for all models moved from the door panel to the armrest for improved ergonomics.
The 4.3 L V6 engine received a boost, rated at . The 305 cu in engine was unchanged and remained standard on station wagons. Station wagons built after approximately 1 November 1985 came equipped with the Oldsmobile-built 307 cu in engine and the 305 cu in was no longer available in station wagons. This engine was used in all GM B-body station wagons from this point on to simplify production. The 307 was equipped with a four-barrel carburetor and was rated at and . The 350 cu in diesel engine was discontinued.
The 1987 models received minor styling revisions: composite aerodynamic headlamps replaced the formerly sealed beam bulbs, and a standup hood ornament returned. A simulated woodgrain dashboard finish, last used on the 1984 models, returned. The model range was slightly revised, and now included a base level Caprice eight-passenger wagon and a Caprice Classic Brougham LS four-door sedan. The Brougham LS featured all the Brougham amenities plus a padded vinyl roof, opera lights, and LS monograms. Leather upholstery was a newly available option for Brougham and Brougham LS sedans, which also had a new pillow-style seating design and a folding center armrest in the back seat. Exterior colors for the Brougham LS were now limited to conservative colors compared to the 1986 model: White, Black, Burgundy, Dark Blue, and Dark Grey. The trim level names "stacked up": Caprice, Caprice Classic, Caprice Classic Brougham, and Caprice Classic Brougham LS in ascending order of price and plushness.
The engine offerings received only minor changes. The 4.3 L V6 and the 305 cu in V8 were updated with roller lifters and center bolt valve covers. The 305 cu in had a rating increase and was now rated at and . The 307 cu in Oldsmobile-built V8 remained unchanged and was the only available engine for the station wagons. Some Canadian-sold Chevrolet Caprice sedans used the 307 cu in Oldsmobile-built V8 in place of the Chevrolet-built 305 cu in engine during the 1987 model year.
The 1988 model range was revised, with the sport coupe dropped due to low sales. There was now just one station wagon model, an eight-passenger configuration. Engines remained unchanged, and the four-speed automatic overdrive transmission was standard equipment. Other standard equipment for all models included tinted glass, a remote-control driver's side-view mirror, automatic headlight on/off, and an AM/FM stereo. A police version of the Caprice wagon was made; it had the code 1A2 and was designed for special service use.
1989 marked the first year of a fuel-injected V8 engine. The 305 cu in V8 was updated with throttle body electronic fuel-injection (RPO LO3), first introduced in 1987 on Chevrolet/GMC pickups and vans. This engine was rated at and , which was only a slight increase in torque over the carbureted engine. However, as a result of fuel injection, the cold weather starts, drivability, fuel economy, and emissions were all improved. The 4.3 L V6 was no longer the base engine, and was now only available in taxi and police optioned Caprices. The 307 engine remained unchanged for station wagons. Rear-seat passengers received shoulder belts for the outboard positions and air conditioning was standard on all models.
Essentially, 1990 was a carryover year and marked the last year for this body style. New for 1990 were door-mounted front seat belts, quick-connect fuel lines for the 305 cu in engine, revised interior colors, new metallic paint color choices, and Scotchgard-protected interior fabrics. The model range and engine offerings were unchanged. The 1990 Caprice was only produced until the end of 1989, when production was shut down to prepare for the redesigned 1991 models.
Production Figures:
9C1 Police model
A police package, orderable under GM's Regular Production Option code 9C1, was introduced for the new base-model Caprice that replaced the Impala for 1986. In the 1986 Michigan State Police tests, the Chevrolet Caprice was competitive with the Ford LTD Crown Victoria, Dodge Diplomat and Plymouth Gran Fury. The Caprice had the fastest quarter-mile times of the three, and the best fuel economy. The Dodge and Plymouth outran the Caprice in the 0–100 mph times, but placed last in the road course times. However, there was only a 1/3 second difference between the fastest and slowest vehicles on the road course. All four cars were very close in competition for 1986, and there was little performance difference.
For 1987, the 9C1 Caprice changed little. The 350-4bbl engine received a boost in compression, roller lifters, and new center-bolt valve covers. The rating of this engine helped boost the Caprice's performance above its competition.The 4.3 L LB4 V6 engine remained available, but was marketed towards urban police departments with less need for performance. Michigan State Police tests had the Chevrolet Caprice beating its competition from Ford, Dodge, and Plymouth in almost every category. The Caprice had the quickest quarter-mile times and 0–100 mph times, the highest top speed, the fastest road course time, and the best fuel economy, though the Plymouth and Dodge had shorter braking distances. The 1987 Chevrolet Caprice won the contract for the Michigan State police and would hold this contract until 1996 when the Caprice was discontinued.
For 1988, the 9C1 Caprice was again unchanged. Michigan State Police tests proved to be more competitive, with the Ford LTD Crown Victoria showing a strong improvement in performance. The Plymouth and Dodge models continued unchanged and were not competitive with the Chevrolet and Ford. 1988 tests showed the Caprice with the fastest quarter-mile and 0–100 mph times, the best fuel economy, the fastest road course time (although it tied with the Ford) and the best ergonomics. The Ford edged out the Chevrolet with a faster top speed and better brakes, but the Chevrolet scored second place for both those categories. Overall the Chevrolet scored the highest in the competition, followed by the Ford, Dodge, and Plymouth
For 1989, the 9C1 Caprice received some major changes to the drivetrain. All engines were now equipped with throttle-body fuel-injection (shared with the truck/van lineup and based on the LB4 4.3L TBI injection system first used with the 1985 model year passenger cars), and the engine (RPO LO3) was now added to the options list. The available engines were now the V6, the and V8s (which was only available on police package models). The V6 and 350 engines were equipped with TH700-R4 transmissions while the 305 engine used the TH200-4R transmission. The V6 and the 305 used a 3.08:1 axle ratio, while the 350-powered cars now used a 3.42:1 axle ratio. The 4.3 L remained at , while the 305 TBI engine was rated at , and the 350 TBI engine was rated at . Unlike the LO5 used with the GMT400 light-duty truck and van line including the R/V series, the police spec LO5 used the roller camshaft sourced from its TPI equipped F bodies and Corvette along with high flow fuel injectors. The 350 powered Caprice did well again at Michigan State Police tests for pursuit-rated cars. It had the fastest 0–100 mph, the fastest road course time, the highest top speed and the best fuel economy. The Dodge Diplomat and Ford LTD Crown Victoria outbraked the Caprice, and the Plymouth Fury and Dodge Diplomat had better ergonomics than the Caprice.
1990 was another carry-over year for the 9C1 Caprice with the only major change being door-mounted seatbelts. In Michigan State Police tests, the only competition was from the Ford LTD Crown Victoria, as the production of the Dodge Diplomat and Plymouth Gran Fury had ended during 1989. The Caprice won all six categories for 1990, having the quickest 0–100 times, the fastest road course times, the best brakes, highest top speed, the best fuel economy, and the best interior ergonomics. This was the first time any car had won all six categories in Michigan State Police tests.
Fourth generation (1991–1996)
Introduced in April 1990 for the 1991 model year in America, the Caprice was completely restyled and replaced the 1977-based rectilinear design with rounded, more aerodynamic sheetmetal. General Motors initially decided in 1980 to eliminate the production of the former generation model by 1989 for the 1990 model year, but a business decision in 1985 to plan an exterior redesign gave a further continuation and this generation's fiberglass prototype model was first shown in April 1987 to stock market analysis.
While the body and interior were all new, the chassis, powertrain, and transmission were largely carried over from the former generation 1977 and 1990 models respectively; the steel fuel tank was replaced by an HDPE tank (with capacity on sedans decreasing from to ), and anti-lock brakes were added as standard equipment on all models. Several major components (including the floor pan) are entirely interchangeable between 1977 and 1996, merely having a reskinned body on an already dated body-on-frame platform introduced in 1977.
Much of the engine availability was carried over from the previous generation, which included for all models the 5.0 L L03 V8. A 5.7L L05 V8 was also carried over; it was originally only available on 1991 and 1992 9C1 Police package models (which featured a digital speedometer), but finally made available to the general public on the 1993 Caprice LTZ, and the LB4 4.3 L V6 was carried over to the 1992–93 Caprice 9C6 taxi package for increased fuel economy at significantly reduced power output.
Motor Trend awarded the new Caprice Classic Domestic Car of the Year 1991. Two trim levels were initially offered—Caprice and Caprice Classic, replacing the previous Classic and Brougham models. General Motors had hoped to regain the top spot as America's favorite automobile with the new aerodynamic styling of their full-size offering.
The final B-body Caprice was not well received by critics and did not hold on to high annual sales numbers, with roughly half from fleet sales. The car's styling was criticized with aficionados calling it a "beached whale" and "an upside-down bathtub", then later as the "bubble Caprice" in response to the former generation's nickname "box Caprice".
1993 revisions removed the rear fender skirts in favor of more open wheel wells on the sedan model; station wagons retained the skirted wheel wells. With 1991–93 Caprices essentially having the same three engine options and 4L60 transmission from the former generation, in the fall of 1993 for the 1994 model year, the Caprice received two new V8 engine replacements that shared the exact same external dimensions yet differ internally, and a new transmission. The standard engine in all sedans, including many 9C1 police sedans, was the , L99 263 cu. in. (4.3 L) V8 for better fuel economy in response to rising fuel prices after the Persian Gulf War that put out 240 lb·ft (325 N·m) of torque on 87 octane. Caprice sedans were the only cars to receive the L99 4.3 L V8 engine. The Caprice was one of the first cars to introduce OBD 1.5 as standard prior to OBD II being mandatory on all sedans for the 1996 model year.
Also for the 1994 model year, Chevrolet offered an optional detuned (by 40 hp) version of the fourth generation Corvette's LT1 350 cu. in. (5.7 L) performance V8 engine making 260 hp (194 kW) and 330 lb·ft (447 N·m) of torque. The LT1 was optional in the 9C1 police packages in regards to highways and rural areas and standard in all wagons, with General Motors offering roughly 846 optional 1A2 Caprice special service police package wagons between 1991 and 1995, which were generally available for other administrative duties such as; supervisors, detectives, unmarked units, and fire departments. The LT1 350 cu. in. was standard in civilian sedans with the addition of the V92 towing package. The V92 towing package also gave a heavy-duty suspension with similar spring rates to the 9C1 police car suspension, 2.93 gears, V08 heavy-duty cooling with a mechanical fan, heavy-duty rear drum brakes, and limited-slip differential. The 4L60-E transmission replaced the 4L60. Transmission failures shortly after 100,000 miles (160,000 km), especially when paired with the stronger LT1 V8, were commonplace due to transmission build and software specs that sacrificed long-term durability for slightly improved fuel economy scores. The 1994 Caprice's interior had a redesign which featured a Camaro steering wheel, digital speedometer and odometer, and a new instrument panel, which included a front passengers-side airbag.
For the 1995 model year, the rear side window between the back door and C pillar, now feature a so-called Hofmeister kink curve and both the sedan and wagon had their now foldable exterior mirrors repositioned. In 1995 and 1996 the Impala SS was exported to Middle Eastern markets badged as the Caprice SS, with the car being identical to its American counterpart except for the side fonts on the rear quarter panel and the badge on the dashboard saying Caprice SS.
The Caprice 9C1 with the LT1 engine became one of the quickest and most popular modern-day police vehicles. This vehicle established such strong devotion by many police departments that a cottage industry thrived in refurbishing Caprices for continued police service after GM discontinued production of the car, with many police departments keeping them in service longer than other police cars from that era. The 1994-96 Caprice 9C1 5.7 L V8 and Impala SS are mechanically the same, as both shared four wheel disc brakes and rigid heavy duty suspension components. In 2006, Chrysler introduced the Dodge Charger Pursuit, serving as an indirect successor to the Caprice's muscle sedan image in the police market after a decade hiatus.
The car's production was stopped in December 1996 due to sales pressure from the mid-size Chevrolet Lumina, financial troubles at General Motors, and consumer demand shifting from full-sized family sedans to the increasingly popular sport utility vehicles. The Arlington, Texas vehicle assembly plant (used for the Caprice, Impala SS, Buick Roadmaster, Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser, and Cadillac Fleetwood) was converted to produce GM's more profitable full size SUVs (the Tahoe and Suburban). In 1997, the Lumina LTZ would take the Caprice's place as Chevrolet's premium passenger car. Total production of 1991–96 models was 689,257 with production ending on December 13, 1996. There were plans to reintroduce the Caprice for the 2000 model year in America, but was only revived in the Middle East as the Holden Caprice. The Chevrolet Impala nameplate was reintroduced to the American passenger car market in 2000 as the marque's premium offering, albeit in a front wheel drive configuration.
Production Figures:
Fifth generation (1999–2006)
General Motors revived the Chevrolet Caprice nameplate in the Middle East and Latin/South American markets on imported Holden Statesman and Caprice models built by its Australian subsidiary Holden, these cars were lengthened versions of the Commodore range, which was at this time based on the Opel Omega. The WH series Statesman/Caprice was the first series to be engineered to support both left- and right-hand drive (Middle Eastern market being LHD while Australia right-hand drive) in order to allow for manufacturing of export versions. Same was true for the related short-wheelbase Holden VT Commodore, whose left-hand drive version became the Chevrolet Lumina in the Middle East (In Mexico only, the Commodore and Holden models were sold alongside the Lumina and Caprice).
The Middle Eastern Caprice came out for 2000 in four versions, base LS, standard mid-range LTZ, a sporty SS and the range topper Royale (introduced in 2002). Differences between the models were mostly equipment and slight styling tweaks. The base LS came with a 3.8 L V6 engine; the LTZ came standard with a 5.7 L Gen III V8, the SS and Royale came with a version of the same engine. In 2003, Holden launched a revised and facelifted Statesman and Caprice (WK), which was reflected in their Middle Eastern versions for the 2004 model year. The new models sported new front and rear fascias and completely redesigned interior. Engines carried over unchanged.
In 1999, GM had again considered resurrecting the Caprice name in America for 2000, this time under this generation, and as a new Caprice 9C1 long before the appearance of the sixth-generation model (third-generation Holden Caprice) as the Caprice PPV, but it did return several years later as such.
Sixth generation (2006–2017)
Middle East
In November 2006, a completely redesigned Caprice lineup was launched, again based on the recently introduced Holden WM Statesman/Caprice. The new Caprice lineup includes the base LS, LTZ, SS and Royale, all sporting the new L98 6.0 L V8.
The LS, LTZ, and Royale all share the front bumper as the Holden WM Statesman while the LS lacks the Statesman's trademark foglights which are seen on the LTZ and Royale; the SS gains the Caprice's front bumper and foglamps minus the parking sensors. The LS also gains the VE Commodore Omega's interior and trims, while the LTZ gains the trims from the VE Commodore V based on the Commodore Omega, and the Statesman's interior minus the headrests with the LCD screens and DVD player, while the Royale gains the Statesman's trims, and the Statesman's interior with the LCD screens in the headrests and DVD player from the Holden versions, the grille from the Daewoo Veritas, hood ornament similar to the one that the appears on the 4th and 5th generation models, and the SS gains the same trims as the WM Caprice, interior from the Caprice minus the headrests with the LCD screens and DVD player, color-coded version of the grille's trim, and the optional lip spoiler from the WM Caprice.
The Caprice was updated for 2011 to include the features that Holden included the Holden Caprice. The Caprice lettering engraved on the chrome trim which was on the car from 2000 until 2010 on the trim was dropped & replaced by a Caprice nameplate badge which is below the chrome trim on the left end of the rear fascia on the trunk. The V6 engines were dropped in the LS & LTZ leaving the V8 as the standard engine while the LS got the trims that were previously on the LTZ from 2007–2010 as well as previously seen on the VE Commodore V based on the Omega Series I model, while the LTZ & Royale get the trims seen on the VE Commodore Calais V Series II and the 2010 and 2011 Chevrolet Omega Fittipaldi Edition and the SS now gains the trims that the WM Caprice V Series II has. The LS, LTZ, & Royale still retain the Statesman front bumper, while the SS still retains the Caprice/Caprice V front bumper. The Royale also gains a rear vision camera in the chrome trim on the trunk which is absent on the LS, LTZ, & SS like the Holden Caprice & Caprice V. For the 2013 model year for the Caprice SS the Impala badge on the trunk was dropped in favor of the traditional Chevrolet bowtie.
The Caprice was updated again based on the Holden WN Caprice. The Caprice LS & LTZ still retain the front bumper as the WM Statesman while the Royale now gets the same front bumper as seen on the WM/WN Caprice and the Caprice SS and the trims that were previously on the 2011–2013 Caprice SS, the 2010–2013 WM Caprice V, and currently the WN Caprice LPG model, and the Holden Commodore (VF) Calais's interior just like the Holden models. The SS now gains the rear vision camera which was previously only available on the Caprice Royale while it is still not available on the Caprice LS or LTZ, the same interior updates the WN Caprice and Caprice Royale, and also delivered the same trims as on the WN Caprice V & while the LS, LTZ, and SS gain new trims.
The Holden-sourced Chevrolet Caprice in the LS trim is used in Middle East police forces in the Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates such as the Abu Dhabi Police, Royal Oman Police, and Dubai Police Force. In 2012 after the Libyan Civil War ended the Abu Dhabi Police donated 100 of its Caprice LS police cars to Libya along with uniforms making it the only country in the continent of Africa to have the Holden sourced Caprices in service.
North America
On October 5, 2009, General Motors announced the Chevrolet Caprice Police Patrol Vehicle (PPV).
The Caprice PPV was based on a previous Australian-built export to the Middle East, the Chevrolet Caprice LS (which was based on the Holden Caprice WM series I, sold only in the Australasian market). The front end and grille were the same as the 2007–2010 Caprice LS.
While the 2009 onward Chevrolet Caprice was officially sold only to law enforcement agencies in the US, some vehicles evidently have been purchased by private individuals via dealers. These included demonstrator vehicles, excess unsold dealer inventory, and purchases for demonstration use by upfitters and related businesses.
The Caprice PPV was imported from Australia as a captive import of the Holden Caprice (WM series), rather than the short-wheelbase Holden Commodore (VE), which was sold in a police pack in Australia. (However, these cars were both designed on GM's Zeta platform.
Australian-built Chevrolet Caprices featured either the 6.0 L L77 AFM V8, which was standard in 2011 and optional from 2012; or the standard 3.6 L LLT SIDI V6 engine, that became available nine months later. Both engines were E85 ethanol-capable.
The Caprice police car had a generally positive reception, placing perfect scores in an assessment by The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, with the only criticism being directed at its over-cautious electronic stability control.
The Caprice logo was engraved into the chrome trim on the trunk, there was a PPV logo on the right side of the rear fascia and a FlexFuel nameplate, which was on GM vehicles in North America from 2007 through 2009. The PPV had dual exhausts, a floor shifter in the console, a prisoner partition with rifle and shotgun mounts, lights and siren controls in the console, 18-inch steel wheels and center caps from the Impala 9C1, and a touch screen in place of the radio and HVAC controls. A prototype similar to the concept car in LAPD was shown publicly in Australia by Holden. Another prototype tested by the LAPD had the same front end, grille, steel wheels, and center caps as the production models, while the car was based on the Series I WM Caprice with its rear bumper, colored turn signal indicators lamps on the side of the car, chrome trim with Caprice engraved on it, & V8 badge from the 2007–2010 Caprice.
Special features were added by Chevrolet for the Caprice Police Patrol Vehicle (PPV). The driver's seat had a special indentation made to accommodate a police officer's equipment belt. Special tuning, such as Performance Algorithm Liftfoot (PAL) calibration and a performance-tuned suspension was added for increased performance, for police needs.
Previously, the future of Holden's North American export program had been the subject of contradictory announcements, as General Motors emerged from bankruptcy. On July 11, 2009, Bob Lutz declared the Australian-built, Holden Commodore-based Pontiac G8 "too good to waste" and indicated it would return in the form of a Chevrolet Caprice. Initially, it was unclear whether the revived Caprice marque, in North America, would be based on the short-wheelbase Commodore (like the Pontiac G8) or the longer Holden/Chevrolet Caprice variants already sold in Australasia and the Middle East. Several days later, Lutz retracted his comment, citing market conditions, while GM CEO Frederick Henderson confirmed that police applications were being studied.
What also made the North America Caprice different from the preceding Caprice variants sold in Australasia and the Middle East was the lower end of the front bumper (based on the Holden Commodore Omega Series II front end), a honeycomb grille similar to the 2001–2011 Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor, and an interior from the Commodore Omega. (The latter was the common trim of the VE Commodore police packs sold in Australasia in 2007–2013.) An unmarked detective subvariant of the PPV used the same interior as the Middle East market variant Caprice LS, from 2007–2013.
Standard equipment on the Caprice PPV included keyless entry, power windows and door locks, a 6.5-inch, full-color LCD audio system called "Holden iQ" with auxiliary audio input and a single-disc CD player, a four-speaker front audio system with separate woofers and tweeters, full instrumentation with an integrated driver information center (DIC), air conditioning with dual-zone temperature controls for the driver and front passenger, dual front bucket seats with a power driver's seat adjuster, a cruise control, and front and rear cloth seating surfaces. Optional features included wiring for police lighting and sirens, an additional battery to power police-installed accessories, the disabling of the interior courtesy lamps and rear door window controls and door locks, eighteen-inch (18") plastic wheel covers, a vinyl rear bench seat, rubberized vinyl flooring and rear trunk mats, and a remote vehicle starter system.
For 2014, the Caprice PPV received a new seven-inch, Chevrolet MyLink touchscreen infotainment system as standard equipment, which now included Bluetooth for hands-free calling and wireless stereo audio streaming via A2DP, Pandora Internet Radio capabilities, and an integrated rearview backup camera display among other new features. The single-disc CD player was available for the 2014–2016 model years, but deleted for the 2017 model year. The dashboard was restyled with a new steering wheel that integrated cruise (speed), audio system, and Bluetooth voice controls, a new instrument cluster with a larger monochromatic LCD driver information center (DIC) screen, and revised controls (the new dashboard in the Caprice PPV was similar to the civilian Chevrolet SS sedan that was released for the 2014 model year). The gear selector lever for the six-speed automatic transmission was relocated from the center console to the dashboard directly next to the steering column, which freed up space in the center console for police-installed equipment, such as computers and radio equipment. In addition, the door panels were redesigned with more convenient control placement including dual-side trunk release buttons, and the front bucket seats were redesigned for greater officer comfort and support, with a new seat fabric for the cloth seats.
In 2017, General Motors closed the Elizabeth, South Australia assembly plant where the Caprice PPV was produced, ending production of both the civilian Chevrolet SS and Caprice PPV. The last PPV was produced on May 18, 2017. With the discontinuation of the 9C1 Chevrolet Impala Limited Police Interceptor after the 2017 model year, Chevrolet no longer offers a four-door sedan with a Police Package.
Engines
South Africa (1975 to 1978)
From late 1975 to 1978, the Australian-developed Statesman Caprice was marketed in South Africa as the Chevrolet Caprice Classic. The V8-engined Caprice Classic received full equipment, with reading lights, air conditioning, and imported leather upholstery. It was very similar to the 5-liter Constantia, albeit fitted with a different grille, hubcaps, and a vinyl roof.
See also
Chevrolet Impala
Caprice PPV Sales Numbers
References
1970 Big Chevrolet brochure (including Caprice, Impala and Bel Air models), Chevrolet Motor Division, General Motors Corporation, 1969.
The New Chevrolet: 1977 Chevrolet Caprice, Impala Brochure, Chevrolet Motor Division, General Motors Corporation, 1976.
External links
GM Fleet and Commercial - Government - Police Vehicles
GM B-Body Forum For owners & enthusiasts of 1965 to 1996 GM B-Bodies
GM W-Body Forum For owners & enthusiasts of 2011 to 2017 Caprice PPV sedans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20I%2C%20King%20of%20Armenia
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Leo I, King of Armenia
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Leo II (; 1150 – 2 May 1219) was the tenth lord of Armenian Cilicia, ruling from 1187 to 1219, and the first king to be crowned, in 1198/9 (sometimes known as Levon I the Magnificent). During his reign, Leo succeeded in establishing Cilician Armenia as a powerful and unified Christian state with a pre-eminence in political affairs. Leo eagerly led his kingdom alongside the armies of the Third Crusade and provided the crusaders with provisions, guides, pack animals and all manner of aid. Under his rule, Armenian power in Cilicia was at its apogee: his kingdom extended from Isauria to the Amanus Mountains.
In 1194–1195, when he was planning to receive the title of king, he instituted a union of the Armenian church with Rome. With the signing of the Act of Union, his coronation proceeded without delay. He was consecrated as king on 6 January 1198 or 1199, in the Church of Holy Wisdom at Tarsus. His accession to the throne of Cilicia as its first Armenian monarch heralded into reality not merely an official end to Cilicia's shadowy umbilical connection to the Byzantine Empire, but also a new era of ecclesiastical co-operation with the West. A skilled diplomat and wise politician, Leo established useful alliances with many of the contemporary rulers; he also gained the friendship and support of the Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights by granting considerable territories to them.
He envisioned annexing the Principality of Antioch to his kingdom, thus reinforcing his authority along much of the northeastern Mediterranean coastline. Levon first put this plan into action in 1194 by seizing the strategic fortress of Baghras after Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, had abandoned it. His greatest triumph was achieved at the beginning of 1216 when at the head of his army he occupied Antioch and installed his grandnephew, Raymond-Roupen as its head. Raymond-Roupen remained in power until Leo's death. The transformation of the Armenian court, following the pattern of the Frankish courts, proceeded at a more rapid pace after Leo came to power. Many of the old names of specific functions or the titles of dignitaries were replaced by Latin ones and the changes in nomenclature were often accompanied by changes in the character of these offices.
Commerce was greatly developed during the reign of Leo: he granted charters regarding trade and commercial privileges to Genoa, Venice and Pisa. These charters provided their holders with special tax exemptions in exchange for their merchandising trade. They encouraged the establishment of Italian merchant communities in Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra, and became a large source of revenue for the growth and development of Cilician Armenia.
Early years
He was the younger son of Stephen, the third son of Leo I, lord of Armenian Cilicia. His mother was Rita, a daughter of Sempad, Lord of Barbaron. Leo's father, who was on his way to attend a banquet given by the Byzantine governor of Cilicia, Andronicus Euphorbenus, was murdered on 7 February 1165. Following their father's death, Leo and his elder brother Roupen lived with their maternal uncle, Pagouran, lord of the fortress of Barbaron, protecting the Cilician Gates pass in the Taurus Mountains.
Their paternal uncle, Mleh I, lord of Armenian Cilicia had made a host of enemies by his cruelties in his country, resulting in his assassination by his own soldiers in the city of Sis in 1175. The seigneurs of Cilician Armenia elected Leo's brother, Roupen III to occupy the throne of the principality. In 1183, Hethum III of Lampron, allied with Prince Bohemond III of Antioch, began joint hostilities against Roupen III who sent Leo to surround Hethum's mountain lair. But Bohemond III, rushing to the aid of Hethum, treacherously made Roupen prisoner.
His brother's absence gave Leo the opportunity to put his sharp political skills to practice as the interim guardian of the Roupenian House. Roupen's release required payment of a large ransom and the submission of Adana and Mamistra as vassalages to Antioch. When Roupen returned from captivity, he transferred the power to his brother, Leo (1187), and retired to the monastery of Trazarg.
His rule
Prince of Cilicia
The menace of the recent alliance between the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos and Saladin, and the more immediate threat of the Turkomans, led to a rapprochement between Leo and Bohemond III: on his accession Leo sought an alliance with the prince of Antioch and recognized his suzerainty. Large bands of the nomad Turkomans had been crossing the northern borders, advancing almost as far as Sis and laying waste on all sides; the two princes joined to beat off a Turcoman raid in 1187. Leo could muster only a small force, but he attacked them with such energy that he routed the bands, killed their leader, and pursued the fugitives as far as Sarventikar, inflicting heavy losses on them. Soon afterward (between 3 February 1188/4 February 1189), Leo married Isabella, a niece of Bohemond III's wife Sibylla.
The following year (1188), taking advantage of the troubled condition in the Sultanate of Rum that preceded the death of Kilij Arslan II, Leo turned against the Seljuks. A surprise attack on Bragana was unsuccessful, but Leon returned two months later with a larger army, killed the head of the garrison, seized the fortress and marched into Isauria. Though we find no specific mention of it, Seleucia must have been captured about this time. Proceeding northwards, Leo seized Heraclea, gave it up after payment to him a large sum, and advanced as far as Caesarea.
About the same time, he lent a large sum of money to Bohemond III, but the latter showed no haste to repay the loan. When Saladin invaded Antiochene territory, Leo remained neutral.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa approached the Armenian territories in June 1190, and Leo sent an embassy with presents, ample supplies, and armed troops. A second embassy, headed by the bishop Nerses of Lampron, arrived too late, after the death of the emperor (10 June 1190) and returned to Tarsus with the emperor's son Frederick, the bishops, and the German army. Nevertheless, Leo participated in the wars of the crusaders: his troops were present at the siege of Acre, and on 11 May 1191 he joined King Richard the Lionheart of England in the conquest of Cyprus.
Baghras and Antioch
Leo was intent, at the same time, upon ensuring the security of his own realm, and some of his actions undertaken for this purpose ran counter to the interests or aspirations of his neighbors. In 1191, Saladin dismantled the great fortress of Baghras, which he had captured from the Templars. Soon after his workmen had left Leo reoccupied the site and rebuilt the fortress. This brought to a head the growing antagonism between Leo and Bohemond III, and the possession of Baghras was to be one of the principal points of contention in the long struggle between Cilicia and Antioch. Bohemond III demanded its return to the Templars and, when Leo refused, complained to Saladin. Saladin himself had objected to Leo's holding Baghras, which lay on the route from Cilicia to Antioch.
Soon after the death of Saladin, in October 1193, Leo invited Bohemond III to come to Baghras to discuss the whole question. Bohemond III arrived, accompanied by his wife, Sibylla, and her son, and accepted Leo's offer of hospitality within the castle walls. No sooner had he entered than he was taken prisoner by his host, with all his entourage, and was told that he would be released only if he yielded the suzerainty over Antioch to Leo. Leo hoped to gain release from homage to Bohemond III, and to seize Antioch; therefore, Leo took Bohemond's family and court off to Sis as prisoners.
Bohemond III agreed to surrender Antioch in exchange for his freedom, sending the Marshal Bartholomew Tirel and Richard L’Erminet to turn the city over to Armenian troops under Hethum of Sassoun. When the delegation arrived at Antioch, the barons there were ready to accept Leo as overlord, and allowed Bartholomew Tirel to bring the Armenian soldiers into the city and establish them in the palace.
However, after their initial entry, Antiochene resistance was spurred by the clergy and the Greeks. A riot began in the palace and spread through the city; the Armenians left and prudently retired with Hethum of Sassoun back to Baghras. The citizens of Antioch, under the Latin patriarch of Antioch, Aimery of Limoges, formed a commune, which recognized Bohemond III's eldest son, Raymond, as lord until his father should be released.
Antioch then asked aid of King Henry I of Jerusalem and Count Bohemond I of Tripoli, Bohemond III's younger son. Early next spring, King Henry I sailed to Tripoli, where young Bohemond joined him, and then went on to Antioch and Sis. Leo, unwilling to face an open war, met him before Sis, ready to negotiate a settlement. Bohemond III renounced his as a suzerain, and in return for this was allowed to go back to Antioch without paying a ransom. Arrangements were also made for the marriage of Raymond of Antioch to Leo's niece, Alice. However, Raymond soon died and Bohemond III sent Alice back to Leo with her infant son Raymond-Roupen. Leo determined that this great-nephew of his should inherit Antioch on the death of Bohemond III.
Coronation
Leo pressed with renewed energy his claims for a royal crown, seeking the assistance of the two most powerful rulers of the time, the pope and the Holy Roman emperor. He sent to Emperor Henry VI, but the emperor prevaricated because he hoped to come soon to the East and he would look into the Armenian Question then.
So Leo approached Pope Celestine III; but the pope required submission of the Armenian church to Rome, and this created considerable difficulty; there was marked opposition from the majority of the clergy and the people of Cilicia. The bishops called together by Leo at first refused the papal demands, and are said to have agreed to them only after Leo told them that he would submit merely in word and not in deed.
The Byzantine emperor, Alexios III Angelos, hoping to retain some influence in Cilicia, sent Leo a royal crown, which was gratefully received. In 1197 Leo sent an embassy to Constantinople composed of Bishop Nerses of Lampron and other dignitaries; all of the discussions centered on religious questions, and the sending of the embassy was the last of several fruitless efforts to achieve a union between the two churches.
Meanwhile, Emperor Henry VI also promised a crown to Leo, in return for recognition of his suzerain rights over Armenia. Henry VI never visited the East; but soon after his death, his chancellor, Bishop Conrad of Hildesheim, came with the Papal legate, Archbishop Conrad of Mainz to Sis. Leo was crowned on 6 January 1198 (or 1199) at Tarsus, in the presence of the Armenian clergy, the Franco-Armenian nobility of the land, the Greek archbishop of Tarsus, the Jacobite patriarch, and the caliph's ambassadors. While he was crowned by the catholicos, Gregory VI Abirad, Leo received the other royal insignia from Archbishop Conrad of Mainz. There was great rejoicing among the Armenians, who saw their ancient kingdom restored and renewed in the person of Leo.
Antiochene War of Succession
Archbishop Conrad of Mainz hastened from Sis to Antioch, where he obliged Bohemond III to summon his barons and make them swear to uphold Raymond-Roupen's succession. The barons had sworn allegiance to Raymond-Roupen, but his succession to Antioch was opposed by Bohemond III's second son, Count Bohemond of Tripoli, by the Templars, and by the commune, which was hostile to any Armenian interference. Bohemond of Tripoli was determined to secure the succession to Antioch, and at once refused to acknowledge the validity of the oath sworn in favor of his nephew.
In 1198, while az-Zahir, the emir of Aleppo preoccupied Leo, Bohemond of Tripoli entered Antioch, summoned the commune, and persuaded it to renounce in his favor its oath to his father. Within three month, however, Leo settled his Moslem troubles, made peace with the military orders and marched on Antioch. There was no resistance to his army or to its restoration of Bohemond III.
Meanwhile, the Templars brought all their influence to bear on Rome; but Leo ignored hints from the Church that he should restore Baghras to them. Leo invited Bohemond III and the Latin Patriarch of Antioch, Peter II of Angoulême to discuss the whole question; but his intransigence drove even the Patriarch over to Bohemond of Tripoli's side.
In April 1201, Bohemond of Tripoli, informed of his father's illness, rushed to Antioch, arriving on the day of the funeral. He immediately demanded recognition as the rightful heir and Bohemond IV was accepted as prince. But many of the nobility, mindful of their oath and fearful of Bohemond IV's autocratic tastes, fled to Leo's court at Sis. Leo heard of the death of Bohemond III late, but then hurried to Antioch with Alice and Raymond-Roupen to claim it for his great-nephew. When he found Bohemond IV already installed, he sent back for reinforcements, while Bohemond IV called for Aleppo. Az-Zahir invaded Cilicia in July 1201, and Leo had to abandon his siege of Antioch.
The war was renewed by Leo in 1202. During the following summer King Amalric II of Jerusalem intervened; accompanied by the papal legate, cardinal Sofred of Saint-Praxedis, the masters of the Hospital and the Temple, and the high barons of the kingdom, he induced Leo to grant a short truce. After Leo had agreed to accept the decision of the barons and legate, the barons announced that the question at issue was purely one of feudal law in which the legate should have no say. Angered, Leo ended the truce and on 11 November 1203 entered the city and asked the patriarch to arrange peace between him and the commune. Bohemond IV who had been forced to leave Antioch to defend Tripoli during the feudal rebellion of Renart of Nephin was at Tripoli at that time, but the commune and the Templars held the citadel in Antioch stoutly and were able to expel the Armenians. Their appeals to Aleppo were answered when az-Zahir started again into Cilicia. Leo left Antioch in December when az-Zahir's army reached the Orontes River. Thereafter until 1206, when Bohemond IV was able to return to Antioch from Tripoli, Antioch was more or less protected from Leo by the watchfulness of az-Zahir. In the spring of 1206, Az-Zahir sent fresh contingents and assumed their command in person. Victorious at first, Leo had to retreat before the superior forces when the Antiochene armies joined Muslims. An eight-year truce was signed.
Meanwhile, "injurious information" was reported to him about his queen; Leo, therefore, had numerous members of her suite put to death and attacked her personally before imprisoning her in the fortress of Vahka on 27 January 1205/28 January 1206, where she was poisoned one year later.
Bohemond IV, however, deposed the Latin Patriarch of Antioch and summoned the titular Greek Patriarch, Symeon II to take his place. The unpopularity of Bohemond IV's behavior made it possible for Leo to plan a revolt within the city. Led by the Latin Patriarch Peter II and dissatisfied Latin nobles, the city rose, and Bohemond IV took refuge in the citadel. Leo entered with some of his army, just as Bohemond IV felt strong enough to emerge and crush the revolt. Leo had held Antioch only a few days.
Pope Innocent III handed the responsibility of settling the struggle to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Albert who was a friend of Bohemond IV's allies, the Templars. The Patriarch offended Leo by insisting that the first preliminary to any settlement must be the return of Baghras to the Templars. In 1208 Leo angrily devastated the country round Antioch. But Bohemond's danger in Antioch in 1208 induced az-Zahir once more to invade Cilicia in 1209. The Seljuk Sultan, Kai-Kushrau I, whom Leo had befriended earlier and received at his court, also made a sudden attack and seized the fort of Pertous. Leo had to agree to return Baghras to the Templars and renounce his claims to Antioch. But Leo's attempts to keep the fortress of Baghras, despite his promise in the treaty with az-Zahir to return it to the Templars, led to a war in Cilicia and in the Antiochene plain.
In Cyprus between 28 January 1210/27 January 1211 Leo married Sibylle, the half-sister of King Hugh I of Cyprus.
In 1211, the master of the Temple was wounded in an ambush, and Pope Innocent III published the old ex-communication against Leo. Meanwhile, Bohemond IV agreed to accept a new Latin Patriarch in Antioch; Leo, therefore, forgot his obedience to Rome. He welcomed the Greek Patriarch of Antioch, Symeon II to Cilicia, and he gave much of the Latin church lands there to the Greeks. Leo also sought to tie the Hospitallers closer to him by giving them Seleucia, Norbert (Castrum Novum), and Camardias, thus constituting a march on the western borders of Cilicia and thereby protecting the country from Seljuks. The Teutonic Knights received Amoudain and neighboring castles; the master of the order may even have resided in Cilicia for a while.
In 1211, King John I of Jerusalem and Bohemond IV both gave the Templars such effective aid that Leo finally returned the Baghras. But the new treaty was abruptly broken the next year with further actions against the Templars. This time the interdict against Leo was strictly enforced.
Leo was reconciled with Rome in March 1213 after he had promised that he would help in the coming Crusade. He also won the favor of King John I, who in 1214 married Leo's daughter Rita and expected to inherit Armenia.
In Antioch, the population felt deserted by Bohemond IV, who preferred to reside in Tripoli, and Leo's intrigues rebuilt a strong party in favor of Raymond-Roupen. Bohemond IV was in Tripoli when the plot reached fruition. On the night of 14 February 1216 Leo managed by a successful intrigue, in which the Latin Patriarch Peter undoubtedly helped, to lead Armenian troops into Antioch and to occupy the city.
Raymond-Roupen then paid homage to Patriarch Peter and was consecrated prince of Antioch. In his joy at the successful outcome of the long war, Leo at last gave back Baghras to the Templars and restored the Latin church lands in Cilicia. But he paid for his victory by losing fortresses in the west and across the Taurus Mountains to the Seljuk Prince Kaykaus I. in 1216. These fortresses were Faustinepolis, Herakleia and Larende, were conquered from Seljuks in 1211.
Last years
When King Andrew II of Hungary, having fulfilled his Crusader vow, took his troops northward in January 1218, and traveled to Cilician Armenia. There marriage was arranged between Andrew's son, Andrew, and Leo's daughter, Isabelle.
Shortly afterward, Raymond-Roupen even quarreled with Leo. In 1219, Antioch sent for its old prince while Raymond-Roupen first sought refuge in the citadel, only to leave it to the Hospitallers and flee to Cilicia. There he found Leo still unwilling to forgive him, although on his deathbed. Before Leo died, he had named his young daughter Isabel as his rightful heir and had released the barons from the oaths of allegiance to Raymond Roupen.
His body was buried at Sis, but his heart and entrails were buried at the convent of Agner.
Marriages and children
# (1) 3 February 1188 – 4 February 1189, divorced 1206: Isabelle (? – Vahka, 1207), a daughter of a brother of Sibylle, the wife of Bohemond III of Antioch
Rita (Stephanie) (after 1195 – June 1220), the wife of King John I of Jerusalem
# (2) 28 January 1210 – 27 January 1211: Sibylla (1199/1200 – after 1225), a daughter of King Amalric I of Cyprus and Isabella I of Jerusalem
Queen Isabella I of Cilicia ( 27 January 1216 – 25 January 1217 – Ked, 23 January 1252)
Notes
References
Sources
Edwards, Robert W., The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia, Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXIII, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1987, Washington, D.C.; .
Ghazarian, Jacob G: The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins (1080–1393); RoutledgeCurzon (Taylor & Francis Group), 2000, Abingdon;
External links
Greeks, Crusaders, and Moslems — Rise of Leon II (Kurkjian's History of Armenia, Chs. 28–29)
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1150 births
1219 deaths
Monarchs of the Rubenid dynasty
12th-century Armenian people
13th-century Armenian people
Kings of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline%20deregulation
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Airline deregulation
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Airline deregulation is the process of removing government-imposed entry and price restrictions on airlines affecting, in particular, the carriers permitted to serve specific routes. In the United States, the term usually applies to the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. A new form of regulation has been developed to some extent to deal with problems such as the allocation of the limited number of slots available at airports.
Introduction
As jets were integrated into the market in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the industry experienced dramatic growth. By the mid-1960s, airlines were carrying roughly 100 million passengers and by the mid-1970s, over 200 million Americans had traveled by air. This steady increase in air travel began placing serious strains on the ability of federal regulators to cope with the increasingly complex nature of air travel.The onset of high inflation, low economic growth, falling productivity, rising labor costs and higher fuel costs proved problematic to the airlines.
Although it is generally recognized that the purpose behind government regulation is to create a stable industry, in the decades leading up to deregulation many airline market analysts expressed concerns with the structure of the United States' passenger air transport system. Concerns included high barriers to entry for fledgling airlines, slow government response to existing airlines entering to compete in city-pairings, and monopolistic practices by legacy airlines artificially inflating passenger ticket prices.
In order to address these growing concerns airline deregulation began in the US in 1978. It was, and still is, a part of a sweeping experiment to ultimately reduce ticket prices and entry controls holding sway over new airline hopefuls. Airline deregulation had begun with initiatives by economist Alfred E. Kahn in the Nixon administration, carried through the Ford administration and finally, at the behest of Ted Kennedy, signed into law by President Jimmy Carter in 1978 as the Airline Deregulation Act.
Globally, state supported airlines are still relatively common, maintaining control over ticket prices and route entry, but many countries have since deregulated their own domestic airline markets. A similar but less laissez-faire approach has been taken by the European Union, Australia, United Kingdom, Scandinavia, Ireland and select South and Central American nations.
In the United States
In the early days of interstate air travel, the prevalent thought at the time was that government regulation was necessary to protect and promote the fledgling industry. For example, the then dominant rail industry was forbidden from a financial interest in airlines to prevent them from smothering competition in the industry. Congress created the Civil Aeronautics Authority, which became the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), and gave the CAB the power to regulate airline routes, control entry to and exit from the market, and mandate service rates, to investigate accidents, certify aircraft and pilots, to create rules for air traffic control (ATC) and to recommend new rules to prevent repetition of previous accidents. Additional airline safety regulation came later with the passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, which created the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as a separate regulatory body.
Civil Aeronautics Board
In 1938 the U.S. government, through the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), regulated many areas of commercial aviation such as routes, fares and schedules.
The CAB had three main functions: to award routes to airlines, to limit the entry of air carriers into new markets, and to regulate fares for passengers.
Much of the established practices of commercial passenger travel within the US, went back even farther, to the policies of Walter Folger Brown, the US postmaster general from 1929 to 1933 in the administration of President Herbert Hoover. After passage of the Air Mail Act of 1930, also known as the McNary-Watres act, Brown had changed the mail payments system to encourage the manufacture of passenger aircraft instead of mail carrying aircraft. His influence was crucial in awarding contracts so as to create four major domestic airlines: United, American, Eastern, and Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA). Contracts for each of three transcontinental air mail routes were awarded to United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (later United), Robertson Aircraft Corporation (later American), and Transcontinental Air Transport (later TWA). The contract for the New York to Washington route was awarded to Eastern Air Transport, which would later become Eastern Air Lines. By 1933, United, American, TWA, and Eastern accounted for about 94% of air mail revenue. Similarly, Brown had also helped give Pan American a monopoly on international routes. (See also the US Centennial of Flight Commission )
Typical regulatory thinking from the 1940s onward is evident in a Civil Aeronautics Board report. In the absence of particular circumstances presenting an affirmative reason for a new carrier, there appears to be no inherent desirability of increasing the present number of carriers merely for the purpose of numerically enlarging the industry.
Airline Deregulation Act
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed many of the previously mentioned controls. Prior to deregulation, it was required that airlines first seek regulatory approval to serve any given route. Thus incumbent airline operators could raise barriers to the challenge of new competition. This system was dismantled as a result of the Airline Deregulation Act. (See also the Centennial of Flight Commission) It also dismantled the notion of a flag carrier.
Post-deregulation
In the wake of deregulation, airlines have adopted new strategies and consumers are experiencing a new market. Below are the marquee effects of deregulation.
Hub and spoke
In the immediate aftermath of deregulation, many large airlines adopted a hub-and-spoke system. In this system, several smaller routes ("spokes") are connected to a single larger route ("hubs") are selected an airport, the hub, as the point for flights from a number of origination cities, the spokes. Because hubs allowed passenger travel to be consolidated in "transfer stations", capacity utilization increased, with customers avoiding decreasing costs and ticket prices.
Low-cost carriers
While deregulation led legacy airlines to switch to a hub-and-spoke model, the old point-to-point transit model was quickly adopted by the new generation of low-cost carriers (LCCs) that emerged in the 1970s and 80s. While previously, LCCs such as Southwest Airlines were only permitted to serve routes that did not cross state borders (placing them outside the purview of the CAB), deregulation allowed low-cost airlines to choose their own domestic routes, fares, and schedules, increasing competition across state lines and creating new markets outside the two largest states (California and Texas). As the cost of flying dropped, the number of potential customers increased, making many smaller routes viable.
Price
Base ticket prices have declined steadily since deregulation. The inflation-adjusted 1982 constant dollar yield for airlines has fallen from 12.3 cents in 1978 to 7.9 cents in 1997, and the inflation-adjusted real price of flying fell 44.9% from 1978 to 2011. Along with a rising US population and the increasing demand of workforce mobility, these trends were some of the catalysts for dramatic expansion in passenger miles flown, increasing from 250 million passenger miles in 1978 to 750 million passenger miles in 2005.
Service quality
Over the past several years the public's view of airline service quality has shown a significant drop. According to the 2008 American Customer Satisfaction Index, a University of Michigan study of 80,000 consumers' expectations and preferences, the major US airlines ranked last among all the industries surveyed. In 2009, the airlines have moved up to being one point ahead of Cable & Satellite TV and the newspaper industry (though results for all industries were not available at the time of this writing).
In 2011 Congress finally responded to repeated calls for the United States government to pass an "Air Passenger Bill of Rights" to provide specific requirements about what must happen to air passengers in certain conditions. The push for the bill stemmed from several high-profile passenger strandings over the last several years. On April 25, 2011, the Enhancing Airline Passenger Protections rule, 76 Fed. Reg. 32,110, was enacted. Among other items, the rule includes raising the minimum "denied boarding compensation" to customers with valid tickets yet still not allowed to board the aircraft. The legislation further penalizes airlines up to $27,500 a passenger if left stranded aboard an aircraft, on a tarmac for more than three hours. In 2010, the largest trade associations representing airline management interests before Capitol Hill, Airlines for America and the Regional Airline Association, opposed this legislation stating that they could self-regulate themselves and they already had begun implementing systems by which to mitigate any tarmac delays. Later American Eagle, an RAA airline member, was the first airline to be fined under the new legislation. A total settlement including fines and compensation paid to passengers totaled $800,000 for tarmac delays incurred in Chicago in May 2011.
Deregulation advocate Alfred Kahn noted a deterioration in the quality of airline service following deregulation, including the "turmoil" of massive restructuring of airline routes, price wars, conflicts with airline employee unions, airline bankruptcies, and industry consolidation. He also noted unexpected congestion and delays "that have plagued air travelers in recent years". However, he also argued that such congestion and delays was also a sign of deregulation success (because they were caused by lower prices leading Americans to book more flights). Kahn considered the turmoil, congestion, and delays to be unforeseen "surprises" from deregulation, but believed they continued to support deregulation in spite of these events.
Competition among carriers
A major goal of airline deregulation was to increase competition between airline carriers, leading to price decreases. As a result of deregulation, barriers to entry into the airlines industry for a potential new airline decreased significantly, resulting in many new airlines entering the market, thus increasing competition.
Effects on airline staff
A key indicator of the volatility of deregulation from 1976 to 1986 in the US revolves around employee affairs. Airlines saw a 39% increase in employees (according to Alfred Kahn), and saw continued yet less rapid growth throughout the 1990s. Subsequently, between 2000 and 2008, 100,000 jobs were shed - approximately 20% - and formerly busy hub airports (such as Pittsburgh and St. Louis) reduced staffing due to a significantly decreased number of flights.
Immediately following the September 11th attacks, the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act provided the US airlines with $15 billion in loans and an additional $5 billion in grants by the US government. Despite these loans and grants, nearly every major carrier fired 20% of its staff, with United and American both cutting 20,000 jobs. It is difficult to determine the precise job losses due to the effects of deregulation, given such layoffs. Then-retired former CEO of American Airlines Robert Crandall stated, "I'm not sure 9/11 by itself had any particular profound impact [on the industry], but it exacerbated the problems they had before 9/11."
Although regular pay-cuts had become commonplace in the years following deregulation, of the employees remaining after September 11, 2001, the average pay cut has been 18%, with many of the highest earners seeing as much as 40% reductions. Further, virtually every regularly scheduled airline has shifted its pension obligations to its employees.
According to a study by economist David Card, deregulation resulted in the shift of approximately 5,000 to 7,000 airline mechanic jobs from the major trunk airlines to smaller carriers between 1978 and 1984. Because such smaller carriers typically pay less than the major airlines, the average hourly wage of airline mechanics decreased by up to 5 percent; however, this decrease is said to be relatively small.
Open Skies
Beyond the domestic liberalization of the airlines in the US, Open Skies agreements are bilateral agreements between the US and other countries to open the aviation market to foreign access and remove barriers to competition. These agreements give airlines the right to operate air services from any point in the US to any point in the other country, as well as to and from third countries. The first major Open Skies agreements were entered into in 1979.
The US has Open Skies agreements with more than 60 countries, including 15 of the 28 EU nations. Open Skies agreements have been successful at removing many of the government-implemented barriers to competition and allowing airlines to have foreign partners, access to international routes to and from their home countries, and freedom from many traditional forms of economic regulation.
Criticisms
With long standing companies like Braniff, TWA, and Pan Am disappearing through bankruptcy since 1978, the years since 2000 have seen every remaining legacy carrier file for bankruptcy at least once. US Airways filed twice in the same number of years. During the same time period, Southwest Airlines continued to expand its route structure, buy new airplanes, and hire more employees, while remaining profitable. JetBlue, a new airline that started up in 1999, "was one of only a few U.S. airlines that made a profit during the sharp downturn in airline travel following the September 11, 2001 attacks. For many years, analysts had predicted that JetBlue's growth rate would become unsustainable. Despite this, the airline continued to add planes and routes to the fleet at a brisk pace. JetBlue is one of the largest airlines in the Northeast United States."
Various proposals have been made by labor unions, former management and industry analysts, including federal price controls and mandated routes served by major airlines with the intent of increasing both prices and competition.
In June 2008 former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall stated,
Crandall has also criticized deregulation for causing airlines to cut service to smaller airports, resulting in a "relatively unsatisfactory transportation network;" he argues that this "has accelerated the movement of people towards the big cities and has discouraged the creation of medium-sized cities."
See also
Wright Amendment, a US Federal law to protect one Texas airport (Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport) from competition only months after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 was signed into law.
Notes
Source 1 needs updating to Table 1-37: U.S. Air Carrier Aircraft Departures, Enplaned Revenue Passengers, and Enplaned Revenue Tons | Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved December 11, 2015, from https://www.bts.gov/content/us-air-carrier-aircraft-departures-enplaned-revenue-passengers-and-enplaned-revenue-tons
References and further reading
Avent-Holt, Dustin. (2012) "The political dynamics of market organization: Cultural framing, neoliberalism, and the case of airline deregulation." Sociological Theory 30.4 (2012): 283–302.
Brown, John Howard. (2014) "Jimmy Carter, Alfred Kahn, and airline deregulation: Anatomy of a policy success." Independent Review 19.1 (2014): 85-99 online.
Button, Kenneth, ed. (2017) Airline deregulation: international experiences (Routledge, 2017).
Button, Kenneth. (2015) "A Book, the Application, and the Outcomes: How Right Was Alfred Kahn in the Economics of Regulation about the Effects of the Deregulation of the US Domestic Airline Market?." History of Political Economy 47.1 (2015): 1-39.
Goetz, Andrew R., and Timothy M. Vowles. (2009) "The good, the bad, and the ugly: 30 years of US airline deregulation." Journal of Transport Geography 17.4 (2009): 251–263. online
Goetz, A. R., Sutton, J. C., (1997), "The Geography of Deregulation in the U.S. Airline Industry," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 87#2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 238–262,
Kahn, A. E. (1988), "Surprises of Airline Deregulation", American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 78, no. 2: 316–22.
McDonnell, Gary. (2015) "What Caused Airline Deregulation: Economists or Economics?." Independent Review 19.3 (2015): 379-395 online.
Morrison, Steven, and Clifford Winston. (2010) The economic effects of airline deregulation (Brookings Institution Press, 2010).
Poole, R. W. Jr., Butler V., (1999), "Airline Deregulation: The Unfinished Revolution," Regulation, vol. 22, no. 1, Spring 1999, pp. 8.,
Rose, Nancy L. (2012) "After airline deregulation and Alfred E. Kahn." American Economic Review 102.3 (2012): 376-80 online.
Sinha, Dipendra. (2018) Deregulation and liberalisation of the airline industry: Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania (Routledge, 2019).
Thierer, A. D. (1998), 20th Anniversary of Airline Deregulation: Cause for Celebration, Not Re-Regulation, (The Heritage Foundation)
Williams, George. (2017) The airline industry and the impact of deregulation (Routledge, 2017).
External links
http://www.dot.gov
Aviation law
Civil aviation
Economic liberalization
Economics of regulation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios%20Papadopoulos
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Georgios Papadopoulos
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Geórgios Papadopoulos (; ; 5 May 1919 – 27 June 1999) was a Greek military officer and dictator who led a coup d'etat in Greece in 1967 and became the country's Prime Minister from 1967 to 1973. He also was the President of Greece under the junta in 1973, following a referendum. However, after the effective suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising, he was, in turn, overthrown by hardliner Dimitrios Ioannidis, in a string of events that would culminate to the fall of the regime in 1974. His and the dictatorship's legacy, as well as its methods he constructed and effects on Greek economy and society as a whole, are still fiercely debated.
He joined the Royal Hellenic Army during the Second World War and resisted the Greco-Italian War; in so doing he obtained honors and became a hero. He remained in the army after the war and rose to the rank of colonel.
In April 1967, Papadopoulos and a group of other mid-level army officers overthrew the democratic government and established a military junta that lasted until 1974. Assuming dictatorial powers, he led an authoritarian, anti-communist and ultranationalist regime which eventually ended the Greek monarchy and established a republic, with himself as president. In 1973, he was overthrown and arrested by his co-conspirator Brigadier General Dimitrios Ioannidis. After the Metapolitefsi which restored democracy in 1974, Papadopoulos was tried for his part in the crimes of the junta and sentenced to death, but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Refusing several offers of clemency in exchange for admitting guilt for the crimes of the junta, he spent the remainder of his life in prison.
Early life and military career
Papadopoulos was born in Elaiohori, a small village in the Prefecture of Achaea in the Peloponnese, to local schoolteacher Christos Papadopoulos and his wife Chrysoula. He was the eldest son and had two brothers, Konstantinos and Haralambos. After finishing high school in 1937, he enrolled in the Royal Hellenic Military Academy, completing its three-year programme in 1940.
His biographical notes, published as a booklet by his supporters in 1980, mention that he took a civil engineering course at the Polytechneion but did not graduate.
Resistance and acquiescence
During the Second World War, Papadopoulos saw field action as an artillery second lieutenant against both Italian and Nazi German forces which attacked Greece on 6 April 1941.
It has been argued by various authors that Papadopoulos was a member of the Security Battalions under the command of Colonel Kourkoulakos, who was responsible for the formation of the "Security Battalions" in Patras which "hunted down" Greek resistance fighters. However, Evanthis Hatzivassiliou and Leonidas F. Kallivretakis disagree with this claim. It has also been argued that Papadopoulos, at the end of the Axis occupation of Greece, entered Organisation X, but Calivratakis considers that this information has not been proven. According to Kallivretakis and Grigoriadis, during the Axis occupation of Greece, Papadopoulos worked in the Greek administration’s Patras.
Along with other right-wing military officers, he participated in the creation of the nationalist right-wing secret IDEA organisation in the autumn of 1944, shortly after the country's liberation. Those 1940 officers who took refuge in the Kingdom of Egypt along with King Geórgios II immediately after the German invasion, had become generals when their still-colonel former classmates undertook the coup of 1967.
Post-Second World War career
He was promoted to captain in 1946; and in 1949, during the Greek Civil War, to major. (See also Greek military ranks.) He served in the KYP Intelligence Service from 1959 to 1964 as the main contact between the KYP and the top CIA operative in Greece, John Fatseas, after training at the CIA in 1953.
Trials and tribulations: The Beloyannis affair
Major Papadopoulos, as he then was, was also a member of the court-martial in the first trial of the well-known Greek communist leader Nikos Beloyannis, in 1951. At that trial, Beloyannis was sentenced to death for the crime of being a member of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), which was banned at that time in Greece following the Greek Civil War. The death sentence pronounced after this trial was not carried out, but Beloyannis was put on trial again in early 1952, this time for alleged espionage, following the discovery of radio transmitters used by undercover Greek communists to communicate with the exiled leadership of the Party in the Soviet Union. At the end of this trial, he was sentenced to death and immediately taken out and shot. Papadopoulos was not involved in this second trial. The Beloyannis trials were highly controversial in Greece, and many Greeks consider that, like many Greek communists at the time, Beloyannis was shot for his political beliefs, rather than any real crimes. The trial was by military court-martial under Greek anti-insurgency legislation enacted at the time of the Greek Civil War, which remained in force even though the war had ended.
Rise to colonel in the 1960s
In 1956, Papadopoulos took part in a failed coup attempt against King Pávlos. In 1958, he helped create the Office of Military Studies, a surveillance authority, under General Gogousis. It was from this same office that the subsequently successful coup of 21 April 1967 emanated.
In 1964, Papadopoulos was transferred to an artillery division in Western Thrace by a decree of Defense Minister Garoufalias, a member of the Centre Union (EK). In June 1965, days before the onset of the major political turmoil known as Apostasia, he made national headlines after arresting two soldiers under his command and eight leftist civilians from settlements near his military camp, on charges that they had conspired to sabotage army vehicles by pouring sugar into the vehicles' petrol tanks. The ten were imprisoned and tortured, but it was eventually proven that Papadopoulos himself had sabotaged the vehicles. Andreas Papandreou wrote in his memoirs that Papadopoulos wanted to prove that under the Centre Union (EK) government, the Communists had been left free to undermine national security. Even after this scandal, Papadopoulos was not discharged from the army since the Prime Minister, Geórgios Papandreou, forgave him as a compatriot of his father.
In 1967, Papadopoulos was promoted to colonel.
21 April 1967: Coup d'état
That same year, on 21 April, a month before the general elections, Colonel Papadopoulos, along with fellow middle-ranking Army officers, led a successful coup, taking advantage of the volatile political situation that had arisen from a conflict between the young King Constantine II and the popular former Prime Minister, Geórgios Papandreou. Papadopoulos used his power gained from the coup to try to place Papandreou under house arrest and re-engineer the Greek political landscape rightward. Papadopoulos, along with the other junta members, are known in Greece by the term Aprilianoi ('Aprilians'), denoting the month of the coup. The term Aprilianoi has become synonymous with the term "dictators of 1967–1974".
Regime of the Colonels
King Constantine appointed a new government nominally headed by Konstantinos Kollias. However, from the early stages, Papadopoulos was the strongman of the new regime. He was appointed Minister of National Defense and Minister of the Presidency in the Kollias government, and his position was further enhanced after the King's abortive counter-coup on 13 December, when Papadopoulos replaced Kollias as Prime Minister. Not content with that, on 21 March 1972, he nominated himself Regent of Greece, succeeding General Geórgios Zoitakis.
Torture of political prisoners in general, and communists in particular, was not out of the question. Examples included severe beatings, isolation and, according to some sources, pulling out fingernails.
"Patient in a cast" and other metaphors
Throughout his tenure as the junta strongman, Papadopoulos often employed what have been described by the BBC as gory surgical metaphors, where he or the junta assumed the role of the "medical doctor". The "patient" was Greece. Typically, Papadopoulos or the junta portrayed themselves as the "doctor" who operated on the "patient" by putting the patient's "foot" in an orthopedic cast and applying restraints on the "patient", tying him on a surgical bed and putting him under anesthesia to perform the "operation" so that the life of the "patient" would not be "endangered" during the operation. In one of his famous speeches, Papadopoulos mentioned: Translated as:
In the same speech Papadopoulos continued:
which translates as follows:
Other metaphors contained religious imagery related to the resurrection of Christ at Easter: "Χριστός Ανέστη – Ελλάς Ανέστη" translating as "Christ has risen – Greece has risen", alluding that the junta would "save" Greece and resurrect her into a greater, new Land. The theme of rebirth was used many times as a standard reply to avoid answering any questions as to how long the dictatorship would last:
Translated as:
The religious themes and rebirth metaphors are also seen in the following:
Translated as:
Assassination attempt
A failed assassination attempt against Papadopoulos was perpetrated by Alexandros Panagoulis in the morning of 13 August 1968, when Papadopoulos was driven from his summer residence in Lagonisi to Athens, escorted by his personal security motorcycles and cars. Panagoulis ignited a bomb at a point of the coastal road where the limousine carrying Papadopoulos would have to slow down, but the bomb failed to harm Papadopoulos. Panagoulis was captured a few hours later in a nearby sea cave, since the boat sent to help him escape was instructed to leave at a specific time and he couldn't swim there on time due to strong sea currents. After his arrest, he was taken to the Greek Military Police (EAT-ESA) offices where he was questioned, beaten and tortured. On 17 November 1968, Panagoulis was sentenced to death but was personally pardoned by Papadopoulos, served only five years in prison, and after democracy was restored was elected a member of Parliament. He was regarded as an emblematic figure of the struggle to restore democracy, and as such has often been paralleled to Harmodius and Aristogeiton, two ancient Athenians known for their assassination of Hipparchus, brother of the tyrant Hippias.
Normalisation and attempts at liberalisation
Papadopoulos had indicated as early as 1968 that he was eager for a reform process, and even tried to contact Spiros Markezinis at that time. He had declared at the time that he did not want the Revolution of 21 April to become a 'regime'. Several attempts to liberalise the regime during 1969 and 1970 were thwarted by the hardliners on the junta, including Ioannides. In fact, subsequent to his 1970 failed attempt at reform, he threatened to resign and was dissuaded only after the hardliners renewed their personal allegiance to him.
As internal dissatisfaction grew in the early 1970s, and especially after an abortive coup by the Navy in early 1973, Papadopoulos attempted to legitimise the regime by beginning a gradual "democratisation" (see also the article on the Metapolitefsi). On 1 June 1973, he abolished the monarchy and declared Greece a republic with himself as president. He was confirmed in office via a controversial referendum. He furthermore sought the support of the old political establishment, but secured only the cooperation of Spiros Markezinis, who became Prime Minister. Concurrently, many restrictions were lifted and the army's role significantly reduced. An interim constitution created a presidential republic, which vested sweeping—almost dictatorial—powers in the hands of the president. The decision to return to (at least nominal) civilian rule and the restriction of the army's role was resented by many of the regime's supporters, whose dissatisfaction with Papadopoulos would become evident a few months later.
Ties to US intelligence
Papadopoulos is widely reported to have had certain ties to the Central Intelligence Agency, and has also been reported to have undergone military and intelligence training in the United States during the 1950s.
On 1 July 1973, The Observer published an investigative journalism article that accused the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of engineering the 1967 coup, further writing that Papadopoulos was known among senior officials in the Joint United States Military Aid Assistance Group in Athens as "the first CIA agent to become Premier of a European country". The following day, during CIA agent William Colby's confirmation hearings to be Director of Central Intelligence, Colby was asked in response to the article if there was any justification for the assertions. Colby denied that the CIA had engineered the coup or that Papadopoulos was either a CIA agent or otherwise paid by the CIA, adding that "[Papadopoulos] has been an official of the Greek Government at various times, and in those periods from time to time we worked with him in his official capacity.".
In 1977, John M. Maury, a CIA agent who was Chief of Station in Athens during the coup, wrote in an article in The Washington Post that the CIA had considered swaying the elections to prevent Papandreou from winning by promoting moderate candidates. The agency ultimately decided against the plan. As the election drew near, CIA agents were vaguely prodded by their Greek contacts about the possibility of a coup. Maury argues that the CIA's choice to officially condemn suggestions of a military takeover and remain uninvolved led to the agency being taken by surprise by the events of April 21, 1967. He concludes: "That we seriously attempted neither to influence nor to injure them is still taken by Greeks of all kinds as proof of U.S. complicity, or at least acquiescence, in the excesses of the dictatorship. And when the dictatorship eventually fell, to the shame of its perceived U.S. support was added the humiliation of perceived U.S. defeat."
A detailed study by Alexis Papachelas argues that Andreas Papandreou's claim of U.S. involvement "is wildly at variance with the facts": according to the study, U.S. officials had contemplated but rejected using the CIA to weaken the leftist flank of the Centre Union Party associated with Andreas, eventually determining that a prospective Centre Union government under Geórgios Papandreou would not pave the way for a takeover by Greek communists. As late as 20 April 1967, the U.S. embassy was instructed to pressure King Constantine II "to accept the popular will and keep the army in its barracks." U.S. officials were reportedly stunned by the coup on 21 April because, while aware of coup plotting within Greek military circles, they never expected Greek officers to act independently of the monarchy.
Divorce by decree
Papadopoulos married his first wife, Niki Vasileiadi, in 1941. They had two children, a son and a daughter. The marriage, however, ran into difficulty later and they eventually separated. The separation, however lengthy, could not lead to divorce at first because, under Greece's restrictive divorce laws of that era, spousal consent was required. To remedy this, in 1970, as Prime Minister of the dictatorship, he decreed a custom-made divorce law with a strict time limit (and a built-in sunset clause) that enabled him to get the divorce. After having served its purpose, the law eventually expired automatically. After the divorce, Papadopoulos married his long-time paramour Despina Gaspari in 1970, with whom he had a daughter.
Fall of the Papadopoulos regime
After the events of the student uprising of 17 November at the National Technical University of Athens (see Athens Polytechnic uprising), the dictatorship was overthrown on 25 November 1973 by hardline elements in the Army. The outcry over Papadopoulos's extensive reliance on the army to quell the student uprising gave Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis a pretext to oust him and replace him as the new strongman of the regime. Papadopoulos was put under house arrest at his villa, while Greece returned to an "orthodox" military dictatorship.
After democracy was restored in 1974, during the period of Metapolitefsi ("regime change"), Papadopoulos and his cohorts were arrested and were eventually put on trial for high treason, mutiny, torture, and other crimes and misdemeanors.
On 23 August 1975, he and several others were found guilty and were sentenced to death, which was later commuted to life imprisonment. Papadopoulos remained in prison, rejecting an amnesty offer that required that he acknowledge his past record and express remorse, until his death on 27 June 1999 at age 80 in a hospital in Athens, where he had been treated for cancer since 1996.
Legacy
Today, Papadopoulos is a symbol of authoritarianism and xenophobia. The far right praises him for promoting Greek culture, arresting political enemies, and fighting democracy. After the restoration of democracy, some support for his type of politics remained which was, for a time, bolstered by the National Political Union (EPEN), a small political party that declared him its honorary leader. The EPEN eventually dissolved, with supporters scattering to various other political parties such as the Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS) and criminal organisations like Golden Dawn (XA).
See also
History of Modern Greece
Military history of Greece during World War II
Notes
References
External links
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20th-century presidents of Greece
20th-century regents of Greece
20th-century prime ministers of Greece
Presidents of Greece
Prime Ministers of Greece
Leaders of the Greek junta
Leaders who took power by coup
People from Achaea
People convicted of treason against Greece
Greek criminals
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Greek anti-communists
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Red Tory
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A Red Tory is an adherent of a centre-right or paternalistic-conservative political philosophy derived from the Tory tradition; it is most predominant in Canada, but also has a presence in the United Kingdom. This philosophy tends to favour communitarian social policies, while maintaining a degree of fiscal discipline and a respect of social and political order. It is contrasted with "Blue Tory" or "High Tory". Some Red Tories view themselves as small-c conservatives.
In Canada, Red Toryism is found in provincial and federal Conservative political parties. The history of Red Toryism marks differences in the development of the political cultures of Canada and the United States. Canadian conservatism and American conservatism have been different from each other in fundamental ways, including their stances on social issues and the role of government in society.
Red Tory governments in Canada, such as those of John A. Macdonald, Robert Borden, and John Diefenbaker, were known for supporting an active role for the government in the economy. This included the creation of government-owned and operated Crown Corporations such as the Canadian National Railway, and the development and protection of Canadian industries with programs such as the National Policy.
The adjective "red" refers to the economically left-leaning nature of Red Toryism in comparison with Blue Toryism, since socialist and other leftist parties have traditionally used the colour red. In Canada today, however, red is commonly associated with the Liberal Party. The term reflects the broad ideological range traditionally found within conservatism in Canada.
Canada
Philosophy
Historically, Canadian conservatism has been derived from the Tory tradition, with a distinctive concern for a balance between individual rights and collectivism, as mediated through a traditional pre-industrial standard of morality – which has never been as evident in American conservatism.
Red Toryism derives largely from a classical conservative tradition that maintained that the unequal division of wealth and political privilege among social classes can be justified if members of the privileged class practiced noblesse oblige and contributed to the common good. Red Tories supported traditional institutions such as religion and the monarchy, and maintenance of the social order. This position was later manifested in their support for some aspects of the welfare state. This belief in a common good, as expanded on in Colin Campbell and William Christian's Political Parties and Ideologies in Canada, is at the root of Red Toryism.
Origins
In distinction to the American experience where class divisions were seen as undemocratic (although still existing), Canadian Tories adopted a more paternalistic view of government. Monarchy, public order and good government – understood as dedication to the common good – preceded, moderated and balanced a belief in individual rights and liberty. Anthony Hall has argued that Red Toryism in Canada developed specifically in opposition to the American Revolution and its ideology.
This type of Canadian conservatism is derived largely from the Tory tradition developed by English conservative thinkers and statesmen such as Richard Hooker; the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury; and Benjamin Disraeli, later the first Earl of Beaconsfield. The primary influences on Canadian Toryism in the Victorian age were Disraeli's One Nation Conservatism and the radical Toryism advocated by Lord Randolph Churchill. Inherent in these Tory traditions was the ideal of noblesse oblige and a conservative communitarianism.
In Victorian times these ideas were the pre-eminent strains of conservative thought in the British Empire, and were advanced by many in the Tory faction of John A. Macdonald's conservative coalition in the Canadas. None of this lineage denies that Tory traditions of communitarianism and collectivism had existed in the British North American colonies since the Loyalist exodus from the American colonies between 1776 and 1796. It is this aspect that is one of the primary points of difference between the conservative political cultures of Canada and the United States.
The explicit notion of a "Red" Toryism was developed by Gad Horowitz in the 1960s, who argued that there was a significant Tory ideology in Canada. This vision contrasted Canada with the United States, which was seen as lacking this collectivist tradition because it was expunged from the American political culture after the American Revolution and the exodus of the United Empire Loyalists. Horowitz argued that Canada's stronger socialist movement grew from Toryism, and that this explains why socialism has never had much electoral success in the United States. This also meant that Canadian conceptions of liberty were more collective and communitarian, and could be seen as more directly derivative of the English tradition, than that of American practices and theories.
Horowitz identified George Grant and Eugene Forsey as exemplars of this strain of thought, which saw a central role for Christianity in public affairs and was profoundly critical of capitalism and the dominant business élites. Forsey became a Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) member, while Grant remained a Conservative – although he became disdainful of an overall shift in policy toward liberal economics and continentalism, something Forsey saw happening decades earlier. When the Conservative government of John Diefenbaker fell in 1963, largely due to the BOMARC controversy, Grant wrote Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism, a book about the nature of traditional Canadian nationhood and independence that would become a lodestar of Red Toryism. Grant defined an essential difference between the founding of the Canadian and American nations when he wrote "Canada was predicated on the rights of nations as well as on the rights of individuals." This definition recognized Canada's multi-faceted founding nature as an English-speaking, aboriginal and Francophone nation.
Predominance and decline
Many of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada's leaders have been labelled 'Red Tories', including Sir Robert Borden, John Diefenbaker, Robert Stanfield and Joe Clark. Many others have been influential as cabinet ministers and thinkers, such as Davie Fulton, Dalton Camp, Roy McMurtry and John Farthing. The main bastions of Red Toryism were Ontario, the Atlantic provinces and urban Manitoba, areas where the Red Tories dominated provincial politics, and in some federal elections Quebec, where the federal PC party operated largely separately from provincial politics. During 42 years, the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario was led by Red Tories such as George A. Drew, Leslie Frost, John Robarts and Bill Davis, all of which supported increased funding for infrastructure, health care and education. Throughout the Atlantic provinces, traditional Red Tories are the dominant force in the provincial Progressive Conservative parties because of their support of the welfare state. As premier of Nova Scotia from 1956 to 1967, Red Tory Robert Stanfield introduced reforms for education, health care and civil liberties. The Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta included a broad spectrum from Red Tories to social conservatives, but Peter Lougheed who led the party from 1968 to 1985 and was Premier from 1971 to 1985 was a Red Tory and Lougheed's tenure was characterized by active economic measures and social reforms. In the 50's and 60's, Manitoba saw great prosperity in economic and social reforms thanks to the leadership of Premier Dufferin Roblin, a Red Tory, who governed to the left of the previous government led by Douglas Campbell, the leader of the Liberal-Progressive coalition.
The dominance of Red Toryism can be seen as a part of the international post-war consensus that saw the welfare state embraced by the major parties of most of the western world. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, the federal Progressive Conservative Party suffered a string of electoral defeats under Red Tory leaders Robert Stanfield and Joe Clark. Pressure began to grow within the party for a new approach. Clark's leadership was successfully challenged, and in the 1983 PC leadership convention, members endorsed Brian Mulroney who rejected free trade with the United States as proposed by another Blue Tory candidate, John Crosbie. Despite this early perception, the eagerness in which Mulroney's ministry embraced the Macdonald Commission's advocacy of bilateral free trade would come to indicate a sharp drift toward libertarian or liberal economic policies, comparable to such contemporaries as Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher.
Following Mulroney, the Canadian conservative movement suffered a profound schism in the 1993 election, splitting into the distinct Progressive Conservative and Reform parties. The Red Tory tradition remained loyal to the Progressive Conservatives, while many "blue" Tories aligned with social conservatives in the Reform Party. Various Unite the Right efforts achieved only modest success in the 1990s and early 2000s – most notably, while the creation of the Canadian Alliance in 2000 attracted a small number of Progressive Conservatives, it failed to attract those in the Red Tory tradition or to replace the Progressive Conservatives.
Following the victory of Peter MacKay at the 2003 PC convention, and in violation of an informal contract signed with rival candidate David Orchard, MacKay merged the Tories with Stephen Harper's Alliance to create the modern federal Conservative Party in 2003. When first created, one of the most important issues facing the Conservative Party was what Red Tories would do. The union resulted in a number of Red Tories leaving the new party, either to retire or to cross the floor to the Liberal Party. Members of Parliament (MPs) André Bachand, John Herron, Joe Clark and Scott Brison declined to join the new party – Brison immediately crossed the floor to the Liberals, Bachand and Clark sat out the remainder of the 37th Canadian Parliament as Progressive Conservatives and then retired from office in the 2004 election, and Herron sat as a Progressive Conservative for the remainder of the term but then ran for re-election in 2004 as a Liberal.
Clark, a former Prime Minister, gave a tepid endorsement to the Liberals in the 2004 election, calling Paul Martin "the devil we know". Rick Borotsik joined the new party but openly criticized it from within, did not run for re-election in 2004, and also publicly endorsed the Liberals over the Conservatives during the campaign. Additionally, three of the twenty-six Progressive Conservative Senators, Lowell Murray, Norman Atkins and William Doody, decided to continue serving as Progressive Conservatives, rejecting membership in the new party. Atkins, who died in 2010, remained allied with the still-existent Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, and Murray, from Atlantic Canada, opposed the merger of the federal PC party. Most, like prominent Senator Marjory LeBreton, came to endorse the new party and have been vocal and visible supporters of the party both between and during elections. Elaine McCoy and Nancy Ruth were later appointed to the Senate by Liberal Prime Minister Paul Martin, and chose to designate themselves as Progressive Conservatives. Doody has since died, and Ruth joined the Conservative Party caucus in 2006.
Despite the union, some former Progressive Conservative members still identify themselves as Red Tory, including high-profile political strategist turned Senator Hugh Segal, who in 2013 continued to describe himself as a Red Tory, which has put him at increasing odds with the government on several occasions.
A 'grassroots' movement of dissenting Red Tories, who opposed the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada's merger with the Canadian Alliance, gathered signatures on Elections Canada forms from over 200 Progressive Conservative members and applied to re-register as the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. This name was refused by Elections Canada. Having anticipated such a rejection, the coordinators had had the 'SignaTories' also sign a second application to at least continue with the ballot name "PC Party". On March 26, 2004, the Progressive Canadian Party was registered with Elections Canada. It aimed to be perceived as a continuation of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, but achieved only very minor results. The party achieved its largest vote to date in the 2006 election, with 14,151 votes in 25 ridings (about 0.1% of the nationwide total). The party was deregistered by the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada on November 30, 2019, for failing to comply with Canada Elections Act requirements set out in subsection 415(1).
Revival in provincial politics
In the wake of the rise of the conservative Wildrose Party in Alberta in the 2010s, the term "Red Tory" has been revived as a name of the moderate wing of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta, which was seen to be in ascendence under the leadership of Ed Stelmach and Alison Redford. Redford is closely associated with centrist Tories Joe Clark and Peter Lougheed, as opposed to Wildrose leader Danielle Smith's association with right-wing Tories Ralph Klein and Tom Flanagan. Redford was called a Red Tory by Chantal Hébert, Ezra Levant and others.
The Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia under Tim Houston, branding themselves as Red Tories, won a majority government in the 2021 Nova Scotia general election. Houston's Progressive Conservatives campaigned on using provincial resources to improve healthcare services.
United Kingdom
In 2009 Phillip Blond promoted communitarian traditionalist conservative ideas within the Conservative Party with a book titled Red Tory: How Left and Right Have Broken Britain and How We Can Fix It and by creating the think-tank ResPublica. Leader of the Conservative Party David Cameron spoke at ResPublica's launch and Red Tory ideas were said to be a major influence on him.
In Scotland, the term "Red Tory" has been used to describe the Scottish Labour Party, who some see as assisting with, or failing to oppose, certain Conservative policies. The term was first used in this context by Scottish independence supporters, following Labour's participation in the Better Together campaign in opposition to Scottish independence alongside the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats during the 2014 Scottish independence referendum.
Evolving from the Scottish usage of the term, the term, along with the terms Blairite and "centrist", have been used, particularly on social media by members on the political left of the Labour Party to refer to MPs and Labour Party figures who withheld support for Jeremy Corbyn, the former Labour leader from 2015 to 2020. The term has also been used as a pejorative against current Labour leader Keir Starmer, who has been seen by some to have moved the party too far away from traditional left-wing positions.
Definition drift
The term Red Tory is often used today in the Canadian media not to refer to those in the tradition of George Grant, Dalton Camp or Robert Stanfield, but simply to moderates in the conservative movement, particularly those who reject or do not sufficiently embrace social conservatism. For example, in the 2004 Conservative Party leadership election, Tony Clement was sometimes referred to as a Red Tory even though he advocated privatization, tax cuts and the curtailment of social and economic development spending. Traditional Red Tories would reject most if not all of these stances.
More recently Phillip Blond, director of British think tank ResPublica, has gained traction with his so-called Red Tory thesis which criticizes what he refers to as the welfare state and the market state. Phillip Blond promotes a radical communitarian traditionalist conservatism. It inveighs against welfare states as well as market monopolies and instead respects traditional values and institutions, localism, devolution of powers from the central governments to local communities, small businesses, and volunteerism. Blond also favours empowering social enterprises, charities and other elements of civil society to solve problems such as poverty. He has been mentioned as a major influence on the thinking of David Cameron and other Tories in the wake of the 2008 credit crisis. He advocates a civic state as the ideal, where the common good of society is valued and solutions emerge from local communities. Blond's ideas also parallel the socioeconomic tradition of distributism, as is evidenced by Blond's appearance at a distributist conference at Oxford University in 2009 sponsored by the G. K. Chesterton Institute for Faith and Culture. Blond's Red Toryism has been embraced by traditionalist conservatives in the United States, such as economist John Medaille.
The editors of the web log Front Porch Republic, however, define Red Toryism as a "left or socialist conservatism" and further go on to say that it is "not a traditionalism that happened to oddly pick up a few egalitarian rhetorical tropes along the way." This is more in keeping with the typical dictionary definition of the term as: "(Canadian) a Conservative who holds liberal or mildly socialist views on certain fiscal and social issues." In this regard, Phillip Blond's views are probably closer to what has been referred to as High Tory.
See also
Blue Grit
Moderates
Blue Labour
One-nation conservatism
Robert Muldoon
Pink Tory
Paternalistic conservatism
Rockefeller Republican
Tory socialism
Wets and dries
Communitarianism
Christian democracy
References
Further reading
Farthing, J. Freedom Wears a Crown
Grant, George Parkin. Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism (1965)
Horowitz, Gad. "Conservatism, Liberalism and Socialism in Canada: An Interpretation." Canadian Journal of Political Science (1966).
Taylor, Charles. Radical Tories.
Dart, Ron. The Canadian High Tory Tradition: Raids on the Unspeakable (2004)
Campbell, Colin [John]. CTtheory.net. Gad Horowitz Interviewed by Colin Campbell. .
Blond, Phillip. Red Tory: How Left and Right Have Broken Britain and How We Can Fix It. Faber (2010). Review in The Daily Telegraph March 27, 2010; Review in London Review of Books April 22, 2010
Judge, Tony. Tory Socialism: Robert Blatchford and Merrie England (2013)
Woodfinden, Benjamin L. “The Enduring Appeal Of Red Toryism” January 18, 2020
Canadian political phrases
Centre-right politics
Centre-right politics in the United Kingdom
Conservatism in Canada
Conservative Party of Canada
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)
One-nation conservatism
Political party factions in Canada
Political terms in the United Kingdom
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
Toryism
Paternalistic conservatism
Progressive conservatism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Crow%20%281994%20film%29
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The Crow (1994 film)
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The Crow is a 1994 American supernatural superhero film directed by Alex Proyas from a screenplay by David J. Schow and John Shirley, based on the 1989 limited comic book series of the same name by James O'Barr. The film stars Brandon Lee, in his final film appearance, as Eric Draven, a musician who is resurrected from the dead to seek vengeance against the gang who murdered him and his fiancée, all the while being pursued by a sympathetic police officer.
Production on The Crow was struck by tragedy when Lee was fatally wounded by a prop gun during filming. As Lee had finished most of his scenes before his death, the film was completed through script rewrites, a stunt double, and digital effects. After Lee's death, Paramount Pictures opted out of distributing the film and the rights were picked up by Miramax Films, who oversaw the film's completion. The film is dedicated to Lee and his fiancée, Eliza Hutton.
The Crow was released in the United States on May 13, 1994. The film received positive reviews from critics. A sleeper hit at the box office, it grossed $94 million on a $23 million budget and gained a strong cult following. The success of the film led to a media franchise that includes the sequels The Crow: City of Angels (1996), The Crow: Salvation (2000), and The Crow: Wicked Prayer (2005). The sequels, which mostly featured different characters and none of the original cast members, were unable to match the success of the first film.
Plot
On Devil's Night in Detroit, police Sergeant Albrecht surveys a crime scene. A young woman named Shelly Webster has been raped and gravely wounded. Her fiancé, rock musician Eric Draven, was killed in the attack, having been stabbed, shot and then thrown from the window of their loft apartment. As he leaves for the hospital with Shelly, Albrecht meets a young girl, Sarah, whom Shelly and Eric look after. Albrecht comforts Sarah when she realizes that Shelly is going to die from her injuries.
One year later, Sarah visits Shelly and Eric's graves before meeting with Albrecht, who now helps take care of her. A crow lands on Eric's gravestone and taps on it, resurrecting him. Upon returning to his now-derelict apartment, Eric experiences flashbacks of his murder, when a gang (T-Bird, Tin Tin, Funboy and Skank) broke in and attacked him and Shelly due to them protesting forced evictions at their apartment building. Eric also discovers that any wounds he receives heal immediately. Guided by the crow, with whom he shares a telepathic connection, Eric sets out to avenge his and Shelly's murders.
The crow helps Eric locate Tin Tin, whom Eric stabs to death. Eric next travels to the pawn shop where Tin Tin had pawned Shelly's engagement ring, forcing the owner, Gideon, to return it. He blows up the shop, but spares Gideon so that he can warn the others. Eric then tracks down Funboy, who is having sex with Sarah's estranged drug addict mother, Darla. Eric kills him and confronts Darla, making her realize that Sarah needs her. In the meantime Top Dollar, the crime boss who controls the street gangs in the city, and his lover/half-sister Myca have become aware of Eric's actions; they kill Gideon after he reports his attack to them.
Eric visits Albrecht, explaining who he is. Albrecht tells him that he watched Shelly suffer for thirty hours before dying. Eric touches Albrecht and feels the pain Shelly felt. Upon leaving Albrecht's apartment, Eric saves Sarah from getting run over by a car, and gives her a clue to his identity before disappearing.
Eric kidnaps T-Bird and kills him in an explosion. The next morning, Sarah and her mother begin repairing their strained relationship, and Sarah visits Eric at his apartment. Grange, Top Dollar's right-hand man, finds Eric's grave is empty. Top Dollar holds a meeting with his associates where they discuss new plans for their Devil's Night criminal activities. Eric arrives looking for Skank and a gunfight erupts; Skank is killed during the meleé. Top Dollar, Myca and Grange escape and Myca hypothesizes that by killing the crow, Eric will no longer be immortal.
Eric, believing his vengeance is over, gives Sarah Shelly's engagement ring. As Sarah walks home, Grange abducts her and takes her to an abandoned church where Top Dollar and Myca are waiting. Through the crow, Eric realizes what has happened and goes to rescue her. Grange shoots and wounds the crow, sapping Eric of his immortality. Myca grabs the wounded crow, intending to take its mystical power.
Albrecht arrives and assists Eric, shooting and killing Grange before being wounded by Myca. The crow escapes Myca's grip and claws her eyes out, making her fall to her death down the Church's bell tower. Eric confronts Top Dollar on the roof. Top Dollar admits ultimate responsibility for Eric and Shelly's deaths, having ordered their murder as part of a scheme to take over their apartment building for his criminal activities. Eric grabs Top Dollar, transferring the thirty hours of pain he absorbed from Albrecht; the sensation causes Top Dollar to fall from the roof, and he is impaled on a gargoyle, killing him.
Sarah accompanies Albrecht to the hospital. Eric stumbles to the graveyard, where he is reunited with Shelly's spirit and returns to the afterlife, his revenge now complete.
Cast
Brandon Lee as Eric Draven / The Crow
Rochelle Davis as Sarah Mohr
Ernie Hudson as Sergeant Daryl Albrecht
Michael Wincott as Top Dollar
Bai Ling as Myca
Sofia Shinas as Shelly Webster
Anna Levine as Darla Mohr
David Patrick Kelly as T-Bird
Angel David as Skank
Laurence Mason as Tin Tin
Michael Massee as Funboy
Tony Todd as Grange
Jon Polito as Gideon
Bill Raymond as Mickey
Marco Rodríguez as Detective Torres
Michael Berryman filmed scenes as the Skull Cowboy, Eric's spirit guide, but his scenes were cut from the finished film.
Production
Development
James O'Barr wrote what would become The Crow as a means to cope with the unexpected death of his fiancée, who was killed by a drunk driver. The first meeting O'Barr had with a major studio was quickly dismissed after the studio's vision for the film was a musical with Michael Jackson as the lead. Around the time of The Crows publication, writer John Shirley pitched Angry Angel to Caliber Press, who turned it down due to similarities with The Crow. Shirley sought the comic out and decided to adapt it into a film. O'Barr was receptive and agreed to workshop the film with Shirley and producer Jeff Most, turning down a significant offer from New Line Cinema in the process. O'Barr oversaw three different script treatments by Shirley and Most before directly collaborating on the first two drafts of the screenplay. Shirley penned the third and fourth draft by himself which awarded him screenplay credit by the Writers Guild of America. Most claimed to have written a "substantial proportion" of the script, but was denied credit due to a rule in the WGA which prohibited producers from receiving credit. With the project gaining momentum, Edward Pressman joined the film as producer and splatterpunk writer David J. Schow was brought in for rewrites. Australian filmmaker Alex Proyas, known for his music video and commercial work, was hired to direct the film. Paramount Pictures picked up the distribution rights and slotted an August 1993 release date.
River Phoenix, Christian Slater, Johnny Depp, Charlie Sexton, and Jon Bon Jovi were early considerations for the role of Eric Draven. Shirley and Most pushed for Slater while Pressman wanted Bon Jovi. Brandon Lee was suggested to play Draven, but O'Barr was unconvinced fearing he wouldn't be suited for the material. However, Lee won O'Barr over and was given the role shortly thereafter. Lee dropped 20 pounds to portray Draven and worked closely with the crew to shape the film, including choreographing his action sequences, performing most of his stunts, and removing a subplot due to its Asian stereotyping. Rochelle Davis, Ernie Hudson, Michael Wincott, Bai Ling, Sofia Shinas, Michael Massee, David Patrick Kelly, Tony Todd, and Jon Polito rounded out the supporting cast.
Filming
Production began on The Crow in February 1993 in Wilmington, North Carolina and was scheduled to last 54 days.
Brandon Lee's death
On March 31, 1993, at EUE Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington, North Carolina, Lee was filming a scene where his character, Eric, is shot after witnessing the beating and rape of his fiancée. Actor Michael Massee's character Funboy fires a .44 Magnum Smith & Wesson Model 629 revolver at Lee as he walks into the room. A scene filmed two weeks before Lee's had called for the same gun to be shown in close-up. Revolvers often use dummy cartridges fitted with bullets, but no powder or primer, during close-ups as they look more realistic than blank rounds which have no bullet. Instead of purchasing commercial dummy cartridges, the film's prop crew, hampered by time and money constraints, created their own by pulling the bullets from live rounds, dumping the powder charge but not the primer, then reinserting the bullets. Witnesses reported that two weeks before Lee's death they saw an unsupervised actor pulling the trigger on the gun while it was loaded with the powderless but primed round. Having not removed the primer, the primer could detonate with enough energy to launch a bullet and lodge it in the barrel.
In the fatal scene, which called for the revolver to be actually fired at Lee from a distance of 12–15 feet, the dummy cartridges were exchanged for blank rounds, which feature a live powder charge and primer, but no bullet, thus allowing the gun to be fired without the risk of an actual projectile. As the production company had sent the firearms specialist home early, responsibility for the guns was given to a prop assistant who was unaware of the rule for inspecting all firearms before and after any handling. Therefore, the barrel was not checked for obstructions when the time came to load it with the blank rounds. Since the bullet from the dummy round was already trapped in the barrel (a condition known as a squib load), this caused the .44 Magnum bullet to be fired out of the barrel with virtually the same force as if the gun had been loaded with a live round, and it struck Lee in the abdomen, mortally wounding him.
After Lee's death, the producers were faced with the decision of whether or not to continue with the film. Lee had completed most of his scenes for the film and was scheduled to shoot for only three more days. The rest of the cast and crew, except for Ernie Hudson, whose brother-in-law had just died, stayed in Wilmington. Paramount Pictures, which was initially interested in distributing The Crow theatrically (originally a direct-to-video feature), opted out of involvement due to delays in filming and some controversy over the violent content being inappropriate given Lee's death. However, Miramax picked it up with the intention of releasing it in theatres and injected a further $8 million to complete the production, taking its budget to approximately $23 million. The cast and crew then took a break for script rewrites of the flashback scenes that had yet to be completed. The script was rewritten by Walon Green, Terry Hayes, René Balcer, and Michael S. Chernuchin, adding narration and new scenes. Lee's stunt double Chad Stahelski was used as a stand-in and digital face replacement was used to superimpose Lee's face onto the head of the double. The beginning of the movie, which had not been finished, was rewritten, and the apartment scene remade using computer graphics from an earlier scene of Lee.
A character from the original comic book called Skull Cowboy was originally planned to be part of the adaptation and even had scenes filmed. He acted as a guide for Eric Draven between the worlds of the dead and the living. He was set to be played by Michael Berryman, but the role was cut from the film due to Lee's death.
O'Barr later remarked that losing Lee was like losing his fiancée all over again, and he regretted ever writing the comic in the first place.
Reception
Box office
The Crow was a sleeper hit at the box office. The film opened at number one in the United States in 1,573 theaters with $11,774,332 and averaging $7,485 per theater, making it Miramax's biggest ever opening. Some industry sources believed that Miramax overstated the weekend gross by as much as $1 million. The film ultimately grossed $50,693,129 in the United States and Canada, and $43 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $93.7 million against its budget of $23 million. It ranked at number 24 for all films released in the US in 1994, the 24th highest-grossing film worldwide for 1994 and number 10 for R-rated films released that year.
Overseas in Europe, the film grossed £1,245,403 in the United Kingdom (where it was 18-rated), and sold 4,604,115 tickets in France, Germany, Italy and Spain. In Seoul, South Korea, it sold 83,126 tickets.
Critical response
The Crow has an approval rating of on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews and an average rating of . The critical consensus states: "Filled with style and dark, lurid energy, The Crow is an action-packed visual feast that also has a soul in the performance of the late Brandon Lee." The film also has a score of 71 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews".
Reviewers praised the action and visual style. Rolling Stone called it a "dazzling fever dream of a movie"; Caryn James, writing for The New York Times, called it "a genre film of a high order, stylish and smooth"; and Roger Ebert called it "a stunning work of visual style". The Los Angeles Times praised the film also.
Lee's death was alleged to have a melancholic effect on viewers; Desson Howe of The Washington Post wrote that Lee "haunts every frame" and James Berardinelli called the film "a case of 'art imitating death', and that specter will always hang over The Crow". Both Berardinelli and Howe called it an appropriate epitaph to Lee, and Ebert stated that not only was this Lee's best film, but it was better than any of his father's. Critics generally thought that this would have been a breakthrough film for Lee, although Berardinelli disagreed. The changes made to the film after Lee's death were noted by reviewers, most of whom saw them as an improvement. Howe said that it had been transformed into something compelling. Berardinelli, although terming it a genre film, said that it had become more mainstream because of the changes.
The film was widely compared to other films, particularly Tim Burton's Batman movies and Ridley Scott's Blade Runner. Critics described The Crow as a darker film than the others; Ebert called it a grungier and more forbidding story than those of Batman and Blade Runner, and Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote that the generic inner city of Detroit portrayed in The Crow "makes Gotham City look like the Emerald City".
While the plot and characterization were found to be lacking, these faults were considered to be overcome by the action and visual style. The cinematography by Dariusz Wolski and the production design by Alex McDowell were also praised. The cityscape designed by McDowell and the production team was described by McCarthy as rendered imaginatively. The film's comic book origins were noted, and Ebert called it the best version of a comic book universe he had seen. McCarthy agreed, calling it "one of the most effective live-actioners ever derived from a comic strip". Critics felt that the soundtrack complemented this visual style, calling it blistering, edgy and boisterous. Graeme Revell was praised for his "moody" score; Howe said that it "drapes the story in a postmodern pall."
Negative reviews of the film were generally similar in theme to the positive ones but said that the interesting and "OK" special effects did not make up for the "superficial" plot, "badly-written" screenplay and "one-dimensional" characters.
The Crow is mentioned in Empires 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time; it ranked at number 468. It has since become a cult film.
Accolades
Year-end lists
7th – Sandi Davis, The Oklahoman
Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Matt Zoller Seitz, Dallas Observer
Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Mike Mayo, The Roanoke Times
Top 10 (not ranked) – Betsy Pickle, Knoxville News-Sentinel
Top 12 worst (Alphabetically ordered, not ranked) – David Elliott, The San Diego Union-Tribune
Top 3 "Best in-your-face exploitation" (not ranked) – Glenn Lovell, San Jose Mercury News
Awards
Soundtracks
The original soundtrack album for The Crow features songs from the film, and was a chart-topping album. It included work by The Cure (their song, "Burn", became the film's main theme), The Jesus and Mary Chain, Rage Against the Machine and Helmet, among many others. In Peter Hook's memoir Substance: Inside New Order, Hook relates that New Order were approached to provide the soundtrack for the film, with a cover of "Love Will Tear Us Apart", their hit as Joy Division, citing parallels between Eric's resurrection and New Order's formation after the suicide of Joy Division frontman Ian Curtis. However, New Order frontman Bernard Sumner declined, stating that they were too busy with their album Republic to commit to another project. James O'Barr, creator of the original comic book series, was a big fan of Joy Division and had named the characters Sergeant Albrecht and Captain Hook after bandmates Sumner (who was also known as Bernard Albrecht early in his career) and Hook.
Several groups contributed covers. Nine Inch Nails rendered Joy Division's "Dead Souls", Rollins Band covered Suicide's "Ghost Rider" and Pantera performed Poison Idea's "The Badge". The song "Big Empty" was not the Stone Temple Pilots' original choice for the soundtrack; they first recorded a version of "Only Dying", which they had recorded earlier as Mighty Joe Young in demo form, but it was replaced following Lee's death.
The bands Medicine and My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult make cameo appearances in the film on stage in the nightclub below Top Dollar's headquarters.
The score consists of original, mostly orchestral music, with some electronic and guitar elements, written for the film by Graeme Revell.
Sequels
In 1996, a sequel was released, called The Crow: City of Angels. In this film, Vincent Pérez plays Ashe Corven, who, along with his son Danny, is killed by criminals. Ashe is resurrected as a new Crow. The character of Sarah Mohr (now played by Mia Kirshner) reappears in this film and assists Ashe. The film also features Iggy Pop, who, according to the booklet insert for the film's soundtrack, was the producer's first choice for Funboy in the first Crow movie, but he was unable to commit due to his recording schedule. In addition, it also featured the final appearance of Thuy Trang. The band Deftones can be seen playing live in a festival scene and they contributed the song "Teething" to the soundtrack. The film received mostly negative reviews.
The Crow: Stairway to Heaven was a 1998 Canadian television series created by Bryce Zabel and starring Mark Dacascos in the lead role as Eric Draven, originally played by Brandon Lee.
The third film, The Crow: Salvation, was released in 2000. Directed by Bharat Nalluri, it stars Eric Mabius, Kirsten Dunst, Fred Ward, Jodi Lyn O'Keefe and William Atherton. It is loosely based on Poppy Z. Brite's novel The Lazarus Heart. After its distributor cancelled the intended theatrical release due to The Crow: City of Angels negative critical reception, The Crow: Salvation was released directly to video with mixed reviews.
The fourth film, The Crow: Wicked Prayer, was released in 2005. Directed by Lance Mungia, it stars Edward Furlong, David Boreanaz, Tara Reid, Tito Ortiz, Dennis Hopper, Emmanuelle Chriqui and Danny Trejo. It was inspired by Norman Partridge's novel of the same title. It had a one-week theatrical première on June 3, 2005, at AMC Pacific Place Theatre in Seattle, Washington, before being released to video on July 19, 2005. Like the other sequels, it had a poor critical reception, and it was considered the worst of the four films.
The Crow: 2037 was a planned sequel written and scheduled to be directed by Rob Zombie in the late 1990s; however, it was never made.
Remake
On April 1, 2022, a new attempt at a remake was announced by The Hollywood Reporter, with Bill Skarsgård set to star as Draven, Rupert Sanders directing, and Edward R. Pressman and Malcolm Gray co-producing. Days later, the site also reported that FKA Twigs had been cast as Draven's fiancée. In July 2022, production on the remake was reportedly underway in Prague, Czech Republic. By August 26, 2022, Danny Huston was cast in an undisclosed role. On September 16, 2022, the film wrapped production. The film is set to be released in 2024 by Lionsgate.
Home video
The Crow was first released on VHS and LaserDisc multiple times between 1994 and 1998 in addition to the widescreen DVD on February 3, 1998. The two-disc DVD was released on March 20, 2001, as part of the Miramax/Dimension Collector's Series. On October 18, 2011, The Crow was released on Blu-ray through Lionsgate Pictures who also re-released the DVD format on August 17, 2012. In Japan, the movie was remastered in 4K for a special edition in 2016, although the film's final resolution was capped at 1080p; as of January 2023, a 4K release (digital or physical) has yet to be announced.
See also
List of film and television accidents
References
External links
1994 films
1994 action films
1994 fantasy films
1990s English-language films
1990s fantasy action films
1990s superhero films
1990s supernatural films
1990s vigilante films
American films about Halloween
American films about revenge
American fantasy action films
American dark fantasy films
American neo-noir films
American superhero films
American supernatural films
American vigilante films
Miramax films
Dimension Films films
Films based on American comics
Films directed by Alex Proyas
Films scored by Graeme Revell
Films set in Detroit
Films shot in North Carolina
American gothic fiction
Resurrection in film
The Crow films
1990s American films
American action thriller films
American fantasy thriller films
Supernatural action films
American supernatural thriller films
Films about corvids
Goth subculture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian%20cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is a collection of various regional culinary traditions that formed the archipelagic nation of Indonesia. There are a wide variety of recipes and cuisines in part because Indonesia is composed of approximately 6,000 populated islands of the total 17,508 in the world's largest archipelago, with more than 1,300 ethnic groups.
There are many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture with some foreign influences.
Tradition and characteristics
Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia's cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in modest local eateries to street-side snacks and top-dollar plates.
Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has many different influences. Sumatran cuisine, for example, often has Middle Eastern and Indian influences, featuring curried meat and vegetables such as gulai and curry, while Javanese cuisine is mostly indigenous, with some hint of Chinese influence.
The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine. Elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine: foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated.
Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in trade due to its location and natural resources. Additionally, Indonesia's indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, and finally Europe. Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands the Moluccas (Maluku), which are famed as "the Spice Islands", also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian and global cuisine.
Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours; most often described as savory, hot and spicy, and also combination of basic tastes such as sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Most Indonesians favour hot and spicy food, thus sambal, Indonesian hot and spicy chili sauce with various optional ingredients, notably shrimp paste, shallots, and others, is a staple condiment at all Indonesian tables. Seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, grilling, roasting, dry roasting, sautéing, boiling and steaming.
Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, satay, and soto are ubiquitous in the country and are considered national dishes. The official national dish of Indonesia is tumpeng, chosen in 2014 by Indonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy as the dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions. Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen 5 national dish of Indonesia; they are soto, rendang, satay, nasi goreng, and gado-gado.
Today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia and Singapore. Soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a local adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and particularly popular in West Java.
History
Indonesian cuisine has a long history—although most of it is not well-documented, and relied heavily on local practice and oral traditions. A rare instance is demonstrated by Javanese cuisine that somewhat has quite a well-documented culinary tradition. The diversity ranges from ancient bakar batu or stone-grilled yams and boar practiced by Papuan tribes of eastern Indonesia, to sophisticated contemporary Indonesian fusion cuisine. The ethnic diversity of Indonesian archipelago provides an eclectic combination — mixing local Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Minang, Malay and other native cuisine traditions, with centuries worth of foreign contacts with Indian traders, Chinese migrants and Dutch colonials.
Rice has been an essential staple for Indonesian society, as bas-reliefs of 9th century Borobudur and Prambanan describes rice farming in ancient Java. Ancient dishes were mentioned in many Javanese inscriptions and historians have succeeded in deciphering some of them. The inscriptions from Kingdom of Mataram era circa 8th to 10th century mentioned several ancient dishes, among others are hadaŋan haraŋ (minced water buffalo meat satay, similar with today Balinese sate lilit), hadaŋan madura (water buffalo meat simmered with sweet palm sugar), and dundu puyengan (eel seasoned with lemon basil). Also various haraŋ-haraŋ (grilled meats) either celeṅ/wök (pork), hadahan/kbo (water buffalo), kidaŋ/knas (deer) or wḍus (goat). Ancient beverages include nalaka rasa (sugarcane juice), jati wangi (jasmine beverage), and kinca (tamarind juice). Also various kuluban (boiled vegetables served in spices, similar with today urap) and phalamula (boiled yams and tubers served with liquid palm sugar). Other ancient vegetable dishes include rumwah-rumwah (lalap), dudutan (raw vegetables) and tetis.
The 9th century Old Javanese Kakawin Ramayana mentioned cooking technique as Trijata offered Sita some food (canto 17.101); scrumptious food of landuga tatla-tila (cooked with oil) and modakanda sagula (sugared delicacies).
Several foods were mentioned in several Javanese inscriptions dated from the 10th to 15th centuries. Some of this dishes are identified with present-day Javanese foods. Among others are pecel, pindang, rarawwan (rawon), rurujak (rujak), kurupuk (krupuk), sweets like wajik and dodol, also beverages like dawet.
In the 15th century Sundanese manuscript Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian, it was mentioned the common Sundanese food flavours of that times which includes; lawana (salty), kaduka (hot and spicy), tritka (bitter), amba (sour), kasaya (savoury), and madura (sweet).
By the 13th to 15th century, coastal Indonesian polities began to absorb culinary influences from India and the Middle East, as evidence with the adoption of curry-like recipes in the region. This was especially affirmative in the coastal towns of Aceh, Minangkabau lands of West Sumatra, and Malay ports of Sumatra and Malay peninsula. Subsequently, those culinary traditions displayed typical Indian culinary influences, such as kare (curry), roti cane and gulai. This also went hand in hand with the adoption of Islamic faith, thus encouraged halal Muslim dietary law that omits pork. On the other hand, the indigenous inhabitant that resides inland—such as the Bataks and Dayaks, retains their older Austronesian culinary traditions, which incorporate bushmeat, pork and blood in their daily diet.
According to the 17th century account of Rijklof van Goens, the ambassador of the VOC for Sultan Agung's Javanese Mataram court, the techniques of meat processing (sheep, goats, and buffalo) during celebration in Java, was by grilling and frying the seasoned meat. Unlike European, the Javanese primarily use coconut oil instead of butter.
Chinese immigrants has settled in Indonesian archipelago as early as Majapahit period circa 15th century CE, and accelerated during Dutch colonial period. The Chinese settlers introduced stir-frying technique that required the use of Chinese wok and small amount of cooking oil. They also introduced some new Chinese cuisine—including soy sauce, noodles and soybean processing technique to make tofu. Subsequently, soybean processing led to the possibly accidental discovery of tempeh (fermented soybean cake). The earliest known reference to tempeh appeared in 1815 in the Javanese manuscript of Serat Centhini.
The vigor of spice trade during the age of exploration has brought European traders to Indonesian shores. Subsequently, European colonialism was established in the 19th century Dutch East Indies. The influences of European cuisine—most notably the Portuguese and Dutch, has introduced European techniques, especially in bread-making, pastries, cookies and cake-baking.
Indonesian culinary tradition has been exposed to various influences. Regarding the method of food processing techniques, each region has developed a specificity that ultimately leads to localization of regional taste.
Customs, serving and consumption
Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup and meat or fish side dishes. In a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls. Each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into one's own personal plate. Each of the family members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, followed by the rest of the family to help themselves with the dishes. Each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates.
On their personal plate, the steamed rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes; vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal and krupuk. In Indonesian customs — unlike in Japanese counterpart — it is quite acceptable to be seen to mix the different flavoured dishes in a single personal plate during consumption. A practice commonly found in nasi campur, nasi Padang, or during a buffet. The soupy dish might be served in a separate small personal bowl. Today in contemporary Indonesian restaurants, the set menu is often offered. This has led to the personal serving practice, in a similar fashion to those of Japanese cuisine, with a personal plate on a tray, a rattan or bamboo container each with a separate small portion of dishes surrounding the rice. This can be found in the presentation of nasi Bali.
Indonesian meals are commonly eaten with the combination of a spoon in the right hand and fork in the left hand (to push the food onto the spoon). Unlike the European dining custom, knives are absent from the dining table, thus most of the ingredients such as vegetables and meat are already cut into bite-size pieces prior to cooking. Although, in many parts of the country, such as West Java, Gorontalo and West Sumatra, it is also common to eat with one's bare hands.
In restaurants or households that commonly use bare hands to eat, such as seafood food stalls, traditional Sundanese and Minangkabau restaurants, or East Javanese pecel lele (fried catfish with sambal) and ayam goreng (fried chicken) food stalls, kobokan is usually served along with the food. Kobokan is a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime in it to give a fresh scent, this bowl of water is not intended for consumption, rather it is used to wash one's hand before and after eating.
Eating with chopsticks is generally only found in food stalls or restaurants serving Indonesian adaptations of Chinese cuisine, such as bakmie or mie ayam (chicken noodle) with pangsit (wonton), mie goreng (fried noodles), and kwetiau goreng (fried flat rice noodles).
Staples
Rice
Rice is a staple for all classes in contemporary Indonesia, and it holds the central place in Indonesian culture: it shapes the landscape; is sold at markets; and is served in most meals both as a savoury and a sweet food. The importance of rice in Indonesian culture is demonstrated through the reverence of Dewi Sri, the rice goddess of ancient Java and Bali. Traditionally the agricultural cycles linked to rice cultivations were celebrated through rituals, such as Seren Taun rice harvest festival.
Rice is most often eaten as plain rice with just a few protein and vegetable dishes as side dishes. It is also served as nasi uduk (rice cooked in coconut milk), nasi kuning (rice cooked with coconut milk and turmeric), ketupat (rice steamed in woven packets of coconut fronds), lontong (rice steamed in banana leaves), intip or rengginang (rice crackers), desserts, vermicelli, noodles, arak beras (rice wine), and nasi goreng (fried rice). Nasi goreng is omnipresent in Indonesia and considered a national dish.
Rice was only incorporated into diets as either the technology to grow it, or the ability to buy it from elsewhere, was gained. Evidence of wild rice on the island of Sulawesi dates from 3000 BCE. Evidence for the earliest cultivation come from the eighth century stone inscriptions from the central island of Java, which shows that kings levied taxes in rice. The images of rice cultivation, rice barns, and pest mice infesting a ricefield is evident in Karmawibhanga bas-reliefs of Borobudur. Divisions of labour between men, women, and animals that are still in place in Indonesian rice cultivation, were carved into relief friezes on the ninth century Prambanan temples in Central Java: a water buffalo attached to a plough; women planting seedlings and pounding grain; and a man carrying sheaves of rice on each end of a pole across his shoulders (pikulan). In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts.
Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development of iron tools and the domestication of wild Asian water buffalo as water buffalo for cultivation of fields and manure for fertiliser. Rice production requires exposure to the sun. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years.
Wheat
Wheat is not a native plant to Indonesia. Through imports and foreign influences — most notably Chinese and Dutch — Indonesians began to develop a taste for wheat-based foodstuff, especially Chinese noodles, Indian roti, and Dutch bread. Other than common steamed rice, the Chinese in Indonesia also considered noodles, bakpao and cakwe as staples. Yet in Indonesia, especially in Java and Sumatra, the rice culture was so prevalent that sometimes these wheat-based dishes, such as noodles are treated as side dishes and are consumed with rice, while others such as Chinese buns and cakwe are treated as snacks. The European, especially the Portuguese and the Dutch, introduced bread and various type of bakery and pastry. These European staples have now become alternatives for a quick breakfast.
The Indonesian wheat consumption reached a new height after the advent of Indonesian instant noodle industry back in the 1970s. Since then Indonesia has become one of the world's major producers and consumers of instant noodles. Indonesia is the world's second largest instant noodle market only after China, with demand reaching 12.54 billion servings in 2018, Today, instant noodles have become a staple in Indonesian households for quick hot meals. Certain brands such as Indomie have become household names.
Other staples
Other staple foods in Indonesia include a number of starchy tubers such as yam, sweet potato, potato, taro and cassava. Starchy fruit such as breadfruit and jackfruit and grains such as maize are eaten. A sago congee called papeda is a staple food especially in Maluku and Papua. Sago is often mixed with water and cooked as a simple pancake. Next to sago, people of eastern Indonesia consume wild tubers as staple food.
Many types of tubers such as talas (a type of taro but larger and more bland) and breadfruit are native to Indonesia, while others were introduced from elsewhere. Yam was introduced from Africa; while potato, sweet potato, cassava and maize were introduced from the Americas through Spanish influence and reached Java in the 17th century. Cassava is usually boiled, steamed, fried or processed as a popular snack kripik singkong (cassava crackers). Dried cassava, locally known as tiwul, is an alternate staple food in arid areas of Java such as Gunung Kidul and Wonogiri, while other roots and tubers are eaten especially in hard times. Maize is eaten in drier regions such as Madura and islands east of the Wallace Line, such as the Lesser Sunda Islands.
Vegetables
A number of leaf vegetables are widely used in Indonesian cuisine, such as kangkung, spinach, genjer, melinjo, papaya and cassava leaves. These are often sauteed with garlic. Spinach and corn are used in simple clear watery vegetable soup sayur bayam bening flavoured with temu kunci, garlic and shallot. Clear vegetable soup includes sayur oyong. Other vegetables like calabash, chayote, kelor, yardlong bean, eggplant, gambas and belustru, are cut and used in stir fries, curries and soups like sayur asem, sayur lodeh or laksa. Daun ubi tumbuk is pounded cassava leaves dish, commonly found in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Sayur sop is cabbage, cauliflower, potato, carrot, with macaroni spiced with black pepper, garlic and shallot in chicken or beef broth. The similar mixed vegetables are also stir fried as cap cai, a popular dish of the Chinese Indonesian cuisine. Tumis kangkung is a popular stir-fried water spinach dish.
Vegetables like winged bean, tomato, cucumber and the small variety of bitter melon are commonly eaten raw, like in lalab. The large bitter melon variety is usually boiled. Kecombrang and papaya flower buds are a common Indonesian vegetable. Urap is seasoned and spiced shredded coconut mixed together with vegetables, asinan betawi are preserved vegetables. Gado-gado and pecel are a salad of boiled vegetables dressed in a peanut-based spicy sauce, while karedok is its raw version.
Vegetarianism in Indonesia
Vegetarianism is well represented in Indonesia, as there is a wide selection of vegetarian dishes and meat substitutes that may be served. According to Euromonitor International survei conducted in 2018, Indonesia is the third-highest rate of vegetarianism growth.
Dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, tauge goreng, pecel, urap, rujak and asinan are vegetarian dishes. However, dishes that use peanut sauce such as gado-gado, karedok or ketoprak, might contain small amounts of shrimp paste, called "terasi", for flavor. Shrimp paste is also often used to add flavour to spicy sambal chili paste served with lalap assorted fresh vegetables. Fermented soy products, such as tempeh, "tahu" (tofu) and oncom are prevalent as meat substitutes and as a source of vegetable protein. In contemporary fusion cuisine, tempeh is used to replace meat patties and served as tempeh burger.
Most Indonesians do not practice strict vegetarianism and may consume vegetables or vegetarian dishes for their taste, preference, economic and health reasons. Nevertheless, there are small numbers of Indonesian Buddhists that practice vegetarianism for religious reasons.
Meat and fish
The main animal protein sources in the Indonesian diet are mostly poultry and fish, while meats such as beef, water buffalo, goat and mutton are commonly found in the Indonesian marketplaces.
Poultry
The most common poultry consumed is chicken and duck to a lesser amount, pigeon, quail and wild swamp bird such as watercock are also consumed. Traditionally, Indonesians breed free-ranged chicken in the villages known as ayam kampung (village chicken). Compared to common domesticated chicken, these village chicken are thinner and their meat are slightly firmer. Various recipes of ayam goreng (fried chicken) and ayam bakar (grilled chicken) are commonly found throughout Indonesia. Other than frying or grilling, chicken might be cooked as soup, such as sup ayam and soto ayam, or cooked in coconut milk as opor ayam. Chicken satay is also commonly found in Indonesia, it is a barbecued meat on skewer served with peanut sauce. Popular chicken recipes such as ayam goreng kalasan from Yogyakarta, ayam bakar padang from Padang, ayam taliwang from Lombok, ayam betutu from Bali, and ayam goreng lengkuas (galangal fried chicken).
Meat
Beef and goat meat are the most commonly consumed meats in Indonesia, while kerbau (water buffalo) and domestic sheep are also consumed to a lesser degree, since water buffalo are more useful for ploughing the rice paddies, while sheep are kept for their wool or to be used for the traditional entertainment of ram fighting. As a country with an Islamic majority, Indonesian Muslims follow the Islamic halal dietary law which forbids the consumption of pork.
In other parts of Indonesia where there are significant numbers of non-Muslims, boar and pork are commonly consumed. Dishes made of non-halal meats can be found in provinces such as Bali, North Sumatra, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, West Papua, Papua, and also in the Chinatowns of major Indonesian cities. Today to cater for the larger Muslim market, most of the restaurants and eating establishments in Indonesia put halal signs that signify that they serve neither pork nor any non-halal meats, nor do they use lard in their cooking. With an overwhelming Muslim population and a relatively small population of cattle, today Indonesians rely heavily on imported beef from Australia, New Zealand and the United States which often results in a scarcity and raised prices of beef in the Indonesian market.
The meat can be cooked in rich spices and coconut milk such as beef, goat or lamb rendang, skewered, seasoned and grilled chicken or mutton as satay, barbecued meats, or sliced and cooked in rich broth soup as soto. Muttons and various offals can be use as ingredients for soto soup or gulai curry. In Bali, with its Hindu majority, the babi guling (pig roast) is popular among locals as well as non-Muslim visitors, while the Batak people of North Sumatra have babi panggang that is a similar dish. Wild boar are also commonly consumed in Papua. The meat also can be processed to be thinly-sliced and dried as dendeng (jerky), or made into abon (meat floss). Dendeng celeng is Indonesian "dried, jerked" boar meat. Raised rabbits are also consumed as food in mountainous region of Indonesia.
Some game meat such as venison might be sold and consumed in some areas of Indonesia. In Kalimantan, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, and Papua, deer meat can be found, usually wildly acquired by hunting. Other unusual and often controversial exotic meats include frog legs and softshell turtle consumed in Chinese Indonesian and Javanese cuisine, horse meat consumed in Yogyakarta, West Nusa Tenggara, and South Sulawesi, turtle meat consumed in Bali and Eastern Indonesia, snake, biawak (monitor lizard), paniki (fruit bats), dog meat, cat meat, and field rats consumed in Minahasan cuisine of North Sulawesi. Batak cuisine of North Sumatra is also familiar with cooking dog meat, while its consumption is diminishing in Central Java. Exotic and rare game meat such as crocodile, squirrel, civet, and monkey might also be sold and consumed in wilder parts of Indonesia.
Fish
In an archipelagic nation, seafood is abundant, and it is commonly consumed especially by Indonesian residents in coastal areas. Fish is especially popular in the eastern Indonesian regions of Sulawesi and Maluku, where most of the people work as fishermen. Both areas have a vast sea which brings them many different kinds of seafood.
Popular seafood in Indonesian cuisine among others; skipjack tuna, tuna, mackerel, pomfret, wahoo, milkfish, trevally, rabbitfish, garoupa, red snapper, anchovy, swordfish, shark, stingray, squid or cuttlefish, shrimp, crab, blue crab, and mussel.
Seafood is commonly consumed across Indonesia, but it is especially popular in Maluku islands, Gorontalo Peninsula and Minahasa (North Sulawesi) cuisine. Seafood is usually grilled, boiled or fried. Ikan bakar is a popular grilled fish dish that can be found throughout Indonesia. The method of cooking like stir fried in spices or in soup is also possible. Salted fish is preserved seafood through cured in salt, it also can be found in Indonesian market.
Fresh water fisheries can be found in inland regions or in areas with large rivers or lakes. Fresh water fishes are popular in Sundanese cuisine of West Java, caught or raised in Lake Toba in Batak lands of North Sumatra, or taken from large rivers in Malay lands of Riau, Jambi and South Sumatra, or large rivers in Kalimantan. Popular fresh water fish among others; carp, gourami, catfish, pangasius, snakehead, trichogaster, climbing gourami, Nile tilapia, and Mozambique tilapia.
Insects
Unlike Thailand, in Indonesia insect is not a popular food ingredient nor widely available as street food. In Java, locals do catch, breed and sell certain species of insects, usually sold fresh or alive as pet bird feed. Nevertheless, traditionally several cultures in Indonesia are known to consume insects, especially grasshopper, cricket, termite, also the larvae of sago palm weevil, bee and dragonfly. In Java and Kalimantan, grasshoppers and crickets are usually lightly battered and deep fried in palm oil as crispy kripik snack. Smaller grasshoppers, crickets and termites might be made as rempeyek batter cracker which resembles insect fossil. During monsoon rainy season, flying termites are abundant being attracted to lightbulbs to mate. Locals usually put a bucket of water under the lamp to trap the flying termites, pluck the wings, and roast the termites as additional protein-rich snack. In Banyuwangi, East Java, there is a specialty dish called botok tawon (honeybee botok), which is beehives that contains bee larvae, being seasoned in shredded coconut and spices, wrapped inside banana leaf package and steamed. Dayak tribes of Kalimantan, also Moluccans and Papuan tribes in Eastern Indonesia, are known to consumes ulat sagu (lit. sagoo caterpillar) or larvae of sago palm weevil. This protein-rich larvae is considered a delicacy in Papua, and often being roasted prior of consumption. Locals may also commonly eat the larvae raw or alive. In Bali, dragonflies are also consumed by processing them into pepes.
Spices and other flavourings
"Rempah" is the Indonesian word for spice, while "bumbu" is the Indonesian word for a spice mixture or seasoning, and it commonly appears in the names of certain spice mixtures, sauces and seasoning pastes.
Known throughout the world as the "Spice Islands", the Indonesian islands of Maluku contributed to the introduction of its native spices to world cuisine. Spices such as nutmeg or mace, clove, pandan leaves, keluwak and galangal are native to Indonesia. It is likely that black pepper, turmeric, lemongrass, shallot, cinnamon, candlenut, coriander and tamarind were introduced from India, while ginger, scallions and garlic were introduced from China. Those spices from mainland Asia were introduced early, in ancient times, thus they became integral ingredients in Indonesian cuisine.
In ancient times, the kingdom of Sunda and the later sultanate of Banten were well known as the world's major producers of black pepper. The maritime empires of Srivijaya and Majapahit also benefited from the lucrative spice trade between the spice islands with China and India. Later the Dutch East India Company controlled the spice trade between Indonesia and the world.
Sambal
The Indonesian fondness for hot and spicy food was enriched when the Spanish introduced chili pepper from the New World to the region in the 16th century. After that hot and spicy sambals have become an important part of Indonesian cuisine.
Indonesia has perhaps the richest variants of sambals. In the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 300 varieties of sambal. The intensity ranges from mild to very hot. Sambal evolved into many variants across Indonesia, ones of the most popular is sambal terasi (sambal belacan) and sambal mangga muda (unripe mango sambal). Sambal terasi is a combination of chilies, sharp fermented shrimp paste (terasi), tangy lime juice, sugar and salt all pounded up with mortar and pestle. Dabu-dabu is a combined Gorontalo and North Sulawesi style of sambal with chopped fresh tomato, chili, and lime juice.
Sambal, especially sambal ulek, or sambal terasi can also become a base ingredient for many dishes, such as sambal raja (a dish from Kutai), terong balado, dendeng balado, ayam bumbu rujak, sambal goreng ati, among other things.
Sauces and seasonings
Soy sauce is also an important flavourings in Indonesian cuisine. Kecap asin (salty or common soy sauce) was adopted from Chinese cuisine, however Indonesian developed their own kecap manis (sweet soy sauce) with generous addition of palm sugar into soy sauce. Sweet soy sauce is an important marinade for barbecued meat and fish, such as satay and grilled fishes. Sweet soy sauce is also an important ingredient for semur, Indonesian stew.
Peanut sauce
One of the main characteristics of Indonesian cuisine is the wide application of peanuts in many Indonesian signature dishes, such as satay, gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, and pecel. All of these dishes applied ample of bumbu kacang (peanut sauce) for flavouring. Gado-gado and satay, for example, have been considered Indonesian national dishes.
Introduced from Mexico by Portuguese and Spanish merchants in the 16th century, peanuts assumed a place within Indonesian cuisine as a key ingredient. Peanuts thrived in the tropical environment of Southeast Asia, and today they can be found, roasted and chopped finely, in many recipes. Whole, halved, or crushed peanuts are used to garnish a variety of dishes, and used in marinades and dipping sauces such as sambal kacang (a mixture of ground chilies and fried peanuts) for otak-otak or ketan. Peanut oil, extracted from peanuts, is one of the most commonly used cooking oils in Indonesia.
Bumbu kacang or peanut sauce represents a sophisticated, earthy seasoning rather than a sweet, gloppy sauce. It should have a delicate balance of savoury, sweet, sour, and spicy flavours, acquired from various ingredients, such as fried peanuts, gula jawa (coconut sugar), garlic, shallots, ginger, tamarind, lemon juice, lemongrass, salt, chilli, peppercorns, sweet soy sauce, ground together and mixed with water to form the right consistency. The secret to good peanut sauce is "not too thick and not too watery". Indonesian peanut sauce tends to be less sweet than the Thai version, which is a hybrid adaptation. Gado-gado is a popular dish particularly associated with bumbu kacang, and is eaten across Indonesia.
Coconut milk
Coconuts are abundant in tropical Indonesia, and since ancient times Indonesians developed many and various uses for this plant. The broad use of coconut milk in dishes throughout the archipelago is another common characteristic of Indonesian cuisine. It is used in recipes ranging from savoury dishes – such as rendang, soto, gulai, mie koclok, sayur lodeh, gudeg, and opor ayam – to desserts – such as es cendol and es doger. Soto is ubiquitous in Indonesia and considered one of Indonesia's national dishes.
The use of coconut milk is not exclusive to Indonesian cuisine. It can also be found in Indian, Samoan, Thai, Malaysian, Filipino, and Brazilian cuisines. Nonetheless, the use of coconut milk is quite extensive in Indonesia, especially in Minangkabau cuisine and Gorontalese cuisine, although in Minahasan (North Sulawesi) cuisine, coconut milk is generally absent, except in Minahasan cakes and desserts such as klappertaart.
In Indonesian cuisine, two types of coconut milk are found, thin coconut milk and thick coconut milk. The difference depends on the water and oil content. Thin coconut milk is usually used for soups such as sayur lodeh and soto, while the thicker variety is used for rendang and desserts. It can be made from freshly shredded coconut meat in traditional markets, or can be found processed in cartons at the supermarket.
After the milk has been extracted from the shredded coconut flesh to make coconut milk, the ampas kelapa (leftover coconut flesh) can still be used in urap, seasoned and spiced shredded coconut meat mixed together with vegetables. Leftover shredded coconut can also be cooked, sauteed and seasoned to make serundeng, almost powdery sweet and spicy finely shredded coconut. Kerisik paste, added to thicken rendang, is another use of coconut flesh. To acquire a rich taste, some households insist on using freshly shredded coconut, instead of leftover, for urap and serundeng. Serundeng can be mixed with meat in dishes such as serundeng daging (beef serundeng) or sprinkled on top of other dishes such as soto or ketan (sticky rice). An example of the heavy use of coconut is Burasa from Makassar, rice wrapped in banana leaf cooked with coconut milk and sprinkled with powdered coconut similar to serundeng.
Cooking method
Most of the common Indonesian dishes are named according to their main ingredients and cooking method. For example, ayam goreng is ayam (chicken) and goreng (frying), which denotes fried chicken. Mie goreng is fried noodle, ikan bakar is grilled fish, udang rebus is boiled shrimp, babi panggang is roasted pork and tumis kangkung is stir fried water spinach. Cooking methods in Indonesian kitchen are goreng (frying) either in a small amount of oil or deep frying with a lot of cooking oil, tumis (stir frying), sangrai (sautéing). Roasting methods are bakar (grilling) usually employing charcoal, firewood, or coconut shell, panggang (baking/roasting) usually refer to baking employing oven. Other methods are rebus (boiling), kukus (steaming) and asap/salai (smoking).
The fire used in cooking can be either a strong fire or a small fire for slow cooking. Cooking nasi goreng usually employs strong fire, while authentic rendang for example requires a small fire for slow cooking of beef, spices, and coconut milk until the meat is caramelised and all the coconut milk's liquid has evaporated. Traditional Indonesian dapur (kitchen) usually employs firewood-fuelled kitchen stove, while the contemporary household today uses liquefied petroleum gas-fuelled stove or an electric stove. The ingredients could be cut into pieces, sliced thinly, or ground into a paste. Cooking utensils are wajan (wok), penggorengan (frying pan), panci (cauldron), knives, several types of spoon and fork, parutan (shredder), cobek and ulekan (stone mortar and pestle). Traditionally Indonesians use a stone mortar and a pestle to grind the spices and ingredients into coarse or fine pastes. Today most households use blender or food processor for the task. Traditional Indonesian cooking wares are usually made from stone, earthenware pottery, wood, and woven bamboo or a rattan container or filter, while contemporary cooking wares, plates and containers use metals – iron, tin, stainless steel, aluminium, ceramics, plastics, and also glass.
National dishes
Initially during the early years of Indonesian independence, the ubiquitous and extremely popular nasi goreng was considered the national dish of the republic, albeit at that time was unofficial. Its simplicity and versatility has contributed to its popularity and made it as a staple among Indonesian households—colloquially considered the most "democratic" dish since the absence of an exact and rigid recipe has allowed people to do anything they want with it. Nasi goreng that is commonly consumed daily in Indonesian households was considered the quintessential dish that represent an Indonesian family. It is in the menu, introduced, offered and served in Indonesian Theatre Restaurant within the Indonesian pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Howard Palfrey Jones, the US ambassador to Indonesia during the last years of Sukarno's reign in the mid 1960s, in his memoir "Indonesia: The Possible Dream", said that he likes nasi goreng. He described his fondness for nasi goreng cooked by Hartini, one of Sukarno's wives, and praised it as the most delicious nasi goreng he ever tasted. Nevertheless, other widely popular Indonesian dishes, such as satay, soto and gado-gado are also considered strong contenders.
In 2014, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy in an effort to promote Indonesian cuisine, has chosen tumpeng as an official Indonesian national dish. Technically tumpeng refer to the rice cone in the center, while the surrounding various dishes might be taken from any choice of various Indonesian dishes—thus was considered ideal as a national dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions. Subsequently the designation of tumpeng as the single national dish of Indonesia was considered insufficient to describe the diversity of Indonesian culinary traditions. Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen another additional 5 national dishes of Indonesia; they are soto, satay, nasi goreng, rendang and gado-gado.
Satay and soto are notable and the natural choice to be promoted as Indonesian national dish, since they had transcends the cultural boundaries of myriad ethnic groups of Indonesia—those dishes has been extremely localised and has branched into various recipes nationwide. For example, there are rich variants of satay and soto recipes throughout Indonesia; from Sumatra to Eastern Indonesia. Each cultures, ethnics, or even cities had adopted these dishes, and thus developed their own version in accordance to their own culture, tradition, creativity, localised taste and preference, also the availability of local ingredients.
Regional dishes
Jakarta
Diverse and eclectic, Betawi cuisine of Jakarta draw culinary influences from Chinese, Malay, Sundanese, to Arab, Indian and European. Popular Betawi dishes include nasi uduk (coconut rice), sayur asem (sweet and sour vegetable soup), asinan (salad of pickled vegetables), gado-gado, (boiled or blanched vegetables salad in peanut sauce), ketoprak, (vegetables, tofu, rice vermicelli and rice cake in peanut sauce), and kerak telor (spiced coconut omelette). Born from a creole or hybrid phenomena, the Betawi cuisine is quite similar to the Peranakan cuisine.
West Java
A textural speciality of Sunda (West Java) is karedok, a fresh salad made with long beans, bean sprouts, and cucumber with a spicy peanut sauce. Lalab fresh vegetables served with spicy sambal dipping sauce is ubiquitous in Sundanese households and eating establishments. Other Sundanese dishes include mie kocok which is a beef and egg noodle soup, and Soto Bandung, a beef and vegetable soup with daikon and lemon grass. A hawker favourite is kupat tahu (pressed rice, bean sprouts, and tofu with soy and peanut sauce). Colenak (roasted fermented cassava tapai with sweet coconut sauce) and ulen (roasted brick of sticky rice with peanut sauce) are dishes usually eaten warm.
Central Java
The food of Central Java is renowned for its sweetness, and the dish of gudeg, a curry made from jackfruit, is a particularly sweet. The city of Yogyakarta is renowned for its ayam goreng (fried chicken) and klepon (green rice-flour balls with palm sugar filling). Surakarta's (Solo) specialities include Nasi liwet (rice with coconut milk, unripe papaya, garlic and shallots, served with chicken or egg) and serabi (coconut milk pancakes topped with chocolate, banana or jackfruit). Other Central Javanese specialities pecel (peanut sauce with spinach and bean sprouts), lotek (peanut sauce with vegetable and pressed rice), and opor ayam (braised chicken in coconut sauce).
East Java
The food of East Java is similar to that of Central Java. East Java foods tend to be less sweet and more spicier compare to the Central Javanese ones. Fish and fish/seafood products are quite extensively, e.g. terasi (dried shrimp paste) and petis udang (shrimp paste). Some of the more popular foods are lontong kupang (tiny clams soup with rice cakes), lontong balap (bean sprouts and tofu with rice cakes), sate klopo (coconut beef satay), semanggi surabaya (marsilea leaves with spicy sweet potato sauce), pecel lele (deep fried catfish served with rice and sambal), rawon (dark beef soup). Food from Malang includes bakwan Malang (meatball soup with won ton and noodles) and (pressed rice, tempe, sprouts, soy sauce, coconut, and peanuts).Madura
Madura is an island on the northeastern coast of Java and is administered as part of the East Java province. Like the Eastern Javanese foods which use petis udang, Madura foods add petis ikan which is made from fish instead of shrimp. The Madura style satay is probably the most popular satay variants in Indonesia. Some of its popular dishes are sate ayam Madura (chicken satay with peanut sauce), soto Madura (beef soup). There is also a mutton variant of Madura satay, Madura goat satay. Sup Kambing mutton soup is also popular in Madura. As a leading salt production center in Indonesian archipelago, Madura dishes are often saltier compared to other Eastern Javanese foods.
Bali
Balinese cuisine dishes include lawar (chopped coconut, garlic, chilli, with pork or chicken meat and blood). Bebek betutu is duck stuffed with spices, wrapped in banana leaves and coconut husks cooked in a pit of embers. Balinese sate, known as sate lilit, is made from spiced mince pressed onto skewers which are often made from lemon grass sticks. Babi guling is a spit-roasted pig stuffed with chilli, turmeric, garlic, and ginger.Basa gede or basa rajang is a spice paste that is a basic ingredient in many Balinese dishes.
Batak
Batak people use either pork or even dog to make saksang. Another Batak pork speciality is babi panggang in which the meat is boiled in vinegar and pig blood before being roasted. Another batak dish, ayam namargota, is chicken cooked in spices and blood. Another notable Batak dish is arsik, the carp fish cooked with spices and herbs. Lada rimba is strong pepper used by Bataks.
Aceh
Arab, Persian, and Indian traders influenced food in Aceh although flavours have changed a lot their original forms. Amongst these are curry dishes known as kare or gulai, which are rich, coconut-based dishes traditionally made with beef, goat, fish or poultry, but are now also made with tofu, vegetables, and jackfruit. The popular Aceh food such as roti cane, mie aceh and nasi gurih.
West Sumatra
Buffaloes are a symbol of West Sumatra and are used in rendang, a rich and spicy buffalo meat or beef dish, which is also the signature dish of Minangkabau culture. In 2017, rendang was chosen as the "World's Most Delicious Food" by the CNN Travel reader's choice. Padang food comes from West Sumatra, and they have perhaps the richest variants of gulai, a type of curried meat, offal, fish or vegetables. Padang favourite includes asam padeh (sour and spicy fish stew), sate Padang (Padang satay), soto Padang (Padang soto) and katupek sayua (ketupat rice dumpling in vegetable soup). Dishes from the region include nasi kapau from Bukittinggi, which is similar to Padang food but uses more vegetables. Ampiang dadiah (buffalo yogurt with palm sugar syrup, coconut flesh and rice) and bubur kampiun (Mung bean porridge with banana and rice yogurt) are other West Sumatran specialties.
Traditionally, Minangkabau people adheres to merantau (migrating) culture, and they are avid restaurant entrepreneurs. As a result, Padang food restaurant chains can be found throughout Indonesia and neighbouring countries, likely making it the most popular regional dish in Indonesia. Outside of West Sumatra, such as in Java, most Padang Restaurants still use buffalo to make rendang, but claim it is Rendang Sapi for selling purposes, due to buffalo meat being "inferior" and cheaper than cow meat. Buffalo meat is harder, so it is more suitable for rendang which has a cooking time of at least 3 hours, and presents a coarser texture and a redder color compared to cow meat when it is fully cooked.
East Sumatra
The cuisine of east coast of Sumatra is referring to the culinary tradition of ethnic Malays of Indonesian Sumatran provinces facing Malacca strait; which includes Riau, Riau Islands, Jambi provinces and coastal North Sumatra in Melayu Deli areas in and around Medan. Because of close ethnic kinship and proximity to Malaysian Malays, many dishes are shared between the two countries. For example nasi lemak, the national dish of Malaysia, and also nasi ulam are considered native dishes in Riau and Jambi. Malay cuisine also shares many similarities with neighboring Minangkabau cuisine of West Sumatra, South Sumatra, and also Aceh; such as sharing gulai, asam pedas, pindang, kari, lemang and rendang. This is due to the fact that the Minangkabau are culturally closely related to the Malays. Tempoyak fermented durian sauce and sambal belacan are the familiar condiments in both Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Variants of peranakan cuisine such as laksa spicy noodle and otak-otak are also can be found in Riau Islands and Medan. Seafood dishes are popular in archipelagic Riau Islands province, while fresh water fishes from Sumatran rivers, such as patin, catfish, carp and gourami are popular in Riau and Jambi. Gulai ikan patin is a signature dish of Pekanbaru, while gulai ketam (crab gulai) and nasi goreng teri Medan (Medan anchovy fried rice) are the signature dishes of Medan.
South Sumatra
The city of Palembang is the culinary centre of South Sumatra and is renowned for its pempek, a deep fried fish and sago dumpling that is also known as empek-empek. Pempek is served in distinctive kuah cuko, a sweet, sour and spicy sauce made from palm sugar, chili, tamarind and vinegar. Pempek derivatives dishes are tekwan soup of pempek dumpling, mushroom, vegetables, and shrimp, lenggang or pempek slices in omelette. Mie celor is a noodle dish with egg in coconut milk and dried shrimp, it is a Palembang speciality.
The cuisine of Palembang demonstrates various influences, from native Palembang Malay taste to Chinese and Javanese influences. Pempek is said to be influenced by Chinese fish cake akin to surimi, while the preference of mild sweetness is said to be of Javanese influence. South Sumatra is home to pindang, a sweet, sour and spicy fish soup made from soy sauce and tamarind. Pindang dishes usually uses either freshwater fishes and seafood as ingredients. Ikan brengkes is fish in a spicy durian-based sauce. Tempoyak is a sauce of shrimp paste, lime juice, chilli and fermented durian, and sambal buah is a chilli sauce made from fruit.
North Sulawesi
Manado cuisine of Minahasan people from North Sulawesi features the heavy use of meat such as pork, fowl, and seafood. "Woku" is a type of seafood dish with generous use of spices, often making up half the dish. The ingredients include lemongrass, lime leaves, chili peppers, spring onion, shallots, either sautéed with meat or wrapped around fish and grilled covered in banana leaves. Other ingredients such as turmeric and ginger are often added to create a version of woku. Other Minahasan signature dishes are tinutuan, chicken tuturuga, rica-rica and cakalang fufu.
Foreign colonial influence played a role in shaping Minahasan cuisine. Several cakes and pastries explicitly show Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish influences such as klappertaart and panada. Brenebon (from Dutch "bruin" (brown) and "boon" (bean)) is a pork shank bean stew spiced with nutmeg and clove. Minahasan roast pork similar to lechon in the Philippines or pig roast in Hawaii are served in special occasions, especially weddings. Other unusual and exotic meats such as dog, bat, and forest rat are regularly served in North Sulawesi region. Paniki is the bat dish of Minahasa.
Gorontalo
The strategic location of Gorontalo, between the Celebes Sea and Pacific Ocean in the north, and also Gulf of Tomini in the south, has made the Gorontalo region a strategic shipping route in the past. This long past history has formed the roots of a unique and distinctive culture in Gorontalo, including its unique dishes. Therefore, Gorontalo is also known as the land of spices with a unique taste of culinary.
Gorontalese cuisine known for its fresh seafood, prepared using a full-palette of spices and herbs. Home of some Gorontalese delicacies such as Binte Biluhuta, Ayam iloni, Ikan iloni, Sate Tuna, Tabu Moitomo, Sate Balanga, Sagela, Pilitode, and Bilentango.
Gorontalo cuisine is also marked by a multi-cultural influence from other communities who migrated to Gorontalo, such as Arabs and Chinese culture. Moreover, Gorontalo's pastries are also famous for their sweetness and it has influence from European culture brought by the Dutch.
In 2016, the Gorontalese recipe book: "Trailing the Taste of Gorontalo" won as the "Best in the World" at the Gourmand World Cookbook Award in Yantai, China for the Asian Cuisine from Asian Books category.
South Sulawesi
Makassar is one of the culinary centres in Indonesia. Home of some Bugis and Makassar delicacies such as Coto, Konro, Pallubasa and Mie Kering. All of these Makassar foods are usually consumed with burasa, a coconut milk rice dumpling wrapped in a banana leaf, to replace steamed rice or ketupat. As a big fish market centre, Makassar is also famous for its seafood. Various ikan bakar or grilled fish are popular and commonly served in Makassar restaurants, warung and foodstalls, such as ikan bolu bakar (grilled milkfish). Sop saudara from Pangkep and Kapurung from Palopo are also famous dishes of South Sulawesi. Another popular cuisine from Makassar is Ayam Goreng Sulawesi (Celebes fried chicken); the chicken is marinated in a traditional soy sauce for up to 24 hours before being fried into a golden colour. The dish is usually served with chicken broth, rice and special sambal (chilli sauce).
In addition, Makassar is also home of traditional sweet snacks such as pisang epe (pressed banana), as well as pisang ijo (green banana). Pisang Epe is a flat-grilled banana which is pressed, grilled, and covered with palm sugar sauce and sometimes eaten with durian. Many street vendors sell pisang epe, especially around the area of Losari beach. Pisang ijo is a banana covered with green colored flours, coconut milk, and syrup. Pisang ijo is sometimes served iced, and often sold and consumed as iftar to break the fast during Ramadhan.
Nusa Tenggara
With a drier climate in Nusa Tenggara archipelago, there is less rice and more sago, corn, cassava, and taro compared to central and western Indonesia. Fishes are popularly consumed, including sepat (Trichogaster), which is shredded fish in coconut and young-mango sauce. Lombok's sasak people enjoy spicy food such as ayam taliwang which is roasted chicken served with peanut, tomato chilli and lime dip. Pelecing is a spicy sauce used in many dishes made with chilli, shrimp paste, and tomato. A local shrimp paste called lengkare is used on the island of Lombok. Sares is made from chilli, coconut juice and banana palm pith and is sometimes mixed with meat. Non meat dishes include kelor (hot soup with vegetables), serebuk (vegetables mixed with coconut), and timun urap (cucumber with coconut, onion and garlic).
In East Nusa Tenggara, majority of its inhabitants are Catholics, hence pork is commonly consumed. Popular Timor dishes are Se'i smoked meat (usually pork), and katemak vegetable soup.
Maluku and Papua
The Maluku Islands' cuisine is rich with seafood, while the native Papuan food usually consists of roasted boar with tubers such as sweet potato and taro. Various types of ikan bakar (grilled fish) or seafood are eaten with spicy colo-colo condiment. The staple food of Maluku and Papua is sago, either as a pancake or sago congee called papeda, usually eaten with yellow soup made from tuna, red snapper or other fishes spiced with turmeric, lime, and other spices.
Foreign influences
Arab influences
Arab Indonesians brought their legacy of Arab cuisine—originally from Hadhramaut, Hejaz and Egypt—and modified some of the dishes with the addition of Indonesian ingredients. The Arabs arrived in the Nusantara archipelago to trade and spread Islam. In Maluku, kue asida served during Ramadan for iftar, is believed to be derived from the Middle Eastern asida that was introduced by Arab merchants throughout the Maluku Islands.
Indian influences
Indian influence can be observed in Indonesia as early as the 4th century. Following the spread of Islam to Indonesia, Muslim Indian as well as Arab influences made their way into Indonesian cuisine. Examples include Indian martabak and kari (curry) that influenced Sumatran cuisines of Aceh, Minangkabau, and Malay; in addition to Betawi and coastal Javanese cuisine. Some of Aceh and Minangkabau dishes such as roti cane, nasi biryani, nasi kebuli, and gulai kambing can trace its origin to Indian influences.
Chinese influences
Chinese immigration to Indonesia started in the 7th century, and accelerated during Dutch colonial times, thus creating the fusion of Chinese cuisine with indigenous Indonesian style. Similar Chinese-native fusion cuisine phenomena is also observable in neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore as peranakan cuisine. Some popular Indonesian dishes trace its origin to Chinese influences such as; bakmi, bakso, soto mie, soto, bakpau, nasi goreng, mie goreng, tahu goreng, siomay, pempek, lumpia, nasi tim, cap cai, fu yung hai and swikee. Some of this Chinese-influenced dishes has been so well-integrated into Indonesian mainstream cuisine that many Indonesian today might not recognise their Chinese-origin and considered them their own.
Dutch influences
The Dutch arrived in Indonesia in the 16th century in search of spices. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) went bankrupt in 1800, Indonesia became a treasured colony of the Netherlands. Through colonialism, Europeans introduced bread, cheese, barbecued steak and pancake. Bread, butter and margarine, chocolate sprinkles, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, poffertjes, pannekoek and Dutch cheeses are commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indos during the colonial era. Some of native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and educated native were exposed to European cuisine; This cuisine was held in high esteem as the cuisine of the upper class of Dutch East Indies society.
This led to adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Several Indonesian food can trace its origin from Dutch influence, such as kue odading that was derived from Dutch oliebollen, semur from Dutch smoor, perkedel from frikadeller, sop senerek from erwtensoep, selat solo (solo salad) from holland biefstuk.
Some dishes created during the colonial era were influenced by Dutch cuisine, including roti bakar (grilled bread), roti buaya, macaroni schotel (macaroni casserole), pastel tutup (Shepherd's pie), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), erten (pea soup), brenebon (kidney bean soup) and sop buntut.
Many pastries, cakes and cookies such as kue bolu (tart), lapis legit (spekkoek), lapis Surabaya (spiku), kroket (croquette), kue bolu kenari (ontbijtkoek), and kastengel (kaasstengels or cheese sticks) are come from Dutch influence. Some recipes were invented as Dutch Indies fusion cuisine, using native ingredients but employing European pastry techniques. These include pandan cake and klappertaart (coconut tart). Kue cubit, commonly sold as a snack at schools and marketplaces, are believed to be derived from poffertjes.
Influence abroad
Conversely, Indonesian cuisine also had influenced the Dutch through their shared colonial heritage. Indonesian cuisine also influencing neighbouring countries through Indonesians migration across the straits to Malaysia.
Malaysia
Because of their proximity, historic migrations and close cultural kinship, Indonesian cuisine also has influenced neighbouring cooking traditions; most notably Malaysian cuisine. Indonesian influence is pervasive in the central state of Negeri Sembilan, which was settled largely by Minangkabau people hailing from West Sumatra and is, thus, reflected in their culture, history and cuisine. Minangkabau cuisine influences is profound in Malay cooking tradition, as the result both traditions share same dishes; including rendang, gulai, asam pedas and tempoyak. Rendang is a typical example that has been well-integrated into mainstream Malaysian cuisine and is now considered their own, and popular especially during Hari Raya Aidil Fitri. In the early 20th century, there are large influx of Sumatrans to Kuala Lumpur and other parts of Malaysia heartland, that led to the popularity of Nasi Padang (originated from Padang city, West Sumatra) not only in Malaysia, but also in Singapore.
The Malay cuisine of southernmost state of Johor, reflects the influences of Javanese who settled there for over past two centuries. Popular Javanese-origin dishes in Johor includes ayam penyet, nasi ambeng, telur pindang, sayur lodeh, mee rebus and pechal.
Singapore
Some dishes in Singapore are influenced by Indonesian cuisine. Satay bee hoon has a connection to Javanese cuisine. The dish was a product of Teochew Chinese and Javanese culinary cultures. Singaporean rojak has its roots in Indonesia.
Thailand
To a lesser extent, Indonesian cuisine also had influenced Thai cuisine — probably through Malaysian intermediary — such as the introduction of satay, from Java to Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and reached Thailand. Achat ( ), is a Thai pickles which believed to be derived from Indonesian acar. It is made with cucumber, red chilies, red onions or shallots, vinegar, sugar and salt. It is served as a side dish with the Thai version of satay ().
Netherlands
During the colonial period, the Dutch embraced Indonesian cuisine both at home and abroad. The Indonesian cuisine had influenced colonial Dutch and Indo people that brought Indonesian dishes back to the Netherlands due to repatriation following the independence of Indonesia.
C. Countess van Limburg Stirum writes in her book "The Art of Dutch Cooking" (1962): There exist countless Indonesian dishes, some of which take hours to prepare; but a few easy ones have become so popular that they can be regarded as "national dishes". She then provides recipes for nasi goreng (fried rice), pisang goreng (battered, deep fried bananas), lumpia goreng (fried spring rolls), bami (fried noodles), satay (grilled skewered meat), satay sauce (peanut sauce), and sambal oelek (chilli paste).
Dutch-Indonesian fusion dishes also exist, of which the most well-known is the rijsttafel ("rice table"), which is an elaborate meal consisting of many (up to several dozens) small dishes (hence filling "an entire table"). While popular in the Netherlands, Rijsttafel is now rare in Indonesia itself. Today, there are many Indonesian restaurants in the Netherlands, especially in large cities like Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam.
Culinary diplomacy
Indonesian cuisine traditionally enjoyed popularity in neighbouring countries; e.g. Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Australia, as well as nations that shares historical ties with Indonesia; such as the Netherlands, Suriname, East Timor and South Africa. It is also increasingly popular in Japan and Korea.
Learning from the success of other countries culinary diplomacy, especially those of Thailand, Korea and Japan, in 2021, the Indonesian government has launched the "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program, which is a form of coordinated gastrodiplomacy efforts. The programme was launched to promote Indonesian cuisine abroad, to assist Indonesian culinary industry; by helping the local spice products and processed food to find their ways into the global market, and also to assist Indonesian restaurants abroad.
The "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program involves government's inter-ministerial institutions, Indonesian food industry, and also the public. The objective of the program is to boost the export value of Indonesian spices and herbs to US$2 billion, and increasing the presence of four thousand Indonesian restaurants abroad by 2024.
Meal times
Indonesians might consume snacks or varieties of small dishes throughout the day. If separate scheduled larger meal is observed, they usually consists of sarapan or makan pagi (breakfast), makan siang (lunch) is often the main meal of the day, followed by makan malam (dinner). Mealtime is typically a casual and solitary affair, and might be observed differently across region.
In western and central Indonesia, the main meal is usually cooked in the late morning, and consumed around midday. In many families there is no set meal time when all members are expected to attend. For this reason, most of the dishes are made so that they can remain edible even if left on the table at room temperature for many hours. The same dishes are then re-heated for the final meal in the evening. Most meals are built around a cone-shaped pile of long-grain, highly polished rice. A meal may include a soup, salad (or more commonly vegetables sautéed with garlic), and another main dish. Whatever the meal, it is accompanied by at least one, and often several, relishes called sambals. Especially for Javanese family, on the table, it is also common to always have chips, that can be kerupuk, rempeyek, or any other chips to accompany the meal.
In eastern Indonesia, such as on the islands of Papua and Timor, where the climate is often much drier, the meals can be centred around other sources of carbohydrates such as sago or root vegetables and starchy tubers. Being east of the Wallace line, the biogeographic realm, and hence the flora and fauna, are quite different from those of the islands to the west, and so the food stuffs are as well.
Feasts
Tumpeng
Many Indonesian traditional customs and ceremonies incorporate food and feast, one of the best examples is tumpeng. Originally from Java, tumpeng is a cone shaped mound of rice surrounded by an assortment of other dishes, officially chosen as Indonesian national dish in 2014. Traditionally featured in slametan ceremonies, the cone of rice is made by using bamboo leaves woven into a cone-shaped container. The rice itself can be plain white steamed rice, uduk (rice cooked with coconut milk), or yellow rice (rice coloured with kunyit, i.e., turmeric). After it is shaped, the rice cone is surrounded by assorted dishes, such as urap vegetables, fried chicken, semur (beef in sweet soy sauce), teri kacang (little dried fish fried with peanuts), fried prawns, telur pindang (marbleized boiled eggs), shredded omelette, tempe orek (sweet, dry fried tempeh), perkedel kentang (mashed potato fritters), perkedel jagung (corn fritters), sambal goreng ati (liver in chilli sauce), and many other dishes. Nasi tumpeng probably comes from an ancient Indonesian tradition that revers mountains as the abode of the ancestors and the gods. Rice cone is meant to symbolise the holy mountain. The feast served as some kind of thanksgiving for the abundance of harvest or any other blessings. Because of its festivities and celebratory value, even now tumpeng is sometimes used as an Indonesian counterpart to birthday cake.
Nasi Padang
Having Nasi Padang in festive hidang (serve) style provides opportunity to sample wide array of Padang food in a single setting. Nasi Padang (Padang-style rice) is the steamed rice served with various choices of pre-cooked dishes originated from Padang city, West Sumatra. It is a miniature banquet of meats, fish, vegetables, and spicy sambals eaten with plain white rice. It is the Minangkabau's great contribution to Indonesian cuisine.
After the customers are seated, they do not have to order. The waiter with stacked plates upon their hands will immediately serves the dishes directly to the table. The table will quickly be set with dozens of small dishes filled with richly flavoured foods such as beef rendang, various gulais, curried fish, stewed greens, chili eggplant, curried beef liver, tripe, intestines, or foot tendons, fried beef lung, fried chicken, and of course, sambal. A dozen of dishes is a normal number, it could reach 14 dishes or more. Nasi Padang is an at-your-table, by-the-plate buffet. Customers take — and pay for — only what they have consumed from this array.
Rijsttafel
Another Indonesian feast, the Rijsttafel (from Dutch, meaning 'rice table'), demonstrates both colonial opulence and the diversity of Indonesian cuisine at the same time. The classic style rijsttafel involved serving of up to 40 different dishes by 40 male waiters, bare foot but dressed in formal white uniforms with blangkon (traditional Javanese caps) on their heads and batik cloth around their waists. In contemporary Indonesian cuisine, it has been adapted into a western style prasmanan buffet.
Prasmanan
When attending the reception of an Indonesian traditional wedding party, office lunch-time meeting, a seminar or dinner gathering, one usually will find themselves queuing to Indonesian prasmanan; a long table filled with wide array of Indonesian dishes. A prasmanan is quite similar with rijsttafel but minus the ceremonial waiters and usually served fewer choices of dishes compared to its flamboyant colonial predecessor. It is an Indonesian buffet as it employs a long table with a wide range of dishes, both savoury and sweet, served on it. It can usually be found in wedding ceremonies or any other festivities. The layout for an Indonesian wedding ceremony buffet is usually: plates, eating utensils (spoon and fork), and paper napkins placed on one end, followed by rice (plain or fried), a series of Indonesian (and sometimes international) dishes, sambal and krupuk (shrimp crackers), and ending with glasses of water on the other end of the table.
Beverages
Non-alcoholic beverages
The most common and popular Indonesian drinks and beverages are teh (tea) and kopi (coffee). Indonesian households commonly serve teh manis (sweet tea) or kopi tubruk to guests. Since the colonial era of Netherlands East Indies, plantations, especially in Java, were major producers of coffee, tea and sugar. Since then hot and sweet coffee and tea beverages have been enjoyed by Indonesians. Jasmine tea is the most popular tea variety drunk in Indonesia, however recent health awareness promotions have made green tea a popular choice. Usually coffee and tea are served hot, but cold iced sweet tea is also frequently drunk. Kopi luwak is Indonesian exotic and expensive coffee beverage made from the beans of coffee berries which have been eaten by the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and other related civets. Teh botol, bottled sweet jasmine tea, is now quite popular and locally competes favourably with international bottled soda beverages such as Coca-Cola and Fanta. Kopi susu (coffee with sweetened condensed milk) is an Indonesian version of Café au lait. Es kelapa muda or young coconut ice is fresh drink which is made from chilled young coconut water, coconut flesh and syrup. It is among favourite beverage in Indonesia.
Fruit juices (jus) are very popular. Varieties include orange (jus jeruk), guava (jus jambu), mango (jus mangga), soursop (jus sirsak) and avocado (jus alpokat), the last of these being commonly served with condensed milk and chocolate syrup as a dessert-like treat. Durian can be made into ice cream called es durian.
Many popular drinks are based on ice (es) and can also be classified as desserts. Typical examples include young coconut (es kelapa muda), grass jelly (es cincau), cendol (es cendol or es dawet), avocado, jackfruit and coconut with shredded ice and condensed milk (es teler), mixed ice (es campur), kidney beans (es kacang merah), musk melon (es blewah), and seaweed (es rumput laut).
Hot sweet beverages can also be found, such as bajigur and bandrek which are particularly popular in West Java. Both are coconut milk or coconut sugar (gula jawa) based hot drinks, mixed with other spices. Sekoteng, a ginger based hot drink which includes peanuts, diced bread, and pacar cina, can be found in Jakarta and West Java. Wedang jahe (hot ginger drink) and wedang ronde (a hot drink with sweet potato balls) are particularly popular in Yogyakarta, Central Java, and East Java.
Alcoholic beverages
As a Muslim-majority country, Indonesian Muslims share Islamic dietary laws that prohibit alcoholic beverages. Since ancient times, local alcoholic beverages were developed in the archipelago. According to a Chinese source, people of ancient Java drank wine made from palm sap called tuak (palm wine). Today tuak continues to be popular in the Batak region, North Sumatra. A traditional Batak bar serving tuak is called lapo tuak. In Solo, Central Java, ciu (a local adaptation of Chinese wine) is known. Bottled brem bali (Balinese rice wine) is popular in Bali. In Nusa Tenggara and Maluku Islands the people also drink palm wine, locally known as sopi. In the Minahasa region of North Sulawesi, the people drink a highly alcoholic drink called Cap Tikus. Indonesians developed local brands of beer, such as Bintang Beer and Anker Beer.
Eating establishment
In Indonesia, dishes are served from a fine dining restaurant in five-star hotel, a simple restaurant downtown, humble street side warung under the tent, to street hawker peddling their gerobak (cart) or pikulan (carrying using rod).
Restaurant and warung
In Indonesia rumah makan means restaurant, while warung means small and humble shop. From these eating establishments, a warteg (warung Tegal) and rumah makan Padang are particularly notable for their ubiquitousness in Indonesian cities and towns.
A warteg or warung tegal is a more specific warung nasi, established by Javanese people from the town Tegal in Central Java. They sells favourite Javanese dishes and rice, the wide array of pre-cooked dishes are arranged in glass windowed cupboard. They are well known on selling modestly-priced meals, popular among working class such as low-skilled labours in the cities. While rumah makan Padang is a Padang restaurant, a smaller scale Padang eateries might be called warung Padang.
Most of Indonesian restaurants are based upon specific regional cuisine tradition. For example, rumah makan Padang are definitely Minangkabau cuisine. Sundanese saung restaurant or colloquially called as kuring restaurants are selling Sundanese dishes. This includes Bataks' lapo, Manado and Balinese restaurants. While other restaurants might specifically featuring their best specific dishes, for example Ayam goreng Mbok Berek, Bakmi Gajah Mada, Satay Senayan, Rawon Setan Surabaya, Pempek Pak Raden, etc.
Street food
Indonesian street food are usually cheap, offer a great variety of food of different tastes, and can be found on every corner of the city.
Street and street-side vendors are common, in addition to hawkers peddling their goods on bicycles or carts. These carts are known as pedagang kaki lima. These food hawkers on carts or bicycles might be travelling on streets, approaching potential buyers through residential areas whilst announcing their presence, or stationing themselves on a packed and busy street side, setting simple seating under a small tent and waiting for customers. Many of these have their own distinctive call, tune, or noise to announce their presence. For example, bakso sellers will hit the side of a soup bowl using a spoon, whereas nasi goreng sellers announce themselves by hitting their wok.
In most cities, it is common to see Chinese dishes such as bakpao (steamed buns with sweet and savoury fillings), bakmie (noodles), and bakso (meatballs) sold by street vendors and restaurants, often adapted to become Indonesian-Chinese cuisine. One common adaptation is that pork is rarely used since the majority of Indonesians are Muslims. Other popular Indonesian street food and snacks are siomay and batagor (abbreviated from Bakso Tahu Goreng), pempek (deep fried fish cake), bubur ayam (chicken congee), bubur kacang hijau (mung beans porridge), satay, nasi goreng (English: fried rice), soto mie (soto noodle), mie ayam (chicken noodle) and mie goreng (fried noodle), taoge goreng (mung bean sprouts and noodle salad), asinan (preserved vegetables or fruits salad), laksa, kerak telor (spicy omelette), gorengan (Indonesian assorted fritters) and Bakwan (fried dish of beansprouts and batter).
Indonesian street snacks include iced and sweet beverages, such as es cendol or es dawet, es teler, es cincau, es doger, es campur, es potong, and es puter. Indonesian cakes and cookies are often called jajanan pasar (market munchies).
Snacks
Kue
Indonesia has a rich collection of snacks called kue (cakes and pastry), both savoury and sweet. Traditional kue usually made from rice flour, coconut milk, coconut sugar and mostly steamed or fried instead of baked. Traditional kue are popularly known as kue basah ("wet kue") that has a moist and soft texture because of rich coconut milk. The kue kering (dried kue) is local name for cookies.
Indonesia has rich variations of kue, both native-origin or foreign-influenced. Popular ones include Bika Ambon, kue pisang, kue cubit, klepon, onde-onde, nagasari, kue pandan, lupis, lemang, lemper, lontong, tahu isi, getuk, risoles, pastel, lumpia, bakpia, lapis legit, soes, poffertjes and bolu kukus.
Traditional crackers
Traditional crackers are called krupuk, made from bits of shrimp, fish, vegetables or nuts, which are usually consumed as a crunchy snack or to accompany main meals. These crispy snacks sometimes are added upon the main meal to provide crunchy texture; several Indonesian dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, lontong sayur, nasi uduk, asinan and bubur ayam are known to require specific type of krupuk as toppings. There are wide variations of krupuk available across Indonesia. The most popular ones would be krupuk udang (prawn crackers) and krupuk kampung or krupuk putih (cassava crackers).
Other popular types include krupuk kulit (dried buffalo-skin crackers), emping melinjo (gnetum gnemon crackers), and kripik (chips or crisps), such as kripik pisang (banana chips) and keripik singkong (Cassava chips), rempeyek, is a flour-based cracker with brittle of peanuts, anchovies or shrimp bound by crispy flour cracker, rengginang or intip (Javanese) is rice cracker made from sun-dried and deep fried leftover rice.
Fruits
Indonesian markets abound with many types of tropical fruit. These are an important part of the Indonesian diet, either eaten freshly, or made into juices (such as jus alpukat), desserts (such as es buah and es teler), processed in savoury and spicy dishes like rujak, fried like pisang goreng (fried banana), cooked into cakes (such as kue pisang or bika ambon), sweetened and preserved such as sale pisang and manisan buah, or processed into kripik (crispy chips) as snacks like jackfruit or banana chips.
Many of these tropical fruits such as mangga (mango), manggis (mangosteen), rambutan, cempedak, nangka (jackfruit), durian, jambu air, duku (langsat), jeruk bali (pomelo), belimbing (carambola), kedondong and pisang (banana), are indigenous to Indonesian archipelago; while others have been imported from other tropical countries, although the origin of many of these fruits might be disputed. Klengkeng (longan) were introduced from India, semangka (watermelon) from Africa, kesemek from China, while alpukat (avocado), sawo, markisa (passionfruit), sirsak (soursop), nanas (pineapple), jambu biji (guava) and pepaya (papaya) were introduced from the Americas. Many of these tropical fruits are seasonally available, according to each species flowering and fruiting seasons. While certain fruits such as banana, watermelon, pineapple and papaya are available all year round.
Today, Indonesian markets is also enrichen with selections of home-grown non-tropical fruits that is not native to Indonesia. Strawberry, melon, apple, pear and dragonfruit are introduced and grown in cooler Indonesian highlands such as Malang in mountainous East Java, Puncak and Lembang near Bandung, to mimic their native subtropics habitat.
In the last few years, fruit chips have been more and more various. In the old times, banana and jackfruit chips were the most common, but now Indonesian fruit chips are also made from strawberry, apple, dragonfruit, pepino, watermelon, melon, more. Malang, a city in East Java, is the centre of fruit chip production aside from tempeh chips.
Banana and coconut are particularly important, not only to Indonesian cuisine, but also in other uses, such as timber, bedding, roofing, oil, plates and packaging. Banana leaf and janur (young coconut leaf) are particularly important for packaging and cooking process, employed to make pepes, lontong and ketupat.
Health
Nutrition
Much carbohydrate intake in Indonesian cuisine comes from rice, while in eastern parts of Indonesia, yam and sago are common. Indonesian protein intake comes from soy bean products that are processed into tofu and tempeh. Chicken eggs, poultry and meats are also consumed. Most of the fat intake comes from cooking oil (coconut oil) of fried dishes, coconut milk, peanuts, as well as meats and offals.
Some Indonesian fruit and vegetable dishes such as fruit rujak, gado-gado, karedok, pecel, lalab, capcay, tofu and tempeh are foods with low fat and high fibre. Tempeh, for example, is a vegetarian substitute for meat. Some dishes, especially gorengan (deep-fried fritters) and those dishes infused or caramelised with coconut milk, such as rendang and gulai, might taste succulent but are rich in saturated fat.
Food safety
The authentic traditional Indonesian home cooking is freshly made and consumed daily with minimal or no processed, canned or preserved foods, which means there is a minimal amount of preservatives and sodium. Most ingredients are bought fresh very early in the morning from local traditional markets, cooked around the late morning and consumed mainly for lunch. The leftovers are stored in the cupboard or on the table covered with tudung saji (weaved bamboo food cover to protect the food from insects or other animals), all in room temperature to be heated and consumed again for dinner. Traditionally, Indonesian dishes are rarely stored for long periods of time, thus most of these dishes are cooked and consumed in the same day. Some exceptions apply to dried, salted, and processed food. For example, dry rendang may still be safe to consume for several days. Modern refrigeration technology is available in most households.
Hygiene
While most of Indonesian grocery products and food served in mid to upperscale eating establishments maintain food hygiene standard ranges from good to acceptable — regulated and supervised by Badan Pengawasan Obat dan Makanan'' (Indonesian Food and Drug Administration) — some warung traditional foodstalls and street vendors might have poor hygiene. The tropical microbes also might contribute to food poisoning cases mostly gastroenteritis, especially among foreigners during their stay in Indonesia. It is advisable to drink bottled or boiled drinking water, or choose cooked hot food instead of uncooked room temperatured ones sold by street vendors. For example, when consuming food sold by street vendors, consuming hot cooked mie ayam or soto is much safer than having gado-gado or fruit rujak.
See also
Bumbu (seasoning)
Indonesian noodles
Kue
Thai cuisine
Filipino cuisine
Malaysian cuisine
List of Indonesian beverages
List of Indonesian condiments
List of Indonesian desserts
List of Indonesian dishes
List of Indonesian snacks
List of Indonesian soups
Notes
References
Bibliography
Owen, Sri. "Indonesian Food and Cookery" Prospect Books, 1980
Owen, Sri. "Sri Owen's Indonesian Food" Pavilion Books, 2015
Wongso, William. "Flavors of Indonesia: William Wongso's Culinary Wonders" Bab Publishing, 2016
Ford, Eleanor. "Fire Islands: Recipes from Indonesia" Murdoch Books, 2019
External links
Southeast Asian cuisine
Indonesian culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobble%20Hill%2C%20Brooklyn
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Cobble Hill, Brooklyn
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Cobble Hill is a neighborhood in the northwestern portion of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. A small neighborhood comprising 40 blocks, Cobble Hill sits adjacent to Brooklyn Heights to the north, Boerum Hill to the east, Carroll Gardens to the south, and the Columbia Street Waterfront District to the west. It is bounded by Atlantic Avenue (north), Court Street (east), Degraw Street (south) and the Brooklyn Queens Expressway (west). Other sources add to the neighborhood a rectangle bounded by Wyckoff Street on the north, Hoyt Street on the east, Degraw Street on the south, and Court Street on the west.
Through its early history, the area now called "Cobble Hill" was considered to be part of South Brooklyn, Red Hook, or simply the Sixth Ward, or as part of Brooklyn Heights. The current name, a revival of a name which had died out by the 1880s, was adopted in 1959. Much of the neighborhood, which has "one of the city's finest collections of nineteenth-century houses", is included in the Cobble Hill Historic District.
Cobble Hill is part of Brooklyn Community District 6 and its ZIP Codes are 11201 and 11231. It is served by the 76th Precinct of the New York City Police Department at 191 Union Street. Fire services are provided by the New York City Fire Department's Engine Company 206 and Ladder Company 108, located in nearby Carroll Gardens.
History
Early history and development
Cobble Hill – which was named after the conical shaped hill called "Cobleshill" or "Ponkiesbergh", located where the current intersection of Atlantic Avenue, Pacific Street, and Court Street now lies – was originally settled during the 1640s by Dutch farmers when Willem Kieft, the director of New Netherland, granted patents in the area. The hill was used as a fort – known as "Cobble Hill Fort", "Smith's Barbette", or "Corkscrew Fort" – during the American War of Independence; the British cut off the top of the hill during their occupation, so it could not be used to look down on their headquarters in Brooklyn Heights. They also seized the estate of Philip Livingston for use as a naval hospital. Cobble Hill was again fortified for the War of 1812, and was then called "Fort Swift".
In 1834, the Village of Brooklyn – chartered in 1816 and primarily made up of present-day Brooklyn Heights – became a city and soon expanded south beyond Atlantic Street (now Atlantic Avenue) to include South Brooklyn.
Until the establishment of the South Ferry, which connected Atlantic Avenue to Manhattan's Whitehall Street in 1836, South Brooklyn was primarily rural. After that time, with the guidelines for a gridiron street pattern already established in 1834, the area developed rapidly. New streets were being laid progressively, and with the development of new buildings – which started nearer to the waterfront and moved inward – the rural community slowly started changing into a middle-class suburban residential community dominated by small rows of houses, which began to be built as early as 1835. The transformation of the neighborhood was nearly completed by 1860; none of the farm houses from the neighborhood's rural period are extant.
According to the 1840 tax list and street directory, the neighborhood of present-day Cobble Hill contained 45 houses and 112 residents. Although this housing boom caused prices to rise, in 1850 it was still possible for a clerk to pay rent of $200 a year () for a row house with a large backyard, albeit on a narrow lot. This provoked an influx of new residents from Manhattan.
Philanthropist Alfred Tredway White built two experimental housing projects in the neighborhood. These were the Romanesque revival "Towers" and "Home" buildings (now collectively known as Cobble Hill Towers), at 417–435 and 439-45 Hicks Street, meant as affordable housing for the working class, with adequate light and air for all; and the "Workingman's Cottages" of Warren Place, a one block mews from Warren Street to Baltic Street between Henry and Hicks Streets, which was two rows of narrow single family houses ( wide) built around a private courtyard. These were intended for slightly more upscale workers. All were built on adjoining lots in 1876 and were designed by William Field & Son; they were restored in 1986 by Maitland, Strauss & Behr. With these projects, which served Native Americans, Irish, Swedes, Norwegians, English, and German workmen, White became the first builder of low rent/low profit housing in the United States. His philosophy was "Philanthropy plus 5%".
Beginning in the 1840s and progressing into the 1870s, wealthier Manhattanites, including bankers and merchants, began to move to various parts of Brooklyn, including Cobble Hill. By 1880, the population of the area was solidly upper-middle class and the cost of houses had almost equaled those in Brooklyn Heights, of which Cobble Hill was an outgrowth.
The Cobble Hill Historic District Designation Report lists the architecture of the neighborhood as including many rowhouses in the Greek Revival and Italianate styles and their offshoots, but also examples of the Romanesque Revival, Gothic Revival, Queen Anne, French Second Empire, and neo-Grec styles.
20th century
The 20th century saw an influx of immigrants into the neighborhood from Ireland, Italy, and the Middle East; some low-rise apartment buildings were constructed prior to the 1920s. After a period of relative quiet, by 1950, brownstones were being rejuvenated and the neighborhood began to experience a renaissance, leading to the revival of the "Cobble Hill" name, perhaps engendered by a real estate agent who saw the name "Cobles Hill" on a 1766 map and updated it. Organized community groups fought against large housing projects, and prevailed on the city to make the area an historic district.
The historic district – first designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (NYLPC) on December 20, 1969 and extended on June 7, 1988, – is roughly bordered by Atlantic Avenue to the north, Court Street to the east, Degraw Street to the south, and Hicks Street to the west, with a "bite" removed from the northeast corner of that rectangle. Its area measures approximately twenty-two city blocks. According to the NYLPC, the Cobble Hill Historic District is an "unusually fine 19th century residential area" and "retains an aura of the past with its charming streets and architecture". The Cobble Hill Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.
Today on the two main commercial streets – Court and Smith Streets – generations-old family-run stores and businesses such as Italian meat markets and barber shops sit side by side with trendy new shops, restaurants, and cafes. Atlantic Avenue, the northern border of the neighborhood, features one of New York City's largest collections of Middle-Eastern shops, some of which have been there for decades. The northern part of Smith Street is known as Brooklyn's "Restaurant Row" due to the large number of eateries and watering holes that opened on the street during the late 1990s and early 2000s. With a second blossoming of specialized bars along the corridor in the late 2000s, Smith Street became an upscale weekend nightlife destination.
Cobble Hill Park
Cobble Hill Park, on Clinton Street between Verandah Place and Congress Street, was created in 1965. The site had been the location of two mansions (the Weber and Whitten Mansions) and the Second Unitarian Church, which was abandoned by the 1940s, when the site was purchased by the Bohack Corporation, a supermarket chain. The mansions were demolished, and in the 1960s the corporation planned to build a supermarket on the site, a proposition which was opposed by the Cobble Hill community, which felt the need for a park for the neighborhood. Bohack sold the site to developers in 1962, who planned to build a low-rise apartment building. The community collected signatures and successfully petitioned the city to create a park.
The city bought the property in 1963 and the park was dedicated in 1965. It was reconstructed in 1989, winning the 1988 Annual Award for Excellence in Design from the Art Commission and the Parks Council's Philip Winslow Award for Public Projects in 1990, the first time it was awarded. The new design reflected the 19th-century brick-and-stone character of the tree-lined neighborhood.
Education
Schools
Public School 29, also known as the John M. Harrigan School, is a school located on Henry Street.
The building on Baltic Street that formerly housed Intermediate School 293 – which closed in 2005 due to poor performance – now contains two 6–12th grade schools:
The Brooklyn School for Global Studies occupies the top floor
The School for International Studies is on the bottom floor.
Success Academy Cobble Hill, a charter primary school, opened in August 2012.
Libraries
Though there are no public libraries in Cobble Hill itself, Brooklyn Public Library (BPL) operates two branches nearby:
The Carroll Gardens branch, located at 396 Clinton Street near Union Street, in Carroll Gardens
The Pacific branch, located at 25 Fourth Avenue near Pacific Street, in Boerum Hill
Religion
The neighborhood has a multitude of churches, many of them dating from prior to the Civil War. Some have been converted for residential use.
Christ Church and Holy Family at Clinton and Kane Streets, built in 1840–41, was an early design in the Gothic Revival style by Richard Upjohn Some of the interior furnishings are by Louis Comfort Tiffany, and date from 1937. Christ Church was the first organized religious group in the Cobble Hill area, having been founded in 1835. The congregation later merged with that of the Church of the Holy Family.
Old St. Paul's Church at Court and Congress Streets was designed by Gamaliel King and built c.1838, allowing the claim that this church is the oldest Roman Catholic church in continuous use in Brooklyn. The steeple was added in the 1860s, and other enlargements were made. The church front faces Court Street, the chapel and former rectory face Congress Street. The parish was originally largely Irish.
Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes, which splintered off an earlier congregation, is located at 236 Kane Street in Cobble Hill, in the former Middle Dutch Reformed Church, built in the Romanesque style c.1856. It is currently the oldest continuously operating synagogue in Brooklyn.
St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church on Hicks Street, built in 1860 and designed by Patrick Charles Keely, was part of a complex which included the church, a school, and a hospital. The church and the school have been converted to host condominium apartments. The original parish was largely Italian.
South Brooklyn Seventh-Day Adventist Church at 249 Degraw Street was built in 1905 as the Trinity German Lutheran Church, and was designed by Theobald Engelhart.
St. Francis Cabrini Roman Catholic Chapel at Degraw Street and Strong Place was built in 1851–52 as the Strong Place Baptist Church. It was designed by Minard Lafever in the Gothic Revival style. The building was converted into apartments in 2010.
The Second Unitarian Church, known as the "Church of the Turtle" because it physically resembled one, was designed by Jacob Wrey Mould and built in 1858 on the site where Cobble Hill Park is today.
Hospitals
In the northeast corner of the neighborhood, located partially in the Historic District, was University Hospital of Brooklyn at Long Island College Hospital, which was founded by German immigrants in 1857. It began a school of medicine, the Long Island College of Medicine, in 1850; the school became a separate institution in 1930, and since 1954 was the primary teaching affiliate of SUNY Downstate Medical Center. The first private bacteriological laboratory in the United States, Hoagland Laboratory, was built in 1888 at 335 Henry Street, but was destroyed by fire and is no longer extant. The Polhemus Building, now Polhemus Memorial Clinic, was built in 1897 and was designed by Marshall Emery in the French Mannerist style. Dudley Memorial, designed by William Hough was built in 1902. Other buildings were designed by D. Everett Waid and William Higginson. Further expansion took place in the modern era, with buildings raised in 1963, 1974, 1984, and 1988. The hospital was the sixth largest in Brooklyn. After the closure of Long Island College Hospital in August 2014, a freestanding emergency department—NYU Cobble Hill, part of NYU Langone Medical Center—opened in October 2014. The hospital plans to replace the existing facility with a new ambulatory care center and freestanding emergency department at the site, estimated to cost $200 million.
Other points of interest
The DeGraw Mansion, also known as the Ralph L. Cutter House, at Clinton and Amity Streets, was built in 1845 and altered in 1891 with a tower in order to see the harbor, the view of which had become blocked by the development of the neighborhood.
The former Dr. Joseph E. Clark House, at 340 Clinton Street between Degraw and Kane Streets, was built c.1860, and is "the widest single house in Cobble Hill".
272 Warren Street, a neo-Grec house built c.1899, stands out from its neighbors
174 Pacific Street between Clinton and Court Streets, was built in 1889 as Public School 78
The commercial building that now houses Trader Joe's, formerly the South Brooklyn Savings Institution and then the Independence Savings Bank, was built in 1922 and was designed by McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin in the Florentine Renaissance style. Located at 130 Court Street at Atlantic Avenue, it was added to in 1936 by Charles A. Holmes. The cornice features one hundred eagles. The site is the location where General George Washington watched his troops retreat from the Battle of Long Island.
Transportation
The Cobble Hill Tunnel, under Atlantic Avenue, was built in 1844 to replace the railroad tracks that ran down the middle of Atlantic Avenue as part of the Atlantic Avenue Railroad. Trains used these tracks to transport goods to and from the waterfront during the 1840s, and the tunnel was built to avoid the trains' need to climb a steep hill. The tunnel is now abandoned, but originally ran from Times Plaza to the Ferry Terminal. The brick-lined vaulted tunnel is high by wide and long. Walt Whitman, the poet and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, said the tunnel was "a passage of solemnity and darkness".
New York City Subway service is available at the Bergen Street station on the IND Culver Line (). The (Atlantic Avenue) and (Court Street) bus routes also serve the area.
In June 2017, NYC Ferry's South Brooklyn route started stopping at Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 6 on the border of Cobble Hill and Brooklyn Heights.
There are plans to build the Brooklyn–Queens Connector (BQX), a light rail system that would run along the waterfront from Red Hook through Cobble Hill to Astoria in Queens. However, the system is projected to cost $2.7 billion, and the projected opening has been delayed until at least 2029.
Notable residents
Martin Amis (1949–2023), writer
Lady Randolph Churchill (1854–1921), mother of Winston Churchill, was born in a rented house on Amity Street; note that the plaque at 426 Henry Street is incorrect, the Jeromes lived there before she was born.
Daniel Craig and Rachel Weisz
Mike D (born 1965), musician
Michelle Goldberg, author and New York Times op-ed columnist
Garth Risk Hallberg (born 1978), fiction writer
Norah Jones (born 1979), singer
Spike Lee (resident from 1961 to 1969), filmmaker
Alex McCord, performer on the reality TV program Real Housewives of New York City
Todd Rosenberg, cartoonist known for the website Odd Todd
Jenny Slate (born 1982), actress and comedian
Richard Upjohn (1802–1878) and Richard Upjohn Jr., architects, lived at 296 Clinton Street, which they designed; it was built in 1843 and added to in 1893 by Richard M. Upjohn.
Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938), writer, lived on Verandah Place between Henry and Clinton Street in the 1930s.
In popular culture
Cobble Hill Park is the setting of the inciting incident in the English translation of Yasmina Reza's Tony Award-winning play God of Carnage (2009).
In the TV show White Collar (2009–2014), main characters Peter and Elizabeth Burke live in Cobble Hill.
References
External links
Neighborhoods in Brooklyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle%2C%20Lake%20Shore%20and%20Eastern%20Railway
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Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway
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The Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway (SLS&E) was a railroad founded in Seattle, Washington, on April 28, 1885, with three tiers of purposes: Build and run the initial line to the town of Ballard, bring immediate results and returns to investors; exploit resources east in the valleys, foothills, Cascade Range, and Eastern Washington in 19th-century style, attracting more venture capital; and boost a link to a transcontinental railroad for Seattle, the ultimate prize for incorporation. The historical accomplishment of the line was Seattle to Sumas at the border, with British Columbia, Canada, connecting with the Canadian Pacific transcontinental at the border at Huntingdon, British Columbia, now part of the City of Abbotsford.
In addition to the historical accomplishment, the SLS&E built and ran branches from Seattle through Bothell, on to Woodinville, to Sallal Prairie (just past North Bend); Salmon Bay (the industrial district of the town of Ballard); and Spokane to Davenport. Toward the latter end, one goal was creating a rail connection to North Dakota via Wallula, an outpost on the Columbia River in the early decades of railroad booms, near the present Tri-Cities. Local historian William Speidel reported that Henry Villard, tycoon of the Northern Pacific Railway (NP), had the federal rights and had the line through Wallula built. The SLS&E was first incorporated to build a line from the Seattle harbor in old Downtown, along Elliott Bay to the lumber and fishing town of Ballard.
Subsequent to its abandonment in 1971, a southern portion of the railroad’s right-of-way re-opened in 1978 as the Burke-Gilman Trail.
Promoting a railroad empire involving Seattle
Railroading in Seattle closely paralleled development and early hopes for the future. Like communications networks today, 19th century railroading represented more than track, stock, and trade. Romantic and practical potential wooed communities across the West, much as Web commerce and bandwidth today (bandwidth was narrow, desire high, competition passionate). Travel between America's coasts had taken months, whether overland by wagon or by sailing ship or steamer around Cape Horn, until the Union Pacific reached San Francisco in 1869 and the Northern Pacific opened to Tacoma in 1887.
The SLS&E was conceived and financed by Seattle business interests in response to Villard of the NP selecting Seattle's intense rival Tacoma as its transcontinental western terminus, and incorporated on 15 April 1885. The original scheme for the SLS&E was connecting with an intercontinental railroad somewhere, while actually building north and east from Seattle. By the late 1880s, the SLS&E needed more capital for ongoing construction toward Sumas and an extension toward Spokane. The Seattle & Eastern Construction Company was formed with many of the same investors as the SLS&E. Construction of the eastern line began in Spokane. By the end of 1889, construction ended, having only reached Sallal Prairie, some miles past North Bend and from the Seattle station on Western Avenue at Columbia Street. In 1890, the plans were amended to focus on connecting Seattle to the Canadian Pacific Railway at Sumas on the border.
Local historian William Speidel (1967) observed that,
At best, insider boosters had hoped they might get as far as Denny's Iron Mountain in Snoqualmie Pass. While the SLS&E was designed to connect with one of the other transcontinentals, its primary purpose lay in 19th-century industrial development exploiting the city's hinterland: the fast-disappearing easy timber, then primarily coal and iron. A theory, which later became profitable in fact, was that commuter trains could run along the SLS&E track, and be only twenty scenic minutes away from the center of the city. Ever since, every suburb around the perimeter of the city has been advertised as only "twenty scenic minutes away from downtown."
The Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railroad was a pretty weak reed for Seattle to cling to. City boosters blew a lot of money on that railroad and when they were through, it had only been built as far east as Rattlesnake Prairie above Snoqualmie Falls and as for north as Arlington. But it was the only hope that Seattle-New York Alki held out for a connection with a transcontinental system. On the other hand, the side benefits of the SLS&E enabled boosters to hit the jackpot with the Great Northern.
The verso of a promotional print celebrating an opening excursion of the SLS&E stated, The Seattle Lake Shore and Eastern Railroad company was organized April 15, 1885 and was financed by local men and Jamieson, Smith and Cotting of New York. The first division of the road was to Issaquah where the coal mines would furnish cargoes. The first depot of the road was built at the foot of Columbia Street, but as space for trackage and terminals was too limited, the city created Railroad Avenue, 120 feet wide. The city gave the new road thirty feet of the Avenue for trackage and offered the Northern Pacific an equal amount which was not accepted. Construction was soon started from the eastern end of Spokane and forty miles of road built. Startled by the success of this competing line, the Northern Pacific purchased control and abandoned its fight against Seattle in 1890. [The quote is text on the verso of a silver gelation print, "Excursion on the Seattle Lake Shore and Eastern Railroad, n.d.", A. Curtis 59932.]
The SLS&E accomplished Seattle to Sumas at the Canada–US border, connecting with the Canadian Pacific transcontinental, late 1880s-1892; with branches of approximately from Seattle through Bothell, Woodinville Junction to Sallal Prairie (North Bend) (about downtown Seattle to the prairie), 1886–1889; from downtown to Salmon Bay and spur to the town of Ballard, 1885; a Winsor branch (through Bothell and up North Creek); and Spokane to Davenport, later middle to late 1880s.
"[A]ll along the line the road's construction caused a tremendous stir ... logging camps, mills, mines, and towns sprang into existence as if by magic." The SLS&E boosted not only the town of Ballard (connected 1886), but new towns like Ross, Fremont, Latona (in what is now east Wallingford, Brooklyn (in what is now west University District), Yesler (now part of Laurelhurst), Bothell (Thanksgiving, 1887) and towns out to Gilman (now Issaquah).
The verso of a print in UW archives noted, August 20, 1894. Wreck on [the] Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern just west of Latone [now Latona Avenue]. Freight train from Gilman [now Issaquah] hit a cow. [Trainload was a] [m]ixer freight train, 10 co[a]l cars, logs and box cars. Train had slowed down at Brooklyn [Avenue] for cows. Engineer saw cows on a bank beyond Latona looking (?) one another[!]. One cow was tossed over [the] bank and hit the track just as [the] engine came by. [The] [e]ngine was raised off the track[,] and when it came down [the] wheels went off the rails. Engineer reversed but [it] was too late. [The] [c]oal tender shot ahead[,] tearing part of car [(the engine cab)] off and decapitating [the] fireman and killing [the] brakeman. Engineer and coal passer [were] unhurt. Steam and dust enveloped the derailed cars. Engineer ran to Fremont to telegraph to stop [the] evening passenger train[;] also [illegible] Engineer claimed train going 20 miles per hr.The streets at that time were rural, more tracks or plat lines than avenues. The run to Fremont Station was more than a mile (about 1.6 km). A small freight depot remains today at the foot of Stone Way N.
The Northern Pacific's View of the Lake Shore
Edwin Harrison McHenry, Receiver, St. Paul, Minnesota, to Edward Dean Adams, Chairman, New York City, April 10, 1896. (Courtesy J.R. Masters, Office Engineer, N.P. Ry., Ret., via Northern Pacific Collection at the Minnesota Historical Society.)
Transmitting report of [John William] Kendrick, General Manager, concerning the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway (the Lake Shore).
You are already familiar with the general subject of the earlier financial transactions of this company. The record is a disgraceful one. Even before the acquisition of stock by the Northern Pacific, the enterprise appears to have been robbed by its promoters.
It was originally intended to complete the line across the Cascade Mountains to a connection with the Spokane Branch, but the amount realized from the sale of bonds being insufficient to defray the expensive construction work of the mountain section the line was not completed The cost of the portion constructed was considerably above the expected amount, and in order to raise more money, the company bonded a number of spurs and sidings.
Under ordinary circumstances it would have been expected that after the consummation of the sale of stock to the Northern Pacific, that the road would have been operated in the interests of the purchaser, but control was not secured until the Northern Pacific had paid for 80 [percent] of the stock, and in the interval the officials and others interest in the Lake Shore apparently devoted their time and attention to looting the property. The sale to our company was rushed through in a very peculiar manner, and without proper examination by the Traffic and Engineering departments of the Northern Pacific.
The specifications for the construction of the uncompleted portion of the line were accepted by our ex-General Counsel Mr. McNaught, and our Chief Engineer Mr. Kendrick was not allowed an opportunity to examine and comment on same. The specifications were so drawn as to comply with the kind of road which it was expected to build, and allowed but two miles of sidings in of main line, and made entirely inadequate provision for operating facilities. The worst feature, however, was the clause which provided that the track would be ballasted with adjacent material, instead of train-hauled gravel ballast. The soil is particularly wet, and a large portion of the line traverses muskeg swamps; this omission would be better understood by a physical examination of the line than words can convey. The natural surface was so bad that the construction company [was] forced to haul in ballast in order to get construction trains over the track.
After the Northern Pacific assumed control, it became necessary to incur great expenditures in providing additional sidings, spurs and other facilities for the ordinary transaction of business, and to perform additional ballasting.
The townsites along the line are held by the Virginia Townsite Company, under some deal engineer by the ex-general counsel, who subsequently unloaded same to the Northern Pacific. So valuable was the real estate supposed to be, that no extra width of right-of-way was provided at stations north of Sedro-Woolley, Washington.
A contract was also entered into for the benefit of the townsite interest at Anacortes, whereby the Northern Pacific agreed to operate the Seattle and Northern [a subsidiary of] the Oregon Improvement Company, paying [three percent] upon the appraised valuation, and a wheelage portion of expenses, in addition to a further sum of $80,000, expended in purchasing and interest in Syndicate Addition, and in the construction of improvements costing $35,000, entirely disconnected with the property of the Northern Pacific or the Lake Shore. The operation was shortly discontinued by the general manager on account of the heavy loss incurred, but the rental charges still continue to this day.
Valuable real estate at Seattle and at Snoqualmie Falls, which was formerly supposed to be property of the railroad, was claimed by private parties, and ownership of the Gilman coal mines at Issaquah, Washington, which were currently reported to have been paid for by the railroad, are in possession of outside interests.
Before the purchase by the Northern Pacific of the stock, the Lake Shore, finding it impossible to provide adequate terminal facilities at Spokane from the proceeds of [their] main line bonds, organized a company under the title of the Spokane Union Depot Company, to which the Washington and Idaho Railroad (a branch of the Union Pacific System), were admitted to half ownership. Bonds were issued amounting to a little over $400,000. The stock issue of $500,000 was divided equally between the two companies. The Lake Shore was reimbursed for the work on that portion of their main line within the limits of the depot grounds from the proceeds of the depot bonds, but to the best of my knowledge and belief, the railway bonds were never cancelled. This property I have nominally estimated at $600,000 ... but its real value is probably at least $1,000,000. It is used by the Oregon Railway and Navigation [Union Pacific] and the Great Northern systems, and these companies would have to expend at least $1,000,000 to provide equivalent facilities of less actual value. I have made repeated efforts for several years past to have this matter investigated, but owing to the circumstances have thus far been unsuccessful. If this depot stock does not come under the line of the Lake Shore bonds, it could doubtless be attached to satisfy some claims of the Northern Pacific against the Lake Shore.
The Spokane Branch is of little value, apart from the rails, which may be taken up and used elsewhere, with the exception of about two miles of line connecting with the Union Depot property, over which the Great Northern Railway now secures an entrance into Spokane from the west, and for the use of which they pay the heavy annual rental of $72,000.
On the Western Division, that portion of the line from Woodinville Junction to the terminus [at] Sallal near North Bend, Washington, is of little present value, but its earnings power will constantly increase. The remainder, which includes the section between Seattle and Woodinville Junction, and [Woodinville Junction] and the International boundary line at Sumas, Washington, I consider as very valuable property. Its present earnings afford no index to its prospective earnings in the future, and if it is not secured by our company at this time, the omission will be bitterly regretted.
The development of the region is necessarily slow, but I think it is also certain. There is every reason for expecting a steady and progressive increase in earnings for an indefinite period in the future. I am not in entire accord with the general manager's statement that the business secured from this branch may be replaced from points on our own lines. Contrary to the belief, the supplies of cedar in western Washington are comparatively limited, and the greatest reserves of this timber are along the line of the Lake Shore. I think it but a matter of a few years when the cedar will be exhausted on our other lines.
There is also reason to believe that the rate on shingles can be materially advanced without affecting the tonnage, as the present low price of the shingles is brought about wholly by local competition. It was not possible, however, to obtain a higher rate, except by concurrence of the Great Northern, which could not heretofore be obtained, on account of James Jerome Hill persistent effort to reduce the gross and net earnings of our system in order to facilitate his plans.
I understand the reorganization of the Lake Shore has been affected upon favorable terms, but have never had an opportunity to see the plan. I would every strongly recommend the purchase or least of the western divisions of the system, if favorable terms may be obtained. I would also advise the purchase of the Spokane Branch, if the property could be acquired upon satisfactory terms, which in my opinion would be based upon the value of that portion of the line within the city limits over which the Great Northern now gains access, including any liens the bonds may constitute upon the depot property, and the salvage value of the rails upon the remaining portion of the branch.
I further add, for your information, that I do not think the bondholders of the Lake Shore appreciate the fact that the bonds covering that portion of the line sold to the [Spokane Union] Depot Company were not cancelled, but I may be in error regarding this.
McNaught, James.
Counsel for Receivers.
Office: Postal Telegraph Building, New York, New York.
Born: September 9, 1842, at Lexington, McLane County, Illinois.
Education: Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Illinois.
Entered railway service: 1871 as director and counsel Columbia and Puget Sound; since which he has been consecutively 1879 to 1887, division counsel Northern Pacific, jurisdiction extending over Washington and Idaho, with headquarters at Seattle, Washington; 1887 to 1889, general solicitor, headquarters St. Paul, Minnesota; 1889 to October, 1893, general counsel same road; October, 1893, to May, 1895, counsel for receivers, same road.
Busbey, T. Addison, editor. The Biographical Directory of the Railway Officials of America, Edition of 1896. Chicago [Ill.]: Railway Age and Northwestern Railroader, 1896, p. 304.
McHenry, Edwin Harrison (January 25, 1859-August 21, 1931).
Fourth Vice-President New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad and First Vice-President Consolidated Railway, Hartford, Connecticut.
Born: January 25, 1859, at Cincinnati, Ohio.
Educated: Pennsylvania Military College at Chester, Pennsylvania.
Entered railway service: 1883 as rodman on Black Hills Branch, Northern Pacific, since which he has been consecutively rodman, chainman, draftsman, leveler, transitman, assistant engineer, division engineer, principal assistant engineer, and November 1, 1893, to January 1, 1896, chief engineer; October, 1895, to October, 1896, also receiver same road; September 1, 1896, to September 1, 1901, chief engineer reorganized road, the Northern Pacific, in charge of location, construction and maintenance; 1901 and 1902, visited China, Japan and Philippine Islands; June 1, 1902, to May 10, 1904, chief engineer, Canadian Pacific; October 1, 1904, to date, first vice-president, Consolidated Railway, in charge of construction, operation and maintenance of the trolley lines owned by the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and also fourth vice-president, New York, New Haven and Hartford, in charge of Electrical Department covering electrical construction and maintenance of lines operated by electricity.
Busbey, T. Addison, editor. The Biographical Directory of the Railway Officials of America, Edition of 1906. Chicago [Ill.]: Railway Age, 1906, pp. 381-82.
Reorganization as the Northern Pacific's Seattle & International
Reorganized as the Seattle & International Railway in 1896 (incorporated June 30, 1896), the line leased the portion of the locally-legendary Everett and Monte Cristo Railway that ran from Everett east to Snohomish. A spur, Ballard Junction to Ballard is mentioned. The Northern Pacific acquired control February, 1898, succeeded the Seattle & International in 1901. The Northern Pacific operated the SLS&E from 15 March 1892 to 1 July 1893, when it was purchased by a reorganized SLS&E as the Seattle & International Railroad and Spokane & Seattle Railroad, Seattle & International Railway chartered 30 June 1898.
The SLS&E was placed in receivership on June 26, 1893, and was sold in foreclosure on May 16, 1896. Speidel reported that Villard abruptly made a hostile takeover while the SLS&E was a going concern in 1890, in the midst of maneuvering among railroad business magnate Henry Villard of the Northern Pacific, James J. Hill of what became the Great Northern Railway, and the Seattle Establishment (1873–1900 and later). Seattle DOT (Department of Transportation) reports the SLS&E was absorbed by the NP in 1892. The lines in western Washington became the Seattle & International Railway Co., which was taken over by the Northern Pacific in 1901.
Building the SLS&E in Eastern Washington
The SLS&E was planned to be a larger railroad than it ultimately became. Construction was in two parts, with the eastern Washington section started in Spokane and headed west, begun in the late 1880s by largely the same group of investors incorporating the Seattle & Eastern Construction Company.
An old map shows the proposed line going from Davenport to Coulee City, up the Grand Coulee to Waterville, then on to Wenatchee, then along the Wenatchee River, and up over part of Stevens Pass then over toward Everett. With what is known today about Cascade Range topography that was little-known or unknown back then, how much was promotion and how much was actually expected according to the insiders' business plan remains part of the intrigue of railroad history.
The steam locomotive "A. M. Cannon." SLS&E number 11, was named after a prominent Spokane resident. Cannon was very instrumental in the building of the SLS&E in the Spokane area.
It has been reported that the Great Northern (GN) used the SLS&E bridge over the Spokane River while the GN was building its own during its transcontinental construction in 1893.
The eastern Washington line became the Spokane & Seattle Railway, which was purchased by the NP in two parts. The first—Medical Lake to Davenport—was purchased in 1899. The remainder, between Medical Lake and Spokane, was bought in 1900.
Recent history
The western Washington lines remained in fairly heavy use until 1963. By 1970, most of the line was acquired by Burlington Northern Railway which filed to abandon the lines a year later in 1971. Seven years later, in 1978, the between Gas Works Park in Seattle and Tracy Owen Station in Kenmore was reopened as the Burke-Gilman Trail bike path and recreational rail trail, named after the leaders of the group that founded the railroad, Thomas Burke and Daniel Gilman. The bike path and rail trail has been extended along the SLS&E line west through Interbay, and extending east from Jerry Wilmot Park, South Woodinville, the King County Regional Trail system
leads to the cross-state John Wayne Pioneer Trail. A section of the railway, between Snoqualmie Falls and North Bend, was preserved in 1975, and is now owned and operated by the Northwest Railway Museum.
In eastern Washington, the Northern Pacific abandoned the section between Spokane and Medical Lake right after purchase, preferring to use their own branch from Spokane, the Central Washington Branch (CW Branch). The section from Medical Lake to Davenport was operated for a time before the line was trimmed back to include only an spur out of Davenport to Eleanor. The Washington Water Power Company purchased the right-of-way between Spokane and Medical Lake from the Northern Pacific on or about 2 March 1904, for use as an interurban passenger railway. It remained in use as an interurban until early 1922, before the rails were torn up again. The only remaining eastern Washington section by 1970 was the spur out of Davenport that ran to Eleanor, abandoned in 1983. As of May 2019 the only remaining section is the Wye going south of Davenport; it is now used to turn locomotives around and storage for the Washington Eastern Railroad.
The right-of-way has long since reverted to adjacent landowners and has been used for other purposes, having been abandoned 1922–1983. If these lines had been operated in a more urban setting, and in more recent times, they might have been converted to use today as a trail. But at the time this line was abandoned, the rails to trails movement had not begun. By today much of the lines in the open country of Eastern Washington have gone the way of the "disappearing railroad blues." Some sections can still be seen, but otherwise much of it has become roadways or disappeared into history.
See also
Burke-Gilman Trail
Iron Horse State Park
Dr. Thomas T. Minor
Eastside Rail Corridor
Woodinville Subdivision
References
Bibliography
in "Museum Description". See Bibliography for "References" cited in "Collection". "References" Snoqualmie Valley Community Plan, City of Snoqualmie Comprehensive Plan, Mountains to Sound Greenway Vision, Recreation in a Rural Economy; Washington State Parks.
Negative Number: A. Curtis 59932 Text on verso of image, silver gelation print. Repository Collection: Asahel Curtis Photo Co. Collection. PH Coll 482.
Handwritten on mount: "Lake Shore & Eastern R.R. opening." Magic lantern slide, scanned to TIFF image, manipulated to JPEG quality measurement 3. Repository: Museum of History & Industry, Seattle (MOHAI), image number 2002.3.936 (2.1) Identical image to Negative Number: A. Curtis 59932 (of silver gelatin print). (3) SLS&E opened c. 1887, bought out c. 1894. Copyrights expired on both: First published in the U.S. before 1923.
North Central Regional Library 385.097 ARMBRUS
2d edition of vol. I of III
Seattle Public Library and King County Library System each have several reference-only copies. This has been reported to be a source, but the book has not yet been located for page numbers and verification by a Wikipedia editor.
Downin, Dave, curator
MacIntosh & Crowley referenced Carlos Schwantes, Railroad Signatures Across the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1993), pp. 50, 52–53, 132–136, 226; Clarence Bagley, History of King County Washington (Chicago-Seattle: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1929), pp. 243, 245; Robert C. Nesbit, He Built Seattle: A Biography of Judge Thomas Burke (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1961), pp. 35, 236; Reginald H. Thomson, That Man Thomson (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1950), pp. 49–56. Well-written, nuanced article.
MacIntosh referenced Clarence Bagley, History of Seattle, (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1916), pp. 248–252 [Bagley is "known for enhancing local history" {article}]; Schwantes, Carlos, Railroad Signatures Across the Pacific Northwest, (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1993); Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893, (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1987), pp. 581–582.
Martin, Dale Jr. (updated 25 April 2006). "Issaquah Railway History Chronology", "Issaquah Depot Museum". Issaquah Historical Society. Retrieved 21 April 2006. The list referenced Renz, Louis Tuck (1980). The History of the Northern Pacific Railroad. Fairfield, Washington: Ye Galleon Press. ; as well as Burlington Northern Railroad, The Seattle Times, and author notes.
Refers to: "P1901 PMRL2 See Poor's 1896P334"; "For History see Poor's 1894"; "JUNE 1893 RAILWAY GUIDE Seattle, Washington".
Refers to: "Poor's 1899P653"; "P1901 PMRL2"
North Central Regional Library 385.0657 RENZ
Seattle Public Library REF 385.0979 ROBERTS
Seattle Public Library 979.7 R838R, R979.7 R838R Brooks Library, Central Washington University, Ellensburg; Book, Special Coll fourth Floor - "F891 R92", Microfiche third Floor - "MH-351".
Seattle Post-Intelligencer newspaper, 1885–1896.
Speidel includes an extensive bibliography with a substantial proportion primary sources.
Quoted text is from the verso of the original paper print, verbatim but for grammar in square brackets. Copyright expired: First published in the U.S. before 1923.
Further reading
Defunct Washington (state) railroads
History of Seattle
Predecessors of the Northern Pacific Railway
Railway companies established in 1885
Railway companies disestablished in 1896
1885 establishments in Washington Territory
1896 disestablishments in Washington (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicide%3A%20Life%20on%20the%20Street
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Homicide: Life on the Street
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Homicide: Life on the Street is an American police drama television series chronicling the work of a fictional version of the Baltimore Police Department's Homicide Unit. It ran for seven seasons (122 episodes) on NBC from January 31, 1993, to May 21, 1999, and was succeeded by Homicide: The Movie (2000), which served as the series finale. The series was created by Paul Attanasio and based on David Simon's book Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (1991). Many of the characters and stories used throughout the show were based on events depicted in the book.
While Homicide featured an ensemble cast, Andre Braugher emerged as a breakout star through his portrayal of Detective Frank Pembleton. The show won Television Critics Association Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Drama in 1996, 1997, and 1998. It also became the first drama ever to win three Peabody Awards for drama, those being in 1993, 1995, and 1997. It received recognition from the Primetime Emmy Awards, Satellite Awards, Image Awards, Viewers for Quality Television, GLAAD Media Awards and Young Artist Awards. In 1997, the fifth-season episode "Prison Riot" was ranked No. 32 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.
In 2007, it was listed as one of TIME magazine's "Best TV Shows of All-TIME." In 1996, TV Guide named the series 'The Best Show You're Not Watching'. The show placed #46 on Entertainment Weekly "New TV Classics" list. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it #55 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
Characters
Overview
Homicide: Life on the Street was adapted from Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, a non-fiction book by Baltimore Sun reporter David Simon, based on his experience following a Baltimore Police Department homicide unit in 1988. Simon, who became a consultant and producer with the series, said he was particularly interested in the debunking of the American detective. While detectives are typically portrayed as noble characters who care deeply about their victims, Simon believed real detectives regarded violence as a normal aspect of their jobs.
Simon sent the book to film director and Baltimore native Barry Levinson with the hopes that it would be adapted into a film, but Levinson thought it would be more appropriate material for television because the stories and characters could be developed over a longer period of time. Levinson believed that a television adaptation would bring a fresh and original edge to the police drama genre because the book exploded many of the myths of the police drama genre by highlighting that cops did not always get along with each other and that criminals occasionally got away with their crimes.
Levinson approached screenwriter Paul Attanasio with the material, and Homicide became Attanasio's first foray into television writing. All episodes of Homicide display the credit, "Created by Paul Attanasio" at the end of their opening sequence, a credit which both Eric Overmyer and James Yoshimura dispute on the DVD audio commentary to the season 5 episode, "The Documentary", claiming instead the show was created by Tom Fontana and Yoshimura. The series title was originally Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, but NBC changed it so that viewers would not believe it was limited to a single year; the network also believed the use of the term "life" would be more reaffirming than the term "killing streets". Levinson was indifferent to the change, asserting that viewers would probably casually refer to the series as "Homicide" in either case. The opening theme music was composed by Baltimore native Lynn F. Kowal, a graduate of the Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
Homicide'''s purpose was to provide its viewers with a no-nonsense, police procedural-type glimpse into the lives of a squad of inner-city detectives. As opposed to many television shows and movies involving cops, Homicide initially opted for a bleak sort of realism in its depiction of "The Job", portraying it as repetitive, spiritually draining, an existential threat to one's psyche, often glamour- and glory-free—but, nonetheless, a social necessity. In its attempt to do so, Homicide developed a trademark feel and look that distinguished itself from its contemporaries. For example, the series was filmed with hand-held 16 mm cameras almost entirely on-location in Baltimore (making the idiosyncratic city something of a character itself). It also regularly used music montages, jump cut editing, and the three-times-in-a-row repetition of the same camera shot during particularly crucial moments in the story. The episodes were also noted for interweaving as many as three or four storylines in a single episode. NBC executives often asked the writers to focus on a single homicide case rather than multiple ones, but the show producers tended to resist this advice.
Despite premiering in the coveted post-Super Bowl time slot, the show opened to lackluster ratings, and cancellation was an immediate threat. However, the show's winning of two Emmy Awards (for Levinson's direction of "Gone for Goode" and Fontana's writing of "Three Men and Adena") and the success of another police drama—the more sensational NYPD Blue—helped convince NBC to give it another chance beyond the truncated, nine-episode-long first season. Homicide consistently ranked behind ABC's 20/20 and CBS's Nash Bridges in the Nielsen ratings. Despite the poor ratings, reviews were consistently strong from the beginning of the series. Commentators were especially impressed with the high number of strong, complex, well-developed and non-stereotypical African American characters like Pembleton, Lewis and Giardello.
The police department scenes were shot at the historic City Recreation Pier in the Fells Point neighborhood in Baltimore. Although NBC occasionally pressured the show's producers to write happy endings to the homicide cases, the network gave an unusual amount of freedom for the writers to create darker stories and non-traditional detective story elements, like unsolved cases where criminals escape. Nevertheless, in its attempt to improve Homicides ratings, NBC often insisted on changes, both cosmetic and thematic. For example, by the beginning of the third season, talented but unphotogenic veteran actor Jon Polito had been ordered dropped from the cast.
Considered by critics to be one of television's most authentic police dramas, as well as an excellent dramatic series propelled by a talented ensemble cast, Homicide garnered three straight TCA (Television Critics Association) Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Drama from 1996 to 1998 and was the first drama ever to win three of the prestigious Peabody Awards for best drama (1993, 1995, 1997).
The show was originally a production of Baltimore Pictures in association with Thames Television's subsidiary studio Reeves Entertainment, an American studio. In between the first and second season, Reeves had closed due to Pearson plc's acquisition of their parent company Thames, and the latter's requirement of either spinning off the studio or transferring their existing properties still in production which included Home in late 1993. After the four-episode second season had aired, NBC negotiated with Thames and MCEG Sterling Entertainment, who oversaw and held interest on the Homicide property on behalf of Thames, on the show's renewal for an order for a third season alongside taking over co-ownership, co-production duties, and copyright, though Pearson (whose television division and library is now owned by Fremantle) continued to hold international distribution rights outside of North America.
The reality of Homicides low Nielsen ratings hovered over all things, however, and always left the show in a precarious position; it also had a harder time gaining a large audience because fewer viewers are at home watching TV on Friday nights. Despite this, the network managed to keep what TV Guide referred to as "The Best Show You're Not Watching" on the air for five full seasons and seven seasons in all. In July 1997, NBC gave the series producers an ultimatum to make Homicide more popular than Nash Bridges or face cancellation. When this goal was not reached, the studio gave serious consideration to canceling the show, but a number of shocks at NBC increased Homicide's value. Among those factors were the loss of the popular series Seinfeld and the $850 million deal needed to keep ER from leaving the network.
Homicide was at one time syndicated on Lifetime and Court TV as well as the all-crime television cable station Sleuth, and aired on WGN America. Episodes of Homicide have aired on TNT as part of several crossovers the series had with Law & Order, which TNT owns broadcast rights for; in these cases both crossover episodes aired back to back. It was recently televised on the Centric channel.
All seven seasons are available on DVD. One DVD set combines the first two seasons. Additional sets contain the complete third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons. A boxed set shaped like a filing cabinet features an additional disc containing the Homicide TV movie and the relevant Law & Order crossover episodes – those without this disc had to rely on Law & Order recap clips on the season DVDs. Significantly, the DVDs contain the episodes in the producers' intended order, not the order in which NBC aired them.
The show has spawned changes in the real life Baltimore homicide unit. As seen in the show, the unit originally used a dry-erase board in order to visually track detectives' progress at solving crimes. After the show began to air, the Baltimore Police Department discontinued the practice, believing the board, which concentrated on "clearance rates" for crimes, had a negative impact on publicity. It was brought back later at the insistence of the detectives.
Broadcast history
Plot
Seasons 1 and 2
The first season saw the introductions of Detectives Frank Pembleton (Andre Braugher), Stan Bolander (Ned Beatty), Kay Howard (Melissa Leo), Meldrick Lewis (Clark Johnson), John Munch (Richard Belzer), Tim Bayliss (Kyle Secor), Beau Felton (Daniel Baldwin) and Steve Crosetti (Jon Polito), as well as the Commander, Lieutenant Al Giardello (Yaphet Kotto).
Season 3
The third season saw the first changes in the character lineup; when Detective Steve Crosetti (Jon Polito) was not seen in any episodes, his body was found in a death by suicide in the sixth episode of the season. Isabella Hofmann joined the cast as Lieutenant Megan Russert, the commander of the other Homicide shift, it also dealt with her promotion to captain, and saw the last appearances of Felton and Bolander (Daniel Baldwin, Ned Beatty).
Seasons 4 and 5
The fourth season saw the departure of Daniel Baldwin and Ned Beatty, who played Beau Felton and Stan Bolander respectively. In the story, the two detectives had recently been given a 22-week suspension, as related in the opening scene of the season's first episode. Bolander went on to retirement, and Felton, recruited for deep undercover work, was killed (off-screen) in the line of duty during the fifth season. The characters returned in the movie.
This season also sees Mike Kellerman (Reed Diamond) join the cast. Isabella Hofmann (newly demoted, Detective Megan Russert) left at the end of Season 4, but returned in the Season 5 finale, in which she, Kay Howard (Melissa Leo) and J.H. Brodie (Max Perlich) made their last appearances.
Season 5 also saw the addition of Chief Medical Examiner Julianna Cox (Michelle Forbes) and Detective Terri Stivers (Toni Lewis).
Season 6
The sixth season was the first not to feature Leo as Sergeant Kay Howard, and the last to feature Braugher as Detective Frank Pembleton and Forbes as Chief Medical Examiner Julianna Cox. Jon Seda, Callie Thorne and Peter Gerety joined the cast as Detectives Paul Falsone, Laura Ballard and Stuart Gharty. J.H. Brodie (Max Perlich) is no longer present, nor is Detective Meg Russert (Isabella Hofmann).
Season 7
Following the events of the sixth-season finale, Detective Frank Pembleton (Braugher) and Detective Mike Kellerman (Diamond) are no longer regulars; neither is Chief Medical Examiner Julianna Cox (Forbes), who left mid-season. Braugher and Forbes did not return until the movie, while Diamond made a two-episode guest appearance. Michael Michele stars in this season as Det. Rene Sheppard and Giancarlo Esposito is cast as Giardello's son Mike, who is assigned to Homicide as an FBI Liaison.
Homicide: The Movie
In 2000, following the conclusion of the series, a TV film titled Homicide: The Movie was shown on NBC. The squad's former Lieutenant, Al Giardello, was running for mayor on a controversial pro-drug-legalization platform, and is close to victory when he is gunned down. The assassination attempt inspires the return of the entire unit, past and present, in an effort to apprehend the gunman.
Crossovers
Homicide: Life on the Street executive producer Tom Fontana and Law & Order creator Dick Wolf became close friends in the 1980s while working as writers in the same building, at the same time, on the series St. Elsewhere (Fontana) and Hill Street Blues (Wolf).
In the 1990s, the two friends decided to do a small crossover between their (then) current shows, with Law & Order NYPD Detective Mike Logan (Chris Noth) delivering a fugitive to Homicide: Life on the Streets BPD Detective Frank Pembleton during the prologue of the season 3 episode "Law & Disorder".
The concept proved popular with fans and with both Fontana and Wolf. As of the 2015–2016 television season, this first crossover by Wolf has been followed by 15 other crossover stories in his numerous Law & Order and Chicago franchises. Fontana expanded the Homicide: Life on the Street crossovers to include characters from St. Elsewhere, years after that series had ended its run. Wolf would adopt the same post-cancellation crossover concept when Homicide: Life on the Street characters Meldrick Lewis and Billie Lou Hatfield (Ellen McElduff) appeared, 14 years after their series ended, at John Munch's retirement party from the NYPD on the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Wonderland Story".
Other cast members
Recurring cast members
Homicide featured a number of recurring characters, who starred alongside the ensemble. Wendy Hughes (Carol Blythe), Ami Brabson (Mary Pembleton) and Željko Ivanek (Ed Danvers) are the most notable, with the first appearing in Season 1, and the other two appearing in Seasons 1–6 and Seasons 1–7 respectively. Clayton LeBouef played Captain and later Colonel George Barnfather throughout the run. Ralph Tabakin played Dr. Scheiner in all seven seasons. The recurring cast also included: Gerald F. Gough as Col. Burt Granger (seasons 1–3); Lee Tergesen as Officer Chris Thormann (seasons 1, 3 and 5); Sean Whitesell as Dr. Eli Devilbiss (seasons 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7); Michael Willis as Darin Russom (seasons 1–7); Sharon Ziman as Naomi (seasons 1–7); Judy Thornton as Judy (seasons 2–7); Herb Levinson as Dr. Lausanne (seasons 2–7); Gary D'Addario as Lt. Jasper (seasons 3–7); Walt MacPherson as Capt. Roger Gaffney (seasons 3–7); Harlee McBride as Alyssa Dyer (seasons 3–7); Rhonda Overby as Reporter Dawn Daniels (seasons 3–7); Kristin Rohde as Officer Sally Rogers (seasons 3–7); Mary B. Ward as Beth Felton (season 3); Christopher Meloni as bounty hunter Dennis Knoll (season 7); Erik Dellums as Luther Mahoney (seasons 4 and 5); Mekhi Phifer as Junior Bunk (seasons 5 and 6); Hazelle Goodman as Georgia Rae Mahoney (season 6); Ellen McElduff as Billie Lou Hatfield (seasons 5–7); Austin Pendleton as Dr. George Griscom (season 7), and Jason Stanford as Joe Ryblack (seasons 6 and 7). Joey Perillo as Bernard Munch (Seasons 3 and 6).
Notable guest appearances
A number of well-known actors and celebrities appeared on the show, including Steve Allen, Lewis Black, Wilford Brimley, Steve Burns, Steve Buscemi, Bruce Campbell, Joan Chen, Vincent D'Onofrio, Jeffrey Donovan, Tate Donovan, Charles Durning, Charles S. Dutton, Richard Edson, Kathryn Erbe, Edie Falco, Peter Gallagher, Paul Giamatti, John Glover, Moses Gunn, Luis Guzmán, Jake Gyllenhaal, Marcia Gay Harden, Neil Patrick Harris, Pat Hingle, James Earl Jones, Terry Kinney, Bruno Kirby, Tony LoBianco, Julianna Margulies, Jena Malone, Anne Meara, Christopher Meloni, David Morse, Terry O'Quinn, Joe Perry, Chris Rock, J. K. Simmons, Fisher Stevens, Jerry Stiller (in a different season from wife Anne Meara), Eric Stoltz, Tony Todd, Lily Tomlin, Kate Walsh, Isaiah Washington, John Waters, Robin Williams, Dean Winters, Elijah Wood, and Alfre Woodard. Jason Priestley joined the cast in the climactic television movie, during which his character referred to Pembleton and Bayliss as "legends". Typically, well-known actors making guest appearances on Homicide were cast in fully developed roles central to the episode in which they appeared. Robin Williams's portrayal of a grieving widower and father in the second-season, "Bop Gun", is a notable example, as is Steve Buscemi's role as a suspected gunman in the third-season "End Game."
Some celebrities made cameo appearances that were more lighthearted in style. Director (and Baltimore native) John Waters—who called the show "the grittiest, best-acted, coolest-looking show on TV"—appeared twice, once as a nameless bartender listening to a disconsolate Detective Bolander, and another time as a talkative prisoner transferred from New York to Baltimore by Det. Mike Logan (played by Chris Noth). Waters and Noth received "special thanks" in the episode's closing credits. Out traveling on his motorcycle, Jay Leno stopped in at the Waterfront to have a soft drink, quickly departing after finding his bartenders strangely silent. In one particularly self-referential episode, journalist Tim Russert appeared as himself, bickering about birthday presents with his "cousin", Lieutenant Megan Russert. Film director Barry Levinson, who also executive produced Homicide, acted as himself directing an episode for a show-within-a-show called Homicide in the episode, "The Documentary".
Psychobilly legend The Reverend Horton Heat made a brief appearance as Preacher Lemuel Galvin, a resident at a motel where the killing of a biker is investigated.
The Mayor of Baltimore (Kurt Schmoke) and the Governor of Maryland (Parris Glendening) made brief appearances in the episode about the death of Beau Felton, appearing at the memorial press conference for Felton's death in the line of duty.
Recurring characters of particular note include the Mahoney crime family. Luther Mahoney, played by Erik Dellums, appears in seasons four and five. Mahoney is a crime and drug kingpin who uses others to do his dirty work and masterfully manipulates the law to repeatedly escape conviction and hide his connection to the crimes committed by his underlings. At first, he is depicted as an almost friendly rival, with both Mahoney and the police mutually amused by Mahoney's antics. Gradually, however, the police—particularly Kellerman and Lewis—grow frustrated with Mahoney, until Lewis viciously beats him during an arrest, and Kellerman fatally shoots Mahoney under questionable circumstances.
In the following season, the Mahoney organization is taken over by Luther's sister Georgia Rae, played by Hazelle Goodman, who seeks both legal and illegal revenge against the Baltimore Police Department.
Mekhi Phifer makes several appearances as Junior Bunk, a dim-witted street thug who is initially depicted as someone with the potential to go straight. His crimes grow increasingly violent, however, and in his final appearance he is revealed to be Georgia Rae's son, with the real name "Nathaniel Lee Mahoney". Junior's final appearance takes place after the character has been hardened by jail time, and the once minor criminal deals the homicide department a major blow with a multiple shooting in the police station, killing three uniformed cops and injuring two of the detectives. In retaliation, the police declare all-out war on the Mahoney crime organization. Several cops, including Bayliss, are injured, and several criminals, including Georgia Rae, are killed as the Mahoney empire collapses. Pembleton interrogates Kellerman and figures out that Luther Mahoney had his gun out but wasn't pointing it at Kellerman when he was shot and killed, and demands Kellerman turn in his badge. Kellerman refuses, but later meets with Giardello and accepts a deal: no charges will be brought against him, and Lewis and Stivers will be fully cleared, if he immediately resigns from the job. Kellerman does so, but when Pembleton finds out about the deal, he tells Gee he can't morally continue in the job anymore and resigns as well.
Episodes
Home media
New Video (through A&E Home Video and NBC Home Entertainment) released all seven seasons of Homicide: Life on the Street on DVD in Region 1 between 2003 and 2005. The TV movie Homicide: The Movie was released on DVD in Region 1 by Trimark Pictures on May 22, 2001. A&E Home Entertainment also released a complete series set in collectible 'file cabinet' packaging on November 14, 2006. The complete series was subsequently re-released in regular packaging on October 20, 2009. FremantleMedia Ltd handled distribution rights of all 7 seasons via international.
As of September 7, 2023, the show is not available on any streaming service, nor is it available for purchase or rent from Amazon, iTunes, or Google Play.
On April 5, 2017, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1 and would re-release Homicide: Life on the Street - The Complete Series on DVD on July 4, 2017.
In Australia, Region 4, the releases were the same as the Region 2 release. These were distributed by Roadshow Entertainment. The Complete Series collection was distributed by Shock Entertainment and packaged as the Region 1 releases with Series 1 & 2 and Series 3 through to 7. Via Vision Entertainment obtained the rights to the series and released 'The Complete Series (Special Edition)' boxset in May 2021 in the same format of the shock releases.
Spin-off series
The show inspired the spin-off Homicide: Second Shift'', which was shown exclusively online and did not include the regular cast.
Nielsen ratings
Season 1: #99—8,789,000
Season 2: #24—12,717,000
Season 3: #89—7,822,800
Season 4: #66—8,535,100
Season 5: #68—7,760,000
Season 6: #77—7,546,000
Season 7: #66—10,238,200
Awards and nominations
References
Bibliography
External links
Homicide: Links on the Sites – News links, web sites, merchandise
1990s American mystery television series
1990s American police procedural television series
1990s American crime drama television series
1993 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
Fictional portrayals of the Baltimore Police Department
NBC original programming
Television series by Universal Television
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television shows set in Baltimore
Television shows based on non-fiction books
Television series based on actual events
Television series created by Paul Attanasio
English-language television shows
Works by David Simon
American detective television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec%20literature
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Quebec literature
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This is an article about literature in Quebec.
16th and 17th centuries
During this period, the society of New France was being built with great difficulty. The French merchants contracted to transport colonists did not respect their end of the bargain, and the French and their Indian allies were at war with the Iroquois, allied to the English until 1701, etc. To add to these difficulties, the printing press was officially forbidden in Canada until the British Conquest.
In spite of this, some notable documents were produced in the early days of colonization and were passed down from generation to generation until today. The Voyage of Jacques Cartier, the Muses de la Nouvelle-France of Marc Lescarbot, the Voyages of Samuel de Champlain are memories of the exploration of North America and the foundation of New France.
The Relations des jésuites, Le Grand voyage au pays des Hurons of Gabriel Sagard, the Écrits of Marguerite Bourgeois were written by the many religious founders of New France who had undertaken the task of converting the Sauvages to Christianity.
Many songs and poems were transmitted orally by the early French settlers. A popular French ballad, À la claire fontaine was adapted by the voyageurs and gave us the version that is known today in Quebec.
The first patriotic song of Quebec (then known as le Canada) was written by a soldier, François Mariauchau d'Esgly. Entitled C'est le Général de Flip, it paid tribute to the resistance of the French at Quebec during the siege of General William Phips in 1690.
In France, Canada and New France in general caught the interest of many writers, notably François Rabelais who refers to Cartier and Roberval in Pantagruel.
18th century
Until 1760, the themes of nature, explorations, and the Sauvages continued to mark the imagination of the civilization of New France. The Moeurs des sauvages américains of Joseph-François Lafitau, Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale of Bacqueville de la Potherie and the Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle-France are in continuity with the writings of the preceding century.
The first verified use of the term Canadien to designate the descendants of French settlers in Canada was written in a song composed in 1756 in honour of Governor Vaudreuil after the military victory of Fort Chouaguen. In 1758, Étienne Marchand wrote a famous poem in Le carillon de la Nouvelle-France. This song tells the story of the victorious battle of Fort Carillon.
The first poem written by a Canadien after the cession of Canada to Great Britain is Quand Georges trois pris l'Canada written by an anonymous author in 1763.
The Quebec Gazette newspaper was founded in Quebec City by William Brown on June 21, 1764. The bilingual paper was published in both the French language and the English language and over the years survived to be the oldest newspaper still publishing in North America.
The literary trends of Europe and the rest of America slowly penetrated the cities, primarily Quebec City and Montreal. The writings of the Enlightenment and those produced at the time of the American and French revolutions were dominant in the available literature.
Valentin Jautard and Fleury Mesplet published the first journal of Quebec, the Gazette du commerce et littéraire, in 1778–79. Valentin Jautard, a disciple of Voltaire and sympathizer with the American cause, published many poems under different pseudonyms.
Some notable names of the time are Joseph-Octave Plessis, Ross Cuthbert, Joseph Quesnel and Pierre de Sales Laterrière.
In France, Voltaire wrote L'Ingénu, the tale of a Huron who visits France and also Chateaubriand, a French noble exiled in America, wrote Atala and René.
19th century
The 19th century marks the beginning of the first real literary works published by Quebecers, including Michel Bibaud, Pierre Boucher de Boucherville, François Réal Angers, Philippe-Ignace François Aubert de Gaspé, Amédée Papineau, Joseph Doutre, François-Xavier Garneau, Pierre Jean Olivier Chauveau, Louis-Antoine Dessaulles, H.-Émile Chevalier.
By the 1860s, Quebec authors were able to acquire a certain autonomy, as it became easier to publish a book and mass-produce it.
Antoine Gérin-Lajoie, Philippe-Joseph Aubert de Gaspé, Louis Fréchette, Arthur Buies, William Kirby, Honoré Beaugrand, Laure Conan, Edith Maude Eaton, William Chapman, Jules-Paul Tardivel, Winnifred Eaton, Pamphile Lemay were some of the key writers in this era.
An anonymous song, Les Raftsmen, became popular at the beginning of this century.
1900-1950
Émile Nelligan, a follower of Symbolism, published his first poems in Montreal at the age of 16 but within five years he was diagnosed with Dementia praecox and confined to a lunatic asylum, after which he did not write any more works. His collected poems were published to great acclaim in 1903, though he may not have been aware of it, remaining institutionalized until his death in 1941. Among his most celebrated poems is Le Vaisseau d'Or. A biographical film about his life, entitled Nelligan, was released in 1991.
Louis Hémon, a native of France who moved to Canada in 1911, wrote the famous rural Quebec romance novel Maria Chapdelaine (1913) while working at a farm in the Lac Saint-Jean region. The title character would go on to become a key figure in Quebec's national identity. Hémon did not live to see the book's widespread publication, as he died after being hit by a train in Chapleau, Ontario. The novel has been widely published in many languages and film adaptations were made in 1934, 1950, 1983 and 2021.
Roman Catholic priest, historian, and Quebec nationalist Lionel Groulx wrote many works including the 1922 novel L'Appel de la race and the 1951 historical study Histoire du Canada français. His conservative ideology of clerico-nationalism would have a major influence on Quebec society into the 1950s.
Claude-Henri Grignon wrote the early modernist novel Un Homme et son péché (1933), which satirized life in rural Quebec, breaking with Quebec's literary conventions of the time. The book has been adapted for the screen on several occasions, most notably the 2002 film Séraphin: Heart of Stone.
Priest and folklorist Félix-Antoine Savard won acclaim and a medal from the for the 1937 novel Menaud, maître draveur, set in the mountains of rural Charlevoix.
Under the pseudonym of 'Ringuet', physician and academic Philippe Panneton published Trente arpents (1938), the famous novel about the transition from agrarian to urban life in Quebec. The book won the 1940 Governor General's Award for fiction, among other prizes. Panneton would later become ambassador to Portugal.
Germaine Guèvremont wrote popular novels in the traditional roman du terroir style, such as 1945's Le Survenant and its 1947 sequel Marie-Didace. Roger Lemelin's classic novel of Quebec domestic life, Les Plouffe, was published in 1948.
In literature, the renovation during the 1930s is above all attached to the work by Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau which will explore the inner reality (Poésies) and the formal limits of writing in general (Œuvres en prose, Journal 1929-1939). In 1937, this writer published Regards et Jeux dans l'espace: this important book of Quebec poetry will have a deep impact on the future of the Quebec poetry, and its literature in general. Several critics and historians of literature consider that the publication of Regards et jeux dans l'espace, in 1937, marks the beginning of modern literature in Quebec. The main writers who will succeed to de Saint-Denys Garneau during the 1940s oscillated between the experience of loneliness and impulsive individual revolt.
In the first half of the 20th century, some writers provoked the ire of the powerful Roman Catholic church in the province. The publication of Jean-Charles Harvey's 1934 novel Les Demi-civilisés was considered scandalous. He was fired from his job as a journalist and the book was banned by authorities. Abstract artist Paul-Émile Borduas, a founding figure of the Automatiste movement, wrote the manifesto Refus Global (1948), advocating the separation of church and state in Quebec, for which he was ostracized by the establishment of the time and dismissed from his teaching position.
Manitoba-born writer Gabrielle Roy's debut novel Bonheur d'occasion (1945), considered a classic of Canadian literature, described the conditions of life in Montreal's working-class Saint-Henri neighbourhood. After being published in English as The Tin Flute (1947), the book would win the 1947 Governor General's Award for fiction and sell more than three-quarters of a million copies in the United States. She won further acclaim for the dark, emotional novel Alexandre Chenevert (1954) and won a third Governor General's Award for Ces enfants de ma vie (1977).
1950-2000
Several important literary figures emerged from the Montreal Jewish community in the mid-20th century. A. M. Klein found great success in 1948 with The Rocking Chair and Other Poems, which won a Governor General's Award for poetry and sold in unexpectedly large numbers. He published his only novel, The Second Scroll, in 1951. Klein would come to be recognized as 'one of Canada's greatest poets and a leading figure in Jewish-Canadian culture'.
Mordecai Richler's fourth novel The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, set like much of his work in the largely Jewish Saint Urbain Street district of Montreal, was published in 1959 to great acclaim. This novel, Joshua Then and Now (1980) and Barney's Version (1997) would all be made into major feature films, while St. Urbain's Horseman (1971) and Solomon Gursky Was Here (1989) were shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. Richler's satirical 1992 book Oh Canada! Oh Quebec! stirred controversy by lampooning Quebec's language laws restricting the use of English, leading to criticism by Quebec nationalists.
The outspoken, flamboyant poet Irving Layton rose to national prominence with 1959's A Red Carpet for the Sun, which won the Governor General's Award. Leonard Cohen published the poetry collections Let Us Compare Mythologies (1956), The Spice-Box of Earth (1961) and Flowers for Hitler (1964) and the novels The Favourite Game (1963) and Beautiful Losers (1966) before going on to achieve international stardom as a musician. Louis Dudek published dozens of volumes of poems including Europe (1954), The Transparent Sea (1956), En Mexico (1958) and Atlantis (1967). He was invested as a member of the Order of Canada in 1984 as 'one of Canada's leading poets'.
Quebec City author Yves Thériault found success with his sixth novel Agaguk (1958), which dealt with cultural conflicts between Inuit and white men. This book sold 300,000 copies and was translated into seven languages. His next novel Ashini (1961) won the Governor General's Award for French Language Fiction.
Author and poet Anne Hébert's first novel Les Chambres de bois was released in 1958 and she would later write such award-winning works as Kamouraska (1970) and Les fous de Bassan (1982), both of which would be adapted into films. Her novels Les enfants du sabbat (1975) and L'enfant chargé des songes (1992) both won the Governor General's Award for fiction, and Poèmes won the award for poetry in 1960.
Marie-Claire Blais published her first novel La Belle Bête at the age of 20 in 1959 and would go on to write over 20 novels as well as plays, poetry and newspaper articles. She won the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction a record four times, for 1968's Manuscrits de Pauline Archange, 1979's Le sourd dans la ville, 1996's Soifs and 2008's Naissance de Rebecca à l’ère des tourments.
Numerous impactful writers were associated with Quebec's Quiet Revolution period beginning in the 1960s. Poet Gaston Miron is considered the most important literary figure of Quebec's nationalist movement. His poetry collection L'homme rapaillé was an instant success upon its publication in 1970 and remains among the most widely read texts in the Quebecois literary canon. Hubert Aquin's first novel Prochain épisode (1965), written while the author was detained in a psychiatric institution, is considered a classic of Canadian literature and was the winning title in the 2003 edition of CBC Radio's Canada Reads competition. Aquin would write five more novels before taking his own life in 1977. Prolific author Victor-Lévy Beaulieu, a fierce opponent of bilingualism in Quebec, wrote many novels beginning with 1968's Mémoires d'outre-tonneau and most notably 1974's award-winning Don Quichotte de la démanche. Pierre Vallières, an intellectual leader of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), wrote the controversial 1968 book Nègres blancs d'Amérique while incarcerated in an American prison, awaiting extradition back to Canada.
Atheist writer Gérard Bessette won acclaim for the 1960 existential tale Le libraire and won Governor General's Awards for L'incubation (1965) and Le cycle (1971).
Physician Jacques Ferron published his first book L'ogre in 1949 and received the 1962 Governor General's Award for French fiction for his novel Contes du pays incertain. In 1977 he was honoured by the Quebec government with the Prix Athanase-David.
In 1964 Jacques Renaud published the violent novella Le Cassé, now considered a classic of Quebec literature. This was among the first works to incorporate the joual French dialect of working-class Montreal. His novel En d'autres paysages (1970) was influenced by magical realism.
Réjean Ducharme's 1966 debut novel L'Avalée des avalés was short-listed for the Prix Goncourt and later won the 2005 French version of Canada Reads. He would win Governor General's Awards for that novel as well as 1973's L'hiver de force, a Beat Generation-influenced tale of bohemian life in Le Plateau-Mont-Royal, and the 1982 play Ha ha!
Michel Tremblay's first professionally produced play Les Belles-sœurs, written in 1965, set off a storm of controversy after its 1968 premiere for its use of joual street language and realistic portrayal of the lives of working-class Quebecois. The play would go on to have a profound effect on Quebec culture, and has been translated into more than thirty languages. A prolific writer, Tremblay would win many further accolades for a diverse body of work including the comedic novel C't'à ton tour, Laura Cadieux (1973), the plays Hosanna (1973), Albertine en cinq temps (1984) and Le Vrai Monde? (1987), and the opera Nelligan (1990) among many others. He received a Governor General's Performing Arts Award, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts, in 1999.
Jacques Godbout won the Governor General's Award for his 1967 novel Salut Galarneau! and his penetrating essays on Quebec society were collected in the books Le Réformiste (1975) and Le Murmure marchand (1984). He won further praise for the novel Une histoire américaine (1986). Godbout has been described as 'one of the most important writers of his generation' and having 'strongly influenced post-1960 Québec intellectual life'.
Poet and novelist Jacques Brault gained recognition for such works as Quand nous serons heureux (1970) and Agonie (1984), which each won Governor General's Awards.
Yves Beauchemin's first novel L'enfirouapé (1974) won the Prix France-Québec and his second novel, Le matou (1981), became the all-time best-selling novel in French Quebec literature. Beauchemin's third novel Juliette Pormerleau (1989) won the prestigious Grand prix Jean Giono.
Roch Carrier gained fame as a writer of contes (a brief form of the short story), most notably 1979's much-beloved children's tale The Hockey Sweater. He was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1991.
Quebec City author Pierre Turgeon first came to prominence with the 1970 novel Sweet Poison. He would go on to win the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction for La Première Personne (1980) and La Radissonie (1992). Turgeon's 1998 novel Jour de feu was released by the famous French publishing house Flammarion.
Montreal writer Fernand Ouellette has won Governor General's Awards in three different categories. He won for French-language non-fiction in 1970 for Les actes retrouvés, for fiction in 1985 for Lucie ou un midi en novembre, and for poetry in 1987 for Les Heures.
Montreal poet Marie Uguay released the collections Signe et rumeur (1976) and L'Outre-vie (1979) during her lifetime, and more works were published after her death at the age of 26 in 1981. A cultural center in the Ville-Émard neighbourhood was named in her honour.
Journalist Nick Auf der Maur served as a Montreal city councillor for two decades and became well-known as a 'man-about-town.' He wrote or co-authored several non-fiction books about Quebec-related topics and a book of his notable Montreal Gazette columns was posthumously released as Nick: A Montreal Life, with an introduction by Mordecai Richler.
Suzanne Jacob created a diverse body of work including essays, installations, novels, performance pieces, plays, poems, and short stories. Jacob received Governor General's Awards for Laura Laur (1983) and La Part de Feu (1997).
Haitian-Canadian author Dany Laferrière's 1985 debut novel Comment faire l'amour avec un nègre sans se fatiguer was adapted into a controversial 1989 film of the same name. Laferrière's novels Le Goût des jeunes filles and Vers le sud were also made into feature films, and he won the Prix Médicis for 2009's L'énigme du retour.
Poet and novelist Élise Turcotte won the Prix Émile-Nelligan award for poetry for La voix de Carla in 1987 and for La terre est ici in 1989. Her 2003 novel La maison étrangère won the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction.
André Brochu was awarded the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction for 1991's La Croix du Nord and won the poetry prize for 2004's Les jours à vif.
Historian Esther Delisle found controversy with 1992's Le traître et le Juif, which was critical of leading Quebec nationalist intellectuals of the 1930s and '40s such as Lionel Groulx.
Innu writer Rita Mestokosho published her first poetry book Eshi Uapataman Nukum in 1995, and Née de la pluie et de la terre was released in 2014.
In addition, New Englanders of French-Canadian descent became important figures in 20th century American literature, notably Jack Kerouac and Grace Metalious.
21st century
Novelist and playwright Andrée A. Michaud won the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction for Le ravissement (2001) and Bondrée (2014). 2007's Mirror Lake garnered her the Prix Ringuet from the Académie des lettres du Québec.
Louis Émond found acclaim with the complex novels Le manuscrit (2002) and Le conte (2005), part of a cycle entitled Le scripte which is set within an abstract fantasy realm.
Marie-Francine Hébert won accolades for works of youth literature including Décroche-moi la lune (2001), Mon rayon de soleil (2002), and Le ciel tombe à côté (2003), which each won prizes at the Mr. Christie's Book Awards.
Dominique Fortier's debut novel Du bon usage des étoiles (2008) was shortlisted for the Governor General's Award for French-language fiction and she would later win the award with Au péril de la mer (2015).
See also
Culture of Quebec
List of Quebec authors
Culture of Canada
List of Canadian writers
Francophone literature
References
Further reading
Lemire, Maurice (1993). La Littérature québécoise en projet, au milieu du XIXe siècle. Éditions Fides.
External links
History of French Canadian literature.
Quebec literature in 600 titles (in French)
Centre québécois de recherche sur l'archive littéraire (in French)
Public domain literature of Quebec in French
Public domain literature of Quebec in English
Culture of Quebec
French-language literature in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ante%20Gotovina
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Ante Gotovina
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Ante Gotovina (born 12 October 1955) is a Croatian retired lieutenant general and former French senior corporal who served in the Croatian War for Independence. He is noted for his primary role in the 1995 Operation Storm. In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) indicted him on war crimes and crimes against humanity charges in connection with that operation and its aftermath. After spending four years in hiding, he was captured in the Canary Islands in December 2005.
On 15 April 2011, Gotovina was found guilty on 8 of the 9 counts of the indictment and sentenced to 24 years of imprisonment. On 16 November 2012, Gotovina's convictions were overturned by an appeals panel at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and he was released from custody.
Early life
Ante Gotovina was born in Tkon on the island of Pašman. His father Milan tried to move with his mother to Italy, but was caught by the Yugoslav border police. His mother was released while his father spent time in prison. When Gotovina was nearly four, his mother was killed saving him from an explosion at a construction site. Subsequently, his father went to work in Zagreb, while Gotovina and his siblings went to live with their maternal grandfather Šime in Pakoštane. Around Easter of 1971, Gotovina and his friend Srećko tried to escape by sailing away. Rough seas caused by a storm forced them back and they soon returned to Pakoštane. Gotovina kept his escape attempt from his family and continued to attend school for electrical engineering in Zadar.
French Foreign Legion
At the age of sixteen, Gotovina left home to become a sailor. In 1973, before turning eighteen, he joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym of Andrija Grabovac and became a member of the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2e REP) after qualifying at the Training School in Pau before joining the elite Commandos de Recherche et d'Action en Profondeur (CRAP) now renamed as Parachute Commando Group (GCP). It was there he met Dominique Erulin, brother of the Colonel Philippe Erulin, who became his friend and partner in future missions. In the next few years, he participated in Foreign Legion operations in Djibouti, the Battle of Kolwezi in Zaire, and missions in the Ivory Coast, becoming Colonel Erulin's driver. After five years of service, he left the Legion with the rank of caporal-chef; he obtained French citizenship in 1979.
Life in France
He subsequently worked for a variety of French private security companies during the 1980s, among them KO International Company, a filial or subsidiary of VHP Security, known as a cover for the Service d'Action Civique (SAC), and was at this time responsible for the security of far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen. In 1981, together with Dominique Erulin, he helped editor Jean-Pierre Mouchard (a close friend of Jean-Marie Le Pen) organize a commando operation to free his press in La Seyne-sur-Mer, occupied by CGT trade-union strikers.
According to French police records, he became involved in criminal activities, which led to arrest warrants being issued for robbery and extortion; it has been reported that he served at least one two-year prison sentence, though this has been denied by his attorneys.
Towards the end of the decade he moved to South America, where he provided training to a number of right-wing paramilitary organizations, notably in Argentina and Guatemala. He met his first wife Ximena Dalel in Colombia, and they had a daughter.
Arrested during a trip to France, he was sentenced in 1986 to five years of prison by Paris' Cour d'assises. He was freed the next year, "in circumstances showing that he was benefiting from very particular protections".
Dominique Erulin disputes the verdict against Gotovina and himself and claims Gotovina's criminal record was manufactured by left-wing factions allied with President François Mitterrand. Gotovina's lawyers submitted a brief to the International War Crimes Tribunal alleging that Gotovina was framed by an alleged criminal police group loyal to François Mitterrand.
Croatian War of Independence
Gotovina returned to Croatia in 1991 at the dawn of Croatian War of Independence and enlisted in the Croatian National Guard (ZNG), the first organized military body of what would become the Croatian Army. He was an efficient commander and had the advantage – shared by relatively few other Croatian soldiers – of combat experience. He fought in western Slavonia: in Novska and Nova Gradiška, attached to the 1st Guards Brigade. He soon caught the attention of his superiors, and when the Croatian Army was established as such in 1992, Gotovina was promoted to colonel. As a colonel he was one of the main organizers of Operation Maslenica, which restored Croatia's territorial continuity in Dalmatia.
By 1994 he had risen to the rank of major-general and, as a general-pukovnik and commanding officer of the Split military district he organized key military operations: the defense of Livno and Tomislavgrad from the troops of Bosnian Serb general Ratko Mladić, and the ten-month war of attrition which broke the Serb defenses in the Plain of Livno, the Dinara Ridge and the Šator mountain. He led the conquest of Glamoč and Bosansko Grahovo (Operation Summer '95), which enabled him to close from the east the encirclement of Knin, the capital of the self-declared (1991–95) Republic of Serbian Krajina. This ensured conditions for the rapid success of Operation Oluja ("Storm") in 4–6 August 1995, during which forces under his command captured Knin.
Gotovina was then immediately put in charge of the combined forces of the Croatian Army (Hrvatska Vojska or HV) and the Croatian Defense Council in Bosnia (Hrvatsko Vijeće Obrane or HVO) in Operation Mistral 2, which defeated the army of the Bosnian Serbs and led the Croatian army, together with the Army of Bosnia-Herzegovina, within 23 kilometres of Banja Luka and was only stopped under American pressure.
Post-war period
In 1996, he became the chief of the Army Inspectorate. In September 2000, he was a signatory to the Twelve Generals' Letter in which the government of Ivica Račan was criticised. Among the other generals, he was forced to retire by president Stjepan Mesić, with an explanation that military officers shouldn't write political letters if not approved by the supreme commander and the president, respectively.
War crimes indictment
Flight and attendant political controversies
In July 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) issued sealed indictments to the Croatian government seeking the arrest of Ante Gotovina and Mladen Markač for war crimes and crimes against humanity allegedly committed between 4 August 1995 and 15 November 1995. Gotovina was indicted together with Markač, a former commander of the special police of Croatia's interior ministry, and Ivan Čermak, assistant defense minister from 1991 to 1993. The three were accused of "aiding and abetting the murders of 324 Krajina Serb civilians and prisoners of war by shooting, burning and/or stabbing" them and "forcibly displacing almost 90,000 Serb civilians". Gotovina was charged with five counts of crimes against humanity (persecutions, deportation, inhumane acts, murder) and four counts of violations of the laws or customs of war (plunder, wanton destruction, murder, cruel treatment). He denied all charges.
For four years, 2001–2005, Gotovina remained at large despite intense pressure from the United States and the European Union for his surrender. Foreign countries sought to hunt down Gotovina, and an Interpol warrant was issued for his arrest. The United States announced a $5 million (€4.2 million) reward for his capture. The British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) was reported in Croatian media in 2004 to have been allowed to import sophisticated monitoring equipment to track down Gotovina. This caused resentment among elements of Croatia's security establishment; as a result, MI6 officers based in Croatia under cover were exposed in the Croatian media, allegedly at the behest of Gotovina's sympathisers in Croatia's counter-intelligence service, the POA (Protuobavještajna agencija). Prior to that, a number of Croatian security officials were sacked, including POA head Franjo Turek, who was replaced by Joško Podbevšek and shortly afterwards by Tomislav Karamarko. The wiretapping operation went ahead after Turek's retirement in March 2004, under his successor at the POA, but failed to locate Gotovina before a deadline set by the Croatian prime minister Ivo Sanader in June 2004. According to a leaked memo from MI6 to the POA, the UK government had called for Turek's arrest, unless he started to cooperate on Gotovina.
Several EU member states, including the UK and the Netherlands, made the surrender of Gotovina a precondition for Croatia's accession to the European Union. This stance was criticised by the Croatian government, which claimed ignorance of Gotovina's whereabouts but that he was probably outside the country and that it was doing all it could to bring him to justice. Accession negotiations with the EU, scheduled to start on 17 March 2005, were postponed pending a resolution of the issue.
In September 2005, ICTY's chief prosecutor Carla Del Ponte claimed she had information that he was hiding in a Franciscan monastery in Croatia or in Bosnian Croat territory. She went to the Vatican to ask for help in locating him, but told The Daily Telegraph that the Vatican Secretary for Relations with States, Archbishop Giovanni Lajolo, had refused to help, telling her that the Vatican was not a state and thus had "no international obligations". Her comments infuriated the Church in Croatia as well as the Vatican, whose spokesman Joaquín Navarro-Valls said the archbishop asked Del Ponte what evidence she had for her claims but which she reportedly did not provide.
Capture and extradition
On 7 December 2005, Gotovina was captured by Spanish police and special forces in the resort of Playa de las Américas on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. He was reported to have been traveling on two fake Croatian passports using the names, Goran Drozdek and Stjepan Seničić. His passport contained border stamps of several countries, including Argentina, Chile, Russia, China, Czech Republic and Tahiti. A sum of money amounting to €12,000 was discovered in his room. He was immediately flown to Madrid, where he was imprisoned in advance of a court hearing to extradite him to the ICTY prison at The Hague. Spanish police were later reported to have been tracking him for several days, apparently following a lead obtained through the wiretapping of his wife Dunja's phone.
The involvement of Croatian authorities was backed up by the Carla's List documentary, a part of which is available on YouTube. Croatian media credited Josip Buljević (subsequently the SOA's director, later president Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović's national security advisor and since January 2016 defence minister) with being in charge of the operation to locate and arrest Gotovina.
On 10 December 2005, Gotovina was flown to The Hague, where he appeared before the ICTY on 12 December. He pleaded not guilty to the seven charges brought against him, for acting individually and/or through a joint criminal enterprise in persecutions, deportation and forced displacement and other inhumane acts for a total of four counts of crimes against humanity; and murder, plunder of property and wanton destruction of settlements in three counts of violations of the laws or customs of war. According to his lawyer, Gotovina has declared that he is "not the man described in each and every count."
Reactions
Many Croats continued to regard Gotovina as a war hero and rejected the assertion that he was guilty of crimes. Major parties in Croatia were reported to be using Gotovina as a means of drumming up political support in the run-up to the 2007 parliamentary election.
During his flight, Gotovina became a prominent icon of Croatian popular culture. Marko Perković and Miroslav Škoro, two popular Croatian musicians, recorded songs with lyrics implicitly praising the general and his flight, and both songs became huge hits, especially among younger fans. In 2006, the two most popular football teams in the country, Dinamo Zagreb and Hajduk Split, played a match, whose proceeds went to help finance the generals' legal fees.
In March 2005, a survey conducted on behalf of the U.S. Embassy in Croatia reported that a majority of those surveyed thought it was not in Croatia's interest to extradite Gotovina. Unofficial polls by television programs also showed strong support, with most callers saying that they would prefer Gotovina remain at large even if it meant not joining the European Union.
In 2001 the Croatian writer Nenad Ivanković wrote a biography of Gotovina, Warrior-Adventurer and General (A Biography). The Croatian filmmaker Dejan Šorak wrote and directed Two Players from the Bench (Dva igrača s klupe), a black comedy released in 2005 whose plot was inspired by the events surrounding the indictments against Gotovina. Jack Baric, an Emmy Award winning Croatian-American filmmaker made Searching for a Storm, a documentary film about Gotovina's case and the war in Croatia. The film had its world premiere in 2009 at the Zagreb Dox Film Festival.
After Gotovina's arrest in Spain, several rallies and protests took place in Croatian cities. On 11 December 2005 (the first Sunday after his arrest), a rally organised by war veterans attracted between 40,000 and 70,000 Croatians in the city of Split to protest the arrest. Several retired generals attended the rally and expressed their support for Gotovina. On the same day, rallies were held in several other cities in Croatia, but with smaller attendance (in Zagreb some 500 people gathered).
Polls taken by the PULS Agency after Gotovina's arrest showed that almost two-thirds of the Croatian public found the accusations baseless.
Trial
At the end of 2006, Gotovina's case was combined with cases of Ivan Čermak and Mladen Markač, as they all relate to Operation Storm. The Trial of Gotovina et al was expected to begin in May 2007 but was postponed indefinitely because of conflicts between lawyers on the defence bench. His lawyers were Luka Misetic, an American attorney of Croatian descent, Greg Kehoe, an American lawyer who advised the prosecution in the Iraqi Special Tribunal case against Saddam Hussein, and Payam Akhavan, former Legal Advisor to the Prosecutor's Office of the ICTY.
After the 2006 death of Slobodan Milošević, Gotovina signed a condolence note to his family (together with Mladen Naletilić Tuta, Ivica Rajić and other Croat and Serb detainees, making the list 34 signatures long), which was published in Belgrade's Politika and Večernje novosti newspapers. Gotovina's attorney stated that he signed because of his Catholic faith, which stresses forgiveness.
The trial began on 11 March 2008, and it concluded in September 2010 with the delivery of closing arguments. Misetic said that he expected a verdict in two to 10 months' time, as had been the case with the tribunal's decisions to date.
First-degree verdict
On 15 April 2011, Gotovina was found guilty on 8 of the 9 counts of the indictment and sentenced to 24 years of imprisonment.
He was convicted of "committing war crimes and crimes against humanity, including murder, deportation, persecution and inhuman acts" and Presiding Judge Alphons Orie cited several witness testimonies in the decision.
In the Gotovina Defence Final Trial Brief, a 315-page document, Gotovina's lawyers rejected the accusation of mass expulsion of Serbian population as well as the accusation of unlawful shelling of civilian areas, saying that the "HV used artillery solely against military objectives in a highly professional operation consistent with well-established military doctrine".
In Zagreb, Croatia's capital, thousands gathered to watch the sentence being given out live on large screens and loudly protested the decision. Croatian prime minister Jadranka Kosor stated the idea of a "joint criminal enterprise" was "unacceptable". War veterans staged a march in the Croatian capital in protest. About 10,000 showed up to the march, chanting slogans against the Kosor-led government and the EU as protesters removed and ripped apart the EU flag from a flagpole at the main square, replacing it with the Croatian flag.
A poll conducted immediately after the verdict showed that 95.4% of Croatians felt the judgment against Gotovina was unjust and that 88% still saw him as a hero. Support for Croatia's entry into the European Union plummeted to 23.8%. In June 2011, Gotovina was ranked the second most creditable person for the creation of an independent Croatian state in a poll conducted by Večernji list.
Appeal verdict
On 16 November 2012, Gotovina was found not guilty by three votes against two by the Appeals Panel of the ICTY, presided over by Theodor Meron. The previous verdict had sentenced him to 24 years in prison while Mladen Markač was sentenced to 18 years. Both of them were accused of being part of the "criminal enterprise" but the Court concluded there was no such conspiracy.
On 15 November, the night before the verdict, candle-lit vigils were held across Croatia, including at Catholic churches. Gotovina and Markač were supported by numerous Croatian veterans, and some marched from Zagreb's Mirogoj cemetery to the Zagreb Cathedral.
Gotovina's acquittal provoked mixed international reactions. Croatian Prime Minister Zoran Milanović reacted positively, as did the Croatian president Ivo Josipović.
Serbian President Tomislav Nikolić reacted negatively, as did Serbian government minister Rasim Ljajić and Prime Minister Ivica Dačić and much of the Serbian media.
The Serbian government froze its relations with the Tribunal. On the other hand, Veselin Šljivančanin congratulated the generals on their release and blamed the political leaders instead.
Reactions in Bosnia and Herzegovina were mixed: positive reactions came from the President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Živko Budimir and Croatian politician Dragan Čović, while the President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik responded negatively.
The case raised significant issues for law of war and it has been described as a precedent. Carla del Ponte, former Chief Prosecutor of ICTY, was described as shocked by the verdict. Ivan Šimonović, former Croatian minister of justice and current UN Assistant Secretary-General for human rights, said that the verdict would have an important role in interpretation of some regulations of international criminal law. Serbian politician Vuk Jeremić, President of the UN General Assembly, criticized the ICTY on Twitter. and in response scheduled a UN GA session to discuss the work of the ad-hoc Tribunals set up by UN.
After release
After the generals' release, the Croatian government dispatched the governmental Bombardier Challenger 600 plane along with the Minister of Defence, Ante Kotromanović, and the Minister of Veterans' Affairs, Predrag Matić, to bring Gotovina and Markač to Croatia. In Zagreb, they were greeted by Prime Minister Zoran Milanović and the Speaker of Parliament Josip Leko. Around 100,000 people heard them speak at the Ban Jelačić Square, after which Cardinal Josip Bozanić held a mass for them at the Zagreb Cathedral. The two generals were then received by the President at the Presidential Palace where Gotovina said that the "Homeland War is now clean, it belongs to our history, it is a basis on which we build our future."
Matić said that Gotovina and Markač are amongst the candidates for a new highest Croatian decoration.
On 19 November 2012, the Belgrade-based tabloid Kurir ran an interview with Gotovina, who urged Serbs displaced after Operation Storm to return to Croatia.
On 23 November 2012, Gotovina became an honorary citizen of Split and the next day he became an honorary citizen of Zadar. On 2 December he was named honorary citizen of Osijek along with Markač.
In November 2012, Serbia's government requested that the ICTY transfer the evidence against both generals to them for their own investigation. In January 2013, Serbia's War Crimes Prosecutor Vladimir Vukčević said that the acquittal was final and a review of the case was impossible.
On 7 January 2014, it was announced that Gotovina had filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Treasury to lift economic sanctions imposed against him, which had been in place for more than a decade, listing Gotovina as a Specially Designated National in 2003, subject to economic sanctions. On 6 February, the Federal Register announced Gotovina's removal from the list.
In 2019, The General, a biographical film about Gotovina's life based on Nenad Ivanković's book Warrior-Adventurer and General (A Biography) was released. It was directed by Antun Vrdoljak and starred Goran Višnjić as Gotovina.
Acknowledgements
City of Zadar Award (2011)
References
Bibliography
Further reading
French translation of Jutarnji list's investigation
External links
Gotovina et al. (IT-06-90) "Operation Storm" at the ICTY
Ante Gotovina: Hague Justice Portal
1955 births
Living people
People from Tkon
People acquitted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
Military personnel of the Croatian War of Independence
Croatian army officers
Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion
Order of Ante Starčević recipients
20th-century Croatian people
21st-century Croatian people
Order of Duke Domagoj recipients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhad
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Mashhad
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Mashhad ( ), also spelled Mashad, was the capital of Persia during the Afsharid dynasty by Nader Afshar and now is the second-most-populous city in Iran, located in the relatively remote north-east of the country about from Tehran. Falling in the Central District of Mashhad County, it serves as the capital of Razavi Khorasan Province and has a population about 3,400,000 (2016 census), which includes the areas of Mashhad Taman and Torqabeh.
At the 2006 census, its population was 2,410,800 in 621,697 households. The following census in 2011 counted 2,766,258 people in 804,391 households. The latest census in 2016 showed a population of 3,001,184 people in 914,146 households.
The city has been governed by different ethnic groups over the course of its history. Mashhad was once a major oasis along the ancient Silk Road connecting with Merv to the east. It enjoyed relative prosperity in the Mongol period. The city is named after the shrine of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam, who was buried in a village in Khorasan which afterward gained the name, meaning the "place of martyrdom". Every year, millions of pilgrims visit the Imam Reza shrine. The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid is also buried within the same shrine.
Mashhad is also known colloquially as the city of Ferdowsi, after the Iranian poet who composed the Shahnameh. The city is the hometown of some of the most significant Iranian literary figures and artists, such as the poet Mehdi Akhavan-Sales, and Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, the traditional Iranian singer and composer. Ferdowsi and Akhavan-Sales are both buried in Tus, an ancient city that is considered to be the main origin of the current city of Mashhad. On 30 October 2009 (the anniversary of Imam Reza's martyrdom), Iran's then-President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad declared Mashhad to be "Iran's spiritual capital".
History
Etymology and early history
Ancient Greek sources mention the passage and residence of Alexander the Great in this land, which was called "Susia" (), in 330 BC. The map of Tabula Peutingeriana, which dates back to the early Roman era, names this city on the west of Merv, Alexandria, instead of Susia. Pliny the Elder, says there is a city in the middle of Parthia, near Arsace and Nisiaea, called "Alexandropolis" after its founder. Many Muslim historians, from the 10th to the 16th century AD, attribute the founding of "Sanaabad" (the old name of the city) to Alexander. Also in the Shia hadith sources, which the narrators connect to the 7th to 9th centuries AD, there are quotations that Imam Ridha and Harun al-Rashid are buried in a city founded by "the righteous servant, the two-horned one", which is an Islamic title commonly attributed to Alexander the Great.
The older name of Mashhad is Sanaabad (سناباد). It was eventually renamed to Mashhad during the Safavid Empire. The name Mashhad comes from Arabic, meaning a martyrium. It is also known as the place where Ali ar-Ridha (Persian, Imam Reza), the eighth Imam of Shia Muslims, died (according to the Shias, was martyred). Reza's shrine was placed there.
The ancient Parthian city of Patigrabanâ, mentioned in the Behistun inscription (520 BC) of the Achaemenid Emperor Darius I, may have been located at the present-day Mashhad.
At the beginning of the 9th century (3rd century AH), Mashhad was a small city called Sanabad, which was situated away from Tus. There was a summer palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba, the governor of Khurasan. In 808, when Harun al-Rashid, Abbasid caliph, was passing through to quell the insurrection of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Transoxania, he became ill and died. He was buried under the palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba. Thus the Dar al-Imarah was known as the Mausoleum of Haruniyyeh. In 818, Ali al-Ridha was martyred by al-Ma'mun and was buried beside the grave of Harun.
Although Mashhad owns the cultural heritage of Tus (including its figures like Nizam al-Mulk, Al-Ghazali, Ahmad Ghazali, Ferdowsi, Asadi Tusi, and Shaykh Tusi), earlier Arab geographers have correctly identified Mashhad and Tus as two separate cities that are now located about from each other.
Mongolian invasion: Ilkhanates
Although some believe that after this event, the city was called Mashhad al-Ridha (the place of martyrdom of al-Ridha), it seems that Mashhad, as a place-name, first appears in al-Maqdisi, i.e., in the last third of the 10th century. About the middle of the 14th century, the traveller Ibn Battuta uses the expression "town of Mashhad al-Rida". Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the name Nuqan, which is still found on coins in the first half of the 14th century under the Il-Khanids, seems to have been gradually replaced by al-Mashhad or Mashhad.
Shias began to make pilgrimages to his grave. By the end of the 9th century, a dome was built above the grave, and many other buildings and bazaars sprang up around it. Over the course of more than a millennium, it has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. In 1161, however, the Seljuks seized the city, but they spared the sacred area their pillaging. Mashad al-Ridha was not considered a "great" city until Mongol raids in 1220, which caused the destruction of many large cities in Khurasan but leaving Mashhad relatively intact in the hands of Mongolian commanders because of the cemetery of Ali Al-Rezza and Harun al-Rashid (the latter was stolen). Thus the survivors of the massacres migrated to Mashhad. When the Arab traveller Ibn Battuta visited the town in 1333, he reported that it was a large town with abundant fruit trees, streams and mills. A great dome of elegant construction surmounts the noble mausoleum, the walls being decorated with colored tiles.
The most well-known dish cooked in Mashhad, "sholeh Mashhadi" (شله مشهدی) or "Sholeh", dates back to the era of the Mongolian invasion when it is thought to be cooked with any food available (the main ingredients are meat, grains and abundant spices) and be a Mongolian word.
Timurid Empire
It seems that the importance of Sanabad-Mashhad continually increased with the growing fame of its sanctuary and the decline of Tus, which received its death-blow in 1389 from Miran Shah, a son of Timur. When the Mongol noble who governed the place rebelled and attempted to make himself independent, Miran Shah was sent against him by his father. Tus was stormed after a siege of several months, sacked and left a heap of ruins; 10,000 inhabitants were massacred. Those who escaped the holocaust settled in the shelter of the 'Alid sanctuary. Tus was henceforth abandoned and Mashhad took its place as the capital of the district.
Later on, during the reign of the Timurid Shahrukh Mirza, Mashhad became one of the main cities of the realm. In 1418, his wife Goharshad funded the construction of an outstanding mosque beside the shrine, which is known as the Goharshad Mosque. The mosque remains relatively intact to this date, its great size an indicator to the status the city held in the 15th century.
Safavid dynasty
Shah Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty, conquered Mashhad after the death of Husayn Bayqarah and the decline of the Timurid dynasty. He was later captured by the Uzbeks during the reign of Shah Abbas I. In the 16th century the town suffered considerably from the repeated raids of the Özbegs (Uzbeks). In 1507, it was taken by the troops of the Shaybani or Shabani Khan. After two decades, Shah Tahmasp I succeeded in repelling the enemy from the town again in 1528. But in 1544, the Özbegs again succeeded in entering the town and plundering and murdering there. The year 1589 was a disastrous one for Mashhad. The Shaybanid 'Abd al-Mu'min after a four months' siege forced the town to surrender. Shah Abbas I, who lived in Mashhad from 1585 until his official ascent of the throne in Qazwin in 1587, was not able to retake Mashhad from the Özbegs until 1598. Mashhad was retaken by the Shah Abbas after a long and hard struggle, defeating the Uzbeks in a great battle near Herat as well as managing to drive them beyond the Oxus River. Shah Abbas I wanted to encourage Iranians to go to Mashhad for pilgrimage. He is said to have walked from Isfahan to Mashhad. During the Safavid era, Mashhad gained even more religious recognition, becoming the most important city of Greater Khorasan, as several madrasah and other structures were built beside the Imam Reza shrine. Besides its religious significance, Mashhad has played an important political role as well. The Safavid dynasty has been criticized in a book (Red Shi'sm vs. Black Shi'ism) on the perceived dual aspects of the Shi'a religion throughout history) as a period in which although the dynasty didn't form the idea of Black Shi'ism, but this idea was formed after the defeat of Shah Ismail against the Ottoman leader Sultan Yavuz Selim. Black Shi'ism is a product of the post-Safavid period.
Afsharid dynasty
Mashad saw its greatest glory under Nader Shah, ruler of Iran from 1736 to 1747, and also a great benefactor of the shrine of Imam Reza, who made the city his capital. Nearly the whole eastern part of the kingdom of Nadir Shah passed to foreign rulers in this period of Persian impotence under the rule of the vigorous Ahmad Shah Durrani of the Afghan Durrani Empire. Ahmad defeated the Persians and took Mashhad after an eight-month siege in 1753. Ahmad Shah and his successor Timur Shah left Shah Rukh in possession of Khurasan as their vassal, making Khurasan a kind of buffer state between them and Persia. As the city's real rulers, however, both these Durrani rulers struck coins in Mashhad. Otherwise, the reign of the blind Shah Rukh, which with repeated short interruptions lasted for nearly half a century, passed without any events of special note. It was only after the death of Timur Shah (1792) that Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, succeeded in taking Shah Rukh's domains and putting him to death in 1795, thus ending the separation of Khurasan from the rest of Persia.
Qajar dynasty
Some believe that Mashhad was ruled by Shahrukh Afshar and remained the capital of the Afsharid dynasty during Zand dynasty until Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar conquered the then larger region of Khorasan in 1796.
1912 Imam Reza shrine bombardment
In 1911 Yusuf Khan of Herat was declared independent in Mashhad as Muhammad Ali Shah and brought together a large group of reactionaries opposed to the revolution, and keep stirring for some time. This gave Russia the excuse to intervene and 29 March 1912 bombed the city; this bombing killed several people and pilgrims; action against a Muslim shrine caused a great shock to all Islamic countries. On 29 March 1912, the sanctuary of Imam Reza was bombed by the Russian artillery fire, causing some damage, including to the golden dome, resulting in a widespread and persisting resentment in the Shiite Muslim world as well as British India. This bombing was orchestrated by Prince Aristid Mikhailovich Dabizha (a Moldovan who was the Russian Consul in Mashhad) and General Radko (a Bulgarian who was commander of the Russian Cossacks in the city). Yusuf Khan ended up captured by the Persians and was executed.
Pahlavi dynasty
Modernization under Reza Shah
The modern development of the city accelerated under Reza Shah (1925-1941). Shah Reza Hospital (currently Imam Reza Hospital, affiliated with the Basij organization) was founded in 1934; the sugar factory of Abkuh in 1935; and the Mashhad University of Medical Sciences in 1939. The city's first power station was installed in 1936, and in 1939, the first urban transport service began with two buses. In this year the first population census was performed, with a result of 76,471 inhabitants.
1935 Imam Reza shrine rebellion
In 1935, a backlash against the modernizing, anti-religious policies of Reza Shah erupted in the Mashhad shrine. Responding to a cleric who denounced the Shah's heretical innovations, corruption, and heavy consumer taxes, many bazaars and villagers took refuge in the shrine, chanted slogans such as "The Shah is a new Yazid." For four days local police and army refused to violate the shrine and the standoff was ended when troops from Azerbaijan arrived and broke into the shrine, killing dozens and injuring hundreds, and marking a final rupture between Shi'ite clergy and the Shah. According to some Mashhadi historians, the Goharshad Mosque uprising, which took place in 1935, is an uprising against Reza Shah's decree banning all veils (headscarf and chador) on 8 January 1936.
1941–1979 reforms
Mashhad experienced population growth after the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941 because of relative insecurity in rural areas, the 1948 drought, and the establishment of Mashhad University in 1949. At the same time, public transport vehicles increased to 77 buses and 200 taxis and the railway link with the capital, Tehran, was established in 1957. The 1956 census reflected a population of 241,989 people. The increase in population continued in the following years thanks to the increase in Iranian oil revenues, the decline of the feudal social model, the agrarian reform of 1963, the founding of the city's airport, the creation of new factories and the development of the health system. In 1966, the population reached 409,616 inhabitants, and 667,770 in 1976. The extension of the city was expanded from .
In 1965 an important urban renewal development project for the surroundings of the shrine of Imam Reza was proposed by the Iranian architect and urban designer Dariush Borbor to replace the dilapidated slum conditions which surrounded the historic monuments. The project was officially approved in 1968. In 1977 the surrounding areas were demolished to make way for the implementation of this project. To relocate the demolished businesses, a new bazaar was designed and constructed in Meydan-e Ab square (in Persian, "میدان آب") by Dariush Borbor. After the revolution, the urban renewal project was abandoned.
1994 Imam Reza shrine bombing
On 20 June 1994, a bomb exploded in a prayer hall of the shrine of the Imam Reza. The bomb that killed at least 25 people on 20 June in Mashhad exploded on Ashura. The Baloch terrorist, Ramzi Yousef, a Sunni Muslim turned Wahhabi, one of the main perpetrators of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, was found to be behind the plot.
Mashhad after the Revolution
In 1998 and 2003 there were student disturbances after the same events in Tehran.
Geography
The city is located at 36.20º North latitude and 59.35º East longitude, in the valley of the Kashafrud River near Turkmenistan, between the two mountain ranges of Binalood and Hezar Masjed Mountains. The city benefits from the proximity of the mountains, having cool winters, pleasant springs, and mild summers. It is only about from Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.
The city is the administrative center of Mashhad County (or the Shahrestan of Mashhad) as well as the somewhat smaller district (Bakhsh) of Mashhad. The city itself, excluding parts of the surrounding Bakhsh and Shahrestan, is divided into 13 smaller administrative units, with a total population of more than 3 million.
Climate
Mashhad features a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk) with hot summers and cold winters. The city only sees about of precipitation per year, some of which occasionally falls in the form of snow. Mashhad also has wetter and drier periods with the bulk of the annual precipitation falling between the months of December and May. Summers are typically hot and dry, with high temperatures sometimes exceeding . Winters are typically cool to cold and somewhat damper, with overnight lows routinely dropping below freezing. Mashhad enjoys on average just above 2900 hours of sunshine per year.
The highest recorded temperature was on 6 July 1998 and the lowest recorded temperature was on 3 February 1972.
Demography
Ethnic groups
The vast majority of Mashhadi people are ethnic Persians, who form the majority of the city's population. Other ethnic groups include Kurdish and Turkmen people who have emigrated recently to the city from the North Khorasan province. There is also a significant community of non-Arabic speakers of Arabian descent who have retained a distinct Arabian culture, cuisine and religious practices.
There are also over 20 million pilgrims who visit the city every year.
Religion
Today, the holy shrine and its museum hold one of the most extensive cultural and artistic treasuries of Iran, in particular manuscript books and paintings. Several important theological schools are associated with the shrine of the Eighth Imam.
The second-largest holy city in the world, Mashhad attracts more than 20 million tourists and pilgrims every year, many of whom come to pay homage to the Imam Reza shrine (the eighth Shi'ite Imam). It has been a magnet for travellers since medieval times. Thus, even as those who complete the pilgrimage to Mecca receive the title of Haji, those who make the pilgrimage to Mashhad—and especially to the Imam Reza shrine—are known as Mashtee, a term employed also of its inhabitants. As an important problem, the duration when new passengers stay in Mashhad has been considerably reduced to 2 days nowadays and they prefer to finish their trip immediately after doing pilgrimage and shopping in the markets. There are about 3000–5000 unauthorized residential units in Mashhad, which, as a unique statistic worldwide, has caused various problems in the city.
Although mainly inhabited by Muslims, there were in the past some religious minorities in Mashhad, mainly Jews who were forcibly converted to Islam in 1839 after the Allahdad incident took place for Mashhadi Jews in 1839. They became known as Jadid al-Islam ("Newcomers in Islam"). On the outside, they adapted to the Islamic way of life, but often secretly kept their faith and traditions.
Economy
Mashhad is Iran's second largest automobile production hub. The city's economy is based mainly on dry fruits, salted nuts, saffron, Iranian sweets like gaz and sohaan, precious stones like agates, turquoise, intricately designed silver jewelry studded with rubies and emeralds, eighteen carat gold jewelry, perfumes, religious souvenirs, trench coats, scarves, termeh, carpets, and rugs.
According to the writings and documents, the oldest existing carpet attributed to the city belongs to the reign of Shah Abbas (Abbas I of Persia). Also, there is a type of carpet, classified as Mashhad Turkbâf, which, as its name suggests, is woven by hand with Turkish knots by craftsmen who emigrated from Tabriz to Mashhad in the nineteenth century. Among other major industries in the city are the nutrition, clothing, leather, textiles, chemical, steel, metallic, and non-metallic mineral industries, construction materials factories, & the handicraft industry.
With more than 55% of all the hotels in Iran, Mashhad is the hub of tourism in the country. Religious shrines are the most powerful attractions for foreign travelers; every year, 20 to 30 million pilgrims from Iran and more than 2 million pilgrims and tourists from elsewhere around the world come to Mashhad. Mashhad is one of the main producers of leather products in the region.
Unemployment, poverty, drug addiction, theft, and sexual exploitation are the most important social problems of the city.
The divorce rate in Mashhad had increased by 35 percent by 2014. Khorasan and Mashhad ranked the second in violence across the country in 2013.
Astan Quds Razavi
At the same time, the city has kept its character as a goal of pilgrimage, dominated by the strength of the economic and political authority of the Astan Quds Razavi, the administration of the Shrine waqf, probably the most important in the Muslim world and the largest active bonyad in Iran. The Astan Quds Razavi is a major player in the economy of the city of Mashhad. The land occupied by the shrine has grown fourfold since 1979 according to the head of the foundation's international relations department. The Shrine of Imam Reza is vaster than Vatican City. The foundation owns most of the real estate in Mashhad and rents out shop space to bazaaris and hoteliers. The main resource of the institution is endowments, estimated to have annual revenue of $210 billion. Ahmad Marvi is the current Custodian of Astan Quds Razavi.
Padideh Shandiz
Padideh Shandiz International Tourism Development Company, an Iranian private joint-stock holding company, behaves like a public company by selling stocks despite being a joint-stock in the field of restaurants, tourism and construction, with a football club (Padideh F.C.; formerly named Azadegan League club Mes Sarcheshmeh). In January 2015, the company was accused of a "fraud" worth $34.3 billion, which is one eighth of Iran budget.
Credit institutions
Several credit institutions have been established in Mashhad, including Samenolhojaj (), Samenola'emmeh () and Melal (formerly Askariye, ). The depositors of the first institution have faced problem in receiving cash from the institution.
Others
The city's International Exhibition Center is the second most active exhibition center after Tehran, which due to proximity to Central Asian countries hosts dozens of international exhibitions each year. Companies such as Smart-innovators in Mashhad are pioneers in electrical and computer technology.
Language
The language mainly spoken in Mashhad is Persian with a variating Mashhadi accent, which can at times, prove itself as a sort of dialect. The Mashhadi Persian dialect is somewhat different from the standard Persian dialect in some of its tones and stresses. Today, the Mashhadi dialect is rarely spoken by young people of Mashhad, most of them perceive it as a humiliation. This is thought to be related to the non-positive performance of the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).
Culture
Religious seminaries
Long a center of secular and religious learning, Mashhad has been a center for the Islamic arts and sciences, as well as piety and pilgrimage. Mashhad was an educational centre, with a considerable number of Islamic schools (madrasas, the majority of them, however, dating from the later Safavid period. Mashhad Hawza (Persian: حوزه علمیه مشهد) is one of the largest seminaries of traditional Islamic school of higher learning in Mashhad, which was headed by Abbas Vaez-Tabasi (who was Chairman of the Astan Quds Razavi board from 1979) after the revolution, and in which Iranian politician and clerics such as Ali Khamenei, Ahmad Alamolhoda, Abolghasem Khazali, Mohammad Reyshahri, Morteza Motahhari, Abbas Vaez-Tabasi, and Madmoud Halabi (the founder of Hojjatieh and Mohammad Hadi Abd-e Khodaee learned Islamic studies). The number of seminary schools in Mashhad is now thirty nine and there are an estimated 2,300 seminarians in the city.
The Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, named after the great Iranian poet, is located here and is regarded as the third institution in attracting foreign students, mainly from Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Central Asian republics. The Madrassa of Ayatollah Al-Khoei, originally built in the seventeenth century and recently replaced with modern facilities, is the city's foremost traditional centre for religious learning. The Razavi University of Islamic Sciences, founded in 1984, stands at the centre of town, within the shrine complex. The prestige of traditional religious education at Mashhad attracts students, known as Talabeh, or "Mollah" internationally.
Mashhad is also home to one of the oldest libraries of the Middle-East called the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi with a history of over six centuries. There are some six million historical documents in the foundation's central library. A museum is also home to over 70,000 rare manuscripts from various historical eras.
The Astan Quds Razavi Central Museum, which is part of the Astan-e Quds Razavi Complex, contains Islamic art and historical artifacts. In 1976, a new edifice was designed and constructed by the well-known Iranian architect Dariush Borbor to house the museum and the ancient manuscripts.
In 1569 (977 H), 'Imad al-Din Mas'ud Shirazi, a physician at the Mashhad hospital, wrote the earliest Islamic treatise on syphilis, one influenced by European medical thought. Kashmar rug is a type of Persian rug indigenous to this region.
Mashhad active galleries include: Mirak Gallery, Parse Gallery, Rezvan Gallery, Soroush Gallery, and the Narvan Gallery.
During the recent years, Mashhad has been a clerical base to monitor the affairs and decisions of state. In 2015, Mashhad's clerics publicly criticized the performance of concert in Mashhad, which led to the order of cancellation of concerts in the city by Ali Jannati, the minister of culture, and then his resignation on 19 October 2016.
Newspapers
There are two influential newspapers in Mashhad, Khorasan (خراسان) and Qods (قدس), which have been considered "conservative newspapers". They are two Mashhad-based daily published by and representing the views of their current and old owners: Foundation of Martyrs and Veterans Affairs and Astan Quds Razavi, respectively.
Capital of Islamic culture
The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization named Mashhad 2017's "cultural capital of the Muslim world" in Asia on 24 January 2017. Several international events, especially entrepreneurs networking event entitled Entrepreneurs Show 2017, was organized by CODE International in collaboration with Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Khorasan Science and Technology Park, and city district government of Mashhad.
Social harm
Mashhad is one of the most populous cities in Iran. The city of Mashhad, despite the many job capacities it has created for different groups of people, is also suffering from various social harms. Among the most important social challenges of this city, we can mention the increase in divorce rate, marginalization, unemployment, traffic, spread of poverty, early marriage,Temporary marriage, prostitution, etc.
Main sites
Apart from Imam Reza shrine, there are a number of large parks, the tombs of historical celebrities in nearby Tus and Nishapur, the tomb of Nader Shah and Koohsangi park. The Koohestan Park-e-Shadi Complex includes a zoo, where many wild animals are kept and which attracts many visitors to Mashhad. It is also home to the Mashhad Airbase (formerly Imam Reza airbase), jointly a military installation housing Mirage aircraft, and a civilian international airport.
Khurshid castle, Vakil Abad Park, Miniature Park, Professor Bazima Science Park, Astan Quds Razavi Museum, Keshti Dome, Harunieh Dome, Bird Garden, Anthropology Museum or Mehdi Qolibek Bath, Mellat Park, Naderi Museum and Bread Museum They are among other sightseeing centers of Mashhad.
Some points of interest lie outside the city: the tomb of Khajeh Morad, along the road to Tehran; the tomb of Khajeh Rabi' located north of the city where there are some inscriptions by the renowned Safavid calligrapher Reza Abbasi; and the tomb of Khajeh Abasalt, a distance of from Mashhad along the road to Neishabur (the three were all disciples of Imam Reza).
Among the other sights are the tomb of the poet Ferdowsi in Tus, distance, and the summer resorts at Torghabeh, Torogh, Akhlamad, Zoshk, and Shandiz.
The Shah Public Bath, built during the Safavid era in 1648, is an outstanding example of the architecture of that period. It was recently restored, and is to be turned into a museum.
Transportation
Airport
Mashhad is served by the Mashhad International Airport, which handles domestic flights to Iranian cities and international flights, mostly to neighbouring Arab countries. The airport is the country's second busiest after Tehran Mehrabad Airport and above Tehran's Imam Khomeini International Airport.
It is connected to 57 destinations and has frequent flights to 30 cities within Iran and 27 destinations in the Central Asia, the Middle East, East Asia and Europe.
The airport has been under a US$45.7 ml vast expansion project which has been finished by opening a new Haj Terminal with 10,000 m area on 24 May 2010 and followed by opening a new international terminal with 30000 m2 area with a new parking building, a new custom storage and cargo terminal, new safety and fire fighting buildings and upgrades to taxiways and equipment. Another USD26.5 ml development project for construction of new hangar for aircraft repair facilities and expansion of the west side of the domestic terminal is underway using a BOT contract with the private sector.
Rail
Mashhad railway station has Local, Regional, InterRegio, and InterRegio-Express services. The station is owned by IRI Railways and has daily services from most parts of the country, plus two suburban services. The building was designed by Heydar Ghiai. Mashhad is connected to three major rail lines: Tehran-Mashhad, Mashhad-Bafq (running south), and Mashhad-Sarakhs at the border with Turkmenistan. Some freight trains continue from Sarakhs towards Uzbekistan and to Kazakhstan, but have to change bogies because of the difference in Rail gauge. Cargo and passenger rail services are provided or operated by RAJA Rail Transportation Co., Joopar Co., and Fadak Trains Co.
A new service from Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan, to Mashhad, Iran, was launched in December 2016.
Metro
Mashhad Urban Railway Corporation (MURCO) is constructing metro and light rail system for the city of Mashhad which includes four lines with length. Mashhad Urban Railway Operation Company (MUROC) is responsible for the operation of the lines. The LRT line has been operational since 21 February 2011 with length and 22 stations and is connected to Mashhad International Airport from early 2016. The total length of line 1 is 24 kilometers and has 24 stations. the current headway in peak hours is 4.5 minutes.
The second line which is a metro line with 14.5 km length and 13 stations. line 2 construction is going to finish in early 2020. The first phase of line 2 with 8 kilometers and 7 stations is started on 21 February 2017. On 20 March two stations were added to the network in test operational mode and the first interchange station was added to the network. On 7 May 2018, Iranian President Hassan Rouhani took part in the inauguration ceremony of the first Mashhad Urban Railway interchange station, "Shariati", which connects line 1 and 2. in 27 July shahid Kaveh station operation began and the length of the operational part of line 2 reached to 13.5 kilometers. On 18 November 2019 Alandasht station Began operative. Currently, line 2 operates every day with 13.5 km and 11 stations from 6 am to 10 pm, and the current headway is 10 minutes. Currently Mashhad Urban Railway Operation Company (MUROC) operates 2 lines with 37.5 kilometers length and 35 stations. Tunnel excavation of line 3 has begun and more than 14 kilometers of tunnel excavation is done using two Tunnel Boring Machines and operation of the first phase of line 3 is expected to start in 2021. Tunnel Excavation of line 4 is going to start in summer 2019.
Road
Road 95 links Mashhad south to Torbat-e Heydarieh and Birjand. Road 44 goes west towards Shahrud and Tehran. Road 22 travels northwest towards Bojnurd. Ashgabat in Turkmenistan is 220 km away and is accessible via Road 22 (AH78).
Bus
Government and politics
Astan Quds
Astan Quds which controls the shrine- the tourism driver- is a wealthy tax exempt religious/political organization. It is recommended to reduce poverty in city a Bazaar be opened by poor people in a courtyard.
Members of Parliament
Mashhad's current members of parliament are described as politicians with fundamentalist conservative tendencies, who are mostly the members of Front of Islamic Revolution Stability, an Iranian principlist political group. They were elected to the Parliament on 26 February 2016.
Members of Assembly of Experts
Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi and Ahmad Alamolhoda are two members of the Iranian Assembly of Experts from Mashhad. Hashemi Shahroudi is currently First Vice-chairman of the Iranian Assembly of Experts. He was the Head of Iran's Judiciary from 1999 until 2009 who upon accepting his position, appointed Saeed Mortazavi, a well known fundamentalist and controversial figure during President Mahmud Ahmadinejad's reelection, prosecutor general of Iran. He was supported by Mashhad's reformists as the candidate of the Fifth Assembly on 26 February 2016.
City Council and mayor
In 2013, an Iranian principlist political group, Front of Islamic Revolution Stability (which is partly made up of former ministers of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi), gained a landslide victory in Mashhad City Council, which on 23 September 2013, elected Seyed Sowlat Mortazavi as mayor, who was former governor of the province of South Khorasan and the city of Birjand. The municipality's budget amounted to 9600 billion Toman in 2015.
Universities and colleges
Universities
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad – International Campus
Golbahar University of Science and New Technology
Imam Reza International University
Islamic Azad University of Khorasan – Golbahar International Campus
Islamic Azad University of Mashhad
Khayyam University
Payame Noor University of Mashhad
Razavi University of Islamic Sciences
Sama Technical and Vocational Training Center (Islamic Azad University of Mashhad)
Sport Sciences Research Institute of Iran
Colleges
Al Mustafa International University
Arman Razavi Girls Institute of Higher Education
Asrar Institute of Higher Education
Attar Institute of Higher Education
Bahar Institute of Higher Education
Binalood Institute of Higher Education
Cultural Heritage, Hand Crafts, and Tourism Higher Education Center (University of Science and Technology)
Eqbal Lahoori Institute of Higher Education
Hakim Toos Institute of Higher Education
Hekmat Razavi Institute of Higher Education
Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research, Mashhad Branch (Jahad Daneshgahi of Mashhad)
Jahad Keshavarzi Higher Education Center of Khorasan Razavi (Shahid Hashemi Nejad)
Kavian Institute of Higher Education
Kharazmi Azad Institute of Higher Education of Khorasan
Khavaran Institute of Higher Education
Kheradgarayan Motahar Institute of higher education
Khorasan Institute of Higher Education
Khorasan Razavi Judiciary Center (University of Science and Technology)
Khorasan Razavi Municipalities' Institute of Research, Education, and Consultation of (University of Science and Technology)
Mashhad Aviation Industry Center (University of Science and Technology)
Mashhad Aviation Training Center (University of Science and Technology)
Mashhad Culture and Art Center 1 (University of Science and Technology)
Mashhad Koran Reciters Society
Mashhad Prisons Organization Center (University of Science and Technology)
Mashhad Tax center (University of Science and Technology)
Navvab Higher Clerical School
Part Tyre Center (University of Science and Technology)
Red Crescent Society of Khorasan Razavi (University of Science and Technology)
Salman Institute of Higher Education
Samen Teacher Training Center of Mashhad (Farhangian University)
Samen Training Center of Mashhad (Technical and Vocational University)
Sanabad Golbahar Institute of Higher Education
Shahid Beheshti Teacher Training College (Farhangian University)
Shahid Hashemi Nejad Teacher Training College (Farhangian University)
Shandiz Institute of Higher Education
Khorasan Razavi Taavon Center (University of Science and Technology)
Tabaran Institute of Higher Education
Toos Institute of Higher Education
Toos Porcelain Center (University of Science and Technology)
Khorasan Water and Electricity Industry Center (University of Science and Technology)
Workers' House; Mashhad Branch (University of Science and Technology)
Sports
Major sport teams
Other sports
City was host to 2009 Junior World Championships in sitting volleyball where Iran's junior team won Gold.
Wrestling is one of the most popular sports in this city. Pahlevani and zoorkhaneh rituals have a special place in Mashhad and is one of the most important zoorkhaneh in Iran in Mashhad.
Mashhad cycling track was introduced in 2011 as the most equipped cycling track in Iran; Car racing track, motorcycle track and motocross track, three skating rinks, ski track and equestrian track in Mashhad are other sports tracks in Mashhad. The first golf course in Iran is located in the Samen complex of Mashhad.
Gallery
Mashhad as capital of Persia and independent Khorasan
The following Shahanshahs had Mashhad as their capital:
Kianid Dynasty
Malek Mahmoud Sistani 1722–1726
Afsharid dynasty
Nader Shah
Adil Shah
Ebrahim Afshar
Shahrukh Afshar
Nadir Mirza of Khorasan
Safavid dynasty
Soleyman II
Autonomous Government of Khorasan
Colonel Mohammad Taghi Khan Pessyan
Notable people from Mashhad and Toos
Artists
Music
Cinema
25band, both singers born in Mashhad; Pop Group formed in 2010
Abdi Behravanfar, born June 1975 in Mashhad; an Iranian singer, guitar player and singer-songwriter
Ali "Dubfire" Shirazinia, born 19 April 1971; musician/dj (co-founder of Deep Dish)
Amir Ghavidel, March 1947 – November 2009; an Iranian director and script writer
Anoushirvan Arjmand, Iranian actor
Borzoo Arjmand, born 1975 in Mashhad; Iranian cinema, theatre and television actor
Dariush Arjmand, Iranian actor
Darya Dadvar, born 1971 in Mashhad; an accomplished Iranian soprano soloist and composer
Hamed Behdad, born 17 November 1973 in Mashhad; Iranian actor
Hamid Motebassem, born 1958 in Mashhad; Iranian musician and tar and setar player
Hosein Eblis is considered one of pioneers of "Persian Rap" along with Hichkas and Reza Pishro.
Homayoun Shajarian, Mohammad-Reza Shajarian's son, born 21 May 1975; renowned Persian classical music vocalist, as well as a Tombak and Kamancheh player
Iran Darroudi, born 2 September 1936 in Mashhad; Iranian artist
Javad Jalali, born 30 May 1977 in Mashhad; Iranian photographer and cinematographer
Mahdi Bemani Naeini, born 3 November 1968; Iranian film director, cinematographer, TV cameraman and photographer
Marshall Manesh, born 16 August 1950 in Mashhad; Iranian-American actor
Mitra Hajjar, born 4 February 1977; Iranian actress
Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, born 23 September 1940 in Mashhad; internationally and critically acclaimed Persian traditional singer, composer and Master (Ostad) of Persian music
Mohsen Namjoo, born 1976 in Torbat-e-Jaam; Iranian singer-songwriter, author, musician and setar player
Navid Negahban, born 2 June 1968 in Mashhad; Iranian-American actor
Noureddin Zarrinkelk, born 1937 in Mashhad; renowned Iranian animator, concept artist, editor, graphic designer, illustrator, layout artist, photographer, script writer and sculptor
Ovanes Ohanian, ?–1961 Tehran; Armenian-Iranian filmmaker who established the first film school in Iran
Pouran Jinchi, born 1959 in Mashhad; Iranian-American artist
Rafi Pitts, born 1967 in Mashhad; internationally acclaimed Iranian film director
Reza Attaran, born 31 March 1968 in Mashhad; Iranian actor and director
Reza Kianian, born 17 July 1951 in Mashhad; Iranian actor
Shahin Ebrahimzadeh-Pezeshki, born 1958 in Mashhad; Persian textile and costume art historian, historian of tribal costumes, textile artist, author, researcher and curator
Entrepreneurs
Anousheh Ansari, born 12 September 1966; the Iranian-American co-founder and chairman of Prodea Systems, Inc., and a spaceflight participant with the Russian space program
Hossein Sabet, Iranian businessman and Persian carpet dealer who owns Sabet International Trading Co.
Mahmoud Khayami, born 1930 in Mashhad, Iran; Iranian born industrialist and philanthropist, of French nationality
Sports
Abbas Chamanyan, Iranian football coach, manager and former player
Abbas Golmakani, World's wrestling champion during the 1950s
Abolfazl Safavi, Iran professional football player for Aboumoslem team in Takhte Jamshid League. He was later executed in prison by the Iranian regime in 1982 for his affiliation with Iranian opposition, the MEK.
Ali Baghbanbashi, athlete
Alireza Vahedi Nikbakht, born 30 June 1980 in Mashhad; Iranian professional football player
Amir Ghaseminejad, judoka
Amir Reza Khadem, born 10 February 1970 in Mashhad, wrestler
Amir Tavakkolian, wrestler
Farbod Farman, basketballer
Farhad Zarif, born 3 March 1983, volleyballer
Ghodrat Bahadori, Iranian futsaler/indoor soccer player
Hamed Afagh, basketballer
Hamid Reza Mobarez, swimmer
Hasan Kamranifar, Iranian football referee
Heshmat Mohajerani, born January 1936 in Mashhad, Iran; Iranian football coach, manager and former player
Hossein Badamaki, Iranian professional football player
Hossein Ghadam, Iran professional football player for Aboumoslem team
Hossein Sokhandan, Iranian football referee
Hossein Tayyebi, Iranian futsaler/indoor soccer player
Javad Mahjoub, judoka
Khodadad Azizi, born 22 June 1971 in Mashhad, Iran; retired professional football striker
Kia Zolgharnain, Iranian-American former futsaler/indoor soccer player Kourosh Khani, racing driver
Mahdi Javid, Iranian futsaler/indoor soccer player
Majid Khodaei, wrestler
Maryam Sedarati, athlete. Iran record holder in women high jump for three decades.
Masoud Haji Akhondzadeh, judoka
Mohammad Khadem, wrestler
Mohammad Mansouri, Iranian professional football player
Mohsen Ghahramani, Iranian football referee
Mohsen Torki, Iranian football referee
Rasoul Khadem, born 17 February 1972 in Mashhad; wrestler
Reza Enayati, Iranian professional football player
Reza Ghoochannejhad, Iranian-Dutch professional football player
Rouzbeh Arghavan, basketballer
Religious and political figures
Abbas Vaez-Tabasi, 25 June 1935 – 4 March 2016; Grand Imam and Chairman of the Astan Quds Razavi board
Abdolreza Rahmani Fazli, born 1959 in Shirvan; Interior Minister of President Hassan Rouhani
Abu Muslim Khorasani, –755; Abu Muslim Abd al-Rahman ibn Muslim al-Khorasani, Abbasid general of Persian origin
Al-Ghazali, 1058–1111; Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin
Al-Hurr al-Aamili, Shia scholar and muhaddith
Ali al-Sistani, born approximately August 4, 1930; Twelver Shi'a marja residing in Iraq since 1951
Ebrahim Raisi, b. 1960; scholar and President-elect of Iran
Goharshad Begum, Persian noble and wife of Shāh Rukh, the emperor of the Timurid dynasty of Herāt
Hadi Khamenei, b. 1947; mid-ranking cleric who is a member of the reformist Association of Combatant Clerics
Hassan Ghazizadeh Hashemi, born 21 March 1959 in Fariman; Minister of Health and Medical Education of President Hassan Rouhani
Hassan Rahimpour Azghadi, Conservative political strategist and television personality in the Islamic Republic of Iran
Hossein Vahid Khorasani, born in 1924; Iranian Twelver Shi'a Marja
Mohammad-Ali Abtahi, born January 27, 1958; former Vice President of Iran and a close associate of former reformist President Khatami
Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, born 23 August 1961 in Torghabeh, near Mashhad; the former Mayor of Tehran and current Speaker of Parliament
Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani, 1839–1911; Twelver Shi'a Marja, Persian (Iranian) politician, philosopher and reformer
Morteza Motahhari, 31 January 1919 in Fariman – 1 May 1979; an Iranian cleric, philosopher, lecturer and politician
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, born February 1201 in Tūs, Khorasan – 26 June 1274 in al-Kāżimiyyah, near Baghdad; Persian of the Ismaili and subsequently Twelver Shī'ah Islamic belief
Nizam al-Mulk, 1018 – 14 October 1092; celebrated Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire
Saeed Jalili, born 1965 in Mashhad; Iranian politician and the former present secretary of Iran's Supreme National Security Council
Seyed Hassan Firuzabadi, current major general, Islamic Republic of Iran
Seyyed Ali Khamenei, born 17 July 1939; former president and current supreme leader of Iran
Shahrukh (Timurid dynasty), August 20, 1377 – March 12, 1447; ruler of the eastern portion of the empire established by the Central Asian warlord Timur (Tamerlane)
Shaykh Tusi, 385–460 A.H.; prominent Persian scholar of the Shi'a Twelver Islamic belief
Sheikh Ali Tehrani, brother-in-law of Seyyed Ali Khamenei, currently living in Iran. He is one of the oppositions of current Iranian government.
Pahlavic politicians
Abdolhossein Teymourtash, prominent Iraninan statesman and first minister of justice under the Pahlavis
Amirteymour Kalali, prominent Iraninan statesman
Manouchehr Eghbal, 14 October 1909 – 25 November 1977; a Prime Minister of Iran
Science & scientists
Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī, 10 June 940 – 1 July 998; Persian mathematician and astronomer
Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin, 900–971; Persian astronomer and mathematician from Khorasan
Jābir ibn Hayyān, in Tus – in Kufa; prominent polymath, a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist and pharmacist and physician
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, born February 1201 in Tūs, Khorasan – 26 June 1274 in al-Kāżimiyyah near Baghdad; Persian of the Ismaili and subsequently Twelver Shī'ah Islamic belief
Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, 1135–1213; Persian mathematician and astronomer of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages)
Mohsen Baqerzada, publisher and manager of Toos publication
Writers and literatures
Abolfazl Beyhaqi, 995–1077; a Persian historian and author
Ali Akbar Fayyaz, a renowned historian of early Islam and literary critic, founder of the School of Letters and Humanities at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
Abu-Mansur Daqiqi, 935/942–976/980
Abusa'id Abolkhayr, 7 December 967 – 12 January 1049 / Muharram ul Haram 1, 357 – Sha'aban 4, 440 AH; a Persian Sufi who contributed extensively to the evolution of Sufi tradition
Anvari, 1126–1189; one of the greatest Persian poets
Asadi Tusi, born in Tus, Iranian province of Khorasan, died in 1072 in Tabriz, Iran; Persian poet of Iranian national epics
Ferdowsi, 935–1020 in Tus; a Persian poet
Mehdi Akhavan-Sales, 1928, Mashhad, Iran – 1990, Tehran, Iran; a Persian poet
Mohammad Mokhtari (writer), Iranian writer who was murdered on the outskirts of Tehran in the course of the Chain Murders of Iran
Mohammad-Taghi Bahar, 6 November 1884, Mashhad, Iran – 22 April 1951, Tehran, Iran
Twin towns – sister cities
Mashhad is twinned with:
Karachi, Pakistan
Karbala, Iraq
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Lahore, Pakistan
Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan
Najaf, Iraq
Ürümqi, China
Consulates
Active
(1996–)
(1975–)
(1919–?,1930–?, 2014–)
(1995–)
Former
(1889–1975)
(1889–1917)
(1917–1937, 1941–1979)
(1941–?)
(1949–1979)
Poland
()
(1995–2009)
(2004–2016)
See also
The National Library of Astan Quds Razavi
Mashadi Jewish Community
Sport Sciences Research Institute of Iran
Footnotes
References
External links
Municipality of Mashhad Official website (in Persian)
Astan Quds Razavi
Mashhad Portal Official website (in Persian)
Mashhad
Populated places in Mashhad County
Cities in Razavi Khorasan Province
Iranian provincial capitals
Former capitals of Iran
Populated places along the Silk Road
Shia holy cities
Cities founded by Alexander the Great
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20of%20Finland
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Tom of Finland
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Touko Valio Laaksonen (8 May 1920 – 7 November 1991), known by the pseudonym Tom of Finland, was a Finnish artist who made stylized highly masculinized homoerotic art, and influenced late 20th-century gay culture. He has been called the "most influential creator of gay pornographic images" by cultural historian Joseph W. Slade. Over the course of four decades, he produced some 3,500 illustrations, mostly featuring men with exaggerated primary and secondary sex traits, wearing tight or partially removed clothing.
Early life
Laaksonen was born on 8 May 1920 and raised by a middle-class family in Kaarina, a town in southwestern Finland, near the city of Turku. Both of his parents Suoma and Edwin Laaksonen were schoolteachers at the grammar school that served Kaarina. The family lived in the school building's attached living quarters.
He went to school in Turku and in 1939, at the age of 19, he moved to Helsinki to study advertising. In his spare time he also started drawing erotic images for his own pleasure, based on images of male laborers he had seen from an early age. At first he kept these drawings hidden, but then destroyed them "at least by the time I went to serve the army." The country became embroiled in the Winter War with the USSR, and then became formally involved in World War II, and he was conscripted in February 1940 into the Finnish Army. He served as an anti-aircraft officer, holding the rank of second lieutenant. He later attributed his fetishistic interest in uniformed men to encounters with men in army uniform, especially soldiers of the German Wehrmacht serving in Finland at that time. "In my drawings I have no political statements to make, no ideology. I am thinking only about the picture itself. The whole Nazi philosophy, the racism and all that, is hateful to me, but of course I drew them anyway—they had the sexiest uniforms!" After the war, in 1945, he returned to studies.
Laaksonen's artwork of this period compared to later works is considered more romantic and softer with "gentle-featured shapes and forms". The men featured were middle-class, as opposed to the sailors, bikers, lumberjacks, construction workers, and other members of stereotypically hypermasculine working class groups that feature in his later work. Another key difference is the lack of dramatic compositions, self-assertive poses, muscular bodies and "detached exotic settings" that his later work embodied.
Career
In 1956 Laaksonen submitted drawings to the influential American magazine Physique Pictorial, which premiered the images in the 1957 Spring issue under the pseudonym Tom, as it resembled his given name Touko. In the Winter issue later that year, editor Bob Mizer coined the credit Tom of Finland. One of his pieces was featured on the Spring 1957 cover, depicting two log drivers at work with a third man watching them. Pulled from the Finnish mythology of lumberjacks representing strong masculinity, Laaksonen emphasized and privileged "homoerotic potentiality [...] relocating it in a gay context", a strategy repeated throughout his career.
The post-World War II era saw the rise of the biker culture as rejecting "the reorganization and normalization of life after the war, with its conformist, settled lifestyle." Biker subculture was both marginal and oppositional and provided postwar gay men with a stylized masculinity that included rebelliousness and danger. This was in contrast to the then-prevailing stereotypes of gay man as an effeminate sissy, as seen in vaudeville and films going back to the first years of the industry. Laaksonen was influenced by images of bikers as well as artwork of George Quaintance and Etienne, among others, that he cited as his precursors, "disseminated to gay readership through homoerotic physique magazines" starting in 1950. Laaksonen's drawings of bikers and leathermen capitalized on the leather and denim outfits which differentiated those men from mainstream culture and suggested they were untamed, physical, and self-empowered. This in contrast with the mainstream, medical and psychological sad and sensitive young gay man who is passive. Laaksonen's drawings of this time "can be seen as consolidating an array of factors, styles and discourses already existing in the 1950s gay subcultures," which may have led to them being widely distributed and popularized within those cultures. Starting his professional career in 1958 as a creative executive in renowned marketing agency, McCann Helsinki, further encouraged his creativity.
U.S. censorship codes (1950s–1960s)
Laaksonen's style and content in the late 1950s and early 1960s was partly influenced by the U.S. censorship codes that restricted depiction of "overt homosexual acts". His work was published in the beefcake genre that began in the 1930s and predominantly featured photographs of attractive, muscular young men in athletic poses often shown demonstrating exercises. Their primary market was gay men, but because of the conservative and homophobic social culture of the era, gay pornography was illegal and the publications were typically presented as dedicated to physical fitness and health. They were often the only connection that closeted men had to their sexuality. By this time, however, Laaksonen was rendering private commissions, so more explicit work was produced but remained unpublished. Aside from his work at the advertising agency, Laaksonen operated a small mail-order business, distributing reproductions of his artwork around the world by post, though he did not generate much income this way.
In the 1962 case of MANual Enterprises v. Day the United States Supreme Court ruled that nude male photographs were not inherently obscene. Softcore gay pornography magazines and films featuring fully nude models, some of them tumescent, quickly appeared and the pretense of being about exercise and fitness was dropped as controls on pornography were reduced. By the end of the 1960s the market for beefcake magazines collapsed. Laaksonen was able to publish his more overtly homoerotic work and it changed the context with "new possibilities and conventions for displaying frontal male nudity in magazines and movies." Laaksonen reacted by publishing more explicit drawings and stylized his figures' fantastical aspects with exaggerated physical aspects, particularly their genitals and muscles. In the late 1960s he developed Kake, a character appearing in an ongoing series of comics, which debuted in 1968.
Gay mainstream appeal (1970s–1991)
With the decriminalization of male nudity, gay pornography became more mainstream in gay cultures, and Laaksonen's work along with it. By 1973, he was publishing erotic comic books and making inroads to the mainstream art world with exhibitions. In 1973 he gave up his full-time job at the Helsinki office of advertising agency McCann. "Since then I've lived in jeans and lived on my drawings," is how he described the lifestyle transition which occurred during this period.
By the mid-1970s he was also emphasizing a photorealistic style, making aspects of the drawings appear more photographic. Many of his drawings are based on photographs, but none are exact reproductions of them. The photographic inspiration is used, on the one hand, to create lifelike, almost moving images, with convincing and active postures and gestures while Laaksonen exaggerates physical features and presents his ideal of masculine beauty and sexual allure, combining realism with fantasy. In Daddy and the Muscle Academy – The Art, Life, and Times of Tom of Finland examples of photographs and the drawings based upon them are shown side by side. Although he considered the photographs to be merely reference tools for his drawings, contemporary art students have seen them as complete works of art that stand on their own.
In 1979, Laaksonen, with businessman and friend Durk Dehner, co-founded the Tom of Finland Company to preserve the copyright on his art, which had been widely pirated. In 1984 the Tom of Finland Foundation was established to collect, preserve, and exhibit homoerotic artwork. Although Laaksonen was quite successful at this point, with his biography on the best-seller list, and Benedikt Taschen, the world's largest art book publisher reprinting and expanding a monograph of his works, he was most proud of the Foundation. The scope of the organization expanded to erotic works of all types, sponsored contests, exhibits, and started the groundwork for a museum of erotic art.
Death
Laaksonen was diagnosed with emphysema in 1988. Eventually the disease and medication caused his hands to tremble, leading him to switch media from pencil to pastel. He died in 1991 of an emphysema-induced stroke.
Private life
Laaksonen's life partner was the dancer Veli “Nipa” Mäkinen who shared his life for 28 years, until Mäkinen's death in 1981.
Reception
During his lifetime and beyond, Laaksonen's work has drawn both admiration and disdain from different quarters of the artistic community. Laaksonen developed a friendship with gay photographer Robert Mapplethorpe, whose work depicting sado-masochism and fetish iconography was also subject to controversy.
A controversial theme in his drawings was the erotic treatment of men in Nazi uniforms. They form a small part of his overall work, but the typically flattering visual treatment of these characters has led some viewers to infer sympathy or affinity for Nazism, and they have been omitted from most recent anthologies of his work. Later in his career Laaksonen disavowed this work and was at pains to dissociate himself and his work from fascist or racist ideologies. He also depicted a significant number of black men in his drawings, with no overt racial or political message in the context in which they appear; although they bear some commonality with racist caricatures of the "hypersexual" black male, these traits are shared by Laaksonen's white characters as well.
Sheila Jeffreys offers a radical feminist critique of Laaksonen's work in her 2003 book Unpacking Queer Politics.
Art critics have mixed views about Laaksonen's work. His detailed drawing technique has led to him being described as a "master with a pencil", while in contrast a reviewer for Dutch newspaper Het Parool described his work as "illustrative but without expressivity".
There is considerable argument over whether his depiction of "supermen" (male characters with huge sexual organs and muscles) is facile and distasteful, or whether there is a deeper complexity in the work which plays with and subverts those stereotypes. For example, some critics have noted instances of apparent tenderness between traditionally tough, masculine characters, or playful smiles in sado-masochistic scenes.
In either case, there remains a large constituency who admire the work on a purely utilitarian basis; as described by Rob Meijer, owner of a leathershop and art gallery in Amsterdam, "These works are not conversation pieces, they're masturbation pieces."
Writing for Artforum, Kevin Killian said that seeing Tom of Finland originals "produces a strong respect for his nimble, witty creation". Kate Wolf writes that "Tom of Finland helped pave the way to gay liberation".
Cultural impact and legacy
In 1995, Tom of Finland Clothing Company introduced a fashion line based on his works, which covers a wide array of looks besides the typified cutoff-jeans-and-jacket style of his drawings. The fashion line balances the original homoeroticism of the drawings with mainstream fashion culture, and their runway shows occur in many of the venues during the same times as other fashion companies.
In 2009, Laaksonen was inducted into the Leather Hall of Fame.
Some of his original works are at the Leather Archives and Museum.
Exhibitions
New York's Museum of Modern Art has acquired several examples of Laaksonen's artwork for its permanent collection. In 2006, MoMA in New York accepted five Tom of Finland drawings as part of a much larger gift from The Judith Rothschild Foundation. The trustee of The Judith Rothschild Foundation, Harvey S. Shipley Miller, said, "Tom of Finland is one of the five most influential artists of the twentieth century. As an artist he was superb, as an influence he was transcendent." Hudson, of Feature Inc., New York, placed Tom of Finland's work in the collections of Rhode Island School of Design Museum of Art and Art Institute of Chicago. His work is also in the public Collections of: The Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles, USA; Wäinö Aaltonen Museum of Art; Turku, Finland; University of California Berkeley Art Museum, Berkeley (California), USA; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, USA; Kiasma, Museum of Contemporary Art, Helsinki, Finland; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, USA; and Tom of Finland Foundation, Los Angeles, USA.
In 1999, an exhibition took place at the Institut Culturel Finlandais (Finnish Cultural Centre) in Paris.
In 2011 there was a large retrospective exhibition of Laaksonen's artwork in Turku, Finland. The exhibition was one of the official events in Turku's European Capital of Culture programme.
In 2012, Kulturhuset presented a retrospective, Tom of Finland, in Stockholm, Sweden; and Tom of Finland's work was in the Robert Rauschenberg Foundation's We the People in New York City, USA.
In 2013, MOCA presented Bob Mizer & Tom of Finland in Los Angeles, USA. The artist's work was also seen in HAPPY BIRTHDAY Galerie Perrotin – 25 years in Lille, France; Leslie Lohman Museum's Rare and Raw in New York City, USA; and the Institute of Contemporary Art's Keep Your Timber Limber (Works on Paper) in London, England.
In 2015, Artists Space presented the exhibition "Tom of Finland: The Pleasure of Play" in New York City, USA. The exhibition was also presented in Kunsthalle Helsinki in 2016, complemented with additional material such as photos from family albums.
In 2020, as part of the 100th birthday celebrations, "Tom of Finland: Love and Liberation" at London's House of Illustration showed 40 originals with ephemera emphasizing fashion as an aspect of his work.
Film
In 1991, Filmitakomo and Yleisradio produced a documentary film, Daddy and the Muscle Academy, directed by Ilppo Pohjola. By the late 1980s, Laaksonen was well known in the gay world, but his "pneumatically muscled, meticulously rendered monster-donged icons of masculinity" received mainstream attention when the film – which includes hundreds of images of his work along with interviews – was released theatrically in Finland, won a Finnish Jussi Award in 1992, and was shown at film festivals and film art houses worldwide. While praising the artwork's quality one critic noted the film's lauding of Laaksonen as a gay pride icon while ignoring his work's "resemblance to both S & M pornography and Fascist art" which she tied to Laaksonen's early sexual experiences with German soldiers during World War II.
Filmmaker Wes Hurley credits Tom of Finland as an influence in his work, including his short Peter and the Wolf and his cult comedy musical Waxie Moon in Fallen Jewel.
Variety announced in 2013 that Finnish director Dome Karukoski was set to make a biopic of Laaksonen, entitled Tom of Finland. Helsinki-filmi produced it and secured exclusive rights. The film, released in February 2017 in Finland, is the first biopic of the artist.
Stamps
In September 2014 the Finnish postal service, Itella Posti, published a set of three first class stamps featuring drawings by Laaksonen and in association with the stamps' release exhibited some of his correspondence at the Finnish Postal Museum. Two of the stamps include portions of an illustration of a nude man sitting between the legs of another man dressed as a police officer; the other depicts nude buttocks with a man's face included between the thighs. The stamp set exceeded Posti's expectations, with pre-orders from 178 countries, making it the best-selling stamp set in the service's history.
Videography
Ilppo Pohjola (author): Kari Paljakka and Alvaro Pardo (producers): Daddy and the Muscle Academy: Tom of Finland. Filmitakomo & YLE, Finland 1991. (Duration of Feature: 58 Minutes. Also features frames of Laaksonen's graphic art.)
See also
Bara (genre)
Beefcake magazines
ONE National Gay & Lesbian Archives
Notes
References
Ramakers, Mischa. Dirty Pictures: Tom of Finland, Masculinity and Homosexuality. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.
Tom of Finland: The Art of Pleasure. Mischa Ramakers, ed. London: Taschen, 1998,
Tom of Finland: The Comic Collection. Vol. 1–5. Dian Hanson, ed. London: Taschen, 2005.
Further reading
External links
Grave of Touko Laaksonen
Tom of Finland Foundation
1920 births
1991 deaths
Fetish artists
Finnish cartoonists
Finnish erotic artists
Gay male BDSM
Gay male erotica artists
Leather subculture
LGBT comics creators
Finnish gay artists
People from Kaarina
Pseudonymous artists
Finnish military personnel of World War II
Deaths from emphysema
Respiratory disease deaths in Finland
20th-century Finnish LGBT people
20th-century Finnish male artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal%20Tjader
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Cal Tjader
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Callen Radcliffe Tjader Jr. ( ; July 16, 1925 – May 5, 1982) was an American Latin Jazz musician, often described as the most successful non-Latino Latin musician. He explored other jazz idioms, especially small group modern jazz, even as he continued to perform music of Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America.
Tjader played the vibraphone primarily, and was accomplished on the drums, bongos, congas, timbales, and the piano. He worked with many musicians from several cultures. He is often linked to the development of Latin rock and acid jazz. Although fusing Jazz with Latin music is often categorized as "Latin Jazz", Tjader's works swung freely between both styles. His Grammy award in 1980 for his album La Onda Va Bien capped off a career that spanned over 40 years.
Early years (1925–1943)
Callen Radcliffe Tjader Jr. was born July 16, 1925, in St. Louis to touring Swedish American vaudevillians. His father tap danced and his mother played piano, a husband-wife team going from city to city with their troupe to earn a living. When he was two, Tjader's parents settled in San Mateo, California, and opened a dance studio. His mother (who dreamed of becoming a concert pianist) instructed him in classical piano and his father taught him to tap dance. He performed around the Bay Area as "Tjader Junior", a tap-dancing wunderkind. He performed a brief non-speaking role dancing alongside Bill "Bojangles" Robinson in the film The White of the Dark Cloud of Joy.
He joined a Dixieland band and played around the Bay Area. At age sixteen, he entered a Gene Krupa drum solo contest, making it to the finals and ultimately winning by playing "Drum Boogie". But the win was overshadowed by the attack on Pearl Harbor that morning.
Navy and college (1940s)
Tjader entered the United States Navy in 1943 at age 17 and served as a medical corpsman in the Pacific Theater until March 1946. He saw action in five invasions, including the Marianas campaign and the Battle of the Philippines. Upon his return he enrolled at San Jose State College (now San José State University) under the G.I. Bill, majoring in education. Later he transferred to San Francisco State College, still intending to teach. It was there he took timpani lessons, his only formal music training.
At San Francisco State, he met Dave Brubeck, a young pianist also fresh from a stint in the Army. Brubeck introduced Tjader to Paul Desmond. The three connected with more players and formed the Dave Brubeck Octet with Tjader on drums. Although the group recorded only one album and had difficulty finding work, the recording is regarded as important due to its early glimpse at these soon-to-be-legendary jazz greats. After the octet disbanded, Tjader and Brubeck formed a trio, performing jazz standards in the hope of finding more work. The Dave Brubeck Trio succeeded and became a fixture in the San Francisco jazz scene. Tjader taught himself the vibraphone during this period, alternating between it and the drums depending on the song.
Sideman (1951–1954)
Brubeck suffered major injuries in a diving accident in 1951 in Hawaii and the trio was forced to dissolve. Tjader continued the trio work in California with bassist Jack Weeks from Brubeck's trio and pianists John Marabuto or Vince Guaraldi, recording his first 10" LP as a leader with them for Fantasy, but soon worked with Alvino Rey and completed his degree at San Francisco State. Jazz pianist George Shearing recruited Tjader in 1953 when Joe Roland left his group. Al McKibbon was a member of Shearing's band at the time and he and Tjader encouraged Shearing to add Cuban percussionists. Tjader played bongos as well as the vibes: "Drum Trouble" was his bongo solo feature. Down Beat's 1953 Critics Poll nominated him as best New Star on the vibes. His next 10" LP as a leader was recorded for Savoy during that time, as well as his first Latin Jazz for a Fantasy 10" LP. While in New York City, bassist Al McKibbon took Tjader to see the Afro-Cuban big bands led by Machito and Chico O'Farrill, both at the forefront of the nascent Latin jazz sound. In New York he met Mongo Santamaría and Willie Bobo who were members of Tito Puente's orchestra at the time.
Leader (1954–1962)
Tjader soon quit Shearing after a gig at the San Francisco jazz club the Blackhawk. In April 1954, he formed the Cal Tjader Modern Mambo Quintet. The members were brothers Manuel Duran and Carlos Duran on piano and bass respectively, Benny Velarde on timbales, bongos, and congas, and Edgard Rosales on congas (Luis Miranda replaced Rosales after the first year). Back in San Francisco and recording for Fantasy Records, the group produced several albums in rapid succession, including Mambo with Tjader.
The Mambo craze reached its pitch in the late 1950s, a boon to Tjader's career. Unlike the exotica of Martin Denny and Les Baxter, music billed as "impressions of" Oceania (and other locales), Tjader's bands featured seasoned Cuban players and top-notch jazz talent conversant in both idioms. He cut several notable straight-ahead jazz albums for Fantasy using various group names, most notably the Cal Tjader Quartet (composed of bassist Gene Wright, drummer Al Torre, and pianist Vince Guaraldi). Tjader is sometimes lumped in as part of the West Coast (or "cool") jazz sound, although his rhythms and tempos (both Latin and bebop) had little in common with the work of Los Angeles jazzmen Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, or Art Pepper.
Tjader and his band opened the second Monterey Jazz Festival in 1959 with an acclaimed "preview" concert. The first festival had suffered financially. Tjader is credited with bringing in big ticket sales for the second and saving the landmark festival before it had even really started. The Modern Mambo Quintet disbanded within a couple of years. Tjader formed several more small-combo bands, playing regularly at such San Francisco jazz clubs as the Blackhawk.
Verve and Skye Records (1960s)
After recording for Fantasy for nearly a decade, Tjader signed with better-known Verve Records, founded by Norman Granz but owned then by MGM. With the luxury of larger budgets and seasoned recording producer Creed Taylor in the control booth, Tjader cut a varied string of albums. During the Verve years Tjader worked with arrangers Oliver Nelson, Claus Ogerman, Eddie Palmieri, Lalo Schifrin, Don Sebesky, and performers Willie Bobo, Donald Byrd, Clare Fischer, a young Chick Corea, Jimmy Heath, Kenny Burrell, Hank Jones, Anita O'Day, Armando Peraza, Jerome Richardson and others. Tjader recorded with big band orchestras for the first time, and even made an album based on Asian scales and rhythms.
His biggest success was the album Soul Sauce (1964). Its title track, a Dizzy Gillespie cover Tjader had been toying with for over a decade, was a radio hit (hitting the top 20 on New York's influential pop music station WMCA in May 1965), and landed the album on Billboard's Top 50 Albums of 1965. Titled "Guachi Guaro" (a nonsensical phrase in Spanish), Tjader transformed the Gillespie/Chano Pozo composition into something new. (The name "Soul Sauce" came from Taylor's suggestion for a catchier title and Willie Bobo's observation that Tjader's version was spicier than the original.) The song's identifiable sound is a combination of the call-outs made by Bobo ("Salsa ahi na ma ... sabor, sabor!") and Tjader's crisp vibes work. The album sold over 100,000 copies and popularized the word salsa in describing Latin dance music.
The 1960s were Tjader's most prolific period. With the backing of a major record label, Verve, he could afford to stretch out and expand his repertoire. The most obvious deviation from his Latin jazz sound was Several Shades of Jade (1963) and the follow-up Breeze From the East (1963). Both albums attempted to combine jazz and Asian music, much as Tjader and others had done with Afro-Cuban. The result was dismissed by the critics, chided as little more than the dated exotica that had come and gone in the prior decade. Tjader also recorded a notable straight modern jazz live album Saturday Night/ Sunday Night at the Blackhawk, San Francisco with his regular quartet in 1962.
Other experiments were not so easily dismissed. Tjader teamed up with New Yorker Eddie Palmieri in 1966 to produce El Sonido Nuevo ("The New Sound"). A companion LP was recorded for Palmieri's contract label, Tico, titled Bamboleate. While Tjader's prior work was often dismissed as "Latin lounge", here the duo created a darker, more sinister sound. Cal Tjader Plays The Contemporary Music Of Mexico And Brazil (1962), released during the bossa nova craze, actually bucked the trend, instead using more traditional arrangements from the two countries' past. In the late 1960s Tjader, along with guitarist Gábor Szabó and Gary McFarland, helped to found the short-lived Skye record label. Tjader's work of this period is characterized by Solar Heat (1968) and Tjader Plugs In (1969), precursors to acid jazz.
Fusion years (1970s)
During the 1970s Tjader returned to Fantasy Records, the label he began with in 1954. Embracing the jazz fusion sound that was becoming its own subgenre at the time, he added electronic instruments to his lineup and began to employ rock beats behind his arrangements. His most notable album during this period is Amazonas (1975) (produced by Brazilian percussionist Airto Moreira). He played on the soundtrack to the 1972 animated film Fritz the Cat, most notably on the track entitled "Mamblues". In 1976, Tjader recorded several live shows performed at Grace Cathedral, San Francisco. Like the Monterey Jazz Festival show, he played a mix of jazz standards and Latin arrangements. Later he toured Japan with saxophonist Art Pepper, the latter recovering from alcohol and drug dependencies.
Final years (1979 to 1982)
Carl Jefferson, president of Concord Records, created a subsidiary label called Concord Picante to promote and distribute Tjader's work. Unlike his excursions in the 1960s and his jazz-rock attempts in the 1970s, Tjader's Concord Picante work was largely straight-ahead Latin jazz. Electronic instruments and rock backbeats were dropped, reverting to a more "classic" sound. During the prior decade he'd built up a crew of young musicians consisting of Mark Levine on piano, Roger Glenn on flute, Vince Lateano on drums, Robb Fisher on the bass, and Poncho Sanchez on the congas.
Tjader cut five albums for Concord Picante, the most successful being La Onda Va Bien (1979) (roughly "The Good Life"), produced by Carl Jefferson and Frank Dorritie, which earned a Grammy award in 1980 for Best Latin Recording. The A section of Tjader's "Sabor" is a 2-3 onbeat/offbeat guajeo, minus some notes.
Tjader died on tour. On the road with his band in Manila, he collapsed from the third of a series of heart attacks, and died on May 5, 1982, aged 56.
Tjader's legacy is associated with that of Gábor Szabó and Gary McFarland, who worked and founded Skye Records together (the PANDORA archive spells Szabó without the acute accent). The American hip-hop band A Tribe Called Quest sampled Tjader's "Aquarius" (from The Prophet) as an outro to most of the songs on their album Midnight Marauders.
According to one estimation, Tjader's work has been sampled in 214 tracks.
Discography
Albums
The Cal Tjader Trio (Fantasy, 1953) – recorded in 1951
Cal Tjader: Vibist (Savoy, 1954)
Cal Tjader Plays Afro-Cuban (Fantasy, 1954)
Tjader Plays Mambo (Fantasy, 1954)
Mambo with Tjader (Fantasy, 1954)
Tjader Plays Tjazz (Fantasy, 1955)
Ritmo Caliente! (Fantasy, 1955)
Cal Tjader Quartet (Fantasy, 1956)
The Cal Tjader Quintet (Fantasy, 1956)
Jazz at the Blackhawk (Fantasy, 1957)
Cal Tjader's Latin Kick (Fantasy, 1957)
Cal Tjader (Fantasy, 1957)
Más Ritmo Caliente (Fantasy, 1958)
Cal Tjader-Stan Getz Sextet (Fantasy, 1958) with Stan Getz
San Francisco Moods (Fantasy, 1958)
Cal Tjader's Latin Concert (Fantasy, 1958)
Latin for Lovers: Cal Tjader with Strings (Fantasy, 1958)
Latin for Dancers (Fantasy, 1958) compilation
A Night at the Blackhawk (Fantasy, 1958)
Tjader Goes Latin (Fantasy, 1958)
Concert by the Sea, Vol. 1 (Fantasy, 1959)
Concert by the Sea, Vol. 2 (Fantasy, 1959)
Concert on the Campus (Fantasy, 1960)
Demasiado Caliente (Fantasy, 1960)
West Side Story (Fantasy, 1960)
In a Latin Bag (Verve, 1961)
Live and Direct (Fantasy, 1962)
Cal Tjader Plays, Mary Stallings Sings (Fantasy, 1962) with Mary Stallings
Cal Tjader Plays Harold Arlen (Fantasy, 1962)
Latino (Fantasy, 1962)
Saturday Night/Sunday Night at the Blackhawk, San Francisco (Verve, 1962)
Cal Tjader Plays the Contemporary Music of Mexico and Brazil (Verve, 1962)
Time for 2 (Verve, 1962) with Anita O'Day
Several Shades of Jade (Verve, 1963)
Soña Libré (Verve, 1963)
Breeze from the East (Verve, 1964)
Warm Wave (Verve, 1964)
Soul Sauce (Verve, 1964)
Soul Bird: Whiffenpoof (Verve, 1965)
Soul Burst (Verve, 1966)
El Sonido Nuevo (Verve, 1966) with Eddie Palmieri
Bamboléate (Tico Records, 1967) with Eddie Palmieri
Along Comes Cal (Verve, 1967)
Hip Vibrations (Verve, 1967)
The Prophet (Verve, 1968)
Solar Heat (Skye, 1968)
Cal Tjader Sounds Out Burt Bacharach (Skye, 1969)
Cal Tjader Plugs In (At The Lighthouse, Hermosa Beach, California, February 20–21, 1969) (Skye, 1969)
Tjader (Fantasy, 1970)
Agua Dulce (Fantasy, 1971)
Descarga (Fantasy, 1971)
Live at the Funky Quarters (Fantasy, 1972)
Doxy (Verve, 1973)
Primo (Fantasy, 1973)
Last Bolero in Berkeley (Fantasy, 1973)
Tambu (Fantasy, 1973) with Charlie Byrd
Puttin' It Together: Recorded Live at Concerts By the Sea (Fantasy, 1973)
Last Night When We Were Young (Fantasy, 1975)
Amazonas (Fantasy, 1975)
Grace Cathedral Concert (Fantasy, 1976)
Guarabe (Fantasy, 1977)
Breathe Easy (Galaxy, 1977)
Here [live] (Galaxy, 1977)
Huracán (Crystal Clear, 1978; reissue: Laserlight, 1990)
La Onda Va Bien (Concord Picante, 1979)
Gózame! Pero Ya (Concord Picante, 1980)
The Shining Sea (Concord Picante, 1981)
A Fuego Vivo (Concord Picante, 1981)
Heat Wave (Concord Jazz, 1982) with Carmen McRae
Good Vibes (Concord Picante, 1984; recorded 1981)
Latin + Jazz = Cal Tjader (Dunhill Compact Classics/DCC, 1990) – recorded in 1968 (Skye)
Concerts in the Sun (Fantasy, 2002) – recorded in 1960
Cuban Fantasy (Fantasy, 2003) – live recorded in 1977
Live at the Monterey Jazz Festival 1958–1980 (Concord Jazz, 2008)
With Ed Bogas
Fritz the Cat (soundtrack) (Fantasy, 1972)
With Dave Brubeck
Dave Brubeck Octet (Fantasy, 1956) – recorded in 1946–50
Dave Brubeck Trio (Fantasy, 1950)
Distinctive Rhythm Instrumentals (Fantasy, 1950)
With Rosemary Clooney
With Love (Concord Jazz, 1981)
Rosemary Clooney Sings the Music of Cole Porter (Concord Jazz, 1982)
With Dizzy Gillespie
Highlights of the 18th Annual Monterey Jazz Festival 1975 (Storyville DVD, 2007)
With Woody Herman
Woody Herman Presents: A Concord Jam, Volume 1 (Concord Jazz, 1981)
With Eiji Kitamura
Seven Stars (Concord Jazz, 1981)
With Charles Mingus
Charles 'Barron' Mingus, West Coast, 1945–49 (Uptown, 2002)
With Toshiyuki Miyama
The New Herd at Monterey (Nadja [Japan], 1974)
With Brew Moore
The Brew Moore Quintet (Fantasy, 1956)
Brew Moore (Fantasy, 1957)
With Vido Musso
Vido Musso Sextet (Fantasy, 1952)
With Art Pepper
Tokyo Debut [live] (Galaxy, 1995]) – recorded in 1977
With Armando Peraza
Wild Thing (Skye, 1969)
With Tito Puente
Tito Puente & His Orchestra Live at the 1977 Monterey Jazz Festival (Concord Jazz, 2008)
With George Shearing
An Evening with the George Shearing Quintet (MGM, 1954)
A Shearing Caravan (MGM, 1955)
When Lights are Low (MGM, 1955)
Shearing in Hi-Fi (MGM, 1955)
Tribute albums
Louie Ramirez: Tribute to Cal Tjader (Caimán, 1986)
Clare Fischer: Tjaderama (Discovery, 1987)
Poncho Sanchez: Soul Sauce: Memories of Cal Tjader (Concord Jazz, 1995)
Dave Samuels: Tjader-ized : A Cal Tjader Tribute (Verve, 1998)
Gary Burton: For Hamp, Red, Bags, and Cal (Concord Jazz, 2001)
Paquito D'Rivera and his Latin Jazz Ensemble with Louie Ramírez: A Tribute to Cal Tjader (Yemayá, 2003)
Mike Freeman ZonaVibe ''"Blue Tjade" (VOF Recordings, 2015)
Notes
References
External links
– official site
Cal Tjader complete discography from Music City
Cal Tjader at Space Age Pop
Early Tales and Sketches (excerpt), referring to Dr. Anton Tjader
1925 births
1982 deaths
Cool jazz drummers
Latin jazz musicians
Latin jazz pianists
Bossa nova pianists
Jazz percussionists
American jazz vibraphonists
American jazz drummers
Jazz musicians from California
American people of Swedish descent
San Francisco State University alumni
Musicians from St. Louis
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers
Grammy Award winners
Savoy Records artists
Skye Records artists
Concord Records artists
Galaxy Records artists
American percussionists
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
American multi-instrumentalists
Jazz musicians from Missouri
Male pianists
20th-century pianists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Jazz vibraphonists
People from San Mateo, California
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406541
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Nek
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Battle of the Nek
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The Battle of the Nek () was a minor battle that took place on 7 August 1915, during the Gallipoli campaign of World War I. "The Nek" was a narrow stretch of ridge on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The name derives from the Afrikaans word for a "mountain pass" but the terrain itself was a perfect bottleneck and easy to defend, as had been proven during an Ottoman attack in June. It connected Australian and New Zealand trenches on the ridge known as "Russell's Top" to the knoll called "Baby 700" on which the Ottoman defenders were entrenched.
The campaign on the Gallipoli Peninsula had begun in April 1915, but over the following months had developed into a stalemate. In an effort to break the deadlock, the British and their allies launched an offensive to capture the Sari Bair range. As part of this effort, a feint attack by Australian troops was planned at the Nek to support New Zealand troops assaulting Chunuk Bair.
Early on 7 August 1915, two regiments of the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade, one of the formations under the command of Major General Alexander Godley for the offensive, mounted a futile bayonet attack on the Ottoman trenches on Baby 700. Due to poor co-ordination and inflexible decision making, the Australians suffered heavy casualties for no gain. A total of 600 Australians took part in the assault, assaulting in four waves; 372 were killed or wounded. Ottoman casualties were negligible.
Prelude
Geography
A narrow saddle, the Nek connected the Australian and New Zealand trenches on Walker's Ridge at a plateau designated as "Russell's Top" (known as Yuksek Sirt to the Ottomans) to the knoll called "Baby 700" (Kilic Bayir), on which the Ottoman defenders were entrenched in what the historian Chris Coulthard-Clark describes as "the strongest position at Anzac". The immediate area was known to the British and Empire troops as the Anzac sector, and the allied landing site was dubbed Anzac Cove, after the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. The Nek was between wide; on each side, the ground sloped steeply down to deep valleys below. These valleys were Monash Valley to the south and Malone's Gulley to the north.
The name given to the feature by Australian troops – the Nek – derives from the Afrikaans word for "mountain pass" and according to Glenn Wahlert was "likely coined by veterans of the South African war". The Turkish name for the Nek was Cesarettepe. It was well suited to defence, with no vegetation, and providing the defenders good observation and fields of fire along a narrow frontage. The ground was bare and covered in pot-holes, and on a slight slope. The difficult nature of the terrain had been highlighted earlier in the campaign, initially when a battalion of the Turkish 57th Regiment had suffered heavy casualties during a failed counter-attack in April. After the 19 May Ottoman counter-attack, Major-General Alexander Godley had ordered an attack by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade across the Nek, but Brigadier General Andrew Russell (after whom Russell's Top was named) had convinced him to abandon this over concerns of the commanders of both the Wellington and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiments. Another unsuccessful attack resulting in heavy casualties had been made by the Turkish 18th Regiment across the Nek on the night of 30 June. Despite these incidents, the challenges of attacking the Nek were not fully appreciated by Allied commanders when formulating the plan for the August Offensive.
The Australian line at Russell's Top lay just below the Nek and extended . The right of the line lay opposite the Ottoman position across flat ground; it was described by Les Carlyon as a "conventional trench" and was deep enough that wooden hand and footholds had been attached to the wall of the trench to enable the assaulting troops to climb out. On the left of the Australian line, the line sloped away into dead ground where the Australians had established what Carlyon describes as a "ditch without a parapet" that was obscured from view with vegetation and earth.
The Ottoman front line at the Nek consisted of two lines of trenches, with machine guns positioned on the flanks on spur lines, which provided clear fields of fire into no man's land in front of the Ottoman position. Behind this another eight trenches existed, tiered along the slopes towards Baby 700. At least five groups of machine guns – approximately 30 altogether – were located in the area, providing direct fire support to the Ottoman troops holding the Nek. These positions were widely dispersed and positioned in depth, at least from the Ottoman front line. The commanders of the two Ottoman regiments occupying positions around the Nek had chosen not to cover their trenches, despite orders from their divisional headquarters, due to concerns that a bombardment would collapse the roofs and block communication through the trenches, similar to what had occurred at Lone Pine.
Strategic situation and planning
For the three months since the 25 April landings, the Anzac beachhead had been a stalemate. On 19 May, Ottoman troops had attempted to break the deadlock with a counter-attack on Anzac Cove, but had suffered heavy casualties. In August, an Allied offensive (which later became known as the Battle of Sari Bair) was intended to break the deadlock by capturing the high ground of the Sari Bair range, and linking the Anzac front with a new landing to the north at Suvla. Along with the main advance north out of the Anzac perimeter, supporting attacks were planned from the existing trench positions. Higher-level conceptual planning for the offensive was undertaken by the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, Lieutenant General William Birdwood, and Colonel Andrew Skeen; more detailed tactical planning devolved to other staff. Tactical command of the offensive to secure Sari Bair was given to Godley, who was at the time in command of the New Zealand and Australian Division.
As part of the effort to secure Baby 700, Godley, assisted by Birdwood, planned a breakthrough from the Nek. The official Australian historian Charles Bean writes that concerns about "attacking unaided" meant that plans were made to co-ordinate the attack with other actions. The attack at the Nek was meant to coincide with an attack by New Zealand troops from Chunuk Bair, which was to be captured during the night. The light horsemen were to attack across the Nek to Baby 700 while the New Zealanders descended from the rear from Chunuk Bair onto Battleship Hill, the next knoll above Baby 700. Other attacks were to be made by the 1st Light Horse Brigade at Pope's Hill and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade at Quinn's Post.
The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was chosen for the attack at the Nek. This formation was commanded by Colonel Frederic Hughes, and consisted of the 8th, 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments. For the attack, the 8th and 10th would provide the assault troops, while the 9th was placed in reserve. Some of its machine guns, positioned on Turk's Point, about from the Nek, would provide direct fire support during the attack. Like the other Australian Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles formations, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been dispatched to Gallipoli in May as infantry reinforcements, leaving their horses in Egypt. The area around the Nek was held by the 18th Regiment, under the command of Major Mustafa Bey. The regiment formed part of Mustafa Kemal's Ottoman 19th Division. The 27th Regiment, under Lieutenant Colonel Sefik Bey, also held part of the line south from the Nek to Quinn's Post (Bomba Sirt).
Godley's orders for the attack stipulated that the attack would be made with bayonets and grenades only; rifles would be unloaded. This was, according to Roland Perry, designed to "influence the troopers to keep running at the [Ottoman] trenches" and ultimately meant they could not stop and fire. Planners envisaged four waves of troops attacking from Russell's Top across the Nek. The first wave would use the cover of a naval bombardment to approach the trenches silently and quickly while the defenders were dazed, and would capture the trench with bayonets and grenades. The second wave would then pass through the first to capture trenches on the lower slopes of Baby 700. The third and fourth waves would exploit further and would dig-in, with ultimate goal of securing the heights away on Baby 700. The British 8th Battalion, Cheshire Regiment, was to consolidate positions on the Nek afterwards, while two companies from the 8th Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers would advance up the western part of Monash Valley and carry out an attack around the "Chessboard" – to the south of the Nek – to cover the southern flank of the Australians on the Nek.
Preparations for the attack began several days earlier when the troopers were ordered to stow unnecessary clothing, including woollen tunics, and equipment. This resulted in the men living in the trenches for several cold nights in just shirts and short pants. Each man was authorised to carry 200 rounds of ammunition, as well as a small amount of personal rations. Assault equipment included wire cutters, empty sandbags, ladders, and periscopes; only the fourth and final assault line would carry entrenching tools. The light horsemen had not participated in a large-scale attack before; they had not been trained to fight like infantrymen, having been recruited to fight in a mounted role, but they were all keen and eager for the attack to commence. Encouraged by earlier efforts by compatriots at Lone Pine, the troops were spurred on by the brigade major, Lieutenant Colonel John Antill, a Boer War veteran who encouraged them with stories from that war. Many soldiers who had been injured or ill, and were in hospital, ensured they were released and returned to their units in time to take part. In this climate, nobody questioned the tactics of the plan, contingencies, or the efficacy of attacking without loaded weapons. Prior to the assault, each man was given a double issue of rum to warm up.
Battle
The attack was scheduled to commence at 04:30 on 7 August. It was to be preceded by a naval bombardment, supported by field guns from several shore based batteries. The 8th and 10th Light Horse Regiments assembled in a trench about long, opposite the Ottoman line that was between away. Coloured marker flags were carried, to be shown from the captured trenches to indicate success. To help the supporting artillery to identify the attacking Australian troops, the attackers attached white armbands and patches to their shirts.
On the morning of 7 August, it was clear that the prerequisites for the attack had not been met. The initial concept of operations for the August offensive required a simultaneous attack from the rear of Baby 700, thereby creating a hammer and anvil effect on the Ottoman trenches caught in between this pincer movement. Because the New Zealand advance on Chunuk Bair had been held up and failed to reach Chunuk Bair, the troops assaulting the Nek would have to do so alone if the attack was to continue. The New Zealanders had made some progress, though, having captured the lower part of Rhododendron Spur and it was hoped that Chunuk Bair could still be carried; as a result, Birdwood and Skeen decided it was important for the attack on the Nek to proceed as a feint – rather than a pincer – to assist the New Zealanders at Chunuk Bair, while the Australians and Indians from other formations also attacked Hill 971. British troops were also landing at Suvla Bay, having commenced their operation the night before (6 August).
A further part of the plan required an attack from Steele's Post through several tunnels against German Officers' Trench by the Lieutenant Colonel Gordon Bennett's 6th Battalion (2nd Infantry Brigade of the Australian 1st Division). The Ottoman machine guns sited there enfiladed the ground in front of Quinn's Post and the Nek and the 6th Battalion's attack was conceived as a preliminary supporting move to suppress Ottoman fire onto the Nek to assist the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's. Planners had requested that this attack be conducted simultaneously with the attack at the Nek, but Birdwood had decided it should be conducted prior. The failure of this attack meant that Ottoman machine guns supporting the 18th Regiment around the Nek remained intact. Nonetheless, Birdwood declared that the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's attack was to proceed, albeit with some modifications. This would see the Australian light horsemen become the right flank of the assault on Chunuk Bair, linking in with the New Zealand Infantry Brigade on Rhododendron Spur.
Following the decision to proceed, at 04:00 field artillery and howitzers began firing from the beachhead around Anzac Cove onto the Ottoman trenches around the Nek. These guns were then joined by several warships, including a destroyer, which opened fire on the Nek and other positions around Baby 700. This continued at a steady and deliberate rate until 04:27, when the intensity rose. Due to the proximity of the two sides' trenches, the shells mostly landed behind the first line of Ottoman trenches. Bean describes the bombardment as the heaviest since 2 May; but Carlyon notes that no battleships were assigned to the shelling due to the proximity of the Australian trenches, and describes it as "'desultory' and a 'joke'", citing an officer from the 9th Light Horse Regiment, who were in reserve for the attack.
According to Bean, owing to a failure to co-ordinate timings, the field artillery preparation of the forward positions ceased at 04:23, although the naval guns continued to engage some of the depth targets. While the original plan had been for the attack to begin as soon as the artillery had stopped, local commanders did not adjust their plans following the early cutoff of preparatory fires and the attack was not launched until the appointed time of 04:30. After the artillery firing ceased, no-one in the assaulting force knew if the bombardment was to continue. It was later discovered that the synchronisation of watches between the artillery officer and the assault officer was overlooked. As the attack was not launched as soon as the bombardment ceased, but instead held back until the planned time of 04:30, the Ottoman defenders had ample time to return to their trenches – which were largely undamaged – and prepare for the assault that they now knew was coming.
At the appointed time, the first wave of 150 men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment, led by their commander, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Henry White, "hopped the bags" and went over the top. They were met with a hail of machine gun and rifle fire and, within 30 seconds, White and all of his men were gunned down. A few men reached the Ottoman trenches, where they began to hurl grenades and marker flags were reportedly seen flying around the south-eastern corner of the Ottoman trench line, but the men were quickly overwhelmed by the Ottoman defenders.
At this stage, the futility of the effort became clear to those in the second wave and, according to Carlyon, the attack should have been called off at this point. The second wave of 150 followed the first without question two minutes later and met the same fate, almost all the men being cut down by heavy rifle and machine gun fire before they got halfway to the Ottoman trench. This contrasted with the simultaneous attack by the 2nd Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) at Quinn's Post, against the Ottoman trench system known as "The Chessboard", which was abandoned after 49 out of the 50 men in the first wave became casualties. In this case, the regiment's commander had not gone in the first wave and so was able to make the decision to cancel further attacks.
As the third wave, consisting of men from the 10th Light Horse Regiment, began assembling in the forward trench, two Ottoman field artillery pieces began firing into no man's land. Lieutenant Colonel Noel Brazier, commander of the 10th Light Horse Regiment, attempted to have the third wave cancelled. He was unable to find Hughes – who had moved to an observation post – and instead found Antill. A strong personality, Antill exerted a large amount of influence within Hughes' command, and had a personal dislike of Brazier, who he felt was being insubordinate in questioning orders. Antill had received the reports that marker flags, implying success, had been sighted. This report of marker flags was subsequently confirmed in a Turkish article published after the war, where it was stated by the commander of the Turkish 27th Regiment that a couple of men with a marker flag reached the Ottoman trench and raised the flag, but were killed. Antill had not checked the scene to establish if it was of any use to send the next wave, nor did he confirm if the marker flags were still in place, and after heated words with Brazier issued the order for the third wave to proceed without referring the matter to Hughes. Without being able to speak to Godley, who was at his headquarters on the beach, Brazier returned to the forward Australian position at Russell's Top and gave the order for the third wave to attack, telling them "Sorry, lads, but the order is to go".
The assault by the third wave was launched at 04:45, and came to a quick end as before. Brazier made another attempt to reason with Antill, as did the 10th Light Horse Regiment's second-in-command, Major Allan Love. Again Antill ordered the men forward. This time, Brazier conferred with several majors and then went forward to find Hughes, who called off the attack. Meanwhile, the troops assigned to the fourth wave assembled on the fire-step of the forward Australian trench; amidst much confusion the right hand side of the line charged before Hughes' order could reach them. The troops on the left followed them shortly afterwards, but according to Bean many of them adopted a more cautious approach, "keeping low and not running".
Briefly, Hughes entertained detaching a force via Monash Valley to support the British attack towards the "Chessboard" but this was eventually abandoned. In the aftermath, the ridge between Russell's Top and the Turkish trenches was covered with dead and wounded Australian soldiers, most of whom remained where they fell for the duration of the war. Recovering the wounded during the daylight proved largely impossible and many of those who lay injured on the battlefield succumbed in the intense heat. Some troops that had fallen into defiladed positions were recovered, but mostly the wounded had to wait until night. Under the cover of darkness, stretcher bearers were able to venture out to recover some of the wounded, others of whom were able to crawl back to the Australian trenches. A total of 138 wounded were saved. Of these, one who had been wounded in the ankle made it back to Australian lines two nights later; he was among three men to have made it to the Ottoman firing line on the right. Another Australian, Lieutenant E.G. Wilson, is known to have reached the left trench where he was killed by an Ottoman grenade.
Aftermath
A further consequence of the failure to call off the attack at the Nek was that the supporting attack by two companies of the Royal Welch Fusiliers was launched from the head of Monash Valley, between Russell's Top and Pope's Hill, against the "Chessboard" trenches. Sixty-five casualties were incurred before the attack was aborted around 06:00. The Australians charged with unloaded rifles with fixed bayonets and were unable to fire; in contrast the volume of fire they faced was, according to Bean, the most intense the Australians faced throughout the war. Of the 600 Australians from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade who took part in the attack, the casualties numbered 372; 234 out of 300 men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment, of whom 154 were killed, and 138 out of the 300 men from the 10th, of whom 80 were killed. The Ottoman losses were negligible; Bean notes that the Ottomans suffered no losses during the assault, but afterwards a "large number ... who continued to expose themselves after the attack ... were certainly shot by [Australian] machine guns" from Turk 's Point (to the north of Walker's Ridge and the Nek) and Pope's Hill (to the south). Ottoman losses are placed at around twelve dead.
In analysing the battle, Carlyon writes that the attack failed due to poor planning and appreciation of the ground by Birdwood, Godley and Skeen. John Hamilton writes that in the aftermath, some Australians nicknamed the battleground "Godley's abattoir", holding him responsible for the losses. Perry writes that Godley "on the beach and out of touch, was most culpable", although Carlyon highlights command deficiencies within the Australian brigade as being a key factor, focusing on the role of Hughes and Antill in the decision to continue the attack. Bean, while noting higher-level conceptual errors by Birdwood and Skeen, also concludes that the local commanders were "chiefly responsible" for the large-scale loss of life at the Nek. Carlyon questions why Godley did not heed the lessons highlighted by the Ottoman attack over the same ground on 30 June, pointing out that the Australians were at several disadvantages – attacking up hill, in daylight and against stronger defences – compared to the Ottoman attack on 30 June. He also contrasts Hughes and Antill's unquestioning approach with that of Brigadier General Harold Walker, who was ordered to attack Lone Pine despite his own protests but who critically analysed the problem to give his soldiers the best chance of success.
Bean wrote that the attack was "one of the bravest actions in the history of war", but in terms of its wider impact, according to Carlyon the attack gained no ground and served no strategic purpose. Coulthard-Clark concludes that "at most, the bold display by the light horsemen at the Nek may have impeded for a few hours – but did not prevent – the transfer of Turkish reinforcements towards Chunuk Bair, where the New Zealanders were also engaged in a desperate struggle". Ultimately, the August Offensive failed to break the deadlock and it proved to be the last major attack launched by the Allied forces on the peninsula. Before it concluded, elements of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade – the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments – took part in another costly attack during the Battle of Hill 60. As winter arrived in October, the Allies made plans to evacuate their troops from Gallipoli beginning in December 1915. One of the final Allied offensive actions took place at the Nek during the evacuation when, on 20 December, a large mine was detonated under the Nek by Allied troops, killing 70 Ottoman defenders.
Efforts were made by the Australians to recover their dead throughout the months following the battle, the 20th Battalion managing to recover the bodies of several men from the first wave, including White in October. Most were unrecoverable during the campaign. When Australian Commonwealth burial parties returned to the peninsula in 1919 after the war's end, the bones of the dead light horsemen were still lying thickly on the small piece of ground. The Nek Cemetery now covers most of no-man's land of the tiny battlefield and contains the remains of 316 Australian soldiers, most of whom fell during the 7 August attack; only five could be identified. Trooper Harold Rush of the 10th Light Horse Regiment died in the third wave. His body was one of the few identified, and he is buried in Walker's Ridge Cemetery. His epitaph famously reads: "His last words, Goodbye Cobber, God bless you".
On 25 November 1915, shortly before the decision to completely withdraw from the peninsula, Godley was temporarily promoted to lieutenant general and appointed corps commander. After the evacuation (he left the day before the rest of his troops), in recognition of his services at Gallipoli, he was made Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, second highest of the seven British orders of chivalry.
Post war, the belief that the main reason for the failure of the assault was due to a delay between the artillery bombardment and the attack being launched has been challenged. In 2017, author Graham Wilson discussed the delay at length, analysing various accounts of the assault. In doing so, he reached the conclusion that there are few accounts supporting the idea and opined that there had been no delay between the bombardment ending and the assault being launched. Instead, Wilson contends that reason for the high casualties amongst the attackers was likely due to the barrage itself being ineffective. He argues that due to the close proximity of the Allied and Ottoman trenches, the supporting artillerymen had likely been concerned about injuring the light horsemen forming up for the attack and had as such laid their guns behind the Ottoman forward defensive positions, meaning that when the assault began the troops in these lines were quickly able to return to their firing positions.
Portrayals in media
In the aftermath of the battle, Bean covered the fighting at the Nek in a September 1915 article for The Argus that was heavily censored. A January 1916 report by the British commander during the Gallipoli campaign, General Ian Hamilton, provided limited details and was, according to Carlyon, very optimistic in its assessment. Godley's autobiography devoted only two sentences to the battle. Post-war, the battle formed the basis of a chapter in the second volume of Bean's official history.
The battle is depicted in the climax of Peter Weir's movie, Gallipoli (1981), although it inaccurately portrays the offensive as a diversion to reduce Ottoman opposition to the landing at Suvla Bay. The battle is also depicted in the Gallipoli miniseries, episode 5: "The Breakout" (air date 2 March 2015). The episode was reviewed for the Honest History website by Peter Stanley.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Conflicts in 1915
1915 in the Ottoman Empire
Battles of the Gallipoli campaign
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
August 1915 events
Battles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaichung%20Bhutia
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Bhaichung Bhutia
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Bhaichung Bhutia (born 15 December 1976), also spelled as Baichung Bhutia, is an Indian former professional footballer who played as a striker. Bhutia is considered as the torchbearer of Indian football in the international arena. He is often nicknamed the Sikkimese Sniper because of his shooting skills in football. Three-time Indian Player of the Year I. M. Vijayan described Bhutia as "God's gift to Indian football".
Bhutia has had four spells at then I-League side East Bengal Club, the club where he started his career. When he joined English club Bury in 1999, he became the first Indian footballer to sign a contract with a European club and only the second to play professionally in Europe, after Mohammed Salim. Afterwards he had a short loan spell at the Malaysian football club Perak FA. As well as this he has played for JCT Mills, which won the league once during his tenure; and Mohun Bagan, which failed to win the league once during his two spells, in his native India. His international footballing honours include winning the Nehru Cup, LG Cup, SAFF Championship three times and the AFC Challenge Cup. He is also India's second most capped player, with 80 international caps to his name. He is also India's second youngest international goal scorer after Jerry Zirsanga when he scored his first goal against Uzbekistan in 1995 Nehru cup at the age of 18 years 90 days.
Off the field, Bhutia is known for winning the reality television programme Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa, which caused much controversy with his then-club Mohun Bagan, and for being the first Indian athlete to boycott the Olympic torch relay in support of the Tibetan independence movement. Bhutia, who has a football stadium named after him in honour of his contribution to Indian football (first player to have such honour while he is still playing), has also won many awards, such as the Arjuna Award and the Padma Shri.
In October 2010, he founded Bhaichung Bhutia Football Schools in Delhi in partnership with football by Carlos Queiroz and Nike. In August 2011, Bhutia announced his retirement from international football. His farewell match was with the India national team on 10 January 2012 against Bayern Munich at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi.
Bhutia contested in the general election of All India Football Federation (AIFF) for the president post; lost 33–1 to Kalyan Chaubey. He also served as president of the Sikkim Football Association.
Early life
Bhaichung Bhutia was born in an agricultural family. Both of his parents were farmers in Sikkim and were originally not keen on Bhutia's interest in sports. His father died in his childhood but after encouragement from his uncle, Karma Bhutia, he started his education in St. Xaviers School, Pakyong, East Sikkim. At the age of nine he won a football scholarship from SAI to attend the Tashi Namgyal Academy in Gangtok.
He went on to play for several schools and local clubs in his home state of Sikkim, including the Gangtok-based Boys Club, which was managed by Karma. His performance at the 1992 Subroto Cup, where he won the "Best Player" award, brought him to the notice of the football establishment. Former India goalkeeper, Bhaskar Ganguly spotted his talent and helped him make the transition to Calcutta football. In addition to football, Bhutia also represented his school at badminton, basketball and athletics.
Club career
East Bengal and JCT
In 1993, at the age of sixteen, Bhutia left school to join the professional East Bengal F.C. in Kolkata. Two years later, he transferred to JCT Mills in Phagwara, which went on to win the India National Football League in the 1996–97 season. Bhutia was the top goalscorer in the league, and was chosen to make his international debut in the Nehru Cup. He was named "1996 Indian Player of the Year".
In 1997, Bhutia returned to East Bengal. He has the distinction of scoring the first hat-trick in the local derby between East Bengal and Mohun Bagan, when he registered one in East Bengal's 4–1 victory in the 1997 Federation Cup semi-final. He became team captain in the 1998–99 season, during which East Bengal finished second behind Salgaocar in the league. Furthermore, he became the 19th footballer to receive the Arjuna Award in 1999, which the Government of India gives out to athletes to recognise their "outstanding achievements" in national sports.
Bury
Bhutia has had limited opportunities in playing overseas. On 30 September 1999, he travelled overseas to play for Bury in Greater Manchester, England. He became only the second Indian footballer to play professionally in Europe after Mohammed Salim. By penning a three-year contract he also became the first Indian footballer to sign for a European club. This followed unsuccessful trials for Bhutia with Fulham, West Bromwich Albion and Aston Villa. He had difficulty in obtaining a visa and could not make his debut, until 3 October 1999 against Cardiff City. In that match, he came on as a substitute for Ian Lawson and played a part in Bury's second goal, which was scored by Darren Bullock after Bhutia's volley was deflected into his path. On 15 April 2000, he scored his first goal in the English league in the game against Chesterfield. A recurring knee injury limited him to only three games in his final season at Bury, and he was released after the club was placed in administration. His final appearance was a 3–0 defeat to Swindon Town on 27 August 2001.
Return to India
In 2002, Bhutia returned to India and played for Mohun Bagan for a year. However, this was largely unsuccessful as he was injured early in the season and failed to play again that season, missing Mohun Bagan's only trophy win; the All Airlines Gold Cup.
Afterwards, Bhutia again returned to the East Bengal Club, helping them to win the ASEAN Club Championship.
He scored a goal in the final, a 3–1 win over Tero Sasana, and was named the "man of the match". He finished as the top scorer of the Championship with nine goals. He also scored in the 1–1 draw against Petrokimia Putra and scored five goals in a 6–0 win against Philippine Army in the same tournament.
Bhutia signed up to play for Perak FA, the Malaysian championship club, from August to October 2003 on loan and returned to East Bengal Club for the regular season. However, his stint at Perak FA ended in a 3–1 defeat against Sabah FA in the Malaysia Cup semi-finals, after which Bhutia described himself as the "villain of the piece".
In the 2003–04 season, Bhutia scored 12 goals as East Bengal won the league by four points from second-placed Dempo. During the 2004–05 season, Bhutia scored nine goals for East Bengal, which finished in third place behind SC Goa and champions Dempo. He continued to play for East Bengal until the end of the 2005–06 season. In his final season there he was awarded the "Player of the National Football League" by the All India Football Federation (AIFF) in a season where he scored 12 goals. Despite this, East Bengal finished runners-up to Mahindra United in the league.
Back to Malaysia
In 2005, Bhutia signed for another Malaysian club, Selangor MK Land. He made five appearances only, scoring one goal, as the club had monetary problems. Before, he received an offer from then Home United manager Steve Darby, but rejected the offer. Darby later revealed that he failed to sign Bhutia because the offer he made was less than what he was getting in India that time.
Mohun Bagan
On 15 June 2006, he joined Mohun Bagan and formed an attacking partnership with Jose Ramirez Barreto. However, the 2006–07 season was a poor one for Bhutia and Mohun Bagan as they finished eighth in the league, just one position above relegation. During the 2007–08 season (the league was now known as the I-League), Bhutia scored 10 goals in 18 matches, and Mohun Bagan finished slightly higher in the league in fourth place. Bhutia won the Indian Player of the Year for the second time in 2008. In winning the award, he became only the second footballer to win it more than once; the other was I. M. Vijayan. In the 2008–09 season, despite a 10-match winning streak, Mohun Bagan finished in second place behind Churchill Brothers because of a final day loss to Mahindra United. Bhutia finished the season with six goals.
On 18 May 2009, Bhutia announced he would quit Mohun Bagan, due to the questioning of his footballing commitment by the club's officials. As a result of the Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa incident, he was suspended for six months by Mohun Bagan. Bhutia was quoted saying "It is just a ploy to keep me at Mohun Bagan for another season. But I will not play for them any more."
East Bengal (IV)
Bhutia was reported to have officially signed for East Bengal on 22 June 2009, on a one-year contract, announcing that he would end his playing career at the club. Upon signing for East Bengal, Bhutia declared it to be his homecoming, "This is really my homecoming. This is the club from where it all started and it is here where it is going to end." The situation was further complicated, however, as Mohun Bagan's general secretary Anjan Mitra said "Our contract with Bhaichung is perfectly legal and he has one more year left with us." Bhutia's lawyer Usha Nath Banerjee countered this, "I doubt the legality of Bagan's contract. In any case, according to FIFA and AIFF rules, a player who is above 28 years of age is free to make a choice of club in the third year of his contract". Bhutia and Mohun Bagan were set to meet on 17 August in the AIFF headquarters to settle their differences with AIFF general secretary Alberto Colaco. On 29 August, it was announced that the issue had not been resolved yet and the outbound Colaco was set to meet Bhutia on 30 August. No compromise was reached, however, and on 5 September former additional solicitor general Amrendra Sharan was appointed to look into the dispute. On 10 September, Bhutia filed defamation charges, claiming damages of 10 million, against Mohun Bagan for "trying to tarnish his reputation". Bhutia was granted interim relief on 26 September, but the case between Mohun Bagan and Bhutia is set to continue until a final verdict is reached. On 4 November, it was revealed that Mohun Bagan had approached football's governing body FIFA to intervene in the dispute with Bhutia.
The start of the 2010–11 season would be without Bhutia until the end of January as the India national team prepared and participated in the Asian Cup from November to January. Though laid low by injuries in recent months, Bhutia believes he would return next season after taking a three-month break and if he ever decides to quit, he would do it from East Bengal.
United Sikkim
In 2011, Bhutia joined United Sikkim as a player-coach.
Final stint at East Bengal
On 12 February 2015, it was announced that Bhutia would return to East Bengal for the final time on a half-season contract, after which he would retire from professional football. Having retired from India colours in 2011 against South Korea in the AFC Asian Cup, Bhutia last season said he wished to retire donning red and gold colours "one last time".
"But I don't see that happening. I am really struggling with my knee injury and not in a shape to play the top-tier I-League for East Bengal. You can say that I am not going to play club again," Bhutia told reporters at the launch of East Bengal's residential academy in BA-CA ground in Salt Lake.
International career
Bhaichung made his senior international debut in the Nehru Cup against Thailand at the age of 19 on 10 March 1995. Bhutia scored for India against Uzbekistan in the 1995 Nehru Cup becoming India's youngest ever goalscorer, at 19. In the 1997 SAFF Championship, India beat the Maldives 5–1 in the final, Bhutia was responsible for one goal. Two years later, the tournament was held in Goa and India successfully defended their title by beating Bangladesh 2–0 in the final. Bhutia scored the second goal for India after Bruno Coutinho opened the scoring and Bhutia was named as the tournament's most valuable player.
He also netted two goals in the final of the 2002 LG Cup held in Vietnam, in which India beat the host nation 3–2, Bhutia's goals came either side of half-time. The football tournament of the 2003 Afro-Asian Games saw India finish as runners-up behind Uzbekistan. Bhutia scored two goals in the tournament, both of which came in the 5–3 semi-final win over Zimbabwe. In the 2007 Nehru Cup, Bhutia scored a penalty in a 6–0 victory over Cambodia in the opening match of the tournament. He also scored in a 1–0 win over Bangladesh and a 3–0 win over Kyrgyzstan. Bhutia played a significant part in the final as he was involved in the build-up to N. P. Pradeep's winning goal against Syria during which India won 1–0 to become champions.
The next successful SAFF Championship was in 2005 where Bhutia was captain, in the group stages he scored a goal in a 3–0 victory over Bhutan but did not score in the other two matches. India progressed to the semi-finals during which Bhutia played in the 1–0 win over the Maldives. The final was a repeat of the 1999 final, as Bangladesh were the opposition, and once again India triumphed 2–0 during which Bhutia scored the second goal in the 81st minute from close range after Mehrajuddin Wadoo's 33rd-minute opener. He received the award for the Most Valuable Player and also the Fair Play trophy. The 2008 SAFF Championship started with a 4–0 win over neighbouring Nepal, Bhutia scored the second goal in the 34th minute. It turned out to be Bhutia's only goal of the tournament, however, he did have several chances to score in the semi-final against Bhutan which saw India win 2–1 to reach the final. In the final, India failed to defend their title after losing 1–0 to the Maldives.
He scored twice in a 2–1 victory in the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup against Turkmenistan to reach the semi-finals. The Sikkimese Sniper scored a goal in the final against Tajikistan, during which India won 4–1 thanks to a Sunil Chhetri hat-trick; the victory also allowed them to automatically qualify for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. He was also selected as the most valuable player of the tournament, finishing with three goals.
The 2009 Nehru Cup was significant for Bhutia, as he earned his 100th cap for India in a 2–1 win over Kyrgyzstan, becoming the first Indian player to reach this milestone. He also scored the first goal in this match to help the team recover from their opening day defeat to Lebanon. In the match against Sri Lanka, Bhutia again scored an opening goal which helped India to win 3–1 and solidified their chances of reaching the final. He was adjudged as the "man of the match" for his performance. Bhutia missed the final match of the round-robin, as India were already guaranteed a spot in the deciding match. He was also adjudged as "Player of the Tournament" for his stellar performances in all of the matches, including the decider where they beat Syria in a penalty shootout.
At the 2011 AFC Asian Cup in Qatar, Bhutia was injured for their first two games against Australia and Bahrain, but he came on as a second-half substitute against South Korea, but failed to save India, losing 4–1 as they were eliminated. Shortly after the Asian Cup, he announced his retirement for India on 24 August 2011 with a record of 40 goals in 104 appearances.
Farewell match
Managerial career
On 13 November 2012, Bhutia was named the interim manager of United Sikkim to replace Belgian Philippe De Ridder, after the club's heavy 1–10 defeat in an I-League match against Prayag United on 10 November 2012 at the Salt Lake Stadium. In January 2018, leading up to the Santosh Trophy, he was appointed the manager of Sikkim.
Other careers
Entertainment
Jhalak Dikhlaa Jaa
In 2009, partnering with choreographer Sonia Jaffer, he won the third season of Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa, the Indian version of the international series Dancing with the Stars. Bhutia earned Rs. 4 million for winning the competition, beating Karan Singh Grover and Gauahar Khan in the final. Bhutia donated half of the prize money to charity and the other half was shared with his choreographer; he also said some money would go towards areas hit by Cyclone Aila. It was reported that an "SMS Voting Frenzy" allowed him to win after many organisations in Sikkim conducted mass voting events (this involved participants buying mobile cash cards so they could vote via SMS) to increase Bhutia's chance of winning the trophy. This performance put Bhutia's relationship with his club Mohun Bagan in jeopardy, as he missed a friendly, as well as practice sessions, due to his participation in the reality show.
Politics
In 2014, Bhutia joined the All India Trinamool Congress and unsuccessfully contested the 2014 Indian general election from Darjeeling constituency. In 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election he supported Left Front in favor of Veteran Communist Party of India (Marxist) leader Ashok Bhattacharya.
Other
Bhutia comes from a buddhist background, although he is, by conviction, not religious - in fact an atheist. The name "Bhaichung" literally means "little brother". He married his longtime girlfriend Madhuri Tipnis, a hotel professional, on 30 December 2004 in his native village of Tinkitam in South Sikkim. They filed for divorce by mutual consent in Bandra court on in February 2015. His fictional hero is Howard Roark, a character from Ayn Rand's novel The Fountainhead, and he has a tattoo of a footballer on his arm. The Sikkimese government has built a stadium, the Bhaichung Stadium in Namchi, the district headquarters, in honour of Bhutia. He is one of the most popular figures in the state and is considered as a role model to many Sikkimese as well to people from other states of India. On 23 January 2008, Bhutia was nominated for the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award, for his contribution to Indian football. Three days later on 26 January, India's Republic Day, he was chosen for the Padma Shri along with national swimming champion Bula Choudhury.
He played in the Goal 4 Africa match held in the Allianz Arena, Munich, on 12 July 2008, for the Edu team, led by Clarence Seedorf, and scored twice. In 2009, Bhutia started a foundation called the "Indian Sports Foundation" to help footballers overcome serious injuries. He is also the president of the Football Players' Association of India (FPAI), an organisation that promises "fair treatment" of Indian footballers by dealing with financial aspects such as pension plans. He formed FPAI after seeing the Professional Footballers' Association in England.
He signed an endorsement deal with Adidas India Marketing Pvt. Ltd in November 2003. Currently he is endorsing Nike India. After completing the deal to become the brand's ambassador for India, Bhutia said "I am confident that Nike will help elevate the sport in the country."
In 2008, Bhutia was solicited to run with the Olympic torch in India, but he refused to carry the torch to show support for the Tibetan independence movement. "I sympathise with the Tibetan cause. I'm against violence but I thought I should stand by the Tibetan people in their fight," Bhutia said. He was the first Indian sportsman to refuse to carry the Olympic torch. His actions have won him little praise from his colleagues in India however, who criticised him for mixing sports with politics.
In 2011, Bhutia was caught in the Sikkim earthquake. Although he was not injured, his United Sikkim offices were completely destroyed. In the aftermath, he joined with several Bollywood actors like Neha Dhupia and Rahul Bose to raise money for earthquake victims.
In 2018, after the break up with All India Trinamool Congress, he established a new party on 31 May. The name of the party is "Hamro Sikkim Party".
Bhaichung Bhutia Football Schools
On 28 October 2010, he started Bhaichung Bhutia Football Schools in Delhi in partnership with Carlos Queiroz. BBFS also entered into partnership with United Sikkim and Garhwal FC for opening up coaching camps with grassroot framework in hilly areas of Sikkim and West Bengal in 2013.
Sportstar jury
Bhutia was elected as member of the "Sportstar Aces 2023" jury.
Personal life
Bhutia's parents were farmers. He has two elder brothers and one elder sister. Bhutia was married to Madhuri Tipnis since 2004. They filed their divorce in 2015. He is a father to three children, two girls and one boy.
Career statistics
Honours
East Bengal
ASEAN Club Championship: 2003
National Football League: 2003–04
Federation Cup: 2009–10, 2010
Indian Super Cup: 2011
Calcutta Football League: 1993, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2011
IFA Shield: 1994, 1995, 1997
Wai Wai Cup: 1993
San Miguel International Cup: 2004
Mohun Bagan
Calcutta Football League: 2007, 2008, 2009
IFA Shield: 2003
Federation Cup: 2006, 2008
Bengal
Santosh Trophy: 1995, 1998–99
India
AFC Challenge Cup: 2008
SAFF Championship: 1997, 1999, 2005; runner-up: 1995, 2008
Nehru Cup: 2007, 2009
South Asian Games gold medal: 1995
Afro-Asian Games silver medal: 2003
India U23
LG Cup: 2002
Individual
AIFF Player of the Year: 1995, 2008
Arjuna Award: 1998
Padma Shri: 2008
AFC Challenge Cup Most Valuable Player: 2008
Banga Bhushan: 2014
Asian Football Hall of Fame: 2014
IFFHS 48 Football Legend Players: 2016
ASEAN Club Championship Top Scorer: 2003
Sportskeeda All time Indian Football XI
Notes
Electoral records
West Bengal Legislative Assembly election
Sikkim Legislative Assembly election
Indian general election
See also
AIFF Player of the Year
Asian Football Hall of Fame inductees
List of India national football team captains
Bhaichung Stadium
Politics and sports
List of Indian football players in foreign leagues
References
Further reading
External links
Bhaichung Bhutia Interview
1976 births
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Malaysia
Men's association football forwards
India men's international footballers
India men's youth international footballers
Indian atheists
Indian expatriate sportspeople in Malaysia
Indian expatriate men's footballers
Indian men's footballers
Footballers from Sikkim
Living people
East Bengal Club players
Tibet freedom activists
Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports
Bury F.C. players
2011 AFC Asian Cup players
Calcutta Football League players
I-League players
National Football League (India) players
United Sikkim FC players
Mohun Bagan SG players
Perak F.C. players
Indian football managers
United Sikkim FC managers
Dancing with the Stars winners
People from Namchi district
Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal
Candidates in the 2014 Indian general election
Footballers at the 1998 Asian Games
Footballers at the 2002 Asian Games
Footballers at the 2006 Asian Games
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
Asian Games competitors for India
Indian expatriate sportspeople in England
South Asian Games medalists in football
South Asian Games gold medalists for India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscosmos
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Roscosmos
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The State Space Corporation "Roscosmos" (), commonly known simply as Roscosmos (), is a state corporation of the Russian Federation responsible for space flights, cosmonautics programs, and aerospace research.
Originating from the Soviet space program founded in the 1950s, Roscosmos emerged following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It initially began as the Russian Space Agency, which was established on 25 February 1992 and restructured in 1999 and 2004, as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency and the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), respectively. In 2015, the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) was merged with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, a government corporation, to re-nationalize the space industry of Russia, leading to Roscosmos in its current form.
Roscosmos is headquartered in Moscow, with its main Mission Control Center in the nearby city of Korolyov, and the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center located in Star City in Moscow Oblast. Its launch facilities include Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the world's first and largest spaceport, and Vostochny Cosmodrome, which is being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. Its director since July 2022 is Yury Borisov.
As the main successor to the Soviet space program, Roscosmos' legacy includes the world's first satellite, first human spaceflight, and first space station (Salyut). Its current activities include the International Space Station, wherein it is a major partner. On 22 February 2019, Roscosmos announced the construction of its new headquarters in Moscow, the National Space Centre. Its Astronaut Corps is the first in the world's history.
History
The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency was formed on 25 February 1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had previously worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin, became the agency's first director.
In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not made by the agency, but by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichev's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency.
Crisis years
The 1990s saw serious financial problems due to the decreased cash flow, which encouraged the space agency to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in the agency's leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although the agency had connections with the Russian aerospace forces, its budget was not part of Russia's defense budget; nevertheless, the agency managed to operate the Mir space station well past its planned lifespan, contributed to the International Space Station, and continued to fly Soyuz and Progress missions.
2000: Start of ISS cooperation
On 31 October 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. On board were Expedition One Commander William M. (Bill) Shepherd of NASA and cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos. The trio arrived at the International Space Station on 2 November, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory.
2004–2006: Improved situation
In March 2004, the agency's director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces.
The Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in the Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billion rubles (about US$11 billion) for the Space Agency from January 2006 until 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos.
New science missions: Koronas Foton (launched in January 2009), Spektr R (RadioAstron, launched in July 2011), Intergelizond (2011), Spektr RG (Roentgen Gamma, 2015), Spektr UV (Ultra Violet, 2016), Spektr M (2018), Celsta (2018) and Terion (2018)
Resumption of Bion missions with Bion-M (2013)
New weather satellites Elektro L (launched in January 2011) and Elektro P (2015)
2006–2012
The federal space budget for the year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($2.4 billion). In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles ($3.8 bln) in the national space programs.
The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($5.6 bln).
By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles.
Priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($360 million), and under the terms of a directive signed by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $2.6 billion will be allocated for its development.
Space station funding issues
Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.
Despite the considerably improved budget, attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems. Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007), and much of the equipment is obsolete. On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating a new generation of engineers and technicians.
2011 New director
On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced with Vladimir Popovkin as the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failed GLONASS launch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of the Russian Space Forces and First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia.
2013–2016: Reorganization of the Russian space sector
As a result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013 Proton M launch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. The United Rocket and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the government in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said "the failure-prone space sector is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems."
Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it."
Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency."
More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for a re-nationalization of the "troubled space industry", with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs." According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency."
Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry."
In 2016, the state agency was dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to the state corporation, which had been created in 2013 as the United Rocket and Space Corporation, with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector.
2017–date
In 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles' ... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space." In November 2018 Alexei Kudrin, head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as the public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outright theft and corruption.
In March 2021, Roscosmos signed a memorandum of cooperative construction of a lunar base called the International Lunar Research Station with the China National Space Administration.”
In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that it will be departing the ISS program after 2024. In its place, it was announced that a new space station (Russian Orbital Service Station) will be constructed starting in 2025.
In September 2021, Roscosmos announced its revenue and net income, losing 25 billion roubles and 1 billion roubles respectively in 2020, due to the reduction of profit from foreign contracts, an increase in show-up pay, stay-at-home days and personnel health expenses due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Roscosmos, these losses would also impact the corporation for the next two years. In October, Roscosmos placed the tests of rocket engines in the engineering bureau of chemical automatics in Voronezh on hold for one month to deliver 33 tons of oxygen to local medical centers, as part of aid for the COVID-19 pandemic.
In December 2021, Government of Russia confirmed determination of the agreement with Roscosmos for development of next-gen space systems, the document been provided for the officials in July, 2020.
Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine Roscosmos launched 9 rockets in 2022 and 7 in the first half of 2023. In June 2023 Roscosmos held in a campaign to recruit volunteers for the Uran Battalion, a militia for the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Future plans
From 2024 on Roscosmos headquarters will be situated in the new National Space Center in Moscow district of Fili.
Current programs
ISS involvement
Roscosmos is one of the partners in the International Space Station program. It contributed the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda, which were both launched by Proton rockets and later were joined by NASA's Unity Module. The Rassvet module was launched aboard and is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. The Nauka module is the final planned component of the ISS, launch was postponed several times from the initially planned date in 2007, but attached to ISS in July 2021.
Roscosmos is responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecraft and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, Roscosmos and NASA, with the approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $21 million per person each way, thus $42 million to and back from the ISS per person, as well as provide Progress transport flights, at $50 million per Progress as outlined in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study. Roscosmos announced that according to this arrangement, crewed Soyuz flights would be doubled to 4 per year and Progress flights doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008.
Roscosmos has provided space tourism for fare-paying passengers to ISS through the Space Adventures company. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $20 million (USD).
Continued international collaboration in ISS missions has been thrown into doubt by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and related sanctions on Russia, although resupply missions continued in 2022 and 2023.
Scientific programs
Roscosmos operates a number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research. Future projects include the Soyuz successor, the Prospective Piloted Transport System, scientific robotic missions to one of the Mars moons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites.
Luna-Glob Moon orbiters and landers, Luna 25 launched in 2023 crashed onto the moon.
Venera-D Venus lander, planned for 2029
Fobos-Grunt Mars mission, lost in low Earth orbit in 2011 and crashed back to earth in 2012
Mars 96 Mars mission, lost in low Earth orbit in 1996
Rockets
Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being the R-7, commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations.
Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system, Angara, as well as enhancements of the Soyuz rocket, Soyuz-2 and Soyuz-2-3. Two modifications of the Soyuz, the Soyuz-2.1a and Soyuz-2.1b have already been successfully tested, enhancing the launch capacity to 8.5 tons to LEO.
Operational
Under development
New piloted spacecraft
One of Roscosmos's projects that was widely covered in the media in 2005 was Kliper, a small lifting body reusable spacecraft. While Roscosmos had reached out to ESA and JAXA as well as others to share development costs of the project, it also stated that it will go forward with the project even without the support of other space agencies. This statement was backed by the approval of its budget for 2006–2015, which includes the necessary funding of Kliper. However, the Kliper program was cancelled in July 2006, and has been replaced by the new Orel project. , no crafts were launched.
Space systems
"Resurs-P" is a series of Russian commercial Earth observation satellites capable of acquiring high-resolution imagery (resolution up to 1.0 m). The spacecraft is operated by Roscosmos as a replacement of the Resurs-DK No.1 satellite.
Create HEO space system "Arctic" to address the hydrological and meteorological problems in the Arctic region and the northern areas of the Earth, with the help of two spacecraft "Arktika-M" and in the future within the system can create a communications satellite "Arktika-MS" and radar satellites "Arktika-R."
The launch of two satellites "Obzor-R" (Review-R) Remote Sensing of the Earth, with the AESA radar and four spacecraft "Obzor-O" (Review-O) to capture the Earth's surface in normal and infrared light in a broad swath of 80 km with a resolution of 10 meters. The first two satellites of the projects planned for launch in 2015.
Gonets: Civilian low Earth orbit communication satellite system. On 2016, the system consists of 13 satellites (12 Gonets-M and 1 Gonets-D1).
Suffa Space Observatory
In 2018, Russia agreed to help build the Suffa observatory in Uzbekistan. The observatory was started in 1991, but stalled after the fall of the USSR.
Gecko mating experiment
On 19 July 2014, Roscosmos launched the Foton-M4 satellite containing, among other animals and plants, a group of five geckos. The five geckos, four females and one male, were used as a part of the Gecko-F4 research program aimed at measuring the effects of weightlessness on the lizards' ability to procreate and develop in the harsh environment. However, soon after the spacecraft exited the atmosphere, mission control lost contact with the vessel which led to an attempt to reestablish communication that was only achieved later in the mission. When the satellite returned to Earth after its planned two-month mission had been cut short to 44 days, the space agency researchers reported that all the geckos had perished during the flight.
The exact cause that led to the deaths of the geckos was declared unknown by the scientific team in charge of the project. Reports from the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems in Russia have indicated that the lizards had been dead for at least a week prior to their return to Earth. A number of those connected to the mission have theorized that a failure in the vessel's heating system may have caused the cold blooded reptiles to freeze to death.
Included in the mission were a number of fruit flies, plants, and mushrooms which all survived the mission.
Launch control
The Russian Space Forces is the military counterpart of the Roscosmos with similar mission objectives as of the United States Space Force. The Russian branch was formed after the merging of the space components of the Russian Air Force and the Aerospace Defense Forces (VKO) in 2015. The Space Forces controls Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch facility. Roscosmos and the Space Forces share control of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where Roscosmos reimburses the VKO for the wages of many of the flight controllers during civilian launches. Roscosmos and the Space Forces also share control of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. It has been announced that Russia is to build another spaceport in Tsiolkovsky, Amur Oblast. The Vostochny Cosmodrome was scheduled to be finished by 2018 having launched its first rocket in 2016.
Subsidiaries
As of 2017, Roscosmos had the following subsidiaries:
United Rocket and Space Corporation
Strategicheskiye Punkty Upravleniya
Glavcosmos
Salavat Chemical Plant
Turbonasos
Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology
IPK Mashpribor
NPO Iskra
Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Electromechanics
Information Satellite Systems Reshetnev
Russian Space Systems
Sistemy precizionnogo priborostroenia
Progress Rocket Space Centre
Chemical Automatics Design Bureau
NPO Energomash
Proton-PM
Tekhnicheskiy Tsentr Novator
AO EKHO
NIIMP-K
TSKB Geofizika
Osoboye Konstruktorskoye Byuro Protivopozharnoy Tekhniki
Tsentralnoye Konstruktorskoye Byuro Transportnogo Mashinostroyeniya
NII komandnykh priborov
NPO Avtomatiki
Zlatoust Machine-Building Plant
Krasnoyarsk Machine-Building Plant
Miass Machine-Building Plant
Moskovskiy zavod elektromekhanicheskoy apparatury
Nauchno-issledovatelskiy Institut Elektromekhaniki
NPO Novator
PKP IRIS
NPP Geofizika-Kosmos
NPP Kvant
NPP Polyus
Ispytatelnyy tekhnicheskiy tsentr – NPO PM
NPO PM – Maloye Konstruktorskoye Byuro
NPO PM – Razvitiye
Sibpromproyekt
Scientific Research Institute of Precision Instruments
NIIFI
NPO Izmeritelnoy Tekhniki
OKB MEI
106 Experimental Optical and Mechanical Plant
OAO Bazalt
Nauchno-inzhenernyy tsentr elektrotekhnicheskogo universiteta
Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center
NPO Tekhnomash
Keldysh Research Center
Arsenal Design Bureau
MOKB Mars
NTTS Okhrana
NII Mashinostroyeniya
NPO Lavochkin
Scientific Production Association Of Automation And Instrument-Building
OKB Fakel
MNII Agat
TsNIIMash
Centre for Operation of Space Ground-based Infrastructure (TsENKI)
NTTS Zarya
Gagarin Research and Test Cosmonaut Training Centre (Gagarin TsPK)
NITs RKP
See also
American space program
Russian space industry
Ministry of general Machine Building of the Soviet Union
TsNIIMash (Russian: ЦНИИмаш) is the Central Research Institute of Machine Building, an institute of the Russian aeronautics and space formed in 1946
List of Russian aerospace engineers
Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records
International Space Olympics
Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration"
List of government space agencies
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Roscosmos official site
Russian Space Program
1992 establishments in Russia
Companies based in Moscow
Government agencies established in 1992
Government-owned companies of Russia
Organizations based in Moscow
Russian state corporations
Space agencies
Science and technology in Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography%20of%20the%20French%20Revolution
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Historiography of the French Revolution
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The historiography of the French Revolution stretches back over two hundred years. Contemporary and 19th-century writings on the Revolution were mainly divided along ideological lines, with conservative historians condemning the Revolution, liberals praising the Revolution of 1789, and radicals defending the democratic and republican values of 1793. By the 20th-century, revolutionary history had become professionalised, with scholars paying more attention to the critical analysis of primary sources from public archives. From the late 1920s to the 1960s, social and economic interpretations of the Revolution, often from a Marxist perspective, dominated the historiography of the Revolution in France. This trend was challenged by revisionist historians in the 1960s who argued that class conflict was not a major determinant of the course of the Revolution and that political expediency and historical contingency often played a greater role than social factors. In the 21st-century, no single explanatory model has gained widespread support. The historiography of the revolution has become more diversified, exploring areas such as cultural histories, gender relations, regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation. Nevertheless, there persists a very widespread agreement that the French Revolution was the watershed between the premodern and modern eras of Western history.
Contemporary and 19th-century historians
The first writings on the French revolution were near contemporaneous with events and mainly divided along ideological lines. These included Edmund Burke's conservative critique Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) and Thomas Paine's response Rights of Man (1791). From 1815, narrative histories dominated, often based on first-hand experience of the revolutionary years. By the mid-19th century, more scholarly histories appeared, written by specialists and based on original documents and a more critical assessment of contemporary accounts.
Dupuy identifies three main strands in 19th-century historiography of the revolution. The first is represented by reactionary writers who rejected the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress and personal happiness over religious faith. The second stream is those writers who celebrated the democratic republican values of the revolution. The third stream is those liberal writers, such as Germaine de Staël and Guizot, who accepted the necessity of reforms establishing a constitution and the rights of man, but rejected state interference with private property and individual rights even if supported by a democratic majority. Doyle states that the three streams can be described as the reactionary, the radical and the liberal, or simply right, left and centre.
Burke and Barruel
In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Burke presented an influential conservative interpretation of the Revolution, arguing that the Old Regime was stable and viable and was only in need of moderate reform. The Revolution was a conspiracy of philosophers and literary men who undermined faith in religion, monarchy, and the established social order, inciting "the swinish multitude" to create disorder. In France, conspiracy theories were rife in the highly charged political atmosphere, with the Abbé Barruel, in perhaps the most influential work Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1797–1798), arguing that Freemasons and other dissidents had been responsible for an attempt to destroy the monarchy and the Catholic Church.
Adolphe Thiers
Adolph Thiers' Histoire de la Révolution française (published 1823-27) was the first major work of the liberal tradition of French historiography. The complete work of ten volumes sold ten thousand sets, and was particularly popular in liberal circles and among younger Parisians. Written during the Restoration, the book praised the principles, leaders and accomplishments of the 1789 Revolution. The heroes were Mirabeau, Lafayette, and other moderate leaders. Thiers condemned Marat, Robespierre and the other radical leaders, and also condemned the monarchy, aristocracy and clergy for their inability to change. The book played a notable role in undermining the legitimacy of the Bourbon regime of Charles X, and bringing about the July Revolution of 1830. Thiers' history was widely praised in France and won him a seat in the Académie française in 1834.
Kidron describes Thiers' history as: "historical determinism with a romantic aura." Thiers believed that impersonal historical forces were stronger than the will of human actors and that each phase of the Revolution was inevitable. Nevertheless, he distinguished between the positive phase of the Revolution from 1789-91 when the bourgeoisie wrested power from an oppressive and inefficient Old Regime, and the regrettable phase from 1793 when violence and dictatorship were made necessary by war and other circumstances.
François Mignet
François Mignet published his Histoire de la Révolution française in 1824. Writing in the liberal tradition, Mignet saw the Revolution of 1789 as the result of a growing, more prosperous and better educated bourgeoisie which challenged the inequalities of the old regime. The liberal aristocrats and middle classes that led the revolution sought to establish a constitution, representative institutions, and equal political and civil rights. Mignet's views on historical necessity were similar to those of Thiers. According to Kidron, Mignet's history is notable for its lack of moral judgment and it presentation of the Terror as the acts of a war government against its enemies.
Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle's three-volume The French Revolution, A History (1837) was a major example of narrative history of the romantic school. Carlyle rejected Thiers' deterministic view of history which emphasised inexorable historical forces over individual moral responsibility. Carlyle was more interested in the lived experience of individuals and declared that Mirabeau, Danton and Napoleon were the three great men of the Revolution. He rejected ideological interpretations of the Revolution, insisting on "facts, facts, no theory." His research made him hostile to the Girondins and radicals of the Revolution, but he refused to endorse a politically liberal interpretation. His position on revolutionary violence was ambiguous; he abhorred it, but found it understandable in the context of the misery of the common people. Aulard praised his use of the available sources and called him, "Impartial...but neither calm nor without feeling."
Jules Michelet
Jules Michelet (1798–1874) published his multi-volume Histoire de la Révolution française between 1847 and 1856. Influenced by Vico, MIchelet placed more importance on the masses than individuals. He portrayed the revolution as a spontaneous uprising of the French people against poverty and oppression and in the name of republican equality, and emphasised that the Revolution achieved the unification and legislative reconstruction of France. Michelet was critical of Robespierre and the Jacobins but blamed counter-revolutionaries for provoking the Terror.
Rudé and Doyle place Michelet in the radical, democratic republican tradition, while Kidron describes the work as romantic, liberal and nationalist. François Furet said Michelet's history is, "the cornerstone of all revolutionary historiography and is also a literary monument."
Alexis de Tocqueville
Alexis de Tocqueville's work L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution (The Old Regime and the Revolution,1856) was very influential in the English-speaking world of the 19th-century. Tocqueville was a political liberal who argued that the Revolution was led by thinkers without practical experience who had put too much emphasis on equality over liberty. The democratic egalitarian tendency of the Revolution had laid the groundwork for the destruction of liberty by Napoleon. Tocqueville's contributions to the historiography of the Revolution included his extensive use of the recently opened French archives and his stress that the Revolution had multiple causes, including the King's attempts at reform: "The social order destroyed by a revolution is almost always better than that which immediately precedes it, and experience shows that the most dangerous moment for a bad government is generally that in which it sets about reform."
For Tocqueville, the Revolution was not a result of misery and oppression: education and the economy were growing and ownership of land was becoming more diversified. He emphasised the social structure of the Old Regime, the origins of specific economic and legal grievances, and the continuity of administrative centralisation from the Old Regime to the Revolutionary years.
Hippolyte Taine
Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893) in his Origines de la France contemporaine (1875–94) used archival sources extensively and his interpretation emphasised the role of popular action. His interpretation was conservative and marked by hostility towards the revolution and revolutionary crowds which he claimed were mainly composed of criminal elements. He argued that revolutionaries were mainly motivated by the transfer of property, and rejected any distinction between the revolution of 1789 and that of 1793. Historians such as Shafer argue that his interpretation was influenced by his negative experience of the Paris Commune of 1871. He was an admirer of Burke, English conservative principles and "scientific" history based on contemporary documents. He had a major influence on right wing historians of the twentieth century including Augustin Cochin and Pierre Gaxotte.
Other historians
Other significant 19th-century historians of the revolution include:
Louis Blanc (1811–1882) – Blanc's 13-volume Histoire de la Révolution française (1847–1862) displays utopian socialist views, and sympathizes with Jacobinism.
Théodore Gosselin (1855–1935) – Better known by the pseudonym "G. Lenotre".
Albert Sorel (1842–1906) – Diplomatic historian; L'Europe et la Révolution française (8 volumes, 1895–1904); introductory section of this work translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947).
Edgar Quinet (1803–1875) – Late Romantic anti-Catholic nationalist.
20th-century
The broad distinction between conservative, democratic-republican and liberal interpretations of the Revolution persisted in the 20th-century, although historiography became more nuanced, with greater attention to critical analysis of documentary evidence. From the late 1920s to the 1960s, social and economic analysis of the Revolution, often from a Marxist perspective, dominated the historiography of the Revolution in France. This historical trend has been variously called "Marxist, "classic", "Jacobin" or "history from below" and is associated with historians such as Albert Mathiez, Georges Lefebvre and Albert Soboul. From the 1960s, the dominance of social and economic interpretations of the Revolution emphasising class conflict was challenged by revisionist historians such as Alfred Cobban and François Furet.
Jean Jaurès
Jean Jaurès (1859–1914) wrote a three-volume Histoire socialiste de la Révolution française (published 1901-04). He analysed the political, social and economic aspects of the Revolution from a socialist perspective. His thesis was that the Revolution established a bourgeois democratic republic which set the preconditions for the emergence of a socialist movement. His history was also notable for its detailed study of the peasantry and urban poor. As a parliamentarian, he was instrumental in establishing the state-funded “Jaurès Commission,” responsible for publishing historical documents and monographs on the Revolution.
Alphonse Aulard and academic studies
Alphonse Aulard (1849–1928) was the first professional historian of the Revolution; he promoted graduate studies, scholarly editions, and learned journals. He was appointed to the first National Chair in the History of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne in 1891. He trained advanced students, founded the Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution, edited the scholarly journal La Révolution française, and assembled and published many key primary sources. His major works on the French Revolution include Histoire politique de la Révolution française (A political history of the French revolution, 1901), La Révolution française et le régime féodale (The French revolution and feudalism, 1919) and Le Christianisme et la Révolution française (Christianity and the French Revolution, 1925).
Aulard's historiography was based on positivism. The assumption was that methodology was all-important and the historian's duty was to present in chronological order the duly verified facts, to analyse relations between facts, and provide the most likely interpretation. Full documentation based on research in the primary sources was essential. Aulard's books focused on institutions, public opinion, elections, parties, parliamentary majorities, and legislation. He was a leading historian in the radical tradition, arguing that the democratic republic was the logical culmination of the Revolution. The suspension of the constitution in 1793 and the Terror that followed were necessary expedients to defeat the counter revolution and push through necessary social welfare reforms. Aulard, however, was critical of the excesses of Robespierre, his hero being Danton.
According to Aulard,From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity."
Cochin and Gaxotte
Augustin Cochin (1876–1916) was a conservative critic of the Revolution whose work was influenced by Taine. He argued that there was a continuous tradition linking pre-revolutionary intellectual groups, the freemasons and the Jacobins. His major works include his posthumously published essays Les Sociétés de Pensée et la Démocratie (Intellectual societies and democracy, published 1921) and La Révolution et la Libre Pensée (The Revolution and free thought, published 1924). Furet praised Cochin's "rigorous conceptualisation" of the Revolution.
Pierre Gaxotte (1895–1982) was a Royalist critic of the revolution. In his study The French Revolution (1928) he drew on Cochin's work to argue that the Revolution was a conspiracy inspired by pre-revolutionary intellectual societies and was inherently violent from the beginning. The work of Cochin and Gaxotte became the dominant interpretation of the Revolution in Vichy France but fell out of favour after the war.
Albert Mathiez
Albert Mathiez (1874–1932) was a Marxist historian who argued that the Revolution of 1789 was a result of class conflict between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, and was followed by conflict between the bourgeoisie and the sans-culottes, who were a proto-proletariat. He defended Robespierre, arguing that the Terror was necessary to defend the democratic republican revolution and that the Jacobins were overthrown when they tried to carry out a property revolution. The Revolution ended on 9 Thermidor, after which there was only reaction.
Mathiez established the Society for Robespierrist Studies and its journal, the Annales Historiques de la Révolution française. His major works include La Révolution française (3 vol. 1922–1924) and La Vie chère et le movement social sous la Terreur (1927). Mathiez was a leading figure in what came to be known as the Marxist, Jacobin or "classic" school of French revolutionary historiography.
Georges Lefebvre
Georges Lefebvre (1874–1959) was a Marxist historian who wrote detailed studies of the French peasantry (Les paysans du Nord (1924)), The Great Fear of 1789 (1932, first English translation 1973) and revolutionary crowds, as well as a general history of the Revolution La Révolution française (published 1951-1957). He argued that the Revolution represented the triumph of the bourgeoisie and that the Terror was a reaction to an aristocratic plot. He presented the peasantry as active participants in the Revolution who held a fundamentally anti-capitalist worldview.
Lefebvre held the Chair of French Revolution History at the Sorbonne from 1939 until 1955. He mentored a generation of historians who generally wrote cultural, social and economic interpretations defending the achievements of the Revolution. These historians included Albert Soboul, George Rudé, Richard Cobb, and Franco Venturi.
Albert Soboul
Albert Soboul (1914–1982) was a leading Marxist historian who was Chair of French Revolution History at the Sorbonne from 1968 to 1982 and president of the Société des Études Robespierristes. He specialised in the analysis of popular movements during the Revolution and detailed studies of the sans-culottes. In Les Sansculottes Parisiens en l’An II (Paris, 1958; English translation, The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793-4, 1964) he argued that the sans-culottes reflected a popular movement which drove the radicalisation of the Revolution. In his general history of the Revolution (Histoire de la Révolution française, published 1962) he argued that the Revolution represented the culmination of the long economic and social evolution which made the bourgeoisie the dominant class.
Alfred Cobban and revisionist historians
Alfred Cobban (1901–1968) challenged Marxist social and economic explanations of the revolution in two important works, The Myth of the French Revolution (1955) and Social Interpretation of the French Revolution (1964). Cobban argued that the revolution was primarily a political conflict rather than a social one. The revolution wasn't initiated by a rising capitalist bourgeoisie but rather by a declining class of lawyers and office holders, and feudalism had virtually disappeared before the Revolution. The victors of the Revolution were large and small conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development.
American historian George V. Taylor also challenged the class conflict interpretation of the Revolution. In ‘Noncapitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution’ (1967) and other essays, he argued that there was little economic conflict between the old regime nobility and capitalists and that the share of wealth represented by capitalist enterprises was small. He concluded that the Revolution was not primarily a social one, but a political revolution with social consequences.
Robert Palmer
In The Age of the Democratic Revolution (2 volumes, 1959–64) Robert Palmer argued against "French exceptionalism". He provided a global interpretation of the Revolution, arguing that the revolutionary conflicts of the second half of the 18th-century amounted to an “Atlantic revolution” or “western revolution”. According to Palmer: “All revolutions since 1800, in Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, have learned from the eighteenth-century Revolution of Western Civilization.” David Armitage comments: “That judgment might seem guilty of almost every current scholarly sin—Eurocentrism, essentialism, teleology, diffusionism—but it captured the essence of Palmer’s endeavor: to understand the present through the past with the perspective of the longue durée.”
Palmer's thesis was rejected by both Marxists and French nationalists. Marvin R. Cox states that Marxist historians accused Palmer of "a brief to provide historical legitimacy for NATO," while French nationalists said it diminished the importance of the French Revolution as an historical event.
Armitage also criticised Palmer for his omissions: “Its omission of the Haitian Revolution and of Iberian America—not to mention the absence of the enslaved, women, and much cultural history—implied that Palmer was afraid to acknowledge the truly radical elements of the age of revolution, that he was blind to its exclusions and complacent about its failed promises.”
François Furet
François Furet (1927–1997) was a leading French critic of "Jacobin-Marxist" interpretations of the Revolution. In their influential La Revolution française (1965), Furet and Denis Richet argued for the primacy of political decisions, contrasting the reformist period of 1789-91 with the following interventions of the urban masses which led to radicalisation and an ungovernable situation. Furet later argued that a clearer distinction needed to be made between analyses of political events, and of social and economic changes which usually take place over a much longer period than the Jacobin-Marxist school allowed. He also stated that Jacobin-Marxist interpretations of the revolution harboured a totalitarian tendency, and anachronistically viewed the Revolution in the light of the Russian revolution of October 1917. Furet, however, conceded that the Jacobin-Marxist school had increased the understanding of the role of peasants and the urban masses in the revolution. Influenced by Alexis de Tocqueville and Augustin Cochin, Furet argued that the French should stop seeing the revolution as the key to all aspects of modern French history. Other major works by Furet include Penser la Révolution Française (1978; translated as Interpreting the French Revolution 1981) and A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989).
Other 20th-century historians
Some other influential historians of this period are:
Albert Sorel (1842–1906) – Diplomatic historian: Europe et la Révolution française (eight volumes, 1895–1904); introductory section of this work translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947).
Ernest Labrousse (1895–1988) – Performed extensive economic research on 18th-century France.
George Rudé (1910–1993) – Another of Lefebvre's protégés, did further work on the popular side of the Revolution, including: The Crowd in the French Revolution (1959).
Richard Cobb (1917–1996) was a leading exponent of "history from below" who wrote detailed studies of both provincial and city life, avoiding the revisionism debate by "keeping his nose very close to the ground". His major works include Les armées révolutionnaires (published 1961-63, translated as The People's Armies in 1987).
Modern historiography (1980s to present)
From the 1980s, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations of the revolution in terms of bourgeoisie-proletarian class struggle as anachronistic. However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support. The historiography of the revolution has become more diversified, exploring areas such as cultural histories, regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation.
Cultural studies
From the 1980s, there was a proliferation of interpretations based on the study of language and popular culture, in which the Revolution was largely viewed as a symptom of deeper cultural trends. Some of the more prominent works include:
Robert Darnton The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (1982)
Keith Michael Baker Inventing the French Revolution (1990)
R. Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution (1991)
Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (1984), and The Family Romance of the French Revolution (1992).
Women and gender
Late 20th-century studies of women and the revolution emphasised the role of women as participants in the revolution but their exclusion from revolutionary political institutions and full citizenship rights. More recent studies have concentrated on the experiences of specific female groups such as teachers, writers, prostitutes, rural women and those associated with the military and have argued that women were often able to promote new notions of citizenship and challenge gendered power relations. Some key works include:
Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (1988)
Hufton, Olwen, Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1992)
Melzer, S. E. and L. W. Rabine, eds., Rebel Daughters: Women and the French Revolution (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992).
Godineau, Dominique., The Women of Paris and their French Revolution (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998)
Jennifer Ngaire Heuer, The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789–1830 (Ithaca, NY, 2005)
Decolonisation
Recent studies of the French colonies have largely abandoned the Jacobin-Marxist approach of classic studies such as C. L. R. James' The Black Jacobins (1938) and Aimé Césaire's Toussaint Louverture: La Révolution française et le problème colonial (1960). Scholars such as Michel-Rolph Traillot and Anthony Hurley have emphasised the cultural traditions of colonial slaves, arguing that the Haitian revolution was not a derivative of the French revolution.
Trans-Atlantic and global histories
Trans-Atlantic and global interpretations of the French Revolution have become a major field of study. Important recent histories include Suzanne Desan, Lynn Hunt, and William Max Nelson (eds), The French Revolution in Global Perspective (Ithaca, NY, 2013); David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyan (eds), The Age of Revolutions in Global Context (Basingstoke, 2010); and Wim Klooster, Revolutions in the Atlantic World; a comparative history (New York, 2009).
Other contemporary historians
Simon Schama's Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (1989) is a popular narrative history in the revisionist tradition of Cobban and Furet. Schama argues that violence was an essential element of the Revolution from 1789 and that the revolution ended with the fall of Robespierre in 1794.
William Doyle, a British revisionist historian who wrote The Origins of the French Revolution (1980) and The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2nd edition 2002). Doyle argues that the outbreak of the revolution was a result of political miscalculation rather than social conflicts.
Timothy Tackett has written a number of histories of the Revolution including When the King Took Flight (2004), Becoming a Revolutionary (2006), and The Coming of the Terror in the French Revolution (2015).
Bibliography
Works mentioned, by date of first publication:
Usually translated as The Old Regime and the French Revolution.
Introductory part translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947).
Aulard, François-Alphonse. The French Revolution, a Political History, 1789–1804 (4 vol. 3rd ed. 1901; English translation 1910); volume 1 1789–1792 online; Volume 2 1792–95 online
Translated as The Great Fear of 1789 (1973).
Translated as The Coming of the French Revolution (1947).
Translated in two volumes: The French Revolution from its origins to 1793 (1962), and The French Revolution from 1793 to 1799 (1967).
Translated as The People's Armies (1987).
Translated as The Sans-Culottes (1972).
Translated as Interpreting the French Revolution (1981).
Robert Darnton (1982) The Literary Underground of the Old Regime
Translated as A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989).
Godineau, Dominique. (1998) The Women of Paris and their French Revolution. Berkeley. University of California Press.
Jennifer Ngaire Heuer (2005). The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789–1830 . NY. Ithaca
References
Works cited
Further reading
Bell, David A., and Yair Mintzker, eds. Rethinking the age of revolutions: France and the birth of the modern world (Oxford UP, 2018.
rejects Marxist models
covers the older studies.
D'Antuono, Giuseppina. "Historiographical heritages: Denis Diderot and the men of the French Revolution." Diciottesimo Secolo 6 (2021): 161-168. online
. Basic survey of the historiography
Desan, Suzanne. "Recent Historiography on the French Revolution and Gender." Journal of Social History 52.3 (2019): 566-574. online
Disch, Lisa. "How could Hannah Arendt glorify the American Revolution and revile the French? Placing On Revolution in the historiography of the French and American Revolutions." European Journal of Political Theory 10.3 (2011): 350–71.
Douthwaite, Julia V. “On Seeing the Forest through the Trees: Finding Our Way through Revolutionary Politics, History, and Art.” Eighteenth-Century Studies 43#2 2010, pp. 259–63. online
Doyle, William. The Oxford history of the French revolution (Oxford UP, 2018).
Dunne, John. "Fifty Years of Rewriting the French Revolution: Signposts Main Landmarks and Current Directions in the Historiographical Debate," History Review. (1998) pp. 8ff.
Edelstein, Melvin. The French Revolution and the Birth of Electoral Democracy (Routledge, 2016).
Farmer, Paul. France Reviews its Revolutionary Origins (1944)
Friguglietti, James, and Barry Rothaus, "Interpreting vs. Understanding the Revolution: François Furet and Albert Soboul," Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Proceedings, 1987 (1987) Vol. 17, pp. 23–36
Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; strong on history of ideas and historiography (esp pp. 881–1034) excerpt and text search; 17 essays on leading historians, pp. 881–1032
Furet, François. Interpreting the French revolution (1981).
Germani, Ian, and Robin Swayles. Symbols, myths and images of the French Revolution. University of Regina Publications. 1998.
Gershoy, Leo. The French Revolution and Napoleon (2nd ed. 1964), scholarly survey
Geyl, Pieter. Napoleon for and Against (1949), 477 pp; reviews the positions of major historians regarding Napoleon
Guillaume, Lancereau. "Unruly Memory and Historical Order: The Historiography of the French Revolution between Historicism and Presentism (1881-1914)." História da Historiografia: International Journal of Theory and History of Historiography 14.36 (2021): 225-256 online.
Hanson, Paul R. Contesting the French Revolution (1999), excerpt and text search, combines analytic history and historiography
Heller, Henry. The Bourgeois Revolution in France (1789–1815) (Berghahn Books, 2006) defends Marxist model
Hobsbawm, Eric J. Echoes of the Marseillaise: two centuries look back on the French Revolution (Rutgers University Press, 1990) by an English Marxist }
Hutton, Patrick H. "The role of memory in the historiography of the french revolution." History and Theory 30.1 (1991): 56–69.
Israel, Jonathan. Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution from The Rights of Man to Robespierre (2014)
Jones, Rhys. "Time Warps During the French Revolution." Past & Present 254.1 (2022): 87-125.
Kafker, Frank A. and James M. Laux, eds. The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations (5th ed. 2002)
Kaplan, Steven Laurence. Farewell, Revolution: The Historians' Feud, France, 1789/1989 (1996), focus on historians excerpt and text search
Kaplan, Steven Laurence. Farewell, Revolution: Disputed Legacies, France, 1789/1989 (1995); focus on bitter debates re 200th anniversary excerpt and text search
Kates, Gary, ed. The French Revolution: Recent Debates and New Controversies (2nd ed. 2005) excerpt and text search
Kim, Minchul. "Volney and the French Revolution." Journal of the History of Ideas 79.2 (2018): 221–42.
Lewis, Gwynne. The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate (1993) 142 pp
Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the legacy of the French Revolution (Macmillan, 1994)
McManners, J. "The Historiography of the French Revolution," in A. Goodwin, editor, The New Cambridge Modern History: volume VIII: The American and French Revolutions, 1763–93 (1965) 618–52 online
Minchul, Kim. “Volney and the French Revolution.” Journal of the History of Ideas 79#2 (April 2018): 221–42.
Parker, Noel. Portrayals of Revolution: Images, Debates and Patterns of thought on the French Revolution (1990)
Rigney, Ann. The Rhetoric of Historical Representation: Three Narrative Histories of the French Revolution (Cambridge UP, 2002) covers Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet and Louis Blanc.
Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus, eds. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789–1799 (2 vol 1984), short essays by scholars
sociological approach
Sole, Jacques. "Historiography of the French Revolution," in Michael Bentley, ed. Companion to Historiography (1997) ch 19 pp. 509–25
Tarrow, Sidney. “‘Red of Tooth and Claw’: The French Revolution and the Political ProcessThen and Now.” French Politics, Culture & Society 29#1 2011, pp. 93–110. online
Walton, Charles. "Why the neglect? Social rights and French Revolutionary historiography." French History 33.4 (2019): 503–19.
Williamson, George S. "Retracing the Sattelzeit: thoughts on the historiography of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras." Central European History 51.1 (2018): 66-74 online.
External links
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