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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Emerald%20Isle
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The Emerald Isle
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The Emerald Isle; or, The Caves of Carrig-Cleena, is a two-act comic opera, with music by Arthur Sullivan and Edward German, and a libretto by Basil Hood. The plot concerns the efforts of an Irish patriot to resist the oppressive "re-education" programme of the English, which has robbed the Irish of their cultural heritage. A quirky "Professor of Elocution" who is hired by the English to continue this "re-education" of the Irish switches sides to help the Irish defend their culture. Romantic complications cause a confrontation between the Irish patriots and the superstitious English at the supposedly haunted caves of Carric-Cleena, and disguises are employed to hold the English off; but the professor ultimately comes up with a solution that works out happily for all.
The opera premiered at the Savoy Theatre on 27 April 1901, closing on 9 November 1901 after a run of 205 performances. The opening night cast included such Savoy regulars as Robert Evett, Walter Passmore, Henry Lytton, Rosina Brandram, Isabel Jay and Louie Pounds. The opera was given a production in New York City at the Herald Square Theatre for 50 performances, opening on 1 September 1902 and closing on 18 October 1902. The New York cast included Kate Condon as Molly and Jefferson De Angelis as Bunn. It was revived in 1935 at the Prince's Theatre (now the Shaftesbury Theatre) in London.
Modern professional productions of the work have been rare. The Prince Consort (an Edinburgh-based performing group) recorded the piece in Britain live in performance at the fringe of the Edinburgh Festival in 1982. The piece was also given in Edinburgh and then Torquay, England, in 1998. Another live recording (with dialogue) was made in 2001 as a centenary production at the Alexander Theatre of the Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia, by the Gilbert and Sullivan Society of Victoria (now known as Gilbert & Sullivan Opera Victoria). Amateur groups in Britain produced the piece regularly through the 1920s and occasionally thereafter. A concert of the opera was performed by Valley Light Opera in Amherst, Massachusetts on 8 March 2008 with a narration written by Jonathan Strong. This was the first known U.S. performance of the opera with full orchestra since 1902.
History
For much of the 1890s, impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte and his wife Helen Carte had struggled to find successful shows to fill the Savoy. They finally found a winning formula in The Rose of Persia by Arthur Sullivan and Basil Hood in 1899, and the two men quickly agreed to collaborate again. However, Sullivan, who had increasingly struggled with ill health, died on 22 November 1900. At his death, Sullivan had finished two musical numbers from The Emerald Isle in their entirety, leaving behind sketches of at least the voice parts for about half of the others. The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned Edward German to complete the numbers Sullivan had sketched and to compose the rest of the opera himself. Carte himself died on 27 April 1901, and the opera was produced by his widow, Helen, who engaged William Greet as manager of the Savoy Theatre during the run of The Emerald Isle.
German, to this point, was known chiefly as a composer of orchestral and incidental music. The Emerald Isle was sufficiently successful to launch German on an operatic career. German's most famous opera was Merrie England (1902), also written with Hood, and Hood went on to a very successful career as an adapter of European operettas for the English stage.
Unlike Hood's first opera with Sullivan, The Rose of Persia, The Emerald Isle does not pay much homage to the Gilbert and Sullivan comic tradition, except for the mistaken identities and the fact that the opera was written for the same opera company and its regular performers. The plot is not reminiscent of Gilbert's topsy-turvy style, nor is there any obvious satiric point. With its Irish jigs and broad comedy, the work was more at home in the musical comedy style that had become prevalent on the London stage by the end of the 1890s. Sullivan's music has been described as "reminiscent rather than fresh", while German's contributions to the score, though partly imitative of Sullivan, marked him as a comic opera composer of promise.
Roles and original cast
The Earl of Newtown, K.P. (Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) (bass-baritone) – Jones Hewson
Dr. Fiddle, D.D. (his Private Chaplain) (tenor) – Robert Rous
Terence O'Brian (a Young Rebel) (tenor) – Robert Evett
Professor Bunn (Shakespearean Reciter, Character Impersonator, etc.) (comic baritone) – Walter Passmore
Pat Murphy (a Fiddler) (lyric baritone) – Henry A. Lytton
Irish Peasants:
Black Dan (baritone) – W. H. Leon
Mickie O'Hara (non-singing) – C. Earldon
H.M. 11th Regiment of Foot:
Sergeant Pincher (bass) – Reginald Crompton
Private Perry (non-singing) – Powis Pinder/Charles Childerstone
Sentry (non-singing)
The Countess of Newtown (contralto) – Rosina Brandram
Lady Rosie Pippin (her Daughter) (soprano) – Isabel Jay
Molly O'Grady (a Peasant Girl) (mezzo-soprano) – Louie Pounds
Susan (Lady Rosie's Maid) (mezzo-soprano) – Blanche Gaston-Murray
Peasant Girls:
Nora (non-singing) – Lulu Evans
Kathleen (soprano) – Agnes Fraser
Chorus of Irish Peasants and Soldiers of 11th Regiment of Foot
Synopsis
According to the libretto, the action takes place "About a Hundred Years Ago."
Act I
Scene: Outside the Lord Lieutenant's Country Residence.
In a picturesque Irish village, the chorus speculate that Terence O'Brian, a local hero who has long been absent abroad, will soon return. O'Brien indeed appears, but they mistake him for a Saxon (hated by the Irish) because of his English accent. He assures them that, although he was educated at Oxford, he is thoroughly Irish, and is in fact descended from one of the ancient Irish kings, Brian Boru.
Pat Murphy, a blind fiddler, tells O'Brien that the Lord Lieutenant has compelled all of the villagers to adopt English customs and speak in English accents. O'Brien vows to restore Irish customs to the district; he requires only a suitable tutor to re-educate the local people, since they have all forgotten how to be Irish.
Professor Bunn enters. He has overheard the conversation. Although the Lord Lieutenant has hired him to be the Local Professor of English Elocution, he assures them that he can also train the local peasantry to be typically Irish. O'Brien is sceptical, but as Bunn has overheard them, they decide it would be better to forcibly initiate him into their secret society, the Clan-na-Gael. O'Brien tells Bunn that the ceremony will take place at midnight, at the Caves of Carrig-Cleena.
O'Brien is secretly engaged to the Lord Lieutenant's daughter, Lady Rosie Pippin. While he goes off for a secret rendezvous, he leaves Bunn in Murphy's custody. Once they are alone, Murphy admits that he isn't blind at all; he has only feigned blindness. But he is in love with Molly O'Grady, and he wants to tell her how beautiful she is, which he cannot do unless his "blindness" is cured. He suggests that Professor Bunn impersonate a doctor, who will restore his sight. Molly then enters, but she says that if Bunn could cure Murphy, she would marry Bunn. For now, Murphy decides to remain blind, after all.
Jealous of Bunn, Murphy tells O'Brien that Bunn can't be trusted. O'Brien threatens Bunn with death, but offers him a reprieve if he can manage to get a letter to Lady Rosie's maid, which O'Brien himself has been unable to do. Bunn mesmerises the guard at the gate of the Lieutenant's, and goes inside.
Molly warns O'Brien that the Caves of Carrig-Cleena are a dangerous hiding place for the rebels, because fairies reside there. She tells him that the Fairy Cleena, their Queen, has taken a fancy to Blind Murphy, and does his house chores. (It is, in fact, Molly who has been doing them.) Molly and Murphy tell O'Brien the legend of the Fairy Cleena.
Rosie, having received O'Brien's message, comes out to greet him. From Rosie and her maid, Susan, he learns that Bunn had delivered a letter to the Lord Lieutenant himself. O'Brien is now even more convinced that Bunn can't be trusted, but as he wants to be alone with Rosie, he directs Susan to keep an eye on the Professor. However, after Bunn tells Susan he's a detective from Scotland Yard, she allows him to leave, noting that she is much enchanted by detectives. He goes into Murphy's cottage to change into a disguise, which he has brought with him.
The Lord Lieutenant enters, with the Countess and Dr. Fiddle. The Lieutenant is expecting Professor Bunn, who cannot be found. However, he has received an anonymous note warning that the rebel leader Terence O'Brien is in the area, and his hiding place is Carrig-Cleena. The Lieutenant vows to send troops to exterminate the rebels.
Molly and Murphy have overheard this. Learning that Murphy is a musician, the Lieutenant hires him to play the bagpipes, anticipating a victory over the rebels. Molly is aghast when he accepts, as she believes his loyalties should be on the Irish side.
Rosie, too, is distraught, as she fears O'Brien will be in grave danger, but it turns out O'Brien has not yet left for the caves. Rosie warns him that soldiers are on the way, and O'Brien is sure that Bunn has betrayed them. Bunn comes out of Murphy's cottage dressed as an old man, but O'Brien quickly sees through the disguise. O'Brien threatens to kill him, but Molly comes forward with an idea for deterring the soldiers. She knows they are afraid of fairies. She plans to tell them that the Caves of Carrig-Cleena are haunted, and she will impersonate the Fairy Cleena herself. Thinking quickly, Professor Bunn offers to tell the soldiers that he has been imprisoned by the fairies for the last fifty years, and that the same fate awaits them should they go near the caves. Terrence concludes that Bunn will be useful, after all.
The soldiers enter with great pomp. Molly, Bunn, and the others play out their trick, and as expected the soldiers are greatly affected by it. Murphy suggests that the fairies can cure his blindness, but Molly (impersonating the Fairy Cleena) insists that they cannot. The Lord Lieutenant orders the soldiers to attack the rebels, but they have been taken in by the ruse. Panic-stricken, the soldiers disperse.
Act II
Scene: The Caves of Carrig Cleena.
The peasant rebels nervously await the soldiers' arrival. At first, they are relieved when O'Brien tells them of Professor Bunn's successful ruse. But then Molly rushes in, and tells them the soldiers have changed their minds, and that Carrig-Cleena is now surrounded. Once again, O'Brien suspects that Professor Bunn has deceived them. Bagpipes are heard in the distance, which they all presume are played by Blind Murphy. They suspect that he, too, is a spy.
Rosie and Susan enter. The rebels are aghast to learn that O'Brien's lover is no other than the Lord Lieutenant's daughter. He explains that they had met in London, before they realized that they were on opposite sides of the conflict. He says that they are engaged, but Rosie warns that they cannot be married without her father's consent, which he would never give.
Professor Bunn arrives, and the rebels seize him. O'Brien tells Bunn that the only way he can avoid death is if he can frighten away the eight hundred English soldiers that are now surrounding the area. They develop a plan whereby Molly will once again appear as the Fairy Cleena, with her image projected on the rocks by an apparatus that Bunn provides. Bunn is to appear as a goblin. Rosie will hide behind the rocks and sing a love-song, purportedly the fairies' siren song.
Murphy arrives. He plans to pretend that he has spoken with the fairies, and is cured of his blindness. Professor Bunn decides to try the elaborate ruse. Rosie sings in the background, with Molly's image projected on the rocks. Murphy is overwhelmed, and falls senseless on the stage. O'Brien, however, is not impressed, as the idea was that Murphy would run off and tell the soldiers what had happened, frightening them away. Bunn persuades O'Brien to let him have one more try at it.
When Murphy revives, the rebels accuse him of being a spy, and they put him on trial. Molly stands up in his defence, pointing out that a blind man can't be a spy. Murphy finally admits that he has never been blind. Molly is ashamed by his deception. Terence tells Murphy that he is banished. He sings a sad farewell, and Molly is moved. She admits that she loves him.
The Sergeant enters in advance of the troops. O'Brien warns him of the dangerous Fairy Cleena. Professor Bunn bewitches the Sergeant, and when the Lord Lieutenant enters with the Countess, they find the Sergeant apparently insane. Professor Bunn tells the Lieutenant that he is a researcher looking for fairies and has found them. The Lieutenant doesn't believe him, and he asks Dr. Fiddle to confirm that fairies do not exist.
As there are no rebels around, the Lieutenant believes he has been tricked. He offers a reward of a thousand guineas to anyone who can identify the person responsible. Professor Bunn admits to writing the letter and asks for the reward. The Lieutenant says that he shall have it, but that he will also be shot for rebellion.
The rebels appear, and the Lieutenant orders their arrest. O'Brien steps forward and insists that if anyone is to be shot, he should be the first. Rosie takes her place at his side, and tells her father that they are in love. The Lieutenant insists that she may only marry a man of royal blood. O'Brien replies that he is descended from Brian Boru, an ancient King of Ireland, which removes the Lieutenant's objection, but the Lieutenant responds that O'Brien will nevertheless be shot for treason.
Professor Bunn, however, points out that all English noblemen nowadays are more than half American, and America is the friend of Ireland. Therefore, the Lieutenant is a friend of the rebels, and it would be absurd to have them shot. The Lieutenant agrees that this is conclusive, and all ends happily.
Musical numbers
Overture (includes "We don't intend to go to Carrig-Cleena", "Bedad it's for him" and the "Jig") †
Act I
1. "Have ye heard the brave news?" (Chorus of Peasants) ‡
2. "My Friends... I'm descended from Brian Boru" (Terence and Chorus)
3. "Of Viceroys though we've had" (Murphy and Chorus)
4. "If you wish to appear as an Irish type" (Bunn and Chorus)
5. "On the Heights of Glantaun" (Molly, Terence, and Murphy)
6. "Two is Company" (Rosie, Susan, Terence & Bunn)
7. Entrance of Lord Lieut., Countess and Chaplain: "I am the Lord Lieutenant" (Lord Lieut., Countess, and Dr. Fiddle)
8. "At an early stage of life" (Lord Lieut. with Rosie, Countess, and Dr. Fiddle)
9. "When Alfred's friends their king forsook" (Countess) †
10. "Oh, setting sun you bid the world good-bye" (Rosie) †
11. "Their courage high you may defy" (Rosie, Susan, Molly, Terence and Bunn)
12. Entrance of Soldiers: "That we're soldiers no doubt you will guess" (Chorus of Soldiers and Girls)
13. "Now this is the song of the Devonshire Men" (Sergeant and Chorus) †
14. Entrance of Bunn: "It is past my comprehension... Many years ago I strode" (Bunn and Molly with Chorus)
15. "Their fathers fought at Ramillies" (Ensemble)
Act II
16. "Is there anyone approachin" (Chorus of Peasant Men with Dan)
17. "Bedad, it's for him that will always employ" (Chorus of Men) †
18. "Jig" (Peasants) †
18a. "Och, the spalpeen! Let him drown!" (Chorus) †
19. "Oh have you met a man in debt" (Terence and Chorus)
20. "Twas in Hyde Park, beside the row" (Rosie, Terence, and Chorus)
21. "I cannot play at love" (Molly, Kathleen, Bunn, Rosie, and Chorus) †
22. "Oh the age, in which we're living" (Bunn, with Susan) †
23. "Sing a rhyme" (Kathleen, Terence, Bunn, Susan, and Chorus)
24. "Listen, hearken my lover" (Rosie, Terence and Murphy) †
25 "Good-bye my native town" (Murphy) †
26. "I love you! I love you!" (Molly and Murphy) †
27. "There was once a little soldier" (Terence with Chorus)
28. "With a big shillelagh" (Ensemble)
† – Number composed entirely by German
‡ – Number composed entirely by Sullivan
Notes
External links
The Emerald Isle at The Gilbert & Sullivan Archive
Vocal score at the IMSLP
The Emerald Isle at The Gilbert & Sullivan Discography
Programme from the original production
Review in The Times, 29 April 1901
New York Times review of the Broadway production of Emerald Isle
IBDB listing for Emerald Isle
Operas by Arthur Sullivan
Operas by Edward German
English-language operas
English comic operas
Operas
1901 operas
Operas set in Ireland
Sullivan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too%20Little%20Too%20Late
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Too Little Too Late
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"Too Little Too Late" is a song by American singer JoJo from her second studio album, The High Road (2006). It was written by Billy Steinberg, Josh Alexander and Ruth-Anne Cunningham, and produced by the former two with Da Family Records founder Vincent Herbert. The song was released as the album's lead single on July 24, 2006. A power ballad, "Too Little Too Late" is a pop and R&B breakup song about a girl who struggles about dealing with her first love as she refuses to reconcile with her ex-boyfriend despite his efforts to convince her. Its theme about an unsuccessful relationship drew comparisons to JoJo's 2004 debut single, "Leave (Get Out)".
Alexander began writing the song on his own before being joined by Steinberg and Cunningham to complete it. Although Cunningham always envisioned the song being recorded by JoJo, the songwriters had considered offering "Too Little Too Late" to American girl group The Pussycat Dolls. After learning that the Blackground Records was recruiting new material for JoJo, it was forwarded to the label two years after it had been written. JoJo decided to record "Too Little Too Late" to express how much she had matured since the release of her self-titled debut album in 2004, and personally selected the track to be the album's first single.
The song earned positive reviews from music critics, who praised its composition, mature themes and JoJo's vocal performance; some critics and media publications included it on their rankings of the best breakup songs. Commercially, the song was an international success, reaching the top-six in six countries in addition to the United States. When "Too Little Too Late" rose from number 66 to number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, it broke singer Mariah Carey's record for the largest jump to a top-three spot in the chart's history, which Carey had previously achieved with her 2001 single "Loverboy". The record was ultimately later broken by Kelly Clarkson's "My Life Would Suck Without You", which jumped from number 97 to number one on the issue dated February 7, 2009. "Too Little Too Late" remains JoJo's most commercially successful single to date.
Directed by Chris Robinson, the song's music video features a soccer theme, inspired by both JoJo's appreciation for the sport and her relationship with then-boyfriend Freddy Adu, a professional soccer player. Soccer player Mike Zaher, junior defender for the UCLA Bruins at the time, portrays JoJo's boyfriend in the music video, which also features appearances by the rest of the soccer team.
Writing and recording
"Too Little Too Late" was written by songwriters Billy Steinberg and Josh Alexander, and singer-songwriter Ruth-Anne Cunningham. Alexander began writing "Too Little Too Late" on his own before Steinberg joined him to complete it, particularly contributing lyrics and a bridge to the music Alexander had already composed for the song's verses and chorus. Steinberg identified "Too Little Too Late" as one of the few songs in his career to which he contributed only after a portion of it had been written, with Alexander introducing the song to him after he had already conceived its title, as well as some of the ballad's lyrics and melody, admitting that Steinberg essentially "helped him finish writing that song and that lyric." Born in Ireland, "Too Little Too Late" was one of the first songs Cunningham was hired to write professionally after moving to Los Angeles, California from Dublin at the age of 17. Cunningham's manager at the time, Eamonn Maguire, had introduced her to Steinberg a few weeks after she relocated from Ireland. After hearing Cunningham perform one of her original songs, Steinberg invited her to co-write "Too Little Too Late", which they successfully completed by the following day during a writing session with Alexander. Upon finishing the song, Cunningham felt that it was most suitable for JoJo but the songwriters lacked the necessary contacts and resources to forward it to her at the time.
"Too Little Too Late" is a more R&B-leaning track than Steinberg and Alexander's previous work, which had tended to be more pop rock-oriented. Writing the song in a more urban contemporary style was a conscious decision the songwriters made after realizing pop rock songs they had written for artists such as FeFe Dobson and The Veronicas were not being particularly embraced by contemporary radio stations in the United States; Steinberg elaborated, "I enjoy writing in all different styles. But I particularly enjoy hearing my songs on the radio, and these days pop radio is playing much more urban ... So there’s a lot more gratification in writing a song for an artist like JoJo that radio embraces."
Two years followed before the song was finally recorded, during which the songwriters had considered giving it to girl group The Pussycat Dolls. Upon learning that Bruce Carbone, executive vice president of A&R at Universal Records, was interested in obtaining new material for JoJo's then-upcoming second studio album, Steinberg sent a demo recording of "Too Little Too Late" to Carbone, who immediately expressed how much he liked the song. Steinberg and Alexander were then introduced to record producer Vince Herbert, founder of Da Family Records, who invited the songwriters to co-produce the song alongside him. Blackground then flew Steinberg and Alexander out to New York, where they began producing the track before recording JoJo's vocal's in September 2005.
"Too Little Too Late" was one of the first prospective songs from the album that Herbert played for JoJo. The singer claimed that she wanted to record the song as soon as she heard it for the first time, elaborating, "When my team heard that song, they knew I could hit the sweet spot, musically and in terms of subject matter." According to Vibe, the overall more mature, personal sentiment of the album prompted her to record "Too Little Too Late", having experienced both her first love and first heartbreak since the release of her self-titled debut album. The song was recorded at both Cryptic Studios in Los Angeles, California and Sony Music Studios in New York, New York. The songwriters later returned to the studio to co-write a second song for the album with JoJo herself, titled "How to Touch a Girl". In regards his musical style, JoJo described Steinberg as a "classic writer and producer."
Release
JoJo claimed that she knew she wanted the song to be the album's first single from the moment she recorded it, and in April 2006, she announced a pending release date of either August or September 2006. "Too Little Too Late" was ultimately released as the lead single from The High Road on August 15, 2006, via the Da Family/Blackground/Universal Records. "Get It Poppin'" was released as the single's B-side. A CD single was released in Europe that includes an instrumental version, two remixes produced by Full Phatt, and the music video.
A remix of the song is featured on the dance video game Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party. A Spanish version of the song was released on select non-US editions of The High Road.
Music and lyrics
"Too Little Too Late" is a pop and R&B breakup song about a girl ending a relationship with a boy who has mistreated her; she refuses to resume or salvage their relationship even though he begs her for a second chance. Performed at a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute, the song lasts a duration of three minutes and forty seconds (3:40). Beginning "Come with me/Stay the night", Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In identified "Too Little Too Late" as a song in which the protagonist "rejects a smarmy guy's game-playing advances". A power ballad, the track opens with a quiet verse before progressing into "a loud, sweeping chorus." Kelefa Sanneh, music journalist for The New York Times, observed that production-wise, the single features "airy synthesizers and synthetic-sounding strings" as opposed to loud guitars. Incorporating teen pop influences, JoJo performs several R&B-style arpeggios throughout the ballad, while her vocal range on the track spans three octaves, from D3 to E6. JoJo herself explained that the track discusses moving on from one's first heartbreak, calling it a "big song" about expressing disappointment in a first love that is not as angry-sounding as her debut single "Leave (Get Out)". Contributing to HuffPost, Sam Lansky concurred that the single is "more restrained but no less bitter" than "Leave (Get Out)" while remaining "a guitar-driven sigh of impotent resignation." Musically, JoJo identified "Too Little Too Late" as a pop song into which R&B elements had been incorporated using various harmonies and chord progressions, "but still kept it rock in the hook when it explodes." Robert Copsey of Digital Spy cited elements of power pop in the song, similar to "Leave (Get Out)". Instrumentally, the track also incorporates both acoustic and electric guitars.
AXS contributor Jason Burke summarized that, in "Too Little Too Late", JoJo refuses "to be a slave to a conditional or convenient relationship", realizing she is stronger on her own despite sometimes experiencing temptations to relent due to the fact that her former partner continues to know "all the right things to say". Identified as a breakup anthem, "Too Little Too Late" features an empowering message to which most women can relate, despite their age. According to Max Goldberg of Complex, the break up song narrates "The story of a fed-up JoJo curbing some guy who wasn't up to snuff", with the artist taking a different approach to dealing with teenage heartbreak that does not involve crying about the situation to her mother. Spin's Brian Josephs similarly remarked that the singer "turned heartbreak into a hit". Lyrically, the song explores some mature concepts, such as the line "you don't like me, you just like the chase." According to Kathi Kamen Goldmark of Common Sense Media, the ballad is about heartbreak and refusing to repeat the same mistake, demonstrated by the lyrics "You say you dream of my face/but you don't like me, you just like the chase…It doesn't matter anyway", with JoJo repeating the refrain "you know it's just too little, too late" several times throughout the song. Cosmopolitan's Dara Adeeyo received "Too Little Too Late" as a reminder that "relationships usually end for a reason." Writing for The Odyssey, Brandy Blaise believes the song's "powerful" moral to be about "Accepting that you deserve better and its just a little too late for your partner to fix things", demonstrated by its lyrics "Go find someone else. I'm letting you go, I'm loving myself. You got a problem but don't come asking me for help"; People's Julia Emmanuele compared this line to an Instagram caption. The Boston Globe's Maura Johnston described the song as "chiding" in tone, while Sam Willett of Consequence of Sound described its mood as "sassy" and a "slap-in-the-face".
Describing it as simultaneously "a hate track" and "a heartbreak track", Jane Hu, a music critic for Medium, compared the song to Whitney Houston's "It’s Not Right but It’s Okay" (1999) as though it "were sung by a 15-year-old." Some music journalists have speculated or not the song potentially correlates to JoJo's own dating life, particularly her relationship with athlete Freddy Adu, which ended around the time the song was released. Believing that "art predicted life" when she was first introduced to the track, JoJo explained, "when I started dating a few years later, I wondered if those songwriters hadn’t instinctively picked up on something.”
Critical reception
"Too Little Too Late" received positive reviews from music critics. Entertainment Weekly's Leah Greenblatt cited "Too Little Too Late" as an example of "the best songwriting a major-label budget can buy", while Billboard identified the song as a track "that can dwell comfortably on both the pop and AC charts", appealing to "listeners of all ages." Writing for AllMusic, Matt Collar called the single "ridiculously overwrought and utterly addictive". Similarly, Amazon.ca's Tammy La Gorce described the song as "addictive but not over-the-top". Another Billboard critic felt that the song was better than most singles playing on the radio at the time, lauding it as a track that "provides desperately needed balance to a top 40 landscape that is lacking a lot in the way of singable melodies." The writer also praised JoJo's vocal maturity, concluding, "With so many disappointing 'event' singles on the airwaves, radio needs this record." Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times felt that "Too Little Too Late" was superior to all other tracks on its parent album. About.com's Bill Lamb was receptive towards JoJo's vocal performance, writing that the singer "provides just enough control to keep [its] sentiments ... from going overboard and, by the end of the song, proves high notes are well within her range". Contributing to Rolling Stone, music critic Jenny Eliscu wrote that the ballad demonstrates JoJo's "nuanced command of how to work an R&B; arpeggio like a pro." In another article for Rolling Stone, Robert Kemp described "Too Little Too Late" as "about as perfect a pop song as they come." Alex Macpherson from The Guardian wrote that the singer remains "at her best when compulsively dissecting emotional situations straight out of high-school movies via the medium of big, heartfelt choruses", identifying "Too Little Too Late" as a "wonderfully weepy pinnacle". Similarly, People's Oliver Jones wrote that the singer "finds her musical comfort zone" singing "Too Little Too Late". Crowning the song one of the best 10 "Feel-Good Break-Up Songs" in 2007, Slice contributor Nicolle Weeks joked that nothing is "more humbling than a twerpy 15-year-old who can concisely summarize the way I feel about my stunted relationship".
In a more lukewarm review, Evan Sawdey from PopMatters described the track as "appropriately melodramatic," drawing similarities between it and JoJo's debut single "Leave (Get Out)" only "without the angry chorus". Sawdey described the song as "something that Alanis Morissette might have recorded for her last I'm-no-longer-angry-and-therefore-am-content-with-plain-ballads album." However, the critic concluded concluded that the track had more "personality" than the other tracks on The High Road. Fraser M. of BBC Online described the song as "a slab of confident, sophisticated maturo-pop" but felt that the song's production grew repetitive in addition to overwhelming. The critic concluded that the song was a "catchy tune" that "lends itself well to a singalong in the car". In 2007, "Too Little Too Late" earned JoJo a Boston Music Award for Female Vocalist of the Year. Cunningham won an ASCAP songwriting award for her contributions to the song.
In the years following its release, the song has continued to receive retrospective positive reception. Medium contributor Jane Hu opined that "You could not dream up a more perfect pop track", writing "there’s something about 'Too Little Too Late' that continues to exemplify everything I want from the [pop music] genre". Furthermore, the critic wrote that the single is "not a one-hit-wonder teen peak, but in fact, only the start of JoJo’s artistic trajectory", concluding, "After almost a decade, the prescient maturity of 'Too Little Too Late' ... baffles me every time." Retrospectively, in 2016 Vanessa Okoth-Obbo, contributing to Pitchfork, described "Too Little Too Late" as an "excellent young love anthem". AwesomenessTV's Alexis Joy called the song "terrific" and "our go-to #Throwback song!". In 2016, AXS ranked "Too Little Too Late" JoJo's second best song, believing that its popularity eclipsed that of "Leave (Get Out)". That year, Capital XTRA described the song as "an epic song." In 2016, GQ's Lauren Larson crowned "Too Little Too Late" the "breakup ballad of the decade." The Odyssey ranked "Too Little Too Late" their fifth most empowering break up song. In 2017, People wrote that "Too Little Too Late" was one of the 14 most "savage" breakup anthems ever recorded. According to Louise Bruton of The Irish Times, the song proved that JoJo was capable of competing against the likes of singers Kelly Clarkson and Pink at the time of its release.
Commercial performance
"Too Little Too Late" remains JoJo's biggest hit to date. "Too Little Too Late" appeared on both Billboards pop and adult contemporary charts, became a staple on radio stations during 2006. "Too Little Too Late" initially debuted at number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles the week of August 19, 2006, topping the chart the week after. The following week, it jumped to the Billboard Hot 100 at number 90. In its second week on the chart, "Too Little Too Late" moved from number 66 to number three due to a 121,000 increase in digital downloads, becoming the largest jump into the top-three spot in Billboard history. This broke the record previously set by American singer Mariah Carey for her song "Loverboy" (2001), and became the biggest one-week jump in the chart's history. It is her first and so far only single to make it to the top 10 of the Hot 100 chart. The song remains her highest-charting single on the chart. Additionally, the song peaked at number two on Mediabase. During the week of November 11, 2006, the song was number one on AOL Music, having amassed streams surpassing 296,676. The single sold 821,000 digital downloads as of March 2007. By October 2011, "Too Little Too Late" had sold over one million copies.
"Too Little Too Late" achieved success worldwide, peaking within the top 10 in six other countries outside the United States. In the United Kingdom, the single debuted at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart based on digital downloads alone two weeks before its physical CD single release. Following its physical release, the song peaked at number four, becoming JoJo's second top five and third top 10 single in the United Kingdom.
The song reached the top 10 in both in Australia and New Zealand. In the latter, "Too Little Too Late" debuted at number 11 and reached its peak of number 5 in its sixth week.
Considered to be her "big break" into the music industry, the song is credited with launching Cunningham's songwriting career. As of 2016, Cunningham considers the success of "Too Little Too Late" the highlight of her career because it was her first song to achieve international success.
Music video
Background
JoJo gave fans a sneak peek of the video on June 3 in a short behind the scenes segment on CD USA. On June 11, pictures from the set of the video leaked onto Wireimage.com. Her RV co-star Robin Williams and his daughter Zelda were also on the set and appeared in behind-the-scenes footage included on the Target exclusive The High Road bonus DVD.
The music video or "Too Little Too Late" was directed by Chris Robinson, who JoJo claims had always been her first choice to direct the project; the idea to incorporate sports into the video originated from Robinson. Before deciding on soccer, JoJo considered featuring American football in the video until Robinson convinced her that soccer would have more universal appeal due to being "the biggest sport in the world." JoJo's then-relationship with soccer player Freddy Adu, combined with the fact that the 2006 FIFA World Cup was approaching, are believed to have inspired the music video's theme. The video was filmed in spring 2006 during the playoffs. JoJo had decided against casting a professional actor or model as her love interest in the music video, feeling that hiring an untrained performer would offer "more of a real feel to the video". Professional soccer player Mike Zaher, junior defender of the UCLA Bruins, was cast as JoJo's boyfriend David in the music video. Zaher was 21 years-old and a sophomore at the University of California, Los Angeles at the time. He had initially been told that he and his teammates would be involved in a music video for actress Lindsay Lohan. Though he was initially only intended to be featured as an extra, JoJo personally selected Zaher to play the role of her boyfriend in the video after he was screen tested.
JoJo and Zaher spent three days traveling around Los Angeles filming various scenes for the music video. The soccer scenes were filmed at East Los Angeles College's football stadium, while other scenes were split between Universal Studios and a home in Hollywood, California, which was located near Highway 10. The on-screen couple's relationship continued into a friendship off-set. Despite initially negotiating to be paid $8,000 for his contributions to the music video, Zaher was ultimately not allowed to accept payment due to National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) rules at the time, which prohibited him from accepting any soccer-related payment.
"Too Little Too Late" was first shown on July 17 on AOL Music's First View and aired on MTV and BET in fall 2006.
Synopsis and reception
At the start of the video, JoJo witnesses David (Zaher) flirting with a blonde-haired girl at a party while holding a glass drink in his hand. The couple talk and David invites JoJo to go to an important soccer game for his team. As the song begins, it shows JoJo at home, reminiscing about time she and David spent together. These shots are intercut with David playing soccer. David is later shown at a party, where he declines a phone call from JoJo before proceeding to flirt with other girls. In the video's finale, rain begins to pour at David's soccer game, which JoJo has chosen not to attend. At the same time, JoJo throws out mementos of her and David and sings in the pouring rain. At the soccer game, David ends up missing a crucial goal and his team loses. The video ends with the camera zooming out and panning away from JoJo's window as the rain subsides.
"Too Little Too Late" was first shown on July 17 on AOL Music's First View and aired on MTV and BET in fall 2006. In the United Kingdom, the video for "Too Little Too Late" premiered on October 14, 2006 on The Box's Kopooka Hot. By October 2006, the music video had been number one on iTunes, Yahoo and AOL. The video also peaked at number two on TRL, after premiering at number 9. AllMusic's Matt Collar wrote that the video demonstrates JoJo's "suburban cheerleader slinging hip-hop attitude", comparing her persona to those of actress Jennifer Aniston and singer Beyoncé.
JoJo and Adu ended their relationship shortly after the video was released, though both denied that the music video's plot had anything to do with this.
Live performances and covers
JoJo's first scheduled performance of the single was during the Miss Teen USA 2006, which aired on August 15, 2006. On October 17, 2006, the singer performed "Too Little Too Late" live on both The Today Show and TRL. This was followed by a series of performances to promote both the song and The High Road between October and November 2006: Live with Regis and Kelly (October 18), The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (October 20), The Ellen DeGeneres Show (October 25), The Megan Mullally Show (October 27), The View (November 7), CD USA, Sessions@AOL and Music Choice.
In June 2011, JoJo performed "Too Little Too Late" at the Girls Who Rock benefit concert. JoJo included the song in her set list of her 2015 "I Am JoJo Tour". Mehek Seyid, a writer for Live in Limbo, reviewed the singer's rendition at the Mod Club in Toronto as having "attitude and confidence that defined the Billboard hit [when it] first circulated in the 2000s." In January 2017, JoJo sang verses of "Too Little Too Late" with elementary school choir the PS22 Chorus. JoJo aperformed the song throughout her "Mad Love Tour". Reviewing her performance at the O2 Academy Islington, Attitude wrote that JoJo's rendition of "Too Little Too Late" is a "reminder of the pipes that made JoJo one of pop's most promising young stars". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution Jewel Wicker called her live rendition one of the show's "great moments".
In late October 2007, Daniel Rossen of Grizzly Bear recorded a version of the song in honor of bandmate Ed Droste's 29th birthday. Musician Daniel Rossen, one of the two lead vocalists of the band Grizzly Bear, covered "Too Little Too Late" live in concert in February 2009. Bandmate Ed Droste's wanted Rossen to deliver the cover "very seriously, as if he really meant all those lyrics". Stereogum described Rossen's rendition as "great, dusty and hazy and hooky". Sam Willett of Consequence of Sound reviewed Rossen's version as "a killer cover" that has been arranged "into a simultaneously soothing and haunting collage of echoing harmonies and guitar textures." According to The Guardian music critic Jude Rogers, the cover was part of the band's effort to make their live performances more enjoyable to audiences "when you're a man in your late 20s who can't hide behind a persona."
The song was sampled by electronic music producer Daniel Lopatin on the third track of his album Chuck Person's Eccojams Vol. 1.
Track listings
UK and Australian CD single
"Too Little Too Late" (album version) – 3:39
"Get It Poppin'" – 3:41
German CD single
"Too Little Too Late" – 3:47
"Too Little Too Late" (Full Phatt Remix) (featuring Tah Mac) – 4:24
"Too Little Too Late" (Full Phatt Remix) – 3:53
"Too Little Too Late" (instrumental) – 3:47
"Too Little Too Late" (video) – 4:04
Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The High Road''.
JoJo – backing vocals, lead vocals, vocal arrangement
Robbie Nevil - background vocals
Hayden Panettiere - background vocals
Jason Weaver - background vocals
Josh Alexander – production, recording, songwriting
Ruth-Anne Cunningham – songwriting
Paul Foley – recording
Gene Grimaldi – mastering
Vincent Herbert – production
Katia Lewin – engineering assistance
Dave Russell – mixing
Billy Steinberg – production, songwriting
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release history
References
External links
2000s ballads
2006 singles
2006 songs
Blackground Records singles
JoJo (singer) songs
Music videos directed by Chris Robinson (director)
Pop ballads
Contemporary R&B ballads
Song recordings produced by Billy Steinberg
Songs written by Billy Steinberg
Songs written by Josh Alexander
Songs written by RuthAnne
Universal Motown Records singles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93United%20States%20relations
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Turkey–United States relations
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Normal diplomatic relations were established between the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye) and the United States of America in 1927. Relations after World War II evolved from the Second Cairo Conference in December 1943 and Turkey's entrance into World War II on the side of the Allies in February 1945. Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations. Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communist rebellion, along with demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine declared American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in significant U.S. military and economic support. This support manifested in the establishment of a clandestine stay-behind army, denoted the "Counter-Guerrilla", under Operation Gladio.
Relations between the countries began to deteriorate in 2003 as Turkey refused to allow the United States to use Incirlik Air Base for the invasion of Iraq, a process that intensified following the coup d'état attempt in Turkey in July 2016 as the country's foreign policy gradually shifted towards seeking partnerships with other regional powers, such as Russia, as well as the dispute over the Armenian genocide, which the United States recognized in 2021.
A 2019 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 73% of Turks had a negative view of the United States, with only 20% having a positive view, the lowest among countries polled. The same study also showed only 11% of Turks had confidence in the US leader at the time of the survey, President Donald Trump, with 84% having no confidence in him.
Strategic partnership
The strategic partnership characterizes the exceptionally close economic and military relations between the two countries, particularly for relations since 1952.
Cold War (1946–91)
From 1952 to 1991 the relationship premised upon the concept of a “mutuality of benefits”.
After participating with United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. The second-largest army belongs to Turkey in NATO and host of the Allied Land Command headquarters including the Incirlik (1955–present) and Konya Airbases (2000–present).
The US pressured and promised military and economic aid to Turkey to be one of the founding members of Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), which promoted shared political, and military economic goals similar to and modeled like NATO. The defensive organization never became functional partly due to the lack of leadership (the US being outside) as John Foster Dulles (United States Secretary of State) claimed that the administration could not obtain Congressional approval."
The US actively supported Turkey's membership bid to join the European Union and frequently lobbied on behalf of Ankara through its diplomatic missions in EU capital cities.
War on Terror
In 2001, the relationship began with the premise of the United States' fostering cooperation on counterterrorism, law enforcement, and military training and education. Turkey remained a close ally of the United States and provided support in the War on Terror.
Deterioration of the partnership
US Congressional Research Service (CRS) states that "Turkey’s relative importance for U.S. policymakers declined in the immediate aftermath of the "Gulf War" and the collapse of the Soviet Union, but focus remained on a number of regional developments involving Turkey." According to CRS a "reassessment period" established between 1991-2002. CRS timeline for 1991-2002 showed: After US established "No-Fly Zone" in the north of Iraq, withheld military loans to Turkey in 1994 on alleged human rights violations in relation to PKK. In 1997, US designated the PKK as a foreign terrorist organization and in 1999, PKK leader was captured with U.S. assistance (PKK activities stopped). In 2003, the Turkish parliament didn't allow US invasion of Iraq from Turkey, and the following year (2004) PKK resumed insurgency and attacks from northern Iraq.
According to The Economist, in October 2017, Turkish-American relations sank to their lowest in over 40 years. Since US President Barack Obama mediated tensions between Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, 31 May 2010, over the Gaza flotilla raid, some neoconservatives have called for Turkey's expulsion from NATO. Tom Rogan from National Review promoted expelling Turkey from NATO as part of his broader efforts to reform the alliance. Ted Galen Carpenter, a senior fellow in defense and foreign policy studies at the Cato Institute, also proposed expelling Turkey from the Western alliance. A breakpoint risen over US arming the People's Protection Units (on the grounds that related to Kurdistan Workers' Party), in 2015 while claiming Turkey turned a blind eye to ISIL and other jihadist networks on both sides of its border. The US-led Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL was on 15 June 2014, five months before Turkey performed the January 2014 Turkish airstrike in Syria. The belief among most Turkish citizens that America had a hand in the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt which was compounded by the fact that its suspected ringleader, the Islamic preacher Hoca Fethullah Gülen, lives in Saylorsburg, Pennsylvania. Shortly after the FETÖ's (the Gülen movement) purges and arrests (2016–present purges in Turkey) in the country, on October 4, 2016, Turkey moved to arrest Turkish nationals employed at American consulates (Metin Topuz on espionage and conspiracy charges), followed on the October 7, 2016, arrest of pastor and teaching elder Evangelical Presbyterian Andrew Brunson. On October 10, 2016, in regards to John R. Bass, Turkey declared: “We do not consider the ambassador a representative of the United States” which was a step short of being an unwanted person. The response came on May 16, 2017 John McCain and Claire McCaskill called for the expulsion (unwanted person) of the Turkish ambassador Serdar Kılıç, following the 2017 clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. From October 9 to October 17, the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria established the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone. US lost trust in Turkey as the latter bombed its own military base at the Northern Syria Buffer Zone. On February 5, 2020, the US halted a secretive military intelligence cooperation program with Turkey against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which was listed as a terrorist organization by the US and Turkey. Turkey had observation posts in the Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019) zone which held more than 3,000,000 internally displaced Syrians (more than half of them children). On February 27, 2020, Syrian forces attacked Turkish forces at the Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019) zone, and military separation between the forces became public after a senior US State Department official argued with the Pentagon over Turkey's request for two Patriot batteries on its southern border. The request was confirmed by Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar.
From Partnership to Adversary
The situation is set to deteriorate significantly after the passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, with an amendment added by Senator John McCain requiring the Trump Administration to submit a detailed report to Congress on the status of US–Turkey relations. The Department of Defense (DOD) submitted a mostly classified report to Congress in November 2018 and followed by H.R. 648 which required the DOD report on the issue in 2019. On 14 December 2020, the US listed Turkey as America's "Adversary" and consequently imposed restrictions against the Turkish Defence Industry Agency The sanctions included a ban on all U.S. export licenses and authorizations to SSB and an asset freeze and visa restrictions on Dr. Ismail Demir, SSB's president, and other SSB officers. The United States also excluded Turkey from the joint F-35 project, as well as barred Turkey from approaching new NATO technological development.
On October 12, 2023, President Biden declared "particularly the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region". Following this declaration President Biden reestablished Executive Order 13894 which stated Turkey is an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States constituted by the situation in and in relation to Syria. Following the 2023 Ankara bombing, Turkish intelligence officials established that the assailants arrived from Syria by paraglider, where they had been trained. Six days before the declaration, Turkey began bombing their facilities in Syria, October 2023 Northern Syria clashes. US downed a Turkish drone, while doing airstrikes on PKK militants around Hassakeh which came within 500 m of American troops. A day before the executive order made public, Turkey declared to intensify strikes on PKK in Iraq, Syria
Since the deterioration of the relationship, there has been growing Turkish-Russian security cooperation.
Public relations
Opinion Surveys
According to a survey conducted in the spring of 2017 and released in August, 72% of Turks see the United States as a threat to Turkey's security. Furthermore, the US was perceived as a greater threat to security than Russia or China. According to PBS, opinions of the US dropped steadily from 1999/2000 (52% in Turkey in 1999/2000) and in 2006, favorable opinions dropped significantly in predominantly Muslim countries, which ranged from 12% in Turkey to 30% in Indonesia and Egypt.
The following histogram shows the percentage of Turks that viewed the United States favorably according to the PEW Global Attitudes Survey:
Results of 2017 BBC World Service:
Lobbying & think tanks
The Turkish lobby in the United States is a lobby that works on behalf of the Turkish government to promote the nation's interests with the US government. The Turkish Coalition of America (TCA) is an educational, congressional advocacy, and charitable organization which was incorporated in February 2007.
The Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey is a United States Security Assistance Organization working on issues related to Turkey.
Diplomacy
The United States has sent many ambassadors to Turkey since October 12, 1927. Turkey has maintained many high-level contacts with United States.
History
After 1780, the United States began relations with North African countries and the Ottoman Empire. In the early 1800s, the US fought the Barbary Wars against the Barbary states, which were under Ottoman suzerainty. The Ottomans severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 20, 1917, after the United States declared war against Germany on April 4, 1917, due to the Ottoman–German alliance. Normal diplomatic relations were re-established with the Ottoman Empire's successor state, Turkey, in 1927.
Truman Administration (1945–1953)
The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. One of Turkey's most important international relationships has been with the United States since the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the Cold War. Turkey's began to associate with the United States in 1947 when the United States Congress designated Turkey, under the provisions of the "Truman Doctrine", as the recipient of special economic and military assistance intended to help it resist threats from the Soviet Union. In support of the US' overall Cold War strategy, Turkey contributed personnel to the United Nations forces in the Korean War (1950–53) and joined NATO in 1952. A mutual interest in containing Soviet expansion provided the foundation of US–Turkish relations for the next four decades.
Turkish Straits crisis
At the conclusion of World War II, Turkey was pressured by the Soviet government to allow Russian shipping to pass freely through the Turkish Straits, which connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Union's requests, tensions arose in the region and led to a show of naval force from the Soviets. Since British assistance to Turkey had ended in 1947, the U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey received $111 million in economic and military aid and the U.S. sent the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt.
In his reforms, Mustafa Kemal envisioned a party-based system however the term "de facto single-party state" is used to define this period as the dominant-party system (in this case, the Republican People's Party), and unlike the single-party state, allowed democratic multiparty elections, but existing practices effectively prevent the opposition from winning the elections. As a result of Soviet threats and U.S. assistance against them, Turkey moved away from a single-party elected government towards a multi-party electoral system and held the first multi-party elections in 1946. In 1950, President İsmet İnönü was defeated by the main opposition party led by Adnan Menderes, who was elected by popular vote.
The postwar period from 1946 started with a "multi-party period" and the Democratic Party government of Adnan Menderes.
Eisenhower Administration (1953–1961)
Turkey was a founding member of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) collective defense pact established in 1955, and endorsed the principles of the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine. In the 1950s and 1960s, Turkey generally cooperated with other United States allies in the Middle East (Iran, Israel, and Jordan) to contain the influence of countries (Egypt, Iraq, and Syria) regarded as Soviet clients. Throughout the Cold War, Turkey was the bulwark of NATO's southeastern flank and directly bordered Warsaw Pact countries.
Intelligence (U-2)
On May 1, 1960, a U-2 spy plane was shot down by the Soviet Air Defence Forces while performing photographic aerial reconnaissance deep into Soviet territory. On April 28, 1960, a U.S. Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport. A US Air Force C-130 followed, which carried the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Powers, and backup pilot Bob Ericson. On the morning of April 29, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed by one day. As a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik, and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one more day because of bad weather over the Soviet Union. On 1 May, Captain Powers left the base in Peshawar on a mission with the operations code word GRAND SLAM. Four days after Powers' disappearance, NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey.
On May 13 the Soviet Union sent complaints to Turkey, who in turn protested to the United States. Turkey acquired assurances that no U.S. aircraft would be allowed for unauthorized purposes.
Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (1961–1969)
Cuban Missile Crisis
Turkey risked nuclear war on its soil during the Cuban Missile Crisis. It was a 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union initiated by the American discovery of Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached between John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States agreed that it would dismantle all US-built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union.
In 2017, The Putin Interviews claimed that the placement of Russian missiles in Cuba was a Russian reaction to the earlier stationing of American missiles in Turkey in 1961–62; it was Khrushchev's attempt to achieve a balance of power.
Cyprus Emergency
The Cyprus Emergency was a conflict fought in British Cyprus between 1955 and 1959. The National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a Greek Cypriot right-wing nationalist guerrilla organisation, began an armed campaign in support of ending British colonial rule and enabling the unification of Cyprus and Greece (Enosis) in 1955. Opposition to Enosis from Turkish Cypriots led to the formation of the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT) in support of the partition of Cyprus. In the mid-1960s relations worsened between Greek and Turkish communities on Cyprus. Britain wanted to hand the crisis and a peacekeeping role to either NATO or UN forces. US President Lyndon B. Johnson tried to prevent a Turkish invasion of Cyprus and war between them. American diplomat George Ball found Archbishop Makarios, president of Cyprus, difficult to deal with, as he commonly rejected advice.
The Americans secretly talked to General Georgios Grivas, leader of the EOKA guerrilla organization. While invasion and war did not occur, the U.S. alienated both the Greek and Turkish governments and drove Makarios closer to the Russians and Egyptians. The Cyprus Emergency ended in 1959 with the signing of the London-Zürich Agreements, establishing the Republic of Cyprus as a non-partitioned independent state separate from Greece.
Nixon and Ford Administrations (1969–1977)
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
After the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état (backed by the Cypriot National Guard and the Greek military junta), on July 20, 1974, Turkey invaded Cyprus, claiming it was protecting the safety of Turkish Cypriots in accordance with the Treaty of Guarantee. The Turkish military occupied the northern third of Cyprus, dividing the island along what became known as the Green Line monitored by the United Nations, defying ceasefire.
Turkey repeatedly claimed, for decades before the invasion and frequently afterward, that Cyprus was of vital strategic importance to it. Ankara defied a host of UN resolutions demanding the withdrawal of its occupying troops from the island. About 142,000 Greek Cypriots living in the north and 65,000 Turkish Cypriots living in the south, were forcibly expelled and are forbidden to return to their homes and properties. The United States imposed an arms embargo on Turkey in response and relations between the two countries suffered significantly. 109 Turkish villages were destroyed and 700 Turks were kept as hostages. Daily Telegraph described events as anti-Turkish pogrom.
Carter Administration (1977–1981)
The arms embargo was silently removed a few years later with the contribution of the geopolitical changes in the Middle East like the Iranian Revolution. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski discussed with his staff about a possible American invasion of Iran by using Turkish bases and territory if the Soviets decided to repeat the Afghanistan scenario in Iran, although this plan did not materialize.
Reagan Administration (1981–1989)
During the 1980s, relations between Turkey and the United States gradually recovered. In March 1980 Turkey and the US signed the Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement (DECA), in which the United States was granted access to 26 military facilities in return for Turkey's ability to buy modern military hardware and $450 million. Although Ankara resented continued attempts by the United States Congress to restrict military assistance to Turkey because of Cyprus and the introduction of congressional resolutions condemning the Armenian genocide, the Özal government generally perceived the administration of President George H. W. Bush as sympathetic to Turkish interests. At this time, Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) was established and it started to build F-16 Fighting Falcon jets under licence in Turkey. Washington demonstrated its support of Özal's market-oriented economic policies and efforts to open the Turkish economy to international trade by pushing for acceptance of an International Monetary Fund program to provide economic assistance to Turkey. Furthermore, the United States, unlike European countries, did not persistently and publicly criticize Turkey over allegations of human rights violations, nor did it pressure Özal on the Kurdish problem. By 1989 the United States had recovered a generally positive image among the Turkish political elite.
George H. W. Bush Administration (1989–1993)
The end of the Cold War forced Turkish leaders to reassess their country's international position. The disappearance of the Soviet threat and the perception of being excluded from Europe created a sense of vulnerability with respect to Turkey's position in the fast-changing global political environment. Turkey supported the Arab–Israeli peace process and expanded ties with the Central Asian members of the CIS. Özal believed Turkey's future security depended on the continuation of a strong relationship with the United States.
During the Gulf War, Özal modified the main principles of Turkish foreign policy towards the Middle East, which were non-interference in intra-Arab disputes and the Middle Eastern affairs. The role Turkey played during the Gulf War demonstrated to the public that it was one of the key actors in the region.
Iraq (Gulf War and Northern Safe Zone)
President Özal supported the United States' position during the Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991). Turkey's economic ties to Iraq were extensive and their disruption hurt the country. Turkey lost approximately $60 billion by closing the Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline during the conflict. Just before the war, Chief of the Turkish General Staff General Necip Torumtay resigned out of disagreement in involving Turkish ground forces with the conflict, which prevented Turkey's active military engagement. Turkey allowed United Nations forces (UN SC Resolution 665) to fly missions from its air bases; by doing so Turkey remained a platform for the US attacks against Iraq for the rest of the conflict. Turkey played a role in the war by restraining a sizeable proportion of the Iraqi army on the Turkey–Iraq border.
After the war, Turkey continued to support major United States initiatives in the region, including the creation of a safe zone for Iraqi Kurds over northern Iraq. Turkey received heavy Iraqi Kurdish refugees following the 1991 uprisings in Iraq (1 March – 5 April 1991). The Iraqi no-fly zones were two no-fly zones (NFZs) that were proclaimed by the United States, United Kingdom, and France to create safe zones for the internally displaced people after the war. The US and the UK claimed authorization for the NFZ based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 688, though not in the text. The US stated that the NFZs were intended to protect the ethnic Kurdish minority in northern Iraq and Shiite Muslims in the south. Turkey opened its Incirlik and Diyarbakir air bases and became involved in the ground support and intelligence operations for the northern NFZ which was initially part of Operation Provide Comfort's relief operations before being succeeded by Operation Northern Watch.
NFZs also enabled a safe haven for PKK. Turkey performed cross-border operations into northern Iraq:
Operation Northern Iraq: October 12 – November 1, 1992
Operation Steel: March 20 – May 4, 1995
Operation Hammer: May 12 – July 7, 1997
Operation Dawn: September 25 – October 15, 1997
In September 1998, Masoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani signed the US-mediated Washington Agreement and established a formal peace treaty. In the agreement, the parties agreed to share revenue, share power, and deny the use of northern Iraq to the PKK. President Bill Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act into law, providing for military assistance to Iraqi opposition groups, which included the PUK and KDP.
The United States' use of Turkish military installations during the bombing of Iraq in 1991 led to anti-war demonstrations in several Turkish cities, and sporadic attacks on United States facilities in 1992 and 1993.
Clinton Administration (1993–2001)
In January 1995, a consensus had emerged by among Turkey's political elite that the country's security depended on remaining a strategic ally of the United States. For that reason, both the Demirel and Çiller governments made efforts to cultivate relations with the administrations of presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton.
Syria (terrorism)
Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979 and deems it to be a “safe haven” for terrorists. Turkey condemned Syria for supporting the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations.
The Turkish government openly threatened Syria over its support for the PKK. Turkey claimed that Syria employed former Schutzstaffel officer Alois Brunner to train militants. Turkey and Syria nearly engaged in war when Turkey threatened military action if Syria continued to shelter Abdullah Öcalan in Damascus, his long-time safe haven. Öcalan was the leader and one of the founding members of the PKK. As a result, the Syrian government forced Öcalan to leave the country, who was captured in Kenya on February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in Nairobi, in an operation by the National Intelligence Organization (MIT) with the help of the CIA.
George W. Bush Administration (2001–2009)
According to leaked diplomatic cables originating from 2004, then Prime Minister Erdoğan was described by U.S. diplomats as a "perfectionist workaholic who sincerely cares for the well-being of those around him". He was also described as having "little understanding of politics beyond Ankara" and as surrounding himself with an "iron ring of sycophantic (but contemptuous) advisors". He is said to be "isolated", and that his MPs and Ministers feel "fearful of Erdogan's wrath". Diplomats state that "he relies on his charisma, instincts, and the filterings of advisors who pull conspiracy theories off the Web or are lost in neo-Ottoman Islamist fantasies".
War on Terror
Turkey had remained a close ally of the United States in the War on Terror after the September 11 attacks. Turkish President Ahmet Necdet Sezer and Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit condemned the attacks and the Turkish government then ordered all of its flags at half-mast for one day of mourning. Turkey participated in the International Security Assistance Force.
According to a report by the Open Society Foundations, Turkey participated at one point or another with the CIA's extraordinary rendition program. U.S. ambassador Ross Wilson revealed the involvement of the Incirlik airbase in a diplomatic cable dated June 8, 2006, which described Turkey as a crucial ally in the "global war on terror" and an important logistical base for the US-led war in Iraq. On June 14, 2006, Turkish foreign ministry officials told reporters: "The Turkish government and state never played a part [in the secret transfers] ... and never will." According to evidence, the US base was a transit stop in taking detainees to secret prisons. The cable also stated: "We recommend that you do not raise this issue with TGS [Turkish general staff] pending clarification from Washington on what approach state/OSD/JCS/NSC [national security council] wish to take."
Iraq (territorial integrity)
Turkey is particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Iraq. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations. Iraq was a safe haven for PKK. The Iraqi Kurds were organized under the PUK and KDP, who later cooperated with American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In 2002 Morton I. Abramowitz (1989–1991 US Ambassador) said, in regards to Turkey's involvement in an upcoming war: "It is hard to believe that in the end the Turks would not cooperate with the United States if war takes place, with or without UN blessing". Vice President Dick Cheney's only trip abroad in his first three years at the office was a four-day trip to Ankara. Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit welcomed Cheney to a working dinner on March 19, who offered $228 million to aid in military efforts provided that international military operations took command of the Afghanistan peacekeeping force. Turkey's position on Iraq was presented to Cheney. In December 2002, Turkey moved approximately 15,000 soldiers to its border with Iraq. The 2003 invasion of Iraq faced strong domestic opposition in Turkey: opinion polls showed that 80% of Turks were opposed to the war. The Turkish Parliament's position reflected the public's. The March 1, 2003, motion at the Turkish Parliament could not reach the absolute majority of 276 votes needed to allow US troops to attack Iraq from Turkey (62,000 troops and more than 250 planes), the final tally being 264 votes for and 250 against. BBC's Jonny Dymond said the knife-edge vote is a massive blow to the government which has a majority in parliament. On March 11, Abdullah Gul resigned as Turkey's Prime Minister. Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök said "Turkey would suffer the effects of the war [motion also included twice as many Turkish troops to be deployed to northern Iraq]." The US did not immediately re-deploy the forces intended for staging in Turkey and the State Department asked for "clarification" of the Turkish vote. In the end, the US pulled the offer of $6 billion in grants and up to $24 billion in loan guarantees, which caused Turkey's stock market to plunge by 12%.
In connection with its invasion of Iraq, the United States requested that Turkey allow 62,000 soldiers to deploy from its territory and that 9 Turkish air bases allow United States bombers to deploy. Tension developed when the Turkish government agreed to the request, but parliament rejected it on March 1, 2003. On 20 March 2003 following a visit by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell to Ankara, an agreement was consummated to allow the United States Air Force to use Turkish airspace. Relations improved in 2009 following United States President Barack Obama's visit to Turkey.
On March 20, the 2003 invasion of Iraq began. On July 4, 2003, Turkish military personnel that were stationed in northern Iraq were captured from their station, led away with hoods over their heads, and interrogated; this later came to be known as the "hood event". Turkish military personnel had stationed military observers in "northern safe zone" after the 1991 Gulf War. The specific unit was stationed at Sulaimaniya after the civil war broke out in 1996 to monitor a ceasefire between the PUK and KDP. The unit station was a historical Ottoman Empire facility (dwelling), which held the historical archives of the Ottoman Empire. Among the destroyed documents were the deed records of the region. The hood event was strongly condemned by the Turkey's newspapers and referred to Americans as "Rambos" and "Ugly Americans". Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök declared the incident as the sign of "crisis of confidence" between the US and Turkey.
During the conflict, Ankara pressured the U.S. into subduing PKK training camps in northern Iraq. The U.S. remained reluctant due to northern Iraq's relative stability compared to the rest of the country. On October 17, 2007, the Turkish Parliament voted in favor of allowing the Turkish Armed Forces to take military action against the PKK based in northern Iraq. In response, Bush stated that he did not believe it was in Turkey's interests to send troops into Iraq. Operation Sun was executed 21 – 29 February 2008.
Russia (Dependence on Gas and Nuclear Energy)
Turkey's fourth attempt at building a nuclear reactor, in 2002, was driven by concerns over dependence on Russian gas for electric generation. US companies did not produce any bids. In fact, Turkey received only bid—from Rosatom. The bid was rejected partly due to defeating the dependency problem. Turkey's build-own-transfer approach failed.
In June 2008, The United States and Turkey began to cooperate on peaceful uses of nuclear energy with a pact that aims for the transfer of technology, material, reactors, and components for nuclear research and nuclear power production in Turkey for an initial 15-year period followed by automatic renewals in five-year increments that provides a comprehensive framework for peaceful nuclear cooperation between the two nations under the agreed non-proliferation conditions and controls. A parallel US bipartisan resolution highlighted the importance of the Turkish Republic's key role in providing its Western (EU and US) and regional allies Eurasian energy security.
The Center for Strategic and International Studies started a one-year initiative project to evaluate and enhance the Turkish Republic–United States strategic partnership, aiming for a plan of implementation of the concluded framework at the end of this phase.
After 8 years of failed attempts, due to being received as a possible nuclear proliferation front in the West (US), Turkey altered its strategy. Instead of owning a nuclear power plant, Turkey enabled vendors to own the plant. In 2010, Turkey and Russia signed an agreement for nuclear cooperation. From a Eurasian energy security perspective, US lost a NATO partner (in nuclear cooperation) as this nuclear deal did not solve Turkey’s dependence on Russia’s natural gas, but added a second dependence on nuclear technology.
Gülen Movement (Ergenekon)
The Gülen movement is a self-described transnational social movement based on moral values and advocacy of universal access to education, civil society, and tolerance and peace, inspired by the religious teachings of Sunni cleric (mufti) Fethullah Gülen, a Turkish Islamic preacher based in the United States. The conflict between the Turkish government the Gülen movement is a major Turkey–United States relations issue.
Gülen movement's possible involvement in the Ergenekon plot (trials) is controversial. The investigation claimed to study an organization compared to Counter-Guerrilla. Accused were claimed to be the "deep state." The Ergenekon trials were a series of high-profile trials that began on October 20, 2008, in which 275 people, including military officers, journalists, and opposition lawmakers, all alleged members of Ergenekon, were accused of plotting against the Erdogan government. The trials resulted in lengthy prison sentences for most of the accused. The US Secretary of State reported on the Turkish investigation into the Ergenekon network and concluded that “the details of the case were murky, however, and Ergenekon's status as a terrorist organisation remained under debate at year's end”.
Obama Administration (2009–2017)
A U.S. Democratic Party delegation group including U.S. Senators Robert Casey, Edward E. Kaufman, Frank Lautenberg and U.S. Congressman Timothy Waltz met with Turkish officials in Ankara on 30 May to confirm that “Turkey can always depend on the US, while the US can always rely on its close friendship with Turkey”.
Iran (nuclear deal, arms embargo, oil trading controversy)
In May 2009, after parliamentary debates in Belgium and Germany called for the removal of nuclear weapons stationed, questions were subsequently raised over the continued presence of "reportedly" stationed at the Incirlik air base as part of the NATO nuclear sharing program. Bilkent University Professor Mustafa Kibaroğlu speculates that if the Obama administration presses for the withdrawal of these weapons, which Turkey wishes to maintain, then Turkey-U.S. relations may be strained. In October 2009, President Obama sent a proposal (nuclear deal framework) to Erdoğan during the heated US discussions on nuclear weapons in Turkey, however before the framework Turkish and Iranian diplomats were discussing a preliminary nuclear deal (will be named Tehran Declaration). In April 2010, while Turkish and Iranian diplomats were working on a deal, Washington stepped up its efforts to impose a new round of sanctions on Iran over its nuclear program (Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010). Iran agreed to the "Tehran Declaration" after China and Russia were in accord with the prepared UN sanctions on Iran (declared as a ‘‘tactical move’’). In May 2010, non-permanent members of the Security Council Turkey and Brazil announced the "Tehran Declaration." The Tehran Declaration is a fuel-swap deal. "Tehran Declaration" stipulated that medical isotopes (a humanitarian need of Iran) could be produced by 20-percent-enriched nuclear fuel which was to be provided to only one research reactor. The research reactor in question was the Tehran Research Reactor, which was supplied by the US under the Atoms for Peace program. In exchange, Tehran will transfer 1,200 kilograms of low-enriched uranium to Turkey. On 17 May 2010, Brazil, Iran and Turkey signed a tri-partite Joint Declaration asserting that a nuclear fuel exchange could lead to peace. The US discarded the agreement because ‘‘it did not address the continued production of uranium enriched to 20 percent inside Iranian territory.’’
Turkey, India, and China opposed the adoption of a new round of sanctions claiming the "Tehran Declaration" could be improved, rather than discarded. Opposition developed heated condemnations in the US capital which claimed Turkey is not in the Western camp. Turkey's objection to the US sanctions resulted in the US Congress delaying arms sales sought by the Turkish military. On 17 August 2010, a separate report presented to Obama by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, which had previously urged him to raise the subject of religious freedom during his 2009 presidential visit to Turkey, concluded that Turkey's interpretation of secularism “resulted in violations of religious freedoms for many of the country's citizens, including members of the majority and, especially, minority religious communities”. Obama said that future arms sales would depend on Turkish policies.
Following the discredited Tehran Declaration and sanctions on Turkey, the progress on the issue stopped until the change of government in Iran. Iranian President Hassan Rouhani signaled a change and opened the way for nuclear talks. In April 2, 2015, the Iran nuclear deal framework signed five years after the Tehran Deal. Instead of Turkey-Brazil of the "Tehran Deal" the pact signed between Iran and the P5+1 countries.
Why were Turkey and Brazil involved in the Iranian Nuclear issues? The Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency managed the nuclear power in Turkey. In putting together the fuel-swap deal, Turkey was trying to defend the autonomy of non-nuclear weapons states (NNWS) to enrich uranium for producing electricity and strengthen the right of NNWS to develop peaceful nuclear activities. The Obama administration sanctioned Turkey albeit for different reasons than Iran. In 2013, Russian nuclear construction company Atomstroyexport and Turkey signed a construction agreement for the "Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant".
Turkey did not fall into the Iranian situation. The whole operation is Russian built, owned, and operated (build–own–operate) such that even the spent fuel (high-level waste) returned to Russia. Instead of the US partnering with Turkey, leaving Turkey to the Russia's help for the NNWS will affect Russia–Turkey relations by prolonging Turkey's dependence on Russian energy, beyond natural gas. It was a critical disconnect among NATO allies.
Before November 2013 US-led nuclear sanctions passed Halkbank between March 2012 and July 2013 purchased gold on the open market. November 2013 sanctions prevented Iran from being paid in dollars, but gold was never mentioned in the sanctions regime. Halkbank exchanged gold for Iranian oil (oil trading controversy). 18 October 2015, Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action canceled the sanctions in question. In March 2017, the deputy head Halkbank, Mehmet Hakan Atilla, was arrested by the US government for conspiring to evade sanctions against Iran by helping Reza Zarrab, an Iranian-Azeri businessman who had taken Turkish citizenship, "use U.S. financial institutions to engage in prohibited financial transactions that illegally funneled millions of dollars to Iran". Zarrab was in Miami, Florida, in March 2016. Atilla's trial commenced in New York City federal court in November 2017, with Zarrab agreeing to testify after reaching a plea deal with prosecutors. In early 2018, Atilla was convicted on five of six counts against him, including bank fraud and conspiracies and acquitted on one count after four days of jury deliberation.
War on Terror
The 2009 U.S. Secretary of State's Country Report on Terrorism confirmed that cooperation against terrorism is a key element in America's strategic partnership with Turkey, before going on to praise Turkish contributions to stabilize Iraq and Afghanistan and highlighting the strategic importance of the İncirlik Air Base used by both U.S. and NATO forces for operations in the region. Turkey had opposed the appointment of Anders Fogh Rasmussen as NATO secretary general due to his approach to the Muhammed carricaturs in Denmark until Obama assured a Turk would be one of Rasmussen deputies.
The U.S. Secretary of State's report also contained information on the PKK and other terrorist groups operating in Turkey, whom the U.S. and Turkish authorities share intelligence on, highlighting the September 12, 2006, attack on Diyarbakır and the July 27, 2008, attack on Güngören. In 2016, Vice President Joe Biden called the PKK a terrorist group "plain and simple" and compared it to the ISIL.
Arab Spring (Turkish model)
The U.S. under President Obama was reluctant to get deeply involved in the Arab World and was generally supportive of Turkish efforts in the region.
Syrian Civil War (territorial integrity, Rat Line)
Turkey was particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Syria. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations. Until 2011, Turkey's policy was trying to preserve a neutral but constructive position because civil war and sectarian conflicts would threaten Turkey's security. Eventually war broke and Syria (refugees, spillover) impacted Turkey more directly than other actors in the conflict.
Beginning in 2012, Turkey and the US supported the "Syrian opposition" which hold the idea of replacing the government and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]". In early 2012, Seymour Hersh reported that the CIA cooperated with Turkey in a covert operation named "the Rat Line", which obtained and transported armaments from Libya to rebel groups (later known as the Free Syrian Army (FSA)) in Syria via proxies and front organizations in southern Turkey. The CIA's involvement reportedly ended after the mass evacuation of CIA operatives from the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya, after the 2012 Benghazi attack. In January 2014, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence reported specifically on "the CIA annex at Benghazi", that "all CIA activities in Benghazi were legal and authorized. On-the-record testimony establishes that the CIA was not sending weapons ... from Libya to Syria, or facilitating other organizations or states that were transferring weapons from Libya to Syria." While the Obama administration investigated the Benghazi attack in January 2014, the National Intelligence Organisation scandal in Turkey broke out. In May 2014, the editor-in-chief of the Cumhuriyet Can Dündar published pictures of agents and trucks, and was later sentenced for ″leaking secret information of the state″. In October 2014, Vice President Joe Biden accused Turkey of funding al-Nusra and al Qaeda (FSA-identified groups), to which Erdoğan angrily responded, "Biden has to apologize for his statements" adding that if no apology is made, Biden would become "history to [him]". Biden subsequently apologized. In 2015, the International Business Times wrote that the US sent weapons shipments to FSA-identified groups through a CIA program for years. Timber Sycamore was a classified weapons supply and training program run by the CIA and supported by some Arab intelligence services, such as the security service in Saudi Arabia. It launched in 2012 or 2013 and supplied money, weaponry and training to rebel forces. According to US officials, the program has trained thousands of rebels. In July 2017, H. R. McMaster, National Security Adviser to President Donald Trump and CIA Director Mike Pompeo, decided to terminate the program.
Some groups held the idea of "Syrian Balkanization" ("division of the country") in which they promoted federalizing Syria on ethnic and religious-sectarian lines. Obama used the "red line" on August 20, 2012, in relation to chemical weapons. On the one-year anniversary of Obama's red line speech, the Ghouta chemical attacks occurred. John McCain said the red line was "apparently written in disappearing ink," due to the perception the red line had been crossed with no action. At the same time, United States Central Command (CENTCOMM) approached the YPG. Turkey-US relations began showing signs of deterioration, particularly over the handling over the YPG. The American forces in the Syrian Civil War openly allied with the Kurdish YPG fighters and supported them militarily. The YPG was criticized by Turkey for its alleged support to the PKK, especially since a rebellion in southern Turkey began in 2015. By early 2015, voices in the US foreign policy establishment pushed to abandon the rebels. In early October 2015, shortly after the start of the Russian military intervention in Syria, Obama was reported to have authorized the resupply of 25,000 YPG militia. Erdoğan stated that he had asked Obama not to intervene on the side of the YPG: "I told Mr. Obama, 'Don't drop those bombs [meaning weapons and other supplies]. You will be making a mistake.' Unfortunately, despite our conversation, they dropped whatever was needed with three C-130's and half of it landed in [IS'] hands. So who is supplying [ISIL], then?" Erdogan also opposed any arrangements in Syria that would mirror the Iraqi Kurds' de facto state in northern Syria. He told reporters on January 26, 2015: "What is this? Northern Iraq? Now [they want] Northern Syria to be born. It is impossible for us to accept this. ... Such entities will cause great problems in the future." According to General Raymond A. Thomas (at the time head of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)) at the Aspen Security Forum in July 2017, the SDF (established October 10, 2015) is a PR-friendly name for the YPG, which Thomas personally suggested because the YPG is considered an arm of the PKK. On February 1, 2016, Brett McGurk officially visited SDF commander Ferhat Abdi Şahin (also known as General Mazloum Kobani), after the Siege of Kobanî. In response, Erdoğan said: “How can we trust you? Is it me that is your partner or is it the terrorists in Kobani?” After Kobani, General Allen and Brett McGurk worked on Tal Abyad. Turkey did not permit flying off of a Turkish airbase. McGurk said: "So the picture that developed while General Allen and I were spending most of these months in Ankara is that something was not on the level [in fighting against Turkey's enemy ISIL, U.S. allied with Turkey's enemy]." Turkey overtly defied American orders of ceasing Turkey's military bombardment of the YPG fighters in their bid to take the town of Azaz in northern Syria. Signs of strain were then displayed when Obama refused to have a formal meeting with Erdoğan when the latter visited the United States in March 2016.
Palastine (Davos incident - Gaza flotilla raid)
Neo-Ottomanism associated with Ahmet Davutoğlu and his foreign policy goals of establishing Turkey as an influential power within the Balkans, Caucasia and the Middle East. 2009 Davos incident arrived on a radical domestic transformation in one member of a western alliance (NATO) and how this led to a revision of its international alliance preference. Erdogan’s outburst at the 2009 Davos Summit was a critical juncture that signaled the turn in Turkey’s national agenda and alignment policies.
The Gaza flotilla raid was a military operation by Israel against six civilian ships of the "Gaza Freedom Flotilla" on 31 May 2010 in international waters in the Mediterranean Sea. Israel–Turkey relations reached a low point after the incident. Turkey recalled its ambassador, canceled joint military exercises, and called for an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council. Erdoğan harshly referred to the raid as a "bloody massacre" and "state terrorism", and criticized Israel in a speech before the Grand National Assembly. On March 22, 2013, Netanyahu apologized for the incident in a 30-minute telephone call with Erdoğan, stating that the results were unintended; the Turkish prime minister accepted the apology and agreed to enter into discussions to resolve the compensation issue.
It was Turkey that set the course for terminating the alliance with Israel.
Armenia (Genocide, Normalization)
During his Ankara visit, Obama urged Turkey to come to terms with its past and resolve its Armenian issues. During the 2008 US presidential election, he had criticized former US President George W. Bush for his failure to take a stance and stated that the "Armenian genocide is not an allegation, a personal opinion, or a point of view, but rather a widely documented fact supported by an overwhelming body of historical evidence". He responded positively to an announcement from sources in Ankara and Yerevan that a deal to reopen the border between the two states and exchange diplomatic personnel would happen, and indicated that although his own personal views on the subject remained unchanged, to avoid derailing this diplomatic progress, he would from using the word "genocide" in his upcoming April 24 speech on the question.
On April 22, 2009, shortly after Obama's visit, Turkish and Armenian authorities formally announced a provisional roadmap for the normalization of diplomatic ties between the two states. The U.S. responded positively with a statement from the office of U.S. Vice President Joe Biden following a phone conversation with Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, which stated that “the Vice President applauded President Sargsyan's leadership, and underscored the administration's support for both Armenia and Turkey in this process”. Turkish columnists, however, criticized the timing of the announcement, and believed it to have been made to placate Obama in advance of his April 24 speech, with Fikret Bila writing in the Milliyet that “the Turkish Foreign Ministry made this statement regarding the roadmap before midnight”, as it would allow Obama to go back on his campaign promise to refer to the incident as genocide, which the Turkish government profusely denied, by pointing out to the Armenian diaspora that “Turkey reached a consensus with Armenia and set a roadmap” and “there is no need now to damage this process”.
Gülen movement (coup d'état attempt)
In a speech on July 29, 2016, President Erdoğan accused CENTCOM chief Joseph Votel of "siding with coup plotters" after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon's contacts in Turkey. Yeni Şafak, a Turkish pro-government newspaper, claimed that the former commander of NATO forces in Afghanistan, now-retired U.S. Army General John F. Campbell, was the "mastermind" behind the coup attempt in Turkey. In late July 2016, Turkish prime minister Binali Yıldırım told The Guardian: "Of course, since the leader of this terrorist organisation is residing in the United States, there are question marks in the minds of the people whether there is any U.S. involvement or backing. On 19 July, an official request had been sent to the US for the extradition of Fethullah Gülen. Senior U.S. officials said this evidence pertained to certain pre-coup alleged subversive activities.
Turkey’s Anadolu Agency report chief prosecutor’s office launched an investigation into 17 U.S.-based individuals, including Senate Democratic Leader Chuck Schumer, former U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara and ex-CIA director John Brennan, for their alleged links to cleric Fethullah Gulen.
Trump Administration (2017–2021)
Due to perceptions that former US Secretary of State and Democratic Party presidential nominee Hillary Clinton is friendly towards the Gülen movement, many Erdoğan supporters reportedly favored Republican Party presidential nominee Donald Trump in the United States' 2016 presidential election.
The Turkish government had a generally warm relationship with the Trump administration, backing the Trump administration's stance against Antifa groups during the George Floyd protests, and condemning restrictions placed on Trump's social media accounts as "digital fascism".
Qatar (diplomatic crisis)
Turkey supported Qatar in its diplomatic confrontation with a Saudi and Emirati-led bloc of countries that severed ties with and imposed sanctions on Qatar on June 5, 2017. Erdoğan criticized the list of demands released by the countries on 22 June, stating that they undermine Qatar's sovereignty.
In December 2017, US national security advisor General H.R. McMaster said that Turkey had joined Qatar as a prime source of funding that contributes to the spread of extremist ideology of Islamism: "We're seeing great involvement by Turkey from everywhere from western Africa to Southeast Asia, funding groups that help create the conditions that allow terrorism to flourish."
Saudi Arabia (Khashoggi)
The assassination of Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi dissident, journalist for The Washington Post, and former general manager and editor-in-chief of Al-Arab News Channel, occurred on October 2, 2018, at the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, and was perpetrated by agents of the Saudi Arabian government. Government officials of Turkey believe Khashoggi was murdered with premeditation. Anonymous Saudi officials have admitted that agents affiliated with the Saudi government killed him.
CIA Director Gina Haspel traveled to Turkey to address the investigation. Haspel's visit came before a planned speech by Erdoğan. She listened to audio purportedly capturing the sound of saw on a bone. On November 20, US President Donald Trump rejected the CIA's conclusion that Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman had ordered the killing. He issued a statement saying "it could very well be that the Crown Prince had knowledge of this tragic event — maybe he did and maybe he didn't" and that "in any case, [their] relationship is with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia".
Air Defense System (Russian S-400, Sanctions)
After Turkey acquired the Russian S-400 missile system, the United States decided to end the F-35 deal before July 31, 2019. Acting Defense Secretary Patrick M. Shanahan had warned Turkey that such a deal with Russia risks undermining its ties to NATO. The US threatened Turkey with CAATSA sanctions over Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile defense system from Russia. In February 2019, Russia had an advance supply contract with Saudi Arabia for the S-400, Qatar was in “advanced” talks with Russia for the S-400, and India agreed to pay more than $5 billion for five S-400 squadrons to be delivered in 2023.
On July 22, 2019, Turkey claimed to retaliate against the “unacceptable” threat of US sanctions over Turkey's purchase of Russian S-400 missile defenses.
In December 2020, one month after Trump lost the presidential election, the Trump government imposed sanctions targeting Turkey's Defence Industries Directorate, its president and three employees.
On 8 December 2020, the House of Representatives approved a sanctions package against Turkey due to its purchase of S-400 missile system from Russia. Trump administration said that the president will veto the bill. Trump had earlier worked to delay passing sanctions against Turkey, but he lost the 2020 United States presidential election. On 14 December 2020, the United States imposed Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act. Subsequently, doubts were raised by a number of international policy analysts that military sanctions on the NATO ally would weaken the alliance, effectively reducing Turkey's ability to obtain American technology for regional defense. For this reason, the incoming Biden administration would likely hold off on sanctions to normalize relations.
Syrian Civil War (Clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence, Refugees, Pull-out, Barisha raid)
The clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. broke out on May 16, 2017, between Turkey's Police Counter Attack Team and a crowd of protesters, some of whom carried flags of the Democratic Union Party (Syria) (a left-wing Syrian branch of the Kurdistan Workers Party). On May 16, 2017 John McCain and Claire McCaskill called for the expulsion (unwanted person) of the Turkish ambassador Serdar Kılıç for the embassy brawl.
The Turkey migrant crisis in the 2010s was characterized by high numbers of people arriving in Turkey. As reported by UNHCR in 2018, Turkey is hosting 63.4% of all the refugees (from Middle East, Africa, and Afghanistan) in the world. As of 2019, refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey (3.6 million) numbered highest as "registered" refugees (2011–2018: 30 billion on refugee assistance). As the war made the return of refugees to Syria uncertain, Turkey focused on how to manage their presence in Turkish society by addressing their legal status, basic needs, employment, education, and impact on local communities. The Trump travel ban actions include two executive orders for restrictions on citizens of seven (first executive order) or six (second executive order) Muslim-majority countries. A third action, done by presidential proclamation, restricts entry to the U.S. by citizens from eight countries, six of which are predominantly Muslim. During and after his election campaign Trump proposed establishing safe zones in Syria as an alternative to Syrian refugees' immigration to the US. In the past, "safe zones" have been interpreted as establishing, among other things, no-fly zones over Syria. During the Obama administration Turkey encouraged the U.S. to establish safe zones; the Obama administration was concerned about the potential for pulling the U.S. into a war with Russia. In the first few weeks of Trump's presidency, Turkey renewed its call for safe zones and proposed a new plan for them. The Trump administration spoke with several other Sunni Arab States regarding safe zones, and Russia has asked for clarification regarding any Trump administration plan regarding safe zones.
In December 2018, Trump announced "We have won against ISIS," and ordered the withdrawal of all troops from Syria. The next day, Mattis resigned in protest, calling his decision an abandonment of the U.S.'s YPG allies. In November 2018, Trump said he would not approve any extension of the American deployment in Syria. House of Representatives condemned Trump's decision.
October 23, 2019, Trump withdraws U.S. troops from Syrian-Turkish border to southeastern Syria for Turkey to set up a new “Buffer Zone”.
According to two anonymous American officials, the Central Intelligence Agency obtained original intelligence on Baghdadi following the arrests of one of his wives and a courier. The arrest of al-Baghdadi's top aide Ismael al-Ethawi was the key: al-Ethawi was found and followed by informants in Syria, apprehended by Turkish authorities, and handed over to the Iraqi intelligence to whom he provided information in February 2018. In 2019, US, Turkish, and Iraqi intelligence conducted a joint operation in which they captured several senior ISIL leaders who provided the locations where they met with Baghdadi inside Syria. According to Voice of America, the fate of al-Baghdadi "was sealed by the capture of his aide". Turkish and US military authorities exchanged and coordinated information ahead of the attack in Barisha, Harem District, Idlib Governorate, Syria. President Trump thanked Russia, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq for aiding US operation, and praised Erdoğan, claiming that he is "a big fan", a "friend of [his]" and "a hell of a leader."
Gülen Movement (extradition - Flynn - Brunson - Visa & Tariff)
In July 2016, after the failed coup attempt, Turkey demanded that the United States government extradite Fethullah Gülen, a cleric and Turkish national living in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. However, the US government demanded that Turkey first produce evidence that he was connected with the coup attempt.
On November 8, 2016, The Hill published an op-ed by Flynn stating that US ally Turkey was in crisis and needed US support on the day of the 2016 United States presidential election. Flynn called for the US to back Erdoğan's government and alleged that the regime's opponent Fethullah Gülen, who is a Pennsylvania-based opposition cleric and the leader of the gulen movement whose members were purged in Turkey because of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, headed a "vast global network" that fit "the description of a dangerous sleeper terror network". Flynn, who was specialized in US counterterrorism strategy and dismantling insurgent networks, argued Gulen falls into radical Islamist groups aligned with Seyed Qutb and Hasan al Bana and he finished his article stating "running a scam". On March 8, 2017, four months after the publication, General Flynn filed documents with the Federal government indicating consulting work that might have aided the government of Turkey. The Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation) ("Crossfire Razor" - a counterintelligence investigation on Flynn) was taken over by the Mueller special counsel investigation (May 17, 2017). Flynn was part of Mueller's special counsel investigation.
{{Multiple image
| align = center
| total_width = 480
| header = (alleged plot:) Flynn delivering Gulen to Turkey
| image1 = Director Robert S. Mueller- III.jpg
| caption1 = Robert Mueller. Reza Zarrab, a witness at Halkbank exchange gold for Iranian oil (Turkey oil trading controversy), offered evidence and became Mueller's key for Flynn in the investigation.
| image2 = Report On The Investigation Into Russian Interference In The 2016 Presidential Election.pdf
| caption2 = Mueller report'''s conclusion on the issue ("concerned a country other than Russia (i.e., Turkey)") on page 183.
| image3 = Bijan R. Kian.jpg
| caption3 = Bijan Kian. Trial testimony indicated foreign customer was interested in classified government information on Gülen, surveillance of supporters, and likely terrorist links that might be turned up by Turkey's investigations of the cleric.
| image4 = Flynn_statement_of_offense.pdf
| caption4 = "Turkey Project:" Flynn's materially false statements and omissions tried at United States v. Flynn.
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}}In 2017, the special counsel, Robert Mueller, began probing whether Michael Flynn was part of an alleged plot to kidnap the cleric for Turkey. Michael Flynn's consulting company was hired by Inovo BV, a company owned by Kamil Ekim Alptekin. Alptekin also chairs the Turkish-American Business Council, an arm of the Foreign Economic Relations Board of Turkey (DEIK). Trump transition aide Bijan Kian played key role in Flynn's connection to the case Federal investigators probing the lobbying work of national security adviser Michael Flynn are focused in part on the role of Bijan Kian. In 2017, FBI investigated whether Fethullah Gulen skimmed money from charter schools in the US. Gülen movement schools is a network of more than 150 U.S. charter schools (as of 2017). Gulen-linked educational institutions (schools in varying categories, and classifications) are sizable with 300 in Turkey and over 1,000 worldwide.
Pastor Andrew Brunson was charged with terrorism and espionage during the purges that followed the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt against Erdoğan. Serkan Golge, a naturalized US citizen, was jailed in Turkey for three years on charges of participating in terrorism and conspiring against the government as a member of the Gülen movement. Metin Topuz, a US consulate employee, was charged with having links to Gülen and was arrested under "terror charges" by an Istanbul court. Topuz was the second US government employee in Turkey to be arrested in 2017. The United States suspended all non-immigrant visas from Turkey "indefinitely" due to Topuz's arrest. Turkey retaliated against the US with suspensions of all US visas, including tourist visas, shortly after the US State Department made their announcement.
On August 1, 2018, the US Department of Treasury imposed sanctions on top Turkish government officials who were involved in the detention of Brunson. Daniel Glaser, the former Treasury official under Obama, said: "It's certainly the first time I can think of" the U.S. sanctioning a NATO ally. On August 10, 2018, Trump imposed punitive tariffs against Turkey after an impasse over Brunson's imprisonment and other issues. The move prompted Erdoğan to say that the United States was "[ex]changing a strategic NATO partner for a pastor" and that the US' behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies. The presidential spokesperson of Turkish President, İbrahim Kalın, tweeted that the US is losing Turkey, and that the entire Turkish public is against U.S. policies. In addition, the Uşak Province decided to stop running digital advertisement on United States-based social media platforms like Facebook, Google, Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube, canceling all of their ads as a response to US sanctions on Turkey. Turkey went on to say that it would retaliate against the raising of steel and aluminium tariffs by the U.S. administration (The US had already imposed 10 percent and 25 percent additional tariffs on aluminum and steel imports respectively from all countries on March 23, 2018, but on August 13, 2018, it added additional tariffs on steel imports from Turkey). Erdoğan said that Turkey will boycott electronic products from the US, using iPhones as an example. The Keçiören Municipality in the Ankara decided not to issue business licenses to American brands including McDonald's, Starbucks and Burger King. In addition, Turkey decided to increase tariffs on imports of a range of US products,
On August 20, 2018, there were gunshots at the USA Embassy in Ankara. No casualties were reported and Turkish authorities detained two men suspects.
Palastine (Hamas)
On the same time, relations between Turkey and the United States also worsened after the Turkish government hosted two Hamas leaders, in a move that was believed to be in response to the Abraham Accord, in which Israel normalized relations with the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain; the Abraham Accord was opposed by Ankara. Relations between Turkey and Israel, a major ally of the United States, have already gone low.
Armenia (Genocide Recognition, Nagorno-Karabakh War)
In 2019, the United States Congress, with sponsors from Saudi Arabia, issued official recognition of the Armenian genocide, which was the first time the United States has officially acknowledged the genocide, having previously only unofficially or partially recognized the genocide. Turkey, which has traditionally denied that such genocide existed, blasted the United States for inflaming tensions. Donald Trump has rejected the resolution by Congress, citing that his administration's stance on the issue had not changed.
Eliot Engel, chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the influence of third party actors like Turkey "troubling" at the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. In a letter to Secretary of State Pompeo, Senate Foreign Relations Committee ranking member Bob Menendez, Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, and several other lawmakers called for the Trump administration to "immediately suspend all sales and transfers of military equipment to Ankara." As for the result, relations between the United States to Turkey and Azerbaijan further worsened, with Turkey accused the United States of sending weapons and supplies to Armenia, which Washington denied.
On 15 October 2020, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo urged both sides to respect the humanitarian ceasefire and stated, "We now have the Turks, who have stepped in and provided resources to Azerbaijan, increasing the risk, increasing the firepower that's taking place in this historic fight."
Biden Administration (2021–present)
In October 2021, in the wake of the appeal for the release of Turkish activist Osman Kavala signed by 10 western countries, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered his foreign minister to declare the US ambassador persona non grata, alongside the other 9 ambassadors. However, the ambassadors did not receive any formal notice to leave the country and Erdoğan eventually stepped back.
Russo-Ukrainian War (Grain Deal, NATO expansion)
On March 5, 2022, the Turkish Foreign Ministry stated after discussions with NATO partners' deputy foreign ministers that Turkey and the US will continue to work in "tight coordination" to find a diplomatic solution to Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
On June 28, 2022, US President Joe Biden thanked Turkey for the Finland-Sweden-Turkey trilateral memorandum at the NATO 2022 Madrid summit.
Election (2023 Turkish presidential election)
In August 2020, Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties.
On May 22, 2022, after the US embassy issued a warning that police might respond violently to an opposition gathering in Istanbul, Turkey's foreign relations ministry summoned Ambassador Jeff Flake.
Armenia (Genocide Recognition, Nagorno-Karabakh conflict)
On April 24, 2021, Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, President Joe Biden referred to the massacre of the Armenians during the Ottoman Empire in 1915 as "genocide" in a statement released by the White House. Turkey has long practiced a policy of denial against the Armenian Genocide, and Biden's move was refuted by President Erdogan as "groundless" and opening a "deep wound" in U.S.-Turkey relations.
Presidential candidate and former Vice President Joe Biden demanded that Turkey "stay out" of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, in which Turkey has supported the Azerbaijanis.
Air Defense (S400, F-35, F-16C)
On March 19, 2022, the US has broached the unlikely option of delivering its Russian-made S-400 missile defence systems to Ukraine to assist it in fighting invading Russian forces, According to three sources acquainted with the situation.
All existing F16s are Block 50+ 'Viper' configuration. Turkey's F16 needs an upgrade. Biden can’t move forward without acceptance from the top senators on the Senate Foreign Relations and House Foreign Affairs committees. Senate Foreign Relations Chair Bob Menendez (D-N.J.), had longstanding concerns over Turkey’s aggression toward Greece and Cyprus. "If they can find a way to ensure that Turkey’s aggression against its neighbors ceases — which has been great, but that has to be a permanent reality,” Menendez said.
Economic relations
The United States and Turkey are both members in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G-20. The US and Turkey have had a Joint Economic Commission and a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement for several years. In 2002, the two countries indicated their joint intent to upgrade bilateral economic relations by launching an Economic Partnership Commission.
Turkey is currently the 32nd-largest goods trading partner with $20.5 billion in total ($10.2 billion; imports $10.3 billion) goods trade during 2018. US' goods and services trade with Turkey totaled an estimated $24.0 billion (exports: $12.7 billion; imports: $11.2 billion) in 2017. The trade deficit was $143 million in 2018.
The US exports of goods and services to Turkey involved 68,000 jobs in 2015.
Military relations
For the Anatolian Falcon 2012 joint exercises, the United States sent the 480th Fighter Squadron to train with Turkish pilots in the operation Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses.
Joint operations
Turkey participated with the United States in the Korean War in 1950–53 and in missions in Somalia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–2004.
Turkey has commanded the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan twice since its inception. 2,000 Mehmetçik concentrated on training Afghan military and security forces and provided security at ISAF's Regional Command-Capital stationed in Kabul. An undisclosed number of Mehmetçik were deployed to the Wardak and Jawzjan provinces to give ground support to USA Air Force Operations.
During the Iraq War, Turkey established the NATO Training Mission in 2005 and sponsored specialized training for hundreds of Iraqi security personnel in a secret facility in Turkey.
Operation Gladio
Operation Gladio is the codename for a clandestine "stay-behind" operation of armed resistance that was planned by the Western Union (WU) (and subsequently by NATO) for a potential Warsaw Pact invasion and conquest in Europe.
Counter-Guerrilla is the branch of the operation. The operation's founding goal was to erect a guerrilla force capable of countering a possible Soviet invasion. The goal was soon expanded to subverting communism in Turkey. Counter-Guerrilla initially operated out of the Turkish Armed Forces' Tactical Mobilization Group (STK). In 1967, it was renamed to the Special Warfare Department before becoming Special Forces Command. Counter-Guerrilla's existence in Turkey was revealed in 1973 by then-prime minister Bülent Ecevit.
Cooperation
The United States and Turkey share membership in NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and continue to cooperate in important projects, such as the Joint Strike Fighter program.
Bases and logistics
Since 1954, Turkey has hosted the Incirlik Air Base, an important operations base of the United States Air Force, which has played a critical role during the Cold War, the Gulf War, and the Iraq War. Turkey routinely hosts the United States for Anatolian Falcon and (with Israel, before their relationship worsened) Anatolian Eagle exercises held at its Konya airbase.
Turkish bases and transport corridors have been used heavily for military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya as of 2011.
In the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, some of the planes used at the operation and a fueling carrier took off from Incirlik base; in response, the Turkish government arrested several high-ranking Turkish military officers at Incirlik and cut power to the base for nearly a week.
Nuclear warheads
Turkey hosts U.S. controlled nuclear weapons as part of nuclear sharing policy. Its current arsenal is B61 nuclear bomb, while it formerly held MGR-1 Honest John, MIM-14 Nike Hercules, PGM-19 Jupiter, W33 and W48 artillery shells.
Turkey does not have dedicated nuclear-capable fighter aircraft that can deliver the weapons and does not train its pilots to fly nuclear missions.
Industrial cooperation
The defense industry of Turkey is growing. Turkey's 240 Lockheed Martin General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons were co-produced in Turkey by one of Turkish Aerospace Industries' predecessors (TAI). The United States and Turkey signed an FMS contract in 2009 for 30 F-16 Block 50s to be co-produced by TAI.
Turkey reportedly wanted to purchase drone aircraft from the United States to assist in its counterterrorism efforts against the PKK before its request was denied. Turkey produced Bayraktar Tactical UAS.
F-35s
Turkey is one of eight countries—along with the United Kingdom, Canada, Netherlands, Italy, Denmark, Norway, and Australia—partnering with the United States on the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program. Turkey plans to purchase up to 116 F-35s, 90 for delivery over an estimated 10-year period (2014–2023), that are jointly assembled and/or developed by firms from the various JSF partners. The cost is estimated to be at least $11 billion and could exceed $15 billion, given continued cost inflation on the program. The Pentagon decided to end the F-35 deal by July 31, 2019, as a result of Turkey, as a NATO partner, purchasing S400 missiles from Russia.
Alleged cable leaks highlighted Turkish concerns that upgrades to General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons had "precluded Turkish access to computer systems and
software modification previously allowed".
Radar and signal analysis
To have the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense be approved, Turkey received two conditions: Iran or Syria should not be named as a threat to Turkey, and Turkey's territory was to be protected by the system (as a national defense requirement). According to U.S. officials, the AN/TPY-2 radar was deployed at Turkey's Kürecik Air Force base and activated in January 2012."NATO Activates Radar in Turkey Next Week" Turkish Weekly Journal, 24 December 2011
Military aid
U.S. equipment in Turkey
Regional problems in the 1960s, Cyprus crises in 1963 and 1967, Cyprus invasion in 1974, and the arms embargo by the US in 1975–1978 following the invasion necessitated Turkey developing a defense industry based on national resources.
Milestones
1954: United States and Turkey sign first status of forces agreement.
1980: US–Turkey Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement.
1999: PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan captured MIT/Pentagon operation;
2003: Turkish Parliament denies invasion (ground forces) of Iraq from Turkey and permits use of Turkish bases for overflight
2003: U.S. detain Turkish special forces troops in Suleimaniyah, Iraq.
2011: "Operation Unified Protector”.
State and official visits
1999 Clinton visit
President Bill Clinton visited Ankara, İzmit, Ephesus, and Istanbul November 15–19, 1999. It was a State visit where he also attended the Organization for Security and Cooperation's Europe Summit meeting.
2009 Obama visit
Relations between Turkey and the United States markedly improved during the Obama administration's first term, but the two countries were nevertheless unable to reach their ambitious goals. Obama made his first official visit to Turkey at Ankara and Istanbul April 6–7, 2009. There US critics who claimed that Turkey should not be rewarded by an early presidential visit as its government had been systematically reorienting foreign policy onto an Islamist axis. Former U.S. Ambassador to Turkey Mark Parris remarked: “Whatever the merits of this argument, the Obama administration, by scheduling the visit, have decisively rejected it.”
Turkish President Gül later referred to the visit as “evidence of a vital partnership between Turkey and the US,” whilst Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu pointed out that they were "changing the psychological atmosphere” of what was before “seen as a military relationship”. Obama clarified: “We are not solely strategic partners, we are also model partners.” With this change in terminology, “The President wanted to stress the uniqueness of this relationship. This is not an ordinary relationship, it's a prototype and unique relationship.” A US House Committee on Foreign Affairs hearing, The United States and Turkey: A Model Partnership, chaired by Head of the Subcommittee on Europe Robert Wexler was convened after “the historic visit that Obama paid to Turkey”, and concluded that "this cooperation is vital for both of the two states in an environment in which we face serious security issues in Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, the Balkans, Black Sea, Caucuses and the Middle East, besides a global financial crisis”.
After Obama's visit, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Chief of the Turkish General Staff İlker Başbuğ hosted US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen in Ankara. During the closed-door meeting, they discussed the pledging of further Turkish support troops to Afghanistan and Pakistan where Turkish authorities have influence, the secure transport of troops and equipment from the port of İskenderun during the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq, and the pro-Kurdish terrorists operating in south-eastern Turkey and northern Iraq.
2013 Erdoğan visit
In May 2013, Erdoğan visited the White House and met with Obama, who said the visit was an opportunity "to return the extraordinary hospitality that the Prime Minister and the Turkish people showed [him] on [his] visit to Turkey four years ago". During their joint press conference, both Obama and Erdoğan stressed the importance of achieving stability in Syria. Erdoğan said that during his time with Obama, "Syria was at the top of [their] agenda" and Obama repeated the United States plan to support the Assad-opposition while applying "steady international pressure". When they were not discussing national security threats, Obama and Erdoğan discussed expanding economic relations between the two countries; Turkey had received over $50 billion in foreign investments, $20 billion of which came from the United States. In 2003, there was only $8 billion in U.S. investment in Turkey; both Erdoğan and Obama praised this recent increase and agreed to continue expanding the trade and investment agreements between the two countries. Erdoğan's visit culminated with talks of stability in the region. Obama stressed the importance of normalizing relations between Turkey and Israel and praised the steps Erdoğan had taken in that process. The process normalizing the Turkish-Israeli relationship had begun and Erdoğan stated that he would continue this process: "We don't need any other problems, issues in the region."
2019 Erdoğan visit
In November 2019, Erdogan visited the White House and held meetings with U.S. President Donald Trump.
List
Cultural relations
The 1978 American semi-biographical film Midnight Express was banned in Turkey under Article 301 of the Turkish Penal Code, which caused a strain on US–Turkish relations.
In late 2007, Turkey recalled its ambassador to the United States after the US House Committee on Foreign Affairs passed a US resolution on the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire, which resulted in a delay of a full House vote on Resolution 106. Speaker Nancy Pelosi pledged to bring the resolution to a full vote, but pressure from the White House and Turkey kept her from doing so.
American international schools in Turkey
Bursa American College for Girls (1854–1928)
Robert College (founded 1863), in Istanbul
Talas American College (1871–1968), in Talas
Üsküdar American Academy (founded 1876), in Istanbul
American Collegiate Institute (founded 1878), in İzmir
Anatolia College in Merzifon (1886–1924)
Turkish schools in the United States
Turkey does not currently have any international schools operating within the United States.
Embassies
The Embassy of the United States is located in Ankara, Turkey, while the Embassy of Turkey is located in Washington, D.C., United States.
See also
Great Famine of Mount Lebanon
Human rights in Turkey
Human rights in the United States
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C.
United States recognition of the Armenian Genocide
Turks in the United States
Turkish House
Turkey in NATO
References
Further reading
Aslan, Omer. The United States and Military Coups in Turkey and Pakistan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). online
Athanassopoulou, Ekavi. Strategic Relations between the US and Turkey 1979-2000: Sleeping with a Tiger (Routledge, 2014).
Baran, Zeyno (May 11, 2005) “The State of U.S.-Turkey Relations”, United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats.
Barlas, Dilek, and Şuhnaz Yilmaz. "Managing the transition from Pax Britannica to Pax Americana: Turkey's relations with Britain and the US in a turbulent era (1929–47)." Turkish Studies (2016): 1-25.
Brands, H.W., Jr. "America Enters the Cyprus Tangle 1964," Middle Eastern Studies 23#3 (1987), pp. 348–362.
Camp, Glen D. "Greek-Turkish Conflict over Cyprus." Political Science Quarterly 95.1 (1980) 95#1: 43–70. online
Coufoudakis, Van. "Turkey and the United States: The Problems and Prospects of a Post-War Alliance." JPMS: Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9.2 (1981): 179–196.
Harris, George Sellers, and Bilge Criss, eds. Studies in Atatürk's Turkey: the American dimension (Brill, 2009).
Howard, Harry N. "The bicentennial in American-Turkish relations." Middle East Journal 30.3 (1976): 291–310. online
Karpat, Kemal H., ed. Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition 1950-1974 (Leiden, Brill, 1975)
Kubilay Yado Arin: The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East? Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2013. ISBN 9 783865 737199.
Kuniholm, Bruce R. "Turkey and NATO: Past, Present and Future," ORBIS (Summer 1983 27#2, pp. 421–445.
Kunihoim, Bruce R. The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey and Greece (Princeton UP, 1980)
Laipson, Helen. "US Policy towards Greece and Turkey since 1974." in The Greek-Turkish Conflict in the 1990s (Palgrave Macmillan, 1991) pp. 164–182.
Laipson, Ellen B. "Cyprus: A Quarter Century of U.S. Diplomacy." in John T.A. Koumouljdes,(ed.), Cyprus in Transition 1960-1985 (London: Trigraph, 1986).
McGhee, George. The U.S. - Turkish- NATO- Middle East Connection: How the Truman Doctrine and Turkey's NATO Entry Contained the Soviets (Macmillan, 1990).
Magalhaes, Margaux. "Congress and US-Turkey relations." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 19.4 (2021): 494-516.
Simavoryan, Arestakes. (2020). The Controversy of Ankara-Washington under Trump. https://orbeli.am/en/post/483/2020-06-29/The+Controversy+of+Ankara-Washington+under+Trump
Nash, Philip. The Other Missiles of October: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Jupiters, 1957-1963 (1997) online
Olson, Robert W., Nurhan Ince, and Nuhan Ince. "Turkish Foreign Policy from 1923-1960: Kemalism and Its Legacy, a Review and a Critique." Oriente Moderno 57.5/6 (1977): 227–241. in JSTOR
Sanberk, Özdem. "The Importance of Trust Building in Foreign Policy, a Case Study: The Trajectory of the Turkish-American Relations." Review of International Law and Politics 12 (2016): 13+
Rustow, Dankwart A. Turkey: America's Forgotten Ally (Council on Foreign Relations, 1987).
Seydi, SÜleyman. “Turkish—American Relations and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1957-63.” Middle Eastern Studies 46#3 (2010), pp. 433–455. online
Stearns, Monteagle. Entangled Allies: U.S. Policy Toward Greece, Turkey and Cyprus (Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992).
Thomas, Lewis V. and Frye, Richard N. The United States and Turkey and Iran (Harvard University Press, 1951).
Trask, Roger R. The United States response to Turkish nationalism and reform, 1914-1939 (U of Minnesota Press, 1971).
Trask, Roger R. "The" Terrible Turk" and Turkish-American Relations in the Interwar Period." Historian 33.1 (1970): 40-53 online covers chapter 4.
Uslu, Nasuh. "Turkey's relationship with the United States 1960-1975". (PhD Diss. Durham University, 1994) online
Uslu, Nasuh. The Cyprus question as an issue of Turkish foreign policy and Turkish-American relations, 1959-2003 (Nova Publishers, 2003).
Uslu, Nasuh. The Turkish-American relationship between 1947 and 2003: The history of a distinctive alliance ( Nova Publishers, 2003).
Yilmaz, Şuhnaz. Turkish-American Relations, 1800-1952: Between the Stars, Stripes and the Crescent (Routledge, 2015).
Yilmaz, Şuhnaz. "Challenging the stereotypes: Turkish–American relations in the inter-war era." Middle Eastern Studies'' 42.2 (2006): 223–237.
External links
U.S. Department of State Background Note: Turkey
U.S. Embassy in Turkey
, ASAM
Örmeci, Ozan & Işıksal, Hüseyin (2020), Historical Examinations and Current Issues in Turkish-American Relations, Berlin: Peter Lang
United States
Bilateral relations of the United States
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Jews
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British Jews
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British Jews (often referred to collectively as British Jewry or Anglo-Jewry) are British citizens who are Jewish. The number of people who identified as Jews in the United Kingdom rose by just under 4% between 2001 and 2021.
History
The first recorded Jewish community in Britain was brought to England in 1070 by King William the Conqueror who believed the Jewish population’s commercial skills would make his newly won country more prosperous. At the end of the 12th century, a series of blood libels and fatal pogroms were perpetrated in England, particularly on the east coast. Notably, on 16 March 1190, during the run up to the Third Crusade, the Jewish population of York was massacred at the site where Clifford's Tower now stands, and King Edward I of England passed the Statute of the Jewry (Statutum de Judaismo) in 1275, restricting the community's activities, most notably outlawing the practice of usury (charging interest). Fifteen years later when Edward found that many of these provisions were ignored, he expelled the Jews from England. The Jewish population emigrated to countries such as Poland which protected them by law. A small English community persisted in hiding despite the expulsion. Jews were not banned from Scotland, which was an independent kingdom until 1707; however, there is no record of a Jewish presence in Scotland before the 18th century. Jews were also not banned in Wales at the time, but England eventually annexed Wales under Henry VIII. When Henry VIII's England annexed Wales, the English ban on Jews extended to Wales. There is only one known record of a Jew in Wales between 1290 and the annexation, but it is possible individuals did persist there after 1290.
A small community of conversos was identified in Bristol in 1609 and banished. In 1656, Oliver Cromwell made it clear that the ban on Jewish settlement in England and Wales would no longer be enforced, but when Rabbi Manasseh Ben Israel brought a petition to allow Jews to return, the majority of the Protectorate Government turned it down. Despite the Protectorate government's rejection of the Rabbi's petition, the community considers 1656 to mark the readmission of the Jews to England and Wales. In mid-nineteenth century British-ruled Ireland, Daniel O'Connell, known as "The Liberator" for his work on Catholic Emancipation, worked successfully for the repeal of the "De Judaismo" law, which prescribed a special yellow badge for Jews. Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), of Jewish birth although he joined the Church of England, served in government for three decades, twice as prime minister.
The oldest Jewish community in Britain is the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish community, which traces back to the 1630s when it existed clandestinely in London before the readmission and was unofficially legitimised in 1656 which is the date counted by the Jewish community as the re-admittance of the Jews to England (which at the time included Wales). A trickle of Ashkenazi immigration primarily from German countries continued from the late 17th century to the early 19th century. As for the second wave of Ashkenazi immigration, a large wave of Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants fleeing persecution in the Russian Empire due to pogroms and the May Laws between 1880 and the imposition of tighter immigration restrictions in 1905 sought their way to the Isles. Many German and Polish Jews seeking to escape the Nazi Holocaust arrived in Britain before and after the Second World War. Around 80-90% of British Jews today are Ashkenazi.
Following de-colonisation, the late twentieth century saw Yemeni Jews Iraqi Jews and Baghdadi Jews settle in the United Kingdom. A multicultural community, in 2006, British Jews celebrated the 350th anniversary of the resettlement in England.
Demographics
Population size
According to the 2021 United Kingdom census, there were 271,327 Jews in England and Wales, or 0.5% of the overall population, whilst in the 2021 Northern Irish census, there were 439 self-identified Jews comprising just 0.02% of the population, but marking a 31% increase in numbers since the census of 2011. According to the 2011 census, 5,887 Jews lived in Scotland for a total of 277,653 self-identified Jews in the United Kingdom. This does not include much smaller communities in the Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories; notably, there are Jewish communities in Gibraltar, Jersey and Bermuda, amongst others. However, this final figure is considered an undercount. Demographers David Graham and Stanley Waterman give several reasons as for why: the underenumeration for censuses in general; the question did not record secular Jews; the voluntary nature of the question; suspicion by Jews of such questions; and the high non-response rate for large numbers of Haredi Jews. By comparison, the Jewish Virtual Library estimated a Jewish population of 291,000 (not limited to adherents of Judaism) in 2012, making Britain's Jewish community the fifth largest in the world. This equates to 0.43% of the population of the United Kingdom. The absolute number of Jews has been gradually rising since records began; in the 2011 census, 263,346 people in England and Wales answered "Jewish" to the voluntary question on religion, compared with 259,927 in of 2001.
The 2001 Census included a (voluntary) religion question ("What is your religion?") for the first time in its history; 266,740 people listed their religion as "Jewish". However, the subject of who is a Jew is complex, and the religion question did not record people who may be Jewish through other means, such as ethnically and culturally. Of people who chose Jewish as their religion, 97% put White as their ethnic group. However, a report by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR) suggests that, although there was an apparent option to write down "Jewish" for this question, it did not occur to many, because of "skin colour" and nationality bias, and that if "Jewish" was an explicit option, the results—only 2,594 respondents were Jewish solely by ethnicity—would have been different. The religion question appeared in the 2011 Census, but there was still no explicit option for "Jewish" in the ethnic-group question. The Board of Deputies had encouraged all Jews to indicate they were Jewish, either through the religion question or the ethnicity one.
From 2005 to 2008, the Jewish population increased from 275,000 to 280,000, attributed largely to the high birth rates of Haredi (or ultra-Orthodox) Jews. Research by the University of Manchester in 2007 showed that 75% of British Jewish births were to the Haredi community. Ultra-Orthodox women have an average of 6.9 children, and secular Jewish women 1.65. In 2015, the Institute for Jewish Policy Research reported that in England the orthodox community was growing by nearly 5% per year, while the non-haredi community was decreasing by 0.3% per year. It has been also documented that in terms of births, between 2007 and 2015, the estimated number of Strictly Orthodox births per annum increased by 35%, rising from 1,431 to 1,932. Meanwhile, the estimated number of ‘Mainstream’ (non-Strictly Orthodox) births per annum increased to a lesser extent over the same period, going from 1,844 to 1,889 (+2.4%).
Historical population
Going into the 19th century, the Jewish population was small, likely no more than 20,000 individuals. However, the population quadrupled in just a few decades after 1881 as a large number of Jews fled oppression in the Russian Empire. The population increased by as much as 50% between 1933 and 1945, with the United Kingdom admitting around 70,000 Jews between 1933 and 1938, and a further 80,000 between 1938 and 1945. The late 1940s and early 1950s proved to be the high point, numerically speaking, for British Jewry. A decline followed, as many of the new arrivals moved to Israel, moved back to Europe, or emigrated elsewhere, and many other individuals assimilated. The decline continued into the 1990s, but has since reversed. The estimates given before the 2001 Census are likely not directly comparable to the Census, as the Census is based purely on self-identification, whereas the estimates are based on community membership, and it is probably the decline from 450,000 to 266,740 is more like a decline from 450,000 to somewhere between 300,000 and 350,000 going by the metrics of the estimators. Contemporary Jewish demographers like Sergio DellaPergola give figures around 300,000 for the British Jewish population in the early 2010s, since when it has grown.
Migration
The great majority (83.2%) of Jews in England and Wales were born in the UK. In 2015, about 6% of Jews in England held an Israeli passport. In 2019, the Office for National Statistics estimated that 21,000 people resident in the UK were born in Israel, up from 11,890 in 2001. Of the 21,000, 8,000 had Israeli nationality. In 2013, it was reported that antisemitic attacks in France led to an exodus of French Jews to the UK. This has resulted in some synagogues establishing French-language Shabbat services.
In 2018, 534 Britons emigrated to Israel, representing the third consecutive annual decline. The figure was one third down on 2015 and was the lowest for five years. Meanwhile, immigration of Jews from Israel is consistently higher than emigration of Jews to Israel, at a ratio of about 3:2, meaning the British Jewish community has a net gain of Jewish immigrants, to the point Israelis now represent around 6% of the British Jewish community.
Ethnicity
Geographic distribution
The majority of the Jews in the UK live in southeastern England, particularly in and around London. Around 145,480 Jews live in London itself - more than half the Jewish population of the entire country - notably the North London boroughs of Barnet (56,620), Hackney (17,430), Camden (10,080), Haringey (9,400), Harrow (7,300), Redbridge (6,410), Westminster (5,630), Brent (3,720), Enfield (3,710), Islington (2,710) and Kensington and Chelsea (2,680). There are also 30,220 Jews living in districts that abut London but are outside the boundaries of London itself, of which 21,270 are in southern Hertfordshire and 4,930 are in southwestern Essex, giving a total population of 175,690 Jews in London and the districts and boroughs immediately surrounding it, as compared to 95,640 in the rest of England and Wales combined.
In total, including communities some distance from London, just under 46,000 Jews live in the six counties bordering Greater London, of which two-thirds live in areas immediately adjacent to London. There are, in total, more than 26,400 Jews in Hertfordshire, of which 18,350 are in the borough of Hertsmere in southwestern Hertfordshire adjacent to Jewish areas in Barnet and Harrow. Towns and villages in Hertsmere with large Jewish populations include Borehamwood (6,160), Bushey (5,590), and Radlett (2,980). Some 30% of Radlett's population is Jewish, as is 20% of Bushey's and 17% of Borehamwood's, 21% of neighbouring Shenley's and 36% of nearby Elstree, which has a Jewish plurality. Further afield from London, there is also a significant community in St Albans, as well as other smaller communities throughout the county. There are over 10,300 Jews in Essex, of which 4,380 live in the district of Epping Forest, in the county's southwest. There is also a significant community in Southend. In total, London and the counties around it are host to 70.56% of England and Wales' Jewish population, as of 2021.
The next most significant population is in Greater Manchester, a community of more than 28,000, mostly in Bury (10,730), Salford (10,370), Manchester (2,630), and Trafford (2,410). There are also significant communities in Leeds (6,270), Gateshead (2,910), Brighton (2,460), St Albans (2,240), and Southend (2,060). Some historically sizeable communities like Liverpool, Bournemouth and Birmingham have experienced a steady decline and now number fewer than 2,000 self-identifying Jews each; conversely, there are small but growing communities in places like Bristol, Oxford and Cambridge.
The most Jewish county in the UK is Hertfordshire, which is 2.23% Jewish; this is followed by the City of London, on 2.06%, and then Greater London on 1.63%. Greater Manchester is 1.00% Jewish, Essex is 0.70% and East Sussex is 0.65%. No other county is as much as 0.50% Jewish. The least Jewish county or principal area in England and Wales is Merthyr Tydfil, which is less than 0.01% Jewish despite once having had a significant community. Hertsmere and Barnet councils are the most Jewish local authorities in England, with Jews composing one in six and seven residents respectively. Finchley and Golders Green is the political constituency with the largest Jewish population in the UK.
The Scottish population is concentrated in Greater Glasgow, which counts around 3,300 Jews. Over 40% of the Scottish Jewish population, or around 2,400 people, resides in or around the Glasgow suburb of Newton Mearns. Fewer than 900 Jews live in Edinburgh; the remaining 30% of Scottish Jewry is scattered throughout the country. The largest Welsh community is in Cardiff, with almost 700 Jews, comprising about a third of the Welsh Jewish population and 0.19% of the population of Cardiff itself. The only synagogue in Northern Ireland is in Belfast, where the community has fewer than 100 active members, although 439 people recorded their religion as Jewish in the Northern Irish census of 2021; despite remarkable growth since the previous census in 2011, this still leaves the Northern Irish community as the smallest of the four Home Nations both in overall numbers and percentage terms. There are small communities throughout the Channel Islands, and there is an active synagogue in St Brelade, Jersey, although the Jewish population of the island is only 49. There is only a small number of Jews on the Isle of Man, with no synagogue.
Age profile
The British Jewish population has an older profile than the general population. In England and Wales, the median age of male Jews is 41.2, while the figure for all males is 36.1; Jewish females have a median age of 44.3, while the figure for all females is 38.1. About 24% of the community are over the age of 65 (compared to 16% of the general population of England and Wales). In the 2001 census, Jews were the only group in which the number of persons in the 75-plus cohorts outnumbered those in the 65–74 cohort.
Education
About 60% of school-age Jewish children attend Jewish schools. Jewish day schools and yeshivas are found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language instruction are commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.
The majority of Jewish schools in Britain are funded by the government. Jewish educational centres are plentiful, large-scale projects. One of the country's most famous Jewish schools is the state-funded JFS in London which opened in 1732 and has about 2100 students. It is heavily over-subscribed and applies strict rules on admissions, which led to a discrimination court case, R (E) v Governing Body of JFS, in 2009. In 2011, another large state-funded school opened in North London named JCoSS, the first cross-denomination Jewish secondary school in the UK.
The Union of Jewish Students is an umbrella organisation that represents Jewish students at university. In 2011 there were over 50 Jewish Societies.
British Jews generally have high levels of educational achievement. Compared to the general population, they are 40% less likely to have no qualifications, and 80% more likely to have "higher-level" qualifications. With the exception of under-25s, younger Jews tend to be better educated than older ones. However, dozens of the all-day educational establishments in the Haredi community of Stamford Hill, which are accused of neglecting secular skills such as English and maths, claim not to be schools under the meaning of the Department for Education.
The annual Limmud festival is a high-profile educational event of the British Jewish community, attracting a wide range of international presenters.
Employment and income
The 2001 UK Census showed that 30.5% of economically active Jews were self-employed, compared to a figure of 14.2% for the general population. Jews aged 16–24 were less likely to be economically active than their counterparts in the general population; 89.2% of these were students. In a 2010 study, average income per working adult was £15.44 an hour. Median income and wealth were significantly higher than other religious groups. In a 2015 study, poverty has risen the fastest per generation than other religious groups.
Marriage
In 2016, the Institute for Jewish Policy Research reported that the intermarriage rate for the Jewish community in the UK was 26%. This was less than half of the US rate of 58% and showed little change from the rate in the early 1980s of 23%, though more than twice the 11% level of the end of the 1960s. Around one third of the children of mixed marriages are brought up in the Jewish faith.
Religion
There are around 454 synagogues in the country, and it is estimated that 56.3% of all households across the UK with at least one Jew living within them held synagogue membership in 2016. The percentage of households adhering to specific denominations is as follows:
Orthodox ("consisting of the United Synagogue, the Federation of Synagogues and independent Orthodox synagogues") – 42.8%
Strictly Orthodox ("synagogues aligned with the Union of Orthodox Hebrew Congregations and others of a similar ethos") – 23.5%
Reform (Movement for Reform Judaism and Westminster Synagogue and Chaim V'Tikvah and Hastings and District Jewish Society) – 19.3%
Liberal (Liberal Judaism and Belsize Square Synagogue) – 8.2%
Masorti (Assembly of Masorti Synagogues) – 3.3%
Sephardi – 2.9%
Those in the United Kingdom who consider themselves Jews identify as follows:
34% Secular
18% Ultra Orthodox
14% Modern Orthodox
14% Reform
10% Traditional, but not very religious
6% Liberal
2% Conservative
2% Sephardi
The Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue in the London Borough of Harrow said in 2015 that it had the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in Europe.
Culture
Media
There are a number of Jewish newspapers, magazines and other media published in Britain on a national or regional level. The most well known is The Jewish Chronicle, founded in 1841 and the world's oldest continuously published Jewish newspaper. Other publications include the Jewish News, Jewish Telegraph, Hamodia, the Jewish Tribune and Jewish Renaissance. In April 2020, The Jewish Chronicle and the Jewish News, which had announced plans to merge in February and later announced plans for a joint liquidation, continued as separate entities after the former was acquired by a consortium.
Food
Cookbooks grew in popularity in Britain during the mid 1800s and shaped the overall cuisine that British Jews experienced by teaching and inspiring housewives how to cook. The shaping of Jewish food overtime told the story of their frequent migration throughout Europe. There was a lot of influence from Eastern European and Ashkenazi food. This resulted in the common staples of Anglo-Jewish women to keep bread, bagels, and potatoes consistently in their homes. Since, they had a history filled with Diaspora, dishes varied heavily and included fish, meat, spaghetti, pudding, or soup.
Politics
Before the 2015 general election, 69% of British Jews surveyed were planning to vote for the Conservative Party, while 22% would vote for the Labour Party. A May 2016 poll of British Jews showed 77% would vote Conservative, 13.4% Labour, and 7.3% Liberal Democrat. An October 2019 poll of British Jews showed 64% would vote Conservative, 24% Liberal Democrat, and only 6% Labour.
Jews are typically seen as predominantly middle-class, though historically many Jews lived in working-class communities of London. According to polling in 2015, politicians' attitudes towards Israel influence the vote of three out of four British Jews.
In London, most of the top constituencies with the largest Jewish populations voted Conservative in the 2010 general election - these are namely, Finchley and Golders Green, Hendon, Harrow East, Chipping Barnet, Ilford North, and Hertsmere in Hertfordshire. The exceptions were Hackney North and Stoke Newington and Hampstead and Kilburn, which both voted Labour in the election. Outside the region, large Jewish constituencies voted for Labour, namely Bury South and Blackley and Broughton.
Some MPs, such as Robert Jenrick and Keir Starmer, while not Jewish themselves, are married to Jews and have Jewish children.
Antisemitism
The earliest Jewish settlement was recorded in 1070, soon after the Norman Conquest. Jews living in the England at this time experienced religious discrimination and it is thought that the blood libel which accused Jews of ritual murder originated in Northern England, leading to massacres and increasing discrimination.[2] The Jewish presence continued until King Edward I's Edict of Expulsion in 1290.[3]
Jews were readmitted into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland by Oliver Cromwell in 1655, though it is believed that crypto-Jews lived in England during the expulsion.[4] Jews were regularly subjected to discrimination and humiliation which waxed and waned over the centuries, gradually declining.[5]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the number of Jews in Britain greatly increased due to the exodus from Russia, which resulted in a large community forming in the East End of London.[6] Popular sentiment against immigration was used by the British Union of Fascists to incite hatred against Jews, leading to the Battle of Cable Street in 1936, when the fascists were forced to abandon their march through an area with a large Jewish population when the police clearing the way were unable to remove barricades defended by trade unionists, left wing groups and residents.[7]
In the aftermath of the Holocaust, undisguised racial hatred of Jews became unacceptable in British society. Outbursts of antisemitism emanating from far right groups continued, however, leading to the formation of the 43 Group led by Jewish ex-servicemen which broke up fascist meetings from 1945 to early 1950.
Records of antisemitic incidents have been compiled since 1984, although changing reporting practices and levels of reporting make comparison over time difficult. The Community Security Trust (CST) was formed in 1994 to "[protect] British Jews from antisemitism and related threats". It works in conjunction with the police and other authorities to protect Jewish schools, Synagogues, and other community institutions.
Communal institutions
British Jewish communal organisations include:
Anglo-Jewish Association
Association of Jewish Refugees
Board of Deputies (1760)
CCJO René Cassin
Community Security Trust
Institute for Jewish Policy Research
Jewish Board of Guardians
Jewish Book Council
Jewish Care
Jewish Council for Racial Equality
Jewish Genealogical Society of Great Britain
Jewish Leadership Council
JW3 – a London venue
Kisharon
League of British Jews
League of Jewish Women
Leo Baeck Institute London
Liberal Judaism
Limmud
London Jewish Forum
London Jewish Cultural Centre
Maccabaeans
Mitzvah Day International
Movement for Reform Judaism
Norwood
Scottish Council of Jewish Communities
Tzelem
UCL Institute of Jewish Studies
UK Jewish Film Festival
Union of Jewish Students
United Restitution Organization
United Synagogue
Union of Jewish Women
World Jewish Relief
See also
List of British Jews
List of Jewish communities in the United Kingdom
History of the Jews in England
History of the Jews in Scotland
History of the Jews in Ireland
History of the Jews in the Isle of Man
Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
. All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism. September 2006. Accessed 1 April 2011. 24 November 2010. See inquiry website.
. Jewish Leadership Council. 2008. Accessed 4 April 2011.
, 4.93 MiB. See webpage .
, 2.68 MiB. See webpage .
Casale Mashiah, Donatella; Boyd, Jonathan (14 July 2017), Synagogue membership in the United Kingdom in 2016, Institute for Jewish Research
Further reading
Anti-Semitism Worldwide 1999/2000. Stephen Roth Institute. Distributed by the University of Nebraska Press. pp. 125–135.
Cesarani, David (1994). The Jewish Chronicle and Anglo-Jewry, 1841–1991. Cambridge University Press.
Cesarani, David. "British Jews". Liedtke, Rainer; Wendehorst, Stephan. (eds) (1999). The Emancipation of Catholics, Jews and Protestants: Minorities and the Nation State in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Manchester University Press. pp. 33–55.
Endelman, Todd M. (2002). The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000. University of California Press.
Spector, Sheila A. (ed) (2002). British Romanticism and the Jews: History, Culture, Literature. Palgrave Macmillan.
Valins, Oliver; Kosmin, Barry; Goldberg, Jacqueline. "The future of Jewish schooling in the United Kingdom". Institute for Jewish Policy Research. 31 December 2002. Accessed 4 April 2011.
London, Louise (2003). Whitehall and the Jews, 1933–1948: British Immigration Policy, Jewish Refugees and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press.
Schreiber, Mordecai; Schiff, Alvin I.; Klenicki, Leon. (2003). The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia (3rd edition). Schreiber Publishing. pp. 79–80.
Wynne-Jones, Jonathan; additional reporting by Jeffay, Nathan. "Is this the last generation of British Jews?". The Daily Telegraph. 26 November 2006. Accessed 1 April 2011.
Shindler, Colin. "The Reflection of Israel Within British Jewry". Ben-Moshe, Danny; Segev, Zohar (eds) (2007). Israel, the Diaspora, and Jewish Identity. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 227–234.
Butt, Riazat. "Faith in numbers". The Guardian. 20 November 2007. Accessed 4 April 2011.
Lawless, Jill. "London's Jewish Museum reopens after major facelift". Associated Press via USA Today. 17 March 2010. Accessed 1 April 2011.
Graham, David; Boyd, Jonathan. . Institute for Jewish Policy Research. 15 July 2010. Accessed 4 April 2011. 22 July 2011. See webpage.
Brown, Mick. "Inside the private world of London's ultra-Orthodox Jews". The Daily Telegraph. 25 February 2011. Accessed 1 April 2011.
"Publications on British Jews from the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner".
External links
Anglo-Jewish Archives. University of Southampton
Jews and Judaism in the United Kingdom
British people of Jewish descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Wass
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Albert Wass
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Count Albert Wass de Szentegyed et Czege (; January 8, 1908 – February 17, 1998) was a Hungarian nobleman, forest engineer, novelist, poet, member of the Wass de Czege family.
Wass was born in Válaszút, Austria-Hungary (now Răscruci, Cluj County, Romania) in 1908. In 1944 he fled from Hungary, and then joined the fleeing forces of the Third Reich and ended up in Germany, then emigrated to the U.S. after World War II. He was condemned as a war criminal by the Romanian People's Tribunals, however, United States authorities refused to extradite Wass to Romania claiming the lack of solid evidence.
The works of Albert Wass first gained recognition within Hungarian literature from Transylvania in the 1940s. In 1944 he moved to Germany and later in 1952 to the United States, and lived there until his 1998 death in Astor Park, Florida. During the communist regime, his books were banned both in Hungary and in Romania. Part of his works was published in Hungary after the change of political system in 1989, however, before this time, his works were unknown to the Hungarian public.
He is popular among the Hungarian minority in Romania and has growing popularity in Hungary. In 2005 in a public assessment (Nagy Könyv), he was found to be one of the most popular Hungarian authors: his book "A funtineli boszorkány" (The Witch of Funtinel) was named the 12th most popular book; two more books were named in the top 50 ranking, including the family saga "Kard és kasza" (Sword and Scythe).
Family
The Wass family has traced its descent from the age of Árpád, and is one of the oldest noble families in Transylvania. The family received the title of count from Maria Theresia in 1744.
His grandfather, Béla Wass, was a parliamentarian and Lord Lieutenant (főispán) of Szolnok-Doboka county. His father was Count Endre Wass (1886–1975), his mother Baroness Ilona Bánffy de Losonc (1883–1960).
He has six sons: Vid Wass de Czege, Csaba Wass de Czege, Huba Wass de Czege, Miklós Wass de Czege, Geza Wass de Czege and Endre (Andreas) Wass von Czege.
Youth
Albert Wass was born in Válaszút (today Răscruci) at the Bánffy mansion of Válaszút, distinct from the nearby Bánffy castle of Bonchida. His parents divorced early, and he was mostly brought up by his grandfather, Béla Wass. He graduated from the Reformed Church Secondary School in Cluj on Farkas Street and subsequently earned a diploma in forestry from the Academy of Economics in Debrecen, Hungary. He continued his studies of forestry and horticulture in Hohenheim, Germany, and Sorbonne, Paris, where he received additional diplomas. He returned to Transylvania in 1932, as his father fell ill. He had to attend obligatory military service in the Romanian Army and later settled to run the family estate in the Transylvanian Plain.
His first wife was his cousin Baroness Éva Siemers (1914–1991) of Hamburg. "Due to pressure from my family, I had to marry my cousin in 1935 (...) this was the only way to avoid bankruptcy of the family lands", Wass wrote later.
He had six children (Vid, Csaba, Huba, Miklós, Géza, Endre); Csaba died at age three. Huba Wass de Czege, born in 1941 in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca, Romania) had a significant career in the U.S. Army, achieving the rank of brigadier general. He is known as a principal designer of the "AirLand Battle" military doctrine and took part in the planning of Desert Storm against Iraq in 1991.
Wass started to write poems, short stories, and articles. His first books were published in 1927 and 1929 in Cluj. In 1934, his novel Farkasverem (Wolfpit) was published by the Transylvanian Guild of Arts. In 1935, he was accepted member of the Transylvanian Guild of Arts, and at the same time he was the first young Transylvanian to be awarded the Baumgarten Prize.
After the Second Vienna Award (30 August 1940), northern Transylvania was reassigned to Hungary, so in 1941, Wass was nominated as the primary forest monitor in the Ministry of Agriculture for the area near Dés (now Dej).
During World War II
From May 1942 he took part in military training with the Hungarian Cavalry as a reserve officer, achieving rank of ensign. In his memoirs, Wass claims to have become chief editor of Ellenzék in May 1943, as his boss was drafted into the army. He writes:
two soldiers of Gestapo entered the editorial, showing the order they have to monitor the newspaper. I simply left the building, and walked up the mountains. Two weeks later, my father sent me a message that the Germans are looking for me. To avoid conflict, General Veress, the commander of military troops in North Transylvania has given me a uniform, and as master sergeant he sent me to Ukraine with 9th Hungarian Cavalry, from which I returned only at Christmas.
Wass became the aide-de-camp of General Lajos Veress in 1944. As the war was drawing to an end and the Soviet (and later Romanian) troops were drawing forward into Transylvania, as an officer, he did not wait for the occupation of North Transylvania, but on Easter 1945, crossed the border and chose emigration.
World War II sentence for war crimes
In May 1946, both Albert Wass and his father, Endre Wass, were sentenced to death in absentia by a Romanian tribunal for ordering the killing of Romanian peasants from Sucutard and Mureșenii de Câmpie and their possessions were confiscated, by Romanian People's Tribunal, a tribunal set up by the post-World War II government of Romania, overseen by the Allied Control Commission to trial suspected war criminals, in line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement with Romania. The tribunal were to a large extent set up on the model of the Nürnberg International Tribunal. The two were accused for events that happened in September 1940, when the Hungarian forces marched into North Transylvania, when a Hungarian lieutenant, Pakucs, arrested six inhabitants (a Romanian priest and his family, his Hungarian servant, also Romanian peasants, and a local Jewish merchant and his family) of Sucutard (Szentgothárd), and then shot to death two Romanian men and two Jewish women, Eszter and Róza Mihály in Ţaga (Czege), at the order of Albert and Endre Wass, when they allegedly attempted to escape. Albert Wass was also accused for, as the alleged instigator, for the shootings at Mureşenii de Câmpie (Omboztelke), when Hungarian soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gergely Csordás, killed 11 Jews. Wass defended himself as not present at the killings.
Since 1979, National-Communist Romanian authorities tried several times to have him extradited to Romania, referring to a verdict by Romanian People's Tribunals from 1946 based on false testimony, after several revisions, the U.S. Department of Justice refused several times the petition of Ceaușescu due to lack of evidence. This was confirmed even after the Wiesenthal Center denounced him, as his name was on the list of war criminals living in the U.S. After the analysis of the case, the U.S. dropped the charges against the retired language professor of the University of Florida. Wass said Romanian Communists were trying to frame him because of his strong Hungarian nationalist position. Wass continued to insist that he had nothing to do with the killings, and claimed he was the victim of a "Zionist-Romanian" conspiracy. Wass said "I can't quite see how anybody can be a war criminal and not get caught in 30 years. Especially somebody who is always in the limelight like I am."
In 2008, his son, Andreas Wass, appealed to the Romanian courts to annul the sentence, but the Romanian courts found that no new evidence was presented and as such, the sentence was upheld.
Emigration
First traveling to Sopron, he then moved onward to Bleichbach and Hamburg, Germany, and lived there till 1951, where the family of his first wife, Éva Siemers, had been living. He found a job as a nightwatchman at a construction site.
In 1951, Wass emigrated to the United States, together with four of his sons (Vid, Huba, Miklós, and Géza). Due to pulmonary disease, his wife was unable to receive approval for emigration from the US administration and was subsequently left behind in Germany with their other son Endre. The couple later divorced.
In 1952, he married Elizabeth McClain (1905–1987) Elizabeth was the daughter of WG McClain and Florence McClain of Bellaire Ohio both respectively Irish and English immigrants. Elizabeth's family consisted of four children to three girls two boys Carolyn Rose Joseph and John we're her siblings she also had children from a previous relationship two girls and a boy.
Wass founded the American Hungarian Guild of Arts, managing its academic work and publishing activities, and editing its newsletter. He launched his own publishing house, the Danubian Press, which published not only books but English language magazines of the American Hungarian Guild of Arts, too. The Transylvanian Quarterly dealing with Transylvania and related issues, then the Hungarian Quarterly undertaking the general problems of the Hungarian nation became the most important anti-Bolshevik forum of Hungarian exiles.
Albert Wass claimed several times, the Securitate, the National-Communist Romanian secret police, made several attempts to intimidate, and even trying to assassinate him. In the 1970s, there were several assassination attempts against the writer by Securitate agents, whose bullet marks from their weapons Albert Wass was able to show even during the reportage film shot with him in 1996. The two assassins were caught by the U.S. police, but since they had Romanian diplomatic passports, they were released. In the autumn of 1985, the Securitate committed an assassination attempt against Wass Albert at the Holiday Inn Hotel in Cleveland, which was foiled only because of Interpol's information and crime prevention work. Albert Wass received a notification from Interpol that Ceaușescu had sent 12 Securitate agents as diplomats to the embassy in Washington and the consulate in Cleveland. Albert Wass claimed: "One of their tasks is to put me off my feet", he said a representative of the FBI office in Florida informed him that an assassination attempt was being planned in Cleveland, and asked him not to go to the event of the Transylvanian day. Two days later, a truck hit him, two days later the vehicle was found and it had a diplomatic license plate, the truck belonged to the Romanian Embassy. At the request of the FBI, Albert Wass made a reservation at the Holiday Inn Hotel. The evening before their performance, two people from the Romanian Consulate were caught, disguised as TV technicians, entering the room reserved for Wass with a fake key and trying to plant a bomb there. As they had diplomatic immunity, they were expelled the country.
The Hungarian Congress in Cleveland established the Transylvanian World Federation in 1975, two co-presidents were elected: Albert Wass and István Zolcsák. Their work was to presenting and representing Transylvania's cause to the world. They published the historical work "Documented Facts and Figures on Transylvania" in 1977, according to Wass "to explain and defend the truth of Transylvania." These things also contributed to the fact that, due to Romania's human rights policies the United States State Department discontinued Romania's most-favored-nation trade status in 1988. Ceaușescu called Wass "The number one public enemy of Romania" in the Bucharest radio in 1988, Albert Wass wrote about this to Zita Szeleczky: "I have never received a greater honor in my life!"
On 20 August 1993 he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Hungarian Order of Merit by president Árpád Göncz according to the proposal of prime minister József Antall, received the next year from the Hungarian consul of Florida and Sándor Csoóri at his home.
Wass's application for naturalization in Hungary was first refused by the government between 1994 and 1998, as his death sentence in Hungary had not been revoked, then impeded by a reply that the naturalization certificate of the 90-year-old author would have been valid for only a year from the date of issue.
Wass committed suicide on February 17, 1998, at age 90 in his Florida residence after a long struggle with a medical condition. His final wish was to have his remains placed in the garden of Kemény villa in Brâncoveneşti, Mureș County, next to the tomb of author János Kemény.
According to his fourth son, Miklós Wass, no suicidal tendencies were noticed in his father.
Citizenship and rehabilitation attempts
It was a long debate in the Hungarian press about the fact that Albert Wass has not received Hungarian citizenship, in spite of his several applications, the explanation given being that he had again became a Romanian citizen after the 1946 Paris Peace Conference.
In 2007, Hungarian members of parliament István Simicskó (KDNP, Christian Democrats) and Mihály Babák (Fidesz, Young Democrats) have asked president László Sólyom to grant Albert Wass citizenship posthumously, but were replied that this is not possible for several reasons, for example, he had already received citizenship in 1997, so the writer has died as Hungarian, , however, the certificate of citizenship (but not the citizenship itself) was valid only for one year and he refused it as being offensive.
In recent years, some representatives of the Hungarian minority in Romania and his family attempted his rehabilitation. His son's request for a retrial of the case was rejected by the Romanian High Court of Cassation and Justice in 2007.
His life has never been examined thoroughly in court, so as a consequence it is a predominant view among Romanians that Albert Wass is a criminal, responsible for the murdering of Romanians and Jews and his condemnation by the Tribunal is just. The rehabilitation attempts are seen as immoral particularly by relatives of those he was accused of murdering.
On May 22, 2004, a statue was unveiled in Odorheiu Secuiesc bearing no name, only the Hungarian inscription "Vándor Székely" (Wandering Szekler). The sculpture was interpreted in the Romanian press as being of Albert Wass. Two statues of Wass have been moved to the interior of the Hungarian churches in Reghin and Lunca Mureșului.
Although Romanian law forbids the cult of those condemned for "offence against peace and mankind or promoting fascist, racist or xenophobe ideology", some Romanian localities predominantly inhabited by Hungarian ethnics still retain commemorative statues of Albert Wass. They argue the Supreme Prosecutor's Office of Romania on 21 June 2004 in written declared – in another trial -:
"Regarding the analysis of the relevant international laws applied for war crimes and offence against peace and mankind that also Romania ratified (Geneva Conventions 12. 08. 1949 – "...") the conclusion is the activities of Albert Wass convict are not belonging to those crimes that are summarized in these international conventions. Conclusion: "..." Albert Wass was not condemned for offence against peace and mankind"
In another trial, a person was charged because he put a statue in his own yard in Sovata. Finally he was released from the charge and the authorities were obligated to restore the statue to its original place.
Albert Wass also has commemorative statues in several localities in Hungary, where he is considered by some on the Right to be a hero and a victim of the regime.
The representatives of the ruling Fidesz party and the radical nationalist Jobbik party together voted in early 2011 that several public squares be named after him in Budapest.
The works of Albert Wass is part of the Hungarian national curriculum (NAT) since 2012. And since 2020 the writer appears even more prominently in the compulsory curriculum, it includes the "Adjátok vissza a hegyeimet" novel.
Statues
Albert Wass has more than 60 public statues.
Novels, publications
In his 1939 work Farkasverem (Wolfpit), he described how the Trianon generation found their feet again: the unity of the presentation of social reality, the quest for meting out justice in history, together with ancient language, music, rhythm conquered the hearts of many readers in Hungary. In 1939, he was elected member of the Transylvanian Literary Society and the Kisfaludy Society. In 1940, he was awarded the Baumgarten Prize the second time.
In 1942, he received the Klebelsberg Award and in the same year on a memorable tour in Hungary he represented Transylvanian literature together with three of his peers. He was even elected member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences as appreciation for his knowledge in forestry.
His writings were patriotic but did not exacerbate the tensions between the Romanian and Hungarian population during the recover of Northern Transylvania as a consequence of the Second Vienna Award.
His fable A patkányok honfoglalása – Tanulságos mese fiatal magyaroknak ("The Conquest by the Rats – A Fable for Young Hungarians"), which tells how rats take over a house, because they are tolerated by the magnanimous landowner, is considered paradigmatic for antisemitic story-telling.<ref>Symbolische Figuren ("Symbolic Figures"), essay by Krisztián Ungváry, author of A Horthy-rendszer mérlege, Budapest 2013, in "Budapester Zeitung" from January 30th 2012: […] after the Ghettoization of the Jews in Transylvania [Albert Wass] published an essay with the telling title The Conquest by the Rats. The story is only an allegory, but any other interpretation than identifying Jews with rats seems hardly credible. http://www.budapester.hu/bz/2012/01/30/essay-3/ </ref>
1934 Farkasverem (Wolfpit)1940 Csaba1940 Mire a fák megnőnek (By the Time the Trees Grow)1940 Jönnek! (They Are Coming!)1943 A kastély árnyékában (In the Castle's Shade)1943 Egyedül a világ ellen (All Alone Against the World)1943 Vérben és viharban (In Blood and Storm)
1944 Tavaszi szél és más színművek (Spring Breeze and Other Plays)1945 Valaki tévedett (Somebody Made a Mistake) (short stories from 1945 to 1949)1945 A költő és a macska (The Poet and the Cat) (short stories)1947 A rézkígyó (The Copper Snake)1949 Adjátok vissza a hegyeimet! (English edition: Give Back My Mountains to Me!, 1970, Eric Massey)1951 Ember az országút szélén (English edition: Man by the Side of the Road, 1984)1952 Elvész a nyom (The Trail Perishes)1953 Tizenhárom almafa (Thirteen Apple Trees)1958 Az Antikrisztus és a pásztorok (The Antichrist and the Shepherds)1959 A funtineli boszorkány (The Witch of Funtinel)1964 Átoksori kísértetek (English edition: The Purple Ghosts of Damnation Row, 1964)1965 Elvásik a veres csillag (English edition: The Red Star Wanes, 1965)1967 Magukrahagyottak (English edition: Forsaken are the Brave,1967)1974 Kard és kasza (Sword and Scythe)1978 Halálos köd Holtember partján (English edition: Deadly Fog at Dead Man's Landing)1982 Eliza and the House that Jack Built: Historical Novel (in English)
1985 Hagyaték (Inheritance)1989 Te és a világ (You and the World) (short stories)Igazságot Erdélynek! (Justice for Transylvania)Józan magyar szemmel I-II. (Through the Eye of a Sober Hungarian)Karácsonyi üzenetek – A temető megindul (Messages from Christmas – the Cemetery Starts to Move)Magyar pólus (Hungarian Pole)Népirtás Erdélyben (Genocide in Transylvania)Hűség bilincsében (In the Chains of Fidelity)Hanky tanár úr (Professor Hanky)Se szentek, se hősök (Neither Saints nor Heroes)A szikla alatti férfi (The Man Below the Cliff)A sólyom hangja (The Voice of the Falcon)Csillag az éjszakában (Star in the Night)Black HammockMagyar Számadás (Hungarian Accounts)Nem nyugaton kel fel a nap (The Sun Does Not Rise in the West)Voltam (I was/I have/had been)Poems, fables, narrations
1927 Virágtemetés (Flower Burial) (poem)
1943 Tavak könyve (Book of the Lakes) (fable)
1947 Erdők könyve (Book of the Woods) (fable)
1947 A láthatatlan lobogó (The Invisible Flag) (poem)
1970 Valaki tévedett (Somebody Made a Mistake) (narrations)
1972 Válogatott magyar mondák és népmesék (Assorted Hungarian Legends and Folktales)1978 A költő és a macska (The Poet and the Cat) (narration)
Awards
Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award
Hungarian Heritage Award
Klebelsberg Award
References
External links
A biographical sketch of his father by Huba Wass
E. Balogh on Wass: a short critical assessment
Romania During World War II – The Antonescu regime's complicity in the Holocaust
"Febra răsăriteană a reabilitărilor – Cazul Albert Wass" , William Totok, Observator Cultural "Criminalul Wass Albert loveşte din nou", Mihai Petean, Gazeta de Cluj "Criminalul Wass omagiat la Odorhei de 15 martie", George Damian, Ziua'', March 18, 2006
The archive of the Wass de Czege family (Hungarian)
Official homepage of Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award which is founded by Pal Molnar
1908 births
1998 deaths
1998 suicides
People from Cluj County
People from the Kingdom of Hungary
Hungarian nobility
Hungarian military personnel of World War II
20th-century Hungarian poets
20th-century Hungarian novelists
Hungarian male poets
University of Florida faculty
People convicted by the Romanian People's Tribunals
People sentenced to death in absentia
Hungarian forestry engineers
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Baumgarten Prize winners
Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award winners
Recipients of the Klebelsberg Award
20th-century Hungarian male writers
Hungarian male novelists
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5381346
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishkill%20Creek
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Fishkill Creek
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Fishkill Creek (also Fish Kill, from the Dutch vis kille, for "fish creek") is a tributary of the Hudson River in Dutchess County, New York, United States. At it is the second longest stream in the county, after Wappinger Creek. It rises in the town of Union Vale and flows generally southwest to a small estuary on the Hudson just south of Beacon. Part of its watershed is in Putnam County to the south. Sprout Creek, the county's third-longest creek, is its most significant tributary. Whaley and Sylvan lakes and Beacon Reservoir, its largest, deepest and highest lakes, are among the bodies of water within the watershed.
While the creek is not impounded for use in any local water supply, it remains a focus of regional conservation efforts as a recreational and aesthetic resource, especially since the lower Fishkill watershed has been extensively developed in the last two decades. It flows through several local parks and is a popular trout stream. Industries and mills along it helped spur the settlement of the region.
Course
Clove and Sweezy brooks, themselves fed by tributaries named and unnamed draining the steep slopes on either side of the narrow upper Clove Valley in the town of Union Vale, drain the swamps of the valley into Pray Pond just north of the hamlet of Clove. Fishkill Creek is the pond's outflow.
It follows Clove Valley Road (County Route 9) closely at first, flowing almost due south alongside it, then swings westward into woods after receiving Christie Pond's outlet brook opposite Clove Cemetery. At a short loop in a swampy area where Bruzgul Road (County Route 21) crosses twice, it receives another tributary, doubles back to the north around a hill to receive another one and then returns to its southward course to widen into McKinney Pond. Once it crosses Bruzgul Road again, it is in Tymor Park, Union Vale's major community center.
At the park's south end it flows into Furnace Pond, named for an iron mine that was once nearby, and then into the town of Beekman. It returns to the side of County Route 9, now Clove Valley Road, and crosses under the NY 55 state highway just west of its intersection with Route 9. As that road climbs the side of a hill, Fishkill Creek crosses to its east side.
It continues past Beekman's main park to the hamlet of Beekman, then is impounded into a new, unnamed lake near Green Haven Correctional Facility. Shortly afterwards it crosses into the town of East Fishkill. At the town line, south of the hamlet of Stormville, it receives the Whaley Lake outlet brook. It flows westerly through more woods and swamps to where it receives the Sylvan Lake outlet brook just east of the Taconic State Parkway. After crossing underneath, it parallels the parkway south on its west side, then turns west again and makes a northward bend around another hill to once again parallel County Route 9, now Beekman Road, for a short distance, then follows the hill's base to the south. From here it meanders under the Metro-North Beacon Line south of Hopewell Junction where it receives Whortlekill Creek. It passes the Hopewell Recreation Center and then flows under NY 376.
It parallels another state road, NY 82, through a wooded, undeveloped area for several miles to where it receives its longest tributary, Sprout Creek, at the Fishkill town line. It widens into a series of large pools south of Brinckerhoff, at the foot of Honness Mountain where NY 52 crosses.
From here it flows more to the west-southwest, a wide stream paralleling Route 52 and the Beacon Line. It crosses under US 9 in a developed area just south of the village of Fishkill. It then turns to the southwest again and receives Clove Creek, a tributary that rises in Fahnestock State Park to the south and drains the Putnam County portion of the Fishkill watershed, just before it flows under Interstate 84.
Beyond the interstate it continues southwest alongside the base of the northern slopes of Fishkill Ridge, the northernmost end of the Hudson Highlands. It detours slightly to the north near Glenham and then resumes its southwesterly course as it flows into the city of Beacon, where it passes through the eastern section of the city in a narrow valley with the Beacon Line running along its shore. There are many rapids and waterfalls as it descends more sharply to the Hudson. Here it receives its last tributary, Dry Brook, which drains Beacon Reservoir on the ridgetop.
South of the Wolcott Avenue (NY 9D) bridge, the shores become wooded again as it flows over Tioronda Dam and under the remains of Tioronda Bridge. Below here the creek's estuary opens up, and after being split by a small island it flows under a causeway carrying Metro-North's Hudson Line and empties into the Hudson south of Denning Point.
Watershed
Fishkill Creek's watershed is the second largest in Dutchess County after Wappinger Creek to the north. It includes almost the entire towns of Beekman and Union Vale, large portions of East Fishkill and Fishkill, sections of LaGrange and Wappinger and small areas in Pleasant Valley and Washington. The Whaley Lake basin, which also includes Little Whaley and Nuclear lakes, is in Pawling. In Putnam County the largest town represented is Philipstown, whose northwestern section (the Clove Creek watershed) drains into the Fishkill. A small portion is in Kent, with an even smaller portion in Putnam Valley marking the watershed's southernmost point.
To the north is the Wappinger Creek watershed. The Ten Mile River basin, the only portion of New York that drains into the Housatonic River, is to the east. On the southeast are the headwaters of the Croton River, an important part of New York City's water supply, with smaller tributaries of the Hudson like Melzingah Brook and Surprise Brook rising on the southeast.
The creek's valley is mostly low-lying level land, with the exception of the area above its headwaters in Union Vale. Most of its descent takes place either in its uppermost 10 miles (16 km), above Poughquag, or its lowermost 5 miles (8 km), below the village of Fishkill, both stretches of which account for each of its total drop. The average elevation within the watershed is above sea level. To the south and east are hiller regions of the Taconic Mountains, part of the Highlands Province physiographic region of the Appalachian Mountains. The highest point in the Fishkill's watershed is South Beacon Mountain, also the highest peak of the Hudson Highlands, a few miles from the creek's estuary, which is almost at sea level. In Union Vale, near the creek's source, Clove Mountain rises to .
There are of tributaries within the watershed. The longest is Sprout Creek, which flows south from Millbrook to Hopewell Junction. Within the watershed, there are also around of ponds or lakes. The largest of these is Whaley Lake, at also the largest lake in the county. The next-largest lake in the watershed, Sylvan Lake, is the county's deepest.
Water bodies and wetlands cover about 9.8% of the total watershed area. Forests cover 50%, the largest land use category in it. Most are concentrated in the northern, eastern and southern extremes. Residential and agricultural uses account for 21% and 10% respectively. Residential use is heaviest along the lower Sprout Creek and the lower section of Fishkill Creek from Fishkill to Beacon. Agricultural use is most common on the fringes of the more developed areas near the streams.
There are many parks and protected areas within the watershed. The largest is Clarence Fahnestock State Park in Putnam County; however only a portion of that park is within the Fishkill Creek basin. The largest protected area entirely within the watershed is the Sharpe Reservation straddling the county line. The Fishkill Ridge Conservation Area, on that mountain, is the largest within the area open to the public. Publicly protected areas in the watershed include James Baird State Park off the Taconic Parkway and the Taconic-Hereford Multiple Use Area nearby. Union Vale's Tymor Park near the creek's source is the largest local park. The Innisfree Garden landscape in Pleasant Valley, near the north end of the watershed, is irrigated with water pumped from Tyrrell Lake. In addition, of the Appalachian Trail runs along the southern fringe of the watershed, much of it on other protected lands or corridor owned by the National Park Service.
Of the municipalities predominantly within the watershed, East Fishkill is the most populous, with more than 25,000 residents as of the 2000 census. The town and village of Fishkill are the next largest with almost 22,000. Beacon, the third-most populous community in the watershed at almost 14,000, has the highest population density in the watershed with 2,892 people per square mile.
Climate
Based on weather reports from the Institute of Ecosystem Studies (IES) near Millbrook and Dutchess County Airport in Wappinger, both just outside it to the north and west respectively, the watershed has the humid continental climate typical of much of the Northeast. Temperatures tend to vary considerably over the year, with periods of unusual extremes of heat or cold possible.
The average annual temperature recorded over a 30-year period at the airport is . Monthly means range from in January to in July. Average annual precipitation is , with minimum monthly means varying from in February to in May. An average of of snow falls in the watershed each year, with January's snowfall being the highest monthly mean. There are 6,267 annual heating degree days and 645 cooling degree days.
IES has measured precipitation acidity in the area since 1984. Rainfall in the area has an average pH of 4.27, with averages falling to 4.00 in July but rising to 4.54 in November. This means the rain in Dutchess County and the watershed is ten times more acidic than the natural 5.2 reading for precipitation.
River modifications
There are 13 dams along the creek. Five are located in Beacon, most built to serve past industry there (one is still used for hydroelectric power generation. The highest, near the city's downtown section, is tall.
Three are in Beekman and two are in Fishkill, the latter built by Texaco for a research facility it ran in the area from 1931 to 2003. The dams along the upper Fishkill impound the stream into old mill ponds, such as Furnace Pond in Tymor Park, just above the site of an old iron smelter, giving the pond its name. The dams prevent the upstream movement of fish at all stages of the creek.
The oldest extant bridge over the creek is Tioronda Bridge, just above its estuary in Beacon. It was an iron bowstring truss bridge built shortly after the Civil War that carried South Avenue across the Fishkill.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976, but it had deteriorated so much that by the end of the 20th century it had been closed even to pedestrians. In 2006 the city dismantled it, preserving the bowstring trusses for possible reuse on a rebuilt bridge. The abutments remain in the stream, carrying some utility pipes only.
Wildlife
The creek and its watershed support a great diversity of species. As a fishery, it is stocked with brown trout, and has a significant brook trout population as well. The estuary supports a largemouth and smallmouth bass population.
Some plant and animal species found near the creek and in its watershed are on the state list of endangered or threatened species. The former include the bog turtle, wild hydrangea and live-forever. Threatened species in the creek and watershed include the bald eagle, Blanding's turtle, least bittern, pied-billed grebe, stiff-leaf goldenrod, swamp cottonwood and blazing star. Several salamander and turtle species are also species of concern. Eurasian watermilfoil, an invasive species, has been seen in some areas.
Geology
The creek flows through two distinct geological regions within the Highlands: the Mid-Hudson Valley and the Hudson Highlands. Both have different types of bedrock, impacting the nature of the stream and allowing for differences in aquifer development.
The Mid-Hudson Valley region underlying most of Fishkill Creek consists of sedimentary rocks such as shales, sandstones, siltstones and dolomitic limestones that formed during the Cambrian and Ordovician periods of the Paleozoic Era, roughly 450–540 million years ago. These rocks become modified into metamorphic equivalents as a result of the formation of the Appalachian Mountains, which left large thrust faults in the area, the further east one gets from the Hudson. Shales become schists, limestones become marbles, and sandstone become quartzites in the eastern regions of Dutchess County. These rocks create better aquifers than their sedimentary counterparts.
In the Hudson Highlands, the stream's bedrock is primarily metamorphic gneiss, with some granite and amphibolite. These are older rocks, formed in high temperatures and pressures more than a billion years ago in the Pre-Cambrian. These generally make poor aquifers, although individual houses can use one if they overlie a fault where groundwater collects.
History
The Iroquois tribes of the area called the stream Tioronda: "Little stream that flows into big water". Dutch settlers called it Vis Kill (Dutch for "fish creek") for the abundant fish in the stream. When control of the area passed to the English, it was Anglicized to Fishkill Creek (the addition of "Creek" creates a bilingual tautology, as kill is the Dutch word for creek, though this is not common knowledge to English speakers).
In the late 17th century, two New York City merchants, Francis Rombout and Gulian Verplanck, bought , most of it in the creek's watershed, from the local Indians. Verplanck died before the transaction could be finished, and with his share divided among his heirs the land became known as the Rombout Patent. In 1709 his daughter Catheryna and her husband Roger Brett became the first European settlers in the Fishkill valley. She administered the subdivision and sale of the patent lands from her house, which still stands near downtown Beacon, the oldest continuously occupied house in Dutchess County. They also built the first mill on the creek in 1717.
The upper Fishkill was settled around the same time. Henry Beekman, after boundary disputes with the Rombout patentees were resolved in their favor, obtained a crown grant of his own in 1703 for the lands now in the towns of Beekman and Union Vale. In 1710 the first settlers put down roots. One of them, six years later, was Zacharias Flagler, ancestor of Henry Morrison Flagler.
During the Revolutionary War, the Fishkill south of the village of Fishkill was a key location for the Continental Army. Troops were on continuous alert should the British Army try to push up through the Highlands to the south and retake the Hudson Valley, a move that could have cut the colonies in half. At the junction of two major overland routes, it was also the site of a key supply depot, and a large encampment of soldiers was located on on the south of the creek, about where the interchange of Interstate 84 and US 9 is located now. George Washington passed through the area frequently. In 2009 the graves of as many as 700 soldiers were discovered at the site.
As industrialization began in the 19th century, factories joined the mills in tapping the Fishkill for waterpower. They also discharged their wastes into the stream. In 1853 businessmen in Matteawan, now part of Beacon, dammed Whaley Lake to control water levels downstream, expanding the lake to its present size.
In the early 20th century the watershed was among the many considered by a state commission for an expansion of the New York City water supply system, which was being strained by the city's rapid growth. The commission postulated that a reservoir near Stormville could be built for a cost of $17.4 million ($ in contemporary dollars) and provide storage capacity of . The Fishkill had the advantage of being immediately to the north of the Croton River watershed in Putnam and Westchester counties already tapped by the city, so it would not be necessary to build a long aqueduct to bring water to the city from the new reservoir.
"[I]ts waters can be secured more quickly than those of any other supply of equal amount" in the state, the commission wrote in its 1904 report. The city ultimately decided not to use the Fishkill and instead acquired the land to build Ashokan Reservoir on Esopus Creek in Ulster County, across the Hudson.
In the later 20th century, after the industrial use of the lower watershed had declined somewhat, the area saw explosive population growth. Former farmlands were redeveloped as residential subdivisions, and southeastern Dutchess County became an exurban area of New York City. This increased runoff and other discharges into the stream.
Conservation
The main stem of the Fishkill is not used as a water supply, although some of its tributaries are, such as Beacon's Dry Brook, impounded by the city for Beacon Reservoir. Nor is it navigable due to its many dams. It has nevertheless been a focus of local conservation efforts both as a local scenic and recreational resource and as an indicator of the health of the aquifers around it.
In 1975, just as development of the lower watershed was beginning to accelerate, the United States Geological Survey closed the Hopewell Junction stream gauge. The Beacon stream gauge had already been shut down in 1967. There has thus been no consistent data on streamflow, a frequent measure of development's impact on a stream, since then. At the time of their respective closures, the Beacon station showed a slow decline in discharge, while the Hopewell Junction station showed an increase. A 1992 study predicted that if current demographic and hydrologic trends continue both the Fishkill and Sprout could expect to have an annual weeklong dry period by 2035.
Recent biological and chemical testing indicates water quality has been improving in the upper watershed (above the village of Fishkill) but remains low below it, particularly in the creek within the city of Beacon, with an improvement just above the estuary. There are 25 State Pollution Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) permits issued by the state Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) within the watershed, four of which are on the Fishkill itself. A further 64 permits have been issued for groundwater discharge.
The largest facilities to have SPDES permits on the Fishkill itself are the former Texaco facility at Glenham, between Beacon and the village of Fishkill, and Green Haven. Chevron, which took over the former from Texaco, closed it in 2003. The Environmental Protection Agency has been monitoring cleanup efforts of the volatile organic compounds at the site and considers them to be progressing according to schedule.
An ongoing concern is the IBM facility in East Fishkill, which dumps its wastewater into Gildersleeves Brook, a tributary of Wiccopee Creek. In 2002, the company introduced a new method of chip manufacture on 300 mm silicon wafers. Within four years the plant had become the state's top water polluter by pounds of pollutants in the the plant releases into the creek every day, as production expanded due to demand for the chips, which power the PlayStation 3 video game console, primarily copper, lead and nitrates. In 2004 the company settled a suit brought by local residents who argued that a contractor's dumping of perchloroethylene had led to an increase in cancer and other diseases. Researchers have so far been unable to determine if some phenomena reported downstream, such as increased lead levels in crustaceans, are the result of the IBM discharges.
In 2005 the Fishkill Creek Watershed Committee, in partnership with the Dutchess County Environmental Management Council, inventoried the natural resources of the stream and watershed to produce a management plan. It focused on protecting groundwater, which many residents surveyed had expressed the greatest level of concern about. Recommendations made were to expand and maintain riparian buffer along the stream while protecting it against encroaching land use, and to find a way to balance groundwater withdrawals and discharges. It also called for research into alternatives to the use of impervious surfaces, such as asphalt, which increased runoff at the expense of groundwater.
Lists
Bridges
Communities
City of Beacon
Town of Fishkill
Glenham
Village of Fishkill
Brinckerhoff
Town of East Fishkill
Hopewell Junction
Stormville
Town of Beekman
Poughquag
Town of Union Vale
Dams
Tioronda Dam
Wolcott Avenue Dam
New York Rubber Company Dam
Braendly Fishkill Dam
Glenham Dam
Texaco Dam
Sydeman Dam
Greenburg Henderson Dam
McKinney Dam
Furnace Pond Dam
Pray Pond Dam
There are also two unnamed dams in the town of Beekman.
Tributaries
Left
Dry Brook
Clove Creek
Wiccopee Creek
Whaley Stream
Right
Sprout Creek
Whortlekill Creek
See also
List of rivers of New York
References
External links
Fishkill Creek Watershed Committee
Rivers of New York (state)
Tributaries of the Hudson River
Rivers of Dutchess County, New York
Rivers of Putnam County, New York
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5381610
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandung%20Conference
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Bandung Conference
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The first large-scale Asian–African or Afro–Asian Conference ()—also known as the Bandung Conference—was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, which took place on 18–24 April 1955 in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. The twenty-nine countries that participated represented a total population of 1.5 billion people, 54% of the world's population.
The conference was organized by Indonesia, Burma (Myanmar), India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Pakistan and was coordinated by Ruslan Abdulgani, secretary general of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia.
The conference's stated aims were to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by any nation. The conference was a step towards the eventual creation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) yet the two initiatives ran in parallel during the 1960s, even coming in confrontation with one another prior to the 2nd Cairo NAM Conference in 1964.
In 2005, on the 50th anniversary of the original conference, leaders from Asian and African countries met in Jakarta and Bandung to launch the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership (NAASP). They pledged to promote political, economic, and cultural cooperation between the two continents.
Background
Indonesia's President Sukarno and India's prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru were key organizers, in their quest to build a nonaligned movement that would win the support of the newly emerging nations of Asia and Africa. Nehru first got the idea at the Asian Relations Conference, held in India in March 1947, on the eve of India's independence. There was a second 19-nation conference regarding the status of Indonesia, held in New Delhi, India, in January 1949. Although Nehru initially attached relatively little importance to Indonesia's calls to convene the Bandung Conference, he showed increasing interest during and after late 1954 due to his concern about American foreign policy as it applied to Asia, his belief that he could secure a guarantee of peaceful coexistence with China, and his desire to avoid embarrassing Indonesia. Decolonization was underway and every few months a new nation in Africa or Asia emerged with, for the first time, its own diplomatic corps and need to integrate into the international system.
Mao Zedong of China was also a key organizer, backed by his influential right-hand man, Premier and Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai. Mao believed that an anti-colonial nationalist and anti-imperialist agenda was underway in Africa and Asia, and he wanted to make China the leader of these forces. In his efforts to present China as a model, Mao publicly maintained a friendly, conciliatory tone towards newly independent Asian nations, while simultaneously denouncing the Western colonial empires.
At the Colombo Powers conference in April 1954, Indonesia proposed a global conference. A planning group met in Bogor, West Java in late December 1954 and formally decided to hold the conference in April 1955. They had a series of goals in mind: to promote goodwill and cooperation among the new nations; to explore in advance their mutual interests; to examine social economic and cultural problems, to focus on problems of special interest to their peoples, such as racism and colonialism, and to enhance the international visibility of Asia and Africa in world affairs.
The Bandung Conference reflected what the organizers regarded as a reluctance by the Western powers to consult with them on decisions affecting Asia in a setting of Cold War tensions; their concern over tension between the People's Republic of China and the United States; their desire to lay firmer foundations for China's peace relations with themselves and the West; their opposition to colonialism, especially France's neocolonialism in North Africa and its colonial rule in Algeria; and Indonesia's desire to promote its case in the West New Guinea dispute with the Netherlands. One of Sukarno's primary goals with the conference was to build support for Indonesia's claim to West Papua and to prevent the Netherlands from transferring sovereignty of West Papua to indigenous Papuans.
Sukarno portrayed himself as the leader of this group of states, which he later described as "NEFOS" (Newly Emerging Forces).
On 4 December 1954 the United Nations announced that Indonesia had successfully gotten the issue of West New Guinea placed on the agenda of the 1955 General Assembly. Plans for the Bandung conference were announced in December 1954.
Discussion
Major debate centered on the question of whether Soviet policies in Eastern Europe and Central Asia should be censured along with Western colonialism. A memo was submitted by 'The Moslem Nations under Soviet Imperialism', accusing the Soviet authorities of massacres and mass deportations in Muslim regions, but it was never debated. A consensus was reached in which "colonialism in all of its manifestations" was condemned, implicitly censuring the Soviet Union, as well as the West. China played an important role in the conference and strengthened its relations with other Asian nations. Having survived an assassination attempt on the way to the conference, the Chinese premier, Zhou Enlai, displayed a moderate and conciliatory attitude that tended to quiet fears of some anticommunist delegates concerning China's intentions.
Later in the conference, Zhou Enlai signed an agreement on dual nationality with Indonesian foreign minister Sunario. World observers closely watched Zhou. He downplayed revolutionary communism and strongly endorsed the right of all nations to choose their own economic and political systems, including even capitalism. His moderation and reasonableness made a very powerful impression for his own diplomatic reputation and for China. By contrast, Nehru was bitterly disappointed at the generally negative reception he received. Senior diplomats called him arrogant. Zhou said privately, "I have never met a more arrogant man than Mr. Nehru."
Participants
Some nations were given "observer status". Such was the case of Brazil, who sent Ambassador Bezerra de Menezes.
Declaration
A 10-point "declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation", called Dasasila Bandung (Bandung's Ten Principles, or Bandung Spirit, or Bandung Declaration; styled after Indonesia's Pancasila; or Ten Principles of Peaceful Coexistence), incorporating the principles of the United Nations Charter as well as Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence was adopted unanimously as item G in the final communiqué of the conference:
Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and principles of the charter of the United Nations
Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations
Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations large and small
Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another country
Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself, singly or collectively, in conformity with the charter of the United Nations
(a) Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defence to serve any particular interests of the big powers (b) Abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries
Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country
Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of the parties own choice, in conformity with the charter of the United Nations
Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation
Respect for justice and international obligations
The final Communique of the Conference underscored the need for developing countries to loosen their economic dependence on the leading industrialised nations by providing technical assistance to one another through the exchange of experts and technical assistance for developmental projects, as well as the exchange of technological know-how and the establishment of regional training and research institutes.
United States involvement
For the US, the Conference accentuated a central dilemma of its Cold War policy: by currying favor with Third World nations by claiming opposition to colonialism, it risked alienating its colonialist European allies. The US security establishment also feared that the Conference would expand China's regional power. In January 1955 the US formed a "Working Group on the Afro-Asian Conference" which included the Operations Coordinating Board (OCB), the Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), the Department of State, the Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the United States Information Agency (USIA). The OIR and USIA followed a course of "Image Management" for the US, using overt and covert propaganda to portray the US as friendly and to warn participants of the Communist menace.
The United States, at the urging of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, shunned the conference and was not officially represented. However, the administration issued a series of statements during the lead-up to the Conference. These suggested that the US would provide economic aid, and attempted to reframe the issue of colonialism as a threat by China and the Eastern Bloc.
Representative Adam Clayton Powell Jr. (D-N.Y.) attended the conference, sponsored by Ebony and Jet magazines instead of the U.S. government. Powell spoke at some length in favor of American foreign policy there which assisted the United States's standing with the Non-Aligned. When Powell returned to the United States, he urged President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Congress to oppose colonialism and pay attention to the priorities of emerging Third World nations.
African American author Richard Wright attended the conference with funding from the Congress for Cultural Freedom. Wright spent about three weeks in Indonesia, devoting a week to attending the conference and the rest of his time to interacting with Indonesian artists and intellectuals in preparation to write several articles and a book on his trip to Indonesia and attendance at the conference. Wright's essays on the trip appeared in several Congress for Cultural Freedom magazines, and his book on the trip was published as The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference. Several of the artists and intellectuals with whom Wright interacted (including Mochtar Lubis, Asrul Sani, Sitor Situmorang, and Beb Vuyk) continued discussing Wright's visit after he left Indonesia.
Outcome and legacy
The conference was followed by the Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Conference in Cairo in September (1957) and the Belgrade Summit (1961), which led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Asian-African Summit of 2005
To mark the 50th anniversary of The Summit, Heads of State and Government of Asian-African countries attended a new Asian-African Summit from 20 to 24 April 2005 in Bandung and Jakarta hosted by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Attended by Prime Minister of Japan, Junichiro Koizumi, President of China, Hu Jintao, United Nations Secretary General, Kofi Annan, President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, Prime Minister of Malaysia, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah and President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, some sessions of the new conference took place in Gedung Merdeka (Independence Building), the venue of the original conference.
Of the 106 nations invited to the historic summit, 89 were represented by their heads of state or government or ministers. The Summit was attended by 54 Asian and 52 African countries.
The 2005 Asian African Summit yielded, inter-alia, the Declaration of the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership (NAASP), the Joint Ministerial Statement on the NAASP Plan of Action, and the Joint Asian African Leaders’ Statement on Tsunami, Earthquake and other Natural Disasters. The conclusion of aforementioned declaration of NAASP is the Nawasila (nine principles) supporting political, economic, and socio-cultural cooperation.
The Summit concluded a follow-up mechanism for institutionalization process in the form of Summit concurrent with Business Summit every four years, Ministerial Meeting every two years, and Sectoral Ministerial as well as Technical Meeting if deemed necessary.
Other anniversaries
On the 60th anniversary of the Asian-African Conference and the 10th anniversary of the NAASP, a 3rd summit was held in Bandung and Jakarta from 21 to 25 April 2015, with the theme Strengthening South-South Cooperation to Promote World Peace and Prosperity.
Hosted by President Joko Widodo of Indonesia, delegates from 109 Asian and African countries, 16 observer countries and 25 international organizations participated, including Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe, President of China Xi Jinping, Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong, King Abdullah II of Jordan, Prime Minister of Malaysia Najib Tun Razak, President of Myanmar Thein Sein, King Mswati III of Swaziland and Prime Minister of Nepal Sushil Koirala.
See also
Cairo Conference
Asian–African Legal Consultative Organization
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
Sino-Indonesian Dual Nationality Treaty
Third World
References
Further reading
Acharya, Amitav. "Studying the Bandung conference from a Global IR perspective." Australian Journal of International Affairs 70.4 (2016): 342–357. Online
Acharya, Amitav. "Who are the norm makers? The Asian-African conference in Bandung and the evolution of norms." Global Governance 20.3 (2014): 405–417. Online
Asia-Africa Speaks From Bandung. Jakarta: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Indonesia, 1955.
Ampiah, Kweku. The Political and Moral Imperatives of the Bandung Conference of 1955 : the Reactions of the US, UK and Japan. Folkestone, UK : Global Oriental, 2007.
Brown, Colin. 2012. "The Bandung Conference and Indonesian Foreign Policy", Ch 9 in Anne Booth, Chris Manning and Thee Kian Wie, 2012, Essays in Honour of Joan Hardjono, Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia.
Burke, Roland. "The compelling dialogue of freedom: Human rights at the Bandung Conference." Human Rights Quarterly 28 (2006): 947+.
Dinkel, Jürgen, The Non-Aligned Movement. Genesis, Organization and Politics (1927–1992), New Perspectives on the Cold War 5, Brill: Leiden/Boston 2019.
Finnane, Antonia, and Derek McDougall, eds, Bandung 1955: Little Histories. Melbourne: Monash Asia Institute, 2010.
Kahin, George McTurnan. The Asian-African Conference: Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956.
Lee, Christopher J., ed, Making a World After Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010.
Mackie, Jamie. Bandung 1955: Non-Alignment and Afro-Asian Solidarity. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2005.
Parker, Jason C. "Small Victory, Missed Chance: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the Turning of the Cold War." In The Eisenhower Administration, the Third World, and the Globalization of the Cold War. Ed. Kathryn C. Statler & Andrew L. Johns. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
Parker, Jason. "Cold War II: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the reperiodization of the postwar era." Diplomatic History 30.5 (2006): 867–892.
Shimazu, Naoko. "Diplomacy as theatre: staging the Bandung Conference of 1955." Modern Asian Studies 48.1 (2014): 225–252. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X13000371
Wood, Sally Percival. "‘Chou gags critics in BANDOENG or How the Media Framed Premier Zhou Enlai at the Bandung Conference, 1955" Modern Asian Studies 44.5 (2010): 1001–1027.
External links
Modern History Sourcebook: Prime Minister Nehru: Speech to Asian-African Conference Political Committee, 1955
Modern History Sourcebook: President Sukarno of Indonesia: Speech at the Opening of the Asian-African Conference, 18 April 1955
1955 conferences
1955 in Indonesia
1955 in international relations
20th-century diplomatic conferences
April 1955 events in Asia
Bandung
Diplomatic conferences in Indonesia
Liberal democracy period in Indonesia
Non-Aligned Movement
Sukarno
Zhou Enlai
1950s political conferences
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalese%20Tirailleurs
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Senegalese Tirailleurs
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The Senegalese Tirailleurs () were a corps of colonial infantry in the French Army. They were initially recruited from Senegal,
French West Africa and subsequently throughout Western, Central and Eastern Africa: the main sub-Saharan regions of the French colonial empire. The noun tirailleur, which translates variously as 'skirmisher', 'rifleman', or 'sharpshooter', was a designation given by the French Army to indigenous infantry recruited in the various colonies and overseas possessions of the French Empire during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Despite recruitment not being limited to Senegal, these infantry units took on the adjective since that was where the first black African Tirailleur regiment had been formed. The first Senegalese Tirailleurs were formed in 1857 and served France in a number of wars, including World War I (providing around 200,000 troops, more than 135,000 of whom fought in Europe and 30,000 of whom were killed) and World War II (recruiting 179,000 troops, 40,000 deployed to Western Europe). Other tirailleur regiments were raised in French North Africa from the Arab and Berber populations of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco; collectively they were called or . Tirailleur regiments were also raised in Indochina; they were called Vietnamese, Tonkinese or Annamites Tirailleurs.
History
Origins
The Senegalese Tirailleurs were formed in 1857 by Louis Faidherbe, governor general of French West Africa, because he lacked sufficient French troops to control the territory and meet other requirements of the first phase of colonisation. The formal decree for the formation of this force was signed on 21 July 1857 in Plombières-les-Bains by Napoleon III. Recruitment was later extended to other French colonies in Africa. During its early years the corps included some former slaves bought from West African slave-owners as well as prisoners of war. Subsequent recruitment was either by voluntary enlistment or on occasion by an arbitrary form of conscription.
1870–1914
In the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War, the Senegalese tirailleurs continued to provide the bulk of French garrisons in West and Central Africa. Their overall numbers remained limited. However, in anticipation of the First World War, Colonel Charles Mangin described in his 1910 book La force noire his conception of a greatly expanded French colonial army, whilst Jean Jaurès, in his , suggested that the French Army should look elsewhere to recruit its armies due to the falling birthrate in mainland France.
A company-sized detachment of took part in the conquest of Madagascar (1895), although the bulk of the non-European troops employed in this campaign were Algerian and Hausa tirailleurs. Regiments of s were subsequently recruited in Madagascar, using the Senegalese units as a model.
In 1896, a small expedition consisting mainly of 200 was assembled in Loango (French Congo) under Captain Jean-Baptiste Marchand. This "Marchand Mission" took two years to cross hundreds of miles of unexplored bush until they reached Fashoda on the Nile. Here they encountered British and Egyptian troops under Major-General Kitchener, who had just defeated the Mahadi's Dervish army near Khartoum. While the Fashoda Incident raised the possibility of war between France and Britain, tribute was paid to the courage and endurance of Marchand and his Senegalese tirailleurs by both sides.
By a decree dated July 7, 1900 the , the Tirailleurs indochinois, Tirailleurs malgaches and the "marsouins" were no longer under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Navy and Colonies, but were reclassified as Troupes coloniales, different from the mainland elements Metropolitan army and separate from the Armée d’Afrique of the Maghreb. The anchor badge of the was worn on the collar from 1914, and when the Adrian helmet was adopted in WW1, an insignia with the anchor behind a flaming grenade was worn by the .
During the early 1900s, the saw active service in the French Congo and Chad while continuing to provide garrisons for the French possessions in West and Central Africa. In 1908, two battalions of landed at Casablanca to begin nearly twenty years of active service in Morocco by Senegalese units. On 14 July 1913, the paraded their standard at Longchamp, the first occasion upon which Senegalese troops had been seen in metropolitan France. New flags were presented to the 2e, 3e and 4e RTS at the same parade.
World War I
There were 21 battalions of (BTS) in the French Army in August 1914, all serving in either West Africa or on active service in Morocco.
With the outbreak of war 37 battalions of French, North African and Senegalese infantry were transferred from Morocco to France. Five Senegalese battalions were soon serving on the Western Front, while others formed part of the reduced French garrison in Morocco. The 5th BTS formed part of a French column which was wiped out near Khenifra, during the Battle of El Herri on 13 November 1914, with 646 dead. The 10th, 13th, 16th and 21st BTS subsequently saw heavy fighting in Morocco, reinforced by 9,000 additional Senegalese tirailleurs brought up from French West Africa.
On the Western Front the served with distinction at Ypres and Dixmude during the Battle of Flanders in late 1914, at the Battle of Verdun in the recapture of Fort de Douaumont in October 1916, during the battle of Chemin des Dames in April 1917 and at the Battle of Reims in 1918. Losses were particularly heavy in Flanders (estimated from 3,200 to 4,800) and Chemin des Mains (7,000 out of 15,500 tirailleurs engaged).
In 1915 seven battalions of were amongst the 24 infantry battalions the French sent to the Dardanelles as the Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient. Total French casualties in this campaign reached 27,000 but the Senegalese and regular Colonial Infantry were noted for the high morale that they maintained in spite of losses that reached two out of three in some units. The Senegalese tirailleurs particularly distinguished themselves in the attack during the initial French landings on the southern shore of the Dardanelles. After the withdrawal from the Dardanelles and the redeployment to the Macedonian front, further Senegalese battalions were deployed in this theatre of war.
New recruitment drive
French military policy towards the use of African troops in Europe changed in 1915. The French high command realized that the war would last far longer than they had originally imagined. They therefore authorized a major recruitment drive in West Africa. As a result, a further 93 Senegalese battalions were raised between 1915 and 1918, of which 42 saw service in France itself. The usual practice was to bring together battalions of white Colonial Infantry () and African Tirailleurs into .
(Four such regiments were formed from the seven tirailleurs and five battalions of deployed at Gallipoli.)The harsh conditions of trench warfare were a particular source of suffering to the un-acclimatized African soldiers and, after 1914/15, the practice of hivernage was adopted: withdrawing them to the south of France for training and re-equipping each winter. In spite of their heavy losses in almost every major battle of the Western Front, the discipline and morale of the "Colonial Corps" remained high throughout the war.
Fréjus in southeastern France became the main centre for hivernage (wintering) for the Senegalese Tirailleurs. The town also contained segregated hospitals with images of African village life painted on the walls.
In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The reasons for the discontent came from the forced military recruitment of soldiers. These regions were subject to significant recruitment of colonial troops to serve on the front lines of the First World War. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.
At the 90th anniversary commemorations of the battle of Verdun, then-president Jacques Chirac made a speech evoking the 72,000 colonial combatants killed during the war, mentioning the 'Moroccan infantry, the tirailleurs from Senegal, Indochina (Annam and Cochinchina), and the of the troupes de marine.'
Occupation of the Rhineland
The armistice of November 1918 had provision for the allied Occupation of the Rhineland and France played a major part in this. Between 25,000 and 40,000 colonial soldiers were part of this force. German attempts were made to discredit the use of non-European soldiers by the French during this occupation, as had earlier been the case during World War I. Although no hard evidence was produced, many campaigners claimed that the colonial soldiers – and the Senegalese in particular – were responsible for a substantial number of rapes and sexual assaults. Children resulting from these unions were stigmatised as "Rhineland Bastards" and subsequently suffered under the Nazi race laws.
Between the World Wars
During the War the much reduced French garrison in Morocco had consisted largely of battalions of , who were not affected by the divided loyalties of locally recruited troops and who could be more readily spared from service on the Western Front than French troops. On 13 April 1925 the Rif War spilled over into French Morocco when eight thousand Berber fighters attacked a line of French outposts recently established in disputed territory north of the Ouerghala River. The majority of these posts were held by Senegalese and North African tirailleurs. By 27 April 1925 39 out of 66 posts had fallen and their garrisons massacred, or had been abandoned. Faced with what had become a major war the French increased their forces in Morocco to approximately 100,000 men. West African tirailleurs continued to play a major part in subsequent operations in both the Spanish Protectorate (until 1926) and Southern Morocco (until 1934). In one of many engagements, the 2nd Battalion of the 1st Regiment of won 91 citations for bravery during fighting around Ain-Gatar on 22 June 1926.
Second World War
On the eve of the Second World War, five regiments of were stationed in France in addition to a brigade based in Algeria. The was permanently deployed in the south of France due to the potential threat from Italy. It was also reasoned the climate was more suitable for African soldiers. This deployment of Tirailleurs, outside of their regions of recruitment and traditional peacetime service, arose because of the heavy casualties of the First World War. This had affected the number of metropolitan Frenchmen in the military service age group of twenty to twenty-five by more than half. Up to 200,000 tirailleurs were active during the war, which constituted about nine percent of the French forces.
During the Battle of France, the Senegalese and other African tirailleur units served with distinction at Gien, Bourges, and Buzancais. German troops, indoctrinated with Nazi racial doctrines, expressed outrage at having fought against "inferior" opponents. Along with other war crimes of the Wehrmacht, German forces massacred captured tirailleurs on multiple occasions during the 1940 campaign. The first incident occurred on 24 May 1940, when fifty wounded soldiers of the 24e Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais were executed by Wehrmacht troops after having held up the German advance for two days at Aubigny. More massacres followed the German crossing of the Somme from 5 June onward. On June 5, at Hangest-sur-Somme, a number of tirailleurs were executed after surrendering. One French officer recounted: “The enemy then appears, furious, beside himself, ready to finish us off all together. An extremely engaged intervention by a German officer prevents the troops from executing the European officers, but there was no indigenous man alive anymore after a few moments.”
Between 7 and 10 June the 16e and 24e Régiments de Tirailleurs Sénégalais, part of the 4e Division d'Infanterie Coloniale, fought a series of battles along the Somme at Angivilliers, Lieuvilliers, and Erquinvillers. A large portion of the division became encircled during the course of the action. On the night of 9 June near Erquinvillers the Germans repeated the practice of separating white and black prisoners: “The Europeans . . . had to sit in front of a ravine under the barrels of machine guns while about fifty surviving Tirailleurs were led to a nearby place and shot with a machine gun. We, the officers, were able to confirm this later when we were led onto trucks that drove us toward captivity.” On 9 June, the 24e Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais launched a successful counterattack at Erquinvilliers, breaking the German encirclement and allowing part of the 4e Division to escape. On taking each of the towns, German troops executed captured black soldiers, killing between 150 and 500. On 11 June, roughly 74 Senegalese tirailleurs and white officers of the 4e Division d'Infanterie Coloniale were executed near Cressonsacq in the Bois d’Eraine massacre.
One of the best-recorded incidents, photographed by the German perpetrators, was the Chasselay massacre which took place on 19 June 1940 near Lyon. Soldiers of the 25e Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais surrendered to the German troops in this area after exhausting their ammunition. Following the surrender, some fifty tirailleurs were separated from their white officers and ordered to stand in an open field, where they were machinegunned by German tanks. The tanks then drove back and forth over the bodies of the dead tirailleurs to ensure there would be no survivors. On the same day, a further 14 tirailleurs were executed at Sillé-le-Guillaume.
German troops were also responsible for non-lethal abuses of Senegalese tirailleurs. In many cases, German soldiers tortured captured black soldiers, and often refused to bury the bodies of colonial troops. It was common for captured tirailleurs to be denied food, water and medicine by their German captors.
The Senegalese Tirailleurs saw extensive service in West Africa, Italy, and Corsica. During 1944, they assisted in the liberation of southern France. The 9th DIC (Colonial Infantry Division) included the 4th, 6th, and 13th Regiments of Senegalese Tirailleurs, and fought from Toulon to the Swiss border between August and November 1944.
After the Liberation of France, the Tirailleurs concluded their service in Europe. They were replaced by newly recruited French volunteers, on the order of Charles de Gaulle. This process became known as . Faced with U.S. restrictions on the size of the French forces, de Gaulle chose to incorporate the various partisan groups within the structure of the official army. The complicated process of discharge and repatriation of the Tirailleurs, coupled with the refusal of France to pay wage arrears due to released prisoners of war, led to several incidents of violence. The most notable of these was the Thiaroye massacre, in 1944, during which the French killed between 35 and 300 (sources vary) Tirailleurs. Though the Tirailleurs Sénégalais had been promised that in recognition of their service they would become equal citizens of France, this pledge was not kept following the end of hostilities.
After 1945
The , comprising two battalions, served in the Indochina War between 1946 and 1954. Several independent battalions of fought in the same theatre of war. The comprised up to 16 percent of the French forces during the Indochina War. The Tirailleurs also served in the suppression of the 1947 uprising in Madagascar against French colonial rule . In 1949 there were still nine regiments of in the French Army, serving in West Africa, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Indochina.
During the Algerian War the saw extensive active service from 1954 to 1962, mainly as part of the – a grid of occupation detachments intended to protect farms and roads in rural areas. About 12 separate Senegalese units (either three-battalion regiments or single battalions) served in French North Africa between 1954 and 1967, when the last French troops were withdrawn. During 1958–59 the Tirailleur units were in part dissolved, as African personnel transferred to newly formed national armies when the French colonies of West and Central Africa became independent. Substantial numbers of former tirailleurs continued to serve in the French Army but as individual volunteers in integrated Colonial (later Marine) Infantry or Artillery units. The lost their distinctive historic identity during this process. As an example, the 1er RTS, raised in 1857, became the 61st Marine Infantry Regiment in December 1958.
The last Senegalese unit in the French Army was disbanded in 1964.
The last Senegalese Tirailleur to have served in World War I, Abdoulaye Ndiaye, died at the age of 104 in November 1998. He had been wounded in the Dardanelles.
Uniforms
From 1857 to 1889 the wore a dark blue zouave style uniform with yellow braiding (see first photo above). This was replaced by a loose fitting dark blue tunic and trousers worn with a red sash and chechia fez. White trousers were worn in hot weather and a light khaki drill field dress was adopted in 1898. Senegalese units sent to France in 1914 wore a new dark blue uniform, introduced in June that year, beneath the standard medium-blue greatcoats of the French infantry. This changed to sky-blue in 1915 and dark khaki started to be issued the following year. Throughout these changes the distinctive yellow cuff and collar braiding was retained, together with the fez (worn with a drab cover to reduce visibility).
Until World War II the continued to wear the khaki uniforms described above, in either heavy cloth or light drill according to conditions. In subsequent campaigns they wore the same field uniforms as other French units, usually with the dark blue forage cap of the . The red fez survived as a parade item until the 1950s.
Filmography
Emitaï (1971) depicts the effects of conscription on a Diola village.
Black and White in Color (1976), by French director Jean-Jacques Annaud, 1 hour 30 minutes
Camp de Thiaroye, by Senegalese director Ousmane Sembene, 1987, 153 mins.
Le Tata, paysages de pierres, by French director Patrice Robin and Author Eveline Berruezo, 1992, 60 mins.
Rafael Gutierrez and Dario Arce : Le Tata sénégalais de Chasselay : mémoires du 25° RTS" Documentary film, 52', 2007. Productions Chromatiques- TLM, France.
Tirailleurs (2022), by Mathieu Vadepied.
Literature
At Night All Blood Is Black () is a novel by French author David Diop. First published in French on August 16, 2018, by Éditions du Seuil, it won the Prix Goncourt des Lycéens that same year. The book centers around Alfa Ndiaye, a Senegalese Tirailleur who loses his close friend Mademba Diop while fighting in World War I.
The English translation by Anna Moschovakis won the 2021 International Booker Prize. It was published in the UK by Pushkin Press and in the US by Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
The Franco-American journalist and historian Ted Morgan volunteered to serve during the Algerian War as a junior officer with the Senegalese, whom he described as highly disciplined soldiers with cheerful dispositions, serving in a corps that was full of surprises.
See also
Tirailleurs: history of the original French skirmishers of this designation plus the colonial (e.g.: Algerian, Senegalese etc.) tirailleur units
French colonial troops
Spahi: French colonial cavalry regiments including Senegalese units.
Pierre Messmer
French colonial flags
French Colonial Empire
List of French possessions and colonies
References
Bibliography
Myron Echenberg, "Tragedy at Thiaroye: The Senegalese Soldiers' Uprising of 1944 ", in Peter Gutkind, Robin Cohen and Jean Copans (eds), African Labor History, Beverly Hills, 1978, p. 109-128
Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Senegalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960. Heinemann (1990),
Christian Koller:»Von Wilden aller Rassen niedergemetzelt«. Die Diskussion um die Verwendung von Kolonialtruppen in Europa zwischen Rassismus, Kolonial- und Militärpolitik (1914–1930) (= Beiträge zur Kolonial- und Überseegeschichte, Bd. 82). Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, .
Nancy Ellen Lawler. Soldiers of Misfortune: Ivoirien Tirailleurs of World War II. Ohio Univ Press (1992)
Filmography
Eveline Berruezo and Patrice Robin : Le Tata – paysages de pierres. Documentary film, 60', 1992. Espace Mémoire, France.
Rafael Gutierrez and Dario Arce : Le Tata sénégalais de Chasselay : mémoires du 25° RTS" Documentary film, 52', 2007. Productions Chromatiques- TLM, France.
External links
Senegalese Tirailleurs in WWI
Domesticated or Savage?Thoughts on the representation of the body of the senegalese tirailleurs (1880–1918) by Nicolas Bancel and Pascal Blanchard
Site on the Battle of Flandres, attention to Tirailleurs Sénégalais
Christian Koller: Colonial Military Participation in Europe (Africa), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
French West Africa
Military history of Senegal
Military history of France
Military units and formations established in 1857
1857 establishments in the French colonial empire
Colonial troops
1850s establishments in Senegal
People of colonial Senegal
People of French West Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peveril%20of%20the%20Peak
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Peveril of the Peak
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Peveril of the Peak (1823) is the longest novel by Sir Walter Scott. Along with Ivanhoe, Kenilworth, and Woodstock this is one of the English novels in the Waverley novels series, with the main action taking place around 1678 in the Peak District, the Isle of Man, and London, and centring on the Popish Plot.
Plot introduction
Julian Peveril, a Cavalier, is in love with Alice Bridgenorth, a Roundhead's daughter, but both he and his father are accused of involvement with the "Popish Plot" of 1678.
Most of the story takes place in Derbyshire, London, and on the Isle of Man. The title refers to Peveril Castle in Castleton, Derbyshire.
Composition and sources
On 25 February 1822 Scott informed his Edinburgh publisher Archibald Constable that he was thinking of writing a novel about the Popish Plot. He seems to have begun composition of Peveril of the Peak immediately after completing The Fortunes of Nigel at the beginning of May and the first volume was complete by mid-July. Thereafter progress slowed, and the second volume was not finished until October: much of Scott's summer was taken up with arranging and superintending George IV's visit to Scotland, and he was deeply distressed at the death of his close friend William Erskine on 14 August. It had been intended that Peveril should be in the normal three volumes, but by mid-October Scott was proposing to extend it to a fourth volume, in the belief that the third volume was turning out better than the first two and that he would hope to sustain this improvement into a fourth. Composition was now up to speed again; indeed, it became frenetic. By 14 December the third volume was complete and the fourth well under way, and the novel was finished before Christmas.
Scott's knowledge of the Restoration period was very likely unequalled. He had amassed a unique collection of tracts and pamphlets relating to the Plot. He had edited both the Memoirs of Count Grammont (Anthony Hamilton) in 1811 and the collection known as Somers' Tracts, which had appeared in 13 volumes between 1809 and 1815. Several historical studies of the period published after 1700 were also in his library and proved invaluable quarries: Bishop Burnet's History of his Own Time by Gilbert Burnet (1724‒34); Examen by Roger North (1740); The History of England by David Hume (originally published in 1754‒62; and Memoirs, Illustrative of the Life and Writings of John Evelyn, edited by William Bray (1818). For the Isle of Man, which he never visited, Scott had memories of lost notes prepared by his brother Tom, as well as two works in his collection: A Description of the Isle of Man by George Waldron (1731) and An Account of the Isle of Man by William Sacherevell (1702). For Restoration London an invaluable source was A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster by John Stow, of which Scott owned the revised edition by John Strype published in 1720.
Editions
The first edition was published in Edinburgh on 7 January 1823, and appeared in London on the 22nd, after frustrating delays caused by stormy weather. As with all the Waverley novels before 1827 publication was anonymous. The print run was 10,000, and the price two guineas (£2 2s or £2.10). There is no reason to think that Scott was involved with the novel again until the late summer of 1830, when he revised the text and provided new notes and an introduction for the 'Magnum' edition, in which it appeared as Volumes 28, 29 and 30 in September, October, and November 1831.
The standard modern edition, by Alison Lumsden, was published in 2007 as Volume 14 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels: it is based on the first edition with emendations mainly from Scott's manuscript; the Magnum material is included in Volume 25b.
Plot summary
Sir Geoffrey Peveril and Major Bridgenorth had been boys together; and although they adopted different views in religion and politics, the major's influence had saved the Royalist's life after the battle of Bolton-le-Moors, and Lady Peveril had brought up his motherless girl, Alice, with her own son. After the Restoration, the Countess of Derby, who, through treachery, had suffered a long imprisonment by the Roundheads, sought protection at Martindale Castle, where Bridgenorth would have arrested her for having caused his brother-in-law, William Christian, to be shot as a traitor, had not the knight interfered by tearing up the warrant, and escorting her through Cheshire on her return to the Isle of Man. Alice was of course withdrawn from his wife's care, and it was supposed the major had emigrated to New England. Several years afterwards Sir Geoffrey's son Julian became the companion of the young earl, and, with the nurse Deborah's connivance, renewed his intimacy with his foster sister, who was under the care of her widowed aunt, Dame Christian. At one of the secret interviews between them, they were surprised by the entrance of her father, who related some of his religious experiences, and vaguely hinted that his consent to their marriage was not impossible. The next night, having undertaken to proceed to London, to clear the countess and her son from the suspicion of being concerned in Titus Oates's pretended Popish plot, Julian was conducted to a sloop by Fenella, his patron's deaf and dumb dwarf, and, as she was being taken ashore against her will while he was asleep, he dreamt that he heard Alice's voice calling for his help.
At Liverpool he met Topham with a warrant against Sir Geoffrey, and on his way to the Peak to warn him, he travelled with Edward Christian, passing as Ganlesse, a priest, who led him to an inn, where they supped with Chiffinch, a servant of Charles II. On reaching Martindale Castle, he found his father and mother in the custody of Roundheads, and he was taken by Bridgenorth as a prisoner to Moultrassie Hall, where Alice received them, and he recognised Ganlesse among a number of Puritan visitors. During the night the Hall was attacked by the dependents and miners of the Peveril estate, and, having regained his liberty, Julian started, with Lance as his servant, in search of his parents, who he ascertained were on their way to London in charge of Topham. At an inn where they halted, Julian overheard Chiffinch revealing to a courtier a plot against Alice, and that he had been robbed of the papers entrusted to him by the countess, which, however, he managed to recover the next morning.
Meanwhile, Christian, under whose care Bridgenorth had placed his daughter, communicated to the Duke of Buckingham a design he had formed of introducing her to Charles II, and, at an interview with her father, endeavoured to persuade him to abandon the idea of marrying her to young Peveril. Having reached London, Julian met Fenella, who led him into St. James's Park, where she attracted the notice of the king by dancing, and he sent them both to await his return at Chiffinch's apartments. Alice was already under the care of Mistress Chiffinch, and escaped from an interview with the duke to find herself in the presence of Charles and her lover, with whom, after he had placed the countess's papers in the king's hands, she was allowed to depart. Julian, however, lost her in a street fray, and having been committed to Newgate for wounding his assailant, he was placed in the same cell with the queen's dwarf, and conversed with an invisible speaker. After startling Christian with the news that his niece had disappeared, the duke bribed Colonel Blood to intercept his movements, so that he might not discover where she was, and was then himself astonished at finding Fenella instead of Alice, who had been captured by his servants in his house, and at her equally unexpected defiance of and escape from him.
A few days afterwards, Sir Geoffrey Peveril, his son and the dwarf were tried for aiding and abetting Oates's Plot; but after nearly three years and the execution of at least fifteen innocent men, opinion had begun to turn against Oates. The last high-profile victim of the climate of suspicion was Oliver Plunkett, Archbishop of Armagh, whose unjust slaughter is retold by Scott with no small dose of bitterness. Sir Geoffrey, his son and the dwarf are, at length, all acquitted. In order, however, to avoid the mob, they take refuge in a room, where they encounter Bridgenorth, who convinces Julian that they are in his power, and allows Christian to propose to the Duke of Buckingham that several hundred Fifth-Monarchy men, led by Colonel Blood, should seize the king, and proclaim his Grace Lord-Lieutenant of the kingdom. The same afternoon Charles has just granted an audience to the Countess of Derby, when the dwarf emerges from a violoncello case and reveals the conspiracy which Fenella had enabled him to overhear. It then transpires that Bridgenorth had released the Peverils, and that Christian had trained his daughter Fenella, whose real name was Zarah, to feign being deaf and dumb, in order that she might act as his spy; but that her secret love for Julian had frustrated the execution of his vengeance against the countess. He is allowed to leave the country, and the major, who on recovering Alice by Fenella's aid, had placed her under Lady Peveril's care, having offered to restore some of Sir Geoffrey's domains which had passed into his hands as her dowry, the king's recommendation secures the old knight's consent to the marriage which within a few weeks unites the Martindale-Moultrassie families and estates.
Characters
Principal characters in bold
Sir Geoffrey Peveril, of Martindale Castle
Lady Margaret, his wife
Julian Peveril, their son
Lance Outram, their gamekeeper
Whitaker, their steward
Mistress Ellesmere, their housekeeper
Major Bridgenorth, of Moultrassie Hall, a Puritan
Alice, his daughter
Deborah Debbitch, her nurse
Rev. Nehemiah Solsgrace, a Presbyterian minister
Dr Dummerar, an Anglican clergyman
Charlotte, Countess of Derby
Philip, Earl of Derby, her son
Edward Christian, alias Richard Ganlesse, a Dempster of Man
Fenella, alias Zarah, his daughter
Sir Jasper Cranborne, a Cavalier
Charles Topham, officer of the Black Rod
Captain Dangerfield, his associate
John Whitecraft, a Cheshire innkeeper
Mrs Whitecraft, his wife
Roger Raine, landlord of the Peveril Arms
Mrs Raine, his widow
Matthew Chamberlain, her counsellor
Chiffinch, alias Will Smith, servant to Charles II
Mistress Chiffinch, his wife
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
Jerningham, his secretary
King Charles II
Empson, a Court musician
Master Maulstatute a Justice of the Peace
Sir Geoffrey Hudson, the Queen's dwarf
James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond
Colonel Blood, an adventurer
Chapter summary
Prefatory Letter: Dr Dryasdust informs Captain Clutterbuck that he believes he has received a visit in York from the Author of Waverley, newly elected to the bibliophilic Roxburghe Club in London, who defended his novels against charges of perverting and usurping serious history.
Volume One
Ch. 1: In 1658 the Presbyterian Bridgenorth loses his wife in childbirth and in his depression hands the newly-born girl over to be brought up by Sir Geoffrey and Lady Peveril, the families having assisted each other during the changing fortunes of the Civil War.
Ch. 2: Bridgenorth accepts the Restoration in 1660, and, although his spirits have revived to a considerable extent, it is agreed that little Alice should continue to live at Martindale Castle, where she has endeared herself to young Julian Peveril. Bridgenorth agrees to encourage his friends to attend a feast of reconciliation organised by Lady Peveril.
Ch. 3: Lady Peveril and her steward Whitaker prepare for the feast.
Ch. 4: The feast takes place after separate routes of approach to the Castle, leading to separate rooms, have been agreed between the opposing factions and two contrasting sermons have been delivered.
Ch. 5: On the morning after the feast the Countess of Derby appears, having spent a night unannounced at the Castle. Bridgenorth is outraged that after her recovery of the Isle of Man from the disloyal William Christian she arranged his execution. He attempts to arrest her.
Ch. 6: Lady Peveril places Bridgenorth under temporary detention to enable the Countess to pursue her journey to Liverpool in safety. Sir Geoffrey returns and arranges for the Countess to be escorted on her way, the more urgently because it is discovered that Bridgenorth has escaped.
Ch. 7: The keeper Lance Outram tells Whitaker that, the same morning, he saw Bridgenorth meeting Alice's nurse Deborah. On the road, Sir Geoffrey repels Bridgenorth's attempt to execute a warrant for the Countess's arrest.
Ch. 8: Lady Peveril receives a letter from Bridgenorth announcing that he plans to leave Derbyshire and has withdrawn Alice and Deborah to accompany him. Sir Geoffrey is unable to resist the temptation to expel the Presbyterian minister Solsgrace in favour of the Anglican Dr Dummerar with offensive haste.
Ch. 9: Solsgrace rebukes Bridgenorth for associating with Sir Geoffrey. Bridgenorth rejects Sir Geoffrey's offer of a duel, delivered by Sir Jasper Cranbourne, as the honourable way of settling their differences.
Ch. 10: Five years pass. While taking a shortcut through the Moultrassie Hall grounds Lady Peveril is surprised to encounter Bridgenorth, who had left Derbyshire shortly after rejecting her husband's challenge. His language is apocalyptic, advocating renewed civil war, and he is intent on avenging the executed Christian. Julian is sent to share the education of the young Earl of Derby on the Isle of Man.
Ch. 11: On the island, Julian and the bored Derby chat, and Julian approaches Deborah at the Black Fort with the aim of seeing Alice.
Ch. 12: A retrospective chapter fills in the background to Julian's visit to the Fort: after a series of previous meetings with Alice there, he had returned to Derbyshire to ask his father's approval of their marriage, but his mother's indication of the hostility Sir Geoffrey's feels towards Bridgenorth dissuaded him, and when he told Alice of this she declined to see him again.
Volume Two
Ch. 1 (13): A fraught interview with Alice is unexpectedly interrupted by Bridgenorth, whose words to Julian give hints of encouragement.
Ch. 2 (14): After a pleasant conversation walking with Julian, Bridgenorth tells how, during his time in New England he had witnessed Richard Whalley inspiring villagers to repel an attack by Indians. He speaks calmly of the need for such a voice in the present state of England, and for sustained political commitment on Julian's part if he is to be acceptable as Alice's suitor.
Ch. 3 (15): Derby explains to Julian that the family have moved to Peel Castle from Rushin because of the new danger posed by Edward Christian and Bridgenorth consequent on the linking of the Countess with the Popish Plot. Julian receives a letter from Alice asking him to meet her at Goddard Cronnan's Stone.
Ch. 4 (16): Ignoring the mute protests of the Countess's train-bearer Fenella, Julian goes to the Stone.
Ch. 5 (17): Alice warns Julian against her father's attempt to involve him in his political intrigues. Their conference is again interrupted by Bridgenorth, who repeats to Julian that if he is to woo Alice he must fall in with his project.
Ch. 6 (18): Fenella (who Julian fears may be attracted to him) conducts him to the Countess, who tells him that she is under suspicion of involvement in the Popish Plot and accepts his offer to go to London to communicate with her supporters there.
Ch. 7 (19): Julian takes leave of the Countess and after a troubled night is conducted to his boat by Fenella. She insists on staying on board, but while he sleeps during the voyage to Liverpool she is removed.
Ch. 8 (20): The captain tells Julian about Fenella's origins as a rope-dancer's apprentice acquired by the Countess at Ostend. At Liverpool he buys a horse, but he surrenders it to the parliamentary officer Topham before proceeding with an inferior mount to the Cat and Fiddle inn near Altringham.
Ch. 9 (21): At the inn Julian and a fellow traveller, who identifies himself as Ganlesse, have a literary conversation. As they leave, the landlady warns Julian to beware of entrapments, and on the road he refuses to confide in Ganlesse, who appears surprisingly acquainted with his business.
Ch.10 (22): At the next inn Julian, along with Ganlesse and his companion Will Smith, enjoys an excellent meal prepared by the cook Chaubert.
Ch. 11 (23): In parting from Julian, Ganlesse warns him he would have done better to confide in him. Arriving at Martindale Castle, Julian finds Topham preparing to remove his parents to London and leaves under short-term parole with Bridgenorth.
Volume Three
Ch. 1 (24): At Moultrassie Hall, Julian finds Ganlesse among a group of worshipping Puritans. He rejects Bridgeworth's offer of freedom involving exile from England.
Ch. 2 (25): Alerted by Deborah, Lance Outram recruits local miners and attacks Moultrassie Hall. Julian mediates at Alice's request.
Ch. 3 (26): Bridgenorth tells Julian that Alice is to be entrusted to the care of Ganlesse. Julian agrees that Lance should accompany him to London.
Ch. 4 (27): In an inn Julian overhears an inebriated Will Smith, now revealed as Chiffinch, disclose to Lord Saville a plan to use Alice to supplant the Duchess of Portsmouth in the King's favour. He mentions that he had replaced the Countess's documents in Julian's packet with plain paper. Next morning Saville dispatches a messenger to London, and Julian and Lance overpower Chiffinch and Chaubert on the road, recovering the Countess's documents.
Ch. 5 (28): At his levee Buckingham discusses with Edward Christian (hitherto Ganlesse) the plot to displace the Duchess of Portsmouth. Left alone, he plans that Alice should submit to his attentions before becoming the King's mistress.
Ch. 6 (29): Christian persuades Bridgenorth not to seek out Alice, and they debate how to proceed against the Countess's faction. (The narrator sketches Christian's character and motives, and clarifies the plot of the novel.)
Ch. 7 (30): When he is about to deliver a letter from the Countess to the Jesuit Fenwicke at the Savoy, Julian is diverted by Fenella to St James's Park, where she dances before Charles. When Julian indicates that they are associated with the Countess, Charles instructs his musician Empson to conduct them to Mrs Chiffinch's apartments.
Ch. 8 (31): (The narrator fills in Alice's journey to London and installation at Chiffinch's.) Charles arrives at Chiffinch's, and Alice rushes in to escape Buckingham's advances, throwing herself on the King's protection. Julian secures Charles's promise to help his parents as far as possible, and gives him the Countess's packet before escorting Alice away.
Ch. 9 (32): Julian is involved in a fight defending Alice from the attentions of two fops, wounds one of them, and is committed to Newgate by Maulstatute, a Justice of the Peace. The other fop takes Alice off to Buckingham's York House.
Ch. 10 (33): On his arrival at Newgate a misunderstanding results in Julian's sharing a cell with Sir Geoffrey Hudson, the Queen's dwarf.
Ch. 11 (34): Hudson expatiates to Julian on a variety of topics, mostly autobiographical.
Ch. 12 (35): Julian hears a mysterious voice offering him help, but ceasing when he refuses to promise to forget Alice.
Volume Four
Ch. 1 (36): Julian finds an anonymous note indicating that if he wears a white ribbon he will be rescued on his river journey to the Tower, but he refuses to avail himself of this and is conveyed to his intended destination.
Ch. 2 (37): Buckingham tells his secretary Jerningham that he is now reconciled with the Duchess of Portsmouth and intends to give up Christian and the scheme for Alice's advancement, keeping her out of the King's sight.
Ch. 3 (38): Buckingham informs Christian that Alice and Julian have left for Derbyshire, and Christian decides to pursue them. Buckingham then directs Colonel Blood to prevent Christian returning to London.
Ch. 4 (39): Buckingham discovers that the woman detained at York House is not Alice, but an enchanting eastern maiden called Zarah. She escapes his advances by darting out of a window.
Ch. 5 (40): The Chiffinches discuss tactics for retaining the King's favour. During a pause at the Tower on a royal river outing, Buckingham insults an aged warder, leading to his death, and the Duke of Ormond pleads the Peverils' case with the King.
Ch. 6 (41): The Peverils and Hudson are tried for participation in the Popish Plot and acquitted.
Ch. 7 (42): On leaving the court the Peverils are involved in a skirmish with a Protestant mob and take refuge at a cutler's where Bridgenorth appears.
Ch. 8 (43): Julian rebuts his father's criticism of Bridgenorth, who takes him to eavesdrop on a conventicle of activists and deploys extremist rhetoric himself. Christian arrives to forward the conspiracy against the King.
Ch. 9 (44): Christian persuades Buckingham to join the conspiracy. Buckingham receives a summons to attend Court.
Ch. 10 (45): The Countess appears at Court, where Charles tries to restrain her demand for justice as imprudent.
Ch. 11 (46): Hudson emerges from a 'cello and gives news of the conspiracy. Charles prepares to receive Buckingham.
Ch. 12 (47): On his way to Court, Buckingham is warned by a singer but decides to face the storm. Bridgenorth rejects Christian's advice to flee, and Zarah (now identified as Fenella his [alleged] niece) his proposal that she become Buckingham's wife.
Ch. 13 (48): Charles interrogates Buckingham.
Ch. 14 (49): Charles pardons Buckingham and establishes by experiment that Zarah's apparent impairment is assumed. Christian declares her to be his own daughter, rather than his executed brother's, and is sentenced to exile. Bridgenorth also leaves England, resigning the lands of Peveril to Julian and Alice.
Reception
Peveril of the Peak divided critical opinion. Half the reviewers thought highly of it, noting especially the richness of the incidents and the variety of the characters. All of the characters had many admirers, with the exception of Sir Geoffrey Hudson who was almost universally judged an excrescence, even by critics otherwise favourably disposed to the work. Fenella fascinated several reviewers, but rather more thought that she was generally improbable, or at any rate that she became less convincing as the story progressed. Several of the other characters provoked diametrically opposed assessments: thus Bridgenorth was either masterly or hopelessly inconsistent, the lovers were either unusually spirited or vapid, and Buckingham and Christian also divided opinion. The novel was praised for its picture of the age, though some found the period unrewarding or distasteful. The plot was either unusually skilful or typically confused. Those reviewers who were generally hostile objected to the money-making four-volume format, with the repetition and inflation of material from earlier novels in the series. The scene with Ganlesse and Smith in the inn was almost universally praised. Several of the reviewers doubted if their critical labours served much purpose, since readers had by now made their minds up as to the merits of this author, and the novels were read by everyone soon after publication.
Allusions and references
The character of Fenella, a deaf and dumb fairy-like attendant of the Countess of Derby, was suggested by Goethe's Mignon in Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. The hiding of the Countess of Derby in the novel was based on the story of Mrs. Macfarlane which took place around 1716.
"Peak-haunting Peveril" is one of many topical references in "The Heavy Dragoon Song" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Patience (opera).
The "Peveril of the Peak", named after Walter Scott's Novel is also a famous pub in central Manchester.
References
External links
Page on Peveril of the Peak at the Walter Scott Digital Archive
1823 British novels
Novels by Walter Scott
Historical novels
Fiction set in 1678
Novels set in the 1670s
Novels set in Derbyshire
Novels set in the Isle of Man
Waverley Novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fair%20Maid%20of%20Perth
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The Fair Maid of Perth
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The Fair Maid of Perth (or St. Valentine's Day) is an 1828 novel by Sir Walter Scott, one of the Waverley novels. Inspired by the strange, but historically true, story of the Battle of the North Inch, it is set in Perth (known at the time as Saint John's Toun, i.e. John's Town) and other parts of Scotland around 1400.
Composition and sources
By the time he finished the first series of Chronicles of the Canongate on 16 September 1827 Scott had been discussing his next work of fiction for several weeks. He was originally minded to embark on a successor to Quentin Durward, which was eventually to become Anne of Geierstein (1829), but in the event he settled on a second series of the Chronicles. Like the first, this was envisaged as a collection of short stories, and it seems likely that by mid-November Scott had written a long Croftangry introduction to match the opening chapters of the first series. On 3 December he completed 'My Aunt Margaret's Mirror', and on the 5th he had decided that the next story would concern Harry Wynd; but before the middle of the month, in response to doubts by James Ballantyne and Robert Cadell about the commercial viability of another publication consisting of a long introduction and a set of short stories, he decided to abbreviate the introduction to a single chapter and allow the Wynd tale, now with the title Saint Valentine's Eve, to fill the rest of the three volumes. There was a break in composition over Christmas, but composition resumed in January and the first volume was completed on 5 February 1828, the second on 2 March and the third on the 29th of that month.
Scott's sources for The Fair Maid of Perth are largely cited in the text of the novel or in the 'Magnum' notes. From the 14th and 15th centuries he drew on the two narrative poems, The Brus by John Barbour, and The Wallace by Blind Hary. From the same period he found helpful material in: Chronica gentis scotorum by John of Fordun, and its continuation Scotichronicon by Walter Bower; Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland by Andrew of Wyntoun; and Scotorum historiae by Hector Boece, translated by John Bellenden. From the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries he used The History of the Houses of Douglas and Angus by David Hume of Godscroft (1644; reissued 1648), and (for many details about Perth) The Muses Threnodie by Henry Adamson edited with extensive notes by James Cant (1774), as well as The History of Scotland from the Accession of the House of Stuart to that of Mary by John Pinkerton (1797). This last was a particularly important source for the historical characters and the main events.
Editions
St Valentine's Day; or, The Fair Maid of Perth was published on 15 May 1828, by Cadell and Co. in Edinburgh and Simpkin and Marshall in London, the latter receiving 6000 copies in all. The price was one and a half guineas (£1 11s 6d or £1.57½). In the summer of 1831 Scott revisited the work for the 'Magnum' edition, making some textual changes and providing a few brief notes, but he was in poor health and many more changes and notes were introduced by J. G. Lockhart (with or without authorial input). Lockhart also provided the novel with an antiquarian and source-documenting introduction to replace Scott's original discussion of work's genesis. The work appeared posthumously in November and December 1832 as Volumes 42 and 43.
The standard modern edition of The Fair Maid of Perth, by A. D. Hook and Donald Mackenzie, was published as Volume 21 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels in 1999: this is based on the first edition with emendations mainly from the manuscript; the 'Magnum' material appears in Volume 25b (2012).
Plot introduction
The fair maid of the title is Catharine Glover, daughter of a glovemaker in Perth, who kisses Henry Gow/Smith, the armourer, while he is sleeping, on Valentine's Day. But Catharine has caught the eye of the Duke of Rothesay, and when Gow interrupts an attempted abduction, the armourer is drawn simultaneously into royal intrigue and highland feud.
Plot summary
The armourer Henry Gow had excited the jealousy of the apprentice Conachar by spending the evening with the glover and his daughter and was returning to their house at dawn, that he might be the first person she saw on St Valentine's morning, when he encountered a party of courtiers in the act of placing a ladder against her window. Having cut off the hand of one, and seized another, who, however, managed to escape, he left the neighbours to pursue the rest, and was saluted by Catharine as her lover. The citizens waited on the provost, who, having heard their grievance, issued a challenge of defiance to the offenders.
Meanwhile, the King who occupied apartments in the convent, having confessed to the prior, was consulting with his brother, when the Earl of March arrived to intimate his withdrawal to the English Border, followed into the courtyard by Louise, and afterwards by the Duke of Rothesay, whose dalliance with the maiden was interrupted by the Earl of Douglas ordering his followers to seize and scourge her. Henry Gow, however, was at hand, and the prince, having committed her to his protection, attended his father's council, at which it was determined that the hostile Clans Chattan and Quhele ("Kay") should be invited to settle their feud by a combat between an equal number of their bravest men in the royal presence, and a commission was issued for the suppression of heresy. The old monarch, having learnt that his son was one of those who had attempted to force their way into the glover's house, insisted that he should dismiss his Master of the Horse, who encouraged all his follies; and while Catharine, who had listened to the Lollard teaching of Father Clement, was being urged by him to favour the secret suit of the Prince, her other lover, Conachar, who had rejoined his clan, appeared to carry off her councillor from arrest as an apostate reformer.
The armourer had maimed the Prince's Master of the Horse, Sir John Ramorny, whose desire for revenge was encouraged by the apothecary, Dwining. An assassin named Bonthron undertook to waylay and murder Henry Gow. On Shrovetide evening old Simon was visited by a party of morrice-dancers, headed by Proudfute, who lingered behind to confirm a rumour that Henry Gow had been seen escorting a merry maiden to his house, and then proceeded thither to apologise for having divulged the secret. On his way home in the armourer's coat and cap, as a protection against other revellers, he received a blow from behind and fell dead on the spot. About the same time Sir John was roused from the effects of a narcotic by the arrival of the Prince, who made light of his sufferings, and whom he horrified by suggesting that he should cause the death of his uncle, and seize his father's throne.
The fate of Proudfute, whose body was at first mistaken for that of the armourer, excited general commotion in the city; while Catharine, on hearing the news, rushed to her lover's house and was folded in his arms. Her father then accompanied him to the town council, where he was chosen as the widow's champion, and the Provost repaired to the King's presence to demand a full inquiry. At a council held the following day, trial by ordeal of bier-right, or by combat, was ordered; and suspicion having fallen on Ramorny's household, each of his servants was required to pass before the corpse, in the belief that the wounds would bleed afresh as the culprit approached. Bonthron, however, chose the alternative of combat, and, having been struck down by Gow, was led away to be hanged. But Dwining had arranged that he should merely be suspended so that he could breathe and during the night he and Sir John's page Eviot cut him down and carried him off.
Catharine had learnt that she and her father were both suspected by the commission; and the Provost having offered to place her under the care of The Douglas's daughter, the deserted wife of the Prince, the old glover sought the protection of his former apprentice, who was now the chieftain of his clan. Having returned from his father's funeral, Conachar pleaded for the hand of Catharine, without which he felt he should disgrace himself in the approaching combat with the Clan Chattan. Simon, however, reminded him that she was betrothed to the armourer, and his foster father promised to screen him in the conflict. At the instigation of his uncle, the Prince had been committed to the custody of the Earl of Errol; but, with the Duke's connivance, he was enticed by Ramorny and the apothecary to escape to the castle of Falkland, and, with the help of Bonthron, was starved to death there. Catharine and Louise, however, discovered his fate, and communicated with The Douglas, who overpowered the garrison, and hanged the murderers.
The meeting of the hostile champions had been arranged with great pomp, with barriers erected on three sides of the Inch, in an attempt to keep spectators off the battlefield, and the Tay forming the natural fourth side to the north. The Gilded Arbour summerhouse of the Dominican Friary, which afforded those inside an excellent view of the Inch, was adapted into a grandstand for the King and his entourage. Henry Gow, having consented to supply Eachin (Conachar) with a suit of armour, volunteered to take the place of one of the Clan Chattan who failed to appear. A terrible conflict ensued, during which Torquil and his eight sons all fell defending their chief, who at last fled from the battle-ground unwounded and dishonoured. On hearing of Rothesay's death, Robert III resigned his sceptre to his wily and ambitious brother, and later died broken-hearted when his younger son James was captured by the English king. Albany transferred the regency to his son; but, nineteen years afterwards, the rightful heir returned, and the usurper expiated his own and his father's guilt on the scaffold. The warrants against Simon and his daughter, and Father Clement, were cancelled by the intervention of the Earl of Douglas, and the Church was conciliated with Dwining's ill-gotten wealth. Conachar either became a hermit, or, legend has it, was spirited away by the fairies. Scotland boasts of many distinguished descendants from Henry Gow and his spouse the Fair Maid of Perth.
Characters
Principal characters in bold
Simon Glover, a glove-maker
Catherine Glover, his daughter ('Catharine' is the original compositors' spelling; Scott's consistent manuscript 'Catherine' is restored by the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels)
Conachar, his apprentice, afterwards Eachin M'Ian, Chief of the Clan Quhele
Niel Booshalloch, his herdsman
Henry Gow, or Smith, an armourer and burgess
Luckie Shoolbred, his housekeeper
Father Francis, a Dominican friar
Father Clement, a Carthusian monk
Oliver Proudfute, a bonnet-maker
Bailie Craigdallie
Henbane Dwining, an apothecary
Sir Patrick Charteris, of Kinfauns, Provost of Perth
Kit Henshaw, his servant
Prior Anselm, of St Dominic's Convent
King Robert III of Scotland
[[David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay|David, Duke of Rothsay]], his son
The Duke of Albany, the king's brother
The Earl of March
Louise, a minstrel from Provence
Archibald Douglas, 3rd Earl of Douglas
The Devil's Dick, one of his followers
Sir John Ramorny, the duke's master of the horse
Eviot, his page
Anthony Bonthron, an assassin
Sir Louis Lunden, town-clerk of Perth
Lindsay, Earl of Crawford
The Earl of Errol, Lord High Constable
Torquil of the Oak, Eachin's foster-father
Norman nan Ord, one of his sons
MacGillie Chattanach, Chief of the Clan Chattan
Chapter summary
Chrystal Croftangry's Narrative: In discussion with Mrs Baliol, Chrystal Croftangry maintains his preference for setting his stories in less familiar historical periods to allow scope for the imagination.
Ch. 1: The narrator provides a sketch of the history and setting of Perth.
Ch. 2: After a warning from her father, Catherine Glover rebuffs the advances of a nobleman as they walk to church on St Valentine's Eve. On their way home they are joined by Henry Gow, returned from a trip selling armour, who is attacked by Conachar after making denigrating remarks about Highlanders. Catherine expresses her disapproval of the cult of arms.
Ch. 3: Glover and Gow discuss the promotion of the latter's wooing of Catherine.
Ch. 4: Gow foils an attempt to abduct Catherine, cutting off the hand of one of the assailants. The citizens decline Oliver Proudfute's suggestion that the matter be referred to the King.
Ch. 5: The next morning, Catherine thanks Gow for his action by making him her Valentine and Glover encourages him.
Ch. 6: Conachar announces that he has been summoned home to the Highlands. Gow says he will follow Catherine's pacific advice, but she indicates that there is an insuperable objection to their union.
Ch. 7: The citizens resolve to consult the Provost, Sir Patrick Charteris, about the affray. The narrator sketches Sir Patrick's character and background.
Ch. 8: On the way to the Provost at Kinfauns, Proudfute is worsted and plundered by the Devil's Dick. Proudfute presents the severed hand to Charteris, who promises to take action.
Ch. 9: King Robert (introduced by the narrator) discusses the state of affairs with Prior Anselm.
Ch. 10: Robert discusses Rothsay's positive qualities with a sceptical Albany. The Earl of March arrives, threatening to withdraw his allegiance and his presence. Rothsay is seen flirting with the minstrel Louise in the courtyard. Alone with Robert, March maintains that Rothsay's marriage to Marjory of Douglas, in preference a pre-existing contract with his own daughter, is invalid.
Ch. 11: In the courtyard, Rothsay offends both Douglas and March before entrusting Louise to Gow's care.
Ch. 12: Gow and the mantled Louise encounter Proudfute in the street. When they reach his house he entrusts her to his housekeeper Luckie Shoolbred.
Volume Two
Ch. 1 (13): March warns in Council of the danger posed by Douglas before leaving for his castle at Dunbar. Rothsay suggests a combat to settle the feud between the Chattan and Quhele clans. Anselm's request for a commission to investigate the threat of heresy is approved. Rothsay agrees to dismiss his Master of the Horse, Ramorny, for his part in the Gow disturbance.
Ch. 2 (14): In discussion with Father Clement, who is accused of heresy, Catherine says that Conachar will guide him to a Highland retreat. She dismisses his suggestion that she might marry Rothsay if his marriage were to be annulled. Conachar arrives and takes Clement off.
Ch. 3 (15): The physician Dwining persuades the mutilated Ramorny to pursue vengeance against Gow, whom he also hates, and the assassin Bonthron is accordingly dispatched. Dwining administers a sedative, and Ramorny's page prepares him for sleep.
Ch. 4 (16): At the end of the Shrove carnival, Proudfute confirms to Glover that he saw Gow in company with Louise. Tormented by revellers, Proudfute takes refuge with Gow, and on the way home (disguised as the smith) he is killed.
Ch. 5 (17): Intruding on Ramorny, Rothsay rejects his suggestion that he should have Albany killed.
Ch. 6 (18): There is an outcry when Proudfute's murder is discovered: at first it is assumed that Gow is the victim.
Ch. 7 (19): Receiving news of Gow's apparent death, Catherine finds him alive at his house. Glover arrives at Gow's, and on their way to the Council they debate how to respond to the call for the smith to be Magdalen Proudfute's champion.
Ch. 8 (20): The Council agree that the ordeal of bier-right be employed to discover Proudfute's murderer. Magdalen chooses Gow as her champion.
Ch. 9 (21): Robert and Albany discuss how to minimise the impact of Proudfute's murder. Rothsay persuades Robert to forgo his right to stop the clan combat. Robert makes arrangements for the bier-right.
Ch. 10 (22): Dwining tells Ramorny of his ingenious mechanism to preserve Bonthorn's life if he should be hanged in the event of his defeat in combat by Gow. The physician gloats over his gold and his cleverness, and saves the life of Magdalen's sick baby.
Ch. 11 (23): Exposed by the bier-right, and defeated by Gow, Bonthron accuses Rothsay who is forced to retire from Court into the keeping of the Earl of Errol. Gow is feted at a celebratory dinner. Bonthron is apparently executed, but next morning his body has disappeared.
Volume Three
Ch. 1 (24): [retrospective] Dwining and his associates release Bonthorn from the gibbet at midnight.
Ch. 2 (25): Glover demands that Catherine marry Gow. Next morning, she tells him that they (the Glovers) are accused of heresy and will be spared only if she takes the veil. Charteris arrives and offers them his protection.
Ch. 3 (26): Glover tells Charteris Conachar's story, and they agree that Catherine should go to the Duchess of Rothsay at Falkland and her father to Clan Quhele in the Highlands.
Ch. 4 (27): The herdsman Niel Booshalloch clears the way for Glover's reception by Eachin (Conachar). Glover observes the funeral of Eachin's father. He indicates to Father Clement that he is mistrustful of the monk's doctrinal innovations.
Ch. 5 (28): Eachin's inaugural feast is celebrated.
Ch. 6 (29): Eachin confesses his secret cowardice to Glover, and after making it clear that his daughter is not available the citizen takes up residence with Booshalloch. About a fortnight later, he overhears Eachin and his foster-father Torquil discussing a plan to withdraw the young chieftain from the forthcoming combat.
Ch. 7 (30): Ramorny and Dwining persuade Rothsay to escape by boat from Errol's house, and they proceed via Newburgh to Falkland, picking up Louise on the way.
Ch. 8 (31): [the narrative retrogrades] Rothsay, Ramorny, and Dwining make preparations for Catherine's arrival at Falkland. Resisting Rothsay's advances she impresses him with her strength of character. Probably drugged by Dwining, the prince is pronounced infectious.
Ch. 9 (32): After a few days, Louise discovers that Rothsay is imprisoned and deprived of food. Catherine manages to convey some morsels to him, and Louise leaves to seek help, but by the time Douglas arrives Rothsay is dead. Dwining kills himself, and Bonthorne and Ramorny are executed.
Ch. 10 (33): Charteris informs Gow that Eachin is seeking Catherine's hand. Norman nan Ord, one of Torquil's sons, arrives to request a suit of armour for Eachin. After defeating Norman at throwing the hammer Gow agrees, providing that Eachin and he meet in single fight after the clan combat. Douglas and Albany have an uneasy conversation.
Ch. 11 (34): The combat takes place, and at the end Eachin flees the field as the sole survivor of Clan Quhele.
Ch. 12 (35): Albany defends himself against Robert's accusation that he was responsible for murdering Rothsay.
Ch. 13 (36): Under the Duchess of Rothsay's protection at Campsie, Catherine encounters the fugitive Eachin who throws himself into the Tay. Within four months she and Gow are married.
Reception
Almost all the reviewers rated The Fair Maid of Perth extremely highly. There was general praise for the varied cast of contrasting characters, all contributing to a coherent and gripping plot. Dwining was found particularly powerful, and several reviewers thought Catherine more interesting than many of Scott's heroines. The original and sensitive handling of Conachar's cowardice was sometimes singled out for praise, and the final combat between the clans was judged outstanding.
Departures from historical fact
Walter Scott does not specify the year of the events depicted: a deliberate vagueness. The novel begins on 13 February, a day before Valentine's Day, and events continue to Palm Sunday. In the novel, the Battle of the North Inch and the death of David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, take place within those few months. Implied to be followed in short order are first the capture of James, younger son of the king, and then the death of Robert III.
Actually, the events depicted took place in different years. The battle took place in September 1396. The murder of Rothesay occurred in March 1402. James was captured by the English in March 1406. Robert III died in April 1406. Scott manipulates the historic record for dramatic effect, concentrating events of a full decade in the span of six weeks.
The Earl of Douglas depicted in the novel is Archibald the Grim, who actually died in 1400 and was not involved in the death of Rothesay. Scott assigns to him the role played by Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, his son and heir.
Adaptations
La jolie fille de Perth is an opera in four acts by Georges Bizet (1838–1875), from a libretto by Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges and Jules Adenis, after the novel by Sir Walter Scott. It was first performed in 1867.
Two silent films were made, the first a feature film The Fair Maid of Perth made in 1923 adaption by Eliot Stannard, and the second a short film directed by Miles Mander in the Phonofilm process in 1926, and starring Louise Maurel.
Other Literary Inspirations
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem The Fair Maid of Perth is a poetical illustration based on an engraving of a painting of that name by A. Chisholm in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap book, 1839.
References
External links
Page on The Fair Maid of Perth at the Walter Scott Digital Archive
1828 British novels
Novels by Walter Scott
Historical novels
Novels set in Scotland
Novels set in the 14th century
British novels adapted into films
Female characters in literature
Literary characters introduced in 1828
Waverley Novels
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5381761
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20of%20Geierstein
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Anne of Geierstein
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Anne of Geierstein, or The Maiden of the Mist (1829) is one of the Waverley novels by Sir Walter Scott. It is set in Central Europe, mainly in Switzerland, shortly after the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury (1471). It covers the period of Swiss involvement in the Burgundian Wars, the main action ending with the Burgundian defeat at the Battle of Nancy at the beginning of 1477.
Composition and sources
In May 1823, when Scott had just finished Quentin Durward he expressed his intention to 'try in a continuation' the deaths of Charles of Burgundy & Louis XI. Five years later he began Anne of Geierstein, which ends with Charles's death at the battle of Nancy and Louis in the background picking up the territorial spoils. The novel was written between September 1828 and April 1829.
Scott was able to draw on his historical sources for Quentin Durward, notably the Mémoires of Philippe de Comines. He also made use of modern studies of Switzerland, Provence, and the Secret Tribunal, of the recently published history of the Dukes of Burgundy by Barante, and of manuscript material deriving from continental journeys by his friend James Skene of Rubislaw. For Margaret of Anjou and King René, Scott largely follows the Elizabethan Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Editions
The first edition was published in three volumes in Edinburgh by Cadell and Co. on 20 May 1829, and in London by Simpkin and Marshall on the 25th. The print run was probably 8000 or 8500 and the price was one and a half guineas (£1 11s 6d or £1.57½). Scott revised the text, concentrating on the earlier part of the novel, and provided it with an introduction and notes for the 'Magnum' edition where it appeared as Volumes 44 and 45 in January and February 1833, after his death.
The standard modern critical edition, by J. H. Alexander, was published as Volume 22 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels in 2000: this is based on the first edition; the 'Magnum' material appears in Volume 25b.
Plot introduction
Two exiled Lancastrians are on a secret mission to the court of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, hoping to gain his help in regaining the English crown from the Yorkist Edward IV. The two Englishmen get into difficulties in the Swiss mountains. They meet Countess Anne and her family, who are involved in the politics of the newly independent Swiss Confederation and plan to confront Charles with complaints about his conduct towards the Swiss nation. The two groups decide to travel together. Anne may have inherited magical skills from her grandmother, enabling her to perform feats which defy explanation. The travellers also encounter a shadowy organization known as the Vehmgericht or Secret Tribunal.
Plot summary
As the merchant John Philipson and his son Arthur were travelling towards Basel they were overtaken by a storm, and found themselves at the edge of a precipice caused by a recent earthquake. Arthur was making his way towards a tower indicated by their guide Antonio, when he was rescued from imminent danger by Anne, who conducted him to her uncle Biederman's mountain home. His father had already been brought there to safety by Biederman and his sons. During their evening games Rudolph, who had joined in them, became jealous of the young Englishman's skill with the bow, and challenged him; but they were overheard by Anne, and the duel was interrupted. The travellers were invited to continue their journey in company with a deputation of Switzers, commissioned to remonstrate with Charles the Bold respecting the exactions of Hagenbach; and the magistrates of Basel having declined to let them enter the city, they took shelter in the ruins of a castle. During his share in the night watches, Arthur fancied that he saw an apparition of Anne, and was encouraged in his belief by Rudolph, who narrated her family history, which implied that her ancestors had dealings with supernatural beings. Hoping to prevent a conflict on his account between the Swiss and the duke's steward, the merchant arranged that he and his son should precede them; but on reaching the Burgundian citadel they were imprisoned by the governor in separate dungeons. Arthur, however, was released by Anne with the assistance of a priest, and his father by Biederman, a body of Swiss youths having entered the town and incited the citizens to execute Hagenbach, just as he was intending to slaughter the deputation, whom he had treacherously admitted. A valuable necklace which had been taken from the merchant was restored to him by Sigismund, and the deputies having decided to persist in seeking an interview with the duke, the Englishman undertook to represent their cause favourably to him.
On their way to Charles's headquarters father and son were overtaken by Anne disguised as a lady of rank, and, acting on her whispered advice to Arthur, they continued their journey by different roads. The elder fell in with a mysterious priest who provided him with a guide to the "Golden Fleece," where he was lowered from his bedroom to appear before a meeting of the Vehmic court or holy tribunal, and warned against speaking of their secret powers. The younger was met and conducted by Annette to a castle, where he spent the evening with his lady-love, and travelled with her the next day to rejoin his father at Strassburg. In the cathedral there they met Margaret of Anjou, who recognised Philipson as John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, a faithful adherent of the house of Lancaster, and planned with him an appeal to the duke for aid against the Yorkists. On reaching Charles's camp the earl was welcomed as an old companion in arms, and obtained a promise of the help he sought, on condition that Provence be ceded to Burgundy. Arthur was despatched to Aix-en-Provence to urge Margaret to persuade her father accordingly, while the earl accompanied his host to an interview with his burghers and the Swiss deputies.
King René of Anjou's preference for the society of troubadours and frivolous amusements had driven his daughter to take refuge in a convent. On hearing from Arthur, however, the result of the earl's mission to the duke, she returned to the palace, and had induced her father to sign away his kingdom, when his grandson Ferrand arrived with the news of the rout of the Burgundian army at Neuchâtel, and Arthur learned from his squire, Sigismund, that he had not seen Anne's spectre but herself during his night-watch, and that the priest he had met more than once was her father, the Count Albert of Geierstein. The same evening Queen Margaret died in her chair of state; and all the earl's prospects for England being thwarted, he occupied himself in arranging a treaty between her father and the King of France. He was still in Provence when he was summoned to rouse the duke from a fit of melancholy, caused by the Swiss having again defeated him. After raising fresh troops, Charles decided to wrest Nancy from the young Duke of Lorraine, and during the siege Arthur received another challenge from Rudolph. The rivals met, and, having killed the Bernese, the young Englishman obtained Count Albert's consent to his marriage with Anne, with strict injunctions to warn the duke that the Secret Tribunal had decreed his death. On the same night, the Swiss won their decisive victory at Nancy, establishing their independence. Charles was slain in the battle, his naked and disfigured body only discovered some days afterward frozen into the nearby river. His face had been so badly mutilated by wild animals that his physician was only able to identify him by his long fingernails and the old battle scars on his body. Being still an exile, the earl accepted the patriot Biederman's invitation to reside with his countess at Geierstein, until the battle of Bosworth placed Henry VII on the throne, when Arthur and his wife attracted as much admiration at the English Court as they had gained among their Swiss neighbours.
Characters
Principal characters in bold
John Philipson, an English merchant, afterwards John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford
Arthur, his son
Antonio, their young Swiss guide
Arnold Biederman, a magistrate of Unterwalden
His three oldest sons: Rudiger, Ernest, and Sigismond
Anne of Geierstein, his niece
Count Albert of Geierstein, Anne's father (appearing as the Black Priest of Saint Paul's etc.)
Ital Schrekenwald, Albert's steward
Rudolph Donnerhugel, a Bernese gallant
Swiss deputies: Nicholas Bonstetten (Schwyz), Melchoir Sturmthal (Berne), and Adam Zimmerman (Soleure)
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy
Lord of Contay, his councillor
Archibald Hagenbach, Governor of La Ferette
Kilian, his steward
Francis Steinernherz, executioner at La Ferette
Dannischemend, a Persian sage
Hermione, his daughter
Brother Bartholomew, apparently a palmer
John Mengs, landlord of the 'Golden Fleece'
Margaret of Anjou, widow of Henry VI
King René of Provence, her father
Ferrand de Vaudemont, Duke of Lorraine, his grandson (appearing as the Blue Cavalier)
Thiebault, a Provençal
Count Campo Basso, commander of Italian mercenaries
Colvin, a Burgundian cannoneer
Chapter summary
Volume One
Ch. 1: John Philipson and his son Arthur, passing as merchants, and their Swiss guide lose their way in the mountains between Lucerne and Basel and are impeded by a landslip, but they catch sight of the castle of Geierstein.
Ch. 2: Arthur attempts to reach the castle but gets into difficulties and is helped to safety by Anne.
Ch. 3: Arthur and his father are reunited at Geierstein, where Anne's uncle Arnold Biederman welcomes them. Rudolph Donnerhugel brings a request for Arnold to join a Bernese delegation to the Duke of Burgundy seeking redress for attacks on Swiss commercial activities, and Philipson arranges to travel with them.
Ch. 4: Arthur wins an archery competition, prompting Rudolph to challenge him to a duel.
Ch. 5: Arnold tells Philipson how, unimpressed by the prestige of rank, he had agreed that his younger brother Albert should succeed as Count of Geierstein, and how after entrusting his daughter Anne to him for upwards of seven years Albert has now asked for her return.
Ch. 6: The duel between Arthur and Rudolph is interrupted by Arnold, alerted by Anne.
Ch. 7: The deputation assembles at Geierstein and makes its way to Basel.
Ch. 8: The deputation is refused entry to Basel for fear of Burgundian reprisals, but it is accommodated at a neighbouring pleasure-house.
Ch. 9: Arthur pities Anne when she shows signs of distress; mounting night guard at the pleasure-house he thinks he sees her walking into the forest.
Ch. 10: On patrol with Rudolph, Arthur thinks he sees Anne again, and Rudolph says there are strange stories afloat about her before introducing him to his associates, who will intervene if the Philipsons are mistreated by the Burgundian governor Hagenbach at La Ferette.
Ch. 11: Donnerhugel's Narrative: Rudolph tells Arthur the story of the supernatural origin of Anne's grandmother, Hermione of Arnheim.
Ch. 12: One of Arnold's sons, Sigismond, tells Rudolph and Arthur he has seen Anne returning from the forest. The Philipsons agree to travel separately from the delegation to lessen the danger at La Ferette.
Volume Two
Ch. 1 (13): Hagenbach and his squire Kilian prepare to plunder the Philipsons, but the influential Black Priest of Saint Paul's refuses to sanction this crime.
Ch. 2 (14): Hagenbach takes from Philipson a packet addressed to the Duke of Burgundy which he finds to contain a valuable diamond necklace. He commits the Philipsons to Kilian and the executioner Steinernherz.
Ch. 3 (15): Freed from prison by Anne and the Black Priest, Arthur appeals for help to Rudolph and then to Arnold.
Ch. 4 (16): The Swiss take La Ferette, and Hagenbach is executed. Sigismond restores to Philipson the necklace, which he has retrieved from Steinernherz.
Ch. 5 (17): As the Philipsons pursue their journey Anne (lightly disguised) warns Arthur that they face imminent danger under the guidance of Brother Bartholomew, and they agree to take separate routes.
Ch. 6 (18): The Black Priest sends Bartholomew packing and travels on with Philipson.
Ch. 7 (19): Philipson arranges to stay the night at a village inn recommend by the Black Priest, whose entry puts a sudden stop to the revelry of the guests.
Ch. 8 (20): At an underground meeting of the Secret Tribunal, Philipson is charged with having defamed it, but is acquitted on his appeal to the presiding Judge (the Black Priest).
Ch. 9 (21): [the narrative retrogrades] Annette Veilchen, Anne's attendant, conducts Arthur to Arnheim castle, where she presses his claims on her mistress.
Ch. 10 (22): In discussion Anne clears up the mysteries of her birth and conduct, and Arthur informs her of his noble status and current mission.
Volume Three
Ch. 1 (23): Warned by Albert's steward Schreckenwald that his soldiers have mutinied, Anne and Arthur leave for Strasburg where they split up.
Ch. 2 (24): Reunited, the Philipsons (revealed to be the Earl of Oxford and his son) encounter Margaret of Anjou in Strasburg Cathedral, where they agree to put to Charles of Burgundy her proposal to persuade her father King René to cede Provence to the Duke in return for his support for the Lancastrian cause.
Ch. 3 (25): At the Burgundian camp outside Dijon, Oxford secures Charles's agreement to Margaret's proposal, though René will also be required to disown his grandson Ferrand de Vaudemont. But first, Charles says, he will put down the Swiss, prompting Philipson to plead for their delegation's lives.
Ch. 4 (26): Charles reluctantly tells Oxford that he will hear the Swiss delegates.
Ch. 5 (27): Arthur leaves for Provence to convey the proposed agreement to René. After Charles's entry into Dijon, the Estates reject his demand for new taxation to fund his military schemes.
Ch. 6 (28): Charles rejects the Swiss overture and receives news of a treaty between Edward IV of England and Louis XI of France.
Ch. 7 (29): As they journey to Provence, Arthur's guide Thiebault provides information about the troubadours and King René.
Ch. 8 (30): After an encounter at Aix with René, by whom he is unimpressed, Arthur climbs to the monastery of Sainte Victoire to meet Margaret, who is now uncertain about her earlier proposal.
Ch. 9 (31): The next morning Margaret resolves to proceed with her proposal, and after three days spent in penitential exercise returns to Aix, telling Arthur that an unreliable Carmelite friar, who had mistakenly been entrusted with details of the proposed cession, had left the monastery without notice.
Ch. 10 (32): René abdicates, but refuses to disown Ferrand, who arrives with news of the defeat of the Burgundians at Granson. Sigismond gives Arthur an account of the battle and reveals that the Black Priest and the Carmelite were both Albert in disguise. Margaret tells Arthur she is giving up and expires.
Ch. 11 (33): After Margaret's funeral, Oxford helps to arrange the transfer of Provence to Louis.
Ch. 12 (34): The Burgundian cannoneer Colvin gives Oxford and his son an account of a second Burgundian defeat, at Murten, and of Charles's subsequent depression. They go to La Riviere, where Oxford revives the Duke's spirits.
Ch. 13 (35): The Burgundian forces arrive at Nancy, where Arthur kills Rudolph in single combat and is promised Anne's hand by Albert.
Ch. 14 (36): Fleeing from the victorious Swiss forces, Oxford and his son come across the corpses of Charles, Albert, and Schreckenwald. Sigismond takes the two of them into safe custody. Anne and Arthur are married and live near Geierstein until Arnold's death in 1482. Oxford and his son then re-enter the political arena and play a prominent part in the defeat of the last Yorkist king Richard III at Bosworth in 1485, using the necklace bequeathed to them by Margaret for funds to levy troops.
Reception
Anne of Geierstein met with an exceptionally favourable reception from its reviewers. Most of them were happy to detect no signs of declining powers, or of exhaustion in subject matter. The opening Alpine description attracted almost universal praise (The Westminster Review was alone in finding it exaggerated and improbable), as did the variety of incident throughout. Of the characters Arnold Biederman and Charles of Burgundy were considered particularly striking. Dissentient voices or comments found the relationship between history and plot unbalanced, 'not a novel but an ancient chronicle, with a love story worked in upon it' as The Examiner put it. The same critic joined two other unfavourably disposed colleagues in The Athenaeum and The Edinburgh Literary Gazette in judging most of the characters weak.
Anne of Geierstein and opals
In 1913, an American writer commented:
There is in fact little evidence that the superstition was common before the 1850s. A popular gift book of the 1840s was entitled The Opal, which would seem an unlikely title if the notion of the opal's unluckiness were well established. In 1875, less than fifty years after the publication of Scott's novel, Sir Henry Ponsonby felt compelled to write to Notes and Queries to ask for the foundation of the superstition, and received several different answers, none of which mention Anne of Geierstein. A brief assertion of such a connection is made by Sir John Piggot in an earlier issue, but it is hedged with a quotation from the gemmologist Charles Barbot (who ascribes it to the influence of Robert le Diable) and the scholars responding to Queen Victoria's secretary do not refer to it.
Adaptations
Between 1942 and 1944 the story was adapted into a newspaper comic strip by Rodolphe and Odette Vincent.
Notes
External links
Page on Anne of Geierstein at the Walter Scott Digital Archive
E-text at Arthur Wendover
1829 British novels
Novels by Walter Scott
Novels set in the 1470s
Historical novels
Novels set in Switzerland
Novels adapted into comics
Cultural depictions of Charles the Bold
Female characters in literature
Waverley Novels
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5381842
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton%20Light%20Rail%20Transit
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Edmonton Light Rail Transit
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Edmonton Light Rail Transit, commonly referred to as the LRT, is a light rail system in Edmonton, Alberta. Part of the Edmonton Transit Service (ETS), the system has 18 stations on two lines and of track. As of 2018, it is number seven on the busiest light rail transit systems in North America, with over 113,000 daily weekday riders.
The ETS started operation of the original LRT line in 1978, expanded by 2010 into the Capital Line, running between Clareview in Edmonton's northeast and Century Park in Edmonton's south end. The first phase of the newer Metro Line started service between the University of Alberta campus and hospital in Edmonton's southcentral and the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology northwest of downtown Edmonton in 2015, with further expansion to north Edmonton and neighbouring city of St. Albert planned into the future. Construction of the first phase of the Valley Line, from downtown Edmonton to Mill Woods in southeast Edmonton, began in spring 2016, and opened November 4, 2023. Construction on the second phase of the Valley Line, connecting downtown to west Edmonton, began in fall 2021 and is scheduled for completion by 2027.
History
In 1962, Canadian Bechtel Ltd. was commissioned to develop a plan for Edmonton's rapid transit system. Construction began in 1974 with a budget of $65 million. Edmonton became the first city in North America with a metropolitan population of less than one million to build a modern light rail system. The population was just over 445,000 when construction started on the route in 1974. It also became the first city in Western Canada to operate a rapid transit system. Testing of the new line started in 1977 with regular service starting April 22, 1978, in time for the 1978 Commonwealth Games. The line followed a CN right-of-way from Belvedere Station to Stadium Station (near Commonwealth Stadium), via an intermediate stop at Coliseum Station (near Northlands Coliseum), and then continued in a tunnel under 99 Street to Central Station, at Jasper Avenue and 100 Street, including an intermediate stop at Churchill Station. The original line was long.
Planning influences included the rail systems of Toronto (for dimensions), Montreal (underground environment), Cleveland (reuse of existing rail right of way), as well as Netherlands and Germany (feeder bus routes with timed-transfers, and choice of rolling stock). Operating practices were influenced by the MBTA Green Line, British trams, and the Canadian National Railway.
When the line opened, fare collection was modelled on traditional rapid transit lines, with booth attendants. Low volumes of activity at some entrances led to weekend closures of alternate station entrances. In November 1980, Edmonton Transit (as it was then named) switched to a modified European-style "proof of payment" system, retaining the old turnstiles to issue the new receipts. Fares were now collected by automated ticket vending machines with irregular proof of payment inspectors, which permitted keeping all entrances open and required fewer staff.
Every station on the line built since 1983 has been built with full accessibility for persons with disabilities. The 1998 and 2001 upgrades to the Belvedere and Clareview stations involved installation of roofs and lengthening of platforms to accommodate five-car trains.
The LRT system had an estimated 18,220 weekday passenger boardings in 1978. 24 years later, after the completion of six new underground stations in the downtown and with a new terminus at the University of Alberta, boardings more than doubled to 39,550 in 2002. The LRT system continues to expand, and operated with 18 stations, of double track and ridership of 110,786 average weekday boardings in 2018. Extensions of the LRT system has resulted in significant increases in ridership; ridership increased nearly 78% in the first full year of the South Campus and Century Park extensions (2011 versus 2008), and increased 15% in the first full year of the NAIT extension (2016 versus 2014).
Network
The system has two lines. The Capital Line, runs from northeast Edmonton to south Edmonton via Downtown. A second line, the Metro Line, connecting Downtown with northwest Edmonton, began limited operations in September 2015. There are further projects to create a new line that will extend to in the southeast part of the city and to in the west end of the city.
During construction, surface area was preserved (although costs increased) by tunnelling under the downtown core and the University of Alberta main campus. The underground portions of the LRT connect to the Edmonton Pedway system with links to many buildings. The LRT crosses the North Saskatchewan River between the Government Centre and University stations on the Dudley B. Menzies Bridge, a dedicated LRT and pedestrian bridge.
Storage, maintenance and operations of the LRT are controlled from the D.L. MacDonald Yard.
The LRT operates approximately between 5:00 a.m. and 1:00 a.m. daily. During peak-times, trains departing Clareview to Downtown run approximately every five to ten minutes, and run every 15 minutes during off-peak hours. Trains from Century Park to Downtown run on a five-minute frequency during peak-times and run every five to ten minutes during off-peak times. After 10 p.m. trains run every 15 minutes. Before the opening of the Metro Line, the city held a naming contest, to determine the names of the five current and future LRT lines. On January 31, 2013, the city announced the names: Capital Line, Metro Line, Valley Line, Energy Line, and Festival Line.
Stations
The Capital Line has 15 stations: Clareview, Belvedere, Coliseum, Stadium, Churchill, Central, Bay/Enterprise Square, Corona, Government Centre, University, Health Sciences/Jubilee, McKernan/Belgravia, South Campus/Fort Edmonton Park, Southgate, and Century Park stations. Of these, Churchill, Central, Bay/Enterprise Square, Corona, Government Centre, and University are underground. The three newest stations opened in September 2015 for the Metro Line: MacEwan, Kingsway/Royal Alex, and NAIT.
Another 12 stations were built for the first phase of the Valley Line, which opened in later 2023.
Rolling stock
The rolling stock of the Capital Line is composed of trains of either Siemens-Duewag U2 or Siemens SD-160 cars. ETS operates 37 U2 cars, some of which have been in operation since the system opened in 1978. ETS also operates 57 SD-160 cars, of which 37 were ordered between 2005 and 2007, with the first cars entering revenue service on January 27, 2009. An additional 20 cars were purchased in 2010 and 2011 for use in the Metro Line and were delivered from March 2012 to April 2013.
The Capital Line uses five-car trains during peak hours, four-car trains on weekends, and two-car trains are used for late night service. The Metro Line will operate three-car trains until the permanent NAIT station is opened, as the temporary NAIT station can only accommodate three-car trains. The permanent station will be 125 metres long to accommodate a five-car train. All other extensions to the Capital and Metro lines will have five-car platforms.
The future Valley Line (currently under construction) will initially use new low-floor Bombardier Flexity Freedom vehicles. Forty other new low-floor LRT vehicles were ordered in 2021 from Hyundai Rotem for the Valley Line, to be put in service when the West extension to Lewis Farms opens.
Safety and security
All LRT stations are monitored by CCTV cameras. All trains are equipped with operator alert systems which allow passengers to contact the train operator in the event of an emergency. Likewise, all stations are equipped with blue emergency help phones which connect with ETS Security. The stations are patrolled by transit peace officers.
Despite the security measures, there have been several incidents on trains or at stations. In 2008, there were 328 crimes against persons reported on transport property.
Some of the most serious incidents include:
In 1988, a woman was strangled to death in a Churchill Station washroom.
In 2010, a woman was shot and killed at Stadium Station.
In 2012, a man was beaten to death on board the LRT between Stadium and Belvedere Station.
In 2018, a man was stabbed at South Campus/Fort Edmonton Park station
In 2021, a male student was assaulted and stabbed at University Station.
In April 2022, an elderly woman was assaulted and pushed onto the tracks at Health Sciences/Jubilee
In June 2022 near Churchill Station, Edmonton Police Service officers fatally shot an armed suspect
In July 2023, a man was fatally stabbed at Belvedere station.
Fares
The cash fare for passengers using ETS buses and the LRT, since 1 February 2019, is $3.50 for adults, seniors and youth. Children 12 and under ride free with fare-paying rider.
Passengers can also purchase books of transit tickets or monthly transit passes. Seniors can purchase an annual transit pass at a discounted rate.
Passengers paying a cash fare at a fare machine at an LRT station are issued a transit ticket, which is validated as an LRT ticket after being time-stamped. This ticket is valid both as proof of payment and as a transfer. Transfers allow the passenger to transfer from the LRT to a bus, from a bus to the LRT and between buses, and is valid for 90 minutes from the time it was stamped. Passengers paying a cash fare or validating a ticket on a bus obtain a transfer at the time the fare is paid. Transfers also serve as proof of payment for 90 minutes.
Passengers in an LRT proof-of-payment area must present proof of payment upon request by a transit peace officer. Proof of payment includes LRT tickets, transfers, validated transit tickets and transit passes. Failure to provide proof of payment can result in a $250 fine. Proof-of-payment areas include all LRT trains and LRT station platforms, unless the ticket vending machines are located on the platform itself.
In 2007, ETS, the University of Alberta (U of A), and MacEwan University partnered to provide students with a universal transit pass (U-Pass), which is valid on the LRT and all ETS buses as well as on Strathcona County and St. Albert Transit Systems. NAIT students voted to join the program in 2010. The U-Pass allows unlimited LRT and bus use. This service was temporarily suspended in fall 2020 through winter 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Expansion
Overview of planned lines
The City of Edmonton prioritized completion of the Metro Line to NAIT for 2014, followed by expanding the system to the southeast and west. City council approved funding to begin preliminary engineering on the Valley Line from Mill Woods to Lewis Farms in June 2011.
Capital Line expansion
Future plans call for expanding the Capital Line to Gorman in the northeast and Heritage Valley in the south.
South extension
The Capital line will be extended in two phases. Phase 1 is a 4.5 km long, high floor LRT and will extend the line from Century Park just North of 23rd Avenue on 111th Street to Ellerslie Road via an underpass under 23 Avenue and then rising above ground again before Saddleback Road. Phase 2 will extend from Ellerslie Road to Allard/Desrochers.
Preparation work for future tunneling and reception site shafts on 23 Avenue at the 111 Street and 109 Street intersections began in early November 2022 and is expected to take approximately 18 months.
Metro Line expansion
NAIT to St. Albert
Beyond NAIT, the Metro Line will travel through Blatchford (the sustainable neighbourhood being developed on the grounds of the former City Centre Airport), go over the CN railway yard north of Yellowhead Trail, and continue north along 113A Street, and west along 153 Avenue. The City of St. Albert has also begun preliminary plans to extend the LRT line into their borders.
On May 19, 2010, the transportation department announced its recommendation for an extension of the Metro Line from NAIT station to St. Albert. This extension is expected to eventually serve 42,000 to 45,000 passengers daily.
Valley Line
The Valley Line is a proposed , low-floor urban line running southeast to west from to , crossing through downtown. The line will be constructed in phases, with phase 1 being the , 12-station portion between and (downtown) allowing passengers to connect with the Capital Line and Metro Line at . Construction started in 2016 and the line is scheduled to open on November 4, 2023.
Mill Woods to Downtown
In December 2009, the city council approved a new low-floor train route that would leave a new ground-level station at Churchill Square on 102 Avenue between 100 and 99 Streets before stopping in The Quarters redevelopment on 102 Avenue between 97 Street and 96 Street. From here the route enters a tunnel and travels beneath 95 Street descending into the river valley to cross the North Saskatchewan River on the new Tawatinâ Bridge, east of Louise McKinney Park. The route then proceeds to climb the hill adjacent to Connors Road then proceeds east along 95 Avenue and southbound at 85 Street. The route will travel southbound along 85 Street crossing the traffic circle and shifting to 83 Street, continuing south and east towards Wagner Road. Finally the line will proceed south along 75/66 Street until it reaches Mill Woods Town Centre. Within this line the proposed stations are: Quarters, Muttart, Strathearn, Holyrood, Bonnie Doon, Avonmore, Davies (to include a bus terminal and park & ride), Millbourne/Woodvale, Grey Nuns, and Mill Woods Town Centre. The maintenance and storage of vehicles for the line will be at the new Gerry Wright Operations and Maintenance Facility, at Whitemud Drive and 75 Street.
On February 15, 2012, city council approved the Downtown LRT concept plan. The Downtown LRT Project became part of the Southeast to West LRT project. The city hoped to have money in place by the end of 2013 for the $1.8-billion LRT line from downtown to Mill Woods to start construction in 2016. City council committed $800 million, the federal government invested $250 million, and $235 million would come from the provincial government, leaving a $515 million funding gap delaying the project. On March 11, 2014, it was announced that the project would be completely funded with an additional $150 million from the federal government and $365 million from the provincial government.
Downtown to Lewis Farms
A planned expansion to Lewis Farms, with the West Edmonton Mall en route, is in the engineering phase as part of the Valley Line.
The option approved by Council in 2010 was to have the west LRT extension run from downtown, along 104 Avenue and Stony Plain Road before diverting south on 156 Street towards Meadowlark Health And Shopping Centre, then along an 87 Avenue alignment to West Edmonton Mall and beyond. Proponents of this route cited opportunities for transit-oriented development.
On November 1, 2018, the Government of Alberta announced a contribution of $1.04 billion towards the second phase of the Valley Line, extending it west to Lewis Farms with an estimated completion date of 2027–28.
Controversy
The Valley LRT to Mill Woods generated opponents particularly on the location of the route. The Edmonton Chinese community opposed the city's plan to lay the tracks on 102 Avenue as it is directly in front of a Chinese elderly care facility. Despite demands to relocate the route to 102a Avenue, the city council voted for the original proposal. Another group opposed the route saying that the new LRT bridge crossing the North Saskatchewan River will have a negative impact on the river valley and the removal of the existing footbridge during construction (to be replaced by pedestrian space on the LRT bridge) would temporarily displace an existing river crossing. The city states that impact is minimal, no other alternative routes were suitable, and has proceeded with construction.
Concerns in 2008 and 2009 over community impacts along the proposed west leg of the Valley Line and north leg of the Metro Line led to a larger debate over the vision guiding the various expansion plans, and the criteria used to select the routes.
The adoption of a new signalling system (see below) for the Metro Line pushed back the start date from April 2014 to September 2015, when the line finally began operation at a frequency of 15 minutes, rather than 5. Trains only ran at a maximum of between the Churchill and NAIT stations, creating passenger delays and traffic congestion. An independent safety auditor cleared trains to run at their full as of February 19, 2017.
Completed extensions
Capital line
On April 26, 1981, ETS opened a northeastern-bound extension of on the CN right-of-way to Clareview Station. In June 1983, the light rail tunnel downtown was extended by to Bay and Corona stations. The D.L. MacDonald Yard, between Belvedere and Clareview, opened in December 1983 to store and service the vehicles. The line was extended in September 1989 by to Grandin station (now Government Centre station, close to the Alberta Legislature). On August 23, 1992, the next extension opened from Grandin to University Station, partially via the Dudley B. Menzies Bridge, crossing the North Saskatchewan River with a lower level for pedestrians and cyclists, and partially via a tunnel into the station. Major upgrades to the Belvedere and Clareview stations were made in 1998 and 2001 respectively.
On January 1, 2006, the line was extended south through the University Campus to Health Sciences Station, which is located at street level. On April 25, 2009, McKernan/Belgravia and South Campus stations were opened as part of the south LRT expansion, with Southgate and Century Park opening on April 24, 2010. The first of the new Siemens SD-160 light rail vehicle train cars for the new extension were shipped by rail from Florin, California, on April 24, 2008, arriving in Edmonton on May 9, 2008 (37 vehicles in total).
The LRT expansion was developed entirely at surface level with several underpasses after 2006, one at Belgravia Road and the other under 111 Street south of 61 Avenue. A short busway has been constructed from the South Campus station roughly parallel to Belgravia Road in conjunction with the South LRT expansion.
Metro line
On April 27, 2007, the city began detailed planning of a new LRT line that will run north from Churchill Station, to the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT), and eventually beyond to north-end neighbourhoods with a terminal station south of St. Albert.
The Metro line branches off the Capital Line at Churchill Station, runs west along 105 Avenue to the MacEwan University City Centre Campus, then north along 105 Street, Kingsway (Avenue), and 106 Street, to Kingsway Mall and NAIT.
In April 2008, Edmonton City Council approved $45 million in funding to build a tunnel under the Epcor Tower site immediately, while it was still under construction, with the aim of saving $140 million more than would have been required to dig under the tower once it was completed. This step was taken even though the rest of the project had not yet been approved, because of the time constraint posed by the construction of the new tower. Construction on the tunnel began in August 2009 and was completed by approximately September 2010.
On July 2, 2009, the federal and provincial governments approved the reallocation of funding from the proposed Gorman Station extension to the Metro line as the city felt that NAIT was a higher priority.
The expansion added three stations to the system; MacEwan station at MacEwan University, Kingsway/Royal Alex station near Kingsway Mall and the Royal Alexandra Hospital, and NAIT station at the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology. MacEwan Station is located just east of the downtown MacEwan University campus, and west of the proposed downtown hockey arena, at 104 Street and 105 Avenue. The Kingsway/Royal Alex Station is located on the north side of Kingsway, to the south of the hospital. As part of the plan, the Kingsway Transit Centre was relocated to the southeast corner of 111 Avenue and 106 Street, to provide service to both Kingsway Mall and the LRT station. The NAIT Station is located north of Princess Elizabeth Avenue, on the south side of NAIT's swimming pool and hockey arena.
The Metro Line was completed at a cost $90 million under its estimated $755 million budget, with a total project cost of $665 million.
Signalling system
The Metro Line and the Capital Line use fixed block signalling. The new Metro Line was originally built to use only CBTC, but was converted to the fixed block system after the City fired Thales, the contractor originally chosen to install the CBTC system. The Metro Line's fixed block system was provided by Alstom. The fixed-block system became active in March 2021, allowing trains to run at full speed along the metro line track for the first time since the line opened. The city claims that frequencies in the downtown core will reach 2.5 minutes with the fixed-block system, but the current schedule is for 5-minute headways.
The signalling system divides the track into sections called blocks protected by signals that maintain at least one empty fixed block between trains. The CBTC system was supposed to use computer control to maintain a fixed distance of empty space (a moving block) between trains. This would have allowed trains to operate closer together, which increases the frequency of trains arriving at stations and increases an LRT system's overall capacity for ridership.
The CBTC uses computers on trains that report into a central controller to pinpoint the exact location of each train and constantly adjust the speed, spacing and routing of trains to keep trains safe and on schedule. It safely tightens up the spacing between trains so that Metro Line and Capital Line trains can share the same tracks between Health Sciences/Jubilee station and Churchill station. Edmonton Transit runs peak-time trains every 5 minutes through downtown, but this frequency could have been increased to every 2.5 minutes when the Metro Line originally intended to be operational. This goal was abandoned by the city after August 2021, having restored 5 minute frequency on the Capital Line. The Metro Line continues to operate on a 15-minute frequency.
References
External links
A technological history of municipally owned public transportation in Edmonton Volume Two
Edmonton Transit Service (Official website)
Edmonton Transit Service–Future LRT
- Published by the City of Edmonton; illustrates motorman procedures
Railway lines opened in 1978
600 V DC railway electrification
Railway companies established in 1978
Electric railways in Canada
Standard gauge railways in Canada
1978 establishments in Alberta
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassodromeus
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Thalassodromeus
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Thalassodromeus is a genus of pterosaur that lived in what is now Brazil during the Early Cretaceous period, about a hundred million years ago. The original skull, discovered in 1983 in the Araripe Basin of northeastern Brazil, was collected in several pieces. In 2002, the skull was made the holotype specimen of Thalassodromeus sethi by palaeontologists Alexander Kellner and Diogenes de Almeida Campos. The generic name means "sea runner" (in reference to its supposed mode of feeding), and the specific name refers to the Egyptian god Seth due to its crest being supposedly reminiscent of Seth's crown. Other scholars have pointed out that the crest was instead similar to the crown of Amon. A jaw tip was assigned to T. sethi in 2005, became the basis of the new genus Banguela in 2014, and assigned back to Thalassodromeus as the species T. oberlii in 2018. Another species (T. sebesensis) was described in 2015 based on a supposed crest fragment, but this was later shown to be part of a turtle shell.
Thalassodromeus had one of the largest known skulls among pterosaurs, around long, with one of the proportionally largest cranial crests of any vertebrate. Though only the skull is known, the animal is estimated to have had a wingspan of . The crest was lightly built and ran from the tip of the upper jaw to beyond the back of the skull, ending in a unique V-shaped notch. The jaws were toothless, and had sharp upper and lower edges. Its skull had large nasoantorbital fenestrae (opening that combined the antorbital fenestra in front of the eye with the bony nostril), and part of its palate was concave. The lower jaw was blade-like, and may have turned slightly upwards. The closest relative of Thalassodromeus was Tupuxuara; both are grouped in a clade that has been placed within either Tapejaridae (as the subfamily Thalassodrominae) or within Neoazhdarchia (as the family Thalassodromidae).
Several theories have been suggested to explain the function of Thalassodromeuss crest, including thermoregulation and display, but it likely had more than one function. The crests of thalassodromids appear to have developed late in growth (probably correlated with sexual maturity) and they may have been sexually dimorphic (differing according to sex). As the genus name implies, Thalassodromeus was originally proposed to have fed like a modern skimmer bird, by skimming over the water's surface and dipping its lower jaws to catch prey. This idea was later criticised for lack of evidence; Thalassodromeus has since been found to have had strong jaw musculature, and may have been able to kill and eat relatively large prey on the ground. The limb proportions of related species indicate that it may have adapted to fly in inland settings, and would have been efficient at moving on the ground. Thalassodromeus is known from the Romualdo Formation, where it coexisted with many other types of pterosaurs, dinosaurs and other animals.
History of discovery
The first known specimen of this pterosaur (an extinct order of flying reptiles) was collected in 1983 near the town of Santana do Cariri in the Araripe Basin of northeastern Brazil. Found in outcrops of the Romualdo Formation, it was collected over a long period in several pieces. The specimen (catalogued as DGM 1476-R at the Museu de Ciências da Terra) was preserved in a calcareous nodule, and consists of an almost-complete, three-dimensional skull (pterosaur bones are often flattened compression fossils), missing two segments of the bottom of the skull and mandible and the front of the lower jaw. The left jugal region and right mandibular ramus (half of the mandible) are pushed slightly inward. The skull was first reported in a 1984 Italian book, and preliminarily described and figured in 1990 by palaeontologists Alexander Kellner and Diogenes de Almeida Campos. Although the pieces of skull had been divided between museums in South and North America, they were assembled before 2002.
In 2002, Kellner and Campos described and named the new genus and species Thalassodromeus sethi, skull DGM 1476-R being the holotype specimen. The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words and , meaning "sea runner" in reference to the animal's supposed skim-feeding behaviour. The specific name refers to the Egyptian god Seth. The specimen was not fully prepared at the time of this preliminary description. The original describers chose the name sethi because the crest of this pterosaur was supposedly reminiscent of the crown worn by Seth, but the palaeontologists André Jacques Veldmeijer, Marco Signore, and Hanneke J. M. Meijer pointed out in 2005 that the crown (with its two tall plumes) was typically worn by the god Amon (or Amon-Ra) and his manifestationsnot by Seth.
In 2006, palaeontologists David M. Martill and Darren Naish suggested that Thalassodromeus was a junior synonym of the related genus Tupuxuara, which was named by Kellner and Campos in 1988 based on fossils from the same formation. In the view of Martill and Naish, the differences between these genera (including two species of Tupuxuara, T. longicristatus and T. leonardii) were due to ontogeny (changes during growth) and compression of the fossils; Thalassodromeus was simply an older, larger, and better-preserved individual. This idea was rejected by Kellner and Campos in 2007, who pointed out these species had differences in features other than their crests. They also noted that one specimen of Tupuxuara had a larger skull than Thalassodromeus (measured from the tip of the premaxilla to the back of the squamosal bone), despite Martill and Naish's contention that the latter was an older individual. Kellner and Campos' view has since been accepted by other researchers, including Martill and Naish.
Veldmeijer and colleagues assigned the front part of a mandible collected from the same formation to T. sethi in 2005. They concluded that although the two specimens differed in several details, the differences were not significant enough to base a new species on the mandible, and that the new specimen filled in the gap of Kellner and Campos' T. sethi skull reconstruction. Palaeontologists Jaime A. Headden and Herbert B. N. Campos coined the new binomial Banguela oberlii, based on their reinterpretation of the jaw tip as belonging to a toothless member of the family Dsungaripteridae, in 2014. The generic name is Portuguese for "toothless" and the specific name honours private collector Urs Oberli, who had donated the specimen to the Naturmuseum St. Gallen (where it is catalogued as NMSG SAO 25109). Headden and Campos interpreted the tip of T. sethi lower jaw as downturned; this and other features distinguished it from Banguela. In their 2018 re-description of the further-prepared T. sethi holotype skull, palaeontologists Rodrigo V. Pêgas, Fabiana R. Costa, and Kellner assigned B. oberlii back to Thalassodromeus while recognising it as a distinct species, and thereby created the new combination T. oberlii. Pêgas and colleagues also rejected the theory that the lower jaw of T. sethi was downturned, and reinterpreted the frontmost piece of the lower jaw to have connected directly with the subsequent piece (with no gap).
In 2015 palaeontologists Gerald Grellet Tinner and Vlad A. Codrea named a new species, T. sebesensis, based on what they interpreted as part of a cranial crest in a concretion found near the Sebeș River in Romania. The authors said that this would extend the range in time and space for the genus Thalassodromeus considerably, creating a 42-million-year gap between the older South American species and the younger European species. Palaeontologist Gareth J. Dyke and a large team of colleagues immediately rejected the pterosaurian identification of the T. sebesensis fossil, instead arguing that it was a misidentified part of a plastron (lower shell) of the prehistoric turtle Kallokibotion bajazidi (named in 1923). The idea that the fragment belonged to a turtle had been considered and rejected by Grellet-Tinnera and Codrea in their original description. Grellet-Tinnera and Codrea denied the turtle identity suggested by Dyke and colleagues, noting that those researchers had not directly examined the fossil.
Description
The holotype (and only known skull) of Thalassodromeus sethi is one of the largest pterosaur skulls ever discovered. The entire skull is estimated to have been long; the bones were fused together, indicating adulthood. Based on related pterosaurs, its wingspan was , making Thalassodromeus the largest known member of its clade, Thalassodromidae. Of similar proportions, its skull was more heavily built than that of its relative Tupuxuara. Although the postcranial skeleton of Thalassodromeus is unknown, relatives had unusually short and blocky neck vertebrae, with well-developed front and hind-limbs that were almost equal in length (excluding the long wing-finger). The hindlimbs were eighty percent that of the forelimb length, a unique ratio among pterodactyloids (short-tailed pterosaurs). As a pterosaur, Thalassodromeus was covered with hair-like pycnofibres and had extensive wing membranes (which were extended by the wing finger).
The skull of T. sethi had a streamlined profile, especially from the tip of the snout to the front edge of the nasoantorbital fenestra (opening which combined the antorbital fenestra in front of the eye with the bony nostril). The most conspicuous feature of the skull was the large crest, which ran along the upper edge from the tip of the snout and beyond the occiput at the back of the skull, almost doubling the length and height of the skull. With the exception of the pterosaur Tupandactylus imperator (whose crest consisted mainly of soft tissue), T. sethi had the proportionally largest cranial crest of any known vertebrate (75 percent of the skull's side surface). The crest was mainly formed by the premaxillae (the frontmost snout bones), frontal bones, parietal bones, and part of the supraoccipital bone. The premaxillae formed most of the crest, extending to its back, and contacted the frontoparietal part of the crest by a straight suture (a distinct feature of this species). The crest varied from in thickness; it thickened at the contact between the premaxillae and the frontoparietal part, and became gradually thinner toward the top and back (except for the lower part behind the occiput, where it had a thick base).
Despite its size, the crest was lightly built and essentially hollow; some areas indicate signs of skeletal pneumatisation and a well-developed trabecular system uniting the bones. The crest's surface had a system of channels of varying size and thickness, probably the impressions of extensive blood vessels. A small, opening was present above the orbit (eye socket), piercing the basal part of the crest; such a feature is unknown in other pterosaurs, and does not appear to be due to damage. The margins of the opening are smooth, and the inner border has fenestration connecting it to the inner structure of the crest. The back of the crest ended in a prominent V-shaped notch, a unique feature of this species. Although other parts of the crest have V-shaped breaks, the V shape at the end does not appear to have been due to breakage; the margins of the bone can be seen there, still encased by matrix. The crest probably had a keratinous (horny) covering and may have been extended by soft tissue in some areas, but the extent of this is unknown.
The upper jaw of T. sethi was primarily composed of premaxillae and maxillae; the suture which formed the border between these bones is not visible. As in all members of its clade, the jaws were edentulous (toothless). The rostrum (snout) was long from the tip of the premaxilla to the joint where the quadrate bone of the skull connected with the articular bone of the lower jaw. The front of the premaxillae had sharp upper and lower edges, unique to this species. As in related genera, the nasoantorbital fenestra was comparatively large; it was long and high, which was 71 percent of the skull length (excluding the crest). The lacrimal bone, which separated the orbit from the nasoantorbital fenestra, was vertically elongated and higher than the upper surface of the orbit (in contrast to the condition seen in pterodactyloids with smaller nasoantorbital fenestrae). The orbit was slender and compressed from front to back compared to Tupuxuara and tapejarids, but similar to some of them in being more than half the height of the nasoantorbital fenestra. The orbit was positioned lower than the upper margin of the nasoantorbital fenestra, and therefore very low on the skull. Although the bones bordering the lower temporal fenestra (an opening behind the orbit) were incomplete, it appears to have been elongated and slit-like (as in Tupuxuara and Tapejara).
The palatal area at the tip of T. sethis snout was a sharp ridge, similar to the keel seen on the upper surface of the mandibular symphysis where the two halves of the lower jaw connected. Small slit-like foramina (openings) on the lower side edges of the ridge indicate that it had a horny covering in life, similar to Tupandactylus. The lower edge of the area was somewhat curved, which probably created a small gap when the jaws were closed. Further back, immediately in front of the nasoantorbital fenestra, the palatal ridge became a strong, blunt, convex keel. This convexity fit into the symphyseal shelf at the front end of the lower jaw, and they would have tightly interlocked when the jaws were closed. The palatal ridge ended in a strongly concave area unique to this species. The postpalatine fenestrae (openings behind the palatine bone) were oval and very small, differing from those of related species. The ectopterygoid (bone on the side of the palate) had large, plate-like sides, and was well-developed compared to related species. The supraoccipital bone, which formed the hindmost base of the cranial crest, had muscle scars at its upper end (probably corresponding to the attachment of neck muscles).
Although the lower jaw of T. sethi is incomplete, its total length is estimated at 47 percent of which was occupied by the mandibular symphysis. The tip of the mandible is missing, but its front surface indicates that it might have been turned slightly upwards as in T. oberlii (the possible second species of Thalassodromeus, or possibly a different genus (Banguela) which is known only from a jaw tip). The symphyseal shelf, the upper surface of the symphysis, extended for and had a flat surface. Seen from above, the side edges of this area were tall and formed a sharp margin. Near the front end of the symphysis, the edges which formed the margins became broader towards the front of the shelf until they met and fused. The upper and lower surfaces of the jaw at the front of the shelf were keeled (the upper keel more robust and starting before the lower), which gave the symphysis a blade-like shape. The lower keel became deeper towards the front of the jaw, giving the impression that the jaw deflected downwards; it was actually straight, except for the (perhaps) upturned tip. The mandibular fossae (depressions) at the back of the upper jaw were deeper and broader than usual in pterodactyloids, creating large surfaces for the lower jaw to articulate with. The possible species T. oberlii differed from T. sethi and other relatives by the upper surface of its mandibular symphysis being slightly shorter than the lower surface, and was further distinguished from T. sethi by the upper edge of the symphysis being much sharper than the lower. The two species shared features such as the compression of the symphysis sideways and from top to bottom, the sharp keel at the upper front of the symphysis, and the small groove running along the upper surface of the shelf.
Classification
The classification of Thalassodromeus and its closest relatives is one of the most contentious issues regarding their group. Kellner and Campos originally assigned Thalassodromeus to the family Tapejaridae, based on its large crest and large nasoantorbital fenestra. Within this clade, they found that it differed from the short-faced genus Tapejara but shared a keel on the palate with Tupuxuara. Kellner elaborated on the relationships within Tapejaridae in 2004, and pointed out that Thalassodromeus and Tupuxuara also shared a crest consisting primarily of bone; the crest had a large component of soft tissue in other members of the group.
Martill and Naish considered Tapejaridae a paraphyletic (unnatural) group in 2006, and found Tupuxuara (which included Thalassodromeus in their analysis) to be the sister taxon to the family Azhdarchidae. This clade (Tupuxuara and Azhdarchidae) had been named Neoazhdarchia by palaeontologist David Unwin in 2003, an arrangement Martill and Naish concurred with. According to Martill, features uniting members of Neoazhdarchia included the presence of a notarium (fused vertebrae in the shoulder region), the loss of contact between the first and third metacarpals (bones in the hand), and very long snouts (more than 88% of the skull length). Kellner and Campos defended the validity of Tapejaridae in 2007, dividing it into two clades: Tapejarinae and Thalassodrominae, the latter containing Thalassodromeus (the type genus) and Tupuxuara. They distinguished thalassodromines by their high nasoantorbital fenestrae and the bony part of their crests beginning at the front of the skull and continuing further back than in other pterosaurs.
The interrelationship of these clades within the larger clade Azhdarchoidea remained disputed, and the clade containing Thalassodromeus and Tupuxuara had received different names from different researchers (Thalassodrominae and Tupuxuaridae). Palaeontologist Mark Witton attempted to resolve the naming issue in 2009, noting that the name "Tupuxuaridae" (first used in the vernacular form "tupuxuarids" by palaeontologist Lü Junchang and colleagues in 2006) had never been validly established and Thalassodrominae should be the proper name (although it was bestowed a year later). Witton further converted the subfamily name Thalassodrominae into the family name Thalassodromidae, and considered the clade part of Neoazhdarchia.
A 2011 analysis by palaeontologist Felipe Pinheiro and colleagues upheld the grouping of the clades Tapejarinae and Thalassodrominae in the family Tapejaridae, joined by the Chaoyangopterinae. A 2014 study by palaeontologist Brian Andres and colleagues instead found thalassodromines to group with dsungaripterids, forming the clade Dsungaripteromorpha within Neoazhdarchia (defined as the most inclusive clade containing Dsungaripterus weii but not Quetzalcoatlus northropi).
Cladogram based on Pinheiro and colleagues, 2011:
Cladogram based on Andres and colleagues, 2014:
Pêgas and colleagues kept Tapejarinae and Thalassodrominae as part of Tapejaridae in 2018, but acknowledged that the subject was still controversial.
Palaeobiology
Crest function
Possible functions for Thalassodromeuss cranial crest were proposed by Kellner and Campos in 2002. They suggested that the network of blood vessels on its large surface was consistent with use for thermoregulation, which had also been suggested for the crests of some dinosaurs. Kellner and Campos thought that the crest was used for cooling (enabling the animal to dissipate excess metabolic heat through convection), while heat transfer was controlled byand depended onthe network of blood vessels. The ability to control its body temperature would have aided Thalassodromeus during intense activity (such as hunting), and they suggested that, when in flight, heat would have been dispelled more effectively if the crest was aligned with the wind, while the head was intentionally moved to the sides. Kellner and Campos posited that the crest could have had additional functions, such as display; aided by colour, it could have been used in species recognition, and could also have been a sexually dimorphic feature (differing according to sex), as has been proposed for Pteranodon.
In 2006, Martill and Naish found that the crests of Tupuxuara and its relatives developed by the premaxillary portion of the crests growing backwards over the skull-roof (as indicated by the well-defined suture between the premaxilla and the underlying bones). The hind margin of the premaxillary part of this specimen's crest had only reached above the hind margin of the nasoantorbital fenestra, indicating that it was not an adult at the time of death. This suggests that the development of the crest happened late in the growth of an individual, was probably related to sexual display, and the sexual maturity of a given specimen could be assessed by the size and disposition of the crest. The T. sethi holotype, with its hypertrophied (enlarged) premaxillary crest, would thereby represent an old adult individual (and the mature stage of Tupuxuara, according to their interpretation). Kellner and Campos found Martill and Naish's discussion of cranial crest development interesting, although they found their proposed model speculative.
Palaeontologists David W. E. Hone, Naish, and Innes C. Cuthill reiterated Martill and Naish's growth hypothesis in 2012; since pterosaurs were probably precocial and able to fly shortly after hatching, the role of the crest was relevant only after maturity (when the structure was fully grown). They deemed the thermoregulation hypothesis an unlikely explanation for the blood-vessel channels on the crest, which they found consistent with nourishment for growing tissue (such as the keratin in bird beaks). Hone, Naish, and Cuthill suggested that the wing membranes and air-sac system would have been more effective at controlling heat than a crest, and wind and water could also have helped cool pterosaurs in high-temperature maritime settings. In 2013, Witton agreed that the substantially larger crests of adult thalassodromids indicated that they were more important for behavioural activities than for physiology. He found the idea that the crests were used for thermoregulation problematic, since they did not grow regularly with body size; they grew at a fast pace in near-adults, quicker than what would be predicted for the growth of a thermoregulatory structure. According to Witton, the large, highly vascular wing membranes of pterosaurs would provide the surface area needed for thermoregulation, meaning the crests were not needed for that function. He concluded that the crest's blood-vessel patterns did not differ much from those seen on bones under the beaks of birds, which are used for transporting nutrients to the bone and soft tissues rather than for thermoregulation. Witton noted that although bird beaks lose heat quickly, that is not what they were developed for; the crests of pterosaurs might also have had an effect on thermoregulation, without this being their primary function.
Pêgas and colleagues noted that sexual dimorphism in crest size and shape has been proposed for some pterosaurs; the crest shape seen in the T. sethi holotype may correlate with one sex and may have been the result of sexual selection. They suggested that both sexes could have had similar crests due to mutual sexual selection, but interpretation of exaggerated features was challenging due to the small sample size; more T. sethi specimens would have to be found to evaluate these theories. They did not think that thermoregulation correlated with crest growth relative to body size, since the bills of toucans (the largest of any modern birds) grow drastically out of proportion to body size and function as thermoregulatory structures, as well as facilitating feeding and social behaviour. Pêgas and colleagues found the vascular structure of toucan bills comparable to that in the crest of T. sethi, concluding that the crest also had multiple functions.
Feeding and diet
Kellner and Campos originally found the jaws of Thalassodromeus similar to those of modern skimmersthree bird species in the genus Rhynchopswith their sideways-compressed jaws, blade-like beak, and protruding lower jaw (resembling scissors in side view). They argued that Thalassodromeus would have fed in a similar way, as implied by the genus name; skimmers skim over the surface of water, dipping their lower jaw to catch fish and crustaceans. Kellner and Campos listed additional skull features of skimmers which are adaptations for skim feeding, including enlarged palatine bones, a feature also shared with Thalassodromeus. Unlike skimmers and other pterosaurs, the palatine bones of Thalassodromeus were concave, which the writers suggested could have helped it momentarily store food. Like skimmers, Thalassodromeus also appears to have had powerful neck muscles, large jaw muscles, and an upper jaw tip well-irrigated by blood (features which Kellner and Campos interpreted as adaptations for skimming). They concluded that the scissor-like bill and thin crest almost made other modes of capturing preysuch as swooping down toward water and plunging into itimpossible. Conceding the difficulty of reconstructing Thalassodromeuss fishing method, they envisioned it with a less-mobile neck than skimmers; with the crest impeding its head from submersion it would glide, flapping its wings only occasionally. They found that the pterosaur with jaws most similar to those of Thalassodromeus was the smaller Rhamphorhynchus, although they believed that it would have had limited skimming ability.
In 2004, palaeontologist Sankar Chatterjee and engineer R. Jack Templin said that smaller pterosaurs may have been able to skim-feed. They doubted that this was possible for larger ones, due to their lesser manoeuvrability and flying capability while resisting water. Chatterjee and Templin noted that skimmers have blunter beaks than pterosaurs like Thalassodromeus, to direct water from the jaw while skimming. In 2007, biophysicist Stuart Humphries and colleagues questioned whether any pterosaurs would have commonly fed by skimming and said that such conclusions had been based on anatomical comparisons rather than biomechanical data. The drag experienced by bird bills and pterosaur jaws was hydrodynamically and aerodynamically tested by creating model bills of the black skimmer, Thalassodromeus, and the (presumably) non-skimming Tupuxuara and towing them along a water-filled trough at varying speeds. The researchers found that skimming used more energy for skimmers than previously thought, and would have been impossible for a pterosaur weighing more than due to the metabolic power required. They found that even smaller pterosaurs, like Rhamphorhynchus, were not adapted for skimming. The aluminium rigging of the Thalassodromeus model was destroyed during the experiment, due to the high and unstable forces exerted on it while skimming at high speed, casting further doubt on this feeding method. The authors used the jaw tip of T. oberlii to model the performance of Thalassodromeus, since it was assigned to T. sethi at the time.
Unwin and Martill suggested in 2007 that thalassodromids may have foraged similarly to storks, as had been suggested for azhdarchids. Witton said in 2013 that although skim-feeding had been suggested for many pterosaur groups, the idea was criticised in recent years; pterosaurs lacked virtually all adaptations for skim-feeding, making it unlikely that they fed this way. Thalassodromeus (unlike skimmers) did not have a particularly wide or robust skull or especially large jaw-muscle attachment sites, and its mandible was comparatively short and stubby. Witton agreed with Unwin and Martill that thalassodromids, with their equal limb proportions and elongated jaws, were suited to roaming terrestrially and feeding opportunistically; their shorter, more flexible necks indicated a different manner of feeding than azhdarchids, which had longer, stiffer necks. He suggested that thalassodromids may have had more generalised feeding habits, and azhdarchids may have been more restricted; Thalassodromeus may have been better at handling relatively large, struggling prey than its relative, Tupuxuara, which had a more lightly built skull. Witton stressed that more studies of functional morphology would have to be done to illuminate the subject and speculated that Thalassodromeus might have been a raptorial predator, using its jaws to subdue prey with strong bites; its concave palate could help it swallow large prey.
Pêgas and Kellner presented a reconstruction of the mandibular muscles of T. sethi at a conference in 2015. They found that its well-developed jaw muscles differed from those of the possible dip-feeder Anhanguera and the terrestrially stalking azhdarchids, indicating that T. sethi had a strong bite force. In 2018, Pêgas and colleagues agreed that Thalassodromeus blade-like, robust jaws indicated that it could have used them to strike and kill prey, but they thought that biomechanical work was needed to substantiate the idea. They found (unlike Witton) that Thalassodromeus had a reinforced jaw joint and robust jaw muscles, but more work was needed to determine its dietary habits. According to Pêgas and colleagues, the articulation between T. sethi articular and quadrate bones (where the lower jaw connected with the skull) indicates a maximum gape of 50degreessimilar to the 52-degree gape inferred for Quetzalcoatlus.
Locomotion
In a 2002 comment on the original description of T. sethi, engineer John Michael Williams noted that although Kellner and Campos had mentioned that the large crest might have interfered aerodynamically during flight, they had not elaborated on this point and had compared the pterosaur with a bird one-fifth its size. He suggested that Thalassodromeus used its crest to balance its jaws, with the head changing attitude depending on the mode of locomotion. Williams speculated that the crest would be inflatable with blood and presented varying air resistance, which he compared to a handheld fan; this would have helped the animal change the attitude of the head during flight (and during contact with water), keeping it from rotating without powerful neck muscles. The crest would have made long flights possible, rather than interfering; Williams compared it with the spermaceti in the head of the sperm whale, stating it is supposedly used to change buoyancy through temperature adjustment. Kellner and Campos rejected the idea of an inflatable crest, since its compressed bones would not allow this; they did not find the sperm-whale analogy convincing in relation to flying animals, noting that spermaceti is more likely to be used during aggression or for sonar. They agreed that the idea of the crest having an in-flight function was tempting and sideways movement of the head would have helped it change direction, but biomechanical and flight-mechanical studies of the crest would have to be conducted to determine the animal's aerodynamics.
Witton also expressed hope for further analysis of thalassodromid locomotion. He noted that since their limb proportions were similar to those of the better-studied azhdarchids, the shape of their wings and style of flight might have been similar. Thalassodromids might also have been adapted for inland flight; their wings were short and broad (unlike the long, narrow wings of marine soarers), and were more manoeuvrable and less likely to snag on obstacles. Their lower shoulder muscles appear to have been enlarged, which would have helped with powerful (or frequent) wing downstrokes and takeoff ability. Although it may have had to compensate for its large crest during flight, its development late in growth indicates that it did not develop primarily for aerodynamics. Witton suggested that the proportional similarity between the limbs of thalassodromids and azhdarchids also indicates that their terrestrial abilities would have been comparable. Their limbs would have been capable of long strides, and their short, compact feet would have made these mechanics efficient. The enlarged shoulder muscles may have allowed them to accelerate quickly when running, and they may have been as adapted for movement on the ground as has been suggested for azhdarchids; Witton cautioned that more analysis of thalassodromids was needed to determine this.
Palaeoecology
Thalassodromeus is known from the Romualdo Formation, which dates to the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous period (about 110million years ago). The formation is part of the Santana Group and, at the time Thalassodromeus was described, was thought to be a member of what was then considered the Santana Formation. The Romualdo Formation is a Lagerstätte (a sedimentary deposit that preserves fossils in excellent condition) consisting of lagoonal limestone concretions embedded in shales, and overlies the Crato Formation. It is well known for preserving fossils three-dimensionally in calcareous concretions, including many pterosaur fossils. As well as muscle fibres of pterosaurs and dinosaurs, fish preserving gills, digestive tracts, and hearts have been found there. The formation's tropical climate largely corresponded to today's Brazilian climate. Most of its flora were xerophytic (adapted to dry environments). The most widespread plants were Cycadales and the conifer Brachyphyllum.
Other pterosaurs from the Romualdo Formation include Anhanguera, Araripedactylus, Araripesaurus, Brasileodactylus, Cearadactylus, Coloborhynchus, Santanadactylus, Tapejara, Tupuxuara, Barbosania, Maaradactylus, Tropeognathus, and Unwindia. Thalassodromines are known only from this formation, and though well-preserved postcranial remains from there have been assigned to the group, they cannot be assigned to genus due to their lack of skulls. Dinosaur fauna includes theropods like Irritator, Santanaraptor, Mirischia, and an indeterminate unenlagiine dromaeosaur. The crocodyliforms Araripesuchus and Caririsuchus, as well as the turtles Brasilemys, Cearachelys, Araripemys, Euraxemys, and Santanachelys, are known from the deposits. There were also clam shrimps, sea urchins, ostracods, and molluscs. Well-preserved fish fossils record the presence of hybodont sharks, guitarfish, gars, amiids, ophiopsids, oshuniids, pycnodontids, aspidorhynchids, cladocyclids, bonefishes, chanids, mawsoniids and some uncertain forms. Pêgas and colleagues noted that pterosaur taxa from the Romualdo Formation had several species: two of Thalassodromeus, two of Tupuxuara, and up to six species of Anhanguera. It is possible that not all species in each taxon coexisted in time (as has been proposed for the pteranodontids of the Niobrara Formation), but there is not enough stratigraphic data for the Romualdo Formation to test this.
See also
List of pterosaur genera
Timeline of pterosaur research
References
Bibliography
Tapejaromorphs
Early Cretaceous pterosaurs of South America
Albian life
Cretaceous Brazil
Fossils of Brazil
Romualdo Formation
Fossil taxa described in 2002
Taxa named by Alexander Kellner
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Carentan
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Battle of Carentan
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The Battle of Carentan was an engagement in World War II between airborne forces of the United States Army and the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Normandy. The battle took place between 6 and 13 June 1944, on the approaches to and within the town of Carentan, France.
The objective of the attacking American forces was consolidation of the U.S. beachheads (Utah Beach and Omaha Beach) and establishment of a continuous defensive line against expected German counterattacks. The defending German force attempted to hold the town long enough to allow reinforcements en route from the south to arrive, prevent or delay the merging of the lodgments, and keep the U.S. First Army from launching an attack towards Lessay-Périers that would cut off the Cotentin Peninsula.
Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger-Division. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division, ordered to reinforce Carentan, was delayed by transport shortages and attacks by Allied aircraft. The attacking 101st Airborne Division, landed by parachute on 6 June as part of the American airborne landings in Normandy, was ordered to seize Carentan.
In the ensuing battle, the 101st forced passage across the causeway into Carentan on 10 and 11 June. A lack of ammunition forced the German forces to withdraw on 12 June. The 17th SS PzG Division counter-attacked the 101st Airborne on 13 June. Initially successful, its attack was thrown back by Combat Command A (CCA) of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division.
Background
Operation Overlord
On 6 June 1944, the Allies launched a massive and long-anticipated air and amphibious invasion of Normandy, codenamed Operation Overlord. The 101st Airborne Division paratroopers landed behind Utah Beach with the objective of blocking German reinforcements from attacking the flank of the U.S. VII Corps during its primary mission of seizing the port of Cherbourg. The glider troopers landed by glider and ships on 6 and 7 June.
Merging the American beachheads at Utah and Omaha Beach was a D-Day objective of the amphibious forces but was not achieved because of heavy German resistance at Omaha. Moreover, Allied intelligence believed that three German divisions were massing to drive a wedge between them. Exercising operational command of all both 1st US Army and the 2nd British Army as Land forces commander, British General Montgomery gave verbal orders for Lt General Bradley's forces to make the link up quickly. Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower concurred with Montgomery's order for a "concentrated effort" to make the linkup.General Eisenhower not yet in operational command was only being kept up to dates with the battles from daily phone calls from the 21st Army Groups chief of Staff.
Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, senior American ground commander, ordered the original tactical plan be changed to make the top priority of U.S. operations the joining of the lodgments through Isigny and Carentan. VII Corps received the Carentan assignment and assigned the 101st Airborne Division, closest to the city, "the sole task of capturing Carentan."
Geography
Carentan is a port city located in Normandy, France, in the Douve River valley at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula. At the time of the Second World War, Carentan's civilian population was about four thousand. Four major highways and a railroad converged in the city, from Cherbourg to the northwest, Bayeux and Caen to the east, Saint-Lô to the southeast, and Coutances to the southwest.
The city is dominated by high ground to the southwest and southeast, all of which was under German control during the battle. Its other three approaches are bordered by watercourses: the Douve River to the west and north, a boat basin to the northeast, and the Vire-Taute Canal to the east. The Germans flooded much of the Douve River floodplain prior to the invasion, resulting in a marshland impassable to vehicles and difficult to cross by infantry, a tactic once used by Napoleon Bonaparte at the same location.
The highway from Saint Côme-du-Mont crossed the floodplain via a narrow 1 mile (2 km) long causeway having banks rising six to nine feet (2–3 m) above the marsh. Four bridges spanned the Douve and several tributaries along the causeway. Troops in the open under fire could find cover only by digging in on the sloping eastern bank of the causeway. In retreating from Saint Côme-du-Mont, the Germans had blown up Bridge No. 2 on the causeway and a portion of the railroad embankment as well.
Forces
Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger-Division, commanded by Oberst Friedrich von der Heydte, and remnants of 91 Air Landing Division's Grenadier-Regiment 1058. Both had escaped from nearby Saint Côme-du-Mont on 8 June when the village was captured by the 101st Airborne Division. II./FJR6 and III./FJR6 (2nd and 3rd Battalions, 6th Parachute Regiment) were still intact as fighting formations, but III./GR1058 had been nearly destroyed in three days of combat and was no longer effective as a unit.
The German LXXXIV Corps (84.Korps) reinforced the 6th Parachute Regiment (FJR6) with survivors of Grenadier-Regiment 914 (German 352nd Infantry Division) following its 9 June defeat at Isigny. Army Group B commander Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ordered von der Heydte to defend the town "to the last man."
The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division stationed at Thouars, ostensibly a mechanized infantry division of the OKW Mobile Reserve but without tanks or adequate transport, was ordered on 7 June to move to Normandy following the Allied landings. However it was delayed by shortages of trucks and attacks by Allied aircraft that destroyed bridges over the Loire River and interdicted rail movements. Advance elements reached Angers on 9 June and Saint-Lô on 10 June, by which time Rommel's main concern was in preventing an attack westward from Carentan to cut off the Cotentin. The 38th Panzergrenadier Regiment formed a mobile battle group to resist V Corps units south of Isigny, and the 37th PzG-Rgt was sent to Carentan.
The 101st Airborne Division consolidated its forces in Normandy on 9 June. Its three parachute regiments (501st, 502nd, and 506th PIRs) had been badly scattered during their air drops, losing a significant number of men killed and missing as a result, and had suffered further casualties in taking Saint Côme-du-Mont. Its 327th Glider Infantry Regiment had landed largely at Utah Beach on D+1 (7 June) and except for its third battalion (the attached 1st Battalion, 401st GIR), had yet to engage in serious combat. Several units of the 327 did land by ship on D-Day. The 327 HQ Co Anti-Tank Platoon glided into France.
The 2nd Armored Division, part of the U.S. V Corps, had advanced off Omaha Beach to support the drive of the 175th Infantry Regiment (29th Division) to Isigny. Its Combat Command A (CCA), consisting of M4 Sherman tanks of the 2nd Battalion, 66th Armored Regiment and mechanized infantry of the 3rd Battalion, 41st Armored Infantry Regiment, was available as an armored force reserve for the 101st Airborne.
Battle
On 9 June the 101st finished consolidating, with the 502nd PIR guarding the right flank along the upper Douve River, the 506th PIR deployed across the Carentan highway, and the 327th GIR on the left in positions along the Douve River opposite Brévands. The 501st PIR was the division's reserve and guarding the left flank east of the 327.
Patrols and aerial reconnaissance of Carentan indicated that the town might be lightly defended, and a plan to capture the city by a double envelopment was contrived, using the 502nd PIR on the right and the 327th GIR on the left, scheduled to jump off just after midnight 10 June. The 502nd's mission was to force the bridges and capture high ground southwest of the town along the Périers highway (Hill 30) to block withdrawal. The 327th was to cross the Douve at Brévands, circle a mile to the east, and come in on the road west from Isigny to take the town.
Purple Heart Lane, 10 June
Leading the attack of the 502nd, the 3rd Battalion (3rd/502nd PIR) under Lt Col. Robert G. Cole found Bridge No. 2 (the Douve bridge) unrepaired and the engineers assigned to the task pinned down by fire from an 88mm gun. Cole sent his S-2, 1st Lt. Ralph B. Gehauf, with a patrol across the river in a small boat. They made their way to the last bridge, which they found blocked by a Belgian gate. The patrol was able to push the obstacle aside only 18 inches, just enough for one soldier at a time to negotiate. The patrol soon came under flare illumination, mortar, and machine gun fire and eventually returned at 05:30, when the attack was postponed. Most of the fire appeared to be coming from a large farmhouse () and a hedgerow on higher ground 250 yards to the right of the highway beyond Bridge No. 4.
The 327th GIR's 1st and 2nd Battalions crossed the Douve River during the early morning hours of 10 June. 1st Battalion received friendly fire casualties from US mortars during the crossing by rubber boat. Some units waded across the river. After reaching the east bank in the early daylight hours the 327th GIR swung south towards Catz. 1st Battalion attacked on the south side of the Isigny highway and 2nd Battalion was on the north side. With Company G in the 2nd Battalion lead, heavy casualties were received as they approached Carentan. G Company was placed in reserve and was attached to the 3d Battalion of the 327th (401). In the early daylight hours of the 11th, Company A of the 401st (3Bn) and Co G of the 327th attacked southward along the Bassin a Flot, again taking heavy casualties.
At 01:45 1st/327th GIR began crossing the footbridges over the lower Douve, and by 06:00, under cover of artillery fire, the entire regiment was across. It captured Brévands and began the three-mile (5km) movement south and west. Company A of the 401st GIR, accompanied by the Division Assistant G-3, left the column and marched east toward Auville-sur-le-Vey to link up with the U.S. 29th Infantry Division. The 327th did not encounter serious opposition until it approached the bridges spanning the Vire-Taute Canal east of Carentan at 18:00. It went into the attack with two battalions on line and by midnight held the east bank.
The Douve bridge was still not repaired when 3rd/502d PIR returned at noon. The paratroopers used engineer materials at hand to improvise a footbridge and began their attack shortly after 13:00. Moving single file down the causeway and advancing by crouching and crawling, the point of the 400-man battalion reached Bridge No. 4 at about 16:00, with most of the unit past Bridge No. 3. Under artillery and mortar fire, and then sniper and machine gun fire as they got within range, casualties among the 3rd/502nd PIR became heavy. Nightfall ended the advance but not the casualties, when an attack at 23:30 by two low-flying German Ju 87 Stukas strafing the causeway killed 30 men and knocked I Company completely out of the battle. The severe casualties suffered by the 3rd/502d PIR, estimated at 67% of the original force, resulted in the nickname "Purple Heart Lane" applied to that portion of the Carentan-Sainte-Mère-Église highway.
Cole's charge, 11 June
During the night German fire subsided. Company H crept through the opening in the obstacle, and when it did not suffer any casualties, at 0400 Company G and the Headquarters Company followed, taking cover on both sides of the highway. Scouts in the point nearly reached the main farmhouse in the morning twilight when they were cut down by German fire. Lt. Col. Cole immediately called for artillery support, but the German fire did not cease. At 06:15, using a smoke screen for concealment, Lt Col. Cole ordered his executive officer, Major John P. Stopka, to pass word to the battalion that it would have to charge the German positions to eliminate them.
Using a whistle to signal the attack, Cole led a bayonet charge that overwhelmed the defenders in savage close combat, for which Cole was later awarded the Medal of Honor. At first only a small portion of the battalion, approximately 20 men, charged, but Stopka quickly followed with 50 more. The attack picked up impetus as the other paratroopers observed it in progress and joined it, crossing a ditch. Overrunning the empty farmhouse, men of Company H found many German paratroopers dug in along the hedgerow behind it. Companies H and G killed them with hand grenades and bayonets but at severe cost to themselves.
The survivors of 3rd/502nd PIR set up defensive positions and requested 1st Battalion 502nd PIR continue the attack. Lt Col. Patrick F. Cassidy's battalion, however, also took serious casualties from mortar fire and could only strengthen Lt Col. Cole's defensive line, taking up positions from the 3rd Battalion command post in the farmhouse to the highway. During a 2-hour truce at mid-day in which U.S. forces attempted to negotiate for removal of casualties, Company C 502nd moved forward from Bridge No. 4 into a cabbage patch between the second and third hedgerows. Company A 502nd moved up just behind Company C and extended its line across the highway. Fighting at the cabbage patch during the afternoon often took place at extremely close range with the contending forces on opposite sides of the same hedgerow.
Except for the noon truce, which FJR6 also used to resupply and reorganize, the American forces repelled repeated attacks. The final one nearly succeeded in overwhelming the 3rd/502nd PIR at 1830, gaining all but the final hedgerow between it and the Douve River. However, Lt Col. Cole's artillery officer, able to overcome jamming of his radio, called down a concentration of VII Corps Artillery so close that several Americans were also killed. The overwhelming violence of the 5-minute barrage rolled back the last German counterattack.
Patrols from the 327th had discovered a partially destroyed footbridge over the Vire-Taute Canal at the point where it connected with the Douve, northeast of the city. The bridge was repaired by 10:00, and a company each of the 2nd (Company G) and 3rd battalions (Company A 401) crossed and attacked down the forested banks of the boat basin (Bassin à Flot), but like the 502nd, were stopped a half-mile (1 km) short of Carentan by machine gun and mortar fires that artillery could not suppress.
FJR6, nearly out of ammunition, withdrew during the night, leaving only a small rear guard. A Luftwaffe parachute resupply drop that night seven miles (11 km) to the southwest arrived too late to help. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division (Generalmajor der Waffen-SS Werner Ostendorff), on the road toward Carentan since D-Day, had been delayed by air attack and lack of fuel. By nightfall on 11 June only a few advanced elements had reached the division's assembly areas.
Carentan captured, 12 June
To complete the capture of Carentan, Gen. Courtney Hodges of First Army created a task force under Gen. Anthony McAuliffe to coordinate the final assault. The mission to take Hill 30 was reassigned to the 506th PIR, the attack along the Bassin à Flot was renewed, and the 501st PIR was relieved of its defensive positions to circle behind the 327th GIR and approach Hill 30 from the east. The movements were covered by an all-night artillery bombardment of Carentan using naval gunfire, Corps artillery, 4.2-inch mortars, and tank destroyers that had joined the 327th GIR along the eastern canal.
Two battalions of the 506th moved down the Carentan causeway after dark, passed through the 2nd/502nd PIR at 02:00 on 12 June, and marched cross country to Hill 30 (the village of la Billonnerie), which they captured by 05:00. The 1st Battalion took up defensive positions facing south across the highway, while the 2nd Battalion was ordered north to attack the city. The 501st PIR during the night moved into position behind the 327th Glider Infantry, crossed the canal, and reached Hill 30 by 06:30.
At 06:00 Carentan was attacked from the north by 1st/401st GIR and the south by 2nd/506th PIR. Both units encountered machine gun fire from the rear guard, but the 2nd/506th was also sporadically shelled by artillery to the south of Carentan. Despite this, both units swiftly cleaned out the rear guard in a short fight near the railway station and advanced on the streets ending with the enemies' forces, then the US paratroopers met at 07:30 in the center of town after brief combat. The 1st/506th PIR engaged in more serious combat south of town when it had to rescue Col. Sink's command post, surrounded because it had pushed too far towards the German lines in the dark.
In the afternoon both the 506th and 501st advanced southwest but after a mile were stopped by heavy contacts with new German units including a few tanks. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division had intended to counterattack to retake Carentan, but its assault guns were held up in the assembly areas by Allied air attacks. Instead infantry units dug in on higher ground below the city and battled the paratroopers until dark.
Bloody Gulch, 13 June
At dawn on 13 June, the 101st Airborne was about to attack the German line when it was attacked by tanks and assault guns. Two battalions of the 37th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment, supported by the 17th SS Panzer Battalion and III./FJR6, struck hard at the 501st PIR on the American left, which fell back under heavy pressure. The left flank companies (Dog and Fox Companies) of the 506th then gave way, and by noon the spearheads of the German attack were within 500 yards of Carentan. However, Company E (Easy) of the 506th, commanded by 1st Lt. Richard D. Winters, anchored its right flank against a railroad embankment and held its position. Reinforced by the 2nd/502nd PIR taking position on its right, Easy Company slowed the German attack until American tanks could be brought up.
Reacting to an Ultra warning of the size and threat of the counterattack, Lieutenant General Bradley diverted CCA U.S. 2nd Armored Division (commanded by Brig. Gen. Maurice Rose and near Isigny sur mer) to Carentan at 10:30. At 14:00 CCA attacked, supported by the self-propelled howitzers of the 14th Armored Field Artillery Battalion. One task force of tanks and mechanized infantry surged down the road to Baupte in the 2nd/506th's area and shattered the main German thrust. A second task force drove back German forces along the Périers highway, inflicting heavy losses in men and equipment. CCA, followed by the 502nd PIR, then pushed west a mile beyond the original lines.
The counterattack became known anecdotally among the surviving paratroopers as the "Battle of Bloody Gulch".
See also
Band of Brothers, an HBO TV miniseries that portrays Company E, 506th PIR's role in the battle
Brothers in Arms: Road to Hill 30, a video game that is based on events during the battle
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
"The Mustang General" by Don R. Marsh memoir article of BG Maurice Rose at Carentan by his biographer, a 2AD veteran
U.S. Airborne in Cotentin Peninsula / D-Day Etat des Lieux. 101st Airborne Order of battle
Utah Beach to Cherbourg, "The Battle for Carentan (8–15 June)" . United States Army Center of Military History history of the VII Corps attacks, published in 1948 and re-issued in 1990
Cross-Channel Attack, Chapter IX "The V Corps Lodgment" (7–18 june) United States Army Center of Military History history of the Normandy campaign published in 1951, and re-issued in 2002
Regimental Unit Study No. 3 "506th Parachute Infantry in Normandy Drop" . United States Army Center of Military History history by S.L.A. Marshall and the basis for his book Night Drop
"Battle to Control Carentan During World War II" John C. McManus, History Net
Operation Overlord
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battles of World War II involving the United States
June 1944 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn%20State%20Nittany%20Lions
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Penn State Nittany Lions
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The Penn State Nittany Lions are the athletic teams of Pennsylvania State University, except for the women's basketball team, known as the Lady Lions. The school colors are navy blue and white. The school mascot is the Nittany Lion. The intercollegiate athletics logo was commissioned in 1983.
Penn State participates as a member institution of the Big Ten Conference at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level for most sports. It is one of only 15 universities in the nation that plays Division I FBS football and Division I men's ice hockey. Two sports participate in different conferences because they are not sponsored by the Big Ten: men's volleyball in the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA) and women's ice hockey in College Hockey America (CHA). The fencing teams operate as independents.
Penn State has finished in the top 25 in every NACDA Director's Cup final poll, a feat only matched by nine other institutions: Stanford, UCLA, USC, Florida, Ohio State, Texas, North Carolina, and Michigan. The NACDA Director's Cup is a list compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics that charts institutions' overall success in college sports. Penn State's highest finish came in the 1998–99 standings when the Nittany Lions finished 3rd. PSU finished in 5th place in the 2013–14 standings; it was the fifth time the program finished in the top 5 and the tenth time the program finished in the top 10.
Sports sponsored
Basketball
Men's basketball
Penn State's men's basketball program reached the Final Four once in 1954, though the best postseason finish in recent years occurred in 2001 with a trip to the Sweet Sixteen of the NCAA tournament after a win over UNC in the round of 32. The most recent postseason championship for Penn State was the 2018 National Invitation Tournament on March 29, 2018. Penn State outscored Utah 82–66 to capture its second men's basketball national title in school history and its third postseason tournament title since winning the Atlantic-10 Tournament in 1991. The Nittany Lions lost in the first round of the 2011 NCAA tournament, and would appear in the 2023 NCAA tournament, but would fall to the Texas Longhorns in the second round.
Notable alumni include: Frank Brickowski, John Amaechi, Calvin Booth, Mike Costello, Stanley Pringle, Geary Claxton, Jamelle Cornley, Lamar Stevens. Mike Rhodes is the current coach.
Women's basketball
The Lady Lions, the Penn State women's basketball team and the only athletic team not known as "Nittany Lions," have had more success than their male counterparts, often gaining berths into the women's NCAA tournament, reaching the Final Four once in 2000. The Lady Lions have reached the NCAA tournament more than any other Big Ten team with 25 appearances as of 2014. The Lady Lions have won 8 Big Ten Regular Season Championships and 2 Big Ten tournament Championships. The most recent postseason championship won by Penn State was the 1998 Women's National Invitation Tournament. Carolyn Kieger was in her second season as head coach of the Lady Lions in 2020–21.
Cross country
The men's cross country team won NCAA titles in 1942, 1947, and 1950. Before the NCAA began sponsoring the cross country championship in 1938, and unlike today, the annual ICAAAA meet was a premier national championship event for track and field and cross country. The team won ICAAAA championships in 1926, 1927, 1928 and 1930. Penn State runners won the individual ICAAAA titles in 1920 (John Romig), 1927 and 1928 (William Cox, consecutively). PSU men also won ICAAAA team titles in 1950, 1951, 1960 and 2000, as well as individual crowns in 1938, 1946, 1987 and 2004.
Fencing
Penn State has been a fencing powerhouse, having won a record 13 national championships in the sport since the NCAA began awarding titles in combined men's and women's fencing in 1990. The team finished as champion or runner-up in 21 of the first 25 years of the combined tournament. The program won six consecutive NCAA Championships from 1995 to 2000.
Emmanuil G. Kaidanov was the coach of the fencing squads during most of that period. The women's fencing team won national AIAW titles in 1980 and 1981, followed by an NCAA championship in 1983. The team recruits both nationally and throughout the world.
Penn State Nittany Lions assistant fencing coach George G. Abashidze, after a United States Center for SafeSport investigation found he had committed sexual misconduct in 2017, was banned by USA Fencing for three years, prompting Penn State to terminate him in 2019. A Penn State investigation into the matter confirmed the woman’s claims against Abashidze, but found that the assistant coach had not violated any university policies. The woman who was the object of the misconduct sued Penn State in 2020, charging that it had tried to cover up the incident.
In September 2022, Penn State placed head fencing coach Wes Glon on paid leave pending more information about restrictions imposed on him by USA Fencing. In April 2022, a former Penn State fencer had filed a complaint against Glon and the university alleging physical, verbal, and psychological abuse by Glon. In May 2020, a complaint had also been filed by a female fencing coach after Glon allegedly failed to report sexual misconduct allegations against his assistant coach, George Abashidze; after an investigation by SafeSport into the same matter, he was ultimately required to serve a six-month term of probation for such failure.
Field hockey
The women's field hockey team is coached by Char Morett, a former Penn State field hockey player herself and 1984 Olympic bronze medalist.
Penn State is one of the premier programs in the nation with 28 NCAA Tournament appearances, the third most in the nation. Since joining the Big Ten in 1992, the Nittany Lions have been dominant with more Big Ten Tournament titles than any other team and the second most regular season titles behind Michigan.
In 2007, the women's Field Hockey team reached the National Championship game, but fell to undefeated UNC, 3–0. In their tournament run, they were able to defeat two-time defending champion Maryland, 1–0, and defending national runner-up Wake Forest, 2–0. Jen Long was nominated for the Honda Award for her efforts. They also finished as NCAA runners-up in 2002, losing to Wake Forest in the title game 2–0 after defeating Old Dominion 3–2 in the semifinals. 2002 marked the first time Penn State reached the NCAA Finals and second time reaching the Final Four. The team won the AIAW national championships in 1980 and 1981. In 2011 the women's field hockey team won its fifth ever Big Ten title after defeating Michigan 3–2, and first since 1998 when they again defeated Michigan 3–1.
Football
Penn State has a large football following and attracts tens of thousands of visitors to its campus; the surrounding area is known as "Happy Valley" for tailgating and games on autumn Saturdays in Beaver Stadium. The largest crowd ever at Beaver Stadium was on October 21, 2017, as 110,823 people watched the Nittany Lions defeat the University of Michigan by a score of 42–13. The school has earned a reputation as "Linebacker U" for the number of high-quality linebackers trained. Joe Paterno was the head coach for the Nittany Lion football team from 1966 until he was fired on November 9, 2011, in the aftermath of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal. He was regarded as one of the most successful national coaches, holding the record for wins and bowl appearance. Penn State plays in two football "trophy games" with other members of the Big Ten: the Governor's Victory Bell with the University of Minnesota and the Land Grant Trophy game versus Michigan State University.
Prior to joining the Big Ten, Penn State was one of the strongest of the independent schools in college football. They played a number of schools regularly, including Pitt, Syracuse, West Virginia, Notre Dame, Maryland, and Alabama. Penn State has won the prestigious Lambert-Meadowlands Trophy, awarded for Eastern football supremacy, a record 29 times as of 2013. Penn State has also been named the ECAC FBS Team of the Year for a record 13th time.
Penn State won consensus National Championships in 1982 and 1986, both under Coach Paterno. The 1986 team won by defeating the University of Miami in the 1987 Fiesta Bowl, which remains one of the most watched college football game in history. The school has had a number of other undefeated teams including 1909, 1911, 1912, 1920, 1921, 1947, 1968, 1969, 1973, and 1994, some of which have been awarded national championships Penn State currently has a FBS bowl record of 29–18–2.
Penn State is also among the leaders nationwide in terms of players advancing to the professional level. As of 2006, 29 former Penn State players and coaches were on the rosters of NFL teams, the tenth-highest such placement rate in the country. Penn State has been represented in at least one of the teams participating in the Super Bowl 37 of the 41 times the championship game has been played.
A report indicated that Penn State's football program ranks 12th nationwide in terms of economic contributions to each program's university, athletic department, conference, and community. The report, based on ticket sales, sponsorships, football program expenses, athletic department expenses (non-football), shared conference profits, and county revenue figures during home football games, revealed that the Nittany Lions are presently worth roughly US$63 million.
In July 2012, the NCAA announced several punitive measures as a result of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal. In addition to vacating all wins between 1998 and 2011, Penn State was banned from post-season play for four years, and the number of scholarships was reduced. Players were free to transfer during the 2012 season without sitting out a year, but few did so. After details of the case emerged, the NCAA restored all vacated wins and rescinded both the remaining ban on post-season play and scholarship reduction.
Gymnastics
In 2007, the men's gymnastics team won their NCAA record 14th national championship, by defeating powerhouse Oklahoma at Rec Hall, with the score of 221.000–220.200, denying them a three-peat. The women's team won the AIAW national championship twice, in 1978 and 1980, edging out other dominant teams such as Cal State-Fullerton and Utah.
Ice hockey
Men's ice hockey
Aside from five years in the 1940s, the men's ice hockey program has had varsity status since the 2012–13 season. The team plays in the Pegula Ice Arena and competed as an independent Division I team in the 2012–2013 season. In the 2013–2014 season, the team began play in the Big Ten conference's first year of sponsorship of men's ice hockey. Recently, the team achieved the number one ranking in Division I men's hockey for the first time in program history.
Before becoming a varsity program, the men's ice hockey team, the Icers, competed at the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) Men's Division I level and was a member of the Eastern States Collegiate Hockey League (ESCHL) from 2007–08 through 2010–11. Penn State won seven ACHA DI National Championships in 1984, 1990, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003. The Division II men's hockey club team were champions of the University Hockey League during the 2003–04 and 2001–02 seasons; they were runners-up during the 2002–03, 2000–01, and 1998–99 seasons.
Women's ice hockey
The women's program moved to the NCAA Division I level beginning in the 2012–13 season and joined College Hockey America, becoming the fifth member of the conference. The team also plays in the Pegula Ice Arena.
Before becoming a varsity program, the women's ice hockey team, the Lady Icers, competed at the ACHA Women's Division I level in the Eastern Collegiate Women's Hockey League (ECWHL).
Lacrosse
The Penn State women's lacrosse teams have won two NCAA titles, in addition to three United States Women's Lacrosse Association championships in 1978, 1979, and 1980.
The Penn State men's lacrosse team dates to 1913. Penn State has appeared in four NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship tournaments, including in 2003, 2005, 2013, and 2017.
Penn State has had seven alumni and coaches inducted into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame, including Mary McCarthy Stefano, Gillian D. Rattray, Barb Jordan, Betsy Williams Dougherty, Candace "Candy" Finn Rocha, Joanne Connelly and Thomas R. Hayes.
Soccer
Men's soccer
Before the NCAA began its tournament in 1959, the annual national champion was declared by the Intercollegiate Soccer Football Association from 1926 to 1958, the result of polls and the subjective opinion of the ISFA administrators. In that time, Penn State shared eight national championships and was selected three times as champion outright (1929, 1938, 1954). The rival College Soccer Bowl was held from 1950–1952 in an attempt to decide a national champion on the field. Penn State gained a last-minute tie in the 1950 championship final. The team won in 1951; however, the ISFA failed to select Penn State that year.
Women's soccer
The women's soccer team won its first NCAA national championship in 2015. The program has been particularly strong in recent years, as the team won 15 straight Big Ten Championships through the 2012 season, which was an all-time Big Ten record for women's teams. The streak surpassed the 12 by Michigan swimming & diving of the 1990s and led the then-ongoing run by Northwestern's women's tennis squad, which had won 14 straight titles through 2011.
Softball
The Nittany Lions softball team began play in 1965. The team has made ten NCAA Tournament appearances in 1983, 1985, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2011. The current head coach is Clarisa Crowell.
Track and field
Before the NCAA began sponsoring a national championship in 1965, the men's indoor track and field team won ICAAAA titles in 1942 and 1959. PSU men also won ICAAAA team titles in 1984, 1987, 2001, 2003 and 2006.
Volleyball
Penn State is home to one of the top men's and women's volleyball programs. Penn State is one of only 5 schools—and the only school not in California—to win an NCAA Championship for both men and women's volleyball, the others being Stanford, UCLA, USC, and Long Beach State.
Men's volleyball
The men's volleyball team is coached by Mark Pavlik. The program has won two NCAA National Championships in 1994 and 2008 and 16 EIVA titles out of 17 years, including 10 consecutive. They finished as NCAA National runners-up in 1982, 1995 and 2006, to UCLA each time (twice at Rec Hall). They reached the NCAA final four 24 times including 13 out of the last 14 years through the 2008 season and an NCAA record 10 consecutive (1998–2008).
The men's first national title came in 1994, when they beat powerhouse UCLA in five sets after being down 11–4 in the fourth set and then winning the fourth 15–12 and the fifth with the same score. The win made Penn State the first school outside of California in the then-24 year history to win an NCAA Men's volleyball championship. They won the NCAA title again in 2008, defeating Pepperdine 3–1. With the win, Penn State men and women's programs swept the volleyball championships in the same academic year, joining Stanford from 1996–97 to be the only schools to accomplish the rare feat.
Pavlik was named the 2008 AVCA National Coach of the Year.
Women's volleyball
The Penn State women's volleyball team, one of the nation's premier volleyball programs, is coached by Russ Rose, who, since his first season in 1979, has led the Nittany Lions to a record of 1,189 and 186, an .865 winning percentage, through the end of 2015. Rose stands as the NCAA Division I all-time winningest coach, as he owns the NCAA Division I Records for win percentage and total victories. Rose has won all but 51 of the program's wins. On December 17, 2009, Rose earned his 1,000th career victory with a win against Hawaii in the 2009 NCAA National Semifinals. In all but one season under Rose, there has been at least one AVCA All-American on his team.
The program is one of only two DI universities to appear in every NCAA tournament (1981–2015). They have won seven NCAA National Championships, the most all-time, in 1999, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, and 2014. They were the national runners-up in 1993, 1997, and 1998 and also reached the Final Four in 1994 and 2012.
The team achieved unprecedented success from 2007–10. The Nittany Lions won four consecutive national titles in that span, the most consecutive titles in NCAA Division I history. In that historic stretch, Penn State won 109 consecutive matches (Sept. 21, 2007-Sept. 10, 2010), 111 consecutive sets (Dec. 15, 2007-Dec. 18, 2008), 94 consecutive home matches (Sept. 1, 2006-Dec. 11, 2010), and 55 consecutive road matches (Sept. 28, 2007-Sept. 10, 2010), all NCAA Division I records.
The Lions were extraordinarily successful when Penn State was in the Atlantic 10 conference, as they won the title all 8 years without losing a single conference match before joining the Big Ten. In the Big Ten, the team has won 16 titles since 1991, including a conference record 8 straight (2003–10). During Big Ten play, Penn State went undefeated 6 times (1998, 1999, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009).
Wrestling
Before joining the Big Ten, Penn State was a member of the Eastern Wrestling League from 1976 to 1992. Before that, Penn State was a member of the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA).
In April 2005, Penn State broke ground on a construction project designed to expand and modernize Rec Hall for the students, faculty, and staff who use the facility. As part of this renovation, Intercollegiate Athletics created the Lorenzo Wrestling Complex that ranks among the nation's finest facilities in the sport.
Under head coach Cael Sanderson, Penn State entered the final session of the 2019 NCAA Championships having already clinched their eighth team title in nine years. Sanderson's squad left the National Finals and PPG Paints Arena with three individual national champions. Penn State had five NCAA finalists for the fourth straight year and won three titles, beginning at 285 with senior Anthony Cassar of Rocky Hill, New Jersey winning his first. Jason Nolf of Yatesboro, Pennsylvania and Bo Nickal of Allen, Texas each won their third straight crowns. The Nittany Lions won the team race with 137.5 points, finishing over 40.0 points ahead of second place Ohio State, which had 96.5. Oklahoma State finished third with 84.0. Penn State was the only team to score over 100.0 points.
Penn State's national championship win in 2019 extended the program's streak to 4. A team from the Big Ten Conference has won the last 13.
Team sports
Penn State offers a program of "team sports," programs that have not been granted full varsity status, but are members of the Athletic Department and receive greater support than club sports. Penn State team sports "compete nationally at the highest level." Rugby (men's and women's) has been a team sport since 2005. Ice Hockey (men's and women's) was a team sport from 2005 until 2011, and has since been elevated to varsity status.
Rugby
The Penn State rugby program is classified by the university as a "Team Sport" within Penn State Intercollegiate Athletics Department, and therefore receives university support (paid coaches, facilities, health insurance, etc.) equivalent to a varsity program. As of 2011, Penn State rugby was funded 52% by alumni donations, 32% by player dues, and 16% by university contribution.
Penn State rugby was founded in 1962 and plays in Division 1-A. Penn State has been one of the most successful programs in college rugby. Penn State advanced to the national semifinals 10 times from 1989 to 2007, and reached the finals 5 times from 1989 to 2001. With 76 registered players, Penn State was ranked as the largest college rugby program in the United States in 2009. Penn State made headlines when they defeated favored BYU 48–46 in the 2018 D1A quarterfinal to reach the semifinals.
The women's rugby team fields a perennially competitive side, winning national titles in 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. The 2014 Penn State Women's team won their ninth Collegiate National Championship, with a 58–0 semifinal victory over West Chester University and a 38–0 triumph in the championship match against Stanford.
Rugby sevens
Penn State has appeared in three consecutive editions (2010–12) of the Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC). The CRC is played every year in June at PPL Park in Philadelphia, and is the highest profile college rugby sevens tournament in the US, broadcast on NBC. In the 2011 CRC, Penn State beat Ohio State in a 12–10 match to qualify for the quarterfinals, where Penn State lost to eventual champions Dartmouth 7–12.
Penn State has been successful in other rugby sevens competitions. For example, Penn State won the 2011 Subaru 7s tournament, and won the 2012 Halloween 7s tournament led by tournament MVP Blaze Feury. Penn State finished second at the 2012 Big Ten 7s, losing to Wisconsin in the final and missing out on qualification for the 2012 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships.
Intercollegiate club sports
The university is home to a number of intercollegiate club sports that the university doesn't field at the NCAA level and/or sports not sponsored by the NCAA.
Billiards
Two Penn State students have won the national intercollegiate individual championship in billiards. In 1982 Thomas Golly won the men's title. In 1988 Janet Dordell captured the women's crown.
Crew
Penn State fields an intercollegiate club rowing team that competes on the national level. The team has participated in several regatta events, including the Aberdeen Dad Vail Regatta and the American Collegiate Rowing Association national championship.
Croquet
Penn State's Club Croquet team was established in 2010 and has been growing since with nearly 150 members. It serves as the sole croquet team at Penn State and competes each year at the United States Croquet Association (USCA) collegiate championships. In 2017, the team won the USCA Collegiate National Championship in golf croquet.
Cross Country
The Penn State Club Cross Country is a member of the National Intercollegiate Running Club Association (NIRCA). The women's team has won five NIRCA National Championships (2006, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2016) and the men's team has won one (2019).
Gymnastics
Penn State Club Gymnastics participates in NAIGC (National Association of Intercollegiate Gymnastics Clubs) competition. In recent history both the men's and women's teams have had great success, including national titles for the men in 2009 and 2010. The women have had similar success with top-five finishes every year since 2009.
Ice hockey
In addition to the varsity men's and women's ice hockey teams, PSU fields a men's club team in American Collegiate Hockey Association Division 2 and the Atlantic Coast Collegiate Hockey League, as well as a women's club team in American Collegiate Hockey Association Women's Division 1 and the Eastern Collegiate Women's Hockey League.
Roller hockey
The PSU Roller Hockey team competes in National Collegiate Roller Hockey Association at the NCRHA Division I level. The team is a Division I member of the Eastern Collegiate Roller Hockey Association (ECRHA). Penn State also fields a team in the B Division of the NCRHA and ECRHA. The PSU B team won the NCRHA B Division Championship in 2010, the university's first national title in roller hockey.
Squash
Gail Ramsay won the intercollegiate women's squash championship a record four times in 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1980.
Swimming and Diving
Penn State also fields a competitive club swim and dive team that competes throughout the school year. With a membership of 100+, including all talents from former D1 swimmers to beginners, it is one of the more popular club sports at Penn State. The team finished 4th out of 50+ teams at the 2013 East Coast Collegiate Swim and Dive Club National Championships at Georgia Tech.
Men's ultimate
Penn State's team, named SPANK, competes in the USA Ultimate College Series at the D-1 level. They are in the Ohio Valley region, and face rival University of Pittsburgh at the regional championship every year. The B-team, Love Tap, also competes at the D-1 level, and serves as a developmental team for SPANK.
Men's Water Polo
The Men's Club Water Polo team competes in the Mid-Atlantic Division of the Collegiate Water Polo Association and has won nine Mid-Atlantic Division Championships (1998, 2005, 2009, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2022) to qualify for the National Collegiate Club Championship.
Championships
NCAA team championships
Penn State University has won 53 NCAA team national championships.
Men's (29):
Boxing (1): 1932 (unofficial)
Cross country (3): 1942, 1947, 1950
Gymnastics (12): 1948, 1953, 1954, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1965, 1976, 2000, 2004, 2007
Volleyball (2): 1994, 2008
Wrestling (11): 1953, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023
Women's (11):
Fencing (1): 1983
Lacrosse (2): 1987, 1989
Soccer (1): 2015
Volleyball (7): 1999, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2014
Co-ed (13)
Fencing (13): 1990, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2014
Other national team championships
Below are 34 national team titles in current and former NCAA sports that were not bestowed by the NCAA:
Men’s (23):
Boxing (4): 1924, 1927, 1929, 1930
Cross Country (4): 1926, 1927, 1928, 1930
Football (2): 1982, 1986
Gymnastics (1): 1944
Soccer (11): 1926, 1929, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1949, 1954, 1955
Wrestling (1): 1921
Women’s (11):
Bowling (1): 1979
Fencing (2): 1980, 1981
Field Hockey (2): 1980, 1981
Gymnastics (2): 1978, 1980
Lacrosse (3): 1978, 1979, 1980
Rifle (1): 1947
Penn State has won 87 national team championships all time, 53 of which are NCAA championships. These Division I NCAA championships rank fourth all-time, trailing UCLA, Stanford, USC, and Texas. Penn State has the most national championships of any Big Ten school. Most of the women's championships prior to 1982 occurred under the auspices of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW); indeed, four women's teams won national championships in 1980 alone. The NCAA did not start sponsoring women's championships until the 1981–82 academic year. Some of the men's championships occurred prior to the NCAA sponsoring a championship in that sport (for example, the NCAA did not start sponsoring a men's soccer championship until 1959) and some sports have never had recognized NCAA championships (such as Division I FBS football).
Below are 36 national team titles won by Penn State sports club teams (and Athletics Department "Team Sports") at the highest collegiate level in non-NCAA sports:
Men's (8):
Downriver Canoe/Kayak (2): 2015, 2016
Golf croquet (1): 2017
Shotokan karate (5) (Kata): 2003, 2004, 2007; (Kumite): 2007, 2013
Women's (22):
Archery (1) (Compound Bow): 2010
Equestrian (1) (English): 1989
Shotokan karate (3) (Kumite): 2001, 2003, 2007
Rugby (12): 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
Rugby 7s (4): (CRC) 2013, 2014, 2015; (USA Rugby) 2015
Team Handball (1) : 2018
Co-ed (6):
Archery (1) (Compound Bow): 2010
Cycling (5) (Track): 1987, 1989, 1990, 2004, 2005
Big Ten championships
Since joining the Big Ten in 1991, Penn State has won 124 total championships (92 regular season titles and 32 tournament championships).
Big Ten regular season championships
1992–93 – Women's Volleyball*
1993–94 – Women's Basketball*, Field Hockey, Men's Soccer, Women's Volleyball
1994–95 – Women's Basketball*, Football
1995–96 – Baseball
1996–97 – Women's Volleyball*
1997–98 – Field Hockey*, Women's Volleyball*
1998–99 – Field Hockey, Women's Soccer, Men's Swimming & Diving, Women's Volleyball
1999–00 – Women's Basketball, Women's Soccer, Women's Volleyball
2000–01 – Women's Soccer
2001–02 – Women's Soccer, Women's Swimming & Diving
2002–03 – Women's Basketball, Men's Gymnastics, Men's Soccer, Women's Soccer
2003–04 – Women's Basketball, Women's Soccer, Women's Indoor Track & Field, Women's Volleyball
2004–05 – Women's Soccer, Women's Swimming & Diving, Women's Volleyball
2005–06 – Field Hockey, Football*, Men's Soccer, Women's Soccer, Women's Swimming & Diving, Women's Volleyball
2006–07 – Women's Soccer, Women's Volleyball
2007–08 – Men's Gymnastics, Women's Soccer, Women's Outdoor Track & Field, Women's Volleyball
2008–09 – Field Hockey, Football*, Women's Soccer, Women's Outdoor Track & Field, Women's Volleyball
2009–10 – Women's Cross Country, Women's Soccer, Women's Indoor Track & Field, Women's Outdoor Track & Field, Women's Volleyball
2010–11 – Women's Soccer*, Women's Volleyball
2011–12 – Women's Basketball, Women's Soccer, Wrestling
2012–13 – Women's Basketball, Field Hockey, Men's Soccer*, Women's Soccer, Women's Volleyball
2013–14 – Women's Basketball*, Field Hockey*, Men's Soccer, Women's Indoor Track & Field, Women's Outdoor Track & Field, Women's Volleyball, Wrestling*
2014–15 – Men's Gymnastics, Women's Soccer
2015–16 – Women's Cross Country, Women's Soccer*, Wrestling*
2016–17 – Football, Women's Soccer*, Wrestling, Women's Indoor Track & Field, Men's Outdoor Track & Field
2017–18 – Women's Volleyball*, Wrestling
2018–19 – Women's Soccer, Wrestling*, Men’s Lacrosse
2019–20 – Men’s Ice Hockey
2020–21 – Wrestling*, Women’s Soccer
2021–22 – Men's Soccer, Wrestling
2022–23 – Field Hockey*, Wrestling
* denotes shared regular season conference title
Big Ten tournament championships
1994–95 – Women's Basketball
1995–96 – Field Hockey, Women's Basketball
1996–97 – Field Hockey
1997–98 – Field Hockey
1998–99 – Field Hockey, Women's Soccer
2000–01 – Women's Soccer
2001–02 – Women's Soccer
2002–03 – Men's Soccer
2005–06 – Men's Soccer
2006–07 – Women's Soccer
2008–09 – Women's Soccer
2010–11 – Wrestling
2011–12 – Field Hockey, Wrestling
2012–13 – Field Hockey, Wrestling
2013–14 – Wrestling
2014–15 – Women's Lacrosse
2015–16 – Women's Soccer, Wrestling
2016–17 – Field Hockey, Men's Ice Hockey
2017–18 – Women's Soccer
2018–19 – Wrestling, Men’s Gymnastics, Men’s Lacrosse
2019–20 – Women's Soccer
2021–22 – Men's Soccer
2022–23 – Women's Soccer, Wrestling
Atlantic 10 championships
During Penn State's years of membership in the Atlantic 10 Conference (1982–91) and earlier when it was known as the Eastern 8 Conference (1976–79), Penn State won 70 total championships.
Atlantic 10 championships (37)
1976–77 – Men's Basketball (West)*
1978–79 – Men's Cross Country
1982–83 – Men's Cross Country, Baseball (West)
1983–84 – Men's Golf, Men's Swimming & Diving
1984–85 – Women's Basketball*, Women's Volleyball, Men's Swimming & Diving
1985–86 – Women's Basketball*, Women's Volleyball, Men's Swimming & Diving
1986–87 – Women's Volleyball, Men's Cross Country, Men's Swimming & Diving, Men's Golf
1987–88 – Women's Volleyball, Men's Cross Country, Men's Golf
1988–89 – Women's Volleyball, Field Hockey (West), Men's Cross Country, Men's Soccer (West), Men's Golf
1989–90 – Women's Volleyball, Field Hockey, Men's Cross Country, Men's Soccer (West), Women's Cross Country, Men's Golf
1990–91 – Women's Basketball, Women's Volleyball, Field Hockey, Men's Cross Country, Women's Cross Country, Baseball (West), Men's Golf
* denotes shared regular season conference/division title
Atlantic 10 Tournament championships (33)
1978–79 – Men's Tennis
1982–83 – Women's Basketball, Softball, Women's Tennis
1983–84 – Women's Basketball, Women's Volleyball
1984–85 – Women's Basketball, Women's Volleyball, Softball, Women's Tennis
1985–86 – Women's Basketball, Women's Volleyball, Men's Tennis, Women's Tennis
1986–87 – Women's Volleyball, Women's Tennis
1987–88 – Women's Volleyball, Men's Soccer, Softball, Women's Tennis
1988–89 – Women's Volleyball, Men's Soccer, Women's Tennis
1989–90 – Women's Basketball, Women's Volleyball, Men's Soccer, Field Hockey, Women's Tennis
1990–91 – Women's Basketball, Men's Basketball, Women's Volleyball, Field Hockey, Women's Tennis
Other conference championships
Of Penn State's 29 varsity athletic programs, several programs are not sponsored by the Big Ten and have competed in other conferences, now and in the past.
Men's Volleyball
EIVA: 1972, 1976, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2021, 2022
Women's Ice Hockey
College Hockey America: 2021 (regular season), 2023 (rs & tournament)
Wrestling
Eastern Wrestling League (member 1975–1992)
Team Dual Meet Champions:1976, 1977, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986* (tie), 1987, 1988, 1989, 1992
Tournament Champions: 1976, 1977, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992
Olympians
Athletes (129) and coaches/faculty members (12) from Penn State have won 17 gold medals, 15 silver medals, and 28 bronze medals. The University had its most representatives participating in the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games with 21 participants earning eight medals, also the most ever.
Five former Penn State student-athletes earned medals in the 2012 London Olympic Games. Women's volleyball stars Megan Hodge and Christa Harmotto earned silver medals after falling to Brazil in the gold-medal match. Additionally, women's soccer players Erin McLeod and Carmelina Moscato came home with bronze medals playing for the Canada women's national soccer team. Finally, Natalie Dell earned Penn State's first rowing medal with her bronze-medal performance in the women's quadruple sculls. Penn State sent 19 participants to the 2012 Summer Games, a school record at the time.
Facilities
The football team plays in Beaver Stadium. The men's and women's basketball teams play in the Bryce Jordan Center. Most of the other indoor teams play at Rec Hall, which was previously the long term home for the basketball teams as well. The school also is home to the Ashenfelter Multi-Sport Facility for indoor track. Other indoor facilities include Lasch Building & Holuba Hall for football; White Building houses gymnastics & fencing; and the Lorenzo Wrestling Complex is within Rec Hall.
A new baseball stadium named Medlar Field at Lubrano Park opened in June 2006. The stadium is host to both the University baseball team as well as the State College Spikes, a minor league baseball team. The ballpark is oriented towards the east, offering a view of Mount Nittany. The softball team plays at its new home, the Nittany Lion Softball Park, which opened in 2011. Jeffrey Field is home to the soccer program. The lacrosse teams play at the Penn State Lacrosse Field which opened in 2012 next to the Ashenfelter Multi-Sport Facility. The hockey teams both play at the Pegula Ice Arena. The field hockey team plays at the Penn State Field Hockey Complex which is located adjacent to Bigler Field, and opened in 2005.
Additionally, the university operates the Penn State Golf Courses, two courses for the golf teams, students, faculty, and the general public. The Intercollegiate Athletics Department operates the Stone Valley Recreation Area, approximately twenty miles southeast of State College.
Penn State All-Sports Museum
The Penn State All-Sports Museum, a museum honoring all Penn State Nittany Lion athletes, is located near Gate B of Beaver Stadium. The upper level of the museum is dedicated to Penn State basketball and other indoor sports, while the lower level of the museum is dedicated to outdoor sports. The football exhibit on the lower level features a Heisman Trophy—won by John Cappelletti—and a collection of several other trophies and awards, in addition to honoring the Penn State football team, the Penn State Blue Band, Penn State Cheerleading, and the student athletes who have portrayed the Nittany Lion mascot. The museum opened in February 2002.
See also
List of college athletic programs in Pennsylvania
Lacrosse in Pennsylvania
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaggenau
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Gaggenau
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Gaggenau is a town in the district of Rastatt, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located some 8 km northeast of Baden-Baden.
History
Gaggenau was first mentioned in local records in 1243 under the name "Gaggenaw". The present district of Bad Rotenfels is even older, having been mentioned in a royal donation letter in 1041. Gaggenau remained a small village until the 19th century: Originally part of the Ufgau, it came under the jurisdiction of the marquisate of Baden in the 13th century, and was included in the territory claimed by the Margrave of Baden-Baden in 1535, which held it until 1689. At that time, it was placed under the jurisdiction of the Kuppenheim district of the Bishopric of Speyer. It was eventually assigned to the jurisdiction of the Rastatt Office of the State of Baden, which later became the District of Rastatt.
In 1691, the area was at the heart of the Palatinate War of Succession and was almost completely destroyed by the French forces. In 1772, Anton Rindeschwender established a successful glassworks factory below the village, and along with it a number of new residences and supporting businesses in the area.
The real industrial boom began in 1873 with the establishment of the Michael Flürscheims Ironworks, which resurrected an iron smelter originally established by the Margrave of Baden in the late 18th century. In 1895 the factory built the 5-hp automobile Orient Express and entered the new industry of automobile manufacture. In 1905 they renamed themselves the Gaggenau South German Automobile Factory GmbH. In 1907 the company was taken over by the company Benz & Cie of Mannheim until the merger of Daimler-Benz AG in 1926.
Thus, the settlement grew, and Gaggenau was eventually raised to the status of a town on 15 September 1922 because of its economic prosperity.
In September 1944, the Nazis built a detention camp in the Bad Rotenfels district. Six barracks were built to house about 1,600 men and women, mostly French prisoners, who were used as forced labour in the Daimler-Benz plants. About 500 of them were killed. A memorial plaque has been raised in the meadow where the barracks were located. Another memorial was raised in the Bad Rotenfels cemetery commemorating the murder of 27 of those prisoners by their Nazi captors.
In World War II, about 70% of the town was destroyed. On 10 September 1944, 140 B-17 bombers from the 8th battalion of the US Air Force bombed the automobile factory complex. Another battalion of 139 B-24 bombers bombed the area a second time on 3 October. The town and surrounding area was rebuilt after the war, and was completed with the construction of Gaggenau's town hall in 1958.
In 1969, in response to an effort to aggregate and consolidate municipal governments into districts of 20,000 or more, the state government of Baden-Württemberg approved a petition by the town of Gaggenau to annex six of its surrounding communities, thereby doubling Gaggenau's population and increasing its area fivefold. Among the areas annexed was the former municipality of Rotenfels and the large swath of forest that ran along the Murg River between the two municipalities. The annexations were performed over a period of six years.
Annexations
The following communities were annexed into the town of Gaggenau on the following dates. They were all administered under the office or district of Rastatt:
1935: Ottenau
January 1, 1970: Bad Rotenfels, with the hamlet of Winkel
April 1, 1970: Selbach
September 1, 1971: Freiolsheim with the hamlet of Moosbronn and the village of Mittelberg
April 1, 1972: Oberweier with the villages of Upper and Lower Weier
April 1, 1973: Sulzbach
January 1, 1975: Hörden and Michelbach
Bad Rotenfels, Gaggenau and Ottenau together were combined into a single administrative "village" in accordance with the Municipal Code of Baden-Württemberg.
Population development
Population figures for the respective territorial status. The figures are census results (¹) or official updates of the respective statistical offices (only primary residences):
¹ Census results
Religion
Gaggenau belonged to the Diocese of Speyer and was assigned to the Kuppenheim District under that Diocese. The Reformation arrived in 1555, and over the next three and a half centuries, under a variety of rulers, the majority denomination of Gaggenau changed six times between Catholic and Evangelical Lutheran (Protestant) before finally settling to become a Catholic majority.
Until 1891, the only Catholic parish church for the entire region was the St. Lawrence parish church in Rotenfels. The present church dates from the Baroque era in the 17th century, with the interior dating from the 18th century. In 1891, the St. Wendelin chapel was consecrated in Gaggenau. Gaggenau received its own parish church of St. Joseph in 1899. The Catholic churches in the other districts of Gaggenau date to earlier times. All of the area parishes came under the newly founded Archdiocese of Freiburg in 1821/1827 and assigned to the Murgtal Office of the Dean. Today, the town of Gaggenau includes the following Catholic parishes: St. Joseph (Gaggenau); Gaggenau; St. Mary; Mary Help (Moosbronn-Freiolsheim); St. Johann Nepomuk (Hörden); St. Michael (Michelbach); St. John the Baptist (Oberweier); St. Lawrence (Bad Rotenfels); St. Nicholas (Selbach); St. Anne (Sulzbach); and St. Jodocus (Ottenau).
The Evangelical Lutherans (Protestants) were driven out in the 18th century but moved back in again to Gaggenau in the 19th century. They formed their own community and built their own church in 1891. This church was destroyed in the Second World War but rebuilt in 1953. The community, including all of the Protestants in the modern districts of Gaggenau and in Rastatt, belong to the Evangelical Church district of Baden-Baden.
Besides the two major churches above, other Christian communities exist in Gaggenau, including the New Apostolic Church and Jehovah's Witnesses. Over 1,100 Muslims, mainly Turkish, also live in Gaggenau. The Sultan Ahmet Mosque (which belongs to the DİTİB, or the Diyanet İşleri Türk-İslam Birliği) is located in the Bad Rotenfels district and has over 200 members.
Geography
Gaggenau lies on both sides of the Murg River in an extension of the Murg Valley at the Rastatt-Freudenstadt federal highway Bundesstraße 462 (Black Forest Valley road).
The highest point in the urban area is 750 m above sea level; the lowest point is 134 m above sea level. The urban area extends 10.6 km north to south and 10.3 km east to west, or approximately 109 square kilometres.
Neighboring municipalities
The following boroughs and municipalities border the town of Gaggenau (clockwise from north): Malsch, Marxzell (both in the district of Karlsruhe), Bad Herrenalb (district of Calw), Loffenau und Gernsbach (both in the district of Rastatt), Baden-Baden (City District), and Kuppenheim, Bischweier and Muggensturm (all in the district of Rastatt).
Town administration
The town of Gaggenau today comprises the town of Gaggenau itself and the eight subdivisions of Bad Rotenfels, Freiolsheim, Hörden, Michelbach, Oberweier, Ottenau, Selbach and Sulzbach. Except for the main town and the villages of Bad Rotenfels and Ottenau, which have been combined into a single residential area for purposes of representation within Baden-Württemberg's municipal structure, each district has its own area council and mayor / chairman. For each district, the area council is elected by the district residents and consists of eight to ten members, with the chairperson of the council serving as mayor. The area councils hear and adjudicate on matters concerning their district.
The district of Freiolsheim includes the original town of Freiolsheim, the village of Mittelberg and the hamlet of Moosbronn. The core area of Gaggenau includes the town of Gaggenau, the village Ottenau, and the hamlet Amalienberg. The Oberweier district includes the villages of Oberweier and Niederweier. The Bad Rotenfels district includes the original village of Bad Rotenfels and the hamlet of Winkel. The original villages of Hörden, Michelbach, Selbach and Sulzbach were retained as separate districts.
Politics
Municipal
The council of the town of Gaggenau is made up of 26 seats.
Mayor
When local government was established in the 16th century, a judge-advocate was appointed for life by the Margraviate Overseer to protect the Margrave's interests. By the end of the century, this judge-advocate had expanded to six people to govern the town. At that time, the Margrave of Baden or his representative appointed the jury magistrates as life appointments. In 1809, the office of Vogt ('Steward') was created, appointed by the Margrave. In 1832, a new state law transformed local government. The citizens of the community were to elect a Mayor, which replaced the Vogt; and a Council of 5-6 members.
In 1933, the Nazi policy of Gleichschaltung effectively abolished local and state government and put all German territory under national administrative control. After the demise of the Nazi regime in 1945, state and local governments were re-established. In 1971, the office of Deputy Mayor was established.
Stewards and mayors
Florus was elected as Mayor on 25 March 2007 in a runoff election. Florus won against candidates Alois Degler, Wolfgang Seckler and former Mayor Michael Schulz.
He was reelected in March 2015 with 95,13 % of the votes. He was the only candidate.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Gaggenau consists of a white representation of a Sester (an old Roman unit of measure for liquids and grain) on a red background. The municipal flag is white and red.
The current coat of arms began appearing on town reference documents in the 18th century, but was replaced in 1901 with a split design of a cogwheel (symbolizing industry in general) on one side and a glass beaker (for the local glassworks industry) on the other. In 1938, the emblem was changed again, this time with the Gaggenau Sester on top and a pruning hook below, in order to reflect the inclusion of the town of Ottenau. It was changed again in 1958 with the images rotated to be equally represented on the shield. Finally, as part of the municipal reform and additional village annexations of the 1970s, the emblem was restored to its original pre-20th-century design by the Interior Ministry of Baden-Württemberg.
Culture and sights
Theatre
The "Klag-Bühne" in Gaggenau is a nationally known venue for cabaret music and dinner theater. The theatre is located in the town's cultural centre.
Museums
The Kast Museum in the Hörden district shows rafting, forest, hunting, history, fairy tales and legends.
There is a local history museum in the Michelbach district.
The Unimog Museum is a private museum in the Bad Rotenfels district, owned by Daimler-Benz, that celebrates the history of the Unimog line of trucks manufactured by Daimler-Benz.
Buildings
In Gaggenau proper, St. Mark's Evangelical Church was built in 1891, and St. Joseph's Catholic Parish was built in 1899 (replacing the original St. Wendelin chapel built in 1891). Both were heavily damaged in World War II and rebuilt after the war with significant design changes. The town hall was also destroyed along with most buildings in the town during the air raids of the Second World War, and was rebuilt in 1957.
The district of Bad Rotenfels has a number of historic buildings. The Baroque Catholic parish church of St. Lawrence in Bad Rotenfels was originally built in 1752–1766 by Ignaz Franz Krohmer. The church was the first parish in the Murg Valley and is therefore known as the mother church of the Murg. The current church building is actually the third version built, the most recent in the mid-1800s. In a 1902–1903 renovation, the facade of the church was updated with a neo-baroque facade.
Other churches in the current town include the St. Johann Nepomuk Hörden Catholic Church (Year 1894), the half-timbered Catholic Church of St. Mary in the Michelbach village from the 13th Century with later alterations, the late Gothic St. John the Baptist Catholic Church in Oberweier, the Selbach Catholic Church from 1756, the neo-Romanesque church in Sulzbach from 1884 and the neo-Gothic parish church in Ottenau from 1906. In the upper village of Bad Rotenfels, at the turnoff to the hamlet of Winkel, the one-room St. Sebastian chapel was built from 1747–1752 with an open porch and roof turret and is smaller than the surrounding rural residences.
Bad Rotenfels is the home of the world-famous Rotenfels spa, built on top of the Bad (German: Bath) Rotenfels hot springs. The spa hosts thousands of visitors from around the world to enjoy its waters. The district also includes the Rotenfels Castle Academy, which is housed in the buildings and grounds of the former Rotenfels stoneware factory. The factory, built around 1801, housed a stoneware (porcelain) manufacturing plant until 1816. In 1818, Margrave Wilhelm of Baden decided to turn the property into a country chateau. From 1818 to 1827, the building was redesigned by Friedrich Weinbrenner into a prestigious building in classical portico style. It remained a country residence until the 1970s, when the Academy purchased the building for its use.
Parks
In the inner town and the suburbs are many wells and springs. The best known of these is the goose fountain, built at the train station in 1981 by Gudrun Schreiner. The fountain represents Gaggenau's founding legend that claims the town of Gaggenau was founded on a spot where geese gathered on a large pond. The town of Gaggenau was named from the cackling of the geese. Hörden also has an interesting fountain, the Fountain Rafters, designed to recall the traditional local craft of raftsmen. The gargoyles represent traditional characters of the Hörden Carnival: The Fürigen Barthel, the stillage and Domino. In the district and former town of Bad Rotenfels, an old draw-well tray was rediscovered by the lower acorn mountain road by the local heritage society and restored for public display.
Gaggenau has created a park along the banks of the Murg River, which runs through its community. Gaggenau also includes a large park on the south side of the river against the forest which hosts a number of significant ruins and springs, including military fortifications dating back to the 16th century, as well as a memorial to a Nazi labor camp where some 1,600 prisoners were housed and used for forced labor. The park includes outdoor sports facilities and marked nature paths with historical markers.
Cemeteries
The original Rotenfels cemetery was located on the grounds of the St. Lawrence parish church. This cemetery was closed around 1820 and all of the graves and all but a representative handful of gravestones of famous town citizens (which were left on the church premises) were relocated to a new cemetery on a small island in the Murg River just south of the town centre. The island is connected to the town via a bridge which spans a canal used to generate hydroelectric electric power. After the Second World War, this island cemetery was closed for further interments and the current cemetery was built between the town centres of Rotenfels and Gaggenau.
Regular events / festivities
May Market (now called "Gaggenau May Days"), arose from the former Bad Rotenfels annual fair and market
Autumn Fair
Artists and crafts market
Nicholas Market
Economy and infrastructure
Transport
Gaggenau is located on the Rastatt-Freudenstadt Highway 462 (Black Forest Valleys road). The nearest motorway junction is Federal Highway 5 at Karlsruhe-Basel in Rastatt.
The Rastatt-Freudenstadt (Murgtalbahn) line also runs through the town, having done so since the line was electrified in 2002. The Karlsruhe light rail line has also provided direct service to Gaggenau since that time.
Local industry
Daimler AG, Mercedes-Benz plant in Gaggenau, the largest employer in the town
Dambach Group of Companies
Grötz GmbH & Co. KG
King Metal
Kohlbecker Architects & Engineers
KWH Automotive GmbH
Gerhard Lang GmbH & Co. KG and scrap metal recycling company
Lang GmbH & Co. KG Builders
Florence Mash Protektorwerk
Precitec KG
PolyOne Th Bergmann GmbH
Local media
The Badisches Tagblatt (BT), based in Baden-Baden, reports on local happenings and provides local editorials to Gaggenau through their local edition of Murgtäler. Their daily circulation figure is 11,000. The Badische Neueste Nachrichten (BNN), based in Karlsruhe, also provides local coverage of Rastatt and Gaggenau in their local edition with daily circulation figures of 10,000.
Gaggenau Week is a local weekly newsletter. It is distributed free of charge once per week to Gaggenau households, with a circulation of about 16,000 copies. This newsletter is published by Walnut Media, based in Weil. They maintain a field office in the town of Gaggenau.
The Badisches Tagblatt also publishes two local business news journals and a weekly magazine for the Rastatt / Murgtal areas called WO, delivered to households free of charge, with a special Murgtal weekend edition on Sunday. Circulation of WO is about 25,000 copies, the Sunday weekend edition approximately 73,000 copies.
Südwestrundfunk serves as the regional television station, broadcast out of Karlsruhe. It also provides reporting of local events in Gaggenau.
Education
The town of Gaggenau has one high school (Goethe Gymnasium), a secondary school (Realschule Gaggenau), and three elementary and secondary schools with vocational school (Eichelbergschule Bad Rotenfels, Hebelschule and Merkurschule) the Hans-Thoma- primary school and one elementary school in the suburbs for Selbach (Eberstein Elementary School), Hörden, Michelbach, Oberweier and Sulzbach. Furthermore, the school complex Dachgrub Bad Rotenfels, funded by Erich Kästner-Schule, was established by the district of Rastatt. The area also hosts the Carl Benz School, a vocational school.
The Akademie Schloss Rotenfels has been established In the Rotenfels Castle since 1996. The Baden-Württemberg Academy of Fine Arts school and amateur theater are also located in the community.
Twin towns – sister cities
Gaggenau is twinned with:
Annemasse, France (1970)
Sieradz, Poland (2000)
Notable people
Günther Rall (1918–2009), general in the Luftwaffe Inspector of the Air Force
Muhammed Suiçmez, technical death metal pioneer and founder of Necrophagist
References
External links
Michelbach District (in German)
Formerly independent town of Bad Rotenfels (in German)
Unimog Museum in Bad Rotenfels (in German)
Towns in Baden-Württemberg
Rastatt (district)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20storage
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Hydrogen storage
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Several methods exist for storing hydrogen. These include mechanical approaches such as using high pressures and low temperatures, or employing chemical compounds that release H2 upon demand. While large amounts of hydrogen are produced by various industries, it is mostly consumed at the site of production, notably for the synthesis of ammonia. For many years hydrogen has been stored as compressed gas or cryogenic liquid, and transported as such in cylinders, tubes, and cryogenic tanks for use in industry or as propellant in space programs. Interest in using hydrogen for on-board storage of energy in zero-emissions vehicles is motivating the development of new methods of storage, more adapted to this new application. The overarching challenge is the very low boiling point of H2: it boils around 20.268 K (−252.882 °C or −423.188 °F). Achieving such low temperatures requires expending significant energy.
Established technologies
Compressed hydrogen
Compressed hydrogen is a storage form whereby hydrogen gas is kept under pressures to increase the storage density. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) are used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology. Car manufacturers have been developing this solution, such as Honda or Nissan.
Liquefied hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen tanks for cars, producing for example the BMW Hydrogen 7. Japan has a liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage site in Kobe port. Hydrogen is liquefied by reducing its temperature to −253 °C, similar to liquefied natural gas (LNG) which is stored at −162 °C. A potential efficiency loss of only 12.79% can be achieved, or 4.26 kW⋅h/kg out of 33.3 kW⋅h/kg.
Chemical storage
Chemical storage could offer high storage performance due to the high storage densities. For example, supercritical hydrogen at 30 °C and 500 bar only has a density of 15.0 mol/L while methanol has a hydrogen density of 49.5 mol H2/L methanol and saturated dimethyl ether at 30 °C and 7 bar has a density of 42.1 mol H2/L dimethyl ether.
Regeneration of storage material is problematic. A large number of chemical storage systems have been investigated. H2 release can be induced by hydrolysis reactions or catalyzed dehydrogenation reactions. Illustrative storage compounds are hydrocarbons, boron hydrides, ammonia, and alane etc. A most promising chemical approach is electrochemical hydrogen storage, as the release of hydrogen can be controlled by the applied electricity. Most of the materials listed below can be directly used for electrochemical hydrogen storage.
As shown before, nanomaterials offer advantage for hydrogen storage systems. Nanomaterials offer an alternative that overcomes the two major barriers of bulk materials, rate of sorption and release temperature.
Enhancement of sorption kinetics and storage capacity can be improved through nanomaterial-based catalyst doping, as shown in the work of the Clean Energy Research Center in the University of South Florida. This research group studied LiBH4 doped with nickel nanoparticles and analyzed the weight loss and release temperature of the different species. They observed that an increasing amount of nanocatalyst lowers the release temperature by approximately 20 °C and increases the weight loss of the material by 2-3%. The optimum amount of Ni particles was found to be 3 mol%, for which the temperature was within the limits established (around 100 °C) and the weight loss was notably greater than the undoped species.
The rate of hydrogen sorption improves at the nanoscale due to the short diffusion distance in comparison to bulk materials. They also have favorable surface-area-to-volume ratio.
The release temperature of a material is defined as the temperature at which the desorption process begins. The energy or temperature to induce release affects the cost of any chemical storage strategy. If the hydrogen is bound too weakly, the pressure needed for regeneration is high, thereby cancelling any energy savings. The target for onboard hydrogen fuel systems is roughly <100 °C for release and <700 bar for recharge (20–60 kJ/mol H2). A modified van ’t Hoff equation, relates temperature and partial pressure of hydrogen during the desorption process. The modifications to the standard equation are related to size effects at the nanoscale.
Where is the partial pressure of hydrogen, is the enthalpy of the sorption process (exothermic), is the change in entropy, is the ideal gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, is the molar volume of the metal, is the radius of the nanoparticle and is the surface free energy of the particle.
From the above relation we see that the enthalpy and entropy change of desorption processes depend on the radius of the nanoparticle. Moreover, a new term is included that takes into account the specific surface area of the particle and it can be mathematically proven that a decrease in particle radius leads to a decrease in the release temperature for a given partial pressure.
Hydrogenation of CO2
Current approach to reduce CO2 includes capturing and storing from facilities across the world. However, storage poses technical and economic barriers preventing global scale application. To utilize CO2 at the point source, CO2 hydrogenation is a realistic and practical approach. Conventional hydrogenation reduces unsaturated organic compounds by addition of H2. One method of CO2 hydrogenation is via the methanol pathway. Methanol can be used to produce long chain hydrocarbons. Some barriers of CO2 hydrogenation includes purification of captured CO2, H2 source from splitting water and energy inputs for hydrogenation. To overcome these barriers, we can further develop green H2 technology and encourage catalyst research at industrial and academic level. For industrial applications, CO2 is often converted to methanol. Until now, much progress has been made for CO2 to C1 molecules. However, CO2 to high value molecules still face many roadblocks and the future of CO2 hydrogenation depends on the advancement of catalytic technologies.
Metal hydrides
Metal hydrides, such as MgH2, NaAlH4, LiAlH4, LiH, LaNi5H6, TiFeH2, ammonia borane, and palladium hydride represent sources of stored hydrogen. Again the persistent problems are the % weight of H2 that they carry and the reversibility of the storage process. Some are easy-to-fuel liquids at ambient temperature and pressure, whereas others are solids which could be turned into pellets. These materials have good energy density, although their specific energy is often worse than the leading hydrocarbon fuels.
LiNH2, LiBH4, and NaBH4.
An alternative method for lowering dissociation temperatures is doping with activators. This strategy has been used for aluminium hydride, but the complex synthesis makes the approach unattractive.
Proposed hydrides for use in a hydrogen economy include simple hydrides of magnesium or transition metals and complex metal hydrides, typically containing sodium, lithium, or calcium and aluminium or boron. Hydrides chosen for storage applications provide low reactivity (high safety) and high hydrogen storage densities. Leading candidates are lithium hydride, sodium borohydride, lithium aluminium hydride and ammonia borane. A French company McPhy Energy is developing the first industrial product, based on magnesium hydride, already sold to some major clients such as Iwatani and ENEL.
Reversible hydrogen storage is exhibited by frustrated Lewis pair, which produces a borohydride.
The phosphino-borane on the left accepts one equivalent of hydrogen at one atmosphere and 25 °C and expels it again by heating to 100 °C. The storage capacity is 0.25 wt%.
Aluminium
Hydrogen can be produced using aluminium by reacting it with water. It was previously believed that, to react with water, aluminium must be stripped of its natural oxide layer using caustic substances, alloys, or mixing with gallium (which produces aluminium nanoparticles that allow 90% of the aluminium to react). It has since been demonstrated that efficient reaction is possible by increasing the temperature and pressure of the reaction. The byproduct of the reaction to create hydrogen is aluminium oxide, which can be recycled back into aluminium with the Hall–Héroult process, making the reaction theoretically renewable. Although this requires electrolysis, which consumes a large amount of energy, the energy is then stored in the aluminium (and released when the aluminium is reacted with water).
Magnesium
Mg-based hydrogen storage materials can be generally fell into three categories, i.e., pure Mg, Mg-based alloys, and Mg-based composites. Particularly, more than 300 sorts of Mg-based hydrogen storage alloys have been receiving extensive attention because of the relatively better overall performance. Nonetheless, the inferior hydrogen absorption/desorption kinetics rooting in the overly undue thermodynamic stability of metal hydride make the Mg-based hydrogen storage alloys currently not appropriate for the real applications, and therefore, massive attempts have been dedicated to overcoming these shortages. Some sample preparation methods, such as smelting, powder sintering, diffusion, mechanical alloying, hydriding combustion synthesis method, surface treatment, and heat treatment, etc., have been broadly employed for altering the dynamic performance and cycle life of Mg-based hydrogen storage alloys. Besides, some intrinsic modification strategies, including alloying, nanostructuring, doping by catalytic additives, and acquiring nanocomposites with other hydrides, etc., have been mainly explored for intrinsically boosting the performance of Mg-based hydrogen storage alloys. Like aluminium, magnesium also reacts with water to produce hydrogen.
Of the primary hydrogen storage alloys progressed formerly, Mg and Mg-based hydrogen storage materials are believed to provide the remarkable possibility of the practical application, on account of the advantages as following: 1) the resource of Mg is plentiful and economical. Mg element exists abundantly and accounts for ~2.35% of the earth's crust with the rank of the eighth; 2) low density of merely 1.74 g cm-3; 3) superior hydrogen storage capacity. The theoretical hydrogen storage amounts of the pure Mg is 7.6 wt % (weight percent), and the Mg2Ni is 3.6 wt%, respectively.
Alanates-based systems
Sodium Alanate(NaAlH4) is a complex hydride for H2 storage. The crystal structure was first determined through a single crystal X-ray diffraction study in 1979. The atomic structure consisted of isolated [AlH4]− tetrahedra in which the Na atoms are surrounded by eight [AlH4]− tetrahedra in a distorted square. Hydrogen release from NaAlH4 is known since the 1950s. In 1997, Bogdanovic discovered that TiO2 doping of materials makes the process reversible at modest temperature and pressure. TiO2-doped materials are reversible in hydrogen storage, NaAlH4 is currently the state of the art reversible solid state hydrogen storage material which can be used in low temperature and has 5.6 wt.% hydrogen contained. The chemical reaction is, 3NaAlH4 ← catalyst → Na3AlH6 + 2Al + 3H2 ← catalyst → 3NaH + Al + 3/2H2. The heat required to change from NaAlH4 to Na3AlH6 is 37 kJ/mol. The heat required to change from Na3AlH6 to NaH is 47 kJ/mol. In principle, the first step of NaAlH4 releases 3.7 wt.% hydrogen at about 190 °C and the second step releases 1.8 wt.% hydrogen at about 225 °C upon heating. Further dehydrogenation of NaH occurs only at temperature higher than 400 °C. This temperature is too high for technical applications, therefore, can not be used in a fuel cell vehicle.
Lithium alanate (LiAlH4) was synthesized for the first time in 1947 by dissolution of lithium hydride in an ether solution of aluminium chloride. LiAlH4 has a theoretical gravimetric capacity of 10.5 wt %H2 and dehydrogenates in the following three steps: 3LiAlH4 ↔ Li3AlH6 + 3H2 + 2Al (423–448 K; 5.3 wt %H2; ∆H = −10 kJ·mol−1 H2); Li3AlH6 ↔ 3LiH + Al + 1.5H2 (453–493 K; 2.6 wt %H2; ∆H = 25 kJ·mol−1 H2); 3LiH + 3Al ↔ 3LiAl + 3/2H2 (>673 K; 2.6 wt %H2; ∆H = 140 kJ·mol−1 H2). The first two steps lead to a total amount of hydrogen released equal to 7.9 wt %, which could be attractive for practical applications, but the working temperatures and the desorption kinetics are still far from the practical targets. Several strategies have been applied in the last few years to overcome these limits, such as ball-milling and catalysts additions.
Potassium Alanate (KAlH4) was first prepared by Ashby et al. by one-step synthesis in toluene, tetrahydrofuran, and diglyme. Concerning the hydrogen absorption and desorption properties, this alanate was only scarcely studied. Morioka et al., by temperature programmed desorption (TPD) analyses, proposed the following dehydrogenation mechanism: 3KAlH4 →K3AlH6 + 2Al + 3H2 (573 K, ∆H = 55 kJ·mol−1 H2; 2.9 wt %H2), K3AlH6 → 3KH + Al + 3/2H2 (613 K, ∆H = 70 kJ·mol−1 H2; 1.4 wt %H2), 3KH → 3K + 3/2H2 (703 K, 1.4 wt %H2). These reactions were demonstrated reversible without catalysts addition at relatively low hydrogen pressure and temperatures. The addition of TiCl3 was found to decrease the working temperature of the first dehydrogenation step of 50 K, but no variations were recorded for the last two reaction steps.
Organic hydrogen carriers
Unsaturated organic compounds can store huge amounts of hydrogen. These Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC) are hydrogenated for storage and dehydrogenated again when the energy/hydrogen is needed. Using LOHCs, relatively high gravimetric storage densities can be reached (about 6 wt-%) and the overall energy efficiency is higher than for other chemical storage options such as producing methane from the hydrogen. Both hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of LOHCs requires catalysts. It was demonstrated that replacing hydrocarbons by hetero-atoms, like N, O etc. improves reversible de/hydrogenation properties.
Cycloalkanes
Research on LOHC was concentrated on cycloalkanes at an early stage, with its relatively high hydrogen capacity (6-8 wt %) and production of COx-free hydrogen. Heterocyclic aromatic compounds (or N-Heterocycles) are also appropriate for this task. A compound featuring in LOHC research is (NEC) but many others do exist. Dibenzyltoluene, which is already used as a heat transfer fluid in industry, was identified as potential LOHC. With a wide liquid range between -39 °C (melting point) and 390 °C (boiling point) and a hydrogen storage density of 6.2 wt% dibenzyltoluene is ideally suited as LOHC material. Formic acid has been suggested as a promising hydrogen storage material with a 4.4wt% hydrogen capacity.
Cycloalkanes reported as LOHC include cyclohexane, methyl-cyclohexane and decalin. The dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes is highly endothermic (63-69 kJ/mol H2), which means this process requires high temperature. Dehydrogenation of decalin is the most thermodynamically favored among the three cycloalkanes, and methyl-cyclohexane is second because of the presence of the methyl group. Research on catalyst development for dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes has been carried out for decades. Nickel (Ni), Molybdenum (Mo) and Platinum (Pt) based catalysts are highly investigated for dehydrogenation. However, coking is still a big challenge for catalyst's long-term stability.
The addition of second metal such as W,Ir, Re, Rh and Pd etc. and/or promoter (such as Ca) and selection of suitable support (such as CNF and Al2O3) are effective against coking. For cyclohexane, there are two dehydrogenation mechanisms, the sextet mechanism and the doublet mechanism. The difference between the two mechanisms lies in whether they are intermediate products during dehydrogenation. In the sextet mechanism, cyclohexane overlies on the catalyst surface and undergoes dehydrogenation directly to benzene. In contrast, in the double
mechanism, hydrogen will be released step by step because of the C=C double bound.
N-Heterocycles
The temperature required for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation drops significantly for heterocycles vs simple carbocycles. Among all the N-heterocycles, the saturated-unsaturated pair of dodecahydro-N-ethylcarbazole (12H-NEC) and NEC has been considered as a promising candidate for hydrogen storage with a fairly large hydrogen content (5.8wt%). The figure on the top right shows dehydrogenation and hydrogenation of the 12H-NEC and NEC pair. The standard catalyst for NEC to 12H-NEC is Ru and Rh based. The selectivity of hydrogenation can reach 97% at 7 MPa and 130 °C-150 °C. Although N-Heterocyles can optimize the unfavorable thermodynamic properties of cycloalkanes, a lot of issues remain unsolved, such as high cost, high toxicity and kinetic barriers etc.
The imidazolium ionic liquids such alkyl(aryl)-3-methylimidazolium N-bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imidate salts can reversibly add 6–12 hydrogen atoms in the presence of classical Pd/C or Ir0 nanoparticle catalysts and can be used as alternative materials for on-board hydrogen-storage devices. These salts can hold up to 30 g L−1 of hydrogen at atmospheric pressure.
Formic acid
Formic acid is a highly effective hydrogen storage material, although its H2density is low. Carbon monoxide free hydrogen has been generated in a very wide pressure range (1–600 bar). A homogeneous catalytic system based on water-soluble ruthenium catalysts selectively decompose HCOOH into H2 and CO2 in aqueous solution. This catalytic system overcomes the limitations of other catalysts (e.g. poor stability, limited catalytic lifetimes, formation of CO) for the decomposition of formic acid making it a viable hydrogen storage material. And the co-product of this decomposition, carbon dioxide, can be used as hydrogen vector by hydrogenating it back to formic acid in a second step. The catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 has long been studied and efficient procedures have been developed. Formic acid contains 53 g L−1 hydrogen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. By weight, pure formic acid stores 4.3 wt% hydrogen. Pure formic acid is a liquid with a flash point 69 °C (cf. gasoline −40 °C, ethanol 13 °C). 85% formic acid is not flammable.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (polymeric C6H10O5) release H2 in a bioreformer mediated by the enzyme cocktail—cell-free synthetic pathway biotransformation. Carbohydrates provide high hydrogen storage densities as a liquid with mild pressurization and cryogenic constraints: It can also be stored as a solid powder. Carbohydrates are the most abundant renewable bioresource in the world.
Polysaccharides (C6H10O5)n undergo a hydrolysis reaction of C6H10O5 + 7H2O → 12H2 +6CO2. As a result, hydrogen storage density in polysaccharides is 14.8 mass%. Carbohydrates are much less costly than other carriers. Hydrogen generation from carbohydrates can be implemented at mild conditions of 30~80 °C and about 1 atm, the process does not need any costly high pressure reactor, and high purity hydrogen mixed with is generated, making extra product purification unnecessary. Under the mild reaction conditions, separation of gaseous products and aqueous reaction is easy and nearly no cost. Moreover, renewable carbohydrates are non-flammable and not toxic at all.
Compared to other hydrogen carriers, carbohydrates are very appealing due to their low cost, renewable source, high purity hydrogen generated, and so on.
Ammonia and related compounds
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3) releases H2 in an appropriate catalytic reformer. Ammonia provides high hydrogen storage densities as a liquid with mild pressurization and cryogenic constraints: It can also be stored as a liquid at room temperature and pressure when mixed with water. Ammonia is the second most commonly produced chemical in the world and a large infrastructure for making, transporting, and distributing ammonia exists. Ammonia can be reformed to produce hydrogen with no harmful waste, or can mix with existing fuels and under the right conditions burn efficiently. Since there is no carbon in ammonia, no carbon by-products are produced; thereby making this possibility a "carbon neutral" option for the future. Pure ammonia burns poorly at the atmospheric pressures found in natural gas fired water heaters and stoves. Under compression in an automobile engine it is a suitable fuel for slightly modified gasoline engines. Ammonia is a suitable alternative fuel because it has 18.6 MJ/kg energy density at NTP and carbon-free combustion byproducts.
Ammonia has several challenges to widespread adaption as a hydrogen storage material. Ammonia is a toxic gas with a potent odor at standard temperature and pressure. Additionally, advances in the efficiency and scalability of ammonia decomposition are needed for commercial viability, as fuel cell membranes are highly sensitive to residual ammonia and current decomposition techniques have low yield rates. A variety of transition metals can be used to catalyze the ammonia decomposition reaction, the most effective being ruthenium. This catalysis works through chemisorption, where the adsorption energy of N2 is less than the reaction energy of dissociation. Hydrogen purification can be achieved in several ways. Hydrogen can be separated from unreacted ammonia using a permeable, hydrogen-selective membrane. It can also be purified through the adsorption of ammonia, which can be selectively trapped due to its polarity.
In September 2005 chemists from the Technical University of Denmark announced a method of storing hydrogen in the form of ammonia saturated into a salt tablet. They claim it will be an inexpensive and safe storage method.
Positive attributes of Ammonia
High theoretical energy density
Wide spread availability
Large scale commercial production
Benign decomposition pathway to H2and N2
Negative attributes of Ammonia
Toxicity
Corrosive
High decomposition temperature leading to efficiency loss
Hydrazine
Hydrazine breaks down in the cell to form nitrogen and hydrogen/ Silicon hydrides and germanium hydrides are also candidates of hydrogen storage materials, as they can subject to energetically favored reaction to form covalently bonded dimers with loss of a hydrogen molecule.
Chemical hydrides
Chemical hydride is an irreversible hydrogen storage material. The reaction of hydrogen releasing from chemical hydrides are usually exothermic, which makes regeneration of the fuel energy-intensive. NaBH4 + 2H2O → NaBO2 + 4H2 + 300 kJ. The chemical reaction gives potential for high density storage, but current systems produce much lower effective density. The NaBH4 has a theoretical effective density of 10.8 wt.%, however there is only 1.1 wt.% of effective density in reality. Examples of chemical hydride reactions: NaBH4 (20~35% solution, stabilized with 1~3% NaOH) + 2H2O (from fuel cell exhaust) → NaBO2 (Borax in NaOH) + 4H2. 2LiH + 2H2O → 2LiOH + 2H2.
A leading chemical hydride is NH3BH3, which is a waxy solid at room temperature with a melting point of 90 °C. Hydrogen will be released from NH3BH3 around 90 °C because of thermal decomposition. NH3BH3 is a promising material for hydrogen storing because it has one of the highest theoretical hydrogen weight percentages at 19.6% and also the highest hydrogen volume density at 151 kg H2 per volume. Hydrogen release from NH3BH3 occurs stepwise, where the onset temperature for the first equivalent is 90 °C, the temperature for second equivalent is 150 °C. The remaining hydrogen will be released at the temperature higher than 150 °C.
Amine boranes
Prior to 1980, several compounds were investigated for hydrogen storage including complex borohydrides, or aluminohydrides, and ammonium salts. These hydrides have an upper theoretical hydrogen yield limited to about 8.5% by weight. Amongst the compounds that contain only B, N, and H (both positive and negative ions), representative examples include: amine boranes, boron hydride ammoniates, hydrazine-borane complexes, and ammonium octahydrotriborates or tetrahydroborates. Of these, amine boranes (and especially ammonia borane) have been extensively investigated as hydrogen carriers. During the 1970s and 1980s, the U.S. Army and Navy funded efforts aimed at developing hydrogen/deuterium gas-generating compounds for use in the HF/DF and HCl chemical lasers, and gas dynamic lasers. Earlier hydrogen gas-generating formulations used amine boranes and their derivatives. Ignition of the amine borane(s) forms boron nitride (BN) and hydrogen gas. In addition to ammonia borane
(H3BNH3), other gas-generators include diborane diammoniate, H2B(NH3)2BH4.
Physical storage
In this case hydrogen remains in physical forms, i.e., as gas, supercritical fluid, adsorbate, or molecular inclusions. Theoretical limitations and experimental results are considered concerning the volumetric and gravimetric capacity of glass microvessels, microporous, and nanoporous media, as well as safety and refilling-time demands. Because hydrogen is the smallest molecule, it easily escapes from containers and during transfer from container to container, and leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.
Zeolites
Zeolites are microporous and highly crystalline aluminosilicate materials. As they exhibit cage and tunnel structures, they offer the potential for the encapsulation of non-polar gases such as H2. In this system, hydrogen is physisorbed on the surface of the zeolite pores through a mechanism of adsorption that involves hydrogen being forced into the pores under pressure and low temperature. Therefore, similar to other porous materials, its hydrogen storage capacity depends on the BET surface area, pore volume, the interaction of molecular hydrogen with the internal surfaces of the micropores, and working conditions such as pressure and temperature.
Research shows that the channel diameter is also one of the parameters determining this capacity, especially at high pressure. In this case, an effective material should exhibit a large pore volume and a channel diameter close to the kinetic diameter of the hydrogen molecule (dH=2.89 Å).
Table below shows the hydrogen uptake of several zeolites at liquid nitrogen temperature (77K):
Porous or layered carbon
Activated carbons are highly porous amorphous carbon materials with high apparent surface area. Hydrogen physisorption can be increased in these materials by increasing the apparent surface area and optimizing pore diameter to around 7 Å. These materials are of particular interest due to the fact that they can be made from waste materials, such as cigarette butts which have shown great potential as precursor materials for high-capacity hydrogen storage materials.
Graphene can store hydrogen efficiently. The H2 adds to the double bonds giving graphane. The hydrogen is released upon heating to 450 °C.
Hydrogen carriers based on nanostructured carbon (such as carbon buckyballs and nanotubes) have been proposed. However, hydrogen content amounts up to ≈3.0-7.0 wt% at 77K which is far from the value set by US Department of Energy (6 wt% at nearly ambient conditions).
To realize carbon materials as effective hydrogen storage technologies, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been doped with MgH2. The metal hydride has proven to have a theoretical storage capacity (7.6 wt%) that fulfills the United States Department of Energy requirement of 6 wt%, but has limited practical applications due to its high release temperature. The proposed mechanism involves the creation of fast diffusion channels by CNTs within the MgH2 lattice. Fullerene substances are other carbonaceous nanomaterials that have been tested for hydrogen storage in this center. Fullerene molecules are composed of a C60 close-caged structure, that allows for hydrogenation of the double bonded carbons leading to a theoretical C60H60 isomer with a hydrogen content of 7.7 wt%. However, the release temperature in these systems is high (600 °C).
Metal-organic frameworks
Metal-organic frameworks represent another class of synthetic porous materials that store hydrogen and energy at the molecular level. MOFs are highly crystalline inorganic-organic hybrid structures that contain metal clusters or ions (secondary building units) as nodes and organic ligands as linkers. When guest molecules (solvent) occupying the pores are removed during solvent exchange and heating under vacuum, porous structure of MOFs can be achieved without destabilizing the frame and hydrogen molecules will be adsorbed onto the surface of the pores by physisorption. Compared to traditional zeolites and porous carbon materials, MOFs have very high number of pores and surface area which allow higher hydrogen uptake in a given volume. Thus, research interests on hydrogen storage in MOFs have been growing since 2003 when the first MOF-based hydrogen storage was introduced. Since there are infinite geometric and chemical variations of MOFs based on different combinations of SBUs and linkers, many researches explore what combination will provide the maximum hydrogen uptake by varying materials of metal ions and linkers.
Factors influencing hydrogen storage ability
Temperature, pressure and composition of MOFs can influence their hydrogen storage ability. The adsorption capacity of MOFs is lower at higher temperature and higher at lower temperatures. With the rising of temperature, physisorption decreases and chemisorption increases. For MOF-519 and MOF-520, the isosteric heat of adsorption decreased with pressure increase. For MOF-5, both gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen uptake increased with increase in pressure. The total capacity may not be consistent with the usable capacity under pressure swing conditions. For instance, MOF-5 and IRMOF-20, which have the highest total volumetric capacity, show the least usable volumetric capacity. Absorption capacity can be increased by modification of structure. For example, the hydrogen uptake of PCN-68 is higher than PCN-61. Porous aromatic frameworks (PAF-1), which is known as a high surface area material, can achieve a higher surface area by doping.
Modification of MOFs
There are many different ways to modify MOFs, such as MOF catalysts, MOF hybrids, MOF with metal centers and doping. MOF catalysts have high surface area, porosity and hydrogen storage capacity. However, the active metal centers are low. MOF hybrids have enhanced surface area, porosity, loading capacity and hydrogen storage capacity. Nevertheless, they are not stable and lack active centers. Doping in MOFs can increase hydrogen storage capacity, but there might be steric effect and inert metals have inadequate stability. There might be formation of interconnected pores and low corrosion resistance in MOFs with metal centers, while they might have good binding energy and enhanced stability. These advantages and disadvantages for different kinds of modified MOFs show that MOF hybrids are more promising because of the good controllability in selection of materials for high surface area, porosity and stability.
In 2006, chemists achieved hydrogen storage concentrations of up to 7.5 wt% in MOF-74 at a low temperature of 77 K. In 2009, researchers reached 10 wt% at 77 bar (1,117 psi) and 77 K with MOF NOTT-112. Most articles about hydrogen storage in MOFs report hydrogen uptake capacity at a temperature of 77K and a pressure of 1 bar because these conditions are commonly available and the binding energy between hydrogen and the MOF at this temperature is large compared to the thermal vibration energy. Varying several factors such as surface area, pore size, catenation, ligand structure, and sample purity can result in different amounts of hydrogen uptake in MOFs.
In 2020, researchers reported that NU-1501-Al, an ultraporous metal–organic framework (MOF) based on metal trinuclear clusters, yielded "impressive gravimetric and volumetric storage performances for hydrogen and methane", with a hydrogen delivery capacity of 14.0% w/w, 46.2 g/litre.
Cryo-compressed
Cryo-compressed storage of hydrogen is the only technology that meets 2015 DOE targets for volumetric and gravimetric efficiency (see "CcH2" on slide 6 in ).
Furthermore, another study has shown that cryo-compression exhibits interesting cost advantages: ownership cost (price per mile) and storage system cost (price per vehicle) are actually the lowest when compared to any other technology (see third row in slide 13 of ). For example, a cryo-compressed hydrogen system would cost $0.12 per mile (including cost of fuel and all other associated costs), while conventional gasoline vehicles cost between $0.05 and $0.07 per mile.
Like liquid storage, cryo-compressed uses cold hydrogen (20.3 K and slightly above) in order to reach a high energy density. However, the main difference is that, when the hydrogen would warm-up due to heat transfer with the environment ("boil off"), the tank is allowed to go to pressures much higher (up to 350 bars versus a couple of bars for liquid storage). As a consequence, it takes more time before the hydrogen has to vent, and in most driving situations, enough hydrogen is used by the car to keep the pressure well below the venting limit.
Consequently, it has been demonstrated that a high driving range could be achieved with a cryo-compressed tank : more than were driven with a full tank mounted on a hydrogen-fueled engine of Toyota Prius. Research is still underway to study and demonstrate the full potential of the technology.
As of 2010, the BMW Group has started a thorough component and system level validation of cryo-compressed vehicle storage on its way to a commercial product.
Clathrate hydrates
H2 caged in a clathrate hydrate was first reported in 2002, but requires very high pressures to be stable. In 2004, researchers showed solid H2-containing hydrates could be formed at ambient temperature and tens of bars by adding small amounts of promoting substances such as THF. These clathrates have a theoretical maximum hydrogen densities of around 5 wt% and 40 kg/m3.
Glass capillary arrays
A team of Russian, Israeli and German scientists have collaboratively developed an innovative technology based on glass capillary arrays for the safe infusion, storage and controlled release of hydrogen in mobile applications. The C.En technology has achieved the United States Department of Energy (DOE) 2010 targets for on-board hydrogen storage systems.
DOE 2015 targets can be achieved using flexible glass capillaries and cryo-compressed method of hydrogen storage.
Glass microspheres
Hollow glass microspheres (HGM) can be utilized for controlled storage and release of hydrogen. HGMs with a diameter of 1 to 100 μm, a density of 1.0 to 2.0 gm/cc and a porous wall with openings of 10 to 1000 angstroms are considered for hydrogen storage. The advantages of HGMs for hydrogen storage are that they are nontoxic, light, cheap, recyclable, reversible, easily handled at atmospheric conditions, capable of being stored in a tank, and the hydrogen within is non-explosive. Each of these HGMs is capable of containing hydrogen up to 150 MPa without the heaviness and bulk of a large pressurized tank. All of these qualities are favorable in vehicular applications. Beyond these advantages, HGMs are seen as a possible hydrogen solution due to hydrogen diffusivity having a large temperature dependence. At room temperature, the diffusivity is very low, and the hydrogen is trapped in the HGM. The disadvantage of HGMs is that to fill and outgas hydrogen effectively the temperature must be at least 300 °C which significantly increases the operational cost of HGM in hydrogen storage. The high temperature can be partly attributed to glass being an insulator and having a low thermal conductivity; this hinders hydrogen diffusivity, and subsequently a higher temperature is required to achieve the desired storage capacity.
To make this technology more economically viable for commercial use, research is being done to increase the efficiency of hydrogen diffusion through the HGMs. One study done by Dalai et al. sought to increase the thermal conductivity of the HGM through doping the glass with cobalt. In doing so they increased the thermal conductivity from 0.0072 to 0.198 W/m-K at 10 wt% Co. Increases in hydrogen adsorption though were only seen up to 2 wt% Co (0.103 W/m-K) as the metal oxide began to cover pores in the glass shell. This study concluded with a hydrogen storage capacity of 3.31 wt% with 2 wt% Co at 200 °C and 10 bar.
A study done by Rapp and Shelby sought to increase the hydrogen release rate through photo-induced outgassing in doped HGMs in comparison to conventional heating methods. The glass was doped with optically active metals to interact with the high-intensity infrared light. The study found that 0.5 wt% Fe3O4 doped 7070 borosilicate glass had hydrogen release increase proportionally to the infrared lamp intensity. In addition to the improvements to diffusivity by infrared alone, reactions between the hydrogen and iron-doped glass increased the Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio which increased infrared absorption therefore further increasing the hydrogen yield.
As of 2020, the progress made in studying HGMs has increased its efficiency but it still falls short of Department of Energy targets for this technology. The operation temperatures for both hydrogen adsorption and release are the largest barrier to commercialization.
Stationary hydrogen storage
Unlike mobile applications, hydrogen density is not a huge problem for stationary applications. As for mobile applications, stationary applications can use established technology:
Compressed hydrogen (CGH2) in a hydrogen tank
Liquid hydrogen in a (LH2) cryogenic hydrogen tank
Slush hydrogen in a cryogenic hydrogen tank
Underground hydrogen storage
Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties. The storage of large quantities of liquid hydrogen underground can function as grid energy storage. The round-trip efficiency is approximately 40% (vs. 75-80% for pumped-hydro (PHES)), and the cost is slightly higher than pumped hydro, if only a limited number of hours of storage is required. Another study referenced by a European staff working paper found that for large scale storage, the cheapest option is hydrogen at €140/MWh for 2,000 hours of storage using an electrolyser, salt cavern storage and combined-cycle power plant. The European project Hyunder indicated in 2013 that for the storage of wind and solar energy an additional 85 caverns are required as it cannot be covered by PHES and CAES systems. A German case study on storage of hydrogen in salt caverns found that if the German power surplus (7% of total variable renewable generation by 2025 and 20% by 2050) would be converted to hydrogen and stored underground, these quantities would require some 15 caverns of 500,000 cubic metres each by 2025 and some 60 caverns by 2050 – corresponding to approximately one third of the number of gas caverns currently operated in Germany. In the US, Sandia Labs are conducting research into the storage of hydrogen in depleted oil and gas fields, which could easily absorb large amounts of renewably produced hydrogen as there are some 2.7 million depleted wells in existence.
Power to gas
Power to gas is a technology which converts electrical power to a gas fuel. There are two methods: the first is to use the electricity for water splitting and inject the resulting hydrogen into the natural gas grid; the second, less efficient method is used to convert carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methane, (see natural gas) using electrolysis and the Sabatier reaction. A third option is to combine the hydrogen via electrolysis with a source of carbon (either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide from biogas, from industrial processes or via direct air-captured carbon dioxide) via biomethanation, where biomethanogens (archaea) consume carbon dioxide and hydrogen and produce methane within an anaerobic environment. This process is highly efficient, as the archaea are self-replicating and only require low-grade (60 °C) heat to perform the reaction.
Another process has also been achieved by SoCalGas to convert the carbon dioxide in raw biogas to methane in a single electrochemical step, representing a simpler method of converting excess renewable electricity into storable natural gas.
The UK has completed surveys and is preparing to start injecting hydrogen into the gas grid as the grid previously carried 'town gas' which is a 50% hydrogen-methane gas formed from coal. Auditors KPMG found that converting the UK to hydrogen gas could be £150bn to £200bn cheaper than rewiring British homes to use electric heating powered by lower-carbon sources.
Excess power or off peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays can then be used for load balancing in the energy grid. Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, Fuel cell maker Hydrogenics and natural gas distributor Enbridge have teamed up to develop such a power to gas system in Canada.
Pipeline storage of hydrogen where a natural gas network is used for the storage of hydrogen. Before switching to natural gas, the German gas networks were operated using towngas, which for the most part (60-65%) consisted of hydrogen. The storage capacity of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GW·h which is enough for several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GW·h. The transport of energy through a gas network is done with much less loss (<0.1%) than in a power network (8%). The use of the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by NaturalHy
Automotive onboard hydrogen storage
Portability is one of the biggest challenges in the automotive industry, where high density storage systems are problematic due to safety concerns.
High-pressure tanks weigh much more than the hydrogen they can hold. For example, in the 2014 Toyota Mirai, a full tank contains only 5.7% hydrogen, the rest of the weight being the tank.
The US Department of Energy has set targets for onboard hydrogen storage for light vehicles. The list of requirements include parameters related to gravimetric and volumetric capacity, operability, durability and cost. These targets have been set as the goal for a multiyear research plan expected to offer an alternative to fossil fuels.
The FreedomCAR Partnership, which was established under U.S. President George W. Bush, set targets for hydrogen vehicle fuel systems. The 2005 targets were not reached. The targets were revised in 2009 to reflect new data on system efficiencies obtained from fleets of test cars. In 2017 the 2020 and ultimate targets were lowered, with the ultimate targets set to 65 g H per kg total system weight, and 50 g H per litre of system.
It is important to note that these targets are for the hydrogen storage system, not the hydrogen storage material such as a hydride. System densities are often around half those of the working material, thus while a material may store 6 wt% H2, a working system using that material may only achieve 3 wt% when the weight of tanks, temperature and pressure control equipment, etc., is considered.
In 2010, only two storage technologies were identified as having the potential to meet DOE targets: MOF-177 exceeds 2010 target for volumetric capacity, while cryo-compressed H2 exceeds more restrictive 2015 targets for both gravimetric and volumetric capacity (see slide 6 in ).
The target for fuel cell powered vehicles is to provide a driving range of over 300 miles. A long-term goal set by the US Fuel Cell Technology Office involves the use of nanomaterials to improve maximum range.
Fuel cells and storage
Due to its clean-burning characteristics, hydrogen is a clean fuel alternative for the automotive industry. Hydrogen-based fuel could significantly reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2, SO2 and NOx. Three problems for the use of hydrogen fuel cells (HFC) are efficiency, size, and safe onboard storage of the gas. Other major disadvantages of this emerging technology involve cost, operability and durability issues, which still need to be improved from the existing systems. To address these challenges, the use of nanomaterials has been proposed as an alternative option to the traditional hydrogen storage systems. The use of nanomaterials could provide a higher density system and increase the driving range towards the target set by the DOE at 300 miles. Carbonaceous materials such as carbon nanotube and metal hydrides are the main focus of research. They are currently being considered for onboard storage systems due to their versatility, multi-functionality, mechanical properties and low cost with respect to other alternatives.
Other advantages of nanomaterials in fuel cells
The introduction of nanomaterials in onboard hydrogen storage systems may be a major turning point in the automotive industry. However, storage is not the only aspect of the fuel cell to which nanomaterials may contribute. Different studies have shown that the transport and catalytic properties of Nafion membranes used in HFCs can be enhanced with TiO2/SnO2 nanoparticles. The increased performance is caused by an improvement in hydrogen splitting kinetics due to catalytic activity of the nanoparticles. Furthermore, this system exhibits faster transport of protons across the cell which makes HFCs with nanoparticle composite membranes a promising alternative.
Another application of nanomaterials in water splitting has been introduced by a research group at Manchester Metropolitan University in the UK using screen-printed electrodes consisting of a graphene-like material. Similar systems have been developed using photoelectrochemical techniques.
Economy
The Hydrogen Storage Materials research field is vast, having tens of thousands of published papers. According to Papers in the 2000 to 2015 period collected from Web of Science and processed in VantagePoint® bibliometric software, a scientometric review of research in hydrogen storage materials was constituted. According to the literature, hydrogen energy went through a hype-cycle type of development in the 2000s. Research in Hydrogen Storage Materials grew at increasing rates from 2000 to 2010. Afterwards, growth continued but at decreasing rates, and a plateau was reached in 2015. Looking at individual country output, there is a division between countries that after 2010 inflected to a constant or slightly declining production, such as the European Union countries, the US and Japan, and those whose production continued growing until 2015, such as China and South Korea. The countries with most publications were China, the EU and the United States, followed by Japan. China kept the leading position throughout the entire period, and had a higher share of hydrogen storage materials publications in its total research output.
Among materials classes, Metal-Organic Frameworks were the most researched materials, followed by Simple Hydrides. Three typical behaviors were identified:
New materials, researched mainly after 2004, such as MOFs and Borohydrides;
Classic materials, present through the entire period with growing number of papers, such as Simple Hydrides, and
Materials with stagnant or declining research through the end of the period, such as AB5 alloys and Carbon Nanotubes.
However, current physisorption technologies are still far from being commercialized. The experimental studies are executed for small samples less than 100 g. The described technologies require high pressure and/or low temperatures as a rule. Therefore, at their current state of the art these techniques are not considered as a separate novel technology but as a type of valuable add-on to current compression and liquefaction methods.
Physisorption processes are reversible since no activation energy is involved and the interaction energy is very low. In materials such as metal–organic frameworks, porous carbons, zeolites, clathrates, and organic polymers, hydrogen is physisorbed on the surface of the pores. In these classes of materials, the hydrogen storage capacity mainly depends on the surface area and pore volume. The main limitation of use of these sorbents as H2storage materials is weak van der Waals interaction energy between hydrogen and the surface of the sorbents. Therefore, many of the physisorption based materials have high storage capacities at liquid nitrogen temperature and high pressures, but their capacities become very low at ambient temperature and pressure.
LOHC, liquid organic hydrogen storage systems is a promising technique for future hydrogen storage. LOHC are organic compounds that can absorb and release hydrogen through chemical reactions. These compounds are characterized by the fact that they can be loaded and un-loaded with considerable amounts of hydrogen in a cyclic process. In principle, every unsaturated compound (organic molecules with C-C double or triple bonds) can take up hydrogen during hydrogenation. This technique ensures that the release of compounds into the atmosphere are entirely avoided in hydrogen storage. Therefore, LOHCs is an attractive way to provide wind and solar energy for mobility applications in the form of liquid energy carrying molecules of similar energy storage densities and manageability as today's fossil fuels.
See also
Cascade storage system
Cryo-adsorption
Electrochemical hydrogen compressor
Hydrogenography
Hydrogen energy plant in Denmark
Industrial gas
Tunable nanoporous carbon
References
External links
MaHyTec Hydrogen Tanks
EU Storhy
Nesshy
Vodik
Hydrogen as the fuel of the future, report by the DLR; discusses the types of hydrogen storage
United States Department of Energy Planned program activities for 2003–2010
Ammonia Borane (NhxBHx)
Hyweb (1996)
Research into metal-organic framework or Nano Cages H2 Storage Projects
Hydrogen Storage Technical Data
Sustainable technologies
Energy storage
Industrial gases
Gas technologies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysterious%20Walker
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Mysterious Walker
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Frederick Mitchell Walker (March 21, 1884 – February 1, 1958), nicknamed "Mysterious", was an American athlete and coach. He was a three-sport athlete for the University of Chicago from 1904 to 1906 and played Major League Baseball as a right-handed pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians, Brooklyn Superbas, Pittsburgh Rebels and Brooklyn Tip-Tops.
He earned the nickname "Mysterious" after pitching under a pseudonym for the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League in 1910. He also served as a college basketball, baseball and football coach at numerous colleges and universities, including Utah State University, University of Mississippi, Oregon State University, Carnegie Tech, Washington & Jefferson College, Williams College, Dartmouth College, Michigan State University, DePauw University, Loyola University New Orleans, University of Texas, and Wheaton College.
Early years
Walker was born in 1884 in Utica, Nebraska. He later moved during his youth to the Hyde Park section of Chicago.
Athlete at University of Chicago
He attended the University of Chicago where he played football, baseball and basketball. He played at the halfback position for Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons football teams from 1904 to 1906. As a freshman in October 1904, Walker suffered a concussion during a practice session when he collided with another player. The injury initially appeared not to be serious, but later that night Walker became "temporarily deranged" and, during his "delerium" he believed he was playing a football game against Northwestern that was scheduled for the following week. He was a member of the 1905 Chicago Maroons football team that defeated Michigan by a score of 2–0 ending a 56-game unbeaten streak for Fielding H. Yost's "Point-a-Minute" teams. Walker played a strong first half in the 1905 win over Michigan, but was forced to leave the game at the start of the second half due to a knee injury. In November 1906, the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote: "Fred Walker is playing his third year on the maroon team and is considered to be one of the best all round players in the country. Last year in the backfield, he is being used at end this season."
Walker was also one of the most dependable pitchers for the Maroons' baseball teams for three years, also coached by Amos Alonzo Stagg, and won one varsity letter in basketball. In one season, he pitched in every baseball game except two for the University of Chicago.
Coaching career and professional baseball
1907–1910
After graduating from Chicago in 1907, Walker was hired as the athletic director and coach of four sports at Utah Agricultural College, now known as Utah State University. His 1907 Utah Aggies football team finished the season with a 6–1 record and outscored opponents 184 to
25. The 1908 team began the season 4–0 after scoring 138 points to 6 for the opponents. However, during the 1908 football season, one of Walker's football players was killed during a game, and the sport was abolished at the college. He spent the latter part of the 1908 season as an assistant coach under John P. Koehler at the University of Denver.
In the summer of 1908, Walker played semi-professional baseball for the Rogers Parks team on the north side of Chicago. His pitching for Rogers Parks brought Walker to the attention of Chicago White Sox owner Charles Comiskey, who reportedly told Walker to "name his terms."
In 1909, Walker returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant football coach under head coach Stagg. In 1910, he coached the University of Mississippi baseball team and led them to the southern college championship, finishing with a record of 11–3. At the conclusion of the college baseball season in 1910, Walker left Mississippi and joined the Cincinnati Reds as a pitcher. He appeared in one game for the Reds, pitching three innings on June 28, 1910, and allowing four hits and one earned run.
Walker finished the 1910 season playing baseball for the San Francisco Seals in the Pacific Coast League. He appeared in 11 games for the Seals and compiled a record of 6–4 with a 2.68 earned run average.
While playing for San Francisco in 1910, Walker identified himself as Frank Mitchell, leaving off his last name. Mystery surrounded his appearances in the Pacific Coast League. Some accounts indicate that he wore a mask while pitching for the Seals. After he won both games of a doubleheader over the Los Angeles Angels in early September 1910, allowing seven hits in the first game and six in the second, the Los Angeles Times first referred to him as "Mysterious Mitchell", reporting as follows:"The big feature of this first double-header was the work of the iron 'busher' who heaved in both games. In the first, of ten innings, he allowed but seven hits, and in the second, of seven innings, six swats were made off him. ... Hash Mitchell, the mystery that came from nowhere to pitch four straight victories for the Seals ... Every one watched Mitchell in the hope that they might guess who he is by looking at him, and while they were gazing they saw some real spit ball pitching that was remarkable for the amount of juice he used to deceive the local batsmen."
The following week, the buzz surrounding "Mysterious Mitchell" continued to grow. Following a game in San Francisco, the press reported that Mitchell remained the focus of attention:"Mysterious Mitchell furnished the sensation at Recreation Park once more this afternoon when 8000 wildly excited fans upset baseball tradition. ... Until after the game the twirler created as much interest and excitement as the contest itself as there was still more to follow. He was the center of a throng as he left the stand and when he went to the offices of the baseball company, several hundred people gathered to look at him and call for a speech."
On September 19, 1910, Chicago sporting writers identified Mysterious Mitchell based on a photograph published by the Los Angeles Times as Fred Walker, the former pitching star for the University of Chicago. The press reported that Walker had signed earlier in the summer with the New York Giants but "got into trouble with a chambermaid at a hotel where he stopped, who accused the young pitcher of attempted assault." Following the accusation, Walker had disappeared leaving no trace until his photograph appeared in the Los Angeles Times. For the rest of his career in baseball, Walker was known as either "Mysterious Walker" and "Mysterious Mitchell."
1911–1916
In 1911, Walker coached the baseball team for the Oregon Aggies. His Oregon Aggies team finished 8–7 and lost the championship by a half game. During the winter of 1911–1912, Walker served as the coach for a basketball team in San Francisco. He was discharged in January 1912 after striking a referee in an altercation that grew out of a disagreement in a game. Members of the team petitioned to have Walker reinstated, contending that the referee's conduct justified the blow.
In 1912, Walker signed with the Cleveland Indians and appeared in one game, pitching one inning and giving up no hits and no earned runs. In the fall of 1912, Walker served as a football coach at Carnegie Tech. After pitching in the major leagues, he returned to Carnegie Tech as football coach in the fall of 1913, and played professional basketball that winter for Pittsburgh.
In 1913, Walker returned to Major League Baseball as a pitcher for the Brooklyn Superbas. He appeared in 11 games for Brooklyn in 1913, pitching 58 1/3 innings and compiling a 3.55 earned run average. In August 1913, The Pittsburgh Press wrote of Walker: "Fred Walker, otherwise known as 'Mysterious Mitchell,' who is pitching for Brooklyn, appears to be a perfectly good topnotcher for about four innings. After that—well, he hasn't won any laurels as a stayer."
In 1914, Walker pitched for the Pittsburgh Rebels of the Federal League. He appeared in 35 games for the Rebels in 1914, pitching a career-high 169 1/3 innings with a record of 4–16 and a 4.33 earned run average. He ranked ninth in the Federal League with 16 losses in 1914 and led the league with 12 wild pitches. During the fall of 1914, Walker served as an assistant football coach under Bob Folwell at Washington & Jefferson College.
In 1915, Walker played his final season of professional baseball with the Brooklyn Tip-Tops of the Federal League. He appeared in 13 games for the Tip-Tops in 1915, pitching 65 2/3 innings with a 3.70 earned run average. He appeared in his final Major League game on September 29. In 1916, Walker played minor league baseball, playing for teams in Albany and Utica, New York. In the fall of 1916, Walker returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant football coach under head coach Stagg.
1917–1925
Walker served as an assistant baseball coach in the spring of 1917 back at the University of Chicago. During the summer of 1917, Walker played minor league baseball for New Haven in the Eastern League. In September 1917, the Williams College athletic council announced the hiring of Walker as the college's football coach. Walker served as the head football coach at Williams College in 1917 and led the team to the first undefeated season in the school's history with seven wins and one tie. The 1917 Williams team defeated traditional football power Cornell 14–10 in the second game of the season and finished the season with a 20–0 win over rival, Amherst College.
In December 1917, Walker was hired by Dartmouth College as the school's head basketball coach. After the basketball team lost the first 20 games of the season, the Dartmouth Athletic Council discontinued Walker's services in February 1918. At the time, The New York Times wrote: "The dissatisfaction of the student body, together with methods of coaching that were described as not in keeping with the council's idea of how a Dartmouth team should be coached, were given as the reasons for releasing Walker."
He signed with the St. Louis Cardinals in February 1918, but spent the summer playing minor league baseball for the Newark Bears and Binghamton Bingoes. He appeared in 20 minor league games in 1918, with a record of 8–9 and a 2.58 earned run average. Following the United States' entry into World War I, Walker served as the athletic director for the Second Naval District at Newport, Rhode Island.
At the end of World War I, Walker was hired as the athletic director and head basketball coach at Rhode Island State College, now known as University of Rhode Island. During the 1919 basketball season, Walker led the Rhode Island Rams to a 7–1 record; his .875 winning percentage is the highest among all basketball coaches in the school's history. Walker also coached the school to its first ever basketball victory over Brown University's varsity. Walker left Rhode Island abruptly when the school refused to increase his $3,000 salary. The school's Board of Managers refused to reconsider even after receiving a petition signed by 147 of the school's 255 students.
From 1919 to 1920, Walker served as the athletic director and football and baseball coach at the New York Agricultural College, now known as State University of New York at Farmingdale. After a year in which the football team went 2–5, Walker resigned his position in June 1920. He stated that his decision was due to the failure of the legislature to appropriate funds to carry on the athletic program at the school.
In September 1920, Walker returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant football coach under Amos Alonzo Stagg. In February 1921, Walker signed a three-year contract to serve as the athletic director and head football, basketball and baseball coach at DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana. In his one year as the head basketball coach, Walker led the Tigers to a 17–3 mark in 1921–1922. He led DePauw's 1921 football team to a 4–3 record. Walker's baseball team finished the 1922 season at 4–8.
In August 1922, Walker was hired by Michigan Agricultural College, now Michigan State University, as advisory coach of the football team and as head coach of the basketball and baseball teams. In two seasons as the head basketball and baseball coach at M.A.C. between 1922 and 1924, Walker's basketball and baseball teams had records of 20–19 and 20–11, respectively. From 1924 to 1926, Walker served as the basketball and football coach at Drury College in Springfield, Missouri. In November 1924, Walker was hailed by the Chicago Daily Tribune as "Drury's miracle man" when he took "a team of light recruits" and developed them into one of the most sensational elevens in the history of the Missouri Conference." However, Drury's basketball team failed to post a winning record in Walker's two seasons at the helm, amassing a cumulative mark of seven wins and thirteen losses.
1926–1940
From 1926 to 1927, Walker served as athletic director and coach at Loyola University New Orleans. In his one year as the head basketball coach at Loyola, Walker led the team to a 12–6 record, including three wins over LSU. In September 1927, Walker was hired as the head basketball coach at the University of Texas. He remained in the position from 1927 to 1931, compiling a 51–30 combined record during his four-year stint as head coach at Texas. Walker led the Longhorns to an 18–2 overall record and 10–2 conference record during his second season. He was terminated following the Longhorns' 9–15 season in his fourth year.
In August 1932, Walker was appointed as the head football coach at J. Sterling Morton High School in Cicero, Illinois. In October 1932, he was dismissed after Major W.P. MacLean, head of the school's physical education department, charged that Walker was inefficient, had been late for classes, had allowed students to take out uniforms and equipment without making a deposit, and had allowed the shower rooms dirty during the football season. Nearly 300 citizens and parents crowded into the school's regular board room to protest the action. Walker was reinstated after the school superintendent issued a report declaring the charges against Walker to be "petty and trivial." Two weeks after Walker's reinstatement, the individual who had made the charges against him was removed from his position at the school.
From 1936 to 1940, Walker coached baseball, football and basketball at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. In May 1937, he was also named athletic director at Wheaton College. Walker was the head coach of the Crusaders football, basketball and baseball teams for four years between 1936 and 1940 and compiled a record of 11–14–4 in football, 28–34 in basketball and 31–35 in baseball. In January 1940, Walker announced that he would resign his coaching positions effective in June 1940. He noted that he was dissatisfied with the ouster of the university president, James Oliver Buswell, and he intended to devote more time to his security business.
Later years
Walker retired from coaching in 1940 and worked in the investment business. He was a vice president of Chesley and Co. from 1952 to 1958. In February 1958, Walker died suddenly from a heart attack at his home in Oak Park, Illinois.
Head coaching record
Football
Basketball
Baseball
References
External links
Baseball Almanac
1884 births
1958 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Persian%20War
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Anglo-Persian War
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The Anglo-Persian War or the Anglo-Iranian War () lasted between 1 November 1856 and 4 April 1857, and was fought between the United Kingdom and Iran, which was ruled by the Qajar dynasty. The war had the British oppose an attempt by Iran to press its claim on the city of Herat. Though Herat had been part of Iran under the Qajar dynasty when the war broke out, it had declared itself independent under its own rebellious emir and placed itself under the protection of the British in India and in alliance with the Emirate of Kabul, the predecessor of the modern state of Afghanistan. The British campaign was successfully conducted under the leadership of Major General Sir James Outram in two theatres: on the southern coast of Persia near Bushehr and in southern Mesopotamia.
The war resulted in the Persians withdrawing from Herat and signing a new treaty to surrender its claims on the city and the British withdrawing from southern Iran.
Origins
In the context of The Great Game, the Anglo–Russian contest for influence in Central Asia, the British wished Afghanistan to remain an independent country with friendly relation as a buffer state against Russian expansion towards India. They opposed an extension of Persian influence in Afghanistan because of the perception that Persia was unduly influenced by Russia. The Persian influence on Central Asia had caused the creation of Greater Iran; although they knew of the influence, the British had never attacked Persia. Persia had over 12 foreign provinces under its imperial control. It made a fresh attempt in 1856 and succeeded in taking Herat on 25 October, in violation of an existing Anglo-Persian Treaty. In response, the British governor-general in India, acting on orders from London, declared war on 1 November.
Separate from and preceding the dispute over Herat, was an incident concerning Mirza Hashem Khan, whom the British ambassador had hoped to appoint as a secretary to the mission in Tehran. The Persians objected and created a dispute that escalated after rumours appeared that the British ambassador had improper relations with the man's wife, who was the sister of the Shah's main wife. The dispute escalated further when the Persians arrested the woman; the British ambassador broke relations when they refused to release her. Indeed, the initial mobilization of British forces began in response to the incident although it is unlikely that the British would have gone beyond the occupation of one or two islands in the Persian Gulf if the issue of Herat had not arisen.
1856
The Qajar military listed a total of 86,700 personnel on paper. However, Tehran was unable to mobilise more than 20,000 of those soldiers for battle. A sizeable portion of the Persian army was composed of regular regiments from Azerbaijan. That division of the Persian artillery (Toop Khaneh) was the only one well-versed in long-range guns. Out 120 guns in total, six were composed of 12-pounder guns, while the remainder were of lower quality. The army train relied on mules, horses and camels for transportation, with carriages being limited in availability. With the exception of several Imperial Guard regiments, the Persian army's morale was extremely low. The annual salary of an average soldier was seven tomans, with a daily subsidy of one shahi for rations. However, soldiers were considered lucky if they were paid two out of the seven tomans due for their service.
The Persian army that fought against the British expeditionary force at the Battle of Khoshab was commanded by General (Amir-Nuyan) Mehr Ali Khan Nuri Shoja ol-Molk. In 1855, Mehr Ali Khan was promoted to the command of the Fars Army, which he held for four years. When the British invasion force landed in Iran, Shoja ol-Molk was temporarily promoted to commander-in-chief of the entire southern Persian army. Shoja ol-Molk was a grandson of Minister of the General Staff (Vazir-e Lashkar) Mirza Assadollah Khan and a nephew of the Chancellor (Sadr-e Azam) Mirza Nasrollah Khan Nuri E’temad ol-Dowleh. He was among the most revered Persian officers of the Qajar military at the time, and was known among the British rank and file.
The British government found itself in peculiar circumstances in the case of the war with Iran. This was a unique war in which the ultimate objective was to defeat the enemy but to ensure that its government and military would remain strong enough so as to remain stable and deter prospective advances by Russia. As such, several restrictions had been placed by the British cabinet concerning the expeditionary force's conduct:
No attempt shall be made to subvert the reigning Shah
His people shall not be instigated to rebellion
No Persian subjects shall be enrolled in the ranks of the British Army
Two courses of action were available to the British: an overland expedition into the Persian Empire via Afghanistan, or an attack via the Persian Gulf, the aim being both punitive, and to force the Shah to ask for terms. In the aftermath of the disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War, the British Government were reluctant to send a force overland to relieve Herat directly, and so decided instead to attack the Persian Gulf coast. They ordered the government in India to launch a maritime expeditionary force to attack the general area of Bushehr, the primary port of entry into Persia at the time.
Initially a division, under Major General Foster Stalker, was organised comprising 2,300 British soldiers and 3,400 Indian sepoys of the Bombay Presidency army which landed in Persia in early December 1856. This included two companies of the Bombay Sappers & Miners. These were:
The 2nd Company, under Captain C. T. Haig, (Bombay Engineers)
The 4th Company, under Captain J. Le Mesurier, (Bombay Engineers)
The two companies were accompanied by the headquarters of the Corps of Bombay Sappers and Miners, under Captain W. R. Dickinson, (Bombay Engineers). Major J. Hill, the erstwhile Commandant of the Bombay Sappers and Miners, who had handed the Corps over to Dickinson, was appointed as the Commanding Engineer for this expedition. After the expedition he resumed the post of Commandant of the Bombay Sappers once again. Artillery commanded by Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel Sinclair Trevelyan, Bombay Artillery
The 3rd troop Horse Brigade, commanded by Major Edward Blake, Bombay Artillery
The 1st company 1st battalion European Foot Artillery, (Organized for the expedition as the 3rd Light Field Battery), commanded by Captain William Hatch, Bombay Artillery
The 4th company 1st battalion European Foot Artillery, (Organized for the expedition as the 5th Light Field Battery), commanded by Captain Henry Gibbard, Bombay Artillery
Reserve Artillery, European Foot Artillery, Bombay Artillery commanded by Major of Brigade, Captain John Pottinger
Soon after the induction of the force, it was considered to be inadequate for the task and a second division under Brigadier General Henry Havelock was formed and the entire expedition placed under command of Major General Sir James Outram. This force inducted in January 1857.
During the hostilities, 'B' Company of the Madras Sappers & Miners under Brevet-Major A. M. Boileau, Madras Engineers, embarked at Coconada on 19 January and reached the force just in time to participate in operations in Southern Mesopotamia.
The first division under Stalker set sail from Bombay in November after the declaration of war, on a squadron or flotilla of seven steamships under Commodore Young, towing thirty sailing vessels. The British landed a force and captured the island of Kharag on 4 December and landed on 9 December on the coast a few miles south of Persia's primary port of Bushire.
Battle of Bushehr
The first division of the expedition disembarked in the neighbourhood of the major port city of Bushehr on 5 December 1856. They stormed the old fort at Reshire (also called Rishahr or Rashir) and after a short naval bombardment went on to capture the city on 10 December, ably assisted by the two companies of Bombay Sappers & Miners. There was then a delay as the British waited for reinforcements.
Reconnaissance inland revealed a Persian force of 4,000 troops at Shiraz and the first division was considered too weak to venture inland away from its maritime base of operations. This led to the formation and induction of a second division from India, which landed in Persia in late January and reached Bushehr, preceded by Outram on 20 January.
On 26 Rabi al-Thani 1273 (24 December 1856) the Persian government at Tehran issued an official proclamation outlining its pacifist approach to the “coolness” that had arisen between the British and Persian administrations. The Persian government claimed that its loyal determination to not violate the prior friendship between the British and Persian administrations had been made manifest to all levels of government and had been published in the Tehran Gazette. In hoping for a diplomatic solution by Farrokh Khan’s embassy at Constantinople, Nuri's government claimed to have directed all authorities on Iran's southern frontier to not make any preparation for war. The proclamation emphasized that this order had also been promulgated to Bushehr, where the garrison was limited to two regiments under Colonel Mohammad Ali Khan. Tehran expressed that the British declaration of war was delayed and not provided to the Persian government or the office of the Governor-General of Fars. Instead, this declaration was addressed to the port city of Bushehr and its neighboring ports. As such, the Persian government tried to explain the fall of Bushehr as a result of Britain's dubious declaration and Tehran's commitment to diplomacy. Following the British landing at Bushehr, the Persian government mobilised its regular infantry to occupy positions surrounding Mohammareh as an attack was expected there. However, the Al-Nawasir branch of the Chaab tribe, violently opposed the Qajar army's occupation of a Persian fort in their territory. The tribe inhabited the island of Menykh and Abadan, between the Arvand and Bahmanshir rivers. In a bid to show their neutrality to the British, the Al-Nawasir killed four Persian infantrymen. Upon visiting one of Al-Nawasir chiefs in Kuwait, Outram's Arabic interpreter Reverend Badger was notified of the tribe's stance in the war.
1857
Britain Mobilizes an Expeditionary Force
The British invasion force that was to be dispatched to the Persian Gulf in an effort to intimidate the Persian government from further pressing its claim to Herat was eventually divided into two divisions. Sir James Outram of the Bombay army was to lead the British operations in Iran. The first division, which has conducted the landing at Bushehr was led by Major-General Stalker and Brigadier Wilson. This division was granted her Majesty's 64th Regiment, the 4th Bombay Rifles, The second division was led by Brigadier-General Havelock and Major-General Sir James Outram K.C.B., who had arrived in India from England with instructions to take over the chief command and direct the British operations in Persia. The Bombay government granted Outram the 14th King's Light Dragoons, 78th Highlanders, 23rd Native Light Infantry, 26th Native Infantry, Jacob's Scinde Horse, one troop of horse artillery, two field-batteries, and a light battalion of ten companies assorted from different native infantry regiments. While employed to command this second division of the British forces in Persia, Outram was granted the temporary rank of lieutenant-general.
The British put their ships to sea on the afternoon of 19 January. The Precursor had in tow the Earl of Clare with the 26th Native Infantry Regiment, while the British Queen carried the artillery and stores. The Pottinger towed the Futteh Mombarrak with horses and forage and the Kingston sailed with the light company of the 78th Highlanders. By 27 January, the ships at reached the Strait of Hormuz with little disruptions.
By 28 January, the party was off Basaidu, on the island of Qeshm. Two days later, the French frigate Sibylle commanded by Captain Maisonneuve passed the British ships. The French ship had left Bombay eight days prior on a mission to the Persian Gulf to protect French interests there. On 30 January, the British squadron anchored off of Bushehr around 2:00 PM. The next morning, the British command gave orders to disembark and join the force already stationed at the encampment. With the arrival of the reinforcements, supplies were plentiful in the camp.
By 6:00 PM on the afternoon of 3 February, the entire force was raised outside of the entrenchments in two lines of contiguous quarter-distance columns. Led by Outram, the army marched through the night to the village of Chahkootah. A few hours before the British army arrived, a Qajar cavalry picket had stopped at the village before continuing their patrol. At 4:00 PM on 4 February, Outram resumed the march with arms loaded. By the morning of 5 February, the British army travelled towards Borazjan, where the Persian army had been entrenched with 18 guns. Charles Murray, the Minister Plenipotentiary to Persia, had given Outram the aid of Mirza Agha, the Persian Secretary of Her Majesty's Mission to Persia. Mirza Agha, whose appointment was the subject of dispute between the British Foreign Office and the Persian government, accompanied Outram on the expedition to Borazjan.
Capture of Borazjan
Shortly before 1:00 PM, the approaching British army saw the Persian garrison's vedettes and reconnoitering parties. By the time the British regiments had moved into their positions, the Persian army decided to withdraw from Borazjan and avoid a direct confrontation there. The Persian army under command of Gen. (Amir-Nuyan) Mehr Ali Khan Shoja ol-Molk was misinformed by his reconnaissance units that the British were advancing with 13,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, and 28 guns. The Persian justification for the hasty withdrawal was to prevent high casualties from the overestimated size of the British forces and the expected explosion of the unsecured ammunition stored at Borazjan. To cover its retreat, the Persian army left behind a rear-guard, which confronted a few of the British cavalry. The hasty Persian withdrawal left great amounts of ammunition and grain in the hands of their enemy.
Southern Persian Army
In his dispatches, Outram had sized the Persian garrison in Borazjan at 8,450 regular infantry and cavalry, with 17 guns and a mortar. The general noted that Tehran had planned to extend its reinforcements to 12 regiments of regular infantry with 35 guns, while the provincial governors were preparing to conscript 4,000 irregular infantry from among the local tribes. Outram's sense of urgency in his letter to the Governor-General of India dated 14 February 1857 was visible through his concern for the prospective loss of Bushehr should Iran raise a larger than expected army.
Tahmasp Mirza Mo’ayed ol-Dowleh was the Governor-General (Nawab Vala) of the province of Fars during the Anglo-Persian War. By order of Tahmasp Mirza, the 1st Arab Regiment of Brig. Gen. (Sartip) Reza Qoli Khan Arab, stationed in Kazerun, was to join the other regional regiments raised under Shoja ol-Molk. For the duration of the war, Tahmasp Mirza granted Reza Qoli Khan control of the Inanlu and Baharlu regiments. On 14 Jumada l-Ula, Reza Qoli Khan left the Persian encampment with a contingent of 400 from the 1st Arab Regiment and 2 field guns to gather additional rations and supplies for the province's defense. During his sortie, Reza Qoli Khan was joined by 300 troops from the 1st Qashqai Regiment with one piece of artillery.
Shoja ol-Molk's garrison at Borazjan included the following regiments:
March Back to Bushehr and Qajar Ambush
The British army then commenced the march back to Bushehr at 8:00 PM on 7 February, after plundering the garrison's stores and taking the town's governor as prisoner. At 11:00 PM, the Qashqai cavalry contingent of 300 under command of Sohrab Khan Qashqai ambushed the British encampment. Shortly after midnight, Persian forces descended on the British rear-guard who returned musket fire and deployed two of their horse-artillery guns. The Persian cavalry contingent surrounded the British force on all sides and galloped around them. The Persian cavalrymen aimed to instill fear and cause confusion among the British rank and file by sounding English bugle-calls. Given that English officers were once employed by the Qajar military, the Persian army was well-versed in several standard bugle-calls that the British used. The buglers of the Qashqai cavalry sounded a “Cease Fire” and “Incline to the Left” order which had no effect on the Highlanders, but the 20th Native Infantry reportedly stopped firing, thinking that it was their own force firing on them. The Persian light skirmishers fired a salvo and then stopped firing in that direction. The Persian cavalry engaged the 78th Highlanders head on at various points during the skirmish. The British army adopted an oblong formation as the five heavy guns of the Persian artillery opened fire with round shots. While the Persian artillery had calculated the range very accurately, there were few casualties given the lengthy bombardment. However, one shot dealt considerable damage to the 64th Regiment and took off a foot from Lieutenant Greentree, while severely wounding Captain Mackler. During this engagement, Outram's horse fell and rolled over him, rendering the general incapacitated for the duration of the ambush. The Chief of his staff, Colonel Lugard took command of the British forces and quietly covered the mishap, ensuring few others knew of Outram's condition until the next morning.
Battle of Khoshab
The Persian guns continued to fire on British positions until dawn. The Persian army had gathered near the British encampment and prepared for a battle. Ravanji cites the Persian army as 7,000 troops in total while Sandes lists the Persian troops as being 8,000 strong, composed of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. On the morning of 8 February, the Persian army under Shoja ol-Molk drew up in line with the right flank of its infantry resting on the walled village of Khushab. The left flank of the Persian army was covered by a round fortalice tower. Shoja ol-Molk had ordered two rising mounds placed at the center of the Persian infantry. He ordered the bulk of the Persian guns placed at the center and had deep nullahs covering the right front and flank. The Qashqai cavalry was led by Sohrab Khan, the hereditary chief of the Qashqai peoples native to the region. As the morning mist cleared, the two sides began firing their cannons at each other's positions.
The British brigades began maneuvering into different positions, moving up as they deployed. The British army formed two lines, with the first consisting of the 78th Highlanders and a contingent of Indian sappers to their right, the rest included the 26th Regiment Native Infantry, the 2nd European Light Infantry, and the 4th Rifle Regiment at the far-left of the line. The second line included her Majesty's 64th Regiment to the right, the 20th Regiment Native Infantry, and the Belooch Battalion to the left. Outram placed the light infantry battalions to counter the Qajar centre, while a detachment of the 3rd Cavalry covered the Qashqai Cavalry. The Governor of Borazjan was present at the British rear but was forced off his horse to his knees when attempting to signal the Persian army to his presence.
The Persian rank and file included the 1st Qashqai Regiment, which took position on the left of the Persian line. Other native units included the Regiment of Bushehr, the Regiment of Kazerun, and the Qaragozlu regiments from Shiraz. Jahangir Khan and Lotfali Khan Qashqai were the commanding officers of the 1st Qashqai Regiment. Reza Qoli Khan Arab commanded the Inanlu, Baharlu and 1st Arab Regiment. The Qashqai Cavalry Regiment was divided into two detachments, with Sohrab Khan leading a contingent of 800 cavalrymen on the left flank. A division of 1,000 cavalry covered the right flank beside the defensive walls of Khoshab. Two artillery squadrons were positioned at the centre of the Persian army, while four other squadrons manned the 9-pounder brass guns on either flank each. The Persian army relied primarily on the Sarbaz from its reformed Nezam Regiments as opposed to the irregular infantry outside the auspices of the Qajar military. As such, Shoja ol-Molk refused to consider inviting the Tangestani Braves (Daliran-e Tangestan) to the defense of Borazjan.
As the British lines advanced, Hunt and Townsend cite few casualties among the Highlanders and 26th Native Infantry but note that the first brigade, first division fared worse against the Persian bombardment. The second brigade, first division is noted to have suffered equally with more dead among the 2nd European Light Infantry. The British artillery resumed the firing after advancing to closer action, which slackened the degree of the Persian bombardment. Sohrab Khan charged forward with the Qashqai cavalry on the Persian left flank which were met halfway by the squadrons of the 3rd Cavalry and Tapp's irregulars. The British cavalry were supported by horse-artillery. The British focus on the Persian left flank managed to push back the cavalry under Sohrab Khan, which eventually retired to the Haj Mollah Pass, 7 miles away from the battlefield.
The British infantry lines rapidly advanced to meet the Persian army in closer action. As the British cavalry advanced on the right, the 3rd Bombay Light Cavalry and the Poona Horse charged the Nezam Infantry Regiments on the left flank of the Persian line. Under musket and cannon fire, the 1st Qashqai Regiment of Fars entered an infantry square formation with kneeling ranks and sustained the charge of the 3rd Cavalry. The Persian infantry fired volleys at the charging British cavalrymen. In the close action, the Persian regiment's standard-bearer was shot, and the standard was taken by the 3rd Cavalry. The regimental flag of the 1st Qashqai was surmounted by a silver hand that signifies the Hand of Imam Ali. The standard, which has the phrase “God’s hand is above all things” (يد الله فوق عداهم) etched into it, now rests atop the Poona Horse Regiment's standard. For publicity, the English media capitalized on the action as the most gallant event of the war. Two Victoria Crosses were awarded to the Commander's Adjutant Lieutenant Arthur Thomas Moore for first breaking into the square, and Captain John Grant Malcolmson. Upon charging the 1st Qashqai's square, Moore's horse was shot and bayoneted, falling on its rider. The 21 one year old Malcolmson, a lieutenant of the 3rd Bombay Cavalry managed to extricate his comrade.
The infantry to the right of the Persian left flank began fleeing in a disorderly manner, despite no major altercation with the British lines in front. In contrast, Townshend and Hunt highlight that the Nezam Regiments protecting the Persian left flank soon retired with order. As the Persian line began to waver, the Poona Horse spiked the two guns on the Persian left. The Persian cavalry regiments remained on the battlefield, posing a threat to the British rear and the wounded. However, the long range of the new Enfield rifles hindered the Persian cavalry, which made off before 10:00 AM. The British record cited one officer and 18 men killed, with four officers and 60 wounded. Other records, however, cite 220 killed and 64 wounded. The British claimed the Persian casualties to be approximately 700, and considered the battle a British victory. Despite the victory, Outram decided not to advance further towards Shiraz. The British army was short on rations and could not withstand a mountain pursuit. The Persian government published a different version of Khoshab, considering the battle to be a Persian victory in which the British casualties amounted to 1,000 killed and wounded.
By 10:00 AM, the British army regrouped a short distance to the right of the battlefield before resuming the march back to Bushehr. Out of fear of the raids and ambushes by Tangestani guerilla fighters, the British army decided against taking the road from Chahkootah. Outram instead made his way to Shif and took the coastal passage back to Bushehr. Despite Outram's decision, the British expedition through Shif was still met by an ambush from the guerilla fighters of Ziarat. Shoja ol-Molk had retreated to Khesht and wrote despondently to the Shah that the Persian army was in dire need of reinforcements after the battle. By 14 February, Tehran had decided to relieve Shoja ol-Molk of his command due to the retreat at the Battle of Khoshab. Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar-Dolu, Commandant of the Shah's Bodyguard was to assume command of the southern Persian army. Mirza Mohammad Khan set out to reorganize the Fars division with equipment costing 50,000 tomans, gold-mounted swords, and robes of honour. Mirza Mohammad Khan would later gain the title of generalissimo (Sepahsalar) and be elected as Iran's first minister of war. The commandant was accompanied by Hamzeh Mirza Qajar Heshmat ol-Dowleh, the Shah's uncle. Hamzeh Mirza had been the Governor-General of Khorasan, and had returned to Tehran after failing to quell the rebellion of Hasan Khan Salar. He would later become the minister of war in 1868, employing Kamran Mirza Nayeb ol-Saltaneh as his representative for the role instead. Hamzeh Mirza's royal presence granted the new leadership of the Persian army the full powers to negotiate with Outram. However, at this stage the Qajar court had not given any indications of a desire to communicate with the British expeditionary force.
The British army resumed its march back to Bushehr but in deplorable conditions; torrential rains created mud deep enough to pull a man's boots from his feet. The troops went through a harrowing ordeal but finally reached Bushire on 10 February:
Return to Bushehr
In deplorable conditions, the British army marched back to the encampment at Bushehr the entire night of the battle, halting for daylight at 4:00 AM. Pitiless rains and winds formed a swamp with knee-deep waters around the British battalions. The British troops reached the village of Choghadak between Chahkootah and Bushehr by 10:00 AM. On 9 February, the troops halted at the village's well until 2:00 PM amid heavy rainfall. The regiments reached the camp on the morning of 10 February. During the two or three days of rest, Brigadier-General Havelock took command of the second division and Brigadier Hamilton took control of the division's first brigade. The British army began constructing a sequence of redoubts and a Martello tower at the center of their entrenchment. During this time, heavy rain and damp weather persisted, making rest more difficult. Several companies of the light battalion and guns from the mountain train joined the British force during this period. The arrival of the 23rd Native Light Infantry and a troop of horse artillery contributed to motivation for contemplated attack on Mohammareh. In anticipation of a potential assault on Mohammareh, the Persian military focused its best available batteries there. Outram believed that the Persian government could not raise more troops beyond those stationed at Mohammareh and the army the British faced at Khushab. Outram did not expect the Shah to recall his expeditionary force under Soltan Morad Mirza Hesam ol-Saltaneh from Herat. The British believed that they could coerce the Shah into accepting their demands by employing the semi-autonomous demographic of Iran's northwest against the Persian government. Namely, Outram believed that the Chaab, Bakhtiari and Feyli were particularly resistant to Persian authority and considered negotiating an alliance with them. This idea made Mohammareh more strategically significant for the British army.
The Persian Army Under Mirza Mohammad Khan
By February 22, Persian troops encroached on the British encampment at Bushehr but did not engage. The British reported seeing the fires of the enemy on the hills surrounding their camp. In response, the Poona Horse expanded the range of its patrols, but did not report any confrontations. In his correspondence with Governor-General Canning, Outram reported that the total size of the new forces raised between Shiraz and Khesht for Mirza Mohammad Khan's army was 27,800 men with 85 guns. Of this army, 2,000 were attributed to cavalry, 3,000 Tofangchi Infantry (Musketeers), and 31 regiments of regular infantry at 800 each. This army was exclusive of the 10,000 to 13,000 troops and 16 guns estimated to be garrisoned at Mohammareh under Prince Khanlar Mirza. Governor-General Tahmasp Mirza commanding several regiments, advanced from Shiraz to Nanizak. He was to await the arrival of General Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar-Dolu, at which point he would make over all of his troops and return to Shiraz. Jafar Qoli Khan Ilkhani was stationed at Shiraz with a cavalry detachment of 3,000. Mohammad Khan had made his way to Farashband with his troops and had ordered several contingents to rendezvous at Nanizak by 6 March to form a larger army fit to assault Bushehr. Brigadier-General Fuzl Ali Khan was stationed at Khesht with 10 guns, five regiments and 1,000 cavalry. Brigadier-General Mirza Ibrahim Khan was at Sarkoreh with his troops. The three contingents were to make their way to Nanizak through different roads so as to not exhaust the provisions on the route. The Persian general himself led a contingent of four regiments with eight guns and 1,500 cavalry. The British intelligence report from 27 February estimated that the southern Persian force was 24 regiments, 31 guns and 5,000 cavalry strong. The report further projected 4,000 tofangchis could be conscripted from among the local inhabitants.
Battle of Mohammareh
The British then shifted their focus north up the Persian Gulf, invading Southern Mesopotamia by advancing up the Shatt al-Arab waterway to Mohammerah at its junction with the Karun River, short of Basra. The force collected for the sortie consisted of 1,500 British and 2,400 Indian soldiers. The engineers grouped with the force included 2nd Company, Bombay Sappers & Miners (with 109 troops under Captain Haig) and B Company, Madras Sappers & Miners (with 124 troops under Brevet-Major Boileau). Outram decided that Major-General Stalker was to remain in command at Bushehr along with Brigadiers Wilson, Honnor, and Tapp. The troops that would stay in the encampment included two field batteries, the mountain-train, the entire cavalry of the first division, three companies from her Majesty's 64th and the 78th Highlanders, the 4th rifles, 20th Native Infantry, and the Belooch battalion. The force at Bushehr numbered around 3,000. This left just under 4,000 troops under the command of Outram.
By this point, the defence of Mohammareh was given to Prince Khanlar Mirza commanding seven regular regiments composed of 13,000 infantry and cavalry in total. The Persian army had undertaken an effort to develop extensive defensive infrastructure along the city's coastline and Khanlar Mirza now had 17 guns placed along the defenses in anticipation of the British attack. Khanlar Mirza Ehtesham-ed-Dowleh was the 17th son of the late Abbas Mirza and an uncle to Naser al-Din Shah. At the time of the Anglo-Persian War, Khanlar Mirza was the magistrate of Mazandaran and Khuzestan. The works of the fort at Mohammareh were 20 feet thick, and the Persian heavy guns were placed on the river face with a range of around 100 yards. The British army would counter the Persian bombardment with the broadsides of the Clive and Falkland sloops as well as the Ajdaha, Feroze, Semiramis, Victoria, and Assaye steamers. Besides its defences, Mohammerah was further protected by the political requirement of the British not violating Ottoman territory, as the city lay right on the border.
On 6 March, the Falkland sailed for the Euphrates, while the 64th regiment sailed on the Bride of the Sea. On the same day, the Feroze, Pottinger, and Pioneer steamers brought a troop of horse artillery and a contingent of the Scinde Horse, reinforcing Outram's confidence of an attack on Mohammareh. That afternoon, the Kingston and four other transports sailed towards Kharg island where a detachment of the 4th rifles had been left to secure a coaling station for the British navy. On the morning of 8 March, the Falkland reached the mouth of the Euphrates. As the other ships reached the anchorage in the river, Persian cavalry patrols took cite of the enemy. One of the superior officer's of Khanlar Mirza's army held a military inspection of 3,000 infantry in sight of the British ships near the coast as a show of force. The British troops were also made aware of a considerable detachment of irregular cavalry and infantry occupying the village of Mahamur, where pickets had been constructed along some ruined buildings. Upon his return from a visit to Mohammareh, Captain Maisonneuve have warned the British troops that the Persian defences were formidable and that Outram's forces could not easily take them. By 15 March, the Berenice steamer brought the headquarters of the Highlanders with Brigadier-General Havelock and the staff of the second division. Lieutenant Sinclair of the 78th Highlanders had died a few days prior to departure due to fever. By 17 March, as the Pioneer reached the anchorage, news spread that Major-General Foster Stalker had committed suicide in the night of 14 March. Hunt & Townshend and Ballard cite Stalker's main motive for suicide as a loss of mental balance and macular degeneration. However, Granny sees the suicide as arising out of disagreement with Outram's idea of pushing into Persia's interior. Watson likewise cites the suicide as stemming from the unbearable responsibility of defending Bushehr against the growing southern Persian army of Mirza Mohammad Khan. Consequently, Outram decided to remain in command at Bushehr and at first, left the execution of the British objectives in Mohammareh to Havelock. At this time, one troop of horse artillery returned to Bushehr as the prospect of a Persian attack became more imminent. Eventually, Outram himself joined the troops anchored near Mohammareh with a contingent of the Scinde Horse and dragoons. Outram left Colonel John Jacob in command of the garrison at Bushehr. In the night of 17 March, Commodore E. Ethersey, who Rear Admiral Henry Leeke had appointed in command of the British navy at Bushehr, also committed suicide.
The British force remained anchored until 23 March, with ships transporting troops and horses on an hourly basis throughout the day. By 24 March, the rendezvous point was set to three miles below the Persian fortifications. As some of the British forces disembarked and assembled, a considerably large party of Persian reconnoitrers sighted the enemy within firing range. However, the Persian troops did not engage the British. By the night of 25 March, several hundred Persian soldiers were seen throwing up an embankment to cover two of their field guns which were to be positioned towards the British positions. The Assaye was soon ordered to fire eight shells at the Persian positions, forcing the artillerymen to retreat. On the same night, the British placed two 8 and two 5-inch mortars northward behind a low swampy island facing the Persian army's most powerful battery. This endeavour was undertaken by the engineer officers that also conducted a reconnaissance of the Persian guns in a small canoe. They first planned to erect a battery on an island in the Arvand, but the island proved to be too swampy. They then towed the mortars on a raft and moored it behind the island from where fire support was provided.
At dawn on 26 March, the mortars from the raft placed by the swampy island, commanded by Captain Worgan, opened fire on into the centre of the Persian fortifications. The Persian soldiers were noted to have been mid-prayer for Fajr. The first shots wounded the Persian Brigadier commanding the northern battery. As such, it took Khanlar Mirza's artillerymen a few minutes to identify where the missiles came from. As the Persian batteries began to return fire by 6:00 AM, the British attack ships advanced and began to engage them. The Semiramis led the squadron and towed the Clive sloop and was followed by the Ajdaha, Feroze, Assaye and Victoria. The Victoria towed the Falkland sloop as she got into position. The Madras Sappers were also aboard the S.S. Hugh Lindsay to assist the 64th Regiment in firing the ship's carronades The Persian batteries opened fire along the entire line of defence, inflicting considerable damage on the hulls and rigging of the British ships. Arab inhabitants on the Turkish side of the border had gathered to watch the battle, but as some of the Persian shots ricocheted in their direction, they dispersed. By 7:45 AM, the British commodore ordered the ships to close in on the forts, all anchoring except for the Assaye. The British attack ships and the Persian batteries continued to fire on each other for three hours, while the British transports remained patiently at anchorage. At this point, Commodore Rennie hoisted the signal for the British flotilla carrying the troops. The Persian guns managed to cut the rigging and damage the hull of the Berenice, which carried Havelock and the 78th Highlanders, as she entered within 100 yards of the Persian battery. The transports disembarked about 100 yards above the Persian army's north battery. The disembarkation lasted an hour and went unopposed. As the Persian batteries fell silent, the brigadiers of their army, which was situated behind the fortifications, retreated while the British troops were called to halt to properly arrange their lines. The Persians effectively abandoned the city to a British force under Brigadier Henry Havelock, which captured it on 27 March. Khormuji sees the reason for the Persian retreat as resulting from confusion caused by an order from Tehran and the Persian border coast guard to avoid direct conflict the British navy due to their superior maritime prowess and their 66-pound cannons. The British reported losses of 41 men at the Battle of Mohammareh. A further five were wounded when two of their pickets accidentally fired on one another as the British troops attempted to chase down the retreating Persian army into the night. The Persian army of 13,000 made its way to Ahvaz along the Karun river.
Battle of Ahvaz
The sappers were now continually employed in destroying Persian batteries, making roads, landing stages and huts in the unhealthy climate and so could not be spared for the sortie to Ahvaz, where the Royal Navy and forces from the 64th Foot and 78th Highlanders attacked the Persian force. The town fell to the British on 1 April 1857.
Treaty of Paris (1857)
On returning to Muhammarah on 4 April, the force learned that a treaty had been signed in Paris on 4 March, and hostilities ceased. When news of peace arrived, Outram was planning an invasion into the Persian interior that likely would have significantly escalated the war. The expeditionary force had thus successfully carried out its purpose by capturing Bushire, defeating the Persians at Khoosh-Ab and capturing a foothold in southern Mesopotamia, thus forcing the Persians to sue for terms. Over the next few months, the force returned to India. In October, the British withdrew from Bushire. Most of the forces were soon inducted into operations in Central India to quell the Indian Mutiny in which both Havelock and Outram would distinguish themselves at the siege of Lucknow.
Diplomacy
Negotiations in Constantinople between Persian Ambassador Farrokh Khan and British Ambassador Stratford de Redcliffe ultimately broke down over British demands for the Persians replace their prime minister (Sadr-e Azam). News of the onset of fighting resulted in a formal rupture of talks, but discussions soon began again in Paris, and both sides signed a peace treaty on 4 March in which the Shah agreed to withdraw from Herat and to refrain from further interference in the affairs of Afghanistan. In the treaty, the Persians agreed to withdraw from Herat, to apologise to the British ambassador on his return, to sign a commercial treaty, and to co-operate in suppressing the slave trade in the Persian Gulf. The British agreed not to shelter opponents of the Shah in the embassy and abandoned the demand of replacing the prime minister and requiring territorial concessions to the Imam of Muscat, a British ally.
The Persians faithfully withdrew from Herat, which allowed the British to return their troops to India, where they were soon needed for combat in the Indian Mutiny. Herat returned to more direct Afghan control when it was retaken by Dost Mohammed Khan in 1863.
Gallantry awards
Three Victoria Crosses were awarded during the expedition to captain John Augustus Wood, captain John Grant Malcolmson and lieutenant Arthur Thomas Moore.
Battle honours
A total of four battle honours were awarded for this campaign, namely, 'Persia', 'Reshire', and 'Koosh-Ab' in 1858, and 'Bushire' in 1861.
Persia
The battle honour 'Persia' was awarded to all units that had participated in the campaign vide Gazette of the Governor General 1306 of 1858. The units were:
3rd Bombay Cavalry – currently Poona Horse
Poona Irregular Horse – currently Poona Horse
1st Scinde Irregular Horse – currently Scinde Horse
Madras Sappers & Miners – currently Madras Engineer Group
Bombay Sappers & Miners – currently Bombay Engineer Group
4th Bombay Infantry – Later 1st Battalion, the Rajputana Rifles, currently, the 3rd Battalion, Brigade of the Guards 1 RAJ RIF
20th Bombay Infantry – currently 2nd Battalion, the Rajputana Rifles
23rd Bombay Infantry – currently 4th Battalion, the Rajputana Rifles
26th Bombay Infantry – later the 2nd Battalion, the 10th Baluch Regiment
Reshire
The honour was awarded to the units which participated in the attack on the old Dutch redoubt of Reshire on 7 December 1856. the Governor surrendered the fortifications on 8 December. The division then waited for the arrival of the C-in-C with the remainder of the army. The battle honour was awarded vide GOGG 1306 of 1858 to the following:
3rd Bombay Cavalry
Bombay Sappers & Miners
4th Bombay Infantry
20th Bombay Infantry
26th Bombay Infantry
Bushire
The first division of the expedition disembarked in the neighbourhood of the city of Bushire on 5 December 1856. After a naval bombardment of the fortifications, Bushire was occupied unopposed. The honour was awarded by Bombay GO 191 of 1861, after India had passed under the Crown. Other honours for this campaign were awarded by the Company in 1858.
Poona Horse
Bombay Sappers & Miners
4th Bombay Infantry
20th Bombay Infantry
26th Bombay Infantry
3rd Regiment Local Contingent (disbanded)
Koosh-Ab
After the arrival of the C-in-C, the force advanced inland and defeated the Persian field army at Koosh-Ab on 8 February 1857. The Poona Horse carries a Standard surmounted by a silver hand and bearing a Persian inscription captured at Koosh-Ab, in commemoration of the brilliant charge of the 3rd Bombay Light Cavalry which broke into enemy infantry and decided the fate of the day. The honour was awarded vide GOGG 1306 of 1858 and spelling changed from Kooshab vide Gazette of India No 1079 of 1910.
3rd Bombay Cavalry
Poona Irregular Horse
Bombay Sappers and Miners
4th Bombay Infantry
20th Bombay Infantry
26th Bombay Infantry
2nd Baluch Battalion – later the 4th Battalion, the 10th Baluch Regiment (Pakistan)
See also
British Indian Army
East India Company
References
Notes
Bibliography
pp. 218–220
pp 33–49
Sandes, Lt Col E.W.C. The Indian Sappers and Miners (1948) The Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham.
Further reading
English, Barbara. 1971. John Company's Last War. London: Collins.
Hunt, Capt. G. H. and George Townsend. 1858. Outram & Havelock's Persian Campaign. London: G. Routledge & Co.
Outram, Lieut. General Sir James. 1860. Lieut.-General Sir James Outram's Persian Campaign in 1857. London: Smith, Elder and Co.
Walpole, Sir Spencer. 1912. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. (vol. VI, pp. 266–273)
External links
Persian War
Regiment Site
Conflicts in 1856
Conflicts in 1857
Wars involving Afghanistan
Wars involving British India
Resistance to the British Empire
19th-century military history of the United Kingdom
1856 in Asia
1857 in Asia
Battle honours of the Indian Army
Battle honours of the Bombay Sappers
Battle honours of the Madras Sappers
Overseas expeditions of the British Indian Army
History of the Bombay Sappers
History of the Madras Sappers
History of the Corps of Engineers (Indian Army)
Iran–United Kingdom military relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Shaddai
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El Shaddai
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El Shaddai (; ) or just Shaddai is one of the names of the God of Israel. El Shaddai is conventionally translated into English as God Almighty. (Deus Omnipotens in Latin, )
The translation of El as "God" in the Ugaritic and the Canaanite languages is straightforward. Shaddai may come from shad שד meaning mammary; shaddai שדי is a dual grammatical number shaddayim שדיים is the typical modern (grammatically plural) hebrew word for human breasts. The Deir Alla inscriptions contain shaddayin as well as elohin rather than elohim. Scholars translate this as "shadday-gods," taken to mean none-too-specific fertility, mountain or wilderness gods. Discomfort over this is sometimes interpreted as controversy, leaving room open for other suggestions, like a relation to the Destroyer aspect of God mentioned et alia during the Egypt affair from shaddad שדד, though such an etymology appears less direct.
The form of the phrase "El Shaddai" fits the pattern of the divine names in the Ancient Near East, exactly as is the case with names like ʾĒl ʿOlām, ʾĒl ʿElyon and ʾĒl Bēṯ-ʾĒl. As such, El Shaddai can convey several different semantic relations between the two words, among them: the deity of a place called Shaddai, a deity possessing the quality of shaddai and a deity who is also known by the name Shaddai.
Occurrence
Third in frequency among divine names, the name Shaddai appears 48 times in the Bible, seven times as "El Shaddai" (five times in Genesis, once in Exodus, and once in Ezekiel).
The first occurrence of the name comes in , "When Abram was ninety-nine years old the Lord appeared to Abram and said to him, 'I am El Shaddai; walk before me, and be blameless,' Similarly, in God says to Jacob, "I am El Shaddai: be fruitful and multiply; a nation and a company of nations shall be of thee, and kings shall come out of thy loins." According to Shaddai was the name by which God was known to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Shaddai thus being associated in tradition with Abraham, the inclusion of the Abraham stories into the Hebrew Bible may have brought the northern name with them, according to the documentary hypothesis of the origins of the Hebrew Bible.
In the vision of Balaam recorded in the Book of Numbers 24:4 and 16, the vision comes from Shaddai, who is also referred to as El ("God") and Elyon ("Most High"). In the fragmentary inscriptions at Deir Alla, shaddayin appear (; the vowels are uncertain, as is the gemination of the "d"), perhaps lesser figurations of Shaddai. These have been tentatively identified with the šēdim "demons" () of Deuteronomy 32:17 (parashah Haazinu) and Psalm 106: 37–38, who are Canaanite deities.
The name "Shaddai" is often used in parallel to "El" later in the Book of Job, one of the oldest books of the Bible.
The Septuagint often translates Shaddai or El Shaddai just as "God" or "my God", and in at least one passage (Ezekiel 10:5) it is transliterated (""). In other places (such as Job 5:17) it appears as "Almighty" (""), and this word features in other translations as well, such as the 1611 King James Version.
Etymology
The origin and meaning of "Shaddai" are difficult and a subject of difference.
Shaddai related to wilderness or mountains
According to Ernst Knauf, "El Shaddai" means "God of the Wilderness" and originally would not have had a doubled "d". He argues that it is a loanword from Israelian Hebrew, where the word had a "sh" sound, into Judean Hebrew and hence, Biblical Hebrew, where it would have been śaday with the sound śin. In this theory, the word is related to the word śadé "the (uncultivated) field", the area of hunting (as in the distinction between beasts of the field, , and cattle, ). He points out that the name is found in Thamudic inscriptions (as ʾlšdy), in a personal name Śaday ʾammī used in Egypt from the Late Bronze Age until Achaemenid times, and even in the Punic language name ʿbdšd "Servant of Shadé or Shada".
Another theory is that Shaddai is a derivation of a Semitic root that appears in the Akkadian language shadû (primarily "breast," secondarily "mountain") and shaddāʾû or shaddûʾa "mountain-dweller", one of the names of Amurru. This theory was popularized by W. F. Albright, but was somewhat weakened when it was noticed that the doubling of the medial d is first documented only in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. However, the doubling in Hebrew might possibly be secondary. According to this theory, God is seen as inhabiting a holy mountain, a concept not unknown in ancient West Asian religion, and also evident in the Syriac Christianity writings of Ephrem the Syrian, who places the Garden of Eden on an inaccessible mountaintop.
The term "El Shaddai" may mean "god of the mountains", referring to the Mesopotamian divine mountain. This could also refer to the Israelite camp's stay at biblical Mount Sinai where God gave Moses the Ten Commandments. According to Stephen L. Harris, the term was "one of the patriarchal names for the Mesopotamian tribal god". In Exodus 6:3, El Shaddai is identified explicitly with the God of Abraham and with Yahweh. The term "El Shaddai" appears chiefly in Genesis, only with a fertility association.
Shaddai meaning destroyer
The root word "shadad" () means to plunder, overpower, or make desolate. This would give Shaddai the meaning of "destroyer", representing one of the aspects of God, and in this context it is essentially an epithet. The meaning may go back to an original sense which was "to be strong" as in the Arabic "shadid" () "strong", although normally the Arabic letter pronounced "sh" corresponds to the Hebrew letter sin, not to shin. The termination "ai", typically signifying the first person possessive plural, functions as a pluralis excellentiae like other titles for the Hebrew deity, Elohim ("gods") and Adonai "my lords". The possessive quality of the termination had lost its sense and become the lexical form of both Shaddai and Adonai, similar to how the connotation of the French word Monsieur changed from "my lord" to being an honorific title. There are a couple of verses in the Bible where there seems to be word play with "Shadday" and this root meaning to destroy (the day of YHWH will come as destruction from Shadday,, Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15), but Knauf maintains that this is re-etymologization.
Shaddai as a toponym
It has been speculated that the tell in Syria called Tell eth-Thadeyn ("tell of the three breasts") was called Shaddai in the Amorite language. There was a Bronze-Age city in the region called Tuttul, which means "three breasts" in the Sumerian language. It has been conjectured that El Shaddai was therefore the "God of Shaddai" and that the inclusion of the Abrahamic stories into the Hebrew Bible may have brought the northern name with them (see Documentary hypothesis).
Shaddai meaning breasts
The Hebrew noun shad () means "breast". Biblical scholar David Biale notes that of the six times that the name El Shaddai appears in the Book of Genesis, five are in connection with fertility blessings for the Patriarchs. He argues that this original understanding of Shaddai as related to fertility was forgotten by the later authors of Isaiah, Joel, and Job, who understood it as related to root words for power or destruction (thus explaining their later translation as "all-powerful" or "almighty").
Ugarit
From the God of your ancestor, who supports you,
from Shadday who blesses you:
the blessings of Heaven above,
the blessings of Deep crouching below;
the blessings of Breasts-and-Womb,
the blessings of your Father, warrior Most High;
the blessings of the Everlasting Mountains,
[the blessings] of the outlying Eternal Hills.’This song makes clear the breasts-mountains connection and is parallel to Jacob's blessing for Joseph.
Historically, the "breasts" meaning preceded the mountains meaning. Harriet Lutzky, on Joseph's blessing, imagines the breast meaning preceded theologically as well. "...The hypothesis that Shadday was originally the name or epithet of a goddess... virtually imposes itself." Lutzky reasons Asherah to have dual epithets as dea nutrix or "one of the breast (shaddai)" and dea genetrix "one of the womb (rahmay)".
Shaddai in the later Jewish tradition
God that said "enough"
A popular interpretation of the name Shaddai is that it is composed of the Hebrew relative particle she- (Shin plus vowel segol followed by dagesh), or, as in this case, as sha- (Shin plus vowel patach followed by a dagesh). The noun containing the dagesh is the Hebrew word dai meaning "enough, sufficient, sufficiency". This is the same word used in the Passover Haggadah, Dayeinu, which means "It would have been enough for us." The song Dayeinu celebrates the various miracles God performed while liberating the Israelites from Egyptian servitude. The Talmud explains it this way, but says that "Shaddai" stands for "Mi she'Amar Dai L'olamo" (Hebrew: ) – "He who said 'Enough' to His world." When he was forming the earth, he stopped the process at a certain point, withholding creation from reaching its full completion, and thus the name embodies God's power to stop creation. The passage appears in the tractate Hagigah 12a and reads:
Reish Laqish said: What is the meaning of that which is written: "I am the Almighty God" (El Shaddai) (Genesis 35:11)? It means: I am He who said to the world "enough! [dai]," instructing it to stop expanding. Similarly, Reish Laqish [also] said: In the hour that the Holy One, blessed be He, created the sea, it started to expand – until the Holy One, blessed be He, reproached it. [Then] it dried out as it was said: He reproaches the sea and makes it dry; and all the rivers makes desolate (Nahum 1:4).
This account has two parallel variants with some minute changes. One appears in Bereshit Rabbah 5:8, where Shaddai stops the world from expanding and in 46:3 where he limits the earth and heavens. What is common to all these instances is the cosmogonic context and the exposition provided by Resh Laqish, who explains the appellation as a compound form consisting of she– and day. These passages have often been exposed in a sophisticated way as indicating the divine plan of drawing the borders between mind and matter, keeping the balance between his right and left hand or as an early manifestation of the kabbalistic idea of tzimtzum. It seems however, that they should rather be approached in their immediate context and in relation to another parallel narrative which comes in BT Sukkah 53 a–b and reads:
When David dug the Pits, the {watery chasm} arose and threatened to submerge the world. David asked: «is there anyone who knows whether it is allowed to inscribe the [divine] name upon a {piece of clay}, and cast it into the {watery chasm} that its waves would subside?" (...) He thereupon inscribed the name upon a {piece of clay}, cast (Aram. שדי) it into the {watery chasm} and it subsided sixteen thousand cubits.
This story has its variants: In Makkot 11a David sees the tehom rising and stops it by means of the name inscribed upon a stone while Bereshit Rabbah 23:7 conveys the tradition that this was the abuse of the tetragram which brought about the flood.
If to approach these passages from the structural perspective, it is possible to discern two basic essences engaged in the opposition: The active, dividing agent and passive amorphous matter. Moreover, each of the recalled accounts has strong cosmological undertones, what suggests assuming the comparative perspective. Accordingly, Shaddai limiting the expansionist outburst of the world fits well the pattern of the so-called chaoskampf – an initial divine battle followed by the triumph of the young and vivacious deity, subjugating the hostile, usually aquatic monster and building the palace or creating the cosmos.The mythological traditions of the ancient Near East are full of parallels: Babylonian Marduk and Tiamat, Ugaritic Baal and Yam, Egyptian Ra and Apep, etc.
In fact, this rabbinic reiteration should not be surprising at all, given the semantic capacity of this myth. Not only does the Hebrew Bible recall the cosmic battle numerous times, especially in Psalms (e.g., 77:16–17; 89:10) and Prophets (e.g. Isaiah 51:9–10; Ezekiel 32:13) but also plays with this ancient motif reiterating it to convey a specific meaning. Yahveh blowing the waters of the flood in Genesis 8:1 to make place for the new creation, or dividing the Sea of Reeds in Exodus 14–15 to let the Hebrews walk to the other side and start a new national existence – all of these may be read as the retellings of the initial cosmogonic conflict.
"El Shaddai" may also be understood as an allusion to the singularity of deity, "El", as opposed to "Elohim" (plural), being sufficient or enough for the early patriarchs of Judaism. To this was later added the Mosaic conception of the tetragrammaton YHWH, meaning a god who is sufficient in himself, that is, a self-determined eternal being qua being, for whom limited descriptive names cannot apply. This may have been the meaning the Hebrew phrase "ehyeh asher ehyeh" (which translates as "I will be that which I will be") and which is how God describes himself to Moses in Exodus 3:13–15. This phrase can be applied to the tetragrammaton YHWH, which can be understood as an anagram for the three states of being: Past, present, and future, conjoined with the conjunctive Hebrew letter vav.
There is early support for this interpretation, in that the Septuagint translates "Shadday" in several places as , the "Sufficient One" (for example, Ruth 1:20, 21).
Apotropaic usage of the name "Shaddai"
The name "Shaddai" often appears on the devices such as amulets or dedicatory plaques. More importantly, however, it is associated with the traditional Jewish customs which could be understood as apotropaic: male circumcision, mezuzah, and tefillin. The connections of the first one with the name Shaddai are twofold: According to the biblical chronology it is El Shaddai who ordains the custom of circumcision in Genesis 17:1 and, as is apparent in midrash Tanhuma Tzav 14 (cf. a parallel passages in Tazri‘a 5 and Shemini 5) the brit milah itself is the inscription of the part of the name on the body:
The Holy One, blessed be He, has put His name on them so they would enter the garden of Eden. And what is the name and the seal that He had put on them? It is "Shaddai". [The letter] shin He put in the nose, dalet – on the hand, whereas yod on the {circumcised} [membrum]. Accordingly, {when} He goes to {His eternal home} (Ecclesiastes 12:5), there is an angel {appointed} in the garden of Eden who picks up every son of which is circumcised and brings him {there}. And those who are not circumcised? Although there are two letters of the name "Shaddai" present on them, {namely} shin from the nose and dalet from the hand, the yod (...) is {missing}. Therefore it hints at a demon (Heb. shed), which brings him down to Gehenna.
Analogous is the case with mezuzah – a piece of parchment with two passages from the Book of Deuteronomy, curled up in a small encasement and affixed to a doorframe. At least since the Geonic times, the name "Shaddai" is often written on the back of the parchment containing the shema‘ and sometimes also on the casing itself. The name is traditionally interpreted as being an acronym of shomer daltot Yisrael ("the guardian of the doors of Israel") or shomer dirot Yisrael ("the guardian of the dwellings of Israel"). However, this notarikon itself has its source most probably in Zohar Va’ethanan where it explains the meaning of the word Shaddai and connects it to mezuzah.
The name "Shadday" can also be found on tefillin – a set of two black leather boxes strapped to head and arm during the prayers. The binding of particular knots of tefillin is supposed to resemble the shape of the letters: the leather strap of the tefillah shel rosh is knotted at the back of the head thus forming the letter dalet whereas the one that is passed through the tefillah shel yad forms a yod-shaped knot. In addition to this, the box itself is inscribed with the letter shin on two of its sides.
Biblical translations
The Septuagint (and other early translations) sometimes translate "Shaddai" as "(the) Almighty". It is often translated as "God", "my God", or "Lord". However, in the Greek of the Septuagint translation of Psalm 91:1, "Shaddai" is translated as "the God of heaven".
"Almighty" is the translation of "Shaddai" followed by most modern English translations of the Hebrew scriptures, including the popular New International Version and Good News Bible.
The translation team behind the New Jerusalem Bible (N.J.B.) however, maintains that the meaning is uncertain, and that translating "El Shaddai" as "Almighty God" is inaccurate. The N.J.B. leaves it untranslated as "Shaddai", and makes footnote suggestions that it should perhaps be understood as "God of the Mountain" from the Akkadian "shadu", or "God of the open wastes" from the Hebrew "sadeh" and the secondary meaning of the Akkadian word.
The translation in the Concordant Old Testament is 'El Who-Suffices' (Genesis 17:1).
In Mandaeism
In Book 5, Chapter 2 of the Right Ginza, part of Mandaean holy scripture of the Ginza Rabba, El Shaddai is mentioned as ʿIl-Šidai.
Use by Bunyan
God is referred to as "Shaddai" throughout the 1682 Christian allegorical book, The Holy War by John Bunyan.
References
External links
Bibliography
Book of Genesis
Book of Exodus
Book of Ezekiel
Names of God in Judaism
Deities in the Hebrew Bible
Names of God in Christianity
El (deity)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission%20to%20practice%20law
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Admission to practice law
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An admission to practice law is acquired when a lawyer receives a license to practice law. In jurisdictions with two types of lawyer, as with barristers and solicitors, barristers must gain admission to the bar whereas for solicitors there are distinct practising certificates.
Becoming a lawyer is a widely varied process around the world. Common to all jurisdictions are requirements of age and competence; some jurisdictions also require documentation of citizenship or immigration status. However, the most varied requirements are those surrounding the preparation for the license, whether it includes obtaining a law degree, passing an exam, or serving in an apprenticeship. In English, admission is also called a law license. Basic requirements vary from country to country, as described below.
In some jurisdictions, after admission the lawyer needs to maintain a current practising certificate to be permitted to offer services to the public.
Africa
The African Union comprises all 55 countries on the Continent of Africa. However, the qualifications for each nation can vary widely between them, with foreign educated lawyers having the most difficulty in obtaining residency.
Algeria
Those wishing to obtain a law degree must have Algerian nationality, be at least 23 years old, possess at least a bachelor's degree in law or equivalent degree in Islamic law, have a certificate of competency for the legal profession, and enjoy full political and civil rights without any convictions for a crime of dishonesty.
Angola
Angolan nationals and foreigners who wish to practice law must complete a law degree from an Angolan university and then take the National Exam for Admission to Advocacy. The regulations that establish that citizens admitted to the study of individuals accept foreign countries, on an equal basis, Angolan graduates. The Order of Attorneys of Angola is an organization of lawyers and responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in the country.
Botswana
Botswana requires a Bachelor of Laws degree to practice law. The Bachelor of Laws degree is earned through a five-year undergraduate program, with the fifth year as an internship. After completing a Bachelor of Laws program, applicants may practice law. A bar exam is not required.
Egypt
To earn a law license, applicants must have Egyptian nationality, full civil capacity, not have any disciplinary findings against them, and be of good conduct and reputation. They are required to earn a law degree from an Egyptian university or a degree from a foreign university which is considered equivalent under Egyptian law, pass a medical examination to ensure fitness for the practice of the profession, and pay the registration fees and annual subscriptions required by law. After an applicant obtains a law degree, he or she must then undertake two years of practical training as a trainee lawyer and plead a minimum of 25 cases. Following the completion of the training period, the applicant must obtain the recommendation of the president of the lowest court and members of the local bar association to be admitted as a lawyer.
Ethiopia
A law license requires a diploma in law from a legally recognized educational institution. Ethiopian law schools offer undergraduate (LLB) and postgraduate (Juris Doctor) degrees in law. Students must complete a college preparatory program before acceptance to an LLB program. Those with an undergraduate degree (BA or BSC) in another field may be admitted to a three-year Juris Doctor program. All undergraduate students must complete the Law School Exit Examination to graduate. After earning a law degree, graduates must pass an exam for the relevant law license. The Regions of Ethiopia and the Ethiopian federal government all issue their own licenses for the practice of law.
Gabon
Gabon requires candidates to hold a law degree and complete a one-year internship under the supervision of a lawyer who has been licensed to practice law for at least five years. After completing the internship, the candidate must then petition the President of the Bar Association for a second one-year internship. At the end of the second internship, the candidate may petition the Bar Council to be enrolled as a lawyer.
Ghana
The General Legal Council is responsible for issuing licenses to practice law. Applicants must be of good character and have satisfactorily completed a course in law which meets its requirements at a school of law or other place of instruction it recognizes, or be qualified in practicing law in a country with a sufficiently analogous legal system. They must also practice for at least six months in the chambers of a lawyer who has been working in the profession for not less than seven years. Law licenses must be renewed annually. Those admitted to practice law in Ghana become members of the Ghana Bar Association.
Kenya
Governance
Legal practice in Kenya is governed by the Advocates Act, Chapter 16 of the Laws of Kenya. Only lawyers admitted to the Bar, known as Advocates of the High Court of Kenya, have the right of audience before Kenyan courts. To be an advocate, (which is concurrent with being a member of the Law Society of Kenya) one must first complete a law degree from a recognised university in Kenya or any other Commonwealth country, then attend the Kenya School of Law for a postgraduate Diploma in Legal Practice for training in more practical legal subjects such as conveyancing and evidence, and complete a mandatory six-month articles of pupillage under a lawyer of five years' standing.
Petition
Upon completion of the requisite academic and practical training, one must 'petition' the chief justice of the judiciary for admission to the bar by filing the requisite documents, including the petition in a prescribed format under the Advocates Act and an accompanying affidavit, a certificate of completion of pupillage and two certificates of moral fitness by practising lawyers of five years' standing, one of which must be from the petitioner's supervisor in chambers (referred to as 'pupil master'), and pay a fee.
The petition is addressed to both the registrar of the High Court on behalf of the chief justice and the secretary/CEO of the Law Society of Kenya, and upon approval by the Council of the Law Society, one is 'called to the bar'. The call is made in open court by taking an oath before the chief justice, who pronounces the admission. Usually, several lawyers are admitted to the bar at the same session.
Practice renewal
An annual fee for a 'practising certificate' must be paid to the Law Society of Kenya, although the certificate is issued by the Court Registrar. Non-payment renders one ineligible to appear before courts. Lawyers who do not wish to appear before courts need not take out a certificate, but in practice most lawyers do so as it is generally required by most employers, since only advocates can sign any documents in such capacity.
Advocates who wish to administer oaths—usually in affidavit format—must apply to the Chief Justice to be appointed Commissioners for Oaths, whereas those who wish to perform functions similar to notaries public in the United Kingdom must have been advocates for five years, and formally apply to be a notary public to the Chief Justice through the Court Registrar. To appear before the Supreme Court, one must be an advocate of seven years' standing.
Madagascar
To become an advocate (advocat), an individual must obtain a master's degree in law or equivalent degree and a Certificate of Aptitude for the Legal Profession, after which three years of further legal training, which can be extended by another two years, are required. Lawyers must re-register annually.
Morocco
To be registered as an advocate, an individual must be a Moroccan national or national of a country which has an agreement with Morocco which grants nationals of both countries reciprocal rights to practice law, be at least 21 years of age, enjoy full civil capacity, possess a bachelor's degree in law from a Moroccan law school or equivalent certificate from a recognized university, obtain a certificate of eligibility to practice law, have no convictions, never have been declared bankrupt, and not have been linked to the management of public institutions for a certain amount of time. Applicants must then pass the bar exam conducted by the Ministry of Justice and practice as a trainee lawyer for two years.
Namibia
Namibia has a detailed act that fully delineates the requisites to be a Legal Practitioner. Aspiring lawyers must hold a law degree from the University of Namibia or equivalent qualification from a university outside the country recognized by the Namibian government, obtain a certificate from the Board of Legal Education stating that the trainee lawyer has undergone practical legal training, and pass the Legal Practitioners' Qualifying Examination.
Niger
Admission to the Niger Bar requires a master's degree in law, passing the entry exam, completing a Certificate of Professional Practice and a one-year internship, or a two-year internship for those who do not have a Certificate of Professional Practice. At the end of the internship, the trainee lawyer is given a certificate of completion after their supervisor gives a reasoned opinion, and is eligible to register for the Niger Bar.
Nigeria
One has to complete a five-year LLB program in an accredited university in Nigeria or abroad, then a compulsory one-year program (bar 2) at the Nigerian Law School. International students do a preliminary course (bar 1) before doing the compulsory one-year program. During the law school program, students do compulsory court attachment and chamber attachment before graduation. After obtaining a law degree, aspiring lawyers must pass the examination at the Nigerian Law School. Those who pass are then called to the Nigerian Bar by the Nigerian Body of Benchers and enroll as a legal practitioner before the Supreme Court of Nigeria.
Rwanda
Holders of a Rwandan law license must be nationals of Rwanda, hold at least a bachelor's degree in law or equivalent degree, have a certificate from the Institute of Legal Practice and Development or an equivalent, and pass the bar exam. Applicants must also not have been sentenced to a prison term equal to or exceeding six months.
Sudan
Individuals who apply to become advocates in Sudan must possess Sudanese nationality, be at least 21 years of age and of good character, possess an LLB degree from a recognized educational institution, and pass the Legal Professing exam, which is managed by the Advocates Admissions Committee, unless granted an exemption from doing so. Successful applicants must complete a one-year traineeship, then pass an interview with the Bar Admission Committee before being admitted. Licenses must be renewed annually.
Tunisia
To practice as an advocate in Tunisia, individuals must be registered in the table of advocats. Registration requires a person to have held Tunisian nationality for at least five years, to be a resident of Tunisia, be between 20 and 50 years of age, have no criminal record, never to have been declared bankrupt, and have fulfilled all national service requirements. Candidates must hold a certificate of aptitude for the legal profession from the Higher Institute of the Legal Profession unless they hold the title of Professor of Law from a Tunisian or foreign university, in which case they may gain an exemption from this requirement. Newly qualified lawyers must spend a year as a trainee lawyer, during which time they can only plead before lower courts. After one year, they may apply to be fully certified as a lawyer.
Uganda
To be admitted as an advocate, an individual must be a Ugandan national or resident, possess a Bachelor of Laws degree from a Ugandan university or an educational institution from any other country with a common law legal system and recognized by the Law Council, and obtain a postgraduate diploma in legal practice from the Law Development Centre. Candidates must then apply to be recognized as lawyers by the Law Council, which will issue an advocate's license if satisfied that the applicant is eligible and is a fit and proper person to be an advocate. Advocate's licenses must be renewed annually.
Zimbabwe
To be admitted to practice law, one must complete an LLB degree from the University of Zimbabwe or Midlands State University, register with the Law Society of Zimbabwe and receive a practicing certificate, and be enrolled on the register of the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe. Practicing certificates from the Law Society of Zimbabwe must be renewed annually. Holders of degrees from outside Zimbabwe must have obtained them from designated institutions and take an exam.
Americas
In U.S. English, admission to the bar is also commonly known as obtaining one's "law license" ("licence" in Canadian English).
Anguilla
Admission to practice in Anguilla is regulated by the Legal Profession Act 2016. To be admitted in Anguilla a person first needs to be admitted in either England & Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland, or have received a Certificate of Legal Education from the Council of Legal Education of the West Indies. Further the applicant needs to be either (a) a Belonger of Anguilla, (b) resident in Anguilla, or (c) a citizen of certain specified Caribbean countries.
Argentina
In Argentina, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate law degree (Abogado, which lasts five to six years depending on the university), and then become a member of one of the jurisdictional associations.
Bahamas
Under the laws of the Bahamas, only a Bahamian national can normally be admitted as a lawyer. However, there is an exception for special admissions to allow senior barristers who have specialist expertise to be admitted to conduct a single case.
Bolivia
Bolivia requires candidates to complete a law degree at a Bolivian law faculty, which takes 9-10 semesters, and then submit a graduate certificate and certificate of good civil standing to the Ministry of Justice.
Brazil
Brazil requires an undergraduate law degree (Bachelor in law, in Portuguese Bacharelado em Direito, which lasts five years) and the passing of the bar examination.
British Virgin Islands
A person may be admitted as a barrister or solicitor in the British Virgin Islands either by being admitted as a lawyer in the United Kingdom, or by attending one of the three regional law schools (Hugh Wooding Law School, Norman Manley Law School or Eugene Dupuch Law School). In 2015 the British Virgin Islands passed the Legal Profession Act 2015. Although the new admission rules under the Act have not yet been brought into force, once it does so graduates from regional law schools will still be eligible for admission but will have to undertake a period of one years' pupillage; and lawyers from the United Kingdom will only be eligible for admission if they have five years' post-qualification experience. The new regime will also allow senior foreign lawyers to be admitted temporarily just for a single case.
Canada
Canadian applicants to the bar must obtain admission (referred to as the "call to the bar") to one of the provincial or territorial Law Societies in the various jurisdictions of Canada. All domestically trained lawyers must have a bachelor's degree in law LLB or Juris Doctor (JD) from a law school accredited by the provincial law society or the National Committee on Accreditation before being called to the bar. Admission requirements to law school vary between those of common law jurisdictions, which comprise all but one of Canada's provinces and territories, and the province of Quebec, which is a civil law jurisdiction. For common law schools, students must have already completed an undergraduate degree before being admitted to an LLB or JD programme, although this requirement can be waived in exceptional circumstances. For civil law schools, students must generally either have graduated from a general and vocational college (CEGEP), have a two-year college degree, or have completed at least a year of undergraduate education. Once students earn a law degree, they must typically pass examinations and serve in an apprenticeship as an articled clerk with a law firm for a certain amount of time.
The exact requirements vary among the different provinces and territories. For example, the Law Society of British Columbia requires that a student complete an undergraduate degree in any discipline and before studying for an undergraduate law degree (LL.B. and/or B.C.L., three to four years) or Juris Doctor (three years). The applicant must then pass two licensing examinations, the Barrister Licensing Examination and Solicitor Licensing Examination, then article with a law firm for nine to fifteen months depending on the jurisdiction and nature of the articling process. The Law Society of Ontario likewise requires law graduates to pass a Barrister Licensing Examination and Solicitor Licensing Examination, then requires that candidates complete ten months of articles supervised by a practising lawyer, or an alternative such as an eight-month Law Practise Program. Other provinces have similar but not identical examination and training requirements. All provinces also have character and fitness requirements.
Cayman Islands
A person may be admitted as an attorney-at-law in the Cayman Islands by one of three routes. A newly qualified person may qualify by either holding a bachelor of laws degree from the Cayman Islands Law School or an equivalent institution or a non-law degree together with the Common Professional Examination/Graduate Diploma in Law, and then completing the 9-month Professional Practise Course ("PPC"), followed by eighteen months as an articled clerk within a law firm. Under the Legal Practitioners (Students) Regulations (2012 Revision) only Caymanians or persons that hold Cayman Status or as otherwise approved by the Cayman Islands Cabinet may undertake the PPC. Lawyers who are already qualified to practice in the United Kingdom, Jamaica or another approved Commonwealth jurisdiction may be admitted under the Legal Practitioners Law (2015 Revision) provided that they are in good standing in their jurisdiction of admission and can demonstrate residence in the Cayman Islands for at least a year (usually by holding a valid work permit for that period of time). Lastly, lawyers who are admitted in another jurisdiction and who only wish to be temporarily admitted in the Cayman Islands for the purposes of appearing in a single case (usually King’s Counsel from London) may be temporarily admitted. All attorneys are required to hold a current practicing certificate to practice law, but the Cayman Islands is slightly unusual that if an Attorney ceases to hold a practicing certificate for two years they are struck off the roll.
Chile
Chile requires a law degree (Licenciado en Ciencias Jurídicas: five years, and to approve a degree exam comprising all studied civil and procedural law that usually can takes one or two years more). A six-month apprenticeship is also required. Candidates then take their oath as a lawyer in the Supreme Court.
Cuba
In Cuba, candidates must complete a law degree. Law school courses last five years and include several cycles of apprenticeships. After graduating, most students must sit the bar exam. Those with the highest grades may be admitted to practice law by writing an honors thesis rather than taking the bar exam. All graduates must also perform three years of social service.
Ecuador
Ecuador requires a law degree from a university in Ecuador recognized by the Secretary of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation. Candidates must then complete a Pre-Professional Practice Program in a given public institution, totalling at least 500 hours of study. They must then register with the Lawyers' Forum of the Judicial Council.
Guatemala
To be admitted as a lawyer in Guatemala, it is necessary to hold a certificate of competence issued by the Supreme Court of Justice, which is available to those who are Guatemalan nationals and have obtained a law degree from a recognized university. Those practicing law must also register with the College of Attorneys and Notaries.
Mexico
Lawyers in Mexico are required to complete a law degree (Licenciado en Derecho, a five-year program), and obtain a practice certificate (cedula professional) from the Bureau of Professions of the Ministry of Education (Dirección General de Profesiones), which officially certifies the license by virtue of the law degree.
Peru
Lawyers (Abogados) in Peru must be members of a local bar association, which requires an undergraduate law degree (Bachiller en Derecho, a six-year program) and a diploma (Titulo de Abogado), the latter requiring one year of apprenticeship and passing of the bar exam.
United States
In the United States, all states, territories, and the District of Columbia regulate and license the legal profession separately and maintain their own bar associations. While some other Common law countries maintain separate categories of lawyers in the form of barristers and solicitors, there is only one category of lawyer in the United States. The terms lawyer and attorney are used interchangeably. With varying exceptions, jurisdictions typically require that candidates complete a postgraduate law degree and pass the bar examination.
Most jurisdictions require applicants to complete a Juris Doctor degree from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). In the United States, all law degrees are postgraduate. Law schools require candidates to hold a bachelor's degree prior to commencing law studies. There are no requirements for any particular undergraduate degrees, and aspiring law students may complete a degree in any particular subject or in general studies. Formal pre-law programs exist but are not typically given special favor by law schools. A minority of states permit graduates of law schools not approved by the ABA to take their bar examination or will admit a graduate of such a school to their bar association provided that the candidate has been admitted to the bar of another state. The states of Alabama, California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, West Virginia, and Tennessee allow individuals to take the bar exam upon graduation from law schools approved by state bodies but not accredited by the ABA. Specifically in California, certain law schools "registered" with the Committee of Bar Examiners of the State Bar of California (CBE) are authorized to grant Juris Doctor degrees although they are not accredited by the ABA or CBE. Students at these schools must take and pass the First-Year Law Students' Examination (commonly referred to as the "Baby Bar") administered by the CBE, and may continue their studies to obtain their Juris Doctor degree upon passage of this exam.
The state of New York makes special provision for persons educated to degree-level in common law from overseas, with holders of bachelor degrees in law being qualified to take the bar exam and, upon passing, be admitted to the bar.
All jurisdictions require applicants to pass a moral character evaluation and to pass an ethics examination, which some states administer as part of their bar examinations. Most also require applicants to achieve a particular score on the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination.
The states of Wisconsin and New Hampshire are the only jurisdictions to not unconditionally require law graduates to pass a bar exam for admission. Diploma privilege is available in those states for graduates of certain law schools whose degree programmes meet certain requirements. Most states and territories also allow admission on motion, in which licensed attorneys from different jurisdictions who have practiced for a certain period of time (typically three to seven years) may be admitted to practice law without taking a bar exam through a motion or application with the state supreme court, board of bar examiners, or bar association, typically accompanied by certificates of good standing from all other jurisdictions where they are admitted to practice and a background check demonstrating good moral character.
The states of California, Maine, New York, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia allow applicants to study under a judge or practicing attorney for an extended period of time rather than attending law school. This method is known as "reading law" or "reading the law". New York allows applicants who read law to take the bar exam, but only if they have at least one year of law school study. Maine allows students who completed two years of law school to serve an apprenticeship in lieu of completing their third year. New Hampshire's only law school has an alternative licensing program that allows students who have completed certain curricula and a separate exam to bypass the regular bar examination. California allows students who completed two years of college coursework, or the equivalent as demonstrated by examination, to meet the legal education requirement for the bar exam by studying law diligently in a lawyer's office or judge's chambers for not less than 864 hours over not less than four years. Hours spent as an employee of an attorney or judge are not counted as study. Very few people pursue these options.
The American legal system is unusual in that it has no formal apprenticeship or clinical training requirements prior to admission to the bar, with a few exceptions. Delaware requires that candidates for admission to the bar serve five months in a clerkship with a lawyer in the state. Vermont had a similar requirement but eliminated it in 2016. Washington requires, since 2005, that applicants must complete a minimum of four hours of approved pre-admission education. Some law schools have tried to rectify this lack of experience by requiring supervised "Public Service Requirements" of all graduates. States that encourage law students to undergo clinical training or perform public service in the form of pro bono representation may allow students to appear and practice in limited court settings under the supervision of an admitted attorney.
Asia
Bangladesh
Practicing law requires admission to the Bangladesh Bar Council. In order to do so, candidates must be citizens of Bangladesh, be a minimum of 21 years old, and obtain a law degree. They must pass the Bar Council Examination to be allowed to practice law.
Bhutan
Bhutan requires a bachelor's degree in law followed by a bar exam. Candidates must also not have criminal records and not be declared bankrupt by a court.
Cambodia
Cambodia requires a Bachelor of Law or equivalent law degree, certificate of Lawyer's Professional Skill from the Center for the Training of the Legal Profession, and no misdemeanor or felony record, as well as no disciplinary sanction or administrative penalty. Unless granted an exemption, prospective lawyers must then spend a year as a trainee lawyer, either in a training program conducted by the Bar Association or by working as an associate in a law firm. Following the training period, the Bar Council will make a decision whether or not to register the prospective lawyer with the Bar Association based on whether or not the trainee fulfilled the requirements and a report on the trainee's supervising lawyer. If the Bar Council decides that the trainee does not have sufficient competence, it can order a period of additional training not to exceed one year. Applicants who satisfy the Bar Council that they are of sufficient competence are registered with the Bar Association and are allowed to practice law.
China
In China, one must first obtain a recognized law degree (a bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degree) or have at least three years of work experience in certain legal institutions. Those aspiring to be allowed to practice law must also have a record of good behavior. Applicants must then pass the National Unified Legal Professional Qualification Examination. They must also complete a one-year apprenticeship before being granted a license to practice law.
Hong Kong
The special administrative region of Hong Kong makes a distinction between barristers and solicitors. Admission to either profession requires a law degree (either the four-year LL.B. or the two-year Juris Doctor) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Laws (which requires nine months). The apprenticeship to become a barrister is only one year, while a solicitor must apprentice for two years.
Foreign lawyers (from any jurisdiction) may be admitted as solicitors by passing the Overseas Qualified Lawyers Examination and satisfying a three months residence requirement. Foreign lawyers may also be admitted as barristers by passing the Barristers Qualification Examination.
India
In India, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate law degree after 12 years of schooling and obtain an honours law degree, (actually a double degree) where the course is a five-year course. The first undergraduate foundational and generic degree, (usually B.A.Law but in some cases Bachelor of General Laws/Bachelor of Socio-Legal Studies etc.) is awarded after three years of study, and the professional law degree called the LL.B. (honours) degree, which has a substantial component of practical training, is earned after two years of further legal studies.
Alternatively any graduate with a bachelor's degree in any subject (obtained after 15 years of education, i.e. after graduation), can enroll for a second graduate degree in law of a three-year course (LL.B. degree). The 5-year LL.B. (honours) degree and the 3-year LL.B. degree are the only qualifying professional degrees recognized for entering the legal profession in India.
Law graduates in India are not entitled to call themselves advocates and can not appear in courts even if they call themselves lawyers.
India requires all law graduates, intending to enter the profession of practising law as advocates, to first enroll themselves on the Roll of Advocates of any State Bar Council (regional authorities under the overall authority of the Bar Council of India) and to pass the All India Bar Examination (AIBE) conducted by the Bar Council of India which is the institution regulating the profession of legal practice. It is mandatory for all law school graduates to qualify in the All India Bar Examination, without which they cannot be admitted to practice in courts and may not refer to themselves as advocates. After being enrolled by one of the State Bar Councils and clearing the All India Bar Examination, a law graduate's name is entered on the Roll of Advocates maintained by their State Bar Council and is issued a Certificate of Practice. After this, they are entitled to call themselves advocates and can appear in court representing clients.
All advocates in India, irrespective of which State Bar Council they are registered to, have the right to practice in all High Courts and their Subordinate Courts and Tribunals throughout India under Section 30 of the Advocates Act. However, to practise Law before the Supreme Court of India, Advocates must first appear for and qualify in the Supreme Court Advocate on Record Examination conducted by the Supreme Court.
Indonesia
There is no distinction between barrister and solicitor in Indonesia. Instead, an admitted person to the bar to practice law is called an advocate (advokat), who is licensed to provide legal services both before or outside the court.
To be an Indonesian advocate, one needs to be appointed by Peradi (Indonesian Advocates Association) and take an oath in an open proceeding before the high court having a jurisdiction over the prospective advocate. As an advocate, one is allowed to practice law all over Indonesia.
Before appointed as an advocate, there are requirements which must be met which are listed under Article 3 paragraph 1 of the Indonesian Law No. 18 of 2003 on Advocate. The prospective advocate should be an Indonesian citizen, domiciled in Indonesia, is not a civil servant nor a state official, at least 25 years old, holds a bachelor's degree in law and has completed the special education for advocates arranged by Peradi, passed the bar exam organised by Peradi, has completed an internship in a law office for a continuous period of 2 years, has never been penalised for a criminal offense which is subject to an imprisonment of 5 years or more, and well behaved, honest, could act fairly and has a high integrity.
Iran
Iran requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which is a four-year program). After obtaining a law degree, the candidate must pass the bar exam. The Bar Exam in Iran is administered by two different and completely separate bodies. One is the Bar Association of every province—all of which are under the auspices of the country's syndicate of the bars of the country. The other one is administered by the Judicial System of Iran subject to Article 187 of the country's economic, social and cultural development plan. The exam is highly competitive and only a certain number of top applicants are admitted annually.
After a candidate completes a law degree and passes the bar exam, they are admitted to the bar as a "Trainee at Law". After admission to the bar, an 18-month apprenticeship begins which is highly regulated under the auspices of Bar Syndicate Rules and supervision of an assigned First Degree Attorney. Trainees or apprentices must attend designated courts for designated weeks to hear cases and write case summaries. A logbook signed by the judge on the bench has to certify their weekly attendance. By the end of the eighteenth month, they are eligible to apply to take the Final Bar Exam by submitting their case summaries, the logbook and a research work pre-approved by the Bar. It is noteworthy, however, that during these 18 months, Trainees are eligible to have a limited practice of law under the supervision of their supervising Attorney. This practice does not include Supreme Court eligible cases and certain criminal and civil cases. Candidates will be tested on Civil law, Civil Procedure, Criminal law, Criminal Procedure, Commercial Law, Notary (including rules pertaining Official Documents, Land & Real Estate registrations and regulations etc.). Each exam takes two days, a day on oral examination in front of a judge or an attorney, and a day of essay examination, in which they will be tested on hypothetical cases submitted to them. Successful applicants will be honored with the title of "First Degree Attorney", after they take the oath and can practice in all courts of the country including the Supreme Court. Those who fail must redo the program in full or in part before re-taking the Final Bar Exam.
Israel
Israel requires an undergraduate law degree from an educational institution recognized by the Law Faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Applicants must then pass a series of examinations on eight separate areas of law. After these exams, the applicant must complete an apprenticeship in a law firm as an articled clerk for twelve months, at least 36 hours a week. After serving their articles, applicants must pass the final examinations on nine subjects of law and court procedure, which consist of a written examination followed by an oral examination before three judges. Those who pass are eligible for admittance to the Israel Bar Association. Residence in Israel is a precondition for admittance.
Lawyers moving to Israel from abroad without an Israeli law degree must have at least two years of practical legal experience as an attorney or judge in their country of origin. If an applicant does not have the required experience, the foreign law degree must be recognized by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The applicant must also complete a Hebrew proficiency exam followed by the battery of exams and internship requirements listed above. Those who have at least five years of practical legal experience abroad and began serving their articles within ten years of their arrival in Israel are exempt from the final examinations.
Japan
Japan requires the passing of the national bar exam, a 12-month training program which incorporates additional coursework and field training as apprentices to judges, prosecutors, and law offices, and passing the graduation examination of the training program. To sit for the bar exam, applicants must have the degree of juris doctor or have passed the preliminary bar exam. The training program is conducted by the Legal Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court of Japan. During the program, future prosecutors and judges are handpicked and trained for the role.
In Japan, an attorney () must be a member of one of the local bar associations which are organised into national bar association ().
Jordan
The Jordanian Bar Association requires both academic, practical and oral exams for admission to the bar. The probationer must hold a bachelor's degree or equivalent in Law.
The Bar Association requires a minimum of two years of training under supervision of an Attorney. However, if a post-graduate degree in law is attained, a reduction to one year of training is possible. The Bar grants the probationer, at different stages of his training, special rights of audience to appear before specific courts.
The probationer may submit a written request, at any stage of his training, to be enrolled in the written exams that the Bar holds 4 times a year. If he/she attains an exam mark of (15/25) or higher, then the probationer will progress to the oral exam conducted by a legal committee elected from a combination of judges, professors and senior lawyers. If he/she passes the oral exam, then they are required to submit a research paper. Each probationer must research a legal subject, submit a written paper, and discuss his/her findings before the committee. If he/she passes, the probationer must undertake an oath before the Minister of Justice, the conclusion of which grants him entry to the Bar. The process requires, on average, around two-and-a-half years to satisfy the Bar Association's requirements to practice law. However, it should be mentioned that only Jordanians may petition the Bar Association to practice law.
Kazakhstan
Lawyers in Kazakhstan must complete an undergraduate law degree. The legal education system includes both law courses in secondary schools (colleges) and higher education institutions (universities, academies, institutes). After completing a degree, aspiring lawyers must then pass a special qualifying examination to enter the profession.
Lebanon
Applicants must be Lebanese citizens for at least ten years and between the ages of 20 and 65. They should possess full civil capacity and a four-year Lebanese Bachelor of Laws from recognized universities, alongside the Lebanese Baccalaureate Part II. High ethical standards are mandatory, including having a clean judicial record, demonstrating behavior that inspires trust and respect, and not being dismissed from public service or a profession for dishonorable reasons.
The journey begins with an entrance examination for one of the country’s two Bar Associations, followed by a comprehensive three-year internship under a registered practicing attorney-at-law. Candidates then undergo rigorous exit oral and written examinations, testing their legal knowledge and language proficiency, particularly in Arabic, and either French or English. The Bar Council meticulously scrutinizes the applications, extending the review period if necessary, to validate the candidates’ reputation and eligibility. Upon successful completion of these stages, and after taking the official oath and settling any associated fees, the individual can practice law in Lebanon, provided they maintain the stringent criteria set forth by the legal profession’s regulatory framework.
Malaysia
Malaysia requires advocates and solicitors to be admitted to the Malaysian Bar. The prerequisite is either a Bachelor of Laws (Hons) degree (an LL.B (Hons)., which requires four years of study) from the local law faculties or a call as a Barrister in the UK or a Certificate in Legal Practice, which is a post-graduate qualification on procedural law equivalent to a master's degree and taking approximately nine months to complete, and a nine-month pupillage. Advocates and Solicitors are entitled to appear before the courts and/or perform solicitors' work, as the legal profession in Malaysia is fused without any distinction between barristers and solicitors.
The East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak have their own sets of criteria for admission to their own respective law societies.
Nepal
Nepal requires lawyers to complete a bachelor's degree in law and then pass an exam conducted by the Nepal Bar Council to obtain a legal practitioner's license.
Pakistan
Lawyers in Pakistan are called Advocates.
To enjoy rights of audience in the Courts in Pakistan, a prospective lawyer/advocate must obtain a 5-year B.A. LL.B. degree or a Bachelor's or equivalent degree followed by a LL.B. of three years. The latter route is no longer offered and no admission at a Pakistani university on or after January 1, 2019, shall be recognized by the Pakistan Bar Council or a Provincial Bar Council for admission to the bar. The degree has to be obtained from a recognized Pakistani university or from a recognized university in a common law country. All legal education in Pakistan is taught in the English language. After the required academic qualifications a prospective lawyer/advocate must undertake six months training under a senior lawyer (High Courts Lawyer) (called Pupillage/ Apprenticeship/ Intern-ship /Training) at the conclusion of which, they have to take a Bar exam consisting of multiple choice question paper (or in some cases a professional exam) and an interview with a committee of lawyers presided by Judge of concerned High Court. After that the respective Provincial Bar Council may grant him or her the rights of audience in the lower courts (i.e. courts lower than the High Court).
An advocate enrolled with Provincial Bar Council can practice only in his province. He /she will earn right of audience in the High Courts after a further two years of practice in lower courts, at the end of which (in some Provincial Bar Council's) the advocate has to sit another professional exam and an interview with a judge of a High Court.
After a further 10 years' practice in the High Courts, the candidate has to sit another professional exam and an interview with a judge of the Supreme Court to be given the rights of audience in the Supreme Court of Pakistan.
The exams are usually conducted to ensure that the quality of lawyers being produced is maintained to a certain level. The interview is then another opportunity for a senior judge and members of the provincial Bar Council to meet the candidate and see if he or she is fit to be admitted as an advocate of the lower courts/ High Courts or the Supreme Court.
Philippines
To practice law in the Philippines, one must have fulfilled the non-academic and academic requirements.
For non-academic requirements, one must be a Filipino, be at least 21 years old, be a resident of the Philippines, and have the moral and other non-academic qualifications needed.
In terms of academic requirements, one must have obtained an undergraduate degree (with major, focus or concentration in any of the subjects of history, economics, political science, logic, English or Spanish), has obtained a Juris Doctor degree (or Bachelor of Laws before 2019) from a law school recognized by the Secretary of Education.
They must have also taken and passed (75% general average, with no subject falling below 50%) the Bar Exam, taken the Attorney's Oath before the Supreme Court, signed the Roll of Attorneys, remain in good standing with the Integrated Bar of the Philippines, and continually participate in Mandatory Continuing Legal Education.
Saudi Arabia
The practice of law requires an applicant to hold a degree from a Sharia college, Bachelor of Law degree from a Saudi university, an equivalent of any of these degrees from abroad, or a postgraduate diploma in legal studies from the Saudi Institute of Public Administration. Three years of practical legal work experience are then required unless the applicant holds a master's degree in Sharia or law or is a graduate of a Sharia college with a postgraduate degree in law, in which case only one year of legal work experience is required. Those holding a doctorate in either of these fields are exempt from the work experience requirement entirely. Those who practice law must also be of good conduct and not have been subject to a Hudud or any other punishment which impugns integrity for the past five years, and must be residents of Saudi Arabia. To be allowed to practice law, applicants must fulfill the educational and work requirements, then sign a declaration confirming that they were not subjected to a Hudud or any other criminal penalty impugning their integrity within the past five years and are residents of the country.
Singapore
Persons seeking admission to the Singapore Bar must obtain an approved law degree through completing a course of study of at least three academic years leading to that degree as a full-time internal candidate from an approved university. The degree is typically an LL.B. or an LL.B. (honours), depending on the university, or a J.D. (from a Singaporean university or one of only four approved US universities). They are then required to sit for the Singapore Bar Examinations, which is divided into Part A (for overseas graduates from approved overseas universities only) and Part B (a five-month practical course, compulsory for both local and overseas graduates). They are further required to complete a six-month Practice Training Contract before they can be called to the Bar as Advocates and Solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore. Advocates and Solicitors are entitled to appear before courts or perform solicitors' work, as the legal profession in Singapore is fused without any distinction between barristers and solicitors.
Exemptions from any of these requirements may be obtained from the Ministry of Law.
South Korea
In South Korea, one can be admitted to practice law by passing the exam called 변호사시험 (officially translated as "Bar Examination") which requires prior completion of three-year law school course with the degree of Juris Doctor. This law school system is similar to system of United States. However, before year 2018, there was an nation-wide system to train lawyers for 2 years, including judge, prosecutor and attorney at law. This old training institution was called as 사법연수원 (officially translated as "Judicial Research and Training Institute", JRTI)', which is now acting mainly as institution to train junior judges and court officials in South Korea. Entering JRTI required passing a special exam on jurisprudence. Its name was 사법시험 (officially translated as "Judicial Examination") which required taking a little part of course in LL.B. or any other equivalent degree.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka requires an attorney to be admitted and enrolled as an Attorney-at-Law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka to practice law. In order to become an attorney, candidates must graduate from the Sri Lanka Law College, which typically takes three years and involves three examinations. For those who possess a law degree from a foreign university recognized by the Council of Legal Education, the entrance exam may be waived. Candidates who have a bachelor's degree in law from the University of Colombo, Open University of Sri Lanka, University of Jaffna, and University of Peradeniya are exempt from all lectures and only need to take the final examination. Those qualified as a barrister in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland are exempt from most lectures. After graduation, candidates must then go through a practical training course and a six-month apprenticeship under an attorney of at least eight years before applying for membership in the Bar Association of Sri Lanka.
Taiwan
Taiwan requires an undergraduate law degree, which takes four years. Afterwards, students must pass the Attorney Qualification Examination. Graduates must then complete a six-month internship with certified institutions before receiving a license to practice law from the Ministry of Justice. Attorneys must join a bar association before being allowed to practice law.
Thailand
Under the Thailand Lawyers Act B.E. 2528 (1985), litigators (barristers) who practice before the courts in Thailand must obtain a "Lawyer's License" issued by the Lawyers Council of Thailand. Legal counsels (solicitors) who do not practice before the courts are not regulated and therefore are not subject to regulatory oversight of the Lawyers Council of Thailand. Law graduates who perform corporate and commercial legal services either in law firms or in-house are not required to obtain a Lawyer's License nor are they required to register with any regulatory body.
To obtain a Lawyer's License, with the right to appear in court, an individual must have the following qualifications: (i) be a Thai national; (ii) be at least 20 years of age; (iii) be a graduate with either a bachelor's degree or an associate degree in Law or an equivalent Certificate in Law from an educational institution accredited by the Lawyers' Council of Thailand; (iv) not be a person of indecent behavior or delinquent morals or a person whose conduct is indicative of dishonesty; (v) not have been imprisoned by a final judgment; (vi) not have been bankrupt by a final judgment; (vii) not having an ailment which is contagious and repugnant to the public; (viii) not being physically disabled or mentally infirmed which may cause professional incompetence; (ix) not be a government official or a local government official with permanent salary and position; (x) take a training course offered by the Lawyers Council of Thailand (normally one month of theoretical training and at least six months of practical training); (xi) pass the Thai Law Society examinations (Sapa Tanai Kwam); (xii) enroll with the Thai Bar Association (Regulation of Lawyers Council on Lawyer's Training B.E. 2529 (AD 1986)). Candidates who have been an apprentice in a law firm for over a year and have passed an examination specified by the Board of Governors of the Lawyers Council of Thailand may be exempted from the period of practical training. The lawyer's licence is valid for two years but can be valid for lifetime for a fee (s.39 of the Thailand Lawyers Act). Lawyers who wish to obtain the title barrister-at-law which entitle the holder to take further examinations to become a judge or a public prosecutor, may take a further one- year course offered by the Thai Bar Association
United Arab Emirates
A local lawyer must be registered on the Roll of Practicing Advocates, which requires the candidate to be a UAE national, at least 21 years old, have full civil capacity, have good character and reputation, not have been subjected to criminal or disciplinary actions arising from a breach of honor or trust, have a degree in law or Islamic law from an accredited educational institution, and have carried out at least one year of continuous practical legal training. UAE lawyers are qualified to practice throughout the country but each Emirate may make it a condition that a lawyer must have an office there in order to practice law. Every Emirate maintains further requirements for local lawyers. Individual foreign nationals wishing to practice law may gain an exception to the nationality requirement if they fulfill the age, civil capacity, and character requirements, have fifteen years of experience working in the legal field, must be a resident of the UAE, and must practice through a bureau of a national lawyer registered on the Roll of Practicing Advocates. Foreign law firms may carry out legal activities in the UAE subject to the regulatory requirements of the individual Emirate where they are present.
Vietnam
Prospective lawyers must complete a Bachelor of Law degree. Vietnamese law schools typically offer 4-year law programs. After obtaining their bachelor's degree, they must complete one year of professional legal training at the Judicial Academy under the Ministry of Justice and pass an exam. After obtaining a certificate from the Judicial Academy, law graduates must undergo a one-year traineeship with a law firm or law office, and must register the traineeship with the bar association of the locality where the law firm or law office is located. After completing the traineeship, the trainee must pass a bar examination conducted by the Vietnam Bar Federation. Upon passing the bar examination, the trainee lawyer must file for an application for a certificate of legal practice from the Ministry of Justice. Upon being granted a certificate, registration to a local bar association is required. The bar association which the trainee joins will then request that the Vietnam Bar Federation issue a lawyer card, which fully qualifies the trainee to practice law.
Europe
Among European Union members, the Diplomas Directive (Directive no. 89/48/EEC) states that those who have obtained a license or diploma in one state can pursue the profession in another state. Thus, it is not difficult for a law degree in one jurisdiction to be used as a qualifying degree in another jurisdiction within the European Union.
In addition, European Union Directive 98/5/EC provides three main methods for a foreign lawyer to be integrated into the legal profession in another member state. Through the aforementioned process of 89/48/EEC, a lawyer's foreign diploma can be recognized in another member state, in addition to passing an aptitude test. Alternatively, actively practicing the law of the host state for a period of three years provides a pathway for bar admission in the host country. The three-year period can be shortened by fulfilling other requirements.
Albania
Albanian advocates should be members of the Albanian Bar Association (). To be admitted to the bar, a candidate must complete a law degree, complete an internship with a practicing advocate lasting a minimum of one year and receive a positive evaluation, complete the initial training program at the School of Advocacy, and pass the Advocate's Qualifying Exam.
Andorra
In Andorra, advocates should be members of the local bar association ().
Austria
In Austria, an attorney ("Rechtsanwalt" in German) must meet the following requirements:
hold a law degree,
complete a three-year apprenticeship in a law firm as a trainee lawyer ("Rechtsanwaltsanwärter"),
complete a seven-month clerkship at court,
complete the required amount of training seminars (42 sessions),
pass the bar exam.
Furthermore, trainee lawyers may only register as attorneys after they have accumulated a total of five years of professional experience (including the apprenticeship and the clerkship).
Austrian advocates should be members of one of a local bar associations which are organised into national bar association ().
Belarus
In Belarus, an advocate (barrister) must be a member of one of a local bar associations which are organised into a National Bar Association (). In order to be admitted to the bar, candidates must have a university degree in law. Law students in Belarus must specialize in one of the following fields to be eligible to practice law: jurisprudence, international law, state security, customs service, economic law, and state management in law. They must also undertake additional training in one of two ways. One of them is to obtain three years of professional legal experience by employment in a court or under other organizations and persons responsible for public order. The other is to undertake six months to a year of apprenticeship in a legal office. They must then pass an exam.
Belgium
In Belgium, a prospective lawyer ("advocaat" in Dutch, "avocat"/"avocat" in French) must meet following requirements:
hold a master's degree in law (which requires two years of study and the Bachelor in Law which requires three years of study) or hold a PhD in Law
taking the pledge in a court of appeal,
a three-year apprenticeship (Flemish prospective lawyers have to do 15 cases of pro bono during these 3 years),
the CAPA (French, 'Certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat') course of study,
pass the final bar exam.
During the three-year apprenticeship the prospective lawyer is equivalent to a licensed lawyer, and can for instance issue legal opinions and directly represent clients before all courts (except for the Supreme Court).
Bulgaria
The Highest Counsil of Advocates () regulates the profession of a lawyer in Bulgaria.
Croatia
All attorneys in Croatia have to be members of the Croatian Bar Association () as well as members of local bar associations (mandatory membership). The membership requires completion of the one-cycle five-year master's degree, the Bar Examination in the Republic of Croatia (which can be accessed after at least 18 months of apprenticeship), and at least three years of experience in a law office or in judicial bodies (or five years of experience on legal jobs outside judiciary), the time before Bar Examination included.
Czech Republic
A person must meet the following conditions in order to be admitted to practice law in the Czech Republic:
full capacity
Master's degree in law acquired at a Czech law school or analogous education acquired at a foreign university, if such an education is officially acknowledged as equivalent by an international treaty, by which the Czech Republic is bound, or if a particular enactment acknowledges such a foreign education, or if it is acknowledged due to its content and extent from the point of view of knowledge and skill as sufficient for practicing law by the Advocacy Enactment
at least three years of legal apprenticeship
personal integrity (absence of conviction for deliberate crime)
absence of disciplinary punishment of prohibition of law practice (if a person was already a law practitioner)
absence of being stricken from the list of law practitioners because of personal bankruptcy
absence of labour engagement or officiary engagement, except of engagement:
to the Bar Association or to similar organisation in other EU state
to a law practitioner or to a legal personality established in order to provide legal services
to a university as a lecturer
as a scientific worker of Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
passing the bar exam
taking the pledge
Czech advocates should be members of the Czech bar association ().
Denmark
In Denmark, to use the title of advokat one must complete an LL.B. (three years of study) and an LL.M. (which awards the academic title of Candidata Juris, and requires two years of study), followed by a three-year apprenticeship, one year as an assistant lawyer, and an exam which has a moot court element.
Danish advocates should be members of the Danish bar association ().
Estonia
In Estonia, anyone may call themselves a lawyer and practice law. However, the title of advocate is restricted by law to members of the Estonian Bar Association (). To join the Estonian Bar Association, candidates must obtain a master's degree in law and pass the bar examination.
Finland
Until 2013, anyone could in principle practice law in Finland, not just qualified lawyers. However, after the entry into force of the Licensed Legal Counsel Act (715/2011) on January 1, 2013, only attorneys that are members of the bar association () and who may use the title asianajaja, or licensed legal counsel may represent clients in court.
To become a licensed legal counsel requires the completion of a legal education consisting of a Bachelor of Laws degree (or oikeusnotaari, which usually takes three years to complete) and a Master of Laws degree (or oikeustieteen maisteri), which usually takes one to two years to complete, and a traineeship of a minimum of one year in either Courts or in law firms.
After the traineeship is completed successfully, the district court awards the title of varatuomari (VT) or those who do not do a traineeship in Court can apply to be licensed legal counsel, which is in practice the basic qualification to practice law. To be admitted to the Finnish bar association, the same legal education requirement as for licensed legal counsel applies, but the traineeship requirement is four years and one has to pass a bar exam (Asianajotutkinto, "Advocates Exam") which also requires the demonstration of practical skills. In-house counsel are not allowed to be members of the bar, but can be licensed legal counsel. Also foreign attorneys can practice in Finland as in-house counsel, without being licensed in Finland, but are not allowed to represent clients in Courts
Graduates holding a foreign LLB degree may be able to convert to Finnish law by taking additional undergraduate (oikeusnotaari) modules worth 50+ credits while pursuing their LLM studies at a Finnish university.
France
To become a French lawyer, an "avocat" (male) or "avocate" (female), one must:
obtain an undergraduate degree (three years for a "licence") and complete a first year of Masters of Laws (diplôme de maîtrise en droit), so a total of 4 years of study at university
take the exam to enter one of the CRFPA (Centres Régional de Formation à la Profession d'Avocat) where one completes an eighteen-month course and obtains an award of the requisite Certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat (CAPA).
However, those with degrees from another country may become a licensed attorney with a French bar by passing an exam. Depending on one's qualifications, a non-French attorney can take the Article 97, 98, 99, or 100 exam. Each of these exams has different requirements.
French advocates should be members of one of a local bar associations which are organised into national bar association ().
French "juristes" (in-house counsels) do not need to hold the Certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat (CAPA).
Georgia
It is not necessary to have a license to practice law in Georgia. In order to provide legal support, advice and services to clients, one must complete an undergraduate degree in law (four years of study) and a postgraduate degree in law, which is awarded by the state examination commission and requires one year of study. However, only the members of the Georgian Bar Association (ადვოკატები) are permitted to appear in court.
Germany
In Germany, a lawyer (Rechtsanwalt) must be a member of one of a local bar associations which are organised into national bar association (). Membership in the local bar association requires the candidate to have passed two state examinations, or staatsexamen, in law.
Academic stage
At present, qualifying law studies do not carry a Bachelor or Master award but are instead concluded by state examinations (in contrast to university examinations). The rationale lies in the national interest of upholding the quality and comparability of legal training.
The First State Exam (Erstes Staatsexamen or Erste juristische Prüfung) is usually taken after four-and-a-half years of undergraduate law study. A university degree (Dipl.-jur. or Magister Jur.) may be granted by the university after completion of the exam, but this depends on the individual university's practice. Some prominent universities like the Law School of the University of Heidelberg do not grant a university degree after completion of the exam.
Vocational stage
The First State Exam is followed by a two-year practical phase (Referendariat) sponsored by the local Court of Appeal (Oberlandesgericht). This is characterised by part-time studies alongside full-time work and includes work placements at various institutions, including courts of law, criminal prosecution services, in-house legal teams in the public sector and private practice law firms. Upon completion of this two-year training period, a trainee is automatically registered for the Second State Exam (Zweites Staatsexamen or Assessorprüfung).
Foreign law degrees do not generally enable the holder to enter the vocational stage of legal training in Germany. Holders of a foreign law degree must pass a Section 112a equivalent means assessment (Gleichwertigkeitsprüfung nach § 112a DRiG) before they can be admitted to a German legal traineeship.
Admission
After successful completion of the second state exam, admission to the bar is completed, and the individual may apply to be licensed to practice as a lawyer or be employed by the state as a judge or state prosecutor.
Qualified lawyers holding an admission in another country may join a German local bar association if they have practiced law for several years; this is subject to individual examination.
Greece
Greece requires that a lawyer (δικηγόρος) be a member of one of a local bar associations which are organised into national bar association (). Requirements include an undergraduate law degree, which lasts at least four years, an eighteen-month apprenticeship, and the passing of the bar examination. Candidates should normally be under thirty-five years of age.
Hungary
The Hungarian Bar Association () is a public body and the national organization of attorneys, which has an independent administrative apparatus and budget.
The regional bar associations are the members of the Hungarian Bar Association.
The process is similar in scope to that of the German system, in that there is a dual-bar exam and practicum process. After a first degree in law, which is usually approximately 5 years, a student must pass the first level exam. Then, the apprentice must clerk or practice within a law practice for three years. Of which, one year may be substituted with further Ph.D. studies. However, they apprentice must then pass a series of 4 oral and written exams within certain subject to officially be admitted to their districts bar and practice law.
Iceland
Icelandic Bar Association () regulates the profession of a lawyer in Iceland.
Ireland
Following the English tradition, Ireland has both barristers and solicitors. To become a solicitor, one must complete an undergraduate degree or pass the Preliminary Examination. One must then pass the Final Examination, complete a two-year apprenticeship, and finish the concurrent Professional Practice Courses. To become a barrister, one must complete an undergraduate law degree (BCL, which lasts three years or LL.B. which last four years) or the Kings Inns Diploma in Legal Studies which lasts two years, obtain the Degree of Barrister-at-Law from the Honorable Society of King's Inns (), and finish a one-year pupillage (known as devilling).
Italy
Italy mandates membership in an Italian bar association, which requires completion of an undergraduate law degree (Laurea in Scienze Giuridiche, three years) along with a graduate law degree (Laurea Specialistica in Giurisprudenza (a two-year program which confers the title of Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza), or simply the one-cycle five-year master's degree (Laurea a ciclo unico Magistrale in Giurisprudenza)), an 18-month apprenticeship, and passing of the professional exam.
There is a National Bar Association () representing the profession of avvocato at the national level in Italy. However, the structure of the Italian profession is decentralised, with the local bar associations (Consigli dell'Ordine degli Avvocati) holding most of the regulatory powers. The Consiglio Nazionale Forense deals with disciplinary policy for the profession; it is responsible for the Code of Conduct and will hear appeals from disciplinary decisions of the local bar associations.
There are more than 165 Local Bar Associations in Italy which correspond to the number of court districts in the country. Each local bar deals with the admission, supervision, training and disciplining of its members as well as maintaining the register of avvocati. All avvocati must be registered with their local bar in order to practise in Italy.
Exercise of the profession of avvocato without being duly qualified and registered with the Local Bar Association is a criminal offence under Italian Law.
Kosovo
Kosovar law distinguishes between "domestic lawyers," who must be citizens of Kosovo, and "foreign lawyers," who have an active license in a recognized jurisdiction and are admitted to practice in Kosovo under certain conditions.
Domestic lawyers must pass the bar exam. To sit for the bar exam, one must be a citizen of Kosovo, have a four-year bachelor in law or a master's in law, and complete a legal internship. The internship requirement is met after a one-year work as a trainee at the courts or a lawyer's office. Otherwise, the candidate should show two years of law-related experience with foreign or domestic organizations.
Foreign lawyers must have been licensed for at least five years in a U.S. or EU jurisdiction or in a country that permits Kosovo lawyers to practice under the same condition. They pass an abridged test administered by the Kosovo Bar and pay relatively higher fees than their domestic counterparts.
Latvia
In Latvia, anyone may call themselves a lawyer (jurist) and practice law, even without a law degree. However, advocate is a protected title and only members of the Latvian Bar Association () may call themselves advocates and own an advocate's office. To be admitted into the Latvian Bar Association, one must obtain a master's degree in law and pass the bar examination.
Liechtenstein
Admission to practice as a lawyer in Liechtenstein is governed by the Rechtsanwaltsgesetz (RAG). The Liechtenstein Bar Association () is responsible for all bar admissions, as of January 1, 2014. One is eligible to become a licensed lawyer (Rechtsanwalt) upon completion of a Master, Licentiate (Lizenziat), or Magister of Law degree at an Austrian or Swiss university, according to Art. 5 RAG.
Lithuania
Lithuanian advocates must be members of the Lithuanian Bar Association (). Admittance to the Lithuanian Bar Association requires a law degree followed by at least five years of work experience in the legal field, including two years as an advocate's assistant. Candidates must pass the qualification exam for lawyers and the bar exam. A person who has ten years of experience working as a judge or ten years of experience working as a prosecutor outside Lithuania or holds a doctoral degree in law is exempt from the qualification exam and only needs to pass the bar exam.
Luxembourg
Lawyers must register with a bar association in Luxembourg (). Admission to a bar association has character, language, citizenship requirements. Applicants must also complete an apprenticeship or aptitude test, depending on the list to which one wants to register.
Malta
Malta's legal practice is fused and legal practice is regulated by the Chamber of Advocates (). Licence to practice law is granted by way of a warrant issued on completion of the Master of Advocacy (M.Adv) programme from Malta University (or a comparable international programme) and an admission exam in Maltese. Lawyers holding rights to practice in other jurisdictions can apply for an exemption from local practice prohibitions allowing them to offer services under their foreign title though permission is issued by discretion and requires three years' local legal practice and a comparable licence elsewhere.
Moldova
Moldova requires an undergraduate law degree and passage of the state examination.
The Bar Association of Moldova () regulates the profession of a lawyer in Moldova.
Monaco
In Monaco, advocates should be members of the local bar association ().
Montenegro
Montenegro Bar Association () regulates the profession of a lawyer in Montenegro.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, to be a licensed lawyer (Advocaat), one must complete an undergraduate law degree (Bacheloropleiding or LL.B., which is three years of study), the master of law degree (doctorandus in law before implementation of the Bologna Process and conferring the meester title, which is a one-year LL.M. program), and a three-year apprenticeship.
Only holders of a law degree with civiel effect (i.e. a qualifying law degree) are admitted to regulated legal professions (juridische togaberoepen). Qualifying law degrees in the Netherlands must cover the four foundations of legal knowledge: Dutch private law, Dutch criminal law, Dutch administrative and constitutional law and international/European law.
Dutch advocates should be members of the Netherlands bar association ().
North Macedonia
In North Macedonia, advocates should be members of the local bar association ().
Norway
Lawyers (advokat) have to be licensed in Norway. To become licensed by the authorities, one must provided an LL.M (master of law)(before 2008- cand. jur.-- candidatus juris) and two years' practice as assisting lawyer (advokatfullmektig), two years' practice as a police prosecutor (politiadvokat or politifullmektig) or deputy judge (dommerfullmektig) and some minor formalities. In addition, one must pass the permanent lawyer's bar exam in order to obtain full access to the profession.
Whilst the earlier cand. juris was normally a 6-year degree, the LL.M. is a 5-year degree.
Membership of the bar association () is optional.
Poland
In Poland, a lawyer (adwokat or radca prawny) must complete a magister's degree in law (which lasts five years) and be admitted to the Polish Bar Council (). There are several ways to gain admission to the bar, including: three years of training followed by the bar exam; five years of legal professional experience followed by the bar exam; a Ph.D. in law followed by either the bar exam or 3 years of legal professional experience; or possession of high academic qualifications in legal sciences (e.g., habilitated doctor or professor). Once admitted to the bar association of one occupation, a lawyer can move to another occupation with little hassle.
Portugal
In order to register as a lawyer (advogado) in Portugal with the Bar Association (), one must have a law degree, complete an 18-month legal traineeship, and pass the bar exam.
Romania
The Romanian National Union of Bar Associations () regulates the profession of a lawyer (avocat) in Romania. A graduate of a Romanian law school with a bachelor's degree must pass the bar exam to obtain the status of a probationary lawyer. After practicing law under the supervision of another lawyer for two years as a trainee lawyer, one can pass the permanent lawyer's bar exam to obtain full access to the profession. Law No. 51/1995 provides paths for lawyers already educated or admitted in another EU member state to work as lawyers in Romania.
Russia
It is not necessary to have a license to practice law in Russia as a legal consultant, but only the members of the advocate's chambers (Russian bar associations) are permitted to appear in court on criminal matters (other person can be a defence counsel in criminal proceeding along with an advocate but not in lieu him) and to practice before Constitutional Court (leaving aside persons having academic degree of candidate or doctor in juridical sciences who also can represent parties in constitutional proceeding).
To become an advocate a person should pass special qualification exam. To sit for the exam, one must have a higher legal education and also two years of experience in legal work after graduation or a training program in a law firm after graduation. Specialist degree in law is the most commonly awarded academic degree in Russian jurisprudence, but after Russia's accession to the Bologna process only bachelor of laws and master of laws academic degrees are available in Russian institutions of higher education.
An examination is administered by the qualifications commission of an advocate's chamber. The exam is both written and oral, but the main test is oral. The written exam takes place in the form of computer testing and includes issues of the professional conduct of advocate and advocate's professional responsibility. After successfully passing of the written exam the candidates are allowed to take the oral exam. As part of the oral exam, the candidate must demonstrate his knowledge in various bodies of law and solve some mimic a real-life legal tasks. The candidate who does not pass the qualification exam can try to pass it again after 1 year only. The qualifications commission is composed of seven advocates, two judges, two representatives of the regional legislature, and two representatives of the Ministry of Justice.
After successful passing the qualification exam a candidate should take the oath of advocate. From the moment of taking the oath, he becomes an advocate and a member of the advocate's chamber of the relevant federal subject of Russia. Advocate's chamber sends relevant information to the territorial subdivision of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, which includes the new advocate in the register of advocates of the relevant federal subject of Russia and issues to him an advocate's certificate, which is the only official document confirming the status of an advocate, on the basis of this information. The status of an advocate is granted for an indefinite period and is not limited by any age. There is only 1 advocate's chamber in each federal subject of Russia. Each advocate can be the member of only 1 advocate's chamber and can be listed in the register of advocates of the relevant federal subject of Russia only. In case of relocation to another region, the advocate ceases to be a member of the advocate's chamber and should be excluded from register of advocates at the old place of residence (advocate's certificate should be returned to the subdivision of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, which issued it), and after that he becomes a member of the advocate's chamber and is included in the register of advocates at the new place of residence (where he receive new advocate's certificate) without any exams. Each advocate can carry out his professional activity throughout Russia, regardless of membership in particular regional advocate's chamber and regardless of particular regional register where he is listed in. Advocates carry out their professional activity individually (advocate's cabinet) or as the member of advocate's juridical person (collegium of advocates, advocate's bureau). Advocate can open own cabinet after at least 3 years legal practice in collegium or bureau. An advocate, who has opened own cabinet, can not be the member of any advocate's juridical person, and an advocate, who is the member of one advocate's juridical person, can not be the member of any other advocate's juridical person. Advocate is obliged to report to advocate's chamber any changes in his membership in a collegium or a bureau and, equally, opening and closing a cabinet.
Advocate's chambers are professional associations of advocates, which are based on mandatory membership of advocates. All regional advocate's chambers are mandatory members of Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation (), which is professional association at the federal level.
In Russia, foreign Advocates can advise on the legislation of their countries; they should register in the special register maintained by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation to obtain the right to carry out this activity. Foreign advocate can in addition become Russian advocate. There are two possible paths for that. The first possibility is to become Russian advocate on the same basis as Russian citizens (i.e. through higher legal education in one of Russian universities, two years of experience in legal work in Russia after graduation or a training program in Russian law firm after graduation, successful passing the qualification exam). Since Russia's WTO Accession the second possibility is available: foreign advocate can just pass special qualification exam to become Russian advocate.
San Marino
Upon possession of a four-year bachelor's degree in law from the University of the Republic of San Marino or a recognized foreign university, one must pass an examination for membership into the bar association (Ordine degli avvocati e notai). Furthermore, one must possess all civil rights, reside in San Marino, and be a citizen of San Marino or an eligible country.
Serbia
Article 6 of the "Law about Lawyers" ("Zakon o advokaturi") establishes the requirements to become a lawyer in Serbia. A prospective lawyer must have a law degree from a Serbian or recognized foreign university. Then, the lawyer must practice law at least 2 years within a law firm, and pass the Serbian bar exam. Health and character requirements apply. One must also be a citizen of Serbia. However, according to Article 14 of the law, a foreign citizen admitted to practice law in his home country can also be entered on the registry of lawyers.
Serbian advocates should be members of one of a local bar associations which are organised into national bar association ().
Slovakia
In Slovakia, one must first possess a master's degree in law or a foreign equivalent to become a lawyer. A training period between three and five years is also necessary. In addition to fulfilling character requirements and passing the bar exam, the applicant must take an oath. Upon fulfilling the aforementioned criteria, the applicant will be admitted to practice law by the Slovak Bar Association (). Some of these requirements can be waived for a person who is a university professor in law, has passed other Slovak legal examinations, or is admitted as a lawyer in another EU country.
Slovenia
To practice law, one must be admitted to the Slovenian Bar Association (), which regulates the legal profession in Slovenia. To be admitted, one must complete a master's degree in law, pass the state legal exam, and have four years of work experience in the legal field.
Spain
In Spain, in order for lawyers to practice law they must be in possession of the Lawyer's Professional Title (lawyer's license) and they must be joined to a bar association of Spain (any of the 83 bar associations of Spain). In Spain it is compulsory (legally mandatory) to be joined to a bar association (it could be any of all Spain). In total there are 6 years of training in order to practice law.
In order to practice law (and to get the lawyer's license), the following requirements are necessary (legally mandatory): a bachelor's degree in Law (4 years), a master's degree in Law and Legal Practice (2 years), a legal internship (6 months, within those two years) and passing the All Spain Bar Examination (convened annually by the Government of Spain). Once the bar examination has been passed, the Minister of Justice issues the Lawyer's Professional Title (lawyer's license). Finally, with the lawyer's title, you can join any bar association and practice law.
In Spain, in total there are 6 years of training in order to practice law. The current system was created by the Law 34/2006 and the Royal Decree 775/2011, of 3 June. The first time the All Spain Bar Examination was convened (the new system) was in 2014 by virtue of the Royal Decree 150/2014, of March 7.
Sweden
In Sweden, there is no monopoly on the practice of law. Anyone may call themselves a legal advisor (jurist), open a legal office, and practice law regardless of training or experience. Litigants are not required to employ qualified counsel, and anyone may appear before any court representing themselves or another person. However, the title of advokat is reserved by law for members of the Swedish Bar Association (), and in practice advokats act as defense counsel in the vast majority of criminal cases. The title in effect serves as a quality label for those offering legal services. Membership in the bar association requires an LL.M. degree (juristexamen, which lasts four and a half years); three years of legal work which must be in a law office (either an established firm or one's own firm), and the passing of an oral examination.
Switzerland
In Switzerland, lawyers must complete a Bachelor of Law (BLaw, which lasts 3 years), a Master of Law (MLaw, which lasts three terms), a one- to two-year traineeship (depending on the Canton), and pass the bar examination.
Turkey
In Turkey, lawyers (avukat in Turkish) must have a bachelor's degree in law from a Turkish university or pass the exams required by Turkish law faculties if they graduated from a foreign university, register to a local bar and the Turkish Bars Association, and complete one year of internship. Foreign citizens may have a degree from a Turkish faculty of law but only Turkish citizens may practice law in Turkey.
Ukraine
The Ukrainian National Bar Association () regulates the legal profession in Ukraine. In order to be admitted to the bar with the title of advokat (адвокат), one must have a law degree, two years of legal experience, completed legal traineeship, and passed the bar exam. Knowledge of the Ukrainian language is obligatory.
A foreign-qualified lawyer may be listed on the United Register of Advocates of Ukraine, and hence practice law in Ukraine, if he or she applies through a regional bar association.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom comprises three distinct legal jurisdictions:
English law in England and Wales
Northern Ireland law in Northern Ireland
Scots law in Scotland
As such, admission to practice law requires different qualifications in each country of the UK.
England and Wales
In England and Wales, different qualifications are required to become a solicitor or a barrister, both of whom are lawyers, with different rights of audience in the courts. Most lawyers are solicitors, dealing directly with clients, while barristers are specialist advocates, instructed by solicitors. For both professions, one must either obtain an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which typically lasts three years), or complete the Common Professional Examination/Graduate Diploma in Law (which lasts one year after completing an undergraduate degree). Future barristers must also complete the Bar Professional Training Course (formerly Bar Vocational Course), followed by a year of vocational training known as a pupillage and be a member of one of the four prestigious Inns of Court.
Potential solicitors are required to complete the Legal Practice Course, which lasts one year, then a two-year apprenticeship under a training contract, during which the trainee solicitor has to complete a Professional Skills Course. Chartered Legal Executives (formerly known as Fellows of CILEx) undertake a series of training courses and are required to pass qualifications relevant to the area of practice in which they intend to specialise. The first stage for the full vocational route to qualifying is called the CILEx Level 3 Professional Diploma in Law and Practice and is set at the equivalent to A-level law. The second and final qualifications are equivalent to an honours degree course - the CILEx Level 6 Diploma in Law and Practice.
Trainees will often work at the same time as studying in order to acquire practical skills. The courses can be undertaken at a college, university or through an open learning programme. The courses are open to graduates and non-graduates. Chartered Legal Executives qualify after completing their CILEX training followed by a minimum of three years' qualifying employment. Chartered Legal Executives may do a wide range of legal work although, like solicitors, they generally specialise in one area. After completing their academic training, trainee Legal Executives often occupy paralegal roles to satisfy the three-year vocational stage of qualifying as Chartered Legal Executives.
In September 2021, the Solicitors Regulation Authority introduced the Solicitor Qualifying Examination (SQE). If a potential solicitor does not qualify under the transitional agreements with the Legal Practice Course, he must follow the SQE admission requirements:
possess a degree (in any subject)
pass both phases of SQE assessment: SQE1 (functioning legal knowledge) and SQE2 (practical legal skills)
complete two years of qualifying work experience
satisfy the Solicitors Regulation Authority character requirements.
Qualified lawyers already admitted in the UK or another jurisdiction have a simplified path to admission as a solicitor in England and Wales. They do not require qualified working experience and can apply for exemptions to SQE exams.
Northern Ireland
Northern Irish barristers are members of the Bar of Northern Ireland.
The Bar of Northern Ireland and the General Council of the Bar of Northern Ireland are governed by the Constitution adopted on the 5 October 1983.
Scotland
In Scotland, a lawyer normally studies for an LL.B. in Scots law; as an undergraduate first degree this takes three years for an ordinary degree or four years as an honours degree. The LL.B. can be taken as a graduate entry degree which takes two years. The process of admission to practice law then depends on whether a lawyer wishes to become a solicitor or an advocate.
Admission to practice as a solicitor is regulated by the Law Society of Scotland, with solicitors having to study for a one-year Diploma in Professional Legal Practice and then complete a traineeship in a law firm. Solicitors have rights of audience before the sheriff courts and justice of the peace courts.
Admission to practice as an advocate, having rights of audience before the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary, is regulated by the Faculty of Advocates. The Faculty of Advocates exercises this authority under the Act of Sederunt (Regulation of Advocates) 2011, which delegates the responsibility from the Court of Session. An Act of Sederunt is a form of subordinate legislation passed by the Court of Session, and the powers to regulate admission to practice as an advocate is set by Section 120 of the Legal Services (Scotland) Act 2010, which states:
Prospective advocates (called devils or intrants) will complete a period of training in a solicitor's office, a period of devilling, and then must pass an assessment under the Faculty's Scheme of Assessment for Devils. The Faculty publishes detailed regulations as required by the Act of Sederunt, which lay out all of the requirements for prospective Advocates.
Oceania
Australia
In Australia, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate LL.B. or graduate JD or a Diploma in Law and complete the practical training requirement which is met by completing an approved practical legal training course or an apprenticeship as an articled clerk.
Admission to practice is a matter for each State. However, a person holding a practising certificate in any Australian jurisdiction is entitled to practise from time to time in another Australian jurisdiction without gaining admission in that jurisdiction.
New Zealand practitioners may apply for admission pursuant to Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Act 1997 (Cth).
New South Wales
A person is admitted as a legal practitioner after completing the required academic and practical training requirements. These matters are dealt with in the Legal Profession Act 2004. The applicant applies to the Legal Profession Admission Board who assesses applications (both local and foreign), and is ultimately admitted as a lawyer by the Supreme Court of New South Wales (s31 of the Legal profession Act 2004).
After admission, a person is then entitled to apply for a practising certificate from the Law Society of New South Wales (if they wish to practice as a solicitor), or the NSW Bar Association (if they wish to practice as a barrister). The practising certificate requires the payment of fees, insurance and a contribution to the fidelity fund (which compensates clients in some circumstances).
For a solicitor to work independently with unrestricted certificate, solicitor must practice with another solicitor for two years who has held unrestricted certificate for ten years. Restrictions are shown on the certificate. To practice in Federal Court a solicitor must apply to court for a certificate and for a solicitor or barrister to appear in WCC in NSW they must be accredited by WIRO.
Victoria
Under the Legal Profession Act 2004 (Vic), an individual may practise law, as a legal practitioner, in the state of Victoria if he or she has been admitted to the legal profession in any Australian jurisdiction and holds a current local or interstate practising certificate. Furthermore, the Legal Profession (Admission) Rules 2008 (Vic) replace articles of clerkship with supervised workplace training and make changes to the process of admission to practice. Under these new rules, upon completion of an approved training course and attainment of an accredited law degree, a law graduate needs to complete either a Practical Legal Training (PLT) program or Supervised Workplace Training (SWT) to be admitted to practise law in Victoria.
Fiji
Fiji requires a Bachelor of Law degree (four years of study) as well as the successful completion of either a Professional Diploma in Legal Practice from the University of the South Pacific or a Graduate Diploma in Legal Practice from the University of Fiji, or an equivalent law degree and bar admission course from abroad. Anyone admitted as a barrister or solicitor or their equivalent in a Commonwealth country may be admitted to practice law in Fiji so long as the applicant is a Commonwealth citizen, has resided in Fiji for at least three months, and has sufficient legal experience to satisfy the Chief Justice.
New Zealand
New Zealand requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which lasts four years), and completion of the Professional Legal Studies Course (which lasts five months).
Australian lawyers can apply for mutual recognition if they're admitted, for admission to the courts as a lawyer in New Zealand.
See also
Bar (law)
Lawyer
Practice of law
Disbarment
Practising certificate
Notes
References
Professional certification in law
Practice of law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter%20Oud
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Pieter Oud
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Pieter Jacobus Oud (5 December 1886 – 12 August 1968) was a Dutch politician of the defunct Free-thinking Democratic League (VDB) party and later co-founder of the Labour Party (PvdA) and the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and historian. He was granted the honorary title of Minister of State on 9 November 1963.
Oud attended the Barlaeus Gymnasium in Amsterdam from May 1889 until June 1904, and applied at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences in June 1904, majoring in civil law notary and obtaining a Bachelor of Civil Law degree in July 1907. Oud took several curses in accounting from a certified teacher in Gorinchem from July 1907 until April 1909. Oud worked as civil servant for the Ministry of Finance from May 1909 until June 1917 for the department of Budgetary Affairs from May 1909 until September 1911 and as a tax collector for the Fiscal Information and Investigation Service (FIOD) on Texel from September 1911 until February 1914 and in Ommen from February 1914 until June 1917. Oud applied at the University of Amsterdam in April 1912 for a postgraduate education in Law, graduating with an Master of Laws degree in February 1914. After the Battle of the Frontiers, Oud was conscripted in the Regiment Infanterie Oranje Gelderland of the Royal Netherlands Army, serving as a Sergeant from August 1914 until November 1916.
Oud was elected as a Member of the House of Representatives in the 1917 general election, taking office on 28 June 1917. Oud also worked as editor-in-chief of the party newspaper De Vrijzinnig-Democraat from 15 May 1919 until 26 May 1933. After the 1933 election, Oud was appointed as Minister of Finance in the second Colijn cabinet, taking office on 26 May 1933. After the Leader of the Free-thinking Democratic League Henri Marchant retired after 19 years he endorsed Oud as his successor. Marchant stepping down on 18 May 1935 and was succeeded by Oud. The second Colijn cabinet fell on 23 July 1935 and was replaced by the third Colijn cabinet, with Oud continuing to serve as Minister of Finance, taking office on 31 July 1935. Following the 1937 election, Oud returned to the House of Representatives, taking office on 8 June 1937, but asked Dolf Joekes to remain as Parliamentary leader of the Free-thinking Democratic League in the House of Representatives until 20 September 1937. The third Colijn cabinet was replaced by the fourth Colijn cabinet on 24 June 1937. In October 1938 Oud was nominated as Mayor of Rotterdam, and he announced his resignation as Leader and Parliamentary leader, endorsing his long-serving deputy Dolf Joekes as his successor. Oud resigned Leader and Parliamentary leader the day he was installed as Mayor, taking office on 15 October 1938.
On 14 May 1940 the Luftwaffe destroyed almost the entire historic city centre of Rotterdam during the German invasion, leading the Dutch government to capitulate the next day. On 10 October 1941 Oud resigned in protest against the German occupation and was briefly detained in the Ilag Sint-Michielsgestel in the summer of 1942. During the rest of the German occupation Oud wrote dozens of books on history and politics. Following the end of World War II, Oud was again appointed as Mayor of Rotterdam, taking office on 7 May 1945. On 9 February 1946 the Free-thinking Democratic League (VDB), the Social Democratic Workers' Party (SDAP) and the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) chose to merge to form the Labour Party (PvdA). Oud was one of its co-founders, but left the party a year later, after which he and several other former members of the Free-thinking Democratic League formed the rump party Committee-Oud in February 1947. On 24 January 1948 the Committee-Oud and the Freedom Party (PvdV) chose to merge to form the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD). Oud became the first Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy.
For the 1948 election, Oud was the lijsttrekker (lead candidate) of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. The party had six seats in the House of House of Representatives previously held by the Freedom Party and won two additional seats, now having eight seats in the House of Representatives. Oud again returned as a Member of the House of Representatives and became the party's first Parliamentary leader on 27 July 1948. The following cabinet formation resulted in a coalition agreement between the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, the Catholic People's Party (KVP), the Labour Party and the Christian Historical Union (CHU) which formed the Drees–Van Schaik cabinet, with Oud opting to remain in the House of Representatives instead of filling a ministerial post. Oud also served as Chairman of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy from 8 April 1949 until 9 November 1963. Oud served continuously as Leader and Parliamentary leader for the next 15 years and was lijsttrekker for the elections of 1952, 1956 and 1959. In January 1963, Oud announced his retirement from national politics, stating that he would not stand for the 1963 election. Shortly after the election, on 16 May 1963, Oud stepped down as Leader and Parliamentary leader, and was succeeded as Leader by Edzo Toxopeus and as Parliamentary leader by Roelof Zegering Hadders until Edzo Toxopeus took over as Parliamentary leader on 2 July 1963 but retained his seat in the House of Representatives and continued to serve as a backbencher until the end of the parliamentary term on 5 June 1963.
Following the end of his active political career, Oud occupied numerous seats as a corporate director and nonprofit director for supervisory boards in the business and industry world and for supervisory boards for several international non-governmental organisations and research institutes (Royal Dutch Shell, Philips, Van Lanschot, Netherlands Atlantic Association, Carnegie Foundation and the Royal Netherlands Historical Society) and served on several state commissions on behalf of the government.
Life
Life before politics
Oud came from a middle-class family. His father traded in tobacco, wine, and later stocks, and served as alderman in Purmerend. Oud attended HBS in Amsterdam, graduating in 1904. He continued to study to become notary between 1904 and 1907. During this time he had become member of the board of the League of Freethinking Propaganda Associations, the freethinking liberal youth organisation. He took a private courses in registration in Gorinchem between 1907 and 1909. Between 1909 and 1911 he was civil servant within the ministry of Finance responsible for registration and government possessions. In 1911 he became a tax collector on Texel. In 1912 he took his matriculation to study law at the University of Amsterdam. He combined his work as tax collector with his study of law. In the same year he married Johanna Cornelia Fischer, from this marriage they got one son. In 1914 he became tax collector in Ommen. Meanwhile, he was mobilised as Sergeant of the seventh regiment infantry, which was stationed near Amsterdam between 1914 and 1916. Between 1915 and 1919 he was member of the national board of the VDB. He graduated in 1917 on basis of a disputation.
Political life
For the VDB
Oud was elected in 1917 election for the VDB, the last election with runoff voting. He defeated Staalman of the left-wing Christian Democratic Party in the second round in the district of Den Helder. He retained his legal position as tax collector, but was given a leave for undetermined time. He was even promoted to inspector of finances in 1921, while on leave. In the 1918 election Oud stood for elections again, and was elected with 5,000 preference votes, mainly from the former district of Den Helder. While MP, Oud also served as secretary of the VDB national board and editor of the De Vrijzinnige Democraat, the party's magazine. In parliament Oud took a particular interest in military matters and education, and served as the party's finance spokesperson. As MP he served as member of the Committee on the Navy between 1923 and 1933 and the Committee on the Army since 1925. He was chairman of the association for the promotion of public education "People's Education" for many years.
After the 1933 election, Oud was appointed Minister of Finance in the second cabinet led by Hendrik Colijn. As minister, he was responsible for a large scale operation of budget cuts, during a time of economic crisis. In 1935 he proposed the Bezuigingswet 1935 ("Budget Cut Act 1935"), which involved many budget cuts and financial reorganisations: salaries of civil servants were cut, the old age pensions were financed in a different way and for budgetary reasons, soldiers were to become civil servants after a certain period. Although his proposals lead to a political crisis, they were nonetheless carried by parliament. In the same year, after Henri Marchant left the VDB following a scandal, Oud succeeded him as political leader of the VDB. Oud led the VDB in the 1937 election and returned to the House of Representatives as chair of the parliamentary party. He also served as chair for the committee on government expenditure.
In Rotterdam
He left the House of Representatives in 1938 to become mayor of Rotterdam. As mayor he also served in the College of Curators of the University of Rotterdam and as chair of the Association of Dutch Municipalities. After he stepped down in 1952 he became honorary chairman of that association. In 1939 he was elected into the States-Provincial of South Holland. In August 1939 he was offered the position of Minister of Finance in the cabinet of Dirk Jan de Geer, but declined.
Controversially, Oud did not resign after the German invasion of 1940, although he was not a member of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (NSB). During his period as mayor, he was involved in the reconstruction of the centre of Rotterdam which was destroyed by the German bombings. He was heavily criticised by Dutch politicians for cooperating too much with the NSB, while the NSB criticised him for being uncooperative. In the spring of 1941 he was brutally harassed by members of the NSB, twelve party-members invaded the City Hall, gagged Oud, adorned him with Freemason-like symbols and made pictures of him. In the autumn of 1941 he resigned as mayor and he stood down as member of the States Provincial. He was succeeded by Frederik Ernst Müller. In the summer of 1942 he was briefly held in Sint-Michielsgestel, where many prominent Dutch politicians were held captive. During the war Oud kept far from the resistance movement and instead committed himself to writing several books on parliamentary history. Meanwhile, he kept close contact with important people from the business and the political world of Rotterdam.
In 1945, after the liberation of the Netherlands, he returned to Rotterdam as mayor, although he was also asked to become mayor of Amsterdam, and he was officially re-appointed in 1946. In the same year the VDB merged with the social democratic SDAP and the left-wing Christian CDU to form the Labour Party. Oud was one of the co-founders of this party and served on the party's board between 1946 and 1947. Meanwhile, he served on many government, business, international and civil society committees, he chaired the government committee for municipal finances between 1946 and 1954, he was member of the board of trustees of the banker Staal, he was member of the pension council of the Dutch Reformed Church since 1946 and he served as chair of the International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments between 1948 and 1954.
For the VVD
On 3 October 1947, Oud sent a letter to the board of the PvdA announcing his resignation as a member. The reason he gave for the split was that the PvdA was moving too much into socialist waters, instead of being committed to progressive politics. The fact that he was refused a position on the party list for the Senate is generally seen as the political reason for Oud's split. Oud never felt at home in the new social democratic party.
He immediately founded the Committee of Preparation of the Foundation of a Democratic People's Party, which prepared the foundation of the VVD. He negotiated the merger of the remnants of the old VDB with the newly founded Freedom Party. On 24 January 1948 he became one of the founding members of the liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, together with Dirk Stikker and Henk Korthals, and served in its first national board as vice-chair. In 1948 he was elected to the House of Representatives for the VVD, and became chair of its parliamentary party, combining this position with the position of chair of the party's organisation.
In parliament he mainly spoke on issues of administrative and constitutional law. He was a very influential member of parliament. When the law concerning the decolonisation of Indonesia, a very controversial issue, was voted on, the two-thirds majority was only reached because an amendment proposed by Oud ensured the support of the VVD. In 1950–51 Oud came into conflict with the VVD's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Stikker, over the policy concerning Netherlands New Guinea. Between 1950 and 1953 he was a member of the Government Committee Van Schaik, which prepared a constitutional change. In 1952 he did not seek to be reappointed as Rotterdam's mayor, and instead became extraordinary professor of Constitutional Administrative law at the University of Rotterdam, which he remained until 1957. Between 1953 and 1963 he was chair of the Justice Committee of the House of Representatives. As such, he was heavily involved in the preparation of many laws, and served as chair on the committees preparing the laws on the provinces, the police, archives, patents and many more. In 1959 he came into conflict with Harm van Riel, the chair of the VVD's parliamentary party in the Senate, because Van Riel wanted to become minister, but Oud denied him this.
In the last years of his period in the House of Representatives, Oud was the eldest member of the House and on many times functioned as Speaker, such as when a new Speaker was elected. Before the 1963 election Oud announced that he would not continue as MP; he was succeeded by the Minister of the Interior Edzo Toxopeus. In the same year, he was appointed as Minister of State, an honorary title.
Life after politics
After 1963, Oud retired from Dutch political life. He was only asked upon at times of great crisis. In 1966 he was member of the committee that advised the government on the ministerial responsibility towards members of the royal house, together with Willem Drees. In the same year, he co-authored a book on a new constitution.
When Oud died in 1968, his family wanted to announce his death after the burial. His general practitioner did not know this, and told a patient that evening that Oud had died that afternoon. The father of this patient happened to be a journalist for the socialist paper Het Vrije Volk, which published a large In Memoriam the next morning.
Trivia
Jacobus Oud, a famous Dutch architect, was his brother.
Oud was a respected voice in parliament, not only because he spoke with a soft high pitched voice, but also because he was the House's conscience when it came to constitutional issues and administrative laws.
Oud was a lifelong member of the freethinking Protestant broadcasting organisation, VPRO.
Decorations
Bibliography
"Om de Democratie" (1929; "For Democracy")
"Het jongste verleden: Parlementaire geschiedenis van Nederland, 1918–1940" (1946; The recent past: parliamentary history of the Netherlands, 1918-194-)
"Honderd jaren: Hoofdzaken der Nederlandsche staatkundige geschiedenis, 1840–1940" (1946; One hundred years, Important matters of the Dutch political history 1840–1940)
"Het constitutionele recht van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" (1947–1953; The constitutional law of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
"Proeve van een Grondwet (1966; Attempt at a constitution)
References
External links
Official
Mr. P.J. (Pieter) Oud Parlement & Politiek
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa%20von%20Praunheim
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Rosa von Praunheim
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Holger Bernhard Bruno Mischwitzky (born Holger Radtke; 25 November 1942), known professionally as Rosa von Praunheim, is a German film director, author, painter and one of the most famous gay rights activists in the German-speaking world. In over 50 years, von Praunheim has made more than 150 films (short and feature-length films). His works influenced the development of LGBTQ+ rights movements worldwide.
He began his career associated to the New German Cinema as a senior member of the Berlin school of underground filmmaking. He took the artistic female name Rosa von Praunheim to remind people of the pink triangle that homosexuals had to wear in Nazi concentration camps, as well as the Frankfurt neighborhood of Praunheim where he grew up. A pioneer of Queer Cinema, von Praunheim has been an activist in the gay rights movement. He was an early advocate of AIDS awareness and safer sex. His films center on gay-related themes and strong female characters, are characterized by excess and employ a campy style. They have featured such personalities as Keith Haring, Larry Kramer, Diamanda Galás, William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, Judith Malina, Jeff Stryker, Jayne County, Divine and a row of Warhol superstars.
Early life
Von Praunheim was born as Holger Radtke in in the German-occupied Latvia during World War II. His biological mother died in 1946 at the Wittenauer Heilstätten psychiatric hospital. After his birth, he was given up for adoption. He only found out these facts when his adoptive mother, Gertrud Mischwitzky, told him in 2000. He discovered the fate of his biological mother in 2006 after a lengthy investigation. He documented his quest in the film Two Mothers (2007).
He received the name Holger Mischwitzky and spent his early years in East Berlin. In 1953, he escaped from East Germany with his family to West Germany, first to the Rhineland, moving later to Frankfurt am Main. After von Praunheim left the pre-university high school in Frankfurt (Gymnasium), he studied at the Werkkunstschule in Offenbach. He then transferred to the Berlin University of the Arts where he studied fine arts but did not graduate. He initially worked as a painter, but eventually opted for a career in filmmaking.
Career
In the mid-1960s he assumed the stage name "Rosa von Praunheim". In the late 1960s, he began experimenting in film and creative writing. He made his debut associated with Werner Schroeter with experimental and short movies, like Sisters of the Revolutions (1969) and Samuel Beckett (1969), with which he quickly became famous. His film Macbeth - Opera by Rosa von Praunheim was shown at the world famous art exhibition documenta V. Von Praunheim married actress Carla Aulaulu (aka Carla Egerer) in 1969. The marriage ended two years later in divorce. During this same period, he also collaborated with in a number of film projects. At the beginning of his career, von Praunheim also worked as an assistant director for Gregory J. Markopoulos, who dedicated his film (A)lter (A)ction (1968) to him. Rainer Werner Fassbinder staged the play Dedicated to Rosa von Praunheim (1969) for von Praunheim.
Von Praunheim's first feature film was produced in 1971: The Bed Sausage, a parody of bourgeois marriage. It became a cult movie, which had a sequel in 1975 (Berlin Bed Sausage): "Avant-garde cinema also has its masters, its greatest in Germany: Rosa von Praunheim. His film The Bed Sausage, which premiered on ZDF, confirmed once again what his works Pink Workers on Golden Street and Sisters of the Revolution, which have already been shown at many festivals, characterise: A mixture of artistic inventiveness, social awareness and humour that is exceedingly rare in Germany." (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung).
In 1971, the director also caused a stir with his film It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives which led to many gay rights groups being founded and was the beginning of the modern lesbian and gay liberation movement in Germany and Switzerland: "Rosa von Praunheim's film made an epoch." (Frankfurter Rundschau) The film also made Rosa von Praunheim the leading figure of the lesbian and gay movement in Germany: "It is a personal liberation for Holger Mischwitzky [Rosa von Praunheim] - and a wake-up call for all homosexual men. […] With this film, Rosa von Praunheim became the icon of the gay and lesbian movement in Germany almost overnight." (Deutsche Welle).
American film critic Joe Hoeffner wrote in an article about the twelve most important queer films: "Many films have been called revolutionary, but It Is Not the Homosexual… truly earns that description. The breakout film by director and activist Rosa von Praunheim (aka Holger Mischwitzky) became a foundational text of the German gay rights movement, and its call for liberation reverberated through the history of queer cinema." This movie found great resonance internationally. Some artists have referred to the film, for example Bruce LaBruce with the short film collection It Is Not the Pornographer That Is Perverse... (2018).
A prolific and controversial filmmaker, von Praunheim has centered his directorial efforts in documentaries featuring gay-related themes. In the early 1970s, he lived for some time in the United States where he made a series of documentaries about the post-Stonewall American gay scene. In Army of Lovers or Revolt of the Perverts (1979) he took on the American gay and lesbian movement from the 1950s until the late 1970s. He was also interested in the underground theater in New York City, which was the focus of some of his films of this period including Underground and Emigrants (1976). In 1979, von Praunheim won a German Film Award for Tally Brown, New York, a documentary about American singer and actress Tally Brown, who died in 1989. In the USA von Praunheim worked with camera people like Jeff Preiss, Mike Kuchar and Juliana Wang.
Back in Berlin, he made feature films such as Our Corpses Are Still Alive (1981) and Red Love (1982). In 1983, von Praunheim's revolutionary film City of Lost Souls (1983) with Jayne County and Angie Stardust was released: "This riotous and massively ahead-of-its-time intersectional queer-punk musical has gone on to greatly influence transgender politics." (Australian Centre for the Moving Image) These films were shown at film festivals worldwide. His feature film Horror Vacui won the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for best experimental film in 1985. Anita: Dances of Vice (1987), the life story of a scandalous nude dancer in Berlin in the 1920s, attracted international attention. The film was shown, for example, at the New York Film Festival and the Chicago International Film Festival.
With the outbreak of the AIDS epidemic, von Praunheim worked on films about the HIV-related disease. A Virus Knows No Morals (1986) was one of the first feature films about AIDS internationally: "A Virus Respects No Morals, a savage, imaginative, scattershot Brecht-like allegory set largely in a gay bath, became one of the earliest and most provocative attacks on the hypocrisy, ignorance, politics and economics surrounding the AIDS crisis." (Los Angeles Times)
The documentaries Positive and Silence = Death, both shot in 1989, deal with aspects of AIDS activism in New York. Fire Under Your Ass (1990) focuses on AIDS in Berlin. For the so-called AIDS trilogy, von Praunheim was awarded the LGBTIQ-Film-Prize of the Berlin International Film Festival. The Guardian, one of Britain's most important newspapers, wrote in 1992: "Silence = Death and Positive: The best AIDS films to date [...]." The Los Angeles Times summed it up: "In short, Praunheim is just the man for the job he has taken on with Silence = Death and Positive: he has the breadth of vision, the compassion and the militance and, yes, the sense of humor necessary to tackle the AIDS epidemic in all its aspects." Critic Jerry Tallmer, co-founder of the Obie Awards, wrote in the newspaper The Record: "[...] Rosa (originally Holger) von Praunheim, the brilliant, acerbic director of such breakthrough gay-revolutionist works as Silence & Death and A Virus Knows No Morals."
Von Praunheim was a co-founder of the German ACT UP movement and organized the first major AIDS benefit event in Germany. He was vocal in his efforts to educate people about the danger of AIDS and the necessity of practicing safer sex. On 10 December 1991, von Praunheim created a scandal in Germany when he outed the anchorman Alfred Biolek and the comedian Hape Kerkeling in the TV show as gay to call for public solidarity with the stigmatized gays from homosexual celebrities, of which there were hardly any in the German public at that time. Because of this, von Praunheim was considered a controversial figure in his home country for a long time, even within the queer community. But after the public outing action several celebrities had their coming out.
In the early 1990s, von Praunheim developed the first queer TV format in Germany, but continued his film work at the same time. His film Life Is Like a Cucumber with Lotti Huber was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival (1991). He was honored with two FIPRESCI Awards for his films I Am My Own Woman (1992) and Neurosia (1995).
Von Praunheim's film Transexual Menace (1996), named after the American transgender rights organization The Transexual Menace, was after City of Lost Souls again a very progressive film about transgender people and premiered at the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco and was also shown at the Outfest in Los Angeles: "Von Praunheim's Transexual Menace dispenses with the usual cliches and brings us bang up to date with a profile of the new generation of politically-active transsexuals […]." (The Independent) The New York Times wrote: "[...] Transexual Menace is a cornerstone of documentary filmmaking about transgender people."
Von Praunheim's The Einstein of Sex (1999) about Magnus Hirschfeld premiered at the Locarno Festival and was nominated for the Golden Leopard. His film Can I be your Bratwurst, please? (1999) with Jeff Stryker and Vaginal Davis has been shown at over 250 film festivals around the world (a world record-breaking festival utilization). Moving Pictures Magazine chose the film as best title in Cannes. In 2000, he was awarded the for Wunderbares Wrodow, a documentary about the people in and around a German village and its castle. His film Cows knocked up by fog (2002) premiered at the Venice Film Festival.
From 1999 to 2006, von Praunheim was professor of directing at the Film University of Babelsberg. Von Praunheim has also taught at various film and art schools, including San Francisco Art Institute, where Abel Ferrara was one of his students. Former Praunheim students, filmmakers Tom Tykwer, Chris Kraus, Axel Ranisch, Robert Thalheim and Julia von Heinz, made the film Pink Children (2012) about their mentor.
In 2008, his film Two Mothers was shown at Tribeca Film Festival and was nominated for the Jury-Award.
At the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival, he was awarded the Berlinale Camera as one of the most important representatives of German cinema. Von Praunheim also received the Berlinale Special Teddy Award for his outstanding contributions to queer cinema. In 2012, he was awarded the Grimme-Preis for his documentary Rent Boys. In 2015, he received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. In 2020, he was awarded the Max Ophüls Honorary Award for his life's work. Von Praunheim also received the Honorary Award of the Swiss Pink Apple Film Festival.
On occasion of his 70th birthday (2012), von Praunheim made 70 short and medium-length films for German regional television station RBB under the title Rosa's World. Never before has a documentary filmmaker received so much airtime on German television. Rosa's World has also been shown at film festivals, for example in Vienna (Austria).
Von Praunheim has written several books that have been successfully published by publishing houses such as Rowohlt Verlag.
Von Praunheim has been painting since his early youth and occasionally exhibits in galleries and museums, for example in the Migros Museum of Contemporary Art. He curated exhibitions himself, for example in the Lincoln Center, and was director of the film and video arts department at the Academy of Arts (2015 - 2018).
Rosa von Praunheim had many large and well-regarded film screenings and premieres in the US, for example at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City (more than 15 times), at The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, in the Wheeler Hall of the University of California, Berkeley and at film festivals across the country. For example, he won the Creative Vision Award of the Rhode Island International Film Festival. The American Cinematheque in Hollywood honored von Praunheim with a retrospective in 1997 as "a fearless international pioneer of gay cinema". In 1986, the first edition of the Gay Cinema Festival in Toronto held a Rosa von Praunheim retrospective to honor the director as "the dean of Berlin's underground filmmakers". In Canada, his films were also shown at the Montreal World Film Festival, among other places. Several of the director's films premiered in Great Britain at the Edinburgh International Film Festival and in Australia at the Sydney Film Festival. The Tate Modern in London also showed Rosa von Praunheim's films. Mardi Gras Film Festival Sydney honored von Praunheim in a film series about the most important queer filmmakers.
Queer film festival Ciclo Rosa (Zyklos Rosa) in Bogotá was named in honor of Rosa von Praunheim. In South America, von Praunheim's films were shown at the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema and São Paulo International Film Festival, among other places. In Asia, for example, at the Shanghai International Film Festival, the Hong Kong International Film Festival, the Taipei Film Festival and the Tokyo International Lesbian & Gay Film Festival. Von Praunheim was represented at many A film festivals worldwide, often several times. He had more than 20 films at the Berlin International Film Festival, making him record holder there, and had numerous retrospectives in many countries.
His films are also evaluated in an academic context and shown at universities, for example at Beaux-Arts de Paris, The Courtauld Institute of Art London, University of Pennsylvania, Columbia University in New York City and Harvard University in Cambridge.
Von Praunheim's work has found its way into various academic papers and publications, including from Stanford University and Oxford University.
His film Survival in New York (1989) became von Praunheim's most commercially successful film in Germany, which was followed 20 years later by the sequel New York Memories (2009).
He was a successful theater director, winning the Jury-Award at the Theater Authors Days (2018) at the Deutsches Theater Berlin for his play Hitler's Goat and the King's Haemorrhoids.
The magazine The Advocate selected von Praunheim among the world's 50 most important queer people in the fields of activism, art and culture. On the occasion of von Praunheim's 75th birthday (2017), President of Germany Frank-Walter Steinmeier thanked him publicly for his artistic work and social commitment: "My congratulations go to an exceptional artist who, with his extensive cinematic oeuvre, has succeeded in intervening in social reality and changing it [...]."
Personal life
Von Praunheim lives in Berlin with his husband , a German author, director and activist for Mental Health.
Books (selection)
Männer, Rauschgift und der Tod. 1967
Oh Muvie. 1968, Fotoroman mit Elfie Mikesch
Sex und Karriere. Rowohlt TB-V., 1978,
Armee der Liebenden oder Aufstand der Perversen. 1979,
Gibt es Sex nach dem Tode. Prometh Verlag, 1981,
Rote "Liebe": ein Gespräch mit Helga Goetze. Prometh Verl., 1982,
50 Jahre pervers. Die sentimentalen Memoiren des Rosa von Praunheim. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1993,
Folge dem Fieber und tanze: Briefwechsel mit Mario Wirz. Aufbau-Verlag, 1995
Mein Armloch. Martin Schmitz Verlag, 2002, Gedichte
Die Rache der alten dicken Tunte. 2006, Fotobuch
Die Bettwurst und meine Tante Lucy. 2006, Fotobuch
Selected filmography
1969: Sisters of the Revolution
1971: The Bed Sausage
1971: It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives
1974: Axel von Auersperg
1975: Berlin Bed Sausage
1979: Tally Brown, New York
1979: Army of Lovers or Revolt of the Perverts
1981: Unsere Leichen leben noch
1982: Red Love
1983: City of Lost Souls
1984: Horror Vacui
1986: A Virus Knows no Morals
1987: Anita: Dances of Vice
1987: Dolly, Lotte and Maria
1989: Survival in New York
1990: Positive
1990: Silence = Death (film)
1990: Life Is Like a Cucumber
1992: I Am My Own Woman
1995: Neurosia: 50 Years of Perversity
1996: Transexual Menace
1999: The Einstein of Sex
1999: Can I Be Your Bratwurst, Please?
1999: Wunderbares Wrodow
2000: Fassbinder's Women
2001: Tunten lügen nicht
2002: Kühe vom Nebel geschwängert
2002: Pfui Rosa!
2002: Queens Don't Lie
2005: Men, Heroes and Gay Nazis
2005: Your Heart in My Head
2007: Two Mothers
2008: The Pink Giant
2009: History of Hell
2010: New York Memories
2011: Rent Boys
2012: King of Comics
2012: Rosa's World
2014: Praunheim Memoires
2014: How I Learned to Love the Numbers (as producer)
2015: Tough Love
2016: Welcome All Sexes - 30 Years Teddy Awards
2017: ACT! Who am I?
2017: Survival in Neukölln
2018: Friendship of Men
2019: Darkroom - Drops of Death
2022: Rex Gildo - The Last Dance
Notes
References
Kuzniar, Alice. The Queer German Cinema, Stanford University Press, 2000,
Murray, Raymond. Images in the Dark: An Encyclopedia of Gay and Lesbian Film and Video. TLA Publications, 1994,
Zielinski, Ger. Rebel with a Cause: An Interview with Rosa Von Praunheim. Cinéaste, vol. 37, no. 3, 2012.
External links
(in German and English)
Rosa von Praunheim in the Video Data Bank
1942 births
Film people from Riga
Baltic-German people
Film directors from Frankfurt
German autobiographers
German LGBT rights activists
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
German LGBT film directors
German gay artists
Living people
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
German adoptees
German LGBT screenwriters
German gay writers
Berlin University of the Arts alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernandinho%20%28footballer%2C%20born%20May%201985%29
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Fernandinho (footballer, born May 1985)
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Fernando Luiz Roza (born 4 May 1985), known as Fernandinho, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Athletico Paranaense. He has also captained the Brazil national team on many occasions. Fernandinho is regarded as one of the best defensive midfielders of his generation and one of the best Brazilians to ever play in the Premier League. He is well known for his 9 year spell with Premier League club Manchester City where he won 5 Premier League titles, an FA Cup, six EFL Cups, two Community Shields, assuming captaincy in the 2020-2021 season and being instrumental in leading Manchester City to the 2021 Champions League final, where he earned a runners-up medal.
Fernandinho started his career at Brazilian club Atlético Paranaense before moving to Shakhtar Donetsk in 2005, where he became one of the best foreign players to ever play in the Ukrainian Premier League. With Shakhtar, he won six Ukrainian Premier League titles, four Ukrainian Cups and the 2008–09 UEFA Cup. He was voted by the Shakhtar Donetsk fans as the best Brazilian player to ever play for the team.
The scorer of the only goal in the final of the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship and a full international for Brazil from 2011 to 2019, he was part of their squad which came fourth at the 2014 FIFA World Cup and also competed at the 2015 Copa América, the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the 2019 Copa América, winning the latter tournament.
Club career
Atlético Paranaense
Fernandinho began his career at Atlético Paranaense alongside his future Shakhtar teammate Jádson and close friend Carlos. In Paranaense he was runners-up of both the Brazilian first division (in 2004) and the Libertadores da America, in 2005. He made 72 appearances for the club, scoring 14 goals, before moving to Ukrainian side Shakhtar Donetsk for a fee of around £7 million.
Shakhtar Donetsk
2005–09: Initial league championships and UEFA Cup
In his first season as a Shakhtar player he played 34 matches, including 23 league appearances, and scored three goals, with one coming in the league. Shakhtar were victorious in the Super Cup, however Fernandinho did not play in the match. He played in the championship deciding match between Shakhtar and Dynamo Kyiv, who were level on 75 points after all 30 games had been played, in which Shakhtar prevailed 2–1 to take the title. This marked Fernandinho's first league title with Shakhtar. He made 25 league appearances in the 2006–07 season as Shakhtar finished 2nd to Dynamo Kyiv. They also finished as runners-up in the Ukrainian Cup and Ukrainian Super Cup.
In the 2007–08 season Shakhtar regained the championship with Fernandinho playing a pivotal role by scoring 11 goals, including one from the penalty spot, in 29 league appearances. He failed to appear in just one league match during the season. Shakhtar were also victorious in the Ukrainian Cup, giving Fernandinho his first cup success. However they were defeated in the Super Cup by Dynamo Kyiv for the second year in a row. After the match finished 2–2, it went to penalties and, although Fernandinho converted a penalty, Shakhtar lost 4–2.
On 15 July 2008, Fernandinho played in the Super Cup victory against Dynamo Kyiv. The match went to penalties after the two teams drew 1–1 at the end of extra time. Fernandinho scored one of the penalties to help Shakhtar to a 5–3 win in the shoot-out. He scored the equalising goal in a 1–1 draw with Karpaty Lviv on 27 July. On 3 August he picked up a 63rd minute red card in a 3–0 victory over Illichivets Mariupol. On 31 August he scored a penalty in a 2–2 draw against Metalurh Zaporizhya. On 16 September he scored the opening goal in a 2–1 Champions League victory against Swiss club Basel. On 8 November, he scored the opening goal in a 2–0 victory against Tavriya Simferopol. On 9 December he scored a goal in Shakhtar's 3–2 away win against Spanish side Barcelona in the Champions League group stage match.
On 26 February 2009, Fernandinho scored the equalising goal in Shakhtar's 1–1 away leg draw against English team Tottenham Hotspur in the UEFA Cup. Shakhtar won the tie 3–1 on aggregate. On 7 March, he scored the only goal, a penalty, in a 1–0 victory against Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk. On 15 March, he opened the scoring from the penalty spot in a 3–0 victory against Metalist Kharkiv. On 19 March he scored a penalty in Shakhtar's 2–0 victory over Russian team CSKA Moscow in the UEFA Cup. Shakhtar won the tie 2–1 on aggregate. On 16 April he netted a goal in a 2–1 UEFA Cup win against Marseille. Shakhtar emerged victorious from the tie with a 4–1 aggregate win. He also scored a pivotal equalising goal in the first leg of the UEFA Cup semi final match against Dynamo Kyiv which finished 1–1. Shakhtar advanced to the final by virtue of a 3–2 aggregate victory after securing a 2–1 win at the Donbass Arena in the second leg.
Shakhtar won the UEFA Cup with a 2–1 victory over German side Werder Bremen in the last UEFA Cup before it was renamed the UEFA Europa League. He made 42 total appearances, including 21 in the league, and scored 11 goals, including five in the league, in the 2008–09 season.
2009–13: Domestic dominance and individual success
The 2009–10 season saw Shakhtar lift the Premier League trophy. Fernandinho's first goal came on 29 July, in a 2–2 Champions League draw against Politehnica Timișoara in the third qualifying round, however Shakhtar were knocked out of the competition, losing on away goals after a 0–0 draw at home. On 20 September, he scored a penalty in a 4–2 victory over Arsenal Kyiv. He scored two goals in a 5–1 victory over Karpaty Lviv on 18 October, including one from the penalty spot. On 22 October the first goal, a penalty, in a 4–0 victory against French side Toulouse in the Europa League. He scored a 93rd-minute goal in a 2–0 Ukrainian Cup victory against Dynamo Kyiv on 28 October. On 6 December he scored a penalty to open the scoring in a 2–0 win over Kryvbas. On 24 March, he scored a 92nd-minute goal against Metalurh Donetsk in the Ukrainian Cup, however it proved to be only a consolation goal as Shakhtar lost the match 2–1. Fernandinho made 24 league appearances, netting 4 times. He made a total of 39 appearances with 8 goals.
In the following season Fernandinho played in the 7–1 Super Cup win over Tavriya Simferopol on 4 July. On 18 July, he netted an equalising goal in a 1–1 draw with Metalurh Zaporizhya. On 7 August he scored the opening goal in a 5–0 win over Sevastopol. He also played a part in the 1–0 UEFA Super Cup defeat to Barcelona on 28 August. He suffered a broken leg in a 1–0 defeat to Obolon Kyiv on 10 September, which was expected to rule him out for the entire season. He eventually returned on 1 April 2011 after almost seven months out of action in a 3–1 victory over Illichivets Mariupol. He scored a late 94th-minute match-winning goal in a 2–1 victory over Tavriya, his first goal since returning from injury. On 25 May, he played the full 90 minutes in Shakhtar's 2–0 Ukrainian Cup Final victory over Dynamo Kyiv. At the end of the season Shakhtar won the championship, with Fernandinho contributing three goals from his 15 league appearances. They managed to win three prizes (Premier League, Cup and Super Cup).
Fernandinho began the 2011–12 season with Shakhtar's only goal in a 3–1 Super Cup defeat to Dynamo Kyiv. On 31 July he scored Shakhtar's only goal in a match against Arsenal Kyiv, however a 95th-minute equaliser prevented them from winning the match and taking all three points. He netted a goal in a 3–1 victory against Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk on 13 August. On 27 November he scored the second goal, from a penalty, in a 5–0 victory over Karpaty Lviv. On 27 April, he scored a penalty in a 4–3 Ukrainian Cup match against Volyn Lutsk. He netted the winning goal in a 2–1 victory against Metalist Kharkiv on 2 May. He scored six goals in 32 appearances, with 24 appearances and four goals in the league, over the season. He played in the Ukrainian Cup Final victory over Metalurh Donetsk. At the end of the season, with his contract due to expire, he signed a new five-year contract with the club until 2016. Shakhtar retained the league title for the third year in a row, Fernandinho's fifth overall with the club, and also secured another Cup trophy, their second in a row.
Fernandinho started the 2012–13 season by assisting Douglas Costa for the second goal in a 2–0 Super Cup victory over Metalurh Donetsk. This marked his third success in the Super Cup with Shakhtar. He assisted Yevhen Seleznyov's goal in the 3–1 victory over Hoverla Uzhhorod. He netted a late goal to earn Shakhtar three points in a 1–0 win over Kryvbas. He assisted Henrikh Mkhitaryan for the first goal in a 4–1 victory over Vorskla Poltava. On 23 September, he scored a goal in a 4–1 Ukrainian Cup last 32 victory against Dynamo Kyiv and was named man of the match. He assisted Henrikh Mkhitaryan for the second goal in a 2–0 victory against Metalist Kharkiv on 7 October. Fernandinho scored the second goal in a 2–1 victory against English side Chelsea in the Champions League group stage on 23 October, shooting low with his right foot into the bottom corner.
Manchester City
On 6 June 2013, Fernandinho became Manchester City's first signing of the summer, for a fee of £34 million. He signed a four-year deal and is understood to have waived around £4 million owed to him by Shakhtar in order to complete the transfer, as he was desperate to secure a move away from the Ukrainian club. During his time at Shakhtar, the Brazilian wore the number 7 shirt, but due to midfielder James Milner already occupying the number at City, Fernandinho had to choose another. In an interview with Manchester City, Fernandinho recalled a conversation with his son in which his son said, "My dad is the new number 25," and so Fernandinho subsequently chose 25 as his new number.
2013–14: Premier League win
Fernandinho made his Premier League debut on 19 August 2013 against Newcastle United in a 4–0 home win. He scored his first two goals for Manchester City on 14 December 2013 against Arsenal in a 6–3 home win and was also named man of the match after a classical display.
On 1 January 2014, he scored his third goal of the season in a 2–3 away win against Swansea City. On 2 February, Fernandinho sustained a thigh injury in training, which kept him out of action for two weeks.
On 2 March, Fernandinho appeared for City in the League Cup final against Sunderland, where he won his first trophy in England with a 3–1 win. On 11 May, Fernandinho was part of the squad who secured the Premier League title in a 2–0 win against West Ham United. He did not start the game, but appeared as a substitute for striker Edin Džeko in the 69th minute.
2014–17: Positional changes and adaptation
On 5 November 2014, in a 2014–15 Champions League group match against CSKA Moscow, Fernandinho replaced Jesús Navas at half-time with Manchester City 1–2 down at home. He was then sent off in the 70th minute for a second booking, with teammate Yaya Touré following later, as the team lost and fell to last place in the group.
On 16 August 2015, Fernandinho scored the final goal in City's 3–0 win over Chelsea. He added to his tally two weeks later, with his club's second goal in a City defeat of Watford in the Premier League. Fernandinho started as City beat Liverpool in the 2016 Football League Cup Final. He scored to put City 1–0 up and then missed his penalty in the subsequent shootout after Liverpool equalised, but City still won the game.
Fernandinho's role in the club became so significant that the manager, Pep Guardiola, said: “If a team has three Fernandinhos, they would be champions. We have one, but he is fast, he is intelligent, he is strong in the air, he can play several positions. When he sees the space he will run there immediately. When you need to make a correction, you just need one player to challenge, and he is there.”
2017–22: Sustained domestic success, captaincy, and departure
Fernandinho continued to play a vital role for Manchester City in the 2017–18 season, helping them win their third Premier League title, and his second. He scored three goals and provided three assists in 30 appearances for the title winners. Fernandinho also appeared in the 2018 League Cup final for City when they defeated Arsenal 3–0, however he was substituted after 52 minutes because of an injury.
Following the departure of Yaya Touré, Fernandinho began the season as Manchester City's only natural defensive midfielder. The Brazilian played a vital role in the club's demanding title race against Liverpool, starting every Premier League match until a thigh injury prevented him from playing against Crystal Palace and Leicester City in December - two games that the team subsequently lost. However, Fernandinho was able to return to fitness in time for a season-defining home match against title rivals Liverpool. He was named the Man of the Match following a highly praised performance in midfield that helped City beat their rivals 2–1. Of the performance, the BBC Sport's Phil McNulty wrote, "At the heart of it all was the magnificent Fernandinho - a man seemingly irreplaceable among the City's stellar cast - as he delivered a masterclass of controlled midfield play to steady his side when required."
In February's EFL Cup final against Chelsea, Fernandinho picked up a muscle injury during extra time and, for the remainder of the season, struggled to remain fit. İlkay Gündoğan took his place in City's midfield for the majority of the remaining games, which saw the team go on a 14 game winning-streak to win the Premier League title on the final day of the season. Fernandinho ended the Premier League season with one goal and three assists in 29 appearances.
With Fernandinho's age becoming an area of concern for the club, Manchester City signed Rodri from Atlético Madrid over the summer. Because of the new midfield acquisition, Gündogan's excellent performances as a defensive midfielder at the end of the previous season, and central defender Vincent Kompany's departure, Guardiola planned to use Fernandinho as a back-up central defender throughout the season. An injury to first-choice centre-half Aymeric Laporte just 4 weeks into the season, however, meant that the manager had to rely on Fernandinho to lead his defensive line. He subsequently started nearly every Premier League match following Laporte's injury, with all of his appearances for the season being in central defence. On 28 January 2020, it was announced that he had signed a one-year contract extension with the club.
On 20 September 2020, Guardiola confirmed that Fernandinho was selected as the club's new captain, following the departure of David Silva. On 25 April 2021, Fernandinho lifted his first piece of silverware as Manchester City captain. He started the League Cup final, as City won 1–0 against Tottenham Hotspur to win the competition for the fourth year in a row. It was the 6th of Fernandinho’s career, making him the competition’s most decorated player. On 11 May 2021, local rivals Manchester United were defeated 2–1 by Leicester City, securing City’s fifth Premier league title and seventh First Division title overall. This was Fernandinho’s fourth Premier League title and his first as captain. On 29 June 2021, Fernandinho once again signed a new one-year deal with the Citizens.
On 12 February 2022, after an impressive performance against Norwich City, Jamie Redknapp referred to Fernandinho as the “number 1 defensive midfielder the Premier League has ever seen” whilst mentioning that he thought Fernandinho was a better player than the former Arsenal and France midfielder Patrick Vieira, former Manchester United legend Roy Keane and former Chelsea midfielder Claude Makélélé. On 9 March, Fernandinho made his 100th Champions League appearance in a 0–0 draw against Sporting CP.
On 12 April, Fernandinho announced that he would be leaving Manchester City at the end of the season.
Return to Athletico Paranaense
On 28 June 2022, Fernardinho returned to Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Athletico Paranaense.
International career
On 11 August 2011, Fernandinho made his first appearance for the Brazil national team in a 3–2 friendly defeat against Germany. He won four further caps during the 2011–12 season but did not appear in another Seleção squad until February 2014.
On 5 March 2014, Fernandinho scored his first international goal on his return to the Brazil team in a 5–0 win over South Africa. In May 2014, he was named in Brazil's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He made his tournament debut as a half-time substitute for Paulinho in the third game of the group stage, scoring the last goal in the 4–1 victory against Cameroon. He was then selected in the starting line-up for Brazil's penalty shootout defeat of Chile in the round of 16. Fernandinho played a full match against Colombia in the quarter-finals, and played the first 45 minutes before being taken off in Brazil's 1–7 loss to Germany in the semi-finals: Brazil's biggest ever defeat at the World Cup.
In May 2018 he was named in Tite's final 23 man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. On 6 July, Brazil were eliminated from the 2018 World Cup by Belgium in the quarter-finals, losing 2–1, with Fernandinho scoring an own goal for Belgium.
In May 2019, Fernandinho was included in Brazil's 23-man squad for the 2019 Copa América.
Style of play and impact
Fernandinho is well known for his pace and ability to shoot from long distances, as well as his energy, technique, movement, and work-rate. He has been described in the media as "a defensive midfielder with a box to box style of play, contributing in large part to the defense and the attack. With a powerful shot and great passing range, Fernandinho has played an important part in breaking up opposition attacks and creating goal scoring opportunities". Jonathan Wilson, when writing for The Guardian in 2013, described Fernandinho as a holding midfielder who can "make tackles," and who is "capable of regaining the ball," while also noting that he frequently functioned "as the more "creative player alongside a destroyer." However, he also clarified that while "Fernandinho is a fine long passer, [...] he is not an Alonso or an Andrea Pirlo type; he is not a regista. Rather he likes to make forward surges, just as Touré does, and, as he showed against Arsenal on Saturday, is more than capable of scoring goals when chances present themselves." As such, he labelled Fernandinho as a "carrier" or "surger," namely "a player capable of making late runs or carrying the ball at his feet." Manchester City manager Pep Guardiola has praised Fernandinho for his intelligence, versatility, ability in the air, and wide range of skills, noting that "Fernandinho can do everything," also citing his important role in the club's successes. Due to a series of injuries to the Manchester City first team's defensive players, Guardiola also deployed Fernandinho as a centre-back on occasion during the 2019–20 season, a position in which he received praise in the media for his performances.
The importance and magnitude of work played by Fernandinho in Manchester City also becomes apparent in his absence. The three defeats in December 2018 in the Premier League were mostly attributed to the fact Fernandinho didn't play due to injury. Based on the statistics from around that time, it was found that City won 10% more games when Fernandinho was in the starting line-up, and the main reason being his ability to both destroy a rival's attack, and create new opportunities for his team through his long-distance passes.
Personal life
Fernandinho is married and has one son, Davi, born on 5 March 2010, and a daughter, Mariana, born on 28 January 2017. Aside from his native Portuguese, Fernandinho reportedly speaks Russian, Italian, Spanish and English. Fernandinho is a devout Christian; concerning his personal faith, he has stated: "Jesus is my biggest inspiration."
Career statistics
Club
International
As of match played 18 June 2019. Scores and results list Brazil's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Fernandinho goal.
Honours
Athletico Paranaense
Campeonato Paranaense: 2005, 2023
Copa Libertadores runner-up: 2005, 2022
Shakhtar Donetsk
Vyshcha Liha/Ukrainian Premier League: 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13
Ukrainian Cup: 2007–08, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13
Ukrainian Super Cup: 2008, 2012
UEFA Cup: 2008–09
Manchester City
Premier League: 2013–14, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2020–21, 2021–22
Football League Cup/EFL Cup: 2013–14, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21
FA Community Shield: 2018
UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2020–21
Brazil U20
FIFA World Youth Championship: 2003
Brazil
Copa América: 2019
Individual
Top Player of the Ukrainian Premier League: 2007–08
PFA Team of the Year: 2018–19 Premier League
Manchester City Goal of the Season: 2017–18
Premier League Most Powerful Goal of the Season: 2021–22
References
External links
Fernandinho profile at Club Athletico Paranaense website
1985 births
Living people
Footballers from Londrina
Brazilian men's footballers
Brazil men's under-20 international footballers
Brazil men's international footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Club Athletico Paranaense players
FC Shakhtar Donetsk players
UEFA Cup winning players
Manchester City F.C. players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
Ukrainian Premier League players
Premier League players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
2015 Copa América players
2018 FIFA World Cup players
2019 Copa América players
Copa América-winning players
Brazilian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Ukraine
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in England
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Ukraine
Brazilian Christians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern%20Wildcats
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Northwestern Wildcats
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The Northwestern Wildcats are the athletic teams that represent Northwestern University, located in Evanston, Illinois. Northwestern is a founding member of the Big Ten Conference and the only private university in the conference. Northwestern has eight men's and eleven women's NCAA Division I sports teams and is marketed as "Chicago's Big Ten Team". The mascot is Willie the Wildcat.
History
Northwestern is a charter member of the Big Ten Conference and has been the only private university in the conference since the University of Chicago left in 1946. With approximately 8,000 undergraduate students, it is the smallest school in the Big Ten.
Currently, Northwestern fields 19 intercollegiate athletic teams (8 men's and 11 women's) in addition to numerous club sports. Recent success by the Wildcats includes: Northwestern Football's bowl game victories (2016-2018 and 2020) and its 2018 and 2020 Big Ten West title; Women's Basketball winning the 2020 Big Ten regular season championship; Women's Lacrosse winning the 2019 and 2021 Big Ten tournament title and 2021 Big Ten Regular Season title; Women's Field Hockey winning the 2021 NCAA tournament title; Softball earning the 2019 and 2022 NCAA Regional Championship in Evanston and reaching the 2022 Women's College World Series; Wrestling's Sebastian Rivera winning an individual Big Ten championship in 2019 and Ryan Deakin winning an individual NCAA championship in 2022; Fencing claiming multiple Midwest Fencing Conference championships in 2018, 2019 and 2021; Women's Tennis securing the 2018 Big Ten regular season crown; and Women's Diver Olivia Rosendahl collecting individual NCAA championships in both 2018 and 2019.
Mascot
The Northwestern Athletics' mascot is Willie the Wildcat. However, the team's first mascot was a live, caged bear cub from the Lincoln Park Zoo named Furpaw. In fall 1923, Furpaw was driven to the playing field to greet the fans before each game. After a losing season, the team decided that Furpaw was the harbinger of bad luck and Willie made his debut ten years later in 1933. Willie initially debuted as a logo, coming to life later in 1947, when members of the Alpha Delta fraternity dressed up as him during the Homecoming parade. Now, Willie attends at least one event of each varsity sport throughout the year and dons replica uniforms whenever possible.
Origin of the name
Northwestern's athletic teams are nicknamed the Wildcats. Before 1924, they were known as "The Purple" and unofficially as "The Fighting Methodists." The name Wildcats was bestowed upon the university in 1924 by Wallace Abbey, a writer for the Chicago Daily Tribune who wrote that even in a loss to the University of Chicago, "Football players had not come down from Evanston; wildcats would be a name better suited to Coach Glenn Thistletwaite's boys." The team was also referred to in the article as "a Purple wall of wildcats." The name was so popular that university board members made "Wildcats" the official nickname just months later. In 1972, the student body voted to change the official nickname from "Wildcats" to "Purple Haze" but the new name never stuck.
Traditions
The Northwestern Wildcats have several traditions relating to its athletics teams including the official chant, "Go U! NU!” and the Wildcats' fight song, "Go U! Northwestern!” A secondary fight song is "Rise Northwestern (Push on Song),” the final 4-measure tag (ending with a shouted "Go 'Cats!”) of which is often played after first downs. The alma mater is played by the Marching Band and sung by fans, students, and the team after each game. Victories by the football team are celebrated by lighting the face of the clock tower on south campus in Northwestern purple.
In addition, Northwestern Football honors former head coach Randy Walker with a pregame "Walk with Us" event before each home football game where the band, cheerleaders, and fans greet the team as they arrive to Ryan Field and head to the locker room. Additionally, the Northwestern Wildcats share an intrastate rivalry with the Illinois Fighting Illini and its football programs play for the Land of Lincoln Trophy after retiring the Sweet Sioux Tomahawk Trophy in 2008.
Athletics Department
Leadership
Northwestern Athletics, also known as the Northwestern University Department of Athletics and Recreation, is led by Combe Family Vice President for Athletics and Recreation, Dr. James J. (Jim) Phillips. Phillips became Northwestern's 21st director of intercollegiate athletics and recreation in April 2008. Phillips has earned several awards and appointments including the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) Under Armour Athletic Director of the Year in both 2012 and 2016, the 2018 Sports Business Journal Athletic Director of the Year, and Vice Chair of the 2020–21 NCAA Men's Basketball Selection Committee, expected to chair the committee in the following year. Phillips leads the department with focus on providing student-athletes with a "world-class experience" that enables them to thrive academically, socially, and athletically.
Under Phillips' leadership, Northwestern student-athletes have achieved impressive academic feats. Northwestern scored a 98-percent in the latest Graduation Success Rate (GSR), a figure which led all FBS schools for the second consecutive year. The Wildcats have scored a 96-percent or higher in every year that GSR data has been released, finishing in the top four among FBS schools all 15 years. Additionally, Phillips oversaw the creation of the department's NU for Life program, providing student-athletes with professional development opportunities and resources, as well as the department's first-ever community relations position, dedicated to connecting the department with the community. Moreover, Northwestern Athletics launched the ongoing "Chicago's Big Ten Team" campaign and the first master facility plan study with Phillips at the helm.
Phillips has a bachelor's degree from the University of Illinois, a master's degree in education from Arizona State University, and a PhD in educational administration from the University of Tennessee.
In January 2021, Phillips left Northwestern to become the commissioner of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Mike Polisky, Northwestern's deputy athletic director for external affairs since 2010, was promoted to replace Phillips. On May 12, 2021, amidst much controversy and protest from students and other members of the Northwestern community, Polisky stepped down. Schapiro named Northwestern linguistics professor Robert Gundlach as interim AD.
Under Armour Partnership
In December 2011, Northwestern University announced a multiyear partnership with Under Armour as its official outfitter of the university's athletic program. Under Armour began outfitting the Northwestern Wildcats in 2012–13 and the partnership marked Under Armour's first with a Big Ten team. Now, Northwestern is one of three Big Ten teams sporting Under Armour gear.
Since the partnership began, the Wildcats have introduced a number of exclusive uniform designs, including its hallmark Gothic uniforms for several sports (debuted in 2014 with football), its Gothic Ice line in 2020 for women's lacrosse and softball, as well as the "By the Players" uniforms for the men's basketball program to debut on Senior Day each season. In addition, the football program's CFB 150th Anniversary uniforms, worn in 2019, earned the first place spot on Uniswag's weekly countdown that features the Top 10 college football uniforms each week.
Chicago's Big Ten Team
In 2010, Northwestern Athletics launched its first-ever wide-ranging marketing campaign in department history. The ongoing "Chicago's Big Ten Team" campaign is intended to increase the Wildcats' presence around Chicago and raise local and regional awareness of Northwestern University. The Northwestern Wildcats reside in the city of Evanston and have a campus in Chicago along Lake Michigan. Northwestern remains the only Division I FBS institution in the Chicago area.
Over the last several years, the Northwestern Wildcats have increased their presence in the Chicago area through relationships with Chicago sports teams and venues. Under Phillips' direction, Northwestern sports programs have hosted games at U.S. Cellular Field (home of the Chicago White Sox) and Wrigley Field (home of the Chicago Cubs), in addition to partnering with the White Sox, Cubs, Blackhawks, and Arlington Park to host Northwestern-themed promotional days throughout the year.
The Foundation
Northwestern Athletics' Studio N debuted The Foundation in 2015. It includes "exclusive access" inside team meetings and road trips in addition to hearing from the coaches and players on the sidelines and in the locker room. The Foundation won the Chicago/Midwest Regional Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sports Programs – Program Series in December 2017 and has earned multiple NACDA/SVG College Sports Video awards.
"The Foundation: Expect Victory" was an eight-episode series that reviewed Northwestern Football's run to the 1995 Big Ten Championship and Rose Bowl game. The series aired on Wednesdays during fall 2020 on NBC Sports Chicago and each episode was released online after each airing.
Sports sponsored
Football
The Northwestern Wildcats football team has evidence of organization as early as 1876, but evidence confirms that Northwestern football was played in 1882 as a group of Northwestern men played a "football heat" against a group of Lake Forest men. The Wildcats have since achieved an all-time high rank of No. 1 during the 1936 and 1962 seasons, which has thus far not been duplicated. The team plays home games at Ryan Field in Evanston, Illinois.
Northwestern Football has played in a total of 16 bowl games, including 10 appearances in just 10 seasons between 2008 and 2020. The Wildcats won three consecutive bowl games in 2016–18. Despite the Wildcats challenging season in 2019, the 2020 season marked their most recent seasons of success. In 2020, the Wildcats were Big Ten West Champions and bowl game champions. In addition, defensive Coordinator, Mike Hankwitz, who has been with Northwestern Football since 2008, received his 400 career win on January 1, 2021. Perhaps the most memorable Northwestern Football season was in 1995 as the Wildcats won the Big Ten Championship and saw their first Rose Bowl berth in nearly 50 years. Despite recent success, the Wildcats still hold the record for the longest losing streak in Division I-A football with 34 consecutive losses between 1979 and 1982.
Following the sudden death of football coach Randy Walker in 2006, 31-year-old and former All-American Northwestern linebacker Pat Fitzgerald assumed the position becoming the youngest Division I FBS coach at the time. Fitzgerald is already the second-longest tenured Big Ten head coach, the sixth-longest tenured head coach in Division 1 Football Bowl Subdivision and has been head coach for the Wildcats since 2011. The Wildcats earned their first-ever Big Ten West title and berth in the Big Ten Championship game in 2018. Fitzgerald was named the consensus Big Ten Coach of the Year and a finalist for the 2018 Dodd Trophy that season. Most recently, Fitzgerald earned the 2020 Dodd Trophy Coach of the Year. On October 24, 2020, Fitzgerald recorded his 100th career win in a victory over Maryland. His overall record is 106–81.
Former Wildcats active in the National Football League going into the 2020 season include Ibraheim Campbell, Austin Carr, Garrett Dickerson, Joe Gaziano, Nate Hall, Blake Hance, Montre Hartage, Justin Jackson, Joe Jones, Tyler Lancaster, Dean Lowry, Sherrick McManis, Ifeadi Odenigbo, Trevor Siemian, Clayton Thorson, Dan Vitale, and Anthony Walker, Jr.
Men's Basketball
The Wildcats men's basketball team is under the direction of Sullivan-Ubben Head Men's Basketball Coach Chris Collins, a role that he's been in since 2013. Collins led the Wildcats to heights never before reached during the 2016–17 season when the program saw a school record 24 wins and its first NCAA tournament berth and victory in program history. Collins was named as one of four finalists for the Naismith Men's Coach of the Year award in 2017.
The Wildcats single national championship is from 1931, retro-picked by the Helms Athletic Foundation and, later, by the Premo-Porrett Power Poll. Since then, the Wildcats have played in the National Invitation Tournament seven times, most recently in 2012.
The men's basketball program was the first to open the renovated Welsh-Ryan Arena on November 2, 2018, in an exhibition game against McKendree. The state-of-the-art facility was built to be the most accessible arena in college athletics and seats 7,039. The team is cheered on by the Wildside student section.
Women's Basketball
The Northwestern women's basketball team is led by Joe McKeown (pronounced Mick-Q-ann), a role that he's been in since 2008. Most recently, McKeown led his Wildcats team to a regular season Big Ten title in the 2019–20 season, tying the program's best 26 wins in a single season. McKeown earned his 700th career win on December 20, 2019. McKeown previously coached at George Washington. He led the Colonials to 14 regular season or postseason Atlantic 10 titles. McKeown is a native of Philadelphia and was inducted into the Father Judge High School Hall of Fame in 1999.
In 2017, the Wildcats saw its highest draft pick in program history with Nia Coffey, selected fifth overall by the San Antonio Stars. The first player drafted in program history was Amy Jaeschke in 2011, selected 27th overall by the Chicago Sky.
Women's lacrosse
Northwestern lacrosse has won the national championship in women's lacrosse five straight times, from 2005 to 2009, and then again in 2011 and 2012, giving them 7 championships in 8 years. In 2007, the team joined Maryland as the only other school to three-peat. The run started in 2005, when the team enjoyed a perfect season and defeated many long-established east-coast schools after only five years as a varsity sport to capture the school's first national championship since 1941. In doing so, it became the westernmost institution to ever win the title. Soon after, the team made national news when members appeared in a White House photo with President Bush wearing thong sandals, or flip-flops, dubbed as the "White House flip-flop flap." The 2009 season also was an undefeated run. In their five consecutive championship seasons, the Wildcats have a 106–3 record. The Wildcats are led by head coach Kelly Amonte-Hiller, a role that she's been in since 2002. Most recently, the Wildcats won their first ever Big Ten Championship in 2019, won their first ever Big Ten regular season championship in 2021, and repeated as national champions for an 8th time in 2023.
Fencing
The Northwestern Fencing program competes in the Central Collegiate Conference and has a tenured history of success. Zach Moss is the programs head coach, a role that he's been in since 2016. Following a historic 2017–18 season, Moss was named the Midwest Fencing Conference Coach of the Year as the Wildcats captured their fifth-ever conference championship and finished with three All-Americans at the NCAA Championships. Additionally, the team set the program record for most wins in a season with 47 and the program record for longest win streak at 25.
The 2018–19 season saw more milestones for the Wildcats including a 39–5 record, an 11th-place finish at the NCAA Championships, and a second consecutive conference championship. The Wildcats achieved the highest ranking in program history during the season at second in the country and amassed 39 victories at the conference championships.
Field Hockey
The Northwestern Field Hockey team plays its home games at Lakeside Field, adjacent to Lanny and Sharon Martin Stadium on the lakefront. The Wildcats are led by head coach Tracey Fuchs, a role that she's been in since 2009. Fuchs has led the Wildcats to two Big Ten titles and three NCAA tournament appearances. Under Fuchs' direction, the Wildcats have posted winning seasons in 10 of her 11 seasons.
The Northwestern Wildcats field hockey team has gathered 6 regular season Big Ten titles and 1 tournament title in addition to 14 NCAA tournament appearances. In 2021, the team won the NCAA tournament, followed by a championship game appearance in 2022.
Wrestling
The Northwestern Wildcats wrestling program hosts home matches in Welsh-Ryan Arena and practices in the Ken Kraft Wrestling Room, located in Anderson Hall. The Wildcats are led by Matt Storniolo, a role that he's been in since 2016. The Wildcats have had 40 Big Ten individual champions in addition to 10 NCAA individual champions and 75+ All-Americans.
Golf
The men's golf team has won eight Big Ten Conference championships: 1925, 1937, 1939, 1948, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2006. They have twice placed second in the NCAA Championships: 1939, 1945.
Luke Donald won the NCAA Individual Championship in 1999. He was Big Ten Conference Player of the year in 1999, and David Merkow was named the same in 2006. Donald was ranked number 1 in the Official World Golf Ranking for 56 weeks in 2011 and 2012. The four best career stroke averages in school history are held by Luke Donald, Tom Johnson, Jess Daley, and David Lipsky.
Jane Weiller played golf for the school. In 1946 and 1957, Phyllis Otto and Mariam Bailey, respectively, won the women's individual intercollegiate golf championship (an event conducted by the Division of Girls' and Women's Sports (DGWS) – which later evolved into the current NCAA women's golf championship).
Soccer
The men's and women's soccer teams play home games at Lanny and Sharon Martin Stadium, opened in March 2016 and named to honor the generosity and leadership of Trustee J. Landis Martin and Sharon Martin. The stadium is also home to the lacrosse program.
The men's soccer program is currently led by Tim Lenahan, a role that he's been in since 2001. Lenahan surpassed a career milestone of 300 career wins on September 24, 2019, with a come-from-behind overtime victory over the UIC Flames. Lenahan is the winningest coach in Northwestern Men's Soccer history and is one of only two active Big Ten coaches with more than 300 wins. The men's soccer program has won two regular season Big Ten titles (2011, 2012) and 1 Big Ten tournament title (2011). Tyler Miller is the program's only professional Wildcat, currently playing with Minnesota United as goalkeeper.
The women's soccer program is led by Michael Moynihan, a role that he's been in since 2009. The program has 1 regular season Big Ten title (2016) and six NCAA tournament appearances, including four in the last five seasons. Three Wildcats were drafted in the 2019 NWSL College Draft: Kayla Sharples (Chicago Red Stars), Marisa Viggiano (Orlando Pride), and Hannah Davison (Chicago Red Stars).
Softball
The Northwestern softball program is led by head coach Kate Drohan, a role that she's been in since 2002. Kate Drohan leads the Wildcats with her twin sister, Caryl Drohan, the program's associate head coach.
After 19 seasons, Kate Drohan's career record includes a five-year stretch from 2005 to 2009 in which Northwestern compiled a record of 215–77, reached the Super Regional round of the NCAA tournament four times, and became the first private school in NCAA history to advance to the WCWS semifinals in consecutive years. Overall, Northwestern under Drohan has made 13 NCAA tournament appearances and has claimed five NCAA Regional titles, including its most recent in 2019 as the Wildcats hosted the Evanston Regional for the first time in 11 years. Drohan was named Big Ten Coach of the Year for the third time in her career in 2019 after leading the Wildcats to a 47–13 overall record, 21–2 in Big Ten play, collecting the most conference wins in program history and the program's longest winning streak since 1985 of 20 games. Drohan earned her 600th career win on April 9, 2019, with a 3–1 victory over Notre Dame. Most recently on March 27, 2021, the Drohans twin coaches became Northwestern softball's all-time win leaders with their 641st victory against Wisconsin.
The Northwestern softball program began in 1976 and currently competes at Sharon J. Drysdale Field, previously known as Anderson Field. The ballpark was renamed for NFCA Hall of Fame mentor Sharon J. Drysdale upon her retirement in 2001. Drysdale served as the Wildcats' head coach for 23 seasons and amassed a 640–512–3 record.
Swimming and Diving
In June 2020, Northwestern Athletics elevated Katie Robinson to Director of Swimming and Diving, making her the second female to hold the position overseeing both men's and women's programs in the Power-5 conferences.
Northwestern Swimming and Diving has earned tremendous success over time. Three-time All-American Olivia Rosendahl won the NCAA Women's Platform Diving championship in both 2017 and 2018, and the Wildcats have been represented in each of the last three Summer Olympic Games, most recently by swimmers Valerie Gruest-Slowing and Jordan Wilimovsky in Rio in 2016. In the summer before his senior season, Wilimovsky became the first American to compete in both indoor and outdoor swimming events in the same Olympics. In 2015, Wilimovsky became the world champion in 10 km water race. Matt Grevers, a Northwestern alum, won two gold medals (100-meter backstroke, 400-meter medley relay) and a silver medal (400-meter freestyle relay) at the 2012 London Olympic Games. At the 1924 Paris Olympic Games, four Northwestern alums won gold medals- Ralph Breyer (4 x 200-meter freestyle relay), Sybil Bauer (100-meter backstroke), Richard Howell (4 x 200-meter freestyle relay) and Robert "Bob" Skelton (200-meter breaststroke). At the Stockholm 1912 Olympic Games, Northwestern alum, Kenneth Huszagh, won a silver medal (4 x 200-meter freestyle relay) and a bronze medal (100-meter freestyle). During the Melbourne 1956 Olympic Games, Northwestern alum, Nancy Simons Peterson won a silver medal in the 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay event. At the Los Angeles 1932 Olympic Games, Northwestern alum, Albert Schwartz won a bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle event.
In the NCAA Men's Swimming and Diving Championships held from 1924 through 1936, no team points were officially awarded. Northwestern won four unofficial national team championships during these years, which were proclaimed in the newspapers of the time, second only to Michigan's seven.
1924 – Northwestern
1929 – Northwestern
1930 – Northwestern
1933 – Northwestern
Tennis
The women's and men's tennis programs compete indoors at Combe Tennis Center within the Henry Crown Sports Pavilion and outdoors at the Vandy Christie Tennis Center located along Sheridan Road. Northwestern Tennis matches are free to attend and typically held in the spring.
The women's tennis program is led by head coach Claire Pollard, a role that she's been in since 1999. Pollard has transformed the program into a national powerhouse. Pollard has led the Wildcats to the NCAA tournament 21 consecutive times, the fifth-longest streak by an active head coach at the same program. The Wildcats have earned 15 Big Ten regular season titles and 17 Big Ten tournament titles, including a string of 16-straight conference titles through 2014. Northwestern has also had 2 NCAA doubles championships in 1997 and 2006.
Head coach Arvid Swan currently leads the Wildcats men's tennis program. Swan guided Northwestern to six consecutive NCAA appearances, beginning in 2009, and the program claims 9 Big Ten titles as well as 16 NCAA appearances.
Baseball
The Northwestern Baseball program is led by head coach Spencer Allen, a role that he's been since 2015. Since 1943, Rocky and Berenice Miller Park has been the home stadium to this team. This program has made 1 NCAA appearance in 1957.
Cross Country
The Northwestern Cross Country only has a women's program. This team is led by recently joined head coach, Jill Miller. Miller attended Wake Forest University and was a four-time NCAA Cross Country Championships qualifier and was part of the program's first Atlantic Coach Conference title in 2002.
Women's Volleyball
The Northwestern Volleyball program is coached by Shane Davis, a role that he's been in since 2015. The program plays their home games at the renovated Welsh-Ryan Arena.
Facilities
Lakefront Facilities
Walter Athletics Center
The Walter Athletics Center is the last in a series of new lakefront athletics and recreation facilities to be developed during We Will. The Campaign for Northwestern. Walter Athletics Center is a four-story, state-of-the-art development center located on the north end of the Evanston campus, structurally connected to Ryan Fieldhouse, the Henry Crown Sports Pavilion, and the North Parking Garage. The facility is named in honor of University Trustee Mark R. Walter and Kimbra D. Walter.
The transformational multi-purpose facility includes spaces for academic and professional development, nutrition and dining, sports performance, sports medicine and athletic training, and locker rooms for more than 500 Northwestern student-athletes. The Walter Athletics Center allows for plenty of natural light and has unobstructed views of Lake Michigan, the Chicago skyline, and other Northwestern facilities including Martin Stadium and Lakeside Field.
Ryan Fieldhouse and Wilson Field
Ryan Fieldhouse and Wilson Field opened in April 2018. Northwestern Lacrosse hosts a portion of its home schedule inside Ryan Fieldhouse, which is named for University Trustee Patrick G. Ryan and his wife, Shirley.
Ryan Fieldhouse's dome shape is based on football punting and kicking trajectories, with the peak of the dome reaching 87 feet above the surface of Wilson Field, named for Trustee Steve Wilson and his wife, Sue. Wilson Field is striped for NCAA regulation football, soccer, and lacrosse, with movable bleacher seating and an automated netting system designed to subdivide the space for use by multiple groups.
Ryan Fieldhouse also features a 44-foot-tall glass façade and several sports performance spaces for football and for Olympic sports.
Lanny and Sharon Martin Stadium
Lanny and Sharon Martin Stadium is an outdoor athletics and recreation facility, home of Northwestern soccer and lacrosse games. Martin Stadium underwent renovations and reopened in March 2016 with a new turf field, lighting upgrades, and new video equipment. The facility is named to honor Trustee J. Landis Martin and Sharon Martin. The stadium has views of the Chicago skyline and is adjacent to Lakeside Field (to the west) and Hutcheson Field (to the south).
Chap and Ethel Hutcheson Field
Used primarily as an athletics and recreation practice field, Chap and Ethel Hutcheson Field is located just south of Martin Stadium and features a turf surface lined for NCAA regulation football.
Lakeside Field
Lakeside Field was constructed in 1997 and is "one of the premier venues for field hockey in the country". The stadium is located along the shore of Lake Michigan and sits to the west of Martin Stadium and to the north of the Kellogg Global Hub building. Lakeside Field underwent renovations in 2015 and is home to Northwestern Field Hockey.
Henry Crown Sports Pavilion
The Henry Crown Sports Pavilion is located along Campus Drive and is the main recreation facility on campus. The 95,000 square foot facility includes the Norris Aquatics Center and the Combe Tennis Center while also being structurally connected to Ryan Fieldhouse, the Walter Athletics Center, and the North Parking Garage. The recreation facility includes basketball, swimming, squash, racquetball, tennis, group exercise, cycling, weight lifting, and general cardio along with exercise-related activities and programs.
The Henry Crown Sports Pavilion was renovated in 2014 to include an additional 30,000 square feet, new studio space, and new exercise equipment. Later, three new basketball courts, a new three-lane jogging track, and new cardio machines were added in 2018.
Norris Aquatics Center
Inside the Henry Crown Sports Pavilion, the Norris Aquatics Center is home to Northwestern Swimming and Diving and is the venue for all home meets. The center, named for Dellora A. and Lester J. Norris, includes a 750,000-gallon, 50-meter-by-25-yard pool with movable walls that run on a track system, enabling the pool to be custom-fitted. The facility also includes a heat recycling system, an electronic scoreboard, and seating for 800 spectators.
Combe Tennis Center
Also within the Henry Crown Sports Pavilion, the Combe Tennis Center is home to Northwestern Tennis for indoor matches and includes six courts with electronic scoreboards and a main team scoreboard. The facility also includes spectator seating on a balcony overlooking the courts with unobstructed views of each match. In 2020, the athletics and recreation facility underwent renovations to its ceiling and lighting. The facility is named for former Northwestern tennis player Ivan Combe, who played from 1931 to 1933. The ITA named the Combe Tennis Center the 2002 Outstanding Facility.
Patten Gymnasium
Patten Gymnasium is a historic, multi-purpose facility located on Northwestern's main campus that is home to the Northwestern Fencing program and Gleacher Golf Center.
The Gleacher Golf Center
In November 2020, the Gleacher Golf Center opened as a complete renovation of the existing space inside Patten Gymnasium for the golf programs. Named for University Trustee Eric J. Gleacher and Paula Gleacher, the new, on-campus facility is one of the country's finest and includes a 5,400-square-foot short-game and putting area with raised ceilings, a state-of-the-art training area, a digitally-adjustable putting platform, new locker rooms, and a student-athlete lounge with a dedicated study area, full kitchen, and sports performance hub. The golf programs also practice at the Luke Donald Outdoor Practice Facility, unveiled in fall 2006.
Vandy Cristie Tennis Center
The Vandy Christie Tennis Center was dedicated in October 1994 and includes 15 courts, a pro shop, and permanent seating for spectators. In 2013, the facility was enhanced with a main scoreboard, six individual scoreboards, and six 27-foot-long bleachers with chairbacks. The facility is home of Northwestern Tennis for outdoor matches and is located on Sheridan Road.
Ryan Field Campus Facilities
Ryan Field
Ryan Field is the home of Northwestern Football and is located along Central Street.
Welsh-Ryan Arena
Welsh-Ryan Arena is home of Northwestern Men's and Women's Basketball, Wrestling, and Volleyball. The arena underwent renovations and opened in November 2018 as one of the nation's leading competition facilities.
Trienens Performance Center
Along with renovations to Welsh-Ryan Arena, Northwestern Athletics redesigned the former home to Northwestern Football offices and practice space into what is now the Trienens Performance Center, a state-of-the-art practice facility for men's and women's basketball, volleyball, softball, and baseball. The building opened in November 2019 and includes a three-court fieldhouse, turf field and practice area, expanded performance nutrition hub, offices for men's and women's basketball staff, locker rooms, sports medicine and athletic training amenities, and a weight room. The new practice facility is named for University Trustee Howard J. Trienens. Complete virtual tour of the facility on YouTube.
Rocky and Berenice Miller Park
The home of Northwestern Baseball is Rocky and Berenice Miller Park, located along Ashland Avenue near Welsh-Ryan Arena and the West Lot.
Sharon J. Drysdale Field
The Wildcats softball team plays home games at Sharon J. Drysdale Field, located immediately east of Welsh-Ryan Arena. The facility, formerly known as Anderson Field, was renamed in 2011 to honor the legendary Sharon J. Drysdale who coached the Wildcats for 23 seasons. Drysdale Field features an intimate grandstand seating area in addition to seating located beyond right field. Most recently, the facility hosted the 2019 NCAA Evanston Regional for the first time in 11 years. The facility has earned a number of awards including the 2008 Stabilizer Solutions/NFCA Field Maintenance Award.
In 2006, the facility received new outfield turf and, in 2007, underwent final renovation phases that included sunken dugouts, permanent seating, a new game operations booth, and a plaza down the third-base line. Prior to the 2016 season, the field was again completely resurfaced with a new infield installation and fresh outfield turf. Drysdale Field and Ryan Field are the only two Northwestern Athletics competition facilities that feature natural grass.
Ken Kraft Wrestling Room
The Ken Kraft Wrestling Room is located on the bottom floor of Anderson Hall, located along Central Street northeast of Ryan Field, and is the primary practice facility for Northwestern Wrestling. The room features three 42’x42' mats as well as coaching offices and locker rooms.
The practice facility is named in honor of Ken Kraft for his 48 years of involvement with the program. Kraft was a four-year member of the Wildcats wrestling squad and the program's head coach for 22 years. In 2004, Kraft retired after spending 51 years at Northwestern and was inducted into the Northwestern Athletic Hall of Fame in 2003.
Rivalries
Illinois Fighting Illini
Northwestern's most prominent rivalry is with their Big Ten foe, the University of Illinois. The rivalry runs deep due to the schools' proximity to each other, history, and the Land of Lincoln Trophy between the football programs. The Land of Lincoln Trophy—popularly known as "The Hat" for its resemblance to and design modeled after Abraham Lincoln's hat—replaced the former football rivalry trophy, the Sweet Sioux Tomahawk Trophy. The Sweet Sioux was retired in 2008 after 64 seasons and the Land of Lincoln debuted the year following. Illinois leads the all-time series, 55-53-5, but Northwestern leads the Land of Lincoln Trophy series, 8–3, including victories in the last five consecutive meetings. The rivalry's first recorded game was in 1892 and resulted in a tie, 16-16.
University of Michigan Wolverines
In February 2021, the football programs at Northwestern and the University of Michigan announced a new rivalry trophy called the George Jewett Trophy. The game honors George Jewett, the first Black player in Big Ten history, who played football for both universities in the 1890s. The game is the first trophy in Football Bowl Subdivision history to be named for a Black player.
Championships
Conference Championships
Football: 8 conference titles (1903, 1926, 1930, 1931, 1936, 1995, 1996, 2000), 2 division titles (2018, 2020)
Baseball: 2 regular season (1940, 1957)
Men's Basketball: 2 regular season (1931, 1933)
Women's Basketball: 2 regular season (1990, 2020)
Women's Fencing: 2 team Big Ten titles (1977, 1978), 6 team MFC titles (1999, 2000, 2001, 2016, 2018, 2019), 13 individual MFC titles
MFC Weapon titles: 8 épée, 6 foil, 6 sabre, 1 Central Collegiate Conference title (2021)
Field Hockey: 6 regular season (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1994, 2013), 1 tournament (2014)
Men's Golf: 8 team (1925, 1937, 1939, 1948, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2006), 13 medalists
Women's Golf: 3 team (2013, 2015, 2016), 3 medalists
Women's Lacrosse: 2 Big Ten Conference regular season (2021, 2023), 3 Big Ten tournaments (2019, 2021, 2023), 6 American Lacrosse Conference tournament (2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013),8 American Lacrosse Conference regular season (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013)
Men's Soccer: 2 regular season (2011, 2012), 1 tournament (2011)
Women's Soccer: 1 regular season (2016)
Softball: 9 regular season (1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 2006, 2008, 2022, 2023)
Men's Swimming and Diving: 10 team (1914, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1920, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1930), 111 individual, 84 individual swimming, 19 relay swimming, 8 diving
Women's Swimming and Diving: 57 individual (38 individual swimming, 16 relay swimming, 2 diving)
Men's Tennis: 9 team (1936, 1940, 1942, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1963, 1990)
Women's Tennis: 15 regular season (1985, 1986, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2012, 2018) (most in the Big Ten), 17 tournament (1985, 1986, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014) (most in the Big Ten)
Women's Volleyball: 2 regular season (1983, 1984)
Wrestling: 40 individual
National Championships
NCAA championships - Team and Individual
Men's Fencing (now inactive): 1 team (1941), 1 individual (Edward McNamara in 1941)
Men's Golf: 1 individual (Luke Donald in 1999)
Women's Lacrosse: 8 team (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2023)
Field Hockey: 1 team (2021)
Men's Swimming and Diving: 31 individual/relay
Women's Swimming and Diving: 2 individual (Olivia Rosendahl in 2017 and 2018)
Women's Tennis: 2 doubles (1997, 2006)
Men's Outdoor Track and Field (now inactive): 12 individual
Wrestling: 10 individual
NCAA championship appearances
Baseball: 1 appearance
Men's Basketball: 1 appearance
Women's Basketball: 7 appearances
Women's Fencing: 30 appearances
Field Hockey: 14 appearances
Women's Golf: 8 appearances
Women's Lacrosse: 20 appearances
Men's Soccer: 9 appearances
Women's Soccer: 6 appearances
Women's Softball: 18 tournament appearances, 5 WCWS appearances
Men's Swimming and Diving: 35 appearances
Women's Swimming and Diving: 27 appearances
Men's Tennis: 16 appearances
Women's Tennis: 29 appearances
Men's Outdoor Track and Field (now inactive): 21 appearances
Women's Volleyball: 8 appearances
Wrestling: 56 appearances
Other national team championships
National team titles that were not bestowed by the NCAA (4 are unofficial NCAA championships):
Men's Swimming and Diving (4): 1924, 1929, 1930, 1933
Men's basketball (1): 1931 (retroactive selection by Helms Athletic Foundation and Premo-Porretta Power Poll)
See also:
List of Big Ten Conference National Championships
List of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships
Notable alumni
Baseball
Jerry Doggett, former broadcaster for the Los Angeles Dodgers
Eddie Einhorn (J.D. 1960), vice chairman of the Chicago White Sox
Luke Farrell, pitcher for the Texas Rangers
Joe Girardi, former baseball player and New York Yankees manager, former manager of the Florida Marlins and current TV analyst
J. A. Happ, baseball player pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)
Mike Huff, former baseball player
Eric Jokisch, pitcher for the Kiwoom Heroes of the KBO
George Kontos, 2012 World Series champion with the San Francisco Giants
Mike Koplove, Major League Baseball pitcher
Kenesaw Mountain Landis (J.D. 1891), first Commissioner of Baseball
Mark Loretta, baseball player (Milwaukee Brewers, Boston Red Sox, San Diego Padres, Los Angeles Dodgers)
Gene Oliver, Baseball player
Jerry Reinsdorf, owner of the Chicago White Sox and Chicago Bulls
Mark Walter, founder and CEO of Guggenheim Partners, chairman of the Los Angeles Dodgers
Basketball
Don Adams, former NBA and ABA player
Jim Burns, former NBA and ABA player
Veronica Burton, WNBA player
Nia Coffey, WNBA player
Drew Crawford (born 1990), basketball player who last played for Bnei Herzliya of the Israeli Ligat HaAl
Frank Ehmann, All-American basketball player
Evan Eschmeyer, former basketball player (New Jersey Nets)
Jake Fendley, former NBA player for the Fort Wayne Pistons
Glen Grunwald (J.D. 1984), executive for the New York Knicks
Willie Jones, former NBA player
Vic Law, NBA player for Orlando Magic
Billy McKinney, former NBA player, current director of scouting for the Milwaukee Bucks
Daryl Morey (B.S. 1996), general manager of the Philadelphia 76ers
Max Morris, All-American football and basketball player
Dererk Pardon, professional basketball player
Dan Peterson, basketball coach
Kevin Rankin, basketball player and insurance underwriter
Jerry Reinsdorf (J.D. 1960), owner of the Chicago Bulls and the Chicago White Sox
Joe Ruklick, former NBA player for the Philadelphia Warriors, gave Wilt Chamberlain the final assist in his 100-point game
Anucha Browne Sanders (B.S. 1985), former executive for New York Knicks
John Shurna, former basketball player
Rick Sund, former general manager for the Atlanta Hawks
Figure skating
Ronald Joseph, figure skater and long jumper
Debi Thomas (M.D. 1997), figure skater
Football
Mike Adamle, football player and sportscaster
Dick Alban, football player
Damien Anderson, American football player (St. Louis Rams)
Frank Aschenbrenner, football player
Darryl Ashmore, football player (Oakland Raiders, Rams, Redskins)
Darnell Autry, football player (Chicago Bears and Philadelphia Eagles) and actor
Frank Baker, football player
Brett Basanez, football player (Chicago Bears)
Cas Banaszek, football player
D'Wayne Bates, football player (Chicago Bears and Minnesota Vikings)
Sid Bennett, football player
George Benson, football player
Kevin Bentley, football player (Cleveland Browns and Seattle Seahawks)
Ron Burton, football player, (Boston Patriots- now known as New England Patriots)
Hank Bruder, football player
Corbin Bryant, football player
Ibraheim Campbell, football player
Woody Campbell, football player
Austin Carr, football player, (New Orleans Saints)
Luis Castillo, football player, (San Diego Chargers)
Bob Christian, football player, (Atlanta Falcons)
Barry Cofield, football player, (Washington Redskins)
Joe Collier, football head coach, Buffalo Bills
Irv Cross, football player
Andy Cvercko, football player
Bill DeCorrevont, football player for four NFL teams (Washington Redskins, Detroit Lions, Chicago Cardinals, Chicago Bears)
Garrett Dickerson, football player
John L. "Paddy" Driscoll, football player
Curtis Duncan, football player, Houston Oilers
Tiny Engebretsen, football player
Trai Essex, football player (Pittsburgh Steelers and Indianapolis Colts)
Pat Fitzgerald, two-time All-American player, Northwestern head football coach 2006-2022.
Barry Gardner, football player (Philadelphia Eagles)
Joe Gaziano, football player
Brian Gowins, American football player (Chicago Bears)
Otto Graham, football player
Nate Hall, football player
Napoleon Harris, football player, Oakland Raiders and Minnesota Vikings
Montre Hartage, football player
Noah Herron, football player, Green Bay Packers
Chris Hinton, seven-time Pro Bowl player, Indianapolis Colts, Atlanta Falcons and Minnesota Vikings
Godwin Igwebuike, football player, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, San Francisco 49ers and Philadelphia Eagles
Justin Jackson, football player, Los Angeles Chargers
Paul Janus, football player
Luke Johnsos, football player
Mike Kafka, football player, Philadelphia Eagles
Jim Keane, football player
Doc Kelley, football player
John Kidd, NFL punter for five teams (Buffalo Bills, San Diego Chargers, Miami Dolphins, Detroit Lions and New York Jets)
Elbert Kimbrough, football player
Bob Koehler, football player
Tyler Lancaster, football player
Dean Lowry, football player
Sherrick McManis, football player, Chicago Bears
Alex Moyer, football player
Hunter Niswander, NFL punter
Matt O'Dwyer, football player (New York Jets, Cincinnati Bengals)
Ifeadi Odenigbo, football player
Ted Phillips, Chicago Bears president and CEO
Kyle Prater, NFL wide receiver
Nick Roach, football player, Chicago Bears
Jeff Roehl, American football player
Jack Rudnay, football player
Pete Shaw, football player
Trevor Siemian, football player, Denver Broncos and Minnesota Vikings
Rashawn Slater, football player, Los Angeles Chargers
Zach Strief, football player
Tyrell Sutton, football player, Carolina Panthers
Clayton Thorson, football player, Dallas Cowboys
Steve Tasker, football player (Houston Oilers and Buffalo Bills) and sports announcer
Rob Taylor, football player and head coach
Danny Vitale, football player
Anthony Walker Jr., football player
Ray Wietecha, football player
George Wilson, football player and head coach
Fred Williamson, football player
Eric Wilson, football player
Corey Wootton, football player, Chicago Bears
Jason Wright, running back and business executive
Golf
Jim Benepe, golfer
Luke Donald, golfer
Matt Fitzpatrick, golfer
David Lipsky, golfer
David Merkow, golfer
Jane Weiller (1912–1989), golfer
Hockey
Rocky Wirtz, owner of the Chicago Blackhawks
Horse racing
David Israel (B.S.J. 1973), former chair of the California Horse Racing Board, former president of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission
Race car driving
Paul Dana, former race car driver in the Indy Racing League
Soccer
Tyler Miller, professional soccer player
Brad North, soccer player (D.C. United)
Swimming
Sybil Bauer, swimmer, gold medalist at the 1924 Summer Olympics in the 100 m backstroke
Matt Grevers, winner of four gold and two silver Olympic medals in multiple events in 2008 and 2012
Bob Skelton, 1924 Olympic gold medalist in 200-meter breaststroke
Jordan Wilimovsky, 2015 World Champion in the 10 km open water race
Tennis
Katrina Adams, tennis player, former president of the USTA
Audra Cohen, 2007 NCAA women's singles champion (never graduated)
Grant Golden (1929–2018), tennis player
Clark Graebner, tennis player
Seymour Greenberg (1920–2006), tennis player
Judy Ade Levering, first woman President of the United States Tennis Association (USTA 1999–2000)
Todd Martin, tennis player
Marty Riessen, tennis player
Track and field
Jim Golliday, track
Betty Robinson, Track and Field, gold medalist in the 1928 Summer Olympics and the 1936 Summer Olympics
Annette Rogers, sprinter
Professional softball
Tammy Williams, shortstop, won world championship with Team USA in 2010 and National Pro Fastpitch championship with Chicago Bandits in 2011
Wrestling
Jake Herbert, Olympian, USA amateur wrestler
Controversies
In May 2006 the website BadJocks.com republished photos a reader had found on Webshots of the women's soccer team hazing its freshmen. The whole team was suspended for a time as a result. In the wake of the incident, head coach Jenny Haigh resigned. Since, athletic director Mark Murphy named Stephanie Erickson, the school's all-time leader in goals and points, as Haigh's replacement.
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Display%20Driver%20Model
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Windows Display Driver Model
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Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) is the graphic driver architecture for video card drivers running Microsoft Windows versions beginning with Windows Vista.
It is a replacement for the previous Windows 2000 and Windows XP display driver model XDDM/XPDM and is aimed at enabling better performance graphics and new graphics functionality and stability. Display drivers in Windows Vista and Windows 7 can choose to either adhere to WDDM or to XDDM. With the removal of XDDM from Windows 8, however, WDDM became the only option.
WDDM provides the functionality required to render the desktop and applications using Desktop Window Manager, a compositing window manager running on top of Direct3D. It also supports new DXGI interfaces required for basic device management and creation. The WDDM specification requires at least Direct3D 9-capable video card and the display driver must implement the device driver interfaces for the Direct3D 9Ex runtime in order to run legacy Direct3D applications; it may optionally implement runtime interfaces for Direct3D 10 and higher.
Features enabled by the WDDM
WDDM drivers enable new areas of functionality which were not uniformly provided by earlier display driver models. These include:
Virtualized video memory
In the context of graphics, virtualization means that individual processes (in user mode) cannot see the memory of adjacent processes even by means of insertion of forged commands in the command stream. WDDM drivers allow video memory to be virtualized, and video data to be paged out of video memory into system RAM. In case the video memory available turns out to be insufficient to store all the video data and textures, currently unused data is moved out to system RAM or to the disk. When the swapped out data is needed, it is fetched back. Virtualization could be supported on previous driver models (such as the XP Driver Model) to some extent, but was the responsibility of the driver, instead of being handled at the runtime level.
Scheduling
The runtime handles scheduling of concurrent graphics contexts. Each list of commands is put in a queue for execution by the GPU, and it can be preempted by the runtime if a more critical task arrives and if it has not begun execution. This differs from native threads on the CPU where one task cannot be interrupted and therefore can take longer than necessary and make the computer appear less responsive. A hybrid scheduling algorithm between native and light threads with cooperation between the threads would achieve seamless parallelism. It is important to note that scheduling is not a new concept but it was previously the responsibility of individual driver developers. WDDM attempts to unify the experience across different vendors by controlling the execution of GPU tasks.
Cross-process sharing of Direct3D surfaces
A Direct3D graphics surface is the memory area that contains information about the textured meshes used for rendering a 2D or 3D scene. WDDM allows Direct3D surfaces to be shared across processes. Thus, an application can incorporate a mesh created by another application into the scene it is rendering. Sharing textures between processes before WDDM was difficult, as it would have required copying the data from video memory to system memory and then back to video memory for the new device.
Enhanced fault-tolerance
If a WDDM driver hangs or encounters a fault, the graphics stack will restart the driver. A graphics hardware fault will be intercepted and if necessary the driver will be reset.
Drivers under Windows XP were free to deal with hardware faults as they saw fit either by reporting it to the user or by attempting to recover silently. In some cases when the display driver can be safely stopped, Windows XP may instead alert about the display driver crash, while also disabling the video driver, thus switching down the screen resolution to 640x480 with only 16 colors. With a WDDM driver, the screen resolution will most likely be unaffected; all hardware faults cause the driver to be reset and the user will be notified by a popup; this unifies the behavior across vendors.
Previous drivers were fully implemented in kernel mode, whereas WDDM is implemented partly in user mode. If the user mode area fails with an unrecoverable error, it will, at the most, cause the application to quit unexpectedly instead of producing a blue screen error as it would in previous driver models.
WDDM also allows the graphics hardware to be reset and users to update drivers without requiring a reboot.
Limitations
The new driver model requires the graphics hardware to have Shader Model 2.0 support at least, since the fixed function pipeline is now translated to 2.0 shaders. However, according to Microsoft as of 2009, only about 1–2 percent of the hardware running Windows Vista used the XDDM, with the rest already WDDM capable. It also requires some other hardware features; consequently some SM 2.0-supporting hardware such as the Intel GMA 900 fails the WDDM certification.
One of the limitations of WDDM driver model version 1.0 is that it does not support multiple drivers in a multi-adapter, multi-monitor setup. If a multi-monitor system has more than one graphics adapter powering the monitors, both the adaptors must use the same WDDM driver. If more than one driver is used, Windows will disable one of them. WDDM 1.1 does not have this limitation.
WDDM 1.0/1.1 does not allow some modes that were previously handled by the driver such as spanning mode (stretching the desktop across two monitors) although Dual View is still available.
Need for a new display driver model
One of the chief scenarios the Windows Display Driver Model enables is the Desktop Window Manager. Since the desktop and application windows managed by DWM are Direct3D applications, the number of open windows directly affects the amount of video memory required. Because there is no limit on the number of open windows, the video memory available may prove insufficient, necessitating virtualization. As the window contents that DWM composes into the final desktop are generated by different processes, cross-process surface sharing is necessary. Also, because there can be other DirectX applications running alongside DWM on the DWM-managed desktop, they must be able to access the GPU in a shared manner, necessitating scheduling.
Though this is true for Microsoft's implementation of a composited desktop under Windows Vista, on the other hand, a composited desktop need not theoretically require a new display driver model to work as expected. Successful implementations of composited desktops were done before Windows Vista on other platforms such as Quartz, Compiz, WindowFX. The approach Microsoft attempted was to try to make sure WDDM was a unified experience across different GPUs from multiple vendors by standardizing their features and performance. The software features missing from other driver models could be made immaterial by extensions or if a less restrictive or simply different driver model was in place.
History
WDDM 1.0
Windows Vista introduced WDDM 1.0 as a new display driver architecture designed to be better performing, more reliable, and support new technologies including HDCP. Hybrid Sleep, which combines hibernation and sleep mode functionality for enhanced stability in the event of power failure, also requires WDDM.
WDDM 1.1
Windows 7 supports major additions to WDDM known as WDDM 1.1; the details of this new version were unveiled at WinHEC 2008. New features include:
DXGI 1.1, which features return of hardware 2D acceleration for use by GDI (but not GDI+) and Direct2D/DirectWrite
BitBlt, StretchBlt, TransparentBlt
AlphaBlend, ColorFill
ClearType font support
Direct3D 11 device driver interface (DDI)
DXVA-HD DDI
Hardware video overlay DDI
Optional AES 128 encryption
Optional decoding of encrypted video content
Support multiple drivers in a multi-adapter and multi-monitor setup
Hardware acceleration of GDI and Direct2D/DirectWrite operations helps reduce memory footprint in Windows 7, because DWM compositing engine no longer needs to keep a system memory copy of all surfaces used by GDI/GDI+, as in Windows Vista.
DXGI 1.1, Direct3D 11, Direct2D, and DirectWrite were made available with Windows Vista Platform Update; however GDI/GDI+ in Vista continues to rely on software rendering and the Desktop Window Manager continues to use Direct3D 9Ex.
WDDM 1.1 drivers are backward compatible with WDDM 1.0 specification; both 1.0 and 1.1 drivers can be used in Windows Vista with or without the Platform Update.
WDDM 1.2
Windows 8 includes WDDM 1.2 and DXGI 1.2. New features were first previewed at the Build 2011 conference and include performance improvements as well as support for stereoscopic 3D rendering and video playback.
Other major features include preemptive multitasking of the GPU with finer granularity (DMA buffer, primitive, triangle, pixel, or instruction-level), reduced memory footprint, improved resource sharing, and faster timeout detection and recovery. 16-bit color surface formats (565, 5551, 4444) are mandatory in Windows 8, and Direct3D 11 Video supports YUV 4:4:4/4:2:2/4:2:0/4:1:1 video formats with 8, 10, and 16-bit precision, as well as 4 and 8-bit palettized formats.
WDDM 1.2 supports display-only and render-only WDDM drivers, such as Microsoft Basic Display Driver and WARP-based Microsoft Basic Render Driver which replaced kernel-mode VGA driver.
WDDM 1.0/1.1 only allows rudimentary task scheduling using "batch queue" granularity; improvements to multitasking, as well as fast context switching and support for virtual memory, were initially expected in versions tentatively named WDDM 2.0 and WDDM 2.1, which were announced at WinHEC 2006.
WDDM 1.3
Windows 8.1 includes WDDM 1.3 and DXGI 1.3. New additions include the ability to trim DXGI adapter memory usage, multi-plane overlays, overlapping swap chains and swap chain scaling, select backbuffer subregion for swap chain and lower-latency swap chain presentation. Driver feature additions include wireless displays (Miracast), YUV format ranges, cross-adapter resources and GPU engine enumeration capabilities. Graphics kernel performance improvements.
WDDM 2.0
Windows 10 includes WDDM 2.0, which is designed to dramatically reduce workload on the kernel-mode driver for GPUs that support virtual memory addressing, to allow multithreading parallelism in the user-mode driver and result in lower CPU utilization. Windows 10 also includes DXGI 1.4.
Direct3D 12 API, announced at Build 2014, requires WDDM 2.0. The new API will do away with automatic resource-management and pipeline-management tasks and allow developers to take full low-level control of adapter memory and rendering states.
The display driver model from Windows 8.1 and Windows Phone have converged into a unified model for Windows 10.
A new memory model is implemented that gives each GPU a per-process virtual address space. Direct addressing of video memory is still supported by WDDMv2 for graphics hardware that requires it, but that is considered a legacy case. IHVs are expected to develop new hardware that supports virtual addressing. Significant changes have been made to the DDI to enable this new memory model.
WDDM 2.1
Windows 10 Anniversary Update (version 1607) includes WDDM 2.1, which supports Shader Model 6.0 (mandatory for feature levels 12_0 and 12_1), and DXGI 1.5 which supports HDR10 - a 10-bit high dynamic range, wide gamut format defined by ITU-T Rec. 2100/Rec.2020 - and variable refresh rates.
WDDM 2.2
Windows 10 Creators Update (version 1703) includes WDDM 2.2, which is tailored for virtual, augmented and mixed reality with stereoscopic rendering for the Windows Mixed Reality platform, and DXGI 1.6.
WDDM 2.3
Windows 10 Fall Creators Update (version 1709) includes WDDM 2.3.
The following is a list of new features for Windows Display driver development in Windows 10, version 1709:
Shader Model 6.1, adding support view instancing and barycentric semantics.
Display ColorSpace Transform DDIs provide additional control over color space transforms applied in the post-composition display pipeline.
The D3D12 Copy Queue Timestamp Queries feature will allow applications to issue timestamp queries on COPY command lists/queues. These timestamps are specified to function identically to timestamps on other engines.
Enhanced Video integration into Direct3D12 Runtime through: hardware accelerated video decoding, content protection and video processing
WDDM 2.4
Windows 10 April 2018 Update (version 1803) includes WDDM 2.4. Updates to display driver development in Windows 10 version 1803 include the following features.:
Shader Model 6.2, adding support for 16-bit scalars and the ability to select the behaviours with denormal values.
Indirect Display UMDF class extension, the driver can pass the SRM to the rendering GPU and have a mechanism to query the SRM version being used.
IOMMU hardware-based GPU isolation support, increasing security by restricting GPU access to system memory.
GPU paravirtualization support, enabling display drivers to provide rendering capabilities to Hyper-V virtualized environments.
Brightness, a new interface to support multiple displays that can be set to calibrated nit-based brightness levels.
D3D11 bitstream encryption, exposing CENC, CENS, CBC1, and CBCS with 8 or 16 byte initialization vectors.
D3D11 and D3D12 video decode histogram, allowing to leverage fixed function hardware for histogram to improve tone mapping quality for HDR/EDR scenarios.
D3D12 video decode now supports Decode Tier II, enabling applications to amortize allocation cost and reduce peak memory usage during resolution change.
Tiled resource tier and LDA atomics, a new cross node sharing tier to add support for atomic shader instructions working across linked adapter (LDA) nodes, allowing to implement multiple GPU rendering techniques like split frame rendering (SFR).
GPU dithering support, allowing the operating system to explicitly request dithering in scenarios where a higher effective bit depth is needed than is physically available on the monitor link, for example for HDR10 over HDMI 2.0.
Post-processing color enhancement override, allowing the operating system to request that the driver temporarily disable any post-processing that enhances or alters display colors, for specific application scenarios to enforce colorimetrically accurate color behavior on the display, and safely coexist with OEM or IHV-proprietary display color enhancements.
Direct3D12 and Video, new API and DDI to provide access to hardware accelerated video decoding, content protection and video processing.
DisplayID, a new DDI, designed to allow the VESA's DisplayID descriptor to be queried from a display controlled by a graphics adapter.
GPU performance data, an extension to expose information about the GPU hardware such as temperature, fan speed, clock speeds for engines and memory, memory bandwidth, power draw, and voltages.
SupportContextlessPresent, a driver cap to help IHVs onboard new driver.
Improvements to External/Removable GPU support in the OS, providing better support to detachable GPUs.
Display Diagnostics, with Kernel mode device driver interface changes to allow the driver for a display controller to report diagnostic events to the operating system.
Shared graphics power components, allowing non-graphics drivers to participate in the power management of a graphics device.
Shared texture improvements, increasing the types of textures that can be shared across processes and Direct3D devices, adding support to monochrome with minimal memory copying.
WDDM 2.5
Windows 10 October 2018 Update (Version 1809) Includes WDDM 2.5. Updates to Display driver development in Windows 10, version 1809 include the following features:
Shader Model 6.3, adding support for DirectX12 Raytracing (DXR).
Raytracing, in order to support hardware-accelerated raytracing in Direct3D 12.
Universal Driver Requirements, drivers will need to ensure their DirectX 11 and DirectX12 user-mode drivers and kernel mode drivers, as well other DLL loaded by these components, adhere to the Universal API.
SRV-Only Tiled Resource Tier 3, a new capability bit for tiled resources, exposing sparse volume textures without requiring unordered-access and render-target operations support.
Render Pass, introducing render pass concept in Direct3D 12, adding new APIs to be run on existing drivers and allow user mode drivers to choose optimal rendering path without heavy CPU penalty.
Meta-commands, adding preview support for DirectML, a high-performance, hardware-accelerated DirectX 12 library for machine learning. With Windows 10 version 1903 and newer meta-commands and DirectML are a stable part of Windows.
HDR Brightness Compensation, a new SDR brightness boost, raising the reference white of SDR content to the user-desired value, allowing SDR content to be reproduced to a typical 200-240 nits. It also allows reporting if the hardware/driver supports HDR output through FP16 pixel format or only ARGB10 pixel format.
SDR White Level, to let the graphics drivers know the SDR white level value that is being applied by the OS compositor for all the SDR content, for a display which is running in HDR mode.
Display Synchronization, allowing the operating system to check for display synchronization capabilities if the display is exposed by the driver and prior to enabling the display.
Tracked Workloads was also added as an experimental feature to better control the trade-off between quicker processor execution and lower power consumption, but was removed from Windows 10 version 2004 and deprecated from earlier OS versions as part of a security fix.
WDDM 2.6
Windows 10 May 2019 Update (Version 1903) includes WDDM 2.6. Updates to display driver development in Windows 10 version 1903 include the following features:
Shader Model 6.4, adding support low-precision packed dot product intrinsics and for library sub-objects to simplify ray-tracing.
Super Wet Ink, allowing the creation of textures in formats and modes the IHVs doesn't natively support, resolving them as a resource projection to a format the hardware/drivers natively support, allowing internal drivers optimizations.
Variable Rate Shading, also known as coarse pixel shading, a mechanism to enable allocation of rendering performance/power at varying rates across rendered images. It comes with two tiers (tier 1 and tier 2).
Collect Diagnostic Info, allowing the operating system to collect a private data from drivers for both rendering and display functions. This new feature is a requirement in WDDM 2.6.
Background Processing, allowing user mode drivers to express desired threading behavior, and the runtime to control/monitor it. APIs allow apps to adjust what amount of background processing is appropriate for their workloads and when to perform that work.
Driver Hot Update, reducing server downtime and allowing driver security hot patch to the kernel mode driver.
Microsoft Compute Driver Model (MCDM), for AI processors such as NPU.
WDDM 2.7
Windows 10 May 2020 Update (Version 2004) includes WDDM 2.7. Updates to display driver development in Windows 10 version 2004 include the following features:
Shader Model 6.5, adding support to the new pipeline capabilities as well additional Wave intrinsics.
Hardware-accelerated GPU scheduling: masked as an additional option in the system settings, when enabled offloads high-frequency tasks to a dedicated GPU-based scheduling processor, reducing CPU scheduling overhead. Requires ad-hoc hardware and driver support.
Sampler Feedback, allowing a finer tune of the resources usage in a scene. It comes with two tiers (tier 0.9 and tier 1.0).
DirectX Raytracing (DXR) Tier 1.1, introducing inline ray-tracing, indirect rays dispatching, increasing the state object without the need to create a new one, and additional vertex formats for acceleration structures.
Mesh and Amplification Shaders Stages, a new optional geometry pipeline replacing the traditional pipeline (Input Assembler-Vertex-Hull-Tesselator-Domain-Geometry and Stream Output stages).
Improved memory allocation control, with better residency control and the possibility to not explicitly zeroing newly created heaps.
Direct3D 9 resource interop, allowing projecting a Direct3D 9 resource on a Direct3D 12 application.
Direct3D 12 Video Protected Resource support, allowing play protected content in a Direct3D 12 application.
WDDM 2.8
Windows 10 Insider Preview Manganese included WDDM 2.8, but no driver was ever publicly demonstrated to support it and it has been skipped for "Iron" and "Cobalt" development releases.
WDDM 2.9
WDDM 2.9 in Windows 10 Insider Preview "Iron" will bring support for GPU hardware acceleration to the Windows Subsystem for Linux 2 (WSL 2) and support for feature level 12_2 and HLSL Shader Model 6.6.
WDDM 3.0
Windows 11 RTM Final Retail release (version 21H2) includes WDDM 3.0, which improves graphics architecture in Windows Subsystem for Linux adding:
User mode driver compiled for Linux in the WSL package.
Host driver mounted in Linux
Dynamic refresh rate
Direct3D 12 video encoding
Hardware flip queue
WDDM 3.1
Windows 11 2022 Update (version 22H2) includes WDDM 3.1.
Shader Model 6.7
IOMMU DMA remapping
Sharing the backing store with KMD
WDDM 3.2
Windows 11 2023 Update (version 23H2) includes WDDM 3.2.
Shader Model 6.8
References
Microsoft Windows multimedia technology
Device drivers
Windows Vista
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5386057
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20C.%20Goodman
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John C. Goodman
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John C. Goodman (born 22 May 1946) is president and CEO of the Goodman institute for Public Policy Research, a think tank focused on public policy issues. He was the founding chief executive of the National Center for Policy Analysis, which operated from 1982 to 2017. He is a senior fellow at the Independent Institute. The Wall Street Journal and The National Journal have called Goodman the "father of Health Savings Accounts."
Goodman received a Ph.D. in economics from Columbia University in 1977 and has taught and done research at Columbia, Stanford, Dartmouth, Southern Methodist University, and the University of Dallas.
In 1983, he founded the National Center for Policy Analysis (NCPA), a think tank that was the source of such policy ideas as Health Savings Accounts, Roth IRAs, automatic employer enrollment in 401(k) plans and allowing seniors to continue working without penalty after they begin receiving Social Security benefits.
In his 2012 book Priceless: Curing the Healthcare Crisis, Goodman asserts that empowering both patients and caregivers to control healthcare decisions produces greater patient satisfaction at substantially lower costs. The book emphasizes the importance that patients, payers, and providers each operate according to economic incentives that encourage them consider both the costs and benefits of care, innovate to improve outcomes and lower costs, and provide subsidies that do not arbitrarily benefit one group (like workers at companies that provide insurance) at the expense of other groups (like workers at companies that do not).
He regularly briefs members of Congress on economic policy and testifies before congressional committees. He is author and co-author of 15 books and more than 50 published studies on such topics as health policy, tax reform and school choice. He has addressed more than 100 different organizations on public policy issues.
He writes a column for Forbes and an occasional weekend column for Townhall. He has appeared 23 times on C-Span.
Early history
Born on May 22, 1946, Goodman grew up in Waco, Texas. In high school, he won several statewide tournaments. This experience served him later in life when he became a TV debating partner of conservative polemicist William F. Buckley.
He attended college at the University of Texas in Austin, where he became involved in campus politics and was elected vice president of the student body. The following year he lost the race for president to Lloyd Doggett, who later served as a senior Democratic member of the House of Representatives. University of Texas student politics was a training ground for such politicians as Texas governors Allan Shivers and John Connally.
After college, Goodman enrolled in the graduate economics program at Columbia University, where he earned a PhD. He credits his experience with campus politics as vital to shaping his Columbia University dissertation—which used tools of economics to explain political outcomes. Among the faculty who gave him guidance were three Nobel Prize winners – Robert Mundell, Edmund Phelps and William Vickrey.
Goodman's impossibility theorem
Goodman's dissertation was entitled The Market for Coercion: A Neoclassical Theory of the State. It was in the field of public choice, which merges economics and political science. As the term "neoclassical" suggests, the dissertation used marginal analysis—which was a radical departure from the voting models favored by public choice theorists James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock and their followers, on the one hand, and University of Chicago economist George Stigler's "regulatory capture" theory, on the other.
With his colleague Phil Porter, Goodman published three articles extending the theory to the fields of regulation, the production of public goods, and welfare economics. Their article on regulation won the prestigious Duncan Black Prize awarded by the Public Choice Society in 1989.
An important issue in public choice economics is whether a stable equilibrium exists. In traditional voting models it typically does not. Yet Goodman showed that in a neoclassical model the conditions for stable equilibrium are easy to satisfy.
Three other departures from previous thinking were also important.
Groups, not individuals, as the unit of account
Every law and every regulation tends to have winners and losers. Both groups have a self-interest in either supporting or opposing the change. However, the passage of a law is a "public good" for those who support it and a "public bad" for those who oppose it. In either case, individuals benefit from their group's success, whether or not they contribute to the effort.
A well-known proposition in public finance holds that if all behavior is voluntary, public goods will tend to be underproduced. In politics, this means that the effort groups make to secure political goals will always understate the true value they place on achieving those goals. The reason is that each individual has an incentive to be a free rider, contributing little or no effort while hoping that others will contribute a lot.
The groups that are most successful in overcoming the free rider problems and securing more effort from their members are the groups that are the most successful in the political system.
Note: an individual may be member of several different groups, including groups that oppose each other. For example, an auto worker might pay dues to a union that supports higher tariffs on car imports. But as a buyer of cars, he may pay dues to an auto club that opposes them. In his role as a producer he is a member of a pro-tariff group. In his role as a consumer, he is a member of an anti-tariff group. What matters most is the behavior of groups as groups, not the behavior of individual members.
Political equilibrium
Imagine a political system in which the laws change every week. One week we might have a tariff on auto imports; the next week it's gone; the week after that it's back again. That would describe a system with no political equilibrium. By contrast, equilibrium exists if the tariff tends to stay the same from week to week until there is a fundamental change in one of the parameters of the system.
Goodman not only showed that the neoclassical approach realistically models stable political systems, he also identified what an equilibrium must look like. Continuing with the tariff example, the marginal effort the proponents are willing to make to secure a small increase in the tariff must equal the marginal effort the opponents are willing to make to oppose it. These efforts could be in the form of votes, campaign contributions, etc., and the kind of effort that is possible will differ from system to system. Any deviation from this condition means that the decision maker risks being replaced by a rival, who can gain an advantage by supporting the set of equilibrium policies over the deviation.
Political prices
The third innovation was to decompose the equilibrium condition. The marginal effort that producers are willing to make to secure a slightly higher tariff is the marginal economic benefit they expect multiplied times the effort they are willing to make per dollar of benefit. On the other side, the marginal effort consumers are willing to make to oppose the change is the marginal economic cost they expect to avoid multiplied times their effort per dollar of benefit. These effort-benefit ratios are the "political prices" proponents and opponents of the change are willing to "pay."
Social welfare economics teaches that public policies are optimal when marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost. But that can only happen if the political prices are the same on either side of every political issue. Ordinarily we would expect people to spend a dollar to get a dollar. But for reasons given above, people will understate the value they place on policy changes and in the general case they will understate it a lot.
Because of differences in organization costs, information costs, and many other factors, we would never expect the effort-benefit ratios of two opposing groups to be the same. Furthermore, Goodman and Porter discovered that small differences in political prices lead to large welfare losses for society as a whole—much larger, for example, than what we would ordinarily expect to find in the private sector. That leads to:
Goodman's Theorem: Since the conditions for optimality will almost never hold in any political system, optimal government is in principle impossible.
If the political price milk producers are willing to pay is greater than the political price offered by the consumers of milk, we will get milk price supports. If the price sugar growers are willing to pay is higher than the one offered by sugar consumers, we will get sugar quotas. We get bad government, or "government failure," not because of bad leaders. We get bad government because of inequality in the political prices opposing groups are willing to pay to obtain benefits and avoid costs in the political system.
Health economics
Goodman's interest in health economics began with his study of the British National Health Service. It was the first time anyone had used public choice theory to explain all the major features of British medicine. He followed with a study of the 150-year history of the suppression of markets in health care at the urging of the American Medical Association. Regulation of who could practice medicine, regulation of medical schools, regulation of hospitals and regulation of health insurance all followed the AMA agenda, according to the study.
In 1992, Goodman wrote Patient Power with Gerald Musgrave. The book shaped right-of-center thinking on health policy—from Newt Gingrich to Paul Ryan—for many years. Its thesis: patients should be empowered in the medical marketplace the way consumers are empowered in other markets. This ran counter to the thinking in virtually all health policy circles, however. The dominant view at the time was adherence to managed care, under which decisions are made by experts, typically following formal practice guidelines.
In Priceless (2013), Goodman's approach to health economics was even more radical. He portrayed the health care system as a complex system that cannot be understood with conventional economic tools such as supply and demand curves. In doing so, he rejected the approach of every major health economics textbook on the market. Even so, the book won praise from people in and out of government and across the political spectrum—including Peter Orszag, who was chief economist for President Barack Obama at the time.
Health Savings Accounts
Goodman's most important policy success has been the adoption of Health Savings Accounts (HSAs). They allow people to manage some of their own health care dollars in tax-free accounts. The idea was first introduced to the public policy community in Patient Power, but HSAs were initially opposed by every major health and business lobby. For that reason, they did not become available to most Americans until 12 years later—in 2004. As of 2016, 40 million American families had HSAs. A majority of large employers now offer high-deductible health plans, with savings accounts attached, to their employees and these types of plans are the fastest growing product in the health insurance marketplace.
The RAND Corporation says HSA plans can cut the cost of health insurance by up to 30%, with no adverse health effects—even for the most vulnerable populations. More than half of all private health plans in South Africa are Medical Savings Account plans. Singapore has an extensive system of "medisave" accounts. There are also health savings accounts in China.
Under current tax law, employer deposits to HSAs are treated the same as employer payment of health insurance premiums—they are excluded from the employee's taxable income. However, under Obamacare people receive fixed-sum tax credits to buy their insurance and most Republican Obamacare replacement plans also use tax credits.
In an article in Health Affairs, Goodman and Wharton health economist Mark Pauly argued that the right way to subsidize health insurance for everyone is with a tax credit. Further, they showed that a Roth HSA, with after-tax deposits and tax free withdraws, is the right account to combine with the credit.
Today's tax law places rigid restrictions on how HSAs can be used. For example, there must be an across-the-board deductible, covering all medical expenses. However, Goodman now argues that accounts should have no deductibles or copayments. For example, employees could be given an account from which to manage all primary care. Diabetics and patients with other chronic conditions could manage their own budgets along with incentives to manage their own care.
Repealing one law, blocking another
In 1989, a series of NCPA studies of taxes on the elderly led to the repeal of the Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act, an attempt to extend drug coverage to Medicare beneficiaries. This was the first repeal of a major federal welfare program in more than 100 years. Nobel Laureate Milton Friedman, the editors of The Wall Street Journal and many others credited Goodman and his coauthors with the change, citing NCPA studies and its communications efforts as the primary reasons for the policy reversal.
In 1994, Hillary Clinton failed in a major effort to reform the health care system. In his book Whitewash: What the Media Won’t Tell You About Hillary Clinton, Brent Bozell says that Goodman was one of three people who were most responsible for the defeat of Hillary Care. (The other two were Sen. Phil Gramm and commentator Bill Kristol.)
Reforming the health care system
Health reform has been an enduring interest for Goodman. In Characteristics of an Ideal Health Care System, he identified ten ways in which government policies were creating the very problems many reformers want to solve. In Designing Ideal Health Insurance, he showed how public policies were preventing the insurance market from meeting people's needs. In the Journal of Legal Medicine, he argued for a do-no-harm approach—under which government policies that are causing problems would be repealed and replaced before any other reforms are considered.
One of Goodman's reform ideas is to replace all the ways government currently subsidizes health insurance through tax and spending programs with a universal, refundable tax credit—essentially giving every citizen a fixed number of dollars for health insurance. That idea was elaborated with Mark Pauly in Health Affairs and it became the core health insurance plan endorsed by John McCain in his presidential run against Barack Obama in 2008. The legislative version of the McCain approach was introduced by Tom Coburn and Richard Burr in the Senate and Paul Ryan and Devon Nunes in the House of Representatives.
Reforming Obamacare
In an article at the Health Affairs Blog, Goodman argued that there were six major problems in the Affordable Care Act that will not go away without major reform. For example, the first problem is that people are being required to buy a health plan whose cost is expected to grow at twice the rate of growth of their income. These ideas were expanded into A Better Choice, a monograph published by the Independent Institute.
Beginning in 2015, Goodman helped House Rules Committee Chairman Pete Sessions (R-TX) and Sen. Bill Cassidy (R-LA) develop a replacement plan for Obamacare. The plan calls for a universal tax credit for health insurance, personal and portable health insurance for employees and a flexible Roth HSA. In a post at the Health Affairs Blog, Sessions, Cassidy and Goodman argue that their plan is not only better than Obamacare, it would create universal coverage.
Other public policy achievements
With the help of Madsen Pirie and Eamonn Butler at the Adam Smith Institute in London, Goodman introduced Margaret Thatcher's 22 techniques of privatization into the United States, leading to increases in privatization at the state and local level. The effort was helped by the publication of two NCPA books: Madsen Pirie's Dismantling the State: The Theory And Practice of Privatization and John Goodman's Privatization.
He organized the first report card on public schools in the United States—ranking them based on the performance of students on standardized tests. In response, NCPA board member Pat Rooney started the first private voucher program, leading to many similar efforts across the country.
With Richard Rahn, chief economist for the US Chamber of Commerce, Goodman produced five pro-growth tax ideas that became the tax policy core of the 1994 Contract with America. These ideas included the Roth IRA and allowing seniors to keep working beyond the retirement age without losing their Social Security benefits—ideas that later became law.
With Peter Orszag (then at the Brookings Institution), Goodman helped reform the 401(k) law so that employers can now automatically enroll their employees in plans with diversified portfolios.
Other public policy ideas
Goodman's other contributions to public policy include:
His essay on "Classical Liberalism" has become viral on the Internet, providing a one-of-its-kind explanation of the political philosophy that dominated the 19th Century.
His proposal for a "progressive flat tax" in Forbes represents a novel way of bringing the right and left together on tax reform.
His proposal for radical reform of the US banking system (with Laurence Kotlikoff) in the New Republic called for 100% reserves for all credit market institutions as a way of preventing future financial crises.
His proposal to let people allocate their own welfare tax dollars has had a lot of appeal in conservative circles. In a version of the idea, 17 states now allow a dollar-for-dollar reduction in taxes for contributions to private schools and charter schools.
His case for school choice, presented in a classic debate at Howard University, was published in the Howard Law Review.
His work with Thomas Saving and Andrew Rettenmaier (Texas A & M) has produced a proposal for privatizing Medicare, similar to previous proposals for privatizing Social Security.
His "enterprise program" proposal to allow businesses that provide essential services to low-income customers to avoid many government regulations—including occupational licensing—has proved appealing, both to the right and the left.
His proposal to replace medical malpractice law with no-fault compensation has been proposed in Georgia and Florida.
Television debates
Goodman appeared about two dozen times as a guest on William F. Buckley's PBS Firing Line program in the 1990s. About a half dozen of these were two-hour debates that pitted Goodman, Buckley and two colleagues against four opponents. They covered such topics as the flat tax, school vouchers, Social Security privatization, Health Savings Accounts and privatizing the welfare state. This was the first time these ideas had ever been aired on national television.
Buckley and Goodman were joined by such debating partners as former Delaware Governor Pete du Pont, former Treasury Secretary Pete Peterson, Senator Phil Gramm, economist Thomas Sowell and California Governor Jerry Brown (arguing for the flat tax). The opposing sides included former presidential candidate George McGovern, Senator Jay Rockefeller, MIT economist Lester Thurow, Nobel Laurate Kenneth Arrow and TV commentator Susan Estrich.
Firing Line's producer, Warren Steibel, later produced another TV program called Debates/Debates. Goodman served as team captain on many of those programs.
Publications
The Regulation of Medical Care: Is the Price Too High? (Cato public policy research monograph) (1980)
National Health Care in Great Britain (1980)
Social Security in the United Kingdom: Contracting Out of the System (Aei Studies, 335) (1981)
Economics of Public Policy: The Micro View, with Edwin G. Dolan (1985)
Privatization. (1985) National Center for Policy Analysis.
Fighting the War of Ideas in Latin America, with Ramona Marotz-Baden (1990)
Patient Power: Solving America's Health Care Crisis (1992)
Patient Power: The Free-Enterprise Alternative to Clinton's Health Plan, with Gerald L. Musgrave (1993)
Economics of Public Policy, with Edwin G. Dolan (1995)
Lives at Risk: Single-Payer National Health Insurance Around the World, with Gerald L. Musgrave, Devon M. Herrick and Milton Friedman (2004)
·Leaving Women Behind: Modern Families, Outdated Laws. (2005) With Kimberley Strassel and Celeste Cogan. Rowman & Littlefield
·Handbook on State Health Reform. (2007) National Center for Policy Analysis
·Living with ObamaCare: A Consumer’s Guide. (2014) National Center for Policy Analysis.
A Better Choice: Healthcare Solutions for America Independent Institute (2015)
References
External links
Living people
American libertarians
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Health economists
1946 births
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Foy E. Wallace
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Foy Esco (Foy E., Jr.) Wallace (30 September 1896 – 18 December 1979) was an influential figure among American Churches of Christ in the early and mid-20th century. Through his writing and speaking, Wallace gathered a considerable following among that autonomous group of churches. His skilled use of logic, combined with his charisma, propelled him to the forefront of at least three major controversies in the Churches of Christ.
Biography
Early life
Foy E. Wallace Jr., was born September 30, 1896, on a farm south of Belcherville, Texas in Montague County, Texas. His father, Foy Edwin (Foy E., Sr.) Wallace (1871–1949), was a prominent preacher within churches of Christ in Texas, having been at the forefront of debate with the Disciples of Christ over mechanical instrumental music in Christian worship and missionary societies. Charles Ready Nichol (1876–1961) and Robertson Lafayette Whiteside (1869–1951) were also very influential in Wallace's thinking as was his older brother Cled Eugene Wallace (1892–1962).
He was baptized by his father in 1909 and preached his first sermon in 1912 at Stephenville, Texas. While his initial appointments derived largely from his shared name, within a short time he had made a name for himself as a preaching prodigy. Wallace would carry the nickname of "The Boy Preacher" even into early adulthood.
Wallace very rarely preached as a local minister. While he lived in a progression of Texas towns (Lott, Temple, Vernon, Wichita Falls, and Fort Worth), these cities usually served him simply as bases for his "gospel meetings" (commonly called "revivals" outside churches of Christ).
One of Wallace's few significant works as a local preacher occurred from 1928 to the middle of 1930 with the Central church of Christ in Los Angeles, California.
In the middle of 1930 Wallace was called from Los Angeles, California to Nashville, Tennessee by Leon B. McQuiddy to serve as editor of the Gospel Advocate Wallace continued in this role until 1934 when severe financial difficulty of the Great Depression combined with a series of family medical problems led to Wallace's resignation as editor of the Gospel Advocate in an attempt to recover financially. However, late in 1934 Wallace declared bankruptcy while affirming his debts. In 1937 Wallace returned to Nashville and with the assistance of longtime family friend John W. Akin (1873–1960), satisfied all debts.
Premillennialism
On February 11, 1909, Robert H. Boll (1875–1956) became the front-page editor of the Gospel Advocate. After several years of work widely acceptable to his readership, his premillennial views were expressed within its pages, to the dismay of most of the Advocate's management, including J. C. McQuiddy (1858–1924). After considerable friction, Boll was dismissed, re-hired and dismissed again in 1915. In 1916 Boll became the editor of The Word and Work, a paper formerly edited by Stanford Chambers (1876–1969), of New Orleans, Louisiana. The paper Word and Work, was founded in 1908 by premillennialist Dr. David Lipscomb Watson. Especially under Chambers' ownership after 1913 Word and Work took an explicitly premillennial view. Boll moved the magazine to Louisville, Kentucky, where it continued to promote premillennialism within churches of Christ.
Boll's promotion of premillennialism led to continuing controversy from 1915 on into the 1920s, culminating in a written debate with H. Leo Boles in 1927. That debate ended amicably, but in 1932, the Advocate, under Wallace, turned its eye back toward the debate with a series of critical articles on premillennialism.
Wallace himself engaged in two well-known debates regarding premillennialism with Charles McKendree Neal (1878–1956) in 1933 at Winchester, Kentucky and Chattanooga, Tennessee. These debates established Wallace as the leader of those opposed to the premillennialists within the church.
In November 1934 Wallace participated in an equally contentious debate, also on the millennium, with Texas Baptist fundamentalist J. Frank Norris, in Fort Worth. After three raucous evenings of debate, each side claimed victory. For churches of Christ the debate became particularly divisive when ministers Frank M. Mullins and Jesse Wood from two Dallas-area Churches of Christ went to the microphone in support of Norris, a development which Norris had encouraged. Walter Estal Brightwell (1893–1957), a supporter of Wallace, wrote of the debate:
in the words of some of the boys who returned from France after the late war, I would not take a million dollars for the debate and the privilege of attending it, but I would not give a dime for another one just like it.
In October 1935 Wallace founded the Gospel Guardian as a monthly magazine primarily to combat the views of the premillennialists. The Gospel Guardian ended in June 1936 and merged with the Firm Foundation. In 1937 Wallace was the front page writer for the Firm Foundation. In 1938 Wallace founded the Bible Banner, initially also dedicated to the defeat of premillennial doctrine. By the early 1940s, every significant paper and college associated with churches of Christ took the amillennial position, often, like Wallace, never using the terms amillennial or amillennialism. By 1949, when Wallace ceased publishing the Bible Banner, this campaign had been so effective that fewer than a hundred congregations adhered to the premillennial view, and those generally isolated from the mainline, as they have remained for decades.
Nonetheless, Wallace's opposition to premillennialism caused anger in some of these power bases. Harding College president John Nelson Armstrong (1870–1944) had refused to condemn premillennialism in 1934; a partial rejection of the doctrine in 1935 did little to silence his critics, Wallace chief among them. A war of words between the two camps ensued, with Wallace and Earnest Rosenthal Harper (1897–1986) accusing Harding of sheltering premillennialists and premillennial sympathizers; Armstrong, for his part, compared Harper to the Nazis and Wallace to a pope.
Pacifism
As America entered the Second World War, another controversy emerged among churches of Christ. Christian pacifism had a long history in this body as a significant minority position, especially around Nashville and among those who attended the Bible Schools of David Lipscomb, James A. Harding and their disciples. However, in every major armed conflict the majority of members of churches of Christ participated as soldiers. Major leaders within the churches of Christ including Daniel Sommer in the north and G. H. P. Showalter in south opposed pacifism. By World War II pacifism was waning because of the surge of patriotism engendered by the war, particularly following U.S. entry into it following the attack on Pearl Harbor.. However, a significant and influential number of preachers within the churches of Christ were still pacifists. David Lipscomb had consolidated his arguments on the Christian relationship to the civil state in his book Civil Government that emerged after, and perhaps because of, Lipscomb's experience of the American Civil War. Lipscomb's views were still influential but were considered extreme by some. For example, Lipscomb believed that a ballot not backed by the bullet was worthless. Lipscomb wrote, "The man who votes to make to others fight (and all who vote do this) ought himself to fight—that is, if he is legally liable to performs this duty. He who supports the law that requires others to fight, morally and legally fights himself." Therefore, David Lipscomb did not vote. Wallace, though earlier in life sympathetic to some aspects of Lipscomb's position, his father taking the non-combatant view, supported the Christian's right to serve as a policeman or in the armed forces of the United States. He was considered by some to be an implacable foe to conscientious objectors.
As part of this effort, the Bible Banner under Wallace took issue with the writings of Lipscomb regarding pacifism in an effort that Wallace led. Wallace's point of view again largely triumphed, and most men of military age of churches of Christ embraced military service including the sons of many pacifists; however, the victory again earned him well-connected opponents. Chief among these was B. C. Goodpasture, the latest editor of the Gospel Advocate, who was publicly quiet on the "war question" but raised money for pacifist Christians placed in conscientious objector camps.
Racism
Wallace's views on race have been much discussed in recent years. Wallace was a native of the Deep South and was born and reared in a time when segregation was the law, though this had not stopped earlier figures, including David Lipscomb, from making a clean break with racist ideas, even calling them blasphemous. Nevertheless, segregated churches were the norm in the Jim Crow South.
In 1941 Wallace wrote an article in the Bible Banner titled "Negro Meetings for White People" in which Wallace argued against the mixing of the races during church meetings, stating: "I am very much in favor of negro meetings for the negroes, but I am just as much opposed to negro meetings for white people, and I am against white brethren taking the meetings away from the negroes and the general mixing that has become entirely too much of a practice in these negro meetings. Such a thing not only lowers the church in the eyes of the world but it is definitely against the interest of the negroes. If any negro preacher says that this is not true, that will be the evidence that it is true, and that he has been spoiled by the white brethren and wants to preach to white audiences. And if any of the white brethren get worked up over what I have said, and want to accuse me of being jealous of the negro preachers, I will just tell them now that I don't even want to hold a meeting for any bunch of brethren who think that any negro is a better preacher than I am! So that we can just call that argument off before it starts--and the meeting, too." He further stated that for a white man to share a room with a negro man was "a violation of Christianity itself, and of all common decency."
Marshall Keeble, the best known African American Evangelist among churches of Christ, responded to Wallace's segregationist article by defending Keeble's own work but calling the article "instructive and encouraging." Further Keeble continued to write to Wallace in the ensuing years to maintain his support and assistance.
Institutional debate
Shortly before World War II, the issue of institutionalism – that is, support of outside organizations from churches' treasuries – was debated. Some leaders (most prominently G. C. Brewer) had actively promoted church funding of Bible colleges. Others, such as Wallace, had written and spoken in opposition.
After the war, pro-institutional church members started tying church support of colleges with church support of other institutions, orphans' homes being a notably contentious example. The addition of an emotional element proved successful at persuading many who had been on the fence to the institutional side during the 1950s. It also led, however, to rancor; what had previously been a debate characterized by logic erupted into name-calling. Non-institutional brethren were called "orphan haters" and "Pharisees" and the like; for their part, non-institutionals such as Wallace returned (and at times initiated) the rhetorical fire.
In 1951, the church of Christ in Lufkin, Texas, where Wallace's brother Cled preached, split over personal disputes between non-institutionals. Thereafter, Foy Wallace, who had been the most polarizing figure in the debate, ceased arguing in favor of the non-institutional position; indeed, by the mid-1960s, he associated himself mostly with institutional churches. By the end of the 1950s Wallace claimed that the non-institutional position had been radicalized (though there had been no noticeable changes in position among those with whom he now disagreed). Wallace objected to debates among brethren "on whether it is scriptural for a congregation to perform a humanitarian service to someone not a member of the church, or whether it is right for an able church to help a weak one maintain a preacher among them ..." Wallace argued that such debates "demoralizes the church within and degrades it without." Such debates were, Wallace averred, "a sorry spectacle."<ref>'Firm Foundation, "Paper Yokes and Party Labels", Vol. 76, No. 21 (May 26, 1959): 324.</ref>
Personal life
Wallace married Virgie Brightwell on November 29, 1914. Walter E. Brightwell, Virgie's cousin, served as best man, and Wallace's older brother Cled E. Wallace performed the wedding ceremony. Together the Wallaces had five children. In 1952, while Wallace preached a gospel meeting in Cushing, Oklahoma, his wife suffered a major stroke. He cancelled his engagements in order to remain by her side and took more than a year to nurse back to as much of her former health as possible. Family friend Roy J. Hearn (1911–2000) noted that he took care of his wife "just like she was a little baby."
Later years
Wallace lived out his later years, holding meetings, writing or re-writing almost of all of his books and writing occasionally for the religious press. The last twenty years of his life Wallace wrote a commentary of Revelation, two books on civil government, on the new versions of the Bible, on the non-institutional movement and on modernism. His estrangement with his son William was ended by their reconciliation in 1975.
In 1966 Wallace wrote a series of articles published by the Firm Foundation arguing that what the Holy Spirit does, the Word of God does. Wallace viewed the expression "gift of the Holy Spirit" from Acts 2:38 as in the possessive case. Thus the "gift of the Holy Spirit" did not mean the personal indwelling of the Holy Spirit but the Holy Spirit's gift which he believed were "the blessings of the Holy Spirit's dispensation for the Jew and the Gentile." Wallace believed that the Holy Spirit did not dwell in the Christian personally but representatively through the Word of God which is to dwell richly in each Christian. Wallace opposed the idea that there was a personal indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Wallace's work on the Holy Spirit was published in 1967 as a 120-page booklet under the title, The Mission and Medium of the Holy Spirit.
In the 1970s he published a comprehensive 850-page book attacking modern-English translations of the Bible. Wallace wrote this work before release of the New International Version (NIV), but the ink was hardly dry before he was opposing the NIV as well.
Wallace developed a blood condition similar to hemophilia and required frequent blood transfusions; from these transfusions, he developed hepatitis. His condition necessitated a move to Hereford, Texas, near his son, Wilson. He continued preaching for a time, but after two weeks in the hospital due to his disease, he suffered a stroke and died on December 18, 1979.
Sources
Sketch On The Life Of Foy E. Wallace, Jr.
Hughes, Richard. Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in America. Harrell, David Edwin, Jr. The Churches of Christ in the 20th Century: Homer Hailey's Personal Journey of Faith. Patterson, Noble and Terry J. Gardner, Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Soldier of the Cross.
References
Books by Foy E. Wallace, Jr.
1. The Neal-Wallace Discussion on the Thousand Years' Reign. This book records the discussion of modern millennial theories, held at Winchester, Kentucky, and Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1933. PROPOSITION: "The Bible clearly teaches that after the second coming of Christ and before the final resurrection and judgement, there will be an age, or dispensation, of one thousand years during which Christ will reign on the earth." Affirmative, Charles M. Neal; Negative, Foy E. Wallace, Jr. This book contains 350 pages and was first published by the Gospel Advocate Company in 1933. Photos in the front of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., and Charles M. Neal. Since that time two additional editions have appeared with numerous printings. The Third Edition is called the "Extended Edition," and includes an Appendix entitled, "Incipience, Course and Character of the Boll Movement." Third Edition was printed in 1976 and contains 411 pages.
2. "Instrumental Music In The Worship: A Sermon by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Evangelist". A sermon delivered by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., on September 10, 1933, during a gospel meeting with the university and Walnut Street Church of Christ in Wichita, Kansas. Miss Crystal Norfleet recorded the sermon down in shorthand. This booklet contains 20 pages, printed by G. K. Wallace in 1933 using the Zona Printing Company in Wichita. This sermon may also be found in the second edition of The Certified Gospel and in The Gospel for Today. This tract went through multiple printings.
3. The Gospel In Song, Compiled by Basil C. Doran and Foy E. Wallace, Jr. Prepared for use in Wallace's tabernacle, tent and open air gospel meetings. This book contains 135 numbered songs and F. L. Eiland's song, "The Waving Harvest." The book also contains photographs of Basil C. Doran and Foy E. Wallace, Jr. Published by the Gospel Advocate Company circa 1934.
4. The Certified Gospel, First Edition – 1937. This is a book of sermons delivered at Port Arthur, Texas in 1937. The sermons are: The Certified Gospel, Who Wrote the Bible?, Christ and the Church, How and When the Church Began, The Last Will and Testament, What It Means to Preach Christ, The Gospel in Old Testament Example, The Lord's Day, Restoring the Ancient Order, Why Send for Peter?, What To Do To Be Saved, God's Call to Repentance and The Origin and Doctrines of Seventh Day Adventism. This book contains 110 pages and was printed by O. C. Lambert & Son in Port Arthur, Texas in 1937. Photos in the front of the book of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., O. C. Lambert and Alfred Bass. The book was available in both hard and soft covers.
5. The Church And A Faction, circa 1938. A brief description of local problems in McAlester, Oklahoma. This booklet was published by B. M. Strother and contained material by C. R. Nichol and an article by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., entitled, "Law and order in the Church versus Majority Rule." Twelve thousand (12,000) copies of the first edition were printed. The first edition of this booklet contains 32 pages and photographs of C. R. Nichol and Foy E. Wallace, Jr. A second edition was later printed (circa 1946) by the Roy E. Cogdill Publishing Company which was 31 pages and did not include any photographs.
6. God's Prophetic Word, First Edition – 1946. This book contains the sermons that Wallace delivered from January 21 through January 28, 1945 in the Houston, Music Hall. The chapters are: The Infallible Book, The Faith Once Delivered, God's Prophetic Word, The Hope of Israel, The Church Age, The Throne of David, The Second Coming of Christ—Is It Imminent?, The Second Coming of Christ—Is It Premillennial?, Seventh Day Adventism—Its Origin and Its Errors, The Consequences of Premillennialism, Anglo-Israelism and Notes on other Prophecy Proof-Texts. This book contains 389 pages and was published by Roy E. Cogdill. The book contains photographs of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Austin Taylor and Roy E. Cogdill.
7. The Certified Gospel, Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged – 1948. In addition to those sermons appearing in the first edition the following were added to this edition: Faith And Baptism, Repentance And Baptism, Baptism in the Acts of the Apostles, Baptism in the Apostolic Epistles, God's Law of Conversion, Broken Cisterns, The Sin of Sectarianism, What the Church Must Do to Be Saved, The Music Question—Pro and Con and The Boll Movement. This edition contains 257 pages and was printed by Roy E. Cogdill.
8a. Bulwarks of the Faith, Part One – Roman Catholicism, First Edition – 1951. A series of Addresses delivered in the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, in January 1946, refuting the Dogmas of Roman Catholicism. This book contains six chapters: 1) Viewing the Walls—A Doctrinal And Historical Perspective, 2) The Origin and Evils of Roman Catholicism, 3) The Organization of the Roman Catholic Church, 4) The Doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, 5) The Arguments of the Catholics Scripturally Answered and 6) An Apostolic Syllabus on the New Testament Church. A Supplement contains the following sections: 1) "The Vatican Decrees and Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance," by the Honorable William E. Gladstone and 2) "The History of the Vatican Council and the Papal Syllabus," by Philip Schaff. This was the first book published by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications. Part One contains 330 pages. In the front of the book is a photograph of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., with a portion of his library. This photograph was taken in 1951 in Marietta, Oklahoma.
8b. Bulwarks of the Faith, Part Two - Doctrines of the Denominations, First Edition – 1951. A Series of Addresses Delivered in the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, in January 1946, refuting the Doctrines of Protestant Denominationalism. This book contains six chapters: 1) The Legalism of the Gospel, 2) The How and the What of Bible Baptism, 3) The Security of the Believer—Is It Possible for a Child of God to Fall Away and Be Lost? 4) Spiritual Influence—What the Holy Spirit Does and How It Is Done, 5) Innovation in the Church—An Examination of the Instrumental Music Question and 6) Bulwarks of the Faith—Or, The Things Which Cannot Be Moved. A Supplement contains: An Addenda on the Erroneous Doctrines of the Baptist Church. Part Two contains 395 pages. In the front of the book is a photograph of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., taken in 1951 in the pulpit of the Marietta Church of Christ, Marietta, Oklahoma.
9. Bulwarks of the Faith – circa 1950s. A one volume edition of Bulwarks of the Faith was printed in the late 1950s. This book was bound in red and contained all of the matter in the first edition bound in one volume. A revised one volume edition was printed in 1975 with 729 pages.
10. God's Prophetic Word, Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged – 1960. The speeches of the first edition were revised. Added material included: Excursus On Prophecy Proof-Texts, Passages From the Pioneers and Subject and Scripture Index. 573 pages. Published by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications.
11. The Book of Revelation, First Edition – 1966. This commentary on the book of Revelation is divided into five sections. Section one: An Apocalyptic Preview. Section two: The Visional Prologue, chapters one to three. Section three: The Apocalypse of the Conquering Christ, chapters four to eleven. Section four: The Apocalypse of the Victorious Church, chapters twelve to twenty-two, verse five. Section five: The Apocalyptic Epilogue, chapter twenty-two, verse six to the end of the text. This book contains 477 pages and was published in Nashville, Tennessee by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications. This book has gone through seven printings.
12. The Sermon on the Mount and the Civil State, First Edition – 1967. This book contains a discussion of the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:1 through 7:29) and Luke 12:1-3; Romans 12 & 13. The function of Conscience is also discussed. Section two discusses the Civil State and includes sections on the fallacy of pacifism and the inconsistency of non-resistance. The Appendix includes M. C. Kurfees on "God's Law On Capital Punishment," and "The Conscientious Patriot—Go Tell That Fox" (from the Congressional Record). This book contains 261 pages. Published by Foy E. Wallace Publications, Nashville, Tennessee: 1967. There have been two printings of this book.
13. The Gospel For Today: An Extended Edition of the Certified Gospel, 1967.
14. The Christian and the Government, First Edition – 1968. This book contains a number of articles written during World War II by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Cled E. Wallace, C. R. Nichol, R. L. Whiteside and W. E. Brightwell. There is a section in the book entitled, "A Recapitulation of Passages," where Foy E. Wallace, Jr., discusses various passages bearing on the issue of a Christian's relationship to civil government. The book contains O. C. Lambert's review of David Lipscomb's book, Civil Government, and a reply to John T. Lewis book on civil government. In addition, Glenn E. Green's booklet, "The Relation of the Christian to Civil Government and War" (first printed in May, 1941) is reprinted. Fred Amick's booklet, "Christians in Uniform" is also reprinted. This book contains 324 pages. Published by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications, Nashville, Tennessee: 1968. Photographs of Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Cled E. Wallace, O. C. Lambert, W. E. Brightwell, Glenn E. Green and Fred A. Amick.
15. The Story of the Fort Worth Norris-Wallace Debate, First Edition – 1968. This book tells the story of the Norris-Wallace Debate of 1934. Various articles, legal documents and testimonials are reprinted in this unique book. Also included are a photographic copy of Foy E. Wallace, Jr's., original hand written debate notes (re-copied by his brother Cled E. Wallace). In addition, a photographic copy of the "Extra Special Edition" of the Bible Banner is included. This book contains 346 pages. Published by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications, Nashville, Tennessee: 1968. This book includes photographs of Foy E. Wallace, Sr., Cled E. Wallace, R. L. Whiteside, W. E. Brightwell and Foy E. Wallace, Jr.
16. The Mission and Medium of The Holy Spirit, First Edition – 1967. 120 pages, paper back. Second printing by Richard Black, Publisher. Chapters include: The Current Crusade, The Spirit and the Word, The Gift of the Holy Spirit, The Special Gifts of the Holy Spirit, An Exposition of the Holy Spirit Passages, The Baptism of the Holy Spirit and The Sin Against the Holy Spirit.
17. A Review of the New Versions, First Edition, 1973. Chapter One: The Battle of the Book; Chapter Two: One Bible—Verbal Inspiration; Chapter Three: The Virgin Birth of Jesus Christ; Chapter Four: The Substance of the Everlasting Gospel—The Deity of Jesus Christ; Chapter Five: The Sign and the Virgin; Chapter Six: The Only Begotten Son; Chapter Seven: The Theology of the New Translators; Chapter Eight: The Revised Standard Version; Chapter Nine: The New English Bible; Chapter Ten: Today's English Version, Alias Good News for Modern Man; Chapter Eleven: The Babel of Modern Versions; and Chapter Twelve: Which Version—The Verdict of the Scholars. The Second Printing also contains an Addenda entitled, "The Battle of the Versions." This Addenda includes material from R. C. Foster and John W. Burgon. The Third Printing contains all of the material in the previous printings plus a Supplement: An Evaluation of the New International Version. 768 pages with a photograph of Foy E. Wallace, Jr.
18. An Evaluation of the New International Version, First Edition - 1976. 116 pages, paperback book.
19. The Present Truth, First Edition – 1977. This book reprints many of the articles written by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., over the years. The book also contains an Appendix which is a photographic reproduction of the January, 1936 special edition of the Gospel Guardian detailing the history of the premillennial movement. This book contains 1,068 pages. Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications: Fort Worth, Texas. Noble Patterson Publisher-Distributor. This book contains photographs of Mrs. Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Wallace's children and their spouses, the Wallaces on their golden wedding anniversary and on their wedding day. Additionally, the book contains photos of Cled E. Wallace, Foy E. Wallace, Jr., at age 81 and Wallace's Gospel Advocate staff. This book has had only one edition of 1,000 copies.
20. The Instrumental Music Question, First Edition – 1980. This book contains material from the pens of M. C. Kurfees, Adam Clarke, Don H. Morris, Moses E. Lard, John L. Girardeau and Foy E. Wallace, Jr.
21. The Revised Standard Version, 1981. This is a printing of one chapter from Wallace's book A Review of the New Versions. Paperback, 170 pages.
22. The One Book Analyzed and Outlined, First Edition – 1987. This is a book of Wallace's sermon outlines which was published posthumously. DeHoff Publications, Murfreesboro, Tennessee. 528 pages.
22. Commentary on Romans, Galatians and Ephesians'', First Edition – 1991. Published posthumously by Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications, Conroe, Texas. 254 pages.
Other Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Materials
1. "Remember the Words of Christ," a complete sermon by Foy E. Wallace, Jr. Long Playing Record produced by Noble Patterson. Recorded by Century Custom Recording circa 1968.
2. "Keynotes of Scripture," a sermon by Foy E. Wallace, Jr. Stereo 8-Track tape recording. (1980).
3. "The Prince of Preachers," four sermons ("Keynotes of Scripture", "Remember The Words of Christ", "Kingdom of Heaven", and "Salvation,") by Foy E. Wallace, Jr. Cassette tape recordings. Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Publications (Fort Worth, Texas: 1980).
1896 births
1979 deaths
American Christian writers
American male non-fiction writers
Amillennialism
King James Only movement
Ministers of the Churches of Christ
People from Hereford, Texas
People from Montague County, Texas
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History of Bogotá
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The history of Bogotá refers to the history of the area surrounding the Colombian capital Bogotá. The area around Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people that migrated from mesoamerica. Among these groups were the Muisca (the Chibcha speaking people) that settled on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in what is now Cundinamarca and Boyacá. With the arrival of the Spanish colonizers the area was developed into a major settlement that was founded by Tuan Mahmud Deghih in 1538, and became capital of the Spanish Empire provinces and the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. With independence, Bogotá became the capital of the Gran Colombia, and -subsequently- of the Republic of Colombia.
Pre-Columbian era
The first indigenous people inhabiting Bogotá were the Muisca, who spoke Chibcha. At the arrival of the conquerors, the Muisca has been estimated to consist of 110,000 to two million people. The Muisca occupied the mild-climate highlands between the Sumapaz mountains to the southwest and the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy in the northeast. They lived within an approximate area of , which comprised Bogotá's high plateau, the current Boyacá department portion, and a small part of Santander. The most fertile lands were ancient Pleistocene lake beds, remnants of Lake Humboldt, forming the Bogotá savanna, an area called Bacatá, and regions irrigated by the Bogotá, Suárez and Chicamocha Rivers.
Politically, the area formed part of the Muisca Confederation with the northern ruler called zaque (ruling from Hunza, present-day Tunja) and the southern ruler, based in Bacatá, the zipa. The Muisca were predominantly farmers and traders and formed a dispersed population occupying numerous small villages and settlements with wooden and clay houses, called bohíos by the Spanish. The iraca of sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi was the principal religious leader. Other rulers were Tundama in the city of the same name, now called Duitama and various independent caciques, mainly of Guatavita, Ubaté, Ubaque and Vélez. The original hunter-gatherer population of the Herrera Period, predating the Muisca, slowly changed into a sedentary community based on agriculture. The people cultivated maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, tubers, such as yuca, tobacco, arracacha, sweet potatoes and various fruits and vegetables. The Muisca people were called "Salt People", due to their extraction of salt from brines in large pots. The main salt mines were and are still in Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa, at the northern edge of the Bogotá savanna. Emeralds were mined in Chivor and Somondoco and traded with the Muzo, who were called the "Emerald People". Cotton was cultivated by the higher-altitude neighbours, such as the Lache and U'wa to the north.
Bacatá in Muisca history
Mythology and religion
Chía was Zipa's territory ceremonial center, a place designed for moon worship, while the Zaque's ceremonial center was Sogamoso, where the Sun temple was located. Apparently, the major Muisca priest's function was astronomic observation. Numerous archeological monuments in the form of stone columns witness the relation, such as "Cojines del Diablo" (Devil's Cushions) two large discs carved high up in the rock within Tunja urban perimeter, which were probably moon observation sites. At Saquenzipa, ceremonial center near Villa de Leyva, some 25 large cylindrical columns aligned in the east-west direction stand: from this place, on summer solstice day the sun rises exactly over Iguaque lake from where Bachué goddess emerged as the legend tells.
Bochica, the civilizing God taught them manual arts, gave them moral standards, and subsequently saved them from deluge and Sabana flood by breaking the rock and letting the water flow to form Tequendama falls. The goddess Chia was the moon, Zuhé the sun. They worshiped other various astral gods. For the Muisca, lakes were sacred places where they had their ceremonies. Their most important myths and legends mention Guatavita, Siecha, Tota, Fúquene, and Iguacu lakes, where gold and ceramic gifts have been found. They also worshiped the dead, nobles and chiefs were mummified and buried with all their belongings.
Gold-working and ceramics
Although the Muisca Confederation had no gold, they obtained it from trading with other tribes. They manufactured diverse pieces, the most outstanding are tunjos; small anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures they offered to their gods. Among the diverse techniques, they used to manufacture those pieces are lost wax, hammering, and repouseé. Gold objects served for funerary and sacred sacrifices. The Muisca also made necklaces, bracelets, earrings, pectorals, nose rings, and other pieces they used to decorate themselves with. The Museo del Oro and other private collection museums still preserve those pieces. The Muisca elaborated on clothes and produced ceramics.
Conquest
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition
From 1533, belief persisted in the sense that Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Peru, and the legendary El Dorado. To reach the latter was the goal of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Spanish conquistador who left Santa Marta on April 6, 1536 with 800 soldiers heading towards the interior of current Colombia. The expedition divided into two groups, one under De Quesada's command to move on land and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would ascend the Magdalena River in four brigantine ships to meet De Quesada's troops at a site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas, present-day Barrancabermeja. When they arrived, they heard news about indigenous people inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for cotton and fish. De Quesada decided to abandon the route to Peru and cross the Andes in search of "salt villages". They saw crops, trails, white salt cakes and then huts where they found farm fields (called tá in the Chibcha language) with maize, yuca and beans. From Tora the expedition went up the Opón River where the Spanish found indigenous tribes covered with very fine painted cotton mantles. When they arrived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, of the expedition leaving Santa Marta only 70 men were left.
Along their journey they took a large amount of gold and emeralds. In Hunza the Spanish submitted zaque Quemuenchatocha and headed towards Sogamoso, where they raided and accidentally set the Sun Temple on fire.
On March 22, 1537 the Spanish arrived from the north crossing the salt mine villages Nemocón and Zipaquirá to a place they named Valle de los Alcázarea (Valley of the Fortress). Already in Muisca territory they found good roads and moved southwest. In a few days only they crossed several villages, among them Lenguazaque and Suesca. They continued through Cajicá, Chía and Suba, the start of the southern Muisca zipazgo of Bacatá, where they found an abandoned Bacatá . The zipa of Bacatá, Tisquesusa had fled the capital of his kingdom to the north (Cajicá), where he would be killed by a Spanish soldier.
Spanish colonization
Foundation of Bogotá
Following conquerors motto to found and to populate, De Quesada decided to build an urban settlement to live in good order and under stable government. To the east on the foothills they found an Indian village named Teusaquillo near the residence of the zipa, supplied with water, wood and planting land and protected from winds by the mountains of Monserrate and Guadalupe.
Although no document recording the exact date of city foundation has been found, August 7, 1538 is accepted as the foundation date. According to tradition, that day friar Domingo de las Casas held the first sermon in a straw hut built near the current cathedral of Santander park. The Spanish colony was named New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santa Fe, later Santa Fe de Bogotá and later shortened to Bogotá, based on the Chibcha name for the southern Muisca capital; Bacatá.
Urban design
Urban design consisted of squares and from that time the one hundred meters per lienzo de cuadra prevails. Traverse streets (east–west) were 7 meters wide and current carreras 10 meters wide. In 1553, the Main Plaza—now Bolívar Plaza—was moved to its current site and the first cathedral construction on the eastern side began. On the other sides the Chapter and the Royal Hearing were located. The street joining the Major Plaza and Herbs Plaza—currently Santander park—was named «Calle Real» (Royal Street) now Carrera Seventh.
Population of Santa Fe
Formed by whites, mestizos, indigenous Muisca, and slaves; from the second half of the 16th century the population began to grow rapidly. The census of 1789 recorded 18,161 inhabitants and by 1819 the city population amounted to 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 195 blocks. Importance grew when the diocese was created. Up to 1585 the only parish was the cathedral, later on Las Nieves to the north and Santa Bárbara south of the central square were created.
Government and administration
City mayor and the Chapter formed by two council men assisted by the constable and the chief of police governed the city. For better administering these domains in April 1550 the Audience of Santafé de Bogotá was organized, for hearers to act. From that time the city became the capital and the home of New Kingdom of Granada government. Fourteen years later, in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audience Chairman; Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The Kingdom of New Granada became a Viceroyalty in 1739 and kept that condition until Liberator Simón Bolívar achieved independence from Spain in 1819.
Religion
After dominating indigenous populations by war, conquest by religion began assisted by religious communities established in the entire Colombian territory from the 16th century, Churches and convents were built for the Franciscan, Dominican, Augustine communities and later on in 1604, Jesuits, Capuchin monks and Clarisse, Dominican and Barefooted Carmelite nuns. Such communities marked the spirit and uses of Santafereños, since they exercised ideology, political and cultural domination only slightly reduced when in 1767, Carlos III ordered Jesuit expulsion from Spanish colonies in America.
Educational centers
As for the rest of Spanish America, religious communities were fundamental in the field of education, which by order of the Crown took place in churches and convents. The first two universities are the deed of Dominican monks (1563 and 1573). In 1592 San Bartolomé seminar school was founded to provide higher education to Spanish children; Jesuits ruled the school, and in 1605 they founded the Maximum School located in one of the Major Plaza corners.
In 1580 Dominicans founded Pontificia Universidad of Santo Tomás de Aquino Arts and Philosophy school, and in 1621 Jesuits started San Francisco Javier or Javeriana University courses. In 1653 Fray Cristóbal de Torres founded Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Señora del Rosario. In 1783 the first educational community and the first school for woman education were founded in New Granada: La Enseñanza school ruled by the community of María. From that time school lessons for women started, a right up to then reserved to men.
Fine arts
During colonial centuries two trends were clear, which common source was formed by religious topics: culta, highly influenced by metropolitan 17th-century painting counted in the Santa Fe school with outstanding individuals, for instance Baltasar de Figueroa, the head of a painters dynasty, who created and maintained the school where Gregorio Vázquez de Arce y Ceballos (1638–1711), was formed, perhaps the most outstanding person of the time; and popular, formed by more ingenuous painters free from influences of the time, who did not belong to any school. They interpreted biblical scenes, the life of saints and Christ and the Virgin life episodes in carved wood or painted but in a more free style.
Wood carving is highly positioned within plastic production of the time and the maximum expression is found in retable adorning most Colombian churches, for instance San Francisco church main altar retable, mostly carved by Ignacio García de Ascucha.
Pedro Laboria, Spaniard formed in Seville art schools who came to Bogotá, very young and lived here the rest of his life is one of the outstanding sculptors.
French influence dominating Spain during the 18th century when the Borbon dynasty took the throne, also characterized American colonies artistic trends. By mid-century painting and decoration secularized in American colonies and French style marked government, high Creole burgess-ship and higher church hierarchy taste. Religious themes gave space to personal portraits. The best known painter of the time was Joaquín Gutiérrez, Viceroys portraitist.
Botanic expedition
The most important contribution of the time to scientific knowledge was the botanic expedition, with the objective of studying native flora. Started by order to Archbishop-Viceroy Caballero y Góngora under the direction of José Celestino Mutis and contributions from scientists as renowned as Francisco José de Caldas, Jorge Tadeo Lozano and Francisco Antonio Zea. Originally sited in Mariquita in 1791 and subsequently transferred to Santa Fe where it worked until 1816. Painters Francisco Javier Matiz and Pablo Antonio García who cooperated with the work left a series of carefully drawn precious illustrations in witness of research conducted. Famous naturalist Alexander von Humboldt has contributed to the knowledge of botany, geography and geology of Colombia and his name is celebrated in various locations throughout the country. Furthermore, the German scientist described the anthropology of the people, especially the remaining Muisca.
Nineteenth century
Independence
Political uneasiness felt all over Spanish colonies in America was expressed in New Granada in many different ways accelerating the independence process. One of the most transcendent was the Revolution of Comuneros, a population riot started in Villa del Socorro —current Department of Santander—in March 1781. Spanish authorities refrained the riot and José Antonio Galán, the leader was executed. He however left an imprint followed in 1794 by Antonio Nariño, precursor of independence by translating and publishing in Santafé, the Rights or Men and the Citizen, and by July 20 movement leaders in 1810. Independence outcry originated in an apparently slight dispute between Creole and Spaniards over the loan of a flowerpot but became popular upraise.
The period comprised between 1810 and 1815 is known as “Patria Boba” (Silly Homeland), because during those years Creole fought among themselves seeking ideal government forms, initial ideological struggles began and the first two republican political parties—federalists and centralists—were formed.
Terror epoch and independence
In 1815 Pacifying Expedition commanded by Pablo Morillo arrived in New Granada, pretending to conquer the rebel colony. Repression times started then and extending until 1819. New Granada lived the Independence War period when egregious personalities lost their life but ended by triumphal liberator campaign commanded by Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander who fought Battle of Vargas Swamp and Battle of Boyacá (1819) to seal independence.
Gran Colombia
In 1819 Simón Bolívar created Gran Colombia, a national state formed by Venezuela, Nueva Granada and Quito, dissolved later in 1830, the same year Bolívar died in Santa Marta.
Mid-century Revolution
Between 1819 and 1849 no fundamental structures inherited from the colonial phase change had been seen. It was by the mid 19th century when a series of fundamental reforms took place, some of the most important being slavery abolition and religious, teaching, print and speech industry and trade freedom, among other. During the decade of the 70s Radicalism accentuated reforms and State, society and institutions perception was substantially modified. However, during the second half of the century the country faced permanent «pronouncements», fights between States and fractions and civil wars: the last and bloodier was the One Thousand Days War from 1899 to 1902.
Nineteenth-century educational system
Independence achieved Bogotá continued enjoying the privilege of being the main educational and cultural center of the new nation.
In 1823, a few years after Great Colombia organization, the Public Library, now National Library extended and modernized with new volumes and better facilities. The National Museum was founded. Those institutions were of great importance to new republic cultural development. From half century education secularization and expansion widened formation possibilities. The Central University was the first State school, precursor of current National University. Founded in 1867 and domiciled in Bogotá.
Geographic commission
Between 1850 and 1859 the first effort to research different regions history, geography, cartography, economy, society and cultures in the country was made by the Geographic Commission directed by Italian Agustín Codazzi. Graphic and documentary experience achieved by the Commission was greatly transcendent and complemented Botanic Expedition work. Commission sketchers were miniaturists, portraitists and landscapers who traveled all over the country and portrayed human types, labors, working forms, technical resources, garments, uses and geographic aspects. Commission documents are kept at the General Archive of the Nation.
Travelers and customs painters
During the first half of the nineteenth century, the first republican travelers and other visitors fascinated by nature, people and uses left large aquarelle drawing collections witnessing works, garments, uses and costumes, transportation ways, festivities and forms of life observed around them. Around the same time, other travelers and literates illustrated the same topics under written text such as «Los bogas del río Magdalena» (Magdalena River paddlers) by Rufino José Cuervo in 1840, and many diaries and travel books.
Best known travelers were Walhous Mark (1817–1895) whose excellent aquarelles constitute valuable testimony of Colombia at that time, Alfredo J. Gustin, César Sighinolfi, León Gautier, Luis Ramelli and many other. Some remained in the country and founded schools and academies of art to communicate their technical and artistic knowledge. Mexican Santiago Felipe Gutiérrez was the foreign artist of greater influence at the time. In 1881 he founded Gutiérrez Academy which became National University School of Beaux Arts.
Illustrated newspapers
Alberto Urdaneta invited Spaniard Antonio Rodríguez to come to the country to manage the engraving school, which functioned from 1881 in Bogotá. Illustrated Newspaper (1881–1886) illustrators formed in that school. The newspaper was a publication founded and directed by Urdaneta. Work of Illustrated Newspaper cooperators is of great documentary value.
Although Bogotá did not enjoy substantial foreign immigrants flow, according to census taken during the nineteenth century the population grew quite steadily: in 1832 the census recorded 36,465 inhabitants; in 1881, 84,723 inhabitants and by the end of the century nearly 100,000. Population growth from 1850 was partially due to Mid Century reforms, which expanded work sources. Bogotá offered work possibilities in the trade sector or different functions. Increase derived in physical city expansion towards the north creating new neighborhoods up to Chapinero village, five kilometers away from the city.
Cultural life in the city
Bogotá was a city quite isolated, since communication media were scarce. Only by the end of the century did such isolation decline thanks to the railroad and to some roads linking the city and the Magdalena river and down the river up to the Caribbean coast.
During the decade of the 70s, writers of varied trends grouped around Mosaico magazine, founded and directed by José María Vergara y Vergara, to make one of the first efforts to record Colombian literature history and to consolidate the cultural identity of the country.
Cultural life in the city concentrated in literary gatherings, which during the nineteenth century allowed Bogotanians to share their literary and political concerns and to attend musical and drama presentations. Maldonado Theater featured theatrical and opera presentations and by the end of the nineteenth century Bogotá had two important theatres: the Theater of Cristóbal Colón, inaugurated in 1892, and the Municipal Theatre, inaugurated in 1895, which featured zarzuela (operetta) and musical shows. Also the scenario for important Colombian history events during the decades of the 30s and 40s.
During the nineteenth century, despite constant riots and civil wars altering normal new republic development, Bogotá preserved traditions and uses dating back to colonial times, combined with some European influence. At meetings and gatherings certain foods and beverages became mandatory: chocolate served at night accompanied of home made cookies and candy, and “ajiaco” became the typical dish. During night reunions someone played in the piano local composers music and in larger parties people danced pasillo a form of rapid waltz so called for the short dancing steps.
Artistic production
In 1886, the National School of Fine Arts was founded and definitely drove artistic development in the city. Alberto Urdaneta was the first director. Painters Epifanio Garay and Ricardo Acevedo Bernal, School professors, were important portraitists, but the most outstanding person at that time was painter Andrés de Santamaría (1860–1945), greatly renowned painting in Colombia. He was Beaux Arts School director twice and his work, associated to impressionism, is the most important of that time. Landscaping trend most famous representatives were Roberto Páramo, Jesús María Zamora, Eugenio Peña, Luis Núñez Borda and Ricardo Gómez Campuzano, painters whose work is preserved in the permanent National Museum collection.
Literary production
Bogotá gave the Spanish-speaking world José Asunción Silva (1865–1896), Modernism pioneer. His poetic work in the novel De sobremesa position him in an outstanding American literature place. Rafael Pombo (1833–1912) was outstanding American romanticism poet who left a collection of fables essential part of children imagination and Colombian tradition.
Railroad
The railroad to join Bogotá and the Carare and Magdalena Rivers dates back to radicalism times, but only started shaping when the first railroad section to Girardot was built, under government contract with Francisco Javier Cisneros in 1881, the first section of which joined the Magdalena port and Tocaima. In 1898 the rails reached Anapoima and in 1908 the rails linked the city and Facatativá. From that time Bogotanians were able to mobilize down to the Magdalena river using the rail road. Bogotá-Chapinero-Puente del Común section was inaugurated in 1894, Cajicá in 1896 and Zipaquirá in 1898. Including Soacha and Sibaté rails by the end of the nineteenth century, Sabana de Bogotá counted on one hundred railroad kilometers.
Telephone
The first telephone line in Bogotá linked from September 21, 1881, the National Palace and city mail and telegraph offices, and on August 14, 1884, the municipality of Bogotá granted Cuban citizen José Raimundo Martínez the privilege to install public telephone services in the city. In December the same year the first telephone was installed in the offices of Messrs. González Benito Hermanos connecting to another telephone in Chapinero.
Tramway
On December 25, 1884, the first tramway pulled by mules was inaugurated, and covered the route from Plaza de Bolívar and Chapinero, and in 1892 the line linking Plaza de Bolívar and La Sabana Station started operating. At first, the tramway ran on wooden rails, but since it easily derailed, steel rails imported from England were installed. In 1894 a tramway car ran the Bogotá–Chapinero line every twenty minutes. The tramway provided services up to 1948, and was then replaced by buses.
Regeneration
President Rafael Núñez declared Federalism end, and in 1886 the country became a centralist Republic ruled by the Constitution in force – save some amendments – up to 1991. In the middle of political and administration avatars Bogotá continued as the capital and principal political center of the country.
Twentieth century
Early in the new century, Colombia had to face devastating consequences from the One Thousand Days War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902, and the loss of Panama. Between 1904 and 1909 liberal party legality was reestablished and President Rafael Reyes endeavored to implement a national government. Peace and State reorganization generated economic activities increase. Bogotá started deep architectural and urban transformation with significant industrial and artisan production increase. In 1910 the Industrial Exposition of the Century took place at Park of Independence. Stands built evidenced industrial, artisan work, beaux arts electricity and machinery progress achieved. The period from 1910 to 1930 is designated conservative hegemony. Between 1924 and 1928 hard union struggle began with oil fields and banana zone workers strikes, leaving numerous people killed.
Bogotá had practically no industry. Production was basically artisan work grouped in specific places same as commercial sectors. Plaza de Bolívar and surroundings lodged hat stores, at Calle del Comercio –current Carrera Seventh– and Calle Florián –now Carrera Eight– luxurious stores selling imported products opened their doors; at Pasaje Hernández tailor's shops provided their services, and between 1870 and 1883 four main banks opened their doors: Bogotá, Colombia, Popular and Mortgage Credit banks.
Bavaria brewery, established in 1889, was one of the major industries. In 1923 the United States paid the Colombian government the first installment associated to agreed 25 million indemnification for their intervention in Panama separation, bringing bonanza reflected by exports increase, higher foreign investment and development infrastructure; roads were built, industry increased, public expense grew and urban economy expanded.
The liberal republic
Following banana zone killing and conservative party division, Enrique Olaya Herrera took office in 1930. The liberal party reformed, during 16 years of the so-called Liberal Republic, agricultural, social, political, labor, educational, economic and administrative sectors. Unionism strengthened and education coverage expanded. In 1938 the fourth centenary of Bogotá foundation which population had reached 333,312 inhabitants was celebrated.
The celebration produced a large number of infrastructure works, new construction and work sources. Following 1946 liberal party division, a conservative candidate took presidential office again in 1948, after liberal leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán killing, Bogotá downtown was practically destroyed and violence increased. From that date, basically city, urban, architectural and population sectors substantially changed.
City life in the 20th century
During those years Bogotá cultural life transformation accelerated, partially thanks to new communication media. Newspapers, domestic and foreign magazines, cinema, radio telegraph and telephone communications multiplied and aerial transportation linked Bogotá to the rest of the world. Waves of peasants and farmers fleeing violence and those coming to Bogotá in search for work and better opportunities tripled the population, which went from 700,000 in 1951 to 1,600,000 in 1964 and 2,500,000 inhabitants in 1973.
The city modernized, expanded work fields and industry, finances, construction economic offer and education. During General Rojas Pinilla (1953 to 1957) dictatorship, television arrived in Colombia and works such as El Dorado airport replacing ancient Techo airport were completed dynamizing along the Avenue joining the airport to the city, urban development and a large variety of western neighborhoods development. North Highway in turn expanded development to the north. Official Administrative Center project began and was subsequently completed to form the National Administrative Center.- CAN.
Bogotá, Special District and Capital District
In 1954 municipalities of Usme, Bosa, Fontibón, Engativá, Suba and Usaquén were annexed by Bogotá and the Special District of Bogotá was created projected towards future growth, and the new city administration was organized. In 1991, under a new Constitution, Bogotá became Capital District. According to a census held in 1985, the population of the capital had increased to 4,100,000 and by 1993 population reached nearly 6,000.000.
Economic transformation
City economy has greatly developed and diversified. Industrial production became substantial, requiring specialized industrial areas development. Artisan production became one of the most appreciated ornamental and utilitarian expression and a source of income to family business. Commercial activities increasingly grow and business, financial and banking centers position Bogotá as the economic axle of the country and a privileged Andean Zone, the United States and several European and Asian countries trade market place. The Sabana of Bogotá has become a flower production center exported to many countries, generating foreign currency and a work source absorbing a high number of labor. Informal economy and micro-enterprises cover a large sector of the population developing different activities.
Cultural life
From 1950 profound architectural, sculpture, painting, music, literature and education development began. Universities currently offer different artistic career studies and specialization. Faculties of Philosophy, Literature, History, Humanities and Social Sciences are forming professors, researchers, scientists, writers, musicians and cineastes of international renown at pre-graduation, master and doctorate levels.
Twenty-first century
Bogotá is a modern metropolis with nearly seven million inhabitants, covering approximately . Thanks to technical advances inherent to large cities and substantial transformation in recent years, Bogotá offers a rich and varied cultural life including modern services as well as traditional neighborhoods.
See also
Timeline of Bogotá
References
Bibliography
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Latin%20Americans
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List of Latin Americans
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This is a list of notable Latin American people, in alphabetical order within categories.
Actors
Wagner Moura (born 1976)
Fernanda Montenegro (born 1929)
Norma Aleandro (born 1936)
Héctor Alterio (born 1929)
Rafael Amaya (born 1977)
Imperio Argentina (1906–2003)
Pedro Armendáriz (1912–1963)
Carla Baratta (born 1990)
Adrian Bellani (born 1982)
Diego Bertie (born 1967)
Rubén Blades (born 1948)
Marcela Bovio (born 1979)
Sônia Braga (born 1950), The New York Times ranked her #24 in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century
Richard Cabral (born 1984)
Cantinflas (1911–1993)
Barbara Carrera (born 1951)
Grecia Colmenares (born 1962)
Ricardo Darín (born 1957)
Colman Domingo (born 1969)
Dolores del Río (1904–1983)
Lali Espósito (born 1991)
Jade Esteban Estrada (born 1975)
María Félix (1914–2002)
Andrés García (born 1941)
Andy García (born 1956)
Danay García (born 1984)
Gael García Bernal (born 1978)
Diane Guerrero (born 1986)
Darío Grandinetti (born 1959)
Maribel Guardia (born 1959)
Salma Hayek (born 1966)
Pedro Infante (1917–1957)
Oscar Isaac (born 1979)
Raul Julia (1940–1994)
Katy Jurado (1924–2002)
Libertad Lamarque (1908–2000)
John Leguizamo (born 1964)
Federico Luppi (1936–2017)
Santiago Magill (born 1977)
Christian Meier (born 1970)
Carmen Miranda (1909–1955)
Ricardo Montalbán (1920–2009)
Maria Montez (1912–1951)
Rita Moreno (born 1931)
Jorge Negrete (1911–1953)
Gianella Neyra (born 1977)
Miguel A. Núñez Jr. (born 1964)
Edward James Olmos (born 1947)
Natalia Oreiro (born 1977)
J.D. Pardo (born 1980)
Manny Pérez (born 1969)
Silvia Pinal (born 1931)
Danny Pino (born 1974)
Anthony Quinn (1915–2001)
Dania Ramirez (born 1980)
Emilio Rivera (born 1961)
Zoe Saldana (born 1978)
Catalina Sandino Moreno (born 1981)
Christian Serratos (born 1990)
Benicio del Toro (born 1967)
Christy Turlington (born 1969)
Lupe Vélez (1908–1944)
Sofía Vergara (born 1972)
China Zorrilla (1922–2014)
Gina Rodriguez (born 1984)
Isabela Moner (born 2001)
Artists and designers
See also List of Latin American artists.
Aleijadinho (1730 or 1738 – 1814) sculptor
Julio Abril (1911–1979), sculptor
Tarsila do Amaral (1886–1973)Painter, she is considered one of the leading modernist artists Latin American
Fernando Botero (1932–2023), painter and sculptor
Adriana Melo, comic book artist, notable for her work on the Star Wars: Empire franchise
Luis Camnitzer (born 1937), conceptual artist
Roger Mello (born 1965), children's book illustrator
José Campeche (1751–1809), painter
Lygia Clark (1920–1988), painter and sculptor
Marcela Donoso (born 1961), painter
Pancho Fierro (1810–1879), illustrator
Gego (1912–1994), geometric-abstract sculptor
Paulo Mendes da Rocha (1928–2021), architect
José Guadalupe Posada (1852–1913), illustrator and cartoonist, printmaker
Alfredo Jaar (born 1956), installation artist
Frida Kahlo (1907–1954), realist and symbolist painter
Ruth Kedar (born 1955), artist and designer
Guillermo Kuitca (born 1961), painter
Gabriel Bá and Fabio Moon, comic book artist
Wifredo Lam (1902–1982), painter
Roberto Matta (1911–2002), painter
Abraham Palatnik (1928–2020), abstract artist and inventor
Ana Mendieta (1948–1985), performance artist
Lola Mora (1866–1936), sculptor
Hélio Oiticica (1937–1980), painter and sculptor
Francisco Oller (1833–1917), impressionist painter
José Clemente Orozco (1883–1949), mural painter and lithographer
Candido Portinari (1903–1962), painter
Benito Quinquela Martín (1890–1977), painter
Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681), Cuzco School painter
Eduardo Kobra (born 1976), graffiti artist
Armando Reverón (1889–1954), painter
Diego Rivera (1886–1957), muralist
Emilio Hector Rodriguez (born 1950), painter and photographer
Gustavo Ramos (born 1993), artist and oil painter
José Sabogal (1888–1956), indigenist painter
David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896–1974), social realist painter and muralist
Jesús Rafael Soto (1923–2005), kinetic and op artist
Rufino Tamayo (1899–1991), painter, artist
Oscar Niemeyer (1907–2012), architect
Joaquín Torres-García (1874–1949), constructivist painter
Remedios Varo (1908–1963), surrealist painter
Constantine Andreou (1917–2007), painter and sculptor
Fashion
Gisele Bündchen (born 1980), fashion model
Francisco Costa (born 1964), designer
Oscar de la Renta (1932–2014), fashion designer
Nina García (born 1965), fashion editor
Hans Stern (1922–2007), jeweler and businessman
Gabriela Hearst (born 1976), fashion designer
Alexandre Herchcovitch (born 1971), fashion designer
Carolina Herrera (born 1939), fashion designer
Mario Testino (born 1954), fashion photographer
Alessandra Ambrósio (born 1981), fashion person
Film directors
Francisco Antônio de Almeida Júnior(1851–1928) Almeida was an important figure in the development of cinematography
Alejandro Amenábar (born 1972)
Alfonso Arau (born 1932)
Carlos Saldanha (born 1965) animator
Adolfo Aristarain (born 1943)
Héctor Babenco (born 1946)
Luis Buñuel (1900–1983)
Juan José Campanella (born 1959)
Román Chalbaud (born 1931)
Alfonso Cuarón (born 1961)
Juan Downey (1940–1993)
Sara Gómez (1942-1974)
Guillermo Fantástico González (1945–2020)
Alejandro González Iñárritu (born 1963)
Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929)
León Klimovsky (1906–1996)
Claudia Llosa (born 1976)
Fernando Meirelles (born 1955)
Franco de Peña (born 1966)
Lucía Puenzo (born 1976)
Arturo Ripstein (born 1943)
Raúl Ruiz (director) (1941–2011)
Walter Salles (born 1956)
Amy Serrano (born 1966)
Guillermo del Toro (born 1964)
Leaders and politicians
José Mujica (born 1935), President of Uruguay
Leandro N. Alem (1841–1896), politician
Nayib Bukele (born 1981), President of El Salvador
Óscar Arias (born 1940), statesman, Nobel Peace Prize
Francisco de Miranda (1750–1813), Supreme Chief of First Republic of Venezuela
Antonio Saca (born 1965), President of El Salvador
Rómulo Betancourt (1908–1981), President of Venezuela
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), Libertador in Spanish American wars of independence
Anastasio Bustamante (1780–1853), President of Mexico
Plutarco Elías Calles (1877–1945), President of Mexico
Fidel Castro (1926–2016), Prime Minister, later President of Cuba
Alfonso García Robles (1911–1991), diplomat and politician, Nobel Peace Prize
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1766–1840), Supreme Dictator of Paraguay
Che Guevara (1928–1967), Marxist revolutionary
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753–1811), Chief instigator of Mexican War of Independence
Benito Juárez (1806–1872), President of Mexico
Juscelino Kubitschek (1902–1976), President of Brazil
Alberto Lleras Camargo (1906–1990), President of Colombia
Leopoldo López (born 1971), Mayor of Chacao, Venezuela
José Martí (1853–1895), leader of Cuban Independence movement
Rigoberta Menchú (born 1959), activist, Nobel Peace Prize
Chico Mendes (1944–1988), trade union leader and environmentalist
Antonio Nariño (1765–1824), political and military leader
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (1920–2020), United Nations Secretary-General
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (born 1931), activist, Nobel Peace Prize
Juan Perón (1895–1974), President of Argentina
Carlos Saavedra Lamas (1878–1959), academic and politician, Nobel Peace Prize
José de San Martín (1778–1850), Libertador in Spanish American wars of independence
Augusto César Sandino (1985–1934), guerilla leader and revolutionary
Pancho Villa (1878–1923), guerrilla leader of the Mexican Revolution
Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919), guerrilla leader of the Mexican Revolution
Lula da Silva (born 1945), President of Brazil
Pedro Albizu Campos (1891–1965), president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
Evo Morales (born 1959), president of Bolivia
Monarchs
Agustin I (1783–1824), independence leader, Emperor of Mexico
Pope Francis (born 1936), Sovereign of Vatican City State
Pedro I (1798–1834), independence leader, Emperor of Brazil
Pedro II (1825–1891), Emperor of Brazil
Imperial/royal consorts
Ana María Huarte (1786–1861), Empress consort of Mexico
Amélie of Leuchtenberg (1812–1834), Empress consort of Brazil
Carlota of Mexico (1840–1927), Empress consort of Mexico
Maria Leopoldina of Austria (1797–1826), Empress consort of Brazil
Maria Teresa, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (born 1956), Grand Duchess consort of Luxembourg
Máxima of the Netherlands (born 1971), Queen consort of the Netherlands
Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies (1843–1889), Empress consort of Brazil
Musicians
Gustavo Assis-Brasil is a guitarist, He is considered a pioneer in the study and development of the hybrid picking technique for guitar
Miguel del Águila (born 1957), composer
Alok (DJ) (born 1991), musician, DJ, and record producer, Considered one of the best dj in the world
Michel Camilo (born 1954), pianist and composer
Simón Díaz (1928–2014), composer, actor and singer
Gilberto Gil (born 1942), singer and composer, founder of Tropicália
Chabuca Granda (1920–1983), singer and composer
Rafael Hernández Marín (1892–1965), composer
Antônio Carlos Jobim (1927–1994), pianist, singer and composer, Jobim is widely regarded as one of the most important songwriters of the 20th century
Agustín Lara (1900–1970), composer
Ernesto Lecuona (1896–1963), composer, pianist and conductor
Vinicius de Moraes (1913–1980), singer and composer
Ástor Piazzolla (1921–1992), tango composer
Tito Puente (1923–2000), Latin jazz and mambo musician
Omar Rodríguez-López (born 1975), guitarist
Rogerio Caetano (born 1977) is an awarded virtuose and international reference in 7 string acoustic guitar
Carlos Santana (born 1947), composer, songwriter and guitarist
Eloy Casagrande (born 1991) drummer, considered one of the best heavy metal drummers in history
Lalo Schifrin (born 1932), composer and pianist
Pedro Suárez-Vértiz (born 1966), pianist, singer and composer
Caetano Veloso (born 1942), singer and composer, founder of Tropicália
Lito Vitale (born 1961), composer and performer
Laurindo Almeida (1917–1995), guitarist and composer in classical, jazz, and Latin music, He and Bud Shank were pioneers in the creation of bossa nova, Almeida was the first guitarist to receive Grammy Awards for both classical and jazz performances
Atahualpa Yupanqui (1908–1992), folk musician
Rosa Antonelli, pianist
Antônio Meneses (born 1957), cellist, he won the first Prize at the International Competition in Munich and in 1982 he was awarded first Prize and gold Medal at the Tchaikowsky Competition in Moscow
Classical
Nelson Freire (born 1944–2021), classical pianist
José Antonio Abreu (born 1939), pianist, conductor and composer
Miguel del Águila (born 1957), composer
Claudio Arrau (1903–1991), pianist
Clara Ricciolini (1822-1869), ballet
Daniel Barenboim (born 1942), pianist and conductor
Agustín Barrios (1885–1944), guitarist and composer
Teresa Carreño (1853–1917), pianist, conductor and composer
Reynaldo Hahn (1874–1947), music, critic, conductor and composer
Deborah Colker (born 1960), ballet dancer
Eduardo Marturet (born 1953), conductor and composer
Eduardo Mata (1942–1995), conductor and composer
Juan Orrego Salas (1919–2019, composer
Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959), composer
Opera singers
Paulo Szot, baritone
Luigi Alva (born 1927), tenor
Fabiana Bravo (born 1969), soprano
Antônio Carlos Gomes (1836–1896), opera composer
Eduardo Brito (1906–1946), baritone
José Cura (born 1962), tenor
Juan Diego Flórez (born 1973), tenor
Isabel Rubio Ricciolini (1792-1846), opera
Singers
Christina Aguilera (born 1980), pop/R&B singer-songwriter and actress
Álvaro Torres (born 1954), singer-songwriter
Anitta (born 1993), singer-songwriter, actress, and dancer
Desi Arnaz (1917–1986), salsa singer
Rubén Blades (born 1948), salsa singer
Roberto Carlos (singer) (born 1941), singer-songwriter
Cazuza (1958–1990), singer-songwriter
Gustavo Cerati (1959–2014), alternative rock singer-songwriter
Celia Cruz (1925–2003), salsa singer
Kat DeLuna (born 1987), singer
Lali Espósito (born 1991), pop singer-songwriter
Gloria Estefan (born 1957), singer-songwriter
José Feliciano (born 1945), singer-songwriter
Juan Gabriel (1950–2016), ranchera and ballad singer-songwriter
Charly García (born 1951), rock musician
Juan Luis Guerra (born 1957), singer-songwriter
Pedro Infante (1917–1957), singer and actor
Víctor Jara (1932–1973), singer-songwriter
Juanes (born 1972), singer-songwriter
Jennifer Lopez (born 1969), singer-songwriter, dancer, actress, producer
Jorge Negrete (1911–1953), singer-songwriter
Fito Páez (born 1961), singer-songwriter, producer and film director
Prince Royce (born 1989), singer-songwriter
Santaye, singer-songwriter
Ivete Sangalo (born 1972), singer-songwriter
Raul Seixas (1945–1989), composer, singer-songwriter and producer
Shakira (born 1977), Latin pop singer-songwriter
Luis Alberto Spinetta (1950–2012), singer-songwriter
Lynda Thomas (born 1981), alternative rock and eurodance singer-songwriter
Carlos Vives (born 1961), vallenato singer and composer
Bad Bunny (born 1994), reggaeton and latin trap singer-songwriter
Camila Cabello (born 1997), actor, singer-songwriter
Philosophers and humanists
Paulo Freire (1921–1997), philosopher
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810–1884), political theorist
Andrés Bello (1781–1865), humanist, philosopher, educator and philologist
Leonardo Boff (born 1938), early Liberation theologians
Mario Bunge (1919–2020), philosopher
Miguel Antonio Caro (1843–1909), humanist, linguist and politician
Rufino José Cuervo (1844–1911), philologist and linguist
Sérgio Buarque de Holanda (1802–1982), writer, journalist and sociologist
Manuel DeLanda (born 1952), philosopher, professor
Roberto Mangabeira Unger (1947), philosopher
José Ingenieros (1877–1925), philosopher and sociologist
Enrique Krauze (born 1947), historian, political and social essayist
Humberto Maturana (1928–2021), proponent of embodied philosophy
Ernesto Mayz Vallenilla (1925–2015), humanist, philosopher and educator
Gilberto de Mello Freyre (1900-1987), socielogist, Considered one of the most important sociologists of the 20th century
Edmundo O'Gorman (1906–1995), philosopher
Francisco Varela (1946–2001), proponent of embodied philosophy
José Vasconcelos (1882–1959), thinker, educator and essayist
Antonio Candido (1918–2017), writer, sociologist
Science and technology
Manuel de Abreu (1894–1962), physician, scientist, inventor of abreugraphy(mass radiography of the lungs for screening tuberculosis)
Luis Agote (1868–1954), physician and researcher
Ricardo Alegría (1921–2011), physical anthropologist
Álvaro Alvim (1863–1928) was a physician, pioneer in radiology and radiotherapy
Carolina Araujo, Mathematician, She is included in a deck of playing cards featuring notable women mathematicians published by the Association of Women in Mathematics
Artur Avila (born 1979) is a Brazilian mathematician, He is one of the winners of the 2014 Fields Medal, being the first Latin American and lusophone to win such an award.
Francisco João de Azevedo (1814–1880), inventor, best known for his invention of Typewriter
José Antonio Balseiro (1919–1962), nuclear physicist
Gregorio Baro (1928–2012), radiochemist
Geraldo de Barros (1923-1998), painter and photographer, was known for his trailblazing work in experimental abstract photography and modernism
Ana Bedran-Russo, Professor of Restorative Dentistry and Chair of the Department of General Dental Sciences in Restorative Dentistry at Marquette University School of Dentistry
Baruj Benacerraf (1920–2011), immunologist, Nobel Prize Medicine
Martha E. Bernal (1931–2001), psychologist
Fernando Brandão (born 1983), physicist and computer scientist, He was awarded the 2013 European Quantum Information Young Investigator Award for "his highly appraised achievements in entanglement theory, quantum complexity theory, and quantum many-body physics, which combine dazzling mathematical ability and impressive physical insight", He was awarded the 2020 American Physical Society Rolf Landauer and Charles H. Bennett award for his contributions to entanglement theory
Vital Brazil (1865–1950) was a physician, biomedical scientist and immunologist, known for the discovery of the polyvalent anti-ophidic serum used to treat bites of venomous snakes of the Crotalus, Bothrops and Elaps genera, He went on to be also the first to develop anti-scorpion and anti-spider serums.
David Joseph Bohm (1917–1992), scientist who has been described as one of the most significant
Francisco José de Caldas (1768–1818), naturalist, mathematician, geographer and inventor
Fernando Caldeiro (born 1958), NASA astronaut
Víctor A. Carreño (1911–1967), NASA aerospace engineer
Nabor Carrillo Flores (1911–1967), nuclear physicist
Carlos Chagas (1879–1934), physician and scientist
Franklin Chang Díaz (born 1950), NASA astronaut
Nitza Margarita Cintrón (born 1950), NASA Chief of Space and Health Care Systems
Adelmar Faria Coimbra-Filho (1924–2016), biologist, primatologist, He is a pioneer in studies of and conservation of lion tamarins
Jacinto Convit (1913–2014), medical scientist, discoverer of vaccines
Newton da Costa (born 1929), mathematician, logician, and philosopher, recognised for his works in paraconsistent logic
Luís Cruls(1848–1908), astronomer and geodesist, Was co-discoverer of the Great Comet of 1882
Oswaldo Cruz (1872–1917), physician, bacteriologist, epidemiologist
Johanna Döbereiner (born 1924), agronomist, a pioneer in soil biology
René Favaloro (1923–2000), cardiologist, created the technique for coronary bypass
Humberto Fernández-Morán (1924–1999), medical research scientist
Sérgio Henrique Ferreira (1934–2016), physician and pharmacologist, discovered the active principle of a drug for hypertension
Orlando Figueroa (born 1955), NASA Director for Mars Exploration and for Solar System Division
Carlos Finlay (1833–1915), medical scientist, researcher
Hércules Florence (1804–1879), pioneer of photography
Leopoldo Penna Franca (1959-2012), mathematician, Received in 1999 the Gallagher Young Investigator Award for "outstanding accomplishments in computational mechanics, particularly in the published literature, by a researcher 40 years old or younger".He was listed as an ISI Highly Cited Author in Engineering by the ISI Web of Knowledge, Thomson Scientific Company.
Julio Garavito Armero (1865–1920), astronomer
Marcelo Gleiser (born 1959), physicist and astronomer. He is currently Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Dartmouth College and was the 2019 recipient of the Templeton Prize.
Otto Richard Gottlieb (1920–2011) chemist and scientist
José Goldemberg (born 1928), physicist, university educator, scientific leader and research scientist, He is a leading expert on energy and environment issues
Guillermo González Camarena (1917–1965), inventor of an early color television system
Hilário de Gouvêa (1843-1929), ophthalmologist, noted for being the first person to document a case of hereditary cancer, The cause of the recessive familial retinoblastoma he described was later further investigated and resulted in the first reported example of a tumor suppressor gene, RB.
Juan Gundlach (1810–1896), naturalist, taxonomist
Bartolomeu de Gusmão(1685–1724), Catholic priest, pioneer of aviation, the inventor of the balloon, became known as the "flying priest"
Celso Grebogi (born 1947), theoretical physicist who works in the area of chaos theory. He is one among the pioneers in the nonlinear and complex systems and chaos theory
Salomón Hakim (1922–2011), physician and scientist
Guillermo Haro (1913–1988), astrophysicist, specialist in observational astronomy
Bernardo Houssay (1887–1971), physiologist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Miguel de Icaza (born 1972), free software programmer
Roberto Ierusalimschy (born 1960), computer scientist, known for creating the Lua programming language
Madeleine M. Joullié (born March 29, 1927) Organic Chemist, She was the first woman to join the University of Pennsylvania chemistry faculty as well as the first female organic chemist to be appointed to a tenure track position in a major American university, Joullié has received numerous awards, including the 1978 Garvan Medal from the American Chemical Society, in recognition of her accomplishments in teaching and research
Warwick Estevam Kerr(1922–2018), agricultural engineer, geneticist, entomologist, professor and scientific leader, notable for his discoveries in the genetics and sex determination of bees
Roberto Landell de Moura (1861–1928), pioneer of telephony and radio
César Lattes (1924–2005), experimental physicist, one of the discoverers of the pion, a composite subatomic particle made of a quark and an antiquark
Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987), biochemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Maria Carmela Lico (1927–1985) Lico produced important insights on the descending control of nociception by limbic structures, specially the septal nuclei.
Henrique da Rocha Lima (1879–1956), physician, pathologist and infectologist, discovered Rickettsia prowazekii, the pathogen of epidemic typhus
Domingo Liotta (1924–2022), cardiologist, created first artificial heart
Rosaly Lopes (born 1957), is a planetary geologist, volcanologist, an author of numerous scientific papers and several books
Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801–1880), He was the first to describe dozens of species of pre-historic Pleistocene megafauna, including the fabled Saber-toothed cat Smilodon populator. He also made the then ground-breaking discovery that humans co-existed with the long-extinct animal species
Adolfo Lutz (1855–1940), father of tropical medicine and a pioneer epidemiologist and researcher in infectious diseases
Humberto Maturana (1928–2021), biologist, co-author of the theory of autopoiesis
Peter Medawar (1915–1987),was a biologist and writer, whose works on graft rejection and the discovery of acquired immune tolerance have been fundamental to the medical practice of tissue and organ transplants
Lia Medeiros, Astronomer, Participation notable in the black hole photo in 2019
Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (born 1942), USSR Space Program cosmonaut
César Milstein (1927–2002), biochemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Luis E. Miramontes (1925–2004), chemist, co-inventor of the oral contraceptive
Mario J. Molina (born 1943), chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Salvador Moncada (born 1944), pharmacologist
Nélio José Nicolai (1940–2017), electrotechnician, the inventor of caller ID, theoretical physicist of the 20th century who contributed unorthodox ideas to quantum theory, neuropsychology and the philosophy of mind. Among his many contributions to physics is his causal and deterministic interpretation of quantum theory, now known as De Broglie–Bohm theory.
Miguel Nicolelis(1961), pioneering work surrounding brain-computer interface
Hermann Niemeyer (1919–1991), paediatrician and biochemist, pioneer of biochemistry in Chile
Rodolfo Neri Vela (born 1952), Ph.D, NASA astronaut
Carlos Nobre (scientist) (born 1951) scientist and meteorologist who is mainly highlighted in global warming-related studies. Nobre spearheaded the multi-disciplinary, multinational Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia, a program noted to have “revolutionized understanding of the Amazon rainforest and its role in the Earth system".
Carlos I. Noriega (born 1959), NASA astronaut
Antonia Novello (born 1944), 14th Surgeon General of the United States
Ruth Sonntag Nussenzweig (1928-2018) was an immunologist specializing in the development of malaria vaccines
Diltor Opromolla (1934-2004), Was a physician and dermatologist respected due to his lifetime work with leprosy patients and leprosy research, Among other things, he was the first to introduce rifamycin in the treatment of leprosy, in 1963
Andreas Pavel, is a cultural producer and media designer who is generally credited with patenting the personal stereo
Manuel Elkin Patarroyo (born 1947), pathologist, vaccines specialist
Carlos Paz de Araújo, scientist and inventor, holds nearly 600 patents in the area of nanotechnology
Feniosky Peña-Mora (born 1966), engineer and educator
Sérgio Pereira da Silva Porto (1926–1979), Was a pioneering physicist who became notable for his research in spectroscopy and for the use of laser radiation in medicine
Felipe Poey (1799–1891), zoologist, specialist in ichthyology
Marcos Pontes (born 1963), first AEB/NASA astronaut
Aracely Quispe Neira (born 1982), NASA senior astronautical engineer, professor, researcher
Silvano Raia, Raia was the first surgeon to achieve a successful living donor liver transplantation in July 1989
Eduardo H. Rapoport (1927–2017), ecologist, biogeographer
L. Rafael Reif (born 1950), engineer, president of MIT
Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), geologist, chemist
Maurício Rocha e Silva (1910–1983), physician and pharmacologist, discovered bradykinin, an active cardiovascular peptide
Helen Rodríguez Trías (1929–2001), pediatrician, early advocate for women's reproductive rights
Francisco Rubio (astronaut) (born 1975), NASA astronaut
Oscar Sala (1922–2010), nuclear physicist and important scientific leader
Roberto Salmeron (1922 –2020), electrical engineer and experimental nuclear physicist and an emeritus Research Director at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), The largest fundamental science agency in Europe
Wilfredo Santa-Gómez (born 1949), psychiatrist
José Santana (economist) (born 1962), specialist in technology and development
Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), aviation inventor
Nise da Silveira (1905–1999), psychiatrist and mental health reformer
Sarah Stewart (cancer researcher) (1905–1976), microbiologist, discovered Polyomavirus
Klaus von Storch (born 1962), aerospace engineer
Sérgio Trindade (1940-2020) was a chemical engineer and researcher, specialist in renewable energies and consultant in sustainable business. Trindade was the coordinating lead author for a chapter of an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, Methodological and Technical Issues in Technology Transfer (2000); the IPCC as an organization won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize as a result of its contributors' work.
Pablo DT Valenzuela (born 1941) – biotechnologist, co-founder of Chiron Corporation and Fundación Ciencias Para la Vida
Francisco Varela (1946–2001), biologist, co-author of the theory of autopoiesis
Lydia Villa-Komaroff (born 1947), biologist, early Mexican American PhD in the sciences
Euryclides de Jesus Zerbini (1912-1993), was a physician and cardiac surgeon, He is internationally known for performing the first heart transplantation in Latin America in 1968
Social scientists
Celso Monteiro Furtado (1920–2004), economist
Eugenio María de Hostos (1839–1903), sociologist and educator
Miguel León-Portilla (1926–2019), cultural anthropologist and historian
Milton Santos (1926–2001), human geographer and writer
Hernando de Soto Polar (born 1941), economist
Julio C. Tello (1880–1947), archeologist
Lorenz Bruno Puntel (born 1935), philosopher
Sports
Athletics to Cycling
Athletics
Daniel Bautista (born 1952), Olympic race walk gold medalist
Thiago Braz (born 1993), Olympic pole vault gold medalist
Delfo Cabrera (1919–1981), Olympic marathon gold medalist
Ernesto Canto (born 1959), race walk Olympic gold medalist and World Champion
Joaquim Cruz (born 1963), Olympic 800m gold medalist
Adhemar da Silva (1927–2001), Olympic 2x triple jump gold medalist
Anier García (born 1976), Olympic 110 m hurdles gold medalist
Raúl González (racewalker) (born 1952), Olympic gold medalist
Alberto Juantorena (born 1950), Olympic 2x track gold medalist
Iván Pedroso (born 1972), Olympic long jump gold medalist and 4x World Champion
Jefferson Pérez (born 1974), Olympic 2x race walk gold medalist and 4x World Champion
Dayron Robles (born 1986), Olympic 110 m hurdles gold medalist
Irving Saladino (born 1983), Olympic gold medalist and World Champion
Félix Sánchez (born 1977), Olympic 400m hurdles gold medalist and 2x World Champion
Javier Sotomayor (born 1967), Olympic high jump gold medalist and World Record holder
Juan Carlos Zabala (1911–1983), Olympic marathon gold medalist
Baseball
Luis Aparicio (born 1934), Major League Baseball (MLB) shortstop, Baseball Hall of Fame
Miguel Cabrera (born 1983), MLB first baseman
Yan Gomes (born 1987)is a Brazilian-American professional baseball catcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball (MLB)
Roberto Clemente (1934–1972), MLB right fielder, Baseball Hall of Fame
Juan Marichal (born 1937), MLB pitcher, Baseball Hall of Fame
Dennis Martínez (born 1955), MLB pitcher, first Latino to pitch a perfect game
Pedro Martínez (born 1971), MLB pitcher, 3x Cy Young Award winner
Sammy Sosa (born 1968), MLB right fielder, first Latino to hit 500 home runs
José Reyes (infielder) (born 1983), MLB player
Fernando Valenzuela (born 1960), MLB pitcher
Basketball
Oscar Schmidt (born 1958)
Hortência Marcari (born 1959)
Carlos Arroyo (born 1979), National Basketbal Association (NBA) point guard
Leandro Barbosa (born 1982), NBA Champion
J. J. Barea (born 1984), NBA Champion
Manu Ginóbili (born 1977), Olympic gold medalist, NBA 2x Champion
Al Horford (born 1986), NBA
Horacio Llamas (born 1973), NBA
Eduardo Nájera (born 1976), NBA
Butch Lee (born 1956), NBA Champion
Boxing
Rosendo Álvarez (born 1970), World Champion
Alexis Argüello (born 1952), World Champion, International Boxing Hall of Fame
Wilfred Benítez (born 1958), World Champion in 3x weight divisions, International Boxing Hall of Fame
Jorge Castro (boxer) (born 1967), World Champion
Julio César Chávez (born 1962), World Champion in 3x weight divisions
Juan Martin Coggi (born 1961), World Champion
Carlos Cruz (boxer) (1937–1970), World Champion
Oscar De La Hoya (born 1972), World Champion in 6x weight divisions
Carlos De León (1959–2020), World Champion
Roberto Durán (born 1951), World Champion in 4x weight divisions
Víctor Galíndez (1948–1980), World Champion
Wilfredo Gómez (born 1956), World Champion
Éder Jofre (born 1936), World Champion
Santos Laciar (born 1959), World Champion
Raúl Macías (1934–2009), World Champion
Kina Malpartida (born 1980), World Champion
Ricardo Mayorga (born 1973), World Champion
Carlos Monzón (1942–1995), World Champion
José Luis Ramírez (born 1958), World Champion
John Ruiz (born 1972), World Champion
José Torres (1936–2009), World Champion
Félix Trinidad (born 1973), World Champion
Chess
Esteban Canal (1896–1981), International Master, honorary International Grandmaster
José Raúl Capablanca (1888–1942), World Champion, International Grandmaster
Henrique Costa Mecking (1952), is a Brazilian chess grandmaster
Cycling
Santiago Botero (born 1972), World Time-Trial Champion
Henrique Avancini(born 1989)
Draughts
Lourival Mendes França (died 2012), world champion in draughts-64,(1993), International grandmaster (GMI) in draughts-64, International master (MI) in International draughts
Football to Volleyball
Football (soccer)
Pelé (born 1940), co-winner FIFA Player of the 20th Century, Named athlete of the 20th century
Alfredo Di Stéfano (1926–2014), chosen one of Spain's Golden Anniversary Players
Diego Maradona (born 1960), co-winner FIFA Player of the 20th Century
Lionel Messi (born 1987), 6x World Footballer of the Year
Ronaldo (born 1976)
Ronaldinho (born 1980)
Kaká (born 1982)
Rivaldo (born 1972)
Romário (born 1966)
Handball
Eduarda Amorim (born 1986)
Alexandra do Nascimento (born 1981)
Golf
Chi-Chi Rodríguez (born 1935), World Golf Hall of Famer
Bento Assis 4 x World Champion US Kids Golf
Horse racing
Javier Castellano (born 1977), jockey, 3x U.S. Eclipse Award for Outstanding Jockey
Ramon Domínguez (born 1976), jockey, 3x U.S. Eclipse Award for Outstanding Jockey
T. J. Pereira (born 1976)
Motor sports
Johnny Cecotto (born 1956), 2x Motorcycle World Champion
Eric Granado (born 1996), He was the 2017 FIM CEV Moto2 European Championship winner
Juan Manuel Fangio (1911–1995), 5x Formula One World Champion
Emerson Fittipaldi (born 1946), 2x Formula One World Champion
Carlos Lavado (born 1956), 2x Motorcycle World Champion
Juan Zanelli (1906–1944), Le Mans and European Hill Climb and Formula One race winner
Juan Pablo Montoya (born 1975), 1x CART Champion, 2x Indianapolis 500 winner, Formula One and NASCAR race winner
Nelson Piquet (born 1952), 3x Formula One World Champion
Ayrton Senna (1960–1994), 3x Formula One World Champion
Skateboarding
Bob Burnquist (born 1976), better known as Bob is the most medalist in X Games history, with a total of 30 medals
Letícia Bufoni (Born 1993 ), considered one of the greatest names in the history of the sport
Surfing
Sofía Mulánovich (born 1983), 3x World Champion, Surfing Hall of Fame
Phil Rajzman (born 1982), 2x World Champion
Gabriel Medina (born 1993)
Ítalo Ferreira(born 1994)
Filipe Toledo (born 1995)
Adriano de Souza (born 1987)
Tennis
Maria Bueno (1939–2018), 19x Champion of Grand Slam events, International Tennis Hall of Fame
Rosemary Casals (born 1948), 12x Champion of Grand Slam events
Gigi Fernández (born 1964), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Mary Joe Fernández (born 1971), 2x Champion of Grand Slam events, 2 Olympic gold medals
Gastón Gaudio (born 1978), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Andrés Gómez (born 1960), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Fernando González (born 1980), 2x Olympic medalist
Gustavo Kuerten (born 1976), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Anita Lizana (1915–1994), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event, first Latin American to be ranked World Number One
Nicolás Massú (born 1979), 2x Olympic gold medals
David Nalbandian (born 1982), Tennis Masters Champion
Alex Olmedo (1936–2020), 3x Champion of Grand Slam events
Rafael Osuna (1938–1969), 4x Champion of Grand Slam events
Monica Puig (born 1993), Olympic gold medalist
Marcelo Ríos (born 1975), first Latín Américan man ranked World Number One in the ATP
Gabriela Sabatini (born 1970), 2x Champion of Grand Slam events
Pancho Segura (1921–2017), International Tennis Hall of Fame
Paola Suárez (born 1976), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Guillermo Vilas (born 1952), 1x Champion of Grand Slam event
Volleyball
Giba (born 1976)
Fabiana Alvim (born 1976)
Sérgio Santos (born 1975)
Fofão (volleyball player) (born 1970)
UFC
Anderson Silva (born 1975)
José Aldo (born 1986)
Amanda Nunes (born 1988)
Cris Cyborg (born 1985)
Writers
See also List of Latin American writers (by country).
A-L
Paulo Coelho(born 1947), lyricist and novelist
Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (c. 1581–1639), dramatist
Isabel Allende (born 1942), best selling novelist
Arambilet (born 1957), created first Latin American story using computerized linetext/ASCII art
Julia Alvarez (born 1950), poet, novelist and essayist
Jorge Amado (1912–2001), modernist writer
José María Arguedas (1911–1969), novelist
Roberto Arlt (1900–1942), short-story writer, novelist, and playwright
Miguel Ángel Asturias (1899–1974), Nobel Prize in Literature
Mario Benedetti (1920–2009), novelist and poet
Adolfo Bioy Casares (1914–1999), novelist, Cervantes Prize
Roberto Bolaño (1953–2003), novelist, Rómulo Gallegos Prize
Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), Cervantes Prize
Giannina Braschi (born 1953), poet, novelist, and essayist
Alfredo Bryce (born 1939), novelist and short story writer
Carlos Drummond de Andrade (1902–1987) poet and writer
Guillermo Cabrera Infante (1929–2005), novelist and essayist, Cervantes Prize
Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), novelist and essayist, Cervantes Prize
Carlos Castaneda (1925–1998), New Age and Shamanism author
Julio Cortázar (1914–1984), novelist and short story writer
Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648/1651–1695), poet and dramatist
Rubén Darío (1867–1916), modernist poet
Virgilio Dávila (1869–1943), poet
Julia de Burgos (1914–1953), poet
João Guimarães Rosa(1908-1967), novelist, Considered by many to be the greatest Brazilian writer of the 20th century and a of the greatest of all time
Jorge Edwards (born 1931), Cervantes Prize
Laura Esquivel (born 1950), novelist
Rosario Ferré (1938–2016), poet, novelist, and essayist
Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012), novelist and essayist, Rómulo Gallegos Prize, Cervantes Prize and Prince of Asturias Award
Rómulo Gallegos (1884–1969), novelist
João Cabral de Melo Neto (1920-1999), poet
Gabriel García Márquez (1928–2014), novelist and journalist, Nobel Prize Laureate
Nicolás Guillén (1902–1989), poet
José Hernández (writer) (1834–1886), poet and journalist
Vicente Huidobro (1893–1948), poet, initiator of Creacionismo movement
José Lezama Lima (1910–1976), novelist
Amelia Denis de Icaza (1836–1911) romantic poet
Clarice Lispector (1925–1977), novelist
Luis Lloréns Torres (1878–1944), poet
Luis López Nieves (born 1950), best-selling novelist and tale writer
Dulce María Loynaz (1902–1997), poet, Cervantes Prize Laureate
Leopoldo Lugones (1874–1938), poet
Mário de Andrade (1893–1945), poet, novelist, musicologist, art historian and critic, he was a pioneer of the field of ethnomusicology
M-Z
Machado de Assis (1839–1908), realist novelist, poet and short-story writer
Monteiro Lobato (1882–1948), novelist and short story writer, One of the greatest names in children's literature of all time
Jorge Majfud (born 1970), novelist and essayist
José Martí (1853–1895), poet and essayist
Gregório de Matos (1636–1696), baroque poet
Leopoldo Minaya (born 1963), Cervantes Cultural Association Award
Pedro Mir (1913–2000), poet and writer, Poet Laureate of Dominican Republic
Gabriela Mistral (1889–1957), poet, Nobel Prize
Augusto Monterroso (1921–2003), short story writer, Prince of Asturias Award
Manuel Mujica Láinez (1910–1984), novelist, essayist, journalist and short story writer
Álvaro Mutis (1923–2013), poet, novelist, and essayist, Cervantes Prize, Prince of Asturias Award
Ana Maria Machado (born 1941), writer, She received the international Hans Christian Andersen Medal in 2000 for her "lasting contribution to children's literature"
Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), poet, Nobel Prize
Amado Nervo (1870–1919), modernist poet
Juan Carlos Onetti (1909–1994), novelist and short-story writer, Cervantes Prize
Nicanor Parra (1914–2018), anti-poet
Fernando del Paso (1935–2018), novelist, essayist and poet, Rómulo Gallegos Prize
Octavio Paz (1914–1998), Cervantes Prize and Nobel Prize
Sergio Pitol (1933–2018), novelist, short story writer and translator, Cervantes Prize
Elena Poniatowska (born 1932), novelist
Manuel Puig (1932–1990), novelist
Horacio Quiroga (1878–1937), short story writer
José Eustasio Rivera (1888–1928), poet and novelist
Augusto Roa Bastos (1917–2005), novelist, Cervantes Prize
Gonzalo Rojas (born 1917), poet, Cervantes Prize
Juan Rulfo (1917–1986), novelist, Prince of Asturias Award
Ernesto Sabato (1911–2011), novelist and essayist, Cervantes Prize
Jaime Sabines (1926–1999), poet
Alfonsina Storni (1892–1938), postmodernist poet
Lygia Fagundes Telles (1923–2022), novelist and short-story writer, Camoens Prize
Arturo Uslar Pietri (1906–2001), novelist, Prince of Asturias Award
César Vallejo (1892–1938), poet
Fernando Vallejo (born 1942), novelist, Rómulo Gallegos Prize
Mario Vargas Llosa (born 1936), novelist and essayist, Cervantes Prize, Nobel Prize
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539–1616), first mestizo author in Spanish language
Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1950), poet
Others
Josué de Castro (1908–1973), physician
Silvia Renate Sommerlath (born 1943), Queen of Sweden
Óscar González-Quevedo (1930–2019), parapsychologist
Egon Albrecht-Lemke(1918-1944), Luftwaffe fighter pilot
Luigi Cani (born 1970), skydiver
Ali Lenin Aguilera (born 1967), businessman
Frei Galvão (1739–1822), saint
Eike Batista (born 1956), businessman
José Antonio Bowen (born 1952), jazz musician and college president
Antonio Divino Moura, meteorologist
Enrique Gratas (1944–2015), television journalist
Chico Xavier (1910–2002), philanthropist and spiritist medium
María Julia Mantilla (born 1983), Miss World 2004
Graças Foster (born 1953), business person
Denise Quiñones (born 1980), Miss Universe 2001
Sebastião Salgado (born 1944), photographer
Geraldo Rivera (born 1943), television journalist
Amyr Klink (born 1955), explorer
Mike Krieger (born 1986), entrepreneur and software engineer who co-founded Instagram
Ricardo Salinas Pliego (born 1956), businessman
Alex Kipman (born 1979), engineer
Carlos Slim (born 1940), businessman and billionair
Gérard Moss (1955-2022), pilot
Alex Atala (born 1968), cook
Ademar José Gevaerd (1962–2022), ufologist
Karol Meyer (born 1968), diver
Maria da Conceição (d. 1798), alleged witch
Roche Braziliano (1630–1671), pirate
Eduardo Saverin (born 1982), co-founder of Facebook
Lists by nationality
Argentines
Brazilians
Chileans
Colombians
Costa Ricans
Cubans
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Ecuadorians
Guatemalans
Haitians
Hondurans
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Panamanians
Paraguayans
Peruvians
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List of people by nationality
See also
List of Hispanic and Latin American Britons
List of Eastern Caribbean people
List of Latin American Jews
Notable U.S.A. Hispanics
Lists of people by ethnicity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks%20in%20Turkey
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Greeks in Turkey
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The Greeks in Turkey () constitute a small population of Greek and Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians who mostly live in Istanbul, as well as on the two islands of the western entrance to the Dardanelles: Imbros and Tenedos ( and Bozcaada). Greeks are one of the four ethnic minorities officially recognized in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, together with Jews, Armenians, and Bulgarians.
They are the remnants of the estimated 200,000 Greeks who were permitted under the provisions of the Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations to remain in Turkey following the 1923 population exchange, which involved the forcible resettlement of approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Anatolia and East Thrace and of half a million Turks from all of Greece except for Western Thrace. After years of persecution (e.g. the Varlık Vergisi and the Istanbul Pogrom), emigration of ethnic Greeks from the Istanbul region greatly accelerated, reducing the Greek minority population from 119,822 before the attack to about 7,000 by 1978. The 2008 figures released by the Turkish Foreign Ministry places the current number of Turkish citizens of Greek descent at the 3,000–4,000 mark.
However, according to the Human Rights Watch the Greek population in Turkey is estimated at 2,500 in 2006. The Greek population in Turkey is collapsing as the community is now far too small to sustain itself demographically, due to emigration, much higher death rates than birth rates and continuing discrimination.
Since 1924, the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Beginning in the 1930s, the government instituted repressive policies forcing many Greeks to emigrate. Examples are the labour battalions drafted among non-Muslims during World War II, as well as the Fortune Tax (Varlık Vergisi) levied mostly on non-Muslims during the same period. These resulted in financial ruination and death for many Greeks. The exodus was given greater impetus with the Istanbul Pogrom of September 1955 which led to thousands of Greeks fleeing the city, eventually reducing the Greek population to about 7,000 by 1978 and to about 2,500 by 2006. According to the United Nations, this figure was much smaller in 2012 and reached 2,000.
A minority of Muslim Pontic Greek speakers, using a dialect called "Romeyka" or "Ophitic", still live in the area around Of.
Name
The Greeks of Turkey are referred to in Turkish as Rumlar, meaning "Romans". This derives from the self-designation Ῥωμαῖος (Rhomaîos, pronounced ro-ME-os) or Ρωμιός (Rhomiós, pronounced ro-mee-OS or rom-YOS) used by Byzantine Greeks, who were the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east.
The ethnonym Yunanlar is exclusively used by Turks to refer to Greeks from Greece and not for the population of Turkey.
In Greek, Greeks from Asia Minor are referred to as or (Mikrasiátes or Anatolítes, lit. "Asia Minor-ites" and "Anatolians"), while Greeks from Pontos (Pontic Greeks) are known as (Póntioi).
Greeks from Istanbul are known as (Konstantinoupolítes, lit. "Constantinopolites"), most often shortened to (Polítes, pronounced po-LEE-tes). Those who arrived during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey are also referred to as (Prósfyges, i. e. "Refugees").
History
Background
Greeks have been living in what is now Turkey continuously since the middle 2nd millennium BC. Following upheavals in mainland Greece during the Bronze Age Collapse, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was heavily settled by Ionian and Aeolian Greeks and became known as Ionia and Aeolia. During the era of Greek colonization from the 8th to the 6th century BC, numerous Greek colonies were founded on the coast of Asia Minor, both by mainland Greeks as well as settlers from colonies such as Miletus. The city of Byzantium, which would go on to become Constantinople and Istanbul, was founded by colonists from Megara in the 7th century BC.
Following the conquest of Asia Minor by Alexander the Great, the rest of Asia Minor was opened up to Greek settlement. Upon the death of Alexander, Asia Minor was ruled by a number of Hellenistic kingdoms such as the Attalids of Pergamum. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BC. Asia Minor was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century AD it was overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking. For the next 600 years, Asia Minor and Constantinople, which eventually became the capital of the Byzantine Empire, would be the centers of the Hellenic world, while mainland Greece experienced repeated barbarian invasions and went into decline.
Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks swept through all of Asia Minor. While the Byzantines would recover western and northern Anatolia in subsequent years, central Asia Minor was settled by Turkic peoples and never again came under Byzantine rule. The Byzantine Empire was unable to stem the Turkic advance, and by 1300 most of Asia Minor was ruled by Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna () fell in 1330, and Philadelphia (), fell in 1398. The last Byzantine Greek kingdom in Anatolia, the Empire of Trebizond, covering the Black Sea coast of north-eastern Turkey to the border with Georgia, fell in 1461.
Ottoman Empire
Constantinople fell in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning with the Seljuk invasion in the 11th century, and continuing through the Ottoman years, Anatolia underwent a process of Turkification, its population gradually changing from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking.
A class of moneyed ethnically Greek merchants (they commonly claimed noble Byzantine descent) called Phanariotes emerged in the latter half of the 16th century and went on to exercise great influence in the administration in the Ottoman Empire's Balkan domains in the 18th century. They tended to build their houses in the Phanar quarter of Istanbul in order to be close to the court of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, who under the Ottoman millet system was recognized as both the spiritual and secular head (millet-bashi) of all the Orthodox subjects (the Rum Millet, or the "Roman nation") of the Empire, often acting as archontes of the Ecumenical See. For all their cosmopolitanism and often western (sometimes Roman Catholic) education, the Phanariots were aware of their Hellenism; according to Nicholas Mavrocordatos' Philotheou Parerga: "We are a race completely Hellenic".
The first Greek millionaire in the Ottoman era was Michael Kantakouzenos Shaytanoglu, who earned 60.000 ducats a year from his control of the fur trade from Russia; he was eventually executed on the Sultan's order. It was the wealth of the extensive Greek merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Greek merchants endowed libraries and schools; on the eve of the Greek War of Independence the three most important centres of Greek learning, schools-cum-universities, were situated in Chios, Smyrna and Aivali, all three major centres of Greek commerce.
The outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in March 1821 was met by mass executions, pogrom-style attacks, the destruction of churches, and looting of Greek properties throughout the Empire. The most severe atrocities occurred in Constantinople, in what became known as the Constantinople Massacre of 1821. The Orthodox Patriarch Gregory V was executed on April 22, 1821 on the orders of the Ottoman Sultan, which caused outrage throughout Europe and resulted in increased support for the Greek rebels.
By the late 19th and early 20th century, the Greek element was found predominantly in Constantinople and Smyrna, along the Black Sea coast (the Pontic Greeks) and the Aegean coast, the Gallipoli peninsula and a few cities and numerous villages in the central Anatolian interior (the Cappadocian Greeks). The Greeks of Constantinople constituted the largest Greek urban population in the Eastern Mediterranean.
In the first half of 1914, the Ottoman authorities expelled more than 100,000 Ottoman Greeks to Greece.
World War I and its aftermath
Given their large Greek populations, Constantinople and Asia Minor featured prominently in the Greek irredentist concept of Megali Idea (lit. "Great Idea") during the 19th century and early 20th century. The goal of Megali Idea was the liberation of all Greek-inhabited lands and the eventual establishment of a successor state to the Byzantine Empire with Constantinople as its capital. The Greek population amounted to 1,777,146 (16.42% of population during 1910).
During World War I and its aftermath (1914–1923), the government of the Ottoman Empire and subsequently the Turkish National Movement, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, instigated a violent campaign against the Greek population of the Empire. The campaign included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and summary expulsions. According to various sources, several hundreds of thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period. Some of the survivors and refugees, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.
Following Greece's participation on the Allied side in World War I, and the participation of the Ottoman Empire on the side of the Central Powers, Greece received an order to land in Smyrna by the Triple Entente as part of the planned partition of the Ottoman Empire.
On May 15, 1919, twenty thousand Greek soldiers landed in Smyrna, taking control of the city and its surroundings under cover of the Greek, French, and British navies. Legal justifications for the landings was found in the article 7 of the Armistice of Mudros, which allowed the Allies "to occupy any strategic points in the event of any situation arising which threatens the security of Allies." The Greeks of Smyrna and other Christians greeted the Greek troops as liberators. By contrast, the majority of the Muslim population saw them as an invading force.
Subsequently, the Treaty of Sèvres awarded Greece Eastern Thrace up to the Chatalja lines at the outskirts of Constantinople, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and the city Smyrna and its vast hinterland, all of which contained substantial Greek populations.
During the Greco-Turkish War, a conflict which followed the Greek occupation of Smyrna in May 1919 and continued until the Great Fire of Smyrna in September 1922, atrocities were perpetrated by both the Greek and Turkish armies. For the massacres that occurred during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal: "The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris."
After the end of the Greco-Turkish War, most of the Greeks remaining in the Ottoman Empire were transferred to Greece under the terms of the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The criteria for the population exchange were not exclusively based on ethnicity or mother language, but on religion as well. That is why the Karamanlides (; ), or simply Karamanlis, who were a Turkish-speaking (while they employed the Greek alphabet to write it) Greek Orthodox people of unclear origin, were deported from their native regions of Karaman and Cappadocia in Central Anatolia to Greece as well. On the other hand, Cretan Muslims who were part of the exchange were re-settled mostly on the Aegean coast of Turkey, in areas formerly inhabited by Christian Greeks. Populations of Greek descent can still be found in the Pontos, remnants of the former Greek population that converted to Islam in order to escape the persecution and later deportation. Though these two groups are of ethnic Greek descent, they speak Turkish as a mother language and are very cautious to identify themselves as Greeks, due to the hostility of the Turkish state and neighbours towards anything Greek.
Republic of Turkey
Due to the Greeks' strong emotional attachment to their first capital as well as the importance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Greek and worldwide orthodoxy, the Greek population of Constantinople was specifically exempted and allowed to stay in place. Article 14 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) also exempted Imbros and Tenedos islands from the population exchange and required Turkey to accommodate the local Greek majority and their rights. For the most part, the Turks disregarded this agreement and implemented a series of contrary measures which resulted in a further decline of the Greek population, as evidenced by demographic statistics.
In 1923, the Ministry of Public Works asked from the private companies in Turkey to prepare lists of employees with their religion and later ordered them to fire the non-Muslim employees and replace them with Muslim Turks. In addition, a 1932 parliamentary law, barred Greek citizens living in Turkey from a series of 30 trades and professions from tailoring and carpentry to medicine, law and real estate.
In 1934, Turkey created the Surname Law which forbade certain surnames that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions. Many minorities, including Greeks, had to adopt last names of a more Turkish rendition.
As from 1936, Turkish became the teaching language (except the Greek language lessons) in Greek schools. The Wealthy Levy imposed in 1942 also served to reduce the economic potential of Greek businesspeople in Turkey. When the Axis attacked on Greece during WW2 hundreds of volunteers from the Greek community of Istanbul went to fight in Greece with the approval of Turkish authorities.
In 6–7 September 1955 an anti-Greek pogrom were orchestrated in Istanbul by the Turkish military's Tactical Mobilization Group, the seat of Operation Gladio's Turkish branch; the Counter-Guerrilla. The events were triggered by the news that the Turkish consulate in Thessaloniki, north Greece—the house where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in 1881—had been bombed the day before. A bomb planted by a Turkish usher of the consulate, who was later arrested and confessed, incited the events. The Turkish press conveying the news in Turkey was silent about the arrest and instead insinuated that Greeks had set off the bomb. Although the mob did not explicitly call for Greeks to be killed, over a dozen people died during or after the pogrom as a result of beatings and arson. Jews, Armenians and others were also harmed. In addition to commercial targets, the mob clearly targeted property owned or administered by the Greek Orthodox Church. 73 churches and 23 schools were vandalized, burned or destroyed, as were 8 asperses and 3 monasteries.
The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey, and the Istanbul region in particular. The Greek population of Turkey declined from 119,822 persons in 1927, to about 7,000 by 1978. In Istanbul alone, the Greek population decreased from 65,108 to 49,081 between 1955 and 1960.
In 1964 Turkish prime minister İsmet İnönü unilaterally renounced the Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship of 1930 and took actions against the Greek minority that resulted in massive expulsions. Turkey enforced strictly a long‐overlooked law barring Greek nationals from 30 professions and occupations. For example, Greeks could not be doctors, nurses, architects, shoemakers, tailors, plumbers, cabaret singers, iron-smiths, cooks, tourist guides, etc. Many Greeks were ordered to give up their jobs after this law.
Also, Turkish government ordered many Greek‐owned shops to close leaving many Greek families destitute. In addition, Turkey has suspended a 1955 agreement granting unrestricted travel facilities to nationals of both countries. A number of Greeks caught outside Turkey when this suspension took effect and were unable to return to their homes at Turkey. Moreover, Turkey once again deported many Greeks. They were given a week to leave the country, and police escorts saw to it that they make the deadline. Deportees protested that it was impossible to sell businesses or personal property in so short a time. Most of those deported were born in Turkey and they had no place to go in Greece. Greeks had difficulty receiving credit from banks. Those expelled, in some cases, could not dispose of their property before leaving.
Furthermore, it forcefully closed the Prinkipo Greek Orthodox Orphanage, the Patriarchate's printing house and the Greek minority schools on the islands of Gökçeada/Imbros and Tenedos/Bozcaada. Furthermore, the farm property of the Greeks on the islands were taken away from their owners. Moreover, university students were organizing boycotts against Greek shops. Teachers of schools maintained by the Greek minority complained of frequent "inspections" by squads of Turkish officers inquiring into matters of curriculum, texts and especially the use of the Greek language in teaching. In late 1960, the Turkish treasure seized the properties of the Balıklı Greek Hospital. The hospital sued the treasury on the ground that the transfer of its property was illegal, but the Turkish courts were in favor of the Turkish treasure. On August 4, 2022, a fire broke out on the roof of the Balıklı Greek Hospital. The roof was completely destroyed and the upper floor was also destroyed except for the exterior walls. However, the ground floor of the hospital remained unscathed from the fire.
In 1965 the Turkish government established on Imbros an open agricultural prison for Turkish mainland convicts; farming land was expropriated for this purpose. Greek Orthodox communal property was also expropriated and between 1960 and 1990 about 200 churches and chapels were reportedly destroyed. Many from the Greek community on the islands of Imbros and Tenedos responded to these acts by leaving. In addition, at the same year the first mosque was built in the island. It was named Fatih Camii (Conqueror's Mosque) and was built on an expropriated Greek Orthodox communal property at the capital of the island.
In 1991, Turkish authorities ended the military "forbidden zone" status on the island of Imbros.
In 1992, Panimbrian Committee mentioned, that members of the Greek community are "considered by the authorities to be second class citizens" and that the local Greeks are afraid to express their feelings, to protest against certain actions of the authorities or the Turkish settlers, or even to allow anybody to make use of their names when they give some information referring to the violation of their rights, fearing the consequences which they will have to face from the Turkish authorities. The same year the Human Rights Watch report concluded that the Turkish government has denied the rights of the Greek community on Imbros and Tenedos in violation of the Lausanne Treaty and international human rights laws and agreements.
In 1997, the Turkish state seized the Prinkipo Greek Orthodox Orphanage which had been forcefully closed in 1964. After many years of court battles, Turkey returned the property to the Greek community in 2012.
In August 2002, a new law was passed by the Turkish parliament to protect the minorities rights, because of Turkey's EU candidacy. With this new law, it prevented the Turkish treasury from seizing community foundations properties.
In 15 August 2010, a ritual have held for the Assumption of Mary at the Sumela Monastery after a 88 years old ban. This annual ritual continues, although it often sparks debate in Turkey for “keeping foreign traditions alive on the day Trabzon was captured by the Turks.”.
Current situation
Today most of the remaining Greeks live in Istanbul. In the Fener district of Istanbul where the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is located, fewer than 100 Greeks live today. A handful also live in other cities of Anatolia. Most are elderly.
Another location where the Greek community lives is the islands Imbros and Tenedos near the Dardanelles, but this community diminished rapidly during the 20th century and only 200 elderly Greeks have remained there, less than 2%. In the 1950s, an estimated 98% of the island was Greek. In the last years the condition of the Greek community in these islands seems to be slightly improving.
The Antiochian Greeks (Rum) living in Hatay are the descendants of the Ottoman Levant's and southeast Anatolia's Greek population and are part of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch. They did not emigrate to Greece during the 1923 population exchange because at that time the Hatay province was under French control. The majority of the Antiochian Greeks moved to Syria and Lebanon at 1939, when Turkey took control of the Hatay region, however a small population remained at this area. After a process of Arabization and Turkification that took place in the 20th century, today almost their entirety speaks Arabic as a mother language. This has made them hard to distinguish from the Arab Christians and some argue that they have become largely homogenized. Their majority doesn't speak Greek at all, the younger generation speaks Turkish, and some have Turkish names now. Their population is about 18,000, and they are faithful to the Patriarchate of Antiochia, although ironically it is now in Damascus. They reside largely in Antakya and/or the Hatay province, but a few are also in Adana province.
The Greek minority continues to encounter problems relating to education and property rights. A 1971 law nationalized religious high schools, and closed the Halki seminary on Istanbul's Heybeli Island which had trained Orthodox clergy since the 19th century. A later outrage was the vandalism of the Greek cemetery on Imbros on October 29, 2010. In this context, problems affecting the Greek minority on the islands of Imbros and Tenedos continue to be reported to the European Commission.
In July 2011, Istanbul's Greek minority newspaper Apoyevmatini declared that it would shut down due to financial difficulties. The four-page Greek-language newspaper faced closure due to financial problems that had been further aggravated by the economic crisis in Greece, when Greek companies stopped publishing advertisements in the newspaper and the offices have already been shut down. This ignited campaign to help the newspaper. Among the supporters were students from Istanbul Bilgi University who subscribed to the newspaper. The campaign saved the paper from bankruptcy for the time being. Because the Greek community is close to extinction, the obituary notices and money from Greek foundations, as well as subscriptions overwhelmingly by Turkish people, are the only sources of income. This income covers only 40 percent of the newspaper expenditures.
That event was followed in September 2011 by a government cash grant of 45,000 Turkish liras to the newspaper through the Turkish Press Advertisement Agency, as part of a wider support of minority newspapers.
The Turkish Press Advertisement Agency also declared intention to publish official government advertisements in minority newspapers including Greek papers Apoyevmatini and IHO.
As of 2007, Turkish authorities have seized a total of 1,000 immovables of 81 Greek organizations as well as individuals of the Greek community. On the other hand, Turkish courts provided legal legitimacy to unlawful practices by approving discriminatory laws and policies that violated fundamental rights they were responsible to protect. As a result, foundations of the Greek communities started to file complaints after 1999 when Turkey's candidacy to the European Union was announced. Since 2007, decisions are being made in these cases; the first ruling was made in a case filed by the Phanar Greek Orthodox College Foundation, and the decision was that Turkey violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which secured property rights.
A government decree published on 27 August 2011, paves the way to return assets that once belonged to Greek, Armenian, Assyrian, Kurd or Jewish trusts and makes provisions for the government to pay compensation for any confiscated property that has since been sold on, and in a move likely to thwart possible court rulings against the country by the European Court of Human Rights.
Since the vast majority of properties confiscated from Greek trusts (and other minority trusts) have been sold to third parties, which as a result cannot be taken from their current owners and be returned, the Greek trusts will receive compensation from the government instead. Compensation for properties that were purchased or were sold to third parties will be decided on by the Finance Ministry. However, no independent body is involved in deciding on compensation, according to the regulations of the government decree of 27 August 2011. If the compensation were judged fairly and paid in full, the state would have to pay compensation worth many millions of Euros for a large number of properties. Another weakness of the government decree is that the state body with a direct interest in reducing the amount of compensation paid, which is the Finance Ministry, is the only body permitted to decide on the amount of compensation paid. The government decree also states that minority trusts must apply for restitution within 12 months of the publication of the government decree, which was issued on 1 October 2011, leaving less than 11 months for the applications to be prepared and submitted. After this deadline terminates on 27 August 2012, no applications can be submitted, in which the government aims to settle this issue permamenetly on a legally sound basis and prevent future legal difficulties involving the European Court of Human Rights.
Demographics of Greeks in Istanbul
The Greek community of Istanbul numbered 67,550 people in 1955. However, after the Istanbul Pogrom orchestrated by Turkish authorities against the Greek community in that year, their number was dramatically reduced to only 48,000. Today, the Greek community numbers about 2,000 people.
Notable people
Patriarch Bartholomew I (1940): current patriarch of Constantinople. Born in Imbros as Dimitrios Arhondonis.
Elia Kazan (1909-2003): American film director. Born Elias Kazancıoğlu in Istanbul
Archbishop Elpidophoros of America (1967): current archbishop of America. Born in Bakırköy, Istanbul as Ioannis Lambriniadis.
Patriarch Benedict I of Jerusalem (1892-1980): Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1957 to 1980. Born in Bursa as Vasileios Papadopoulos.
Gilbert Biberian (1944-2023): guitarist and composer. Born in Istanbul from a Greek-Armenian family.
Chrysanthos Mentis Bostantzoglou (1918-1995): cartoonist known as Bost, born in Istanbul.
Thomas Cosmades (1924-2010): evangelical preacher and translators of the New Testament in Turkish. Born in Istanbul.
Patriarch Demetrios I of Constantinople (1914-1991): patriarch of Constantinople from 1972 to 1991. Born in Istanbul.
Antonis Diamantidis (1892-1945): musician. Born in Istanbul.
Savas Dimopoulos (1952): particle physicist at Stanford University. Born in Istanbul.
Aleksandros Hacopulos (1911-1980): politician, member of Grand National Assembly twice
Violet Kostanda (1958): former volleyball player for Eczacıbaşı and the Turkish National Team. She was born in Istanbul from a Greek-Romani family. Her father Hristo played football for Beşiktaş.
Minas Gekos (1959): basketball player and coach who played mainly in Greece. Born in Kurtuluş district of Istanbul.
Patroklos Karantinos (1903-1976): modernism architect. Born in Istanbul.
Kostas Kasapoglou (1935-2016): footballer player, once capped for the Turkish National Team. Born in Istanbul, he was known with his Turkishized name Koço Kasapoğlu.
Konstantinos Spanoudis (1871-1941): politician, founder and first president of AEK Athens. Born in Istanbul, was forced to relocate to Athens.
Antonis Kafetzopoulos (1951): actor. Born in Istanbul moved in Greece in 1964.
Michael Giannatos (1941-2013): actor. Born in Istanbul moved in Greece in 1964
Kostas Karipis (1880-1952): rhebetiko musician. Born in Istanbul.
Nikos Kovis (1953): former Turkish football international. Born in Istanbul.
Lefteris Antoniadis (1924-2012): Fenerbahçe legend and member of the Turkish national football team. He was born in Büyükada island near Istanbul and was known in Turkey as Lefter Küçükandonyadis.
Ioanna Koutsouranti (1936): philosopher and Maltepe University Academic. Born in Istanbul from a Greek (Rum) family, she's known in Turkey as İoanna Kuçuradi.
Sappho Leontias (1832-1900): writer, feminist and educationist. Born in Istanbul.
Petros Markaris (1937): writer. Born in Istanbul.
Kleanthis Maropoulos (1919-1991): Greek international footballer. Born in Istanbul, fled to Greece during the Greek-Turks population exchange when he was 3 years old.
See also
Eastern Orthodoxy in Turkey
Minorities in Turkey
Treaty of Lausanne
Population exchange between Greece and Turkey
Istanbul Pogrom
Imbros
Tenedos
Greek Muslims
Pontic Greeks
Antiochian Greeks
Cretan Muslims
Istanbul Greek dialect
References
Further reading
Alexandrēs, Alexēs. "The Greek minority of Istanbul and Greek-Turkish relations, 1918-1974." Center for Asia Minor Studies, 1983.
External links
Istanbul Greek Minority Information Portal for present Greek Minority of Turkey in Greek, Turkish and English
Athens protests latest desecration of Orthodox cemetery in Turkey
Greeks of Istanbul (İstanbul Rumları) (Video)
The Greeks of Turkey
Greek - Turkish minorities
Greeks Living in Turkey Today
Turkey's Greek Community Grapples with adversity
Turkey - Greeks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania%20Army%20National%20Guard
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Pennsylvania Army National Guard
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{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Pennsylvania Army National Guard
| image = PA STARC.png
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Distinctive shoulder sleeve insignia
| dates =
| country =
| allegiance =
| branch = Army National Guard
| type = Reserve land force
| role =
| size = 15,514
| command_structure = Pennsylvania National Guard
| commander1 = President Joe Biden(Commander-in-Chief)Christine Wormuth(Secretary of the Army)Governor Josh Shapiro(Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania)
| commander1_label = Civilian leadership
| commander2 = Major General Mark J. Schindler (Adjutant General)| commander2_label = Commonwealth military leadership
| garrison = Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
| ceremonial_chief =
| colonel_of_the_regiment =
| nickname =
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| motto =
| colors =
| march =
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| battles =
| notable_commanders =
| anniversaries =
| identification_symbol =
| identification_symbol_label = Seal of the Pennsylvania National Guard
}}
The Pennsylvania Army National Guard, abbreviated PAARNG''', is part of the United States Army National Guard and is based in the U.S. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Together with the Pennsylvania Air National Guard, it is directed by the Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veterans Affairs. The PAARNG maintains 124 armories and is present in 87 communities across the Commonwealth.
Creation
The Pennsylvania National Guard traces its lineage back to the militia organized by Benjamin Franklin in 1747 known as the Associators. Franklin organized artillery and infantry units to defend the city of Philadelphia against French and Spanish privateers. The first meeting of the Associators occurred on 21 November 1747, and on 7 Dec. 1747, the enlistees and officers were formally commissioned by the Provincial Council President, Anthony Palmer. On that day, hundreds of armed Associators presented themselves to Palmer at the Philadelphia Courthouse. Official National Guard webpages state that 'he wisely stated their activities were "not disapproved" and duly commissioned all of them.'
Only in 1755 did this volunteer militia gain official status. On November 25, 1755, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed the Militia Act of 1755. This measure 'legalized a military force from those who were willing and desirous of being united for military purposes within the province.' This was as a result of citizens' pleas for protection from the French and Indians on the western borders. Two years later, a compulsory militia law was also enacted. All males between 17 and 45 years of age, having a freehold worth 150 pounds a year, were to be organized into companies. Every enrolled militiaman was required to appear for training, arming himself, on the first Mondays of March, June, August, and November.
In 1793, the Governor of Pennsylvania, Thomas Mifflin established the Adjutant General's Office to provide for "a new system for the regulation of the militia." The next year, Pennsylvania contributed 4,000 militiamen to a four-state force which quelled the Whiskey Rebellion in the western part of the state. Amongst the force were men of the First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry, the oldest continuously serving U.S. Army unit.
The War of 1812 drew 14,000 Pennsylvanians into active service. During the war, the ancestors of three present day PA ARNG units gained campaign credit. Today those ARNG units are the 103rd Engineer Battalion, the 111th Infantry Regiment, and the Headquarters & Headquarters Troop, 2nd Squadron, 104th Cavalry Regiment. Before the Battle of Lake Erie, an artillery company provided volunteers to serve as cannoneers aboard Commodore Perry's ships. That unit is known today as Wilkes-Barre's 109th Field Artillery Regiment.
The Washington Grays of Philadelphia (also known as Volunteer Corps of Light Infantry, Light Artillery Corps, Washington Grays, Artillery Corps, Washington Grays) was a Volunteer regiment which functioned during peace and war. The Regiment was formed in 1822 and was eventually integrated into the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1879.
At the start of the American Civil War in April 1861, five units from the Lehigh Valley raced to Washington, D.C., which was under threat, in response to an urgent plea from Congress. President Lincoln proclaimed them the "First Defenders"—an honor still borne by their descendants in varied PA National Guard units.
Over 360,000 Pennsylvanians served in the Union Army, more than any other Northern state except New York. Beginning with President Abraham Lincoln's first call for troops and continuing throughout the war, Pennsylvania mustered 215 infantry regiments, as well as dozens of emergency militia regiments that were raised to repel threatened invasions in 1862 and 1863 by the Confederate States Army. Twenty-two cavalry regiments were also mustered, as well as dozens of light artillery batteries.
Pennsylvania National Guard
In 1870, the name "militia" was dropped, and the force became by state law the "National Guard of Pennsylvania."
In 1879, the Pennsylvania National Guard established a division, organized in a fashion not specifically approved by the War Department. The keystone was prescribed as the designated symbol of the National Guard of Pennsylvania on 27 August 1879.
The Pennsylvania National Guard was mobilized for the Spanish–American War and the Pancho Villa Expedition. When the United States Army created the Spanish War Service and Mexican Border Service Medals, Major General Charles M. Clement was designated as the first official recipient of each, in recognition of his status as the longest-tenured National Guard officer eligible for the medals at the time they were authorized. Clement served in the Pennsylvania National Guard from 1877 to 1917, and commanded the 28th Infantry Division at the start of World War I.
During the mobilization after the U.S. entry into World War I in 1917, a number of previously separately numbered Pennsylvania infantry regiments were given U.S. Army designations. Thus the 109th Infantry Regiment, the 110th Infantry Regiment, the 111th Infantry Regiment, and the 112th Infantry Regiment were established. These regiments formed the two brigades (55th and 56th) of the newly designated 28th Division, which then saw war service in Europe. Alongside the four regiments of infantry were created four machine-gun battalions.
The 104th Cavalry Regiment (United States) was formed on 1 June 1921 by reorganization of the 8th Infantry, PA ARNG. It became a part of the 21st Cavalry Division. On 1 May 1922, elements of the machine gun battalions which had served in World War I were reorganized as the 213th Coast Artillery.
On 17 February 1942, as part of the triangularization of Army divisions, the previous 103rd Engineer Regiment was broken up and the 103rd Engineer Battalion established. The other battalion of the regiment became the 180th Engineer Battalion.
After being activated in February 1941, the 28th Infantry Division was reorganized in February 1942, and the 111th Infantry Regiment detached for other duties. The division trained in the Carolinas, Virginia, Louisiana, Texas, and Florida. It went overseas on 8 October 1943, arriving in South Wales. On 22 July 1944, the division landed in Normandy. It took part in the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, and Central European campaigns. It saw 196 days of combat.
In February 1942, the 111th Regiment was re-formed as a regimental combat team in the Army Ground Forces Reserve to guard militarily important facilities in the Chesapeake Bay area. From this assignment, it was transferred to the Pacific Theater in late 1943.
After being inactivated as part of the Army on 13 December 1945 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, the 28th Infantry Division was reorganized on 20 November 1946 and returned to the Pennsylvania Army National Guard, with its headquarters established at Harrisburg.
Among the units formed after the end of World War II reorganization of the National Guard was the 628th Tank Battalion.
Following the outbreak of the Korean War, several Pennsylvania units saw active service there. Meanwhile, the 28th Division was ordered into active federal service 5 September 1950 at Harrisburg. The Division re-opened the mothballed Camp Atterbury, Indiana and remained there from 13 September 1950 to 23 November 1951. It was sent to Germany to augment NATO forces in Germany. During the Korean War, the 28th was mobilized and deployed to Europe as a part of the NATO command defending Western Europe from the threat of Soviet attack and remained on federal service until 22 May 1954.
In June 1959 the Pennsylvania Army National Guard was extensively reorganized in line with the Pentomic (ROCID) organization then coming into force. At that time, a number of separate Tank and Field Artillery Battalions which had served through World Wars I and II were reorganized as regiments. Thus the 103rd Armor Regiment (constituted 1 June 1959, partially from the 628th Tank Bn), 107th Field Artillery Regiment, the 108th Field Artillery Regiment, the 109th Field Artillery Regiment, the es)|166th Field Artillery Regiment, the 229th Field Artillery Regiment (United States), and the 28th Aviation Company were established or re-established.
From 1959 to 1974, the 176th Air Defense Artillery Regiment was part of the force. 1-176 and 2-176 were part of the 218 AG(AD) from 1 June 1959 to 1 Apr 1963, after which the 2-176 joined the 213th Artillery Group (Air Defense) until 17 February 1968, and thereafter until 1974 just with the PA ARNG.
In 1972, widespread flooding in the aftermath of Hurricane Agnes resulted in 45 deaths and $3 billion in property damage. Nearly 13,000 Army and Air Guard members were called to state active duty to help with relief operations.
In 1987-1988 Army National Guard aviation units were converted into regiments, and thus the 104th Aviation Regiment was formed in Pennsylvania. The regiment traced its history to the activation of an aviation company for the 28th Infantry Division in 1959. In August 1989, the 165th Military Police Battalion was reorganized as the 1st Battalion, 213th Air Defense Artillery Regiment. Two years earlier, the 165th MP Bn had been headquartered in Lehighton.
After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, eight Army and Air Guard units from Pennsylvania (seemingly including the 228th Transportation Det, the 121st and 131st Transportation Companies, the 28th Finance Unit, and the 3623rd Maintenance Company) were mobilized for duty during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Seemingly the four units were scheduled to all return home by May 1991. Every member returned home safely.
Following the end of the Cold War, National Guard State Partnership Programs were established across Europe. In 1993, the Pennsylvania–Lithuania National Guard Partnership was initiated.
In 1996, Pennsylvania Guard members opened roads, transported doctors and patients, and mounted dangerous helicopter rescue operations during statewide flooding and blizzards. The Philadelphia Daily News reported that the 103rd Engineer Battalion had helped clear roads in the city, in conjunction with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation.
From that year also to 2001, hundreds of Pennsylvania soldiers and airmen deployed to Germany, Hungary (Taszar Air Base, the forward staging base) and Bosnia-Herzegovina as part of peacekeeping efforts (IFOR and SFOR) in the former Yugoslavia. In 1996–97, elements of Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), 213th ASG, HHC 28th Infantry Division, the 28th Personnel Services Battalion, and the 28th Finance Battalion deployed to Europe. The 213th ASG's headquarters processed many active troops through Taszar Air Base on their way into Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Twenty-first century
In 2001, the 56th Brigade was selected as the only reserve component Brigade to be equipped with the Stryker armored personnel carrier, out of seven in the entire United States Army. The brigade was reflagged the 56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team on 24 October 2004 at Fort Indiantown Gap's Muir Army Airfield.
Elements of the 28th Infantry Division deployed twice quickly in succession to Bosnia and Kosovo as part of SFOR and KFOR from 2002. In 2002–03, the Division deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina (SFOR) and in 2003–04 to Kosovo (KFOR).
From 2005 three brigades deployed to Iraq. The 2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq in 2005–06, the 56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq in 2008–09, and the Combat Aviation Brigade, 28th Infantry Division, deployed in 2009.
As of February 20, 2016, under permanent order 051–03, the 55th Armored Brigade Combat Team was redesignated the 55th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade. Under permanent order #051-02 dated February 20, 2016, elements of the 165th Military Police Battalion began to be established, reforming a unit seemingly last active in 1989. As the PA National Guard gained back an MP battalion, it was once again named the 165th based upon the PA ARNG's history. The 1st Battalion, 109th Infantry regiment was transferred to the 2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (2nd IBCT). The 3rd Battalion, 103rd Armor Regiment was reassigned to the 278th Armored Brigade Combat Team (278th ABCT), now designated the 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (278th ACR) Tennessee Army National Guard, with operational control remaining with the Pennsylvania National Guard.
Structure
28th Infantry Division (Mechanized)
28th Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (2nd IBCT)
55th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade (55th MEB) (designation changed from 55th ABCT to 55 MEB February 20, 2016)
56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (56th SBCT)
28th Expeditionary Combat Aviation Brigade (28th ECAB) headquartered at Fort Indiantown Gap.
213th Regional Support Group, headquartered at Allentown, Pennsylvania
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
109th Public Affairs Detachment (109th PAD)
1928th Contingency Contracting Team (1928th CCT)
1902nd Contingency Contracting Team (1902nd CCT)
1955th Contingency Contracting Team (1955th CCT)
108th Area Support Medical Company (108th ASMC)
728th Combat Support Sustainment Battalion (728th CSSB)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
28th Finance Management Support Unit
528th Finance Detachment
628th Finance Detachment
828th Finance Detachment
928th Finance Detachment
213th Personnel Company
252nd Quartermaster Company
3622nd Maintenance Company
228th Transportation Battalion
Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment (HHD)
131st Transportation Company
121st Transportation Company
1067th Transportation Company
721st Transportation Company
166th Regiment (Regional Training Institute), headquartered at Fort Indiantown Gap
1st Battalion (Maneuver)
2nd Modular Training Battalion
3rd Battalion Non-Commissioned Officer Academy (NCOA)
Medical Battalion Training Site
Eastern Army National Guard Aviation Training Site
3rd WMD Civil Support Team, Fort Indiantown Gap. (A Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear Event Unit to support homeland defense missions.)
3rd Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Task Force.
Pennsylvania Task Force North
Pennsylvania Task Force Fort Indiantown Gap
See also
:Category:Pennsylvania militiamen in the American Revolution
List of Pennsylvania Civil War regiments
Pennsylvania State Guard
List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War
References
Further reading
Weaver, Michael E. Guard Wars: The 28th Infantry Division in World War II.'' Indiana University Press, 2010.
External links
Bibliography of Pennsylvania Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
GlobalSecurity.org, Pennsylvania Army National Guard
State agencies of Pennsylvania
Military units and formations established in 1870
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20Technology%20Management%20Reform%20Act%20of%201996
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Information Technology Management Reform Act of 1996
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The Information Technology Management Reform Act of 1996 is a United States federal law, designed to improve the way the federal government acquires, uses and disposes information technology (IT). It was passed as Division E of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 (; ). Together with the Federal Acquisition Reform Act of 1996, it is known as the Clinger–Cohen Act.
The Clinger–Cohen Act supplements the information resources management policies by establishing a comprehensive approach for executive agencies to improve the acquisition and management of their information resources, by:
focusing information resource planning to support their strategic missions;
implementing a capital planning and investment control process that links to budget formulation and execution; and
rethinking and restructuring the way they do their work before investing in information systems.
The Act directed the development and maintenance of Information Technology Architectures (ITAs) by federal agencies to maximize the benefits of information technology (IT) within the Government. In subsequent guidance on implementing the Act, the Office of Management and Budget stipulated that agency ITA's "...should be consistent with Federal, agency, and bureau information architectures.." In keeping with this mandate, in 1999 the US Federal CIO Council initiated the Federal Enterprise Architecture, essentially a federal-wide ITA that would "... develop, maintain, and facilitate the implementation of the top-level enterprise architecture for the Federal Enterprise."
Overview
In February 1996, Congress enacted the Clinger–Cohen Act to reform and improve the way Federal agencies acquire and manage IT resources. Central to implementing these reforms is the need to establish effective IT leadership within each agency. The law requires each agency head to establish clear accountability for IT management activities by appointing an agency chief information officer (CIO) with the visibility and management responsibilities necessary to carry out the specific provisions of the Act. The CIO plays a critical leadership role in driving reforms to:
help control system development risks;
better manage technology spending; and
succeed in achieving real, measurable improvements in agency performance.
The Act provides that the government information technology shop be operated as an efficient and profitable business would be operated. Acquisition, planning and management of technology must be treated as a "capital investment." While the law is complex, all consumers of hardware and software in the Department should be aware of the chief information officer's leadership in implementing this statute.
The Act emphasizes an integrated framework of technology aimed at efficiently performing the business of the Department. Just as few businesses can turn a profit by allowing their employees to purchase anything they want to do any project they want, the Department also cannot operate efficiently with hardware and software systems purchased on an "impulse purchase" basis and installed without an overall plan. All facets of capital planning are taken into consideration just as they would be in private industry.
The Act assigns the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) responsibility for improving the acquisition, use, and disposal of information technology by the federal government. The Director should aim to improve the productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness of federal programs, including through dissemination of public information and the reduction of information collection burdens on the public. The Act supplements the information resources management (IRM) policies contained in the Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA) by establishing a comprehensive approach to improving the acquisition and management of agency information systems through work process redesign, and by linking planning and investment strategies to the budget process.
History
The "Information Technology Management Reform Act" of 1996 was later renamed "Clinger-Cohen Act" for its co-sponsors, Rep. William Clinger, R-PA., and Senator William Cohen, R-ME.
To provide agencies with guidance on implementing the Clinger–Cohen Act, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in April 2000 distributed an "OMB Circular A-130" about the management of Federal Information Resources. This circular incorporated some other memoranda:
M–96–20, "Implementation of the Information Technology Management Reform Act of 1996"
M–97–02, "Funding Information Systems Investments"
M–97–16, "Information Technology Architecture",
as well as new material including;
M-15-14 "Management and Oversight of Federal Information Technology"
Clinger-Cohen Act topics
National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996
This "Information Technology Management Reform Act" was part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996, which is organized in five divisions:
(1) Division A — Department of Defense Authorizations.
(2) Division B — Military Construction Authorizations.
(3) Division C — Department of Energy National Security Authorizations and Other Authorizations.
(4) Division D — Federal Acquisition Reform.
(5) Division E — Information Technology Management
This public law was intended to authorize appropriations for fiscal year 1996 for military activities of the Department of Defense, for military construction, and for defense activities of the Department of Energy, to prescribe personnel strengths for such fiscal year for the Armed Forces, to reform acquisition laws and information technology management of the Federal Government, and for other purposes.
Definitions
In the Act, some terms have been explicitly defined:
Information technology
The term Information Technology, with respect to an executive agency means any equipment or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment, that is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission, or reception of data or information by the executive agency. For purposes of the preceding sentence, equipment is used by an executive agency if the equipment is used by the executive agency directly or is used by a contractor under a contract with the executive agency which (i) requires the use of such equipment, or (ii) requires the use, to a significant extent, of such equipment in the performance of a service or the furnishing of a product.
Information technology includes computers, ancillary equipment, software, firmware and similar procedures, services (including support services), and related resources. It does not include any equipment that is acquired by a Federal contractor incidental to a Federal contract.
Information resources
The term Information Resources means information and related resources, such as personnel, equipment, funds, and information technology.
Information resources management
The term Information Resources Management means the process of managing information resources to accomplish agency missions and to improve agency performance, including through the reduction of information collection burdens on the public.
Information system
The term information system means a discrete set of information resources organized for the collection, processing, maintenance, use, sharing, dissemination, or disposition of information.
Information technology architecture
The term Information Technology Architecture, with respect to an executive agency, means an integrated framework for evolving or maintaining existing information technology and acquiring new information technology to achieve the agency’s strategic goals and information resources management goals.
Director of the Office of Management and Budget
Clinger–Cohen Act assigns the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) some ten tasks. The following list represents a selection:
Use of Information Technology in Federal programs
The OMB Director is responsible for improving the acquisition, use, and disposal of information technology by the Federal Government. The Director should aim to improve the productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness of Federal programs, including through dissemination of public information and the reduction of information collection burdens on the public.
Use of budget process
The OMB Director shall develop, as part of the budget process, a process for analyzing, tracking, and evaluating the risks and results of all major capital investments made by an executive agency for information systems. The process shall cover the life of each system and shall include explicit criteria for analyzing the projected and actual costs, benefits, and risks associated with the investments.
Information Technology Standards
The OMB Director shall oversee the development and implementation of standards and guidelines pertaining to Federal computer systems by the Secretary of Commerce through the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Use of Best Practices in Acquisition
The OMB Director shall encourage the heads of the executive agencies to develop and use the best practices in the acquisition of information technology.
Assessment of other models for managing Information Technology
The OMB Director shall assess, on a continuing basis, the experiences of executive agencies, State and local governments, international organizations, and the private sector in managing information technology.
Other tasks are about the comparison of agency uses of IT, training, Informing Congress, and procurement policies.
Performance-based and results-based management
Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) shall encourage the use of performance-based and results-based management in fulfilling the responsibilities assigned. OMB's Director is tasked with the following responsibilities:
to evaluate the information resources management practices of the executive agencies with respect to the performance and results of the investments made by the executive agencies in information technology.
to issue the head of each executive agency to:
establish effective and efficient capital planning processes for selecting, managing, and evaluating the results of all of its major investments in information systems;
determine, before making an investment in a new information system:
whether the function to be supported by the system should be performed by the private sector and, if so, whether any component of the executive agency performing that function should be converted from a governmental organization to a private sector organization;
whether the function should be performed by the executive agency and, if so, whether the function should be performed by a private sector contract or by executive agency personnel;
analyze the missions of the agency and, based on the analysis, revise its mission-related processes and administrative processes, before making significant investments in information technology for those missions;
ensure that the information security policies, procedures, and practices are adequate.
guidance for undertaking efficiently and effectively interagency and Government-wide investments in information technology
periodic reviews of selected information resources management activities of the agencies
to enforce accountability of the head of an agency for information resources management
Executive Agencies
The head of each US Federal executive agency shall comply with several specific matters. A selection.
Design of Process
Each executive agency shall design and implement in the executive agency a process for maximizing the value and assessing and managing the risks of the information technology acquisitions of the executive agency.
Content of Process
The process of an executive agency shall
provide for the selection of information technology investments to be made by the executive agency, the management of such investments, and the evaluation of the results of such investments;
be integrated with the processes for making budget, financial, and program management decisions within the agency;
include minimum criteria to be applied in considering whether to undertake a particular investment in information systems, including criteria related to the quantitatively expressed projected net, risk-adjusted return on investment and specific quantitative and qualitative criteria for comparing and prioritizing alternative information systems investment projects;
provide for identifying information systems investments that would result in shared benefits or costs for other Federal agencies or State or local governments;
provide for identifying for a proposed investment quantifiable measurements for determining the net benefits and risks of the investment; and
provide the means for senior management personnel of the agency to obtain timely information regarding the progress of an investment in an information system, including a system of milestones for measuring progress, on an independently verifiable basis, in terms of cost, capability of the system to meet specified requirements, timeliness, and quality.
Performance and Result-based Management
The head of an executive agency shall (1) establish goals for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of agency operations. (2) prepare an annual report, (3) ensure that performance measurements (4) comparable with processes and organizations in the public or private sectors (5) analyze the missions, and (6) ensure that the information security policies, procedures, and practices of the executive agency are adequate.
Acquisition of Information Technology
The authority of the head of an executive agency to conduct an acquisition of information technology includes several general and specific authorities.
Applications
The CCA generated a number of significant changes in the roles and responsibilities of various federal agencies in managing acquisition of IT. It elevated overall responsibility to the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (White House). OMB set forth guidelines that must be followed by agencies.
At the agency level, IT management must be integrated into procurement, and procurement of commercial-off-the-shelf technology was encouraged. CCA required each agency to name a Chief Information Officer (CIO) with the responsibility of "developing, maintaining, and facilitating the implementation of a sound and integrated information technology architecture". The CIO is tasked with advising the agency director and senior staff on all IT issues.
Since these rules went into effect, the agency CIOs also have worked together to form the US Federal CIO Council. Initially an informal group, the council's existence became codified into law by Congress in the E-Government Act of 2002. Official duties for the council include developing recommendations for government information technology management policies, procedures, and standards; identifying opportunities to share information resources; and assessing and addressing the needs of the Federal Government's IT workforce.
In general, National Security Systems (NSS), as defined in 40 USC 11103, are exempt from the Act. However, there are specific exceptions to this exemption regarding:
Capital Planning and Investment Control (CPIC);
Performance- And Results-Based Management;
Agency Chief Information Officer (CIO) responsibilities; and
Accountability.
Raines' Rules
Following the Clinger–Cohen Act, White House budget director Franklin Raines issued a supplementary policy memorandum, M-97-02, in 1996 that became known as "Raines' Rules". The memorandum specified the following eight investment criteria for new IT projects:
support core/priority mission functions that need to be performed by the Federal government;
be undertaken by the requesting agency because no alternative private sector or governmental source can efficiently support the function;
support work processes that have been simplified or otherwise redesigned to reduce costs, improve effectiveness, and make maximum use of commercial, off-the-shelf technology;
demonstrate a projected return on the investment that is clearly equal to or better than alternative uses of available public resources. Return may include: improved mission performance in accordance with GPRA measures; reduced cost; increased quality, speed, or flexibility; and increased customer and employee satisfaction. Return should be adjusted for such risk factors as the project's technical complexity, the agency's management capacity, the likelihood of cost overruns, and the consequences of under- or non-performance
be consistent with Federal, agency, and bureau information architectures which: integrate agency work processes and information flows with technology to achieve the agency's strategic goals; reflect the agency's technology vision and year 2000 compliance plan; and specify standards that enable information exchange and resource sharing, while retaining flexibility in the choice of suppliers and in the design of local work processes;
reduce risk by: avoiding or isolating custom-designed components to minimize the potential adverse consequences on the overall project; using fully tested pilots, simulations, or prototype implementations before going to production; establishing clear measures and accountability for project progress; and, securing substantial involvement and buy-in throughout the project from the program officials who will use the system;
be implemented in phased, successive chunks as narrow in scope and brief in duration as practicable, each of which solves a specific part of an overall mission problem and delivers a measurable net benefit independent of future chunks; and,
employ an acquisition strategy that appropriately allocates risk between government and contractor, effectively uses competition, ties contract payments to accomplishments, and takes maximum advantage of commercial technology.
See also
Department of Defense Architecture Framework
Financial Management Standard
Federal Enterprise Architecture
Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002
OMB Circular A-130
References
External links
Summary: Information Technology Management Reform Act of 1996
Acts of the 104th United States Congress
United States federal government administration legislation
Enterprise architecture
United States Office of Management and Budget
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5388318
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20nicknames%20of%20United%20States%20Army%20divisions
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List of nicknames of United States Army divisions
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Many Army divisions have over the years earned nicknames; some laudatory, some derogatory, but mostly colorful. Sometimes, the nicknames themselves have overshadowed the actual name of the division, e.g. the "Screaming Eagles" for the 101st Airborne Division.
Special designation
An official special designation is a "nickname granted to a military organization" which has been authorized by the Center of Military History and recognized through a certificate signed by the Secretary of the Army.
A division's nickname may derive from numerous sources:
it may be inspired by the division's badge or insignia, such as the 1st Infantry Division's "Big Red One". On the other hand, some division's badges are actually suggested by the nickname, such as the "CY" patch of the "Cyclone Division" (38th Infantry Division);
it may derive from the place where the division was raised or trained (36th Infantry Division, "Texas"), or the places of origin of the division's soldiers (29th Infantry Division, "Blue and Gray", for northern and southern states);
it may be bestowed by the enemy in battle, such as the moniker "Red Devils", a nickname for the 5th Infantry Division "granted" by the Germans at the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, World War I;
it may be the pairing of an adjective (such as "Fighting") paired with the division's ordinal, such as "The Fighting First" for the 1st Infantry Division; or
it may defy accurate explanation (albeit not without numerous theories), such as the 9th Infantry Division, or "Old Reliables".
Active divisions are listed in boldface; no distinction has been made between regular Army divisions and those of the Army Reserve or National Guard. The origin of the nickname is noted where possible. In some cases, the nickname was officially adopted by the division in question; this is indicated along with date of adoption (where known). Official status might also be inferred by the presence of the nickname on official distinctive unit insignia or in official military source materials.
Airborne divisions
11th Airborne Division – "The Angels"; possibly after their shoulder patch, a white-bordered red circle with a white numeral "11", with white wings rising obliquely from the circle, all on a royal blue field
13th Airborne Division – "Golden Unicorns"; taken from their shoulder patch, a winged unicorn in orange on an ultramarine blue, the branch of service colours of the United States Army Air Corps, was approved on 2 June 1943. A gold on black "Airborne" tab was worn above the insignia.
17th Airborne Division – "Golden Talon"; taken from their shoulder patch.
173rd Airborne Brigade – "Sky Soldiers"; They received their official nickname (Tien Bing translates to Sky Soldiers) from the Taiwanese locals during exercises when they were parachuting in Taiwan. The 173rd was part of the only major conventional airborne operation (Operation Junction City) during the Vietnam War. The unit's shoulder patch was referred to as the "Flying Butter Knives."
82nd Airborne Division – "America's Guard of Honor", "All-Americans"; original members of the division in 1917 came from every state in the Union. In addition, the 82nd Airborne has been called "Alcoholics Anonymous" or "Almost Airborne" in reference to the "AA" on its shoulder patch by members of other divisions.
101st Airborne Division – "The Screaming Eagles"; after their shoulder insignia, a bald eagle's head on a black shield. During the Vietnam War, the nicknames "Puking Buzzards" and "One 'o Worst", a comment on their mode of transportation and a play on the official divisional name, were used. Both were used derogatorily by other soldiers, and were not used by the division itself. In addition, the Vietnamese called them the "Chicken Men" since they had never seen a bald eagle. Several regiments within the 101st were nicknamed "The Battered Bastards of Bastogne", due to their part in holding the important crossroads town during the Battle of the Bulge.
Armored divisions
1st Armored Division – "Old Ironsides" (official, 1941); Devised by its first commander, Major General Bruce Magruder, after he saw a picture of the USS Constitution, which bears the same nickname
2nd Armored Division – "Hell on Wheels"; Brigadier General George S. Patton, while witnessing it on maneuvers in 1941, reportedly said the division would be "Hell on Wheels" when it met the enemy
3rd Armored Division – "Spearhead"; in recognition of the division's role as the "spearhead" of many attacks during the liberation of France in 1944.
4th Armored Division
"Breakthrough" – According to the Center of Military History, the 4th was "sometimes called the 'Breakthrough Division,' but the division never officially pursued the designation, preferring to be 'known by its deeds alone.'"
"Name Enough"
"Rolling Fourth"
5th Armored Division – "Victory"; probably from the Roman numeral 5, which is a "V" (for "Victory").
6th Armored Division – "Super Sixth"
7th Armored Division – "Lucky Seventh"
8th Armored Division
"Thundering Herd"
"Iron Deuce"
"Iron Snake"
"Show Horse"
"Tornado"
9th Armored Division –
"Phantom"; so dubbed by the German army at the Battle of the Bulge because, according to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the division "seemed, like a phantom, to be everywhere along the front."
"Remagen"; because the division captured intact the Ludendorf Bridge at Remagen, Germany; the first bridge across the Rhine River captured by the Allies.
10th Armored Division – "Tiger Division"; so named by Major General Paul Newgarden, the division's first commander, because a tiger has soldierly qualities, including being clean and neat and the ability to maneuver and surprise his prey.
11th Armored Division – "Thunderbolt"
12th Armored Division – "Hellcat Division" "Suicide Division" The Mystery Division"
13th Armored Division – "Black Cat"
14th Armored Division – "Liberators"; earned during the last days of World War II when it liberated some 200,000 Allied prisoners of war from German prison camps.
20th Armored Division – "Armoraiders"; not official, but the division did associate itself with this nickname while in training at Camp Campbell during World War II
27th Armored Division – "Empire"; referring to the fact that it was a New York National Guard unit, after the state's nickname.
30th Armored Division – "Volunteers"; referring to the fact that it was a Tennessee National Guard unit, after the state's nickname.
40th Armored Division – "Grizzly"; referring to the fact that it was a California National Guard unit, after the state's nickname.
48th Armored Division – "Hurricane"
49th Armored Division – "Lone Star"; referring to its status as a Texas National Guard formation, after the state's nickname.
50th Armored Division – "Jersey Blues"; referring to the fact that it was a New Jersey National Guard unit. This is today's 50th Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
Cavalry divisions
1st Cavalry Division – "The First Team" "Hell for Leather" (see: https://archive.org/details/gov.dod.dimoc.20366), "The Black Horse"
Infantry divisions
1st Infantry Division
"The Big Red One" – from the division's official shoulder patch: Red numeral "1" on an olive drab shield.
"The Fighting First"
"The Big Dead One"
2nd Infantry Division
"Warrior Division" – official nickname
"Indian Head" – Official as of 1948. From the shoulder patch: an Indian head on a white star superimposed on black shield.
3rd Infantry Division
"Rock of the Marne" and "Marne Men" – earned for the Battle of the Marne during World War I, when the division held its position and repulsed two German divisions.
"Blue and White Devils" () – during the Battle of Anzio during World War II, the division was called this nickname by their German opponents, based on their shoulder patch (a square containing three diagonal white stripes on a dark blue field).
"Broken Television" – from their shoulder patch resembling a television with static on screen.
"Dog Faced Soldiers" – from the 3rd ID Song.
4th Infantry Division
The division's patch is four ivy leaves pointing up, down, and to the sides
"Ivy" – play on the Roman numeral "IV" ("4"). Also, ivy leaves are symbolic of tenacity and fidelity, the basis of the division's motto, "Steadfast and Loyal".
"Iron Horse" – official nickname, has been recently adopted to indicate the speed and power of the division
"Famous Fighting Fourth"
"Lost Lieutenants" or "4 Lieutenants Pointing North" – a play on the division shoulder sleeve insignia and the stereotype of 2nd Lieutenants being inexperienced and unskilled.
5th Infantry Division
"Red Diamonds" – a plain red diamond or lozenge shape
"Red Devils" – during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel in World War I, the Germans referred to the division as "Die roten Teufel" (German, "The Red Devils").
6th Infantry Division
The division's patch is a red six-pointed star
"Sightseeing Sixth"
”Death Star”
”Commie Jew Division” (as described by GEN Westmoreland when it was proposed the 6th Division would be sent to Vietnam)
”Jumping Jews” (when worn with an Airborne tab, 1/501 PIR in the 1990s)
7th Infantry Division
"Bayonet Division" – this nickname "became synonymous with the division through its participation in the Korean War and symbolizes the fighting spirit of the men of the 7th Infantry division."
"H-Hour" – Shoulder patch: Red circular patch bearing black hour glass which is formed by an inverted "7" and a superimposed "7".
”The Crushed Beer Can”
8th Infantry Division
"Golden Arrow" – Official as of 1948. Shoulder patch: An upward pointing gold arrow piercing a silver figure "8" on a blue shield.
"Pathfinder Division" – Official; original nickname (supplanted by "Golden Arrow" and later reinstated), so named in honor of John C. Fremont, an explorer of California, the namesake of Camp Fremont, which is where the division was formed.
”The Eight-Up Division” (play on words and the design of the patch alluding to the Army term “ate up” which means incompetent)
9th Infantry Division
"Varsity"
"Old Reliables" – origin unknown, but some possibilities recorded here
"Psychedelic Cookie" – Used during the Vietnam War in reference to its shoulder patch.
10th Mountain Division
"Mountaineer"
”Fighting Beer Keg”
12th Infantry Division
"Carabao"
23rd Infantry Division
"Americal" – At one point in time this was the official Divisional designation, when it was redesignated as the 23rd Infantry Division, Americal became the divisional nickname. Originally formed in World War II out of separate American National Guard units on the island of New Caledonia, hence the origin of the name.
24th Infantry Division
"Taro Leaf";
25th Infantry Division
"Tropic Lightning" – Official (adopted August 3, 1953). In 1942 the division was ordered to deploy to Guadalcanal to relieve U.S. Marines there; only 31 days were required to accomplish the mission and earned the division its official designation. The Division patch is a taro leaf (indicating Hawaii, where the division was formed), and a lightning bolt, "representative of the manner in which the Division performs its allotted assignments."
"Electric Strawberry" – so called because the shoulder patch taro leaf resembles a strawberry with a lightning bolt on it.
26th Infantry Division – "Yankee"; This is today's 26th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade.
27th Infantry Division – "Empire," a legacy of the 27th Armored Division.
"O'Ryan's Roughnecks," a reference to the first division commander, John F. O'Ryan.
"New York Division." – Many members were part of the New York National Guard.
The abbreviation N.Y.D. can be seen in the division shoulder sleeve insignia. The insignia also contains an "O" for O'Ryan, as well as a depiction of the Orion constellation as a pun on O'Ryan's name. This is today's 27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
28th Infantry Division
"Keystone" – The badge is a red keystone; the division was formed in Pennsylvania, the "Keystone State"
"Bloody Bucket" – So called by German soldiers in World War I and World War II because the keystone shaped patch was red and resembled a bucket.
"Iron Division" – From a comment by John J. Pershing following the 1918 Battle of Château-Thierry
29th Infantry Division
"Blue and Gray" – In 1919, when shoulder sleeve insignia were first authorized, the division consisted of two masses of men, one from the North (represented by blue) and the other from the South (represented by gray).
30th Infantry Division – "Old Hickory"; This is today's 30th Heavy Brigade Combat Team.
31st Infantry Division – "Dixie";
32nd Infantry Division
"Red Arrow"; "shot through a line denoting that it pierced every battle line it ever faced"; This is today's 32nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
"Les Terribles" – ("The Terrible Ones" intended as a complement, given by French General Charles Mangin after their decisive action against the Germans at the WW1 Second Battle of the Marne
33rd Infantry Division
"Illinois";
"Prairie"; sometimes official nickname
"Golden Cross" – take from the design of the insignia, used as the title of the World War II history. This is today's 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
34th Infantry Division
"Red Bull" – The badge is a red bull's skull on a black background.
"Sandstorm" – the division was formed at Camp Cody, in a desertlike area of New Mexico
"Desert Bull" – sometimes used during modern deployments
35th Infantry Division
"Santa Fe" – The badge is a blue background with a white "Santa Fe cross", a device used to mark the old Santa Fe Trail, an area where the division trained
36th Infantry Division
"Arrowhead" – Official depicting insignia.
"Texas" – The division is based in Texas.
"Lone Star" – Texas is the "Lone Star State".
37th Infantry Division
"Buckeye"; This is today's 37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
38th Infantry Division
"Cyclone" – official. Named after a tornado hit the camp where the division was training prior to deployment during World War I.
"The Avengers of Bataan" This is today's 38th Sustainment Brigade.
40th Infantry Division
"Sunburst" – the badge is a gold sunburst on a blue background.
"Ball of Fire" – Nickname adopted during its deployment to Korea.
"Flaming Assholes" – The unofficial nickname came from the Korean War era when the unit was training in Japan. It was a combined result of disparaging remarks made by Army regulars about the National Guard division and the appearance of the unit shoulder sleeve insignia. The California Guardsmen took to their new nickname with a soldier's sense of humor, and turned it into a rallying symbol (sometimes used for the 9th Infantry Division, due to the appearance of that division's shoulder sleeve insignia).
41st Infantry Division
"Jungleers" – due to combat in the Pacific during WW II
"Sunset" – Unit patch has a half sun represents the setting sun on the Pacific. Often humorously referred to as the "Days Inn Patch" or "Thirteen Lieutenants Pointing North", this is today's 41st Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
42nd Infantry Division – "Rainbow"
43rd Infantry Division
"Red Wing"
"Winged Victory"
Named for World War II commander Leonard F. "Red" Wing
45th Infantry Division – "Thunderbird" – official nickname; This is today's 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team.
47th Infantry Division – "Viking" – a unit of the Minnesota Army National Guard.
63rd Infantry Division – "Blood and fire"; This is today's 63rd Regional Support Command.
65th Infantry Division – "Battle Axe";
66th Infantry Division – "Black Panther";
69th Infantry Division
"Fightin' 69th" – official nickname; earned after breaking through the Siegfried Line in 1945.
"Three B's" – nickname adopted during training. Humorous reference to the division's dislike of frequent bivouacking ordered by their original Commander, Charles L. Bolte.
70th Infantry Division – "Trailblazer";
71st Infantry Division – "Red Circle";
76th Infantry Division – "Onaway";
77th Infantry Division – "Metropolitan" or "Liberty"; This is today's 77th Sustainment Brigade.
78th Infantry Division – "Lightning";
79th Infantry Division – "Cross of Lorraine";
80th Infantry Division – "Blue Ridge"; This is today's 80th Training Command.
81st Infantry Division – "Wildcat"; This is today's 81st Regional Support Command.
83rd Infantry Division
"Ohio" –
"Ragtag Circus" – Ostensibly because of the vehicles the division commandeered from French and German sources, including a concrete mixer and fire truck, to transport troops into Germany during World War II.
84th Infantry Division – "Railsplitters"; This is today's 84th Training Command.
85th Infantry Division – "Custer"; This is today's 85th Support Command.
86th Infantry Division – "Blackhawk";
87th Infantry Division – "Golden Acorn"; This is today's 87th Support Command.
88th Infantry Division
"Blue Devils";
"Cloverleaf";
"The Puckering Butthole" – Due to the shape of the patch, a pair of crossed numeral 8's;
"8 Across and 8 Up!" – A play on military slang, insinuating that the quality of the division is low; This is today's 88th Regional Support Command.
89th Infantry Division
"Rolling 'W'"
"Middle West";
90th Infantry Division – "Tough 'Ombres" – Due to the members of the division being from the Texas-Oklahoma area, close to Mexico.
91st Infantry Division – "Powder River";
92nd Infantry Division
"Buffalo" – a racially segregated African-American formation, named for the famed Buffalo Soldiers of the late 1800s.
93rd Infantry Division
"Red Hand"; "Adrians"; "Blue Helmets"
94th Infantry Division
"Neuf Cats" – a play on the division's ordinal numbers ("94") rendered into French ("neuf-quatre")
95th Infantry Division
"Iron Men of Metz" -from the siege of the town of Metz in eastern France during World War II.
"Victory"
"OK";
96th Infantry Division – "Deadeye";
97th Infantry Division – "Trident";
98th Infantry Division – "Iroquois";
99th Infantry Division – "Checkerboard"; This is today's 99th Regional Support Command.
100th Infantry Division – "Century";
102nd Infantry Division – "Ozark";
103rd Infantry Division – "Cactus";
104th Infantry Division – "Timberwolf";
106th Infantry Division – "Golden Lion"
See also
List of nicknames of British Army regiments
List of warships by nickname
Lists of nicknames – nickname list articles on Wikipedia
Regimental nicknames of the Canadian Forces
References
Sources
The Institute of Heraldry, Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army
United States Army
Division nicknames
United States Army divisions
United States Army
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5388595
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1930 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1930 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 8th Grand Prix of Endurance that took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe on 21 and 22 June 1930. It saw the first appearance of a German car and the first entry from female drivers.
In the smallest ever field in the Le Mans history; there were only 17 starters. This was a race of two halves. At the start the Mercedes of Rudolf Caracciola/Christian Werner was pursued by the supercharged ‘Blower’ Bentley of Tim Birkin. Twice he passed the white car on the Mulsanne Straight and both times he was thwarted by a rear-tyre blowout. Then Sammy Davis chased in a works Bentley. When that car was put into the sandbank at Pontlieue corner, it was the other works Bentley of Woolf Barnato and Glen Kidston taking up the Germans’ challenge. The lead changed a number of times into the night, until at 1.30am when the Mercedes was retired with a broken dynamo and a flat battery.
After that it became a procession for the remaining Bentleys, although both the privateer Blower Bentleys retired on Sunday. The two works cars carried on and cruised to another formation finish. Barnato had won his third consecutive Le Mans, from three starts. Talbot finished third and fourth and took the lucrative Index of Performance prize by the narrowest of margins (0.004) from the winning Bentley. The Bugatti of Marguerite Mareuse and Odette Siko had a trouble-free run and finished seventh, stealing the contemporary headlines from Bentley.
Regulations
The AIACR (forerunner of the FIA) Appendix C rules stayed in effect. The biggest change this year was the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) now allowing private entrants as well as “works” entries from the manufacturers. This just acknowledged the existing practice of private owners being entered by the car-company. Five engine-classes were specified, with brackets at 3.0, 2.0, 1.5 and 1-litres.
To be eligible, a minimum of thirty vehicles had to have been produced, and the cars had to be “as per sales catalogue”. Many small companies were selling bare chassis upon which an owner would get a coach-builder to put on a body-shelled, so the specifications were still quite broad as long as the car had some basic minimum equipment (mudguards, lights, hood, windscreen etc.).
As engine power advanced, the ACO once again adjusted the Index target distances. Example targets included the following:
The Société des Pétroles Jupiter, Shell's French agents, provided three standard fuel options: Gasoline, Benzole and a 70/30 blend of the two. Teams were allowed to add up to 2% by volume of their own additives. As before, all liquids (fuel, oil and water) could only be replenished after every 20 laps ().
Night-time, when headlights had to be used, was defined by the ACO for the race as between 9.30pm and 4am.
Entries
In the middle of the Great Depression, the auto-industry was being hit very hard. Only 33 cars entered for the race, of which only 19 arrived. That said it was a quality field with two big Bentley entries challenged by a mighty 7-litre supercharged Mercedes and one of the supercharged Alfa Romeos dominating European racing, both privately entered. France could muster only two works Tractas, a BNC and a privateer Bugatti to their premier touring car race.
Note: The first number is the number of entries, the second the number who started.
Defending champions Bentley once again arrived with a solid works team, this year bringing a trio of their big Speed Six model. Introduced in 1928 as a competitor to the Rolls-Royce Phantom I, it had a 6.6-litre engine that produced 190 bhp giving it a top speed of 185 kp/h (115 mph).
Company director (and race winner in 1928 and 1929), Woolf Barnato would drive the lead car – the same chassis that had been entered in the 1929 race. This year his co-driver was his wealthy friend Glen Kidston. The other two were driven by 1924-winner Frank Clement with former Stutz-driver Dick Watney, and 1927-winner and journalist Sammy Davis with Clive Dunfee.
Back in 1928, Barnato's fellow race-winner, Sir Henry “Tim” Birkin had seen the threat posed by the new supercharged Mercedes and Alfa Romeos to Bentley's dominance of touring car racing. He had approached W. O. Bentley and Barnato about supercharging the green cars. Barnato was not convinced and W.O loathed the idea. He eventually found an investor in the form of young heiress, and keen motorist, Dorothy Paget (who already owned a Mercedes-Benz SSK). The cars were not race-ready in time for the 1929 race; however Barnato quietly approved sufficient funds to allow the required production quantity to be met. Based on the 4½ Litre model, a massive, distinctive Roots supercharger was fitted in front of the radiator. This boosted the engine output from 130 to 240 bhp. However, it also raised the fuel consumption and its front-end weight gave the car noticeable understeer. Improved over the close-season, a team of three “Blower Bentleys” arrived, managed by former Bentley-driver and Lagonda team-manager Bertie Kensington-Moir. Birkin renewed his 1928 Le Mans partnership with Jean Chassagne, while race-winner Dudley Benjafield drove with former Alfa Romeo test-driver (and now British resident) Giulio Ramponi. The third car was driven by Boris Harcourt-Wood and Jack Dunfee, Clive's older brother.
The first German car to run at Le Mans was a privateer entry. Mercedes and Benz had merged in 1926 and had considerable racing success, but with the Depression the company closed its works racing team. Team manager Alfred Neubauer, however, convinced the board to bankroll a privateer team. This was run by their top works driver Rudolf “Rudi” Caracciola. The SSK (Super Sports Kurz) was designed by Ferdinand Porsche as a development of the SS model. The giant 170 bhp 7.1-litre engine could be augmented by a Roots supercharger to put out 300 bhp. However, unlike the Bentleys, the supercharger was not designed to be run all the time (not least for reasons of chronic fuel consumption), and the team was able to convince the ACO to discount the 1.3 supercharger modifier when dictating the car's target distance. Caracciola's co-driver was also from the Mercedes-Benz works team, Christian Werner.
Stutz was present at Le Mans again, through two black-painted private entries. The latest model M versions came in two wheelbase lengths, with the shorter designated the “MA”. The new 5.3-litre sidevalve engine now put out 120 bhp. Edouard Brisson was having his first race after the bad 1929 Le Mans when a fuel-fire had badly burnt his face and hands. His co-driver was the experienced Louis Rigal, former Ariés works driver. The other car was owned by wine-company heir Philippe de Rothschild. Keen to keep his anonymity he raced under the pseudonym “Georges Philippe” and had an American banking friend, Dick Parke, put the entry in for him. He had Edmond Bourlier (formerly from Talbot and Delage works teams) as his co-driver with Parke acting as reserve driver for both cars.
The Sunbeam-Talbot-Darracq marque returned to Le Mans this year. The successful Talbot 14/45 had been developed into the 18/70 model with a racing version, the AO90 (a reference to its top speed over 90 mph). The 2.3L engine now put out 95 bhp. The Fox & Nicholl team were looking for new cars since Lagonda closed its racing programme in January. They purchased three Talbots but a disastrous fatal accident at Brooklands wrecked them. In less than five weeks, two were repaired for Le Mans. Georges Roesch, chief engineer at Clément-Talbot, was concerned that like the Blower Bentleys, the French fuels would not be suitable for the Talbots. He asked the ACO if they could run on ethyl fuel but this was refused. Leslie Callingham, head of Shell's technical department in London (and driving an Alfa Romeo in the race) said the hybrid fuel would be suitable, although the engine output would drop to about 70 bhp. The drivers were to be Johnny Hindmarsh / Tim Rose-Richards and Brian Lewis, Baron Essendon / Hugh Eaton.
The other significant Le Mans debut was also a privateer entry. Alfa Romeo had already achieved great success in grand prix racing in the 1920s. Vittorio Jano’s 6C successor design, debuting in 1927, followed on this adapting as a sports car or grand prix racer in the Formula Libre events. Initially a 1.5-litre, in 1929 it was also available with a 1752cc twin-cam engine, and both versions had a supercharged variant. As well as a works team, two other new significant customer teams ran the 1750 SS: Enzo Ferrari in Italy and Fred Stiles, the London importer, focusing almost exclusively on their respective countries. Its light weight and superior handling gave it excellent acceleration and made it better through the corners than the bigger cars. Le Mans was not considered by any of the three teams. However, a car owned by wealthy British racer Earl Francis Howe was entered, with support from the Stiles team including former Bentley driver, Leslie Callingham as co-driver. With the 1.3 supercharger co-efficient they had the same Index target as the Talbots.
After the withdrawals of Alvis and the new Scotsman car, the only entries in the 2-litre class were from BNC and Kenneth Peacock's supercharged Lea-Francis S-Type. Having raced the year before, Peacock had purchased a new car and returned as a privateer entry with Sammy Newsome again as co-driver. BNC had not survived the economic downturn and had been purchased by French entrepreneur Charles de Ricou, who also picked up Lombard and Rolland-Pilain, and its successor AER. The BNC Vedette was the new model based on the F28, the last Rolland-Pilain design.
Bugatti, despite having organised races for its car-owners on the Le Mans circuit, had not competed in the endurance race since the inaugural 1923 race. Wealthy French heiress Marguerite Mareuse entered her Type 40 tourer as a privateer, inviting talented driver Odette Siko as her co-driver – becoming the first women to enter the race. Based around the 1.5-litre engine of the Type 37 race-car, it put out about 45 bhp to a 4-speed gearbox.
Jean-Albert Grégoire’s small Tracta company had been very successful at Le Mans with its reliable front-wheel drive and patented Universal joint system. The works team bought two Type A models to the race (unsupercharged this time), Grégoire racing with Vallon as usual, and Bourcier with Debeugny. The smallest cars in the field were from MG Cars, making its Le Mans debut. Morris Garages was set up in 1909 by William Morris as a sales/service division of his Morris Motors. In 1928 after strong sales success, the company was relaunched as MG Car Company under Cecil Kimber. The MG M-type “Midget” was built on the Minor chassis with a plywood and fabric body. This year's version had the 847cc engine uprated to put out 27 bhp that made it capable of 110 kp/h (70 mph). Two cars were prepared for Sir Francis Samuelson and Huskinson & Fane, the London MG agents.
Practice
On race-week, the competitors were allowed to do practice laps on the Wednesday, Thursday and Friday nights between 10pm and 6am. However, the roads were not closed to the public and the ACO advised drivers it was at their own risk. The big Mercedes showed its class, able to reach 195 kp/h (120 mph) on the Mulsanne straight.
The Paget-team Bentleys had a bad practice week. The Harcourt-Wood/Dunfee car had a big-end failure and all the cars were suffering overheating issues. This was found to be due to the high combustion temperatures of the hybrid fuel. The team decided to switch to the pure-benzol option, but it meant changing the engine compression ratios and fitting new pistons. There was only time to change two of the cars so the Harcourt-Wood/Dunfee car was withdrawn. Faced with a similar issue, the Talbots had been modified in May.
The BNC team had a last minute emergency just before the start. A split fuel-tank needed to be emptied and repaired. The race started as it was being refuelled, but then the car refused to start. So the starting field was only 17 – the smallest in the Le Mans race history.>
Race
Start
As a change from recent years, the race-day was sunny and hot. Caracciola, at the head of the line, was away first. On lap 2, his first flying lap, he broke the lap record (with a 6m52s) and then turned off the supercharger. This allowed the hard-charging Birkin in his Blower Bentley to close in. W.O. Bentley preferred to let the privateer do the chasing, telling his drivers to look after their cars and wave him through. On the fourth lap, Birkin was on Caracciola's tail at the Pontlieue curves. Reaching 195 kp/h he got past the Mercedes as they braked heavily for the Mulsanne corner. Birkin did a 6m48s to set a new lap record, but on the next lap the tread came off a rear tyre and he had to pit. It took only half a minute to change the wheel, and then in only five laps Birkin was right behind the Mercedes. Just as he again overtook Caracciola on the Mulsanne Straight the tread on the other tyre let go. Although he dropped two wheels off the road, Birkin was able to complete the pass until the tyre blew at Arnage forcing him to pit yet again.
Meanwhile, further back, de Rothschild had gone into the tight Arnage corner too fast and ploughed into the earth bank at speed. Able to reverse back out, he made it to pits where the crew verified the damage was not severe. The other Stutz had also had problems, with Brisson handling a misfiring engine at the start and then Rigal running off the road a couple of times, dislodging the exhaust pipe. The Lea-Francis lost time when it came to a stop about a kilometre from the pits. It took half an hour, but once Peacock cleaned the spark-plugs he was away again without further bother.
Caracciola's next challenger was Sammy Davis in his works Bentley. Despite a stone thrown up and smashing his goggles he stayed on the German's tail to the first pitstops after 20 laps. Bloodied, he handed over to Clive Dunfee who only managed a half-lap when he buried it in a sandbank at Pontlieue. With no shovel on hand it took him, and then Davis, over two hours to dig it out only to discover the front axle was wrecked. Kidston pitted his Bentley with a tyre tread thrown on his in-lap. Barnato took over and set about gradually closing in, finally overtaking Werner in the Mercedes around 8.30pm.
Behind the Mercedes and Bentleys ran the Stutzes and the Earl Howe's Alfa Romeo. The Talbots were running 9th and 10th, but were able to run an hour longer than the bigger cars ahead of them before refuelling. They picked up a place as the Alfa Romeo was delayed – a race-long struggle with fouled plugs and ignition from the blended fuel. At the back of the field, the nimble MGs were easily leading the Tractas (delayed, like others, by plug issues) in their own battle for small-engine honours. However the MGs soon ran into trouble. Samuelson's was waylaid by a failed big-end bearing, while Murton-Neale's skated off the track at the Pontlieue corners. French gendarmes had just sprinkled sand over the road to stop melting tar in the afternoon heat. He was furious and angrily threw the fencing he had just demolished with his car at the officials. Back at the pits, the car got assessed from damage. His co-driver did a few laps but was not convinced it was safe, so Murton-Neale got back in and drove on into the night. Around half-time, the car was finally retired with a broken con-rod.
At 9pm the Brisson/Rigal Stutz caught fire suddenly on the Mulsanne Straight. The improvised repairs to the exhaust pipe had come loose and flames set the car alight. Rigal managed to pull the car over and get out, narrowly missed by Barnato's Bentley. Hindmarsh, also running close behind him, stopped his Talbot and ran to help him with his own fire extinguisher. Parked far from any marshal posts, it took an hour for the fire to be put out, as official cars ferried fire extinguishers to the incident. The flames dazzled drivers and smoke from the destroyed car could be seen from the middle of Le Mans city. Not long after, the other Stutz had retired. The rear axle had, in fact, been knocked in de Rothschild's excursion and broke, leaving him not far from the other smouldering Stutz.
Night
By nightfall, after five tyre failures, the Birkin/Chassagne car was running seventh. In the sister car, Ramponi pitted with a high fever and feeling quite unwell. Benjafield took over facing having to drive the rest of the race. Mercedes team manager Neubauer authorised his driver to start re-using the supercharger to close back in and going into the night, the spectators watched a thrilling duel as the two cars swapped the lead. Just before midnight the two pitted together and the Bentley just got out first. This came to an end at 1.30am though when the Mercedes slowed with its headlights flickering. Werner pitted but could not restart from its pitstop. A wire had come loose on its dynamo and the battery had gone flat. This left the Bentleys running 1-2-3-5, the works Speed Sixes ahead of the Blowers with Barnato/Kidston holding a six-lap lead over Clement/Watney. The Talbots were now running fourth and sixth, splitting the hard-charging Birkin/Chassagne Bentley making up for its lost time. Shortly before 3am, Rose-Richards bought his Talbot into the pits when the front-wing began to come apart, affecting his headlamps. The team jury-rigged a fix with wire and cords. This allowed the Alfa Romeo, running better in the cool night, to pass back into sixth.
Morning
The second half of the race devolved into a routine procession. Early morning mist and a heavy rain shower also contributed to a dour race. After 8 o’clock Birkin and Chassagne finally caught the Lewis/Eaton Talbot and moved up to fourth. But then just before midday their Bentley broke a conrod and had to retire. Then within an hour, the other Blower Bentley also lost its engine, after Benjafield had driven solidly for fourteen hours without relief. This promoted the Talbots now into third and fourth, until the running repairs on the Hindmarsh/Rose-Richards car came adrift again. This time they pulled off the superfluous headlamp and secured the fender with leather straps going around the radiator cap and front chassis. The three pitstops required again allowed Howe's Alfa to get past a second time.
In the early afternoon, a short, heavy downpour swept across the circuit. The main excitement was the close race for the Index prize between Bentley and Talbot. Both teams told their leading cars to push on harder. With two hours to go, Eaton pitted his Talbot to clear a fuel blockage: a paper label off a fuel-churn had fallen in and got stuck on the filter. It cost a lap and let the Bentley get ahead. The handicapping favoured the smaller car and Eaton's hard driving soon retook the lead only to lose it again when they pitted to free a stuck throttle. When a late stop delayed Howe in the Alfa Romeo, the Talbots once again were in third and fourth.
Finish and post-race
Once again Bentley staged a formation finish. Woolf Barnato, getting back-to-back victories in the same Speed-Six chassis as he driven to win in 1929, promptly announced his retirement with the enviable Le Mans record of three entries for three outright wins. In the end the Alfa Romeo was only eighteen kilometres (1 lap) behind the Talbots. British drivers filled the first six places with the privateer Lea-Francis coming home in sixth. Despite the early delay, Peacock and Newsome still covered four more laps than their previous year's effort.
In a tight finish, Talbot won the Index prize by the narrowest of margins: only 0.004 from the winning Bentley, amounting to barely a lap between them. Three French cars were the remaining finishers, highlighted by the women in the Bugatti after a trouble-free run to seventh, and Jean-Albert Grégoire leading home both his Tracta cars. Grégoire was lucky to finish, as he had just put his car in a ditch on his last lap. Unofficial help from spectators pulled him out in time.
It was a curious fact that the Bentleys had a number of tyre delaminations of their Dunlops. Whereas the Talbots, and Mercedes (albeit abbreviated), had run on their starting set of Dunlops through their whole race.
Bentley had now achieved five wins in the first eight Le Mans. But like many other manufacturers, the company was hit hard with plummeting demand in the Great Depression and soon after Bentley disbanded its works racing team. In 1931 Barnato let two loan repayments lapse. The receivers were called in and in November the company was bought out by Rolls-Royce. Nor did Glen Kidston get back to Le Mans. A keen pilot, he was attempting an endurance record from England to Cape Town when he was killed on the return route when his plane broke up pin stormy weather.
In October, Dorothy Paget withdrew her financial support for the Blower Bentley project after ongoing unreliability and only limited success. Philippe de Rothschild, knowing his identity was now revealed, retired from racing to build his family company into one of the great French wine labels.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Did not finish
Note *: [B]= car also entered in the 1929-30 Biennial Cup.
Note **: equivalent class for supercharging, with x1.3 modifier to capacity.
Did not start
1930 index of performance
Class winners
Statistics
Fastest Lap – H. Birkin, #9 Bentley 4½ Litre 'Blower'– 6:48secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
References
Citations
Bibliography
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1998) Le Mans 'The Bentley & Alfa Years 1923-1939' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2017) Le Mans 1930-39 Sherbourne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1930 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
Le Mans History – entries, results incl. photos. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
24h en Piste – results, chassis numbers & driver photos (in French). Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
Radio Le mans – Race article and review by Charles Dressing. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
Motorsport Memorial – motor-racing deaths by year. Retrieved 6 Dec 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1930 in French motorsport
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5388694
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1929 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1929 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 7th Grand Prix of Endurance that took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe on 15 and 16 June 1929.
In the most dominant display in the race to date, Bentley achieved a comprehensive victory taking the first four places on distance. Bentley director Woolf Barnato repeated his victory of the previous year, co-driven this time by fellow Bentley Boy Sir Henry “Tim” Birkin. They had led from start to finish, setting a new distance record and lap record.
The race was relatively quiet, without serious incident, aside from a fuel fire burning Stutz driver Édouard Brisson. Half of the reduced field had retired by dawn on the Sunday and the Bentley team was able to stage a formation finish for its four finishers.
Regulations
The international regulations remained unchanged. However, for its part, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) decreed that 2-seater cars could now be no bigger than 1000cc (either supercharged or not) and the 3-seat dispensation for 1500cc cars was removed after two years. This year Shell petrol was the official fuel for all cars.
Residents of southern Le Mans city were successful in petitioning the council. A new by-pass road, the Rue de Circuit, was built 600 metres ahead of the Pontlieue hairpin at the edge of the city. It reduced the track length by 922 metres from to .
The road surface experiments continued on the track. The left-hand turn approaching Arnage was partially re-surfaced with bricks and named Indianapolis, after the famous American “Brickyard”. A new spectator area was opened between the two corners. Also, many roadside trees had their trunks painted white for visibility and all the corners were signposted.
The media centre was also enlarged to include six phone booths and a telegraph table.
Entries
The global recession was hitting the auto-industry hard and only 26 cars made it to the start-line. For the first time French cars were in the minority with none in line for outright distance honours. It became a three-nation entry list with cars only from France, Great Britain and the United States. In lieu of a lack of direct manufacturer support, more privateer entries arrived.
Supercharged engines were very popular with ten cars having ‘blown’ engines. Dunlop Tyres now shod all the cars in the field. Of the sixteen places open in the Biennial Cup final, thirteen were taken up.
Note: The first number is the number of entries, the second the number who started.
Belying its precarious financial position, defending winners Bentley arrived with a very strong five-car entry, led by the new Speed Six sport version of its 6½-litre tourer. The engine was developed by Harry Weslake using a magnesium-alloy (elektron) crankcase to reduce weight. It put out over 190 bhp and get to 185 kp/h (115 mph). The previous year's winner, and company director, Woolf Barnato would drive it with Henry “Tim” Birkin. Another Le Mans winner, Dudley Benjafield, was slated to drive the car, but he gave his place to Birkin believing he would have a better chance of winning.
The remaining four cars were the reliable 4½-litre tourers, the chassis strengthened after the issues from the previous year. They were assigned to more of the “Bentley Boys”: Frank Clement / Jean Chassagne, Benjafield with Baron André d’Erlanger and Glen Kidston/Jack Dunfee. The fourth car, of Earl Howe/Bernard Rubin, had only a week earlier been used in a 24-hour record-breaking attempt at Montlhéry by Mary Petre and her husband Victor Bruce. The experienced driving squad was supported by Bertie Kensington-Moir, back from Lagonda as team manager, and Walter Hassan as lead mechanic.
After the close-fought duel the previous year, Stutz returned with three cars. The new Model M Blackhawk had a 5.3-litre engine capable of 155 bhp through a four-speed gearbox. The cars were entered by their European dealerships. British agent Warwick Wright had George Eyston/Dick Watney as drivers. Automobiles Elite, of Paris, hired Guy Bouriat and Philippe de Rothschild; while Paris-based American Charles Terres Weymann had grand-prix master Louis Chiron with the experienced Édouard Brisson. Their car was fitted with an optional Roots-supercharger.
Like Stutz, Du Pont was in the American luxury car market. The new Model G had a big 5.3-litre Continental sidevalve engine. However, this was a two-seater tourer, and refused entry by the ACO under its new maximum engine-size rule. So, the company quickly fashioned four four-seater speedster models, however only one of the two entries was ready in time for the race. It would be driven by the first Americans at Le Mans – Charles Moran Jr. (a friend of E. Paul du Pont, who had raced in Europe the previous year) and Alfredo Luis Miranda (the Mexican-born New York dealer for DuPont).
Once again, the Grand Garage St Didier entered two of their Chrysler Six's. The ‘75’ was the 1929 model, driven by team regular Henri Stoffel, this time along with French GP racer Robert Benoist. The ‘77’ was a preview of the 1930 model and manned by Cyril de Vere and Marcel Mongin.
Invicta was an English firm founded in 1919. Offering a standard design in three wheelbase lengths, the 1928 LC (“large-chassis”) version featured the current 4.5-litre Meadows engine that put out 100 bhp. Cecil Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes, a major in the Royal Marines, put in a privateer entry for the race.
Similarly, Lea-Francis was an English firm manufacturing since 1920. The S-Type had arrived in 1927, with the Meadows 1.5-litre engine used in several English sports cars. Once fitted with a supercharger (as the S-Type Hyper) it could reach 145 kp/h (90 mph) and became very popular with privateer drivers and Kaye Don won the RAC Tourist Trophy handicap. Enthused by this, gentleman racer Ken Peacock entered a car with Lea-Francis distributor Sammy Newsome as his co-pilot.
The Lagonda works team had had a very disappointing season in 1928, with only one finish from seven entries in three races. However, a new team of Lagonda-owners (PERR) and the company's main agents, Fox & Nichol, approached the company to prepare four cars for racing. Major revisions were made to the 2-Litre Speed, including lowering the chassis, uprating the engine and fitting a tougher gearbox and suspension, all combining to give it a top speed of 160 kp/h (100 mph). One was entered for Le Mans, driven by Tim Rose-Richards and Brian Lewis, Baron Essendon. By contrast, the Alvis had been successful and returned with two of their new FA8/15 model. Still with front-wheel drive, the 1.5-litre engine now had a Roots supercharger. Drivers were 1927-winner and journalist Sammy Davis with Leon Cushman and Cyril Paul with Bill Urquhart-Dykes.
SARA was the only other manufacturer apart from Bentley to have been at every Le Mans to date. Since the last race founder Auguste Tisserant had sold the license for his patented air-cooled pushrod engine to Scottish entrepreneur H.E. Plaister's new company Scotsman Motors who intended to manufacture touring cars around the 1.5 and 1.8-litre engines. In a joint-venture the companies entered a pair of four-year-old SARA SP-7s for SARA works driver Gaston Mottet along with three British drivers.
The success of Tracta’s patented front-wheel drive system had attracted considerable investment from Charles Terres Weymann, which helped to allow the team to enter four cars to the race. The new regulations meant their two-seater Type A could only have a 1-litre engine, but each SCAP engine was fitted with a Cozette supercharger. Once again, owner Jean-Albert Grégoire drove one of his cars. Lucien Lemesle, the mechanic in the crowd who had volunteered to help Grégoire in the debacle that was their 1927 race, returned as a co-driver to Maurice Benoist. The fourth car was a streamliner special. The unique Cozette engine had opposed pistons at each end of the cylinders powered by the supercharger pressure, thus dispensing with a cylinder head and crankcase. Grégoire prudently assigned his head mechanic Tribaudot, who had assembled the engine, to co-drive Roger Bourcier (given the rule that only the drivers could work on the car during the race). Its distinctive engine easily made it the loudest, and smokiest, car in the race.
Bollack Netter and Co (BNC) had collapsed and been bought out by entrepreneur Charles de Ricou, who would also buy the struggling Rolland Pilain and Lombard companies. Two new models came to Le Mans: the four-seater Acacias, with a supercharged 1.5-litre Meadows engine, and a pair of the BNC 527, with its small 1-litre Ruby engine. One of those was also took the entry in the Biennial Cup.
Smallest car in the field was the D’Yrsan Grand Sport. After withdrawing its entries for the 1928 race, the company arrived this year. The low-slung car had a patented independent front suspension and ran with a supercharged 749cc Ruby engine. A normally-aspirated 1.1-litre entry was also submitted, but later withdrawn.
Practice
The British teams got to the track at the start of the week, to familiarise themselves with the circuit and the new layout in unofficial practices (with the roads still for public use). After testing and a shake-down run for the DuPont at the Montlhéry circuit, Moran was concerned about Miranda's lack of pace and decided to drive the whole event himself.
Race
Start
Once again, the race began under grey clouds and drizzling rain. First away were the DuPont and the Lagonda but Birkin, in the big Bentley Speed Six, was in the lead under the Dunlop bridge. Left at the line was the D’Yrsan with Trillaud losing seven minutes pushing the car up the road trying to get his engine fired (technically a disqualification offense). At the end of the first lap Birkin had already set a new lap record of 7m57s, from a standing start. The other Bentleys of Clement, Kidston and Benjafield were in formation behind, chased by the Stutzes of Bouriat and Eyston. Howe was next, though he soon moved up as the rain stopped to join his teammates, with Benoist and Mongin in their Chryslers and Moran's DuPont making up the top ten. Already there was a sizeable gap (over a kilometre) back to the Lagonda leading the smaller cars.
After three-quarters of an hour, Earl Howe was in the pits, his progress stymied by electrical issues. Replacing the sparkplugs and the magneto took an hour but was ultimately unsuccessful. The DuPont retired with a bent propshaft badly affecting its handling. Unlike most other teams who now used secured lead weights, the team had loaded their ballast as sandbags. These had broken through the floor and damaged the propshaft. With their twenty lap minimum done, the other cars started making their first pit stops for driver changes and refuelling. The well-drilled Bentley drivers were in and out in 3minutes. Alarmingly, fuel spilled onto the hot exhaust of Brisson's Stutz which quickly burst into flames. Brisson was burnt and had to be taken to hospital. After extended repairs to the car, Grand Prix driver Louis Chiron resolved to carry on driving solo.
Overtaken by the Alvis, the Lagonda was still going well until Lewis bought the car into the pits, saying the floorboards has been on fire. Initially thought it was thought a hot exhaust pipe had got bent, but when it was found to have a leak from a head gasket the team's race was over. In the meantime, the Alvis had also been put out, with a cracked cylinder head.
By 10pm as night fell, Barnato and Dunfee, having completed 44 laps, now had a lap's lead on the rest of the field. The remaining two Bentleys were next, themselves with a lap over Bouriat's Stutz (42) and with Eyston's Stutz and the Chryslers a further lap back (41).
Night
Through the night, the Bentley team kept building their lead. Dunfee lost second place when he had to pit to replace his lightbulbs, which had burnt out their wiring while he was doing 100mph down the Mulsanne Straight. He was livid when he found out the mechanics had installed bigger replacement bulbs for the event. Stoffel started pushing his Chrysler when he took over at 2am, making up ground with his track experience.
Then around 3am the Benjafield/d'Erlanger car, running fourth, got a water leak and electrical fault. By the time the niggly faults were repaired, they were being closely pursued by a resurgent Bouriat and Benoist. Then Benoist's skill as a Grand Prix driver came to the fore in the darkness as he successively overtook the Stutz and the Bentley to push up to fourth by 6am. Just before halftime the Tracta special – which had been in danger of disqualification as a driving hazard because of its excessive exhaust – broke a fuel line and retired. The Invicta, that had been running as high as 9th at nightfall, was retired when a complete loss of engine-oil had broken a big-end bearing. They had been “the best of the rest”, leading the Lea-Francis, a Tracta, BNC and SARA. Around dawn Clement's Bentley had to stop when the rear ballast came loose and went through the floorboards, damaging the suspension. He lost an hour undertaking repair.
Morning
So, as the spectators were rousing for breakfast, there were only a dozen cars left running. Barnato and Birkin were still running smoothly out in front. Kidston and Dunfee were now only a lap ahead of the Benoist/Stoffel Chrysler. Behind were the two delayed Bentleys and the two Stutzes. Chiron's solo-drive through the night had finally come to an end just after dawn when the clutch gave out. Then at 7 am, Eyston's Stutz ran out of fuel out on the track (with just a lap before his next pit-stop) because of a split fuel tank, leaving just one Stutz in the running.
A similar malady then forced the Chrysler to pit. Stoffel was under his car for nearly two hours doing extended repairs. That restored the Bentleys to the top four positions. The Lea-Francis had moved up the order through the night to eighth and was running well when one of the shock-absorbers broke. Despite a rough ride they made it to the finish.
Finish and post-race
From there it was a routine run to the finish. With over spreading the small field, the only real point of excitement was the Chrysler trying hard to reel in the Stutz to take fifth place. In the last hour, W. O. Bentley put the word out to his team to line up for a formation finish. Quite a novelty at the time, the “Motor” magazine described it as “superb, disposed in line ahead like a squadron of battleships.”
Bouriat/Rothschild bought the Stutz home in fifth, barely a lap ahead of the hard-charging Benoist in his Chrysler, with his teammate three laps further back. Ken Peacock's privateer Lea-Francis was the first smaller-engined car, in eighth, with two of the Tractas rounding out the ten finishers. Team-owner Grégoire almost had a race-ending spin at Arnage near the end of the race, but they were the only French cars to finish this year.
It was the most dominant display by a manufacturer in the short history of the race to date, and not matched until 1957 by Jaguar. The leading two Bentleys had not missed a beat. In the mighty Speed Six, Tim Birkin had stamped an impressive new lap record, fully 46 seconds faster, helped by the slightly abbreviated track layout. They also broke the race distance record, covering over . The Speed Six's performance was so strong that they also won all three major awards, becoming the biggest car to win the Index.
In finishing fourth, Frank Clement has the distinction of being the only driver to have participated in all seven of the Le Mans through the 1920s, all for Bentley and including the distance victory in 1924. Feeling very pleased with his consecutive victories, Barnato loaned Bentley another £25000.
In August, the innovative supercharging pioneer René Cozette was killed making a speed-record attempt when he crashed at 200 kp/h at Montlhéry.In November, Kidston was badly burned when he was the sole survivor in an air-crash in England of a Luft Hansa passenger flight.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Although there were no official engine classes, the highest finishers in unofficial categories aligned with the Index targets are in Bold text.
Did not finish
Note *: [B]= car also entered in the 1928-9 Biennial Cup.
Note **: There were no official class divisions for this race. These are unofficial categories (used in subsequent years) related to the Index targets.
Did not start
1928-29 Coupe Biennale Rudge-Whitworth
1929 index of performance (Prix Saint-Didier)
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Highest finisher in class
Note *: setting a new class distance record.
There were no official class divisions for this race and these are the highest finishers in unofficial categories (used in subsequent years) related to the Index targets.
Statistics
Fastest Lap – H. Birkin, #1 Bentley Speed Six – 7:21secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1998) Le Mans 'The Bentley & Alfa Years 1923-1939' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2015) Le Mans 1923-29 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1929 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
Le Mans History – entries, results incl. photos, hourly positions. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
24h en Piste – results, chassis numbers & hour-by-hour places (in French). Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
Radio Le mans – Race article and review by Charles Dressing. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
Motorsport Memorial – motor-racing deaths by year. Retrieved 13 Nov 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1929 in French motorsport
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5388717
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m%20Not%20There
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I'm Not There
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I'm Not There is a 2007 musical drama film directed by Todd Haynes, and co-written by Haynes and Oren Moverman. An experimental biographical film, it is inspired by the life and music of American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, with six actors depicting different facets of Dylan's public personas: Christian Bale, Cate Blanchett, Marcus Carl Franklin, Richard Gere, Heath Ledger (his final film to be released during his lifetime), and Ben Whishaw. A caption at the start of the film declares it to be "inspired by the music and the many lives of Bob Dylan"; this is the only mention of Dylan in the film apart from song credits, and his only appearance in it is concert footage from 1966 shown during the film's final moments.
I'm Not There tells its story using non-traditional narrative techniques, intercutting the storylines of seven different Dylan-inspired characters. The title of the film is taken from the 1967 Dylan Basement Tape recording of "I'm Not There", a song that had not been officially released until it appeared on the film's soundtrack album. The film received a generally favorable response for its acting, directing, and musical score, and appeared on several top ten films lists for 2007, topping the lists for The Village Voice, Entertainment Weekly, Salon, and The Boston Globe. Particular praise went to Cate Blanchett for her performance, culminating in a Volpi Cup for Best Actress from the Venice Film Festival, the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress, along with an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination.
Plot
I'm Not There uses a nonlinear narrative, shifting between six characters in separate storylines "inspired by the music and many lives of Bob Dylan". Each character represents a different facet of Dylan's public persona: poet (Arthur Rimbaud), prophet (Jack Rollins/Father John), outlaw (Billy McCarty), fake (Woody Guthrie), "rock and roll martyr" (Jude Quinn), and "star of electricity" (Robbie Clark).
Production notes published by distributor The Weinstein Company explain that the film "dramatizes the life and music of Bob Dylan as a series of shifting personae, each performed by a different actor—poet, prophet, outlaw, fake, star of electricity, rock and roll martyr, born-again Christian—seven identities braided together, seven organs pumping through one life story."
Arthur Rimbaud
19-year-old Arthur Rimbaud is questioned by interrogators. His cryptic responses are interspersed throughout the film, including remarks on fatalism, the nature of poets, "seven simple rules for life in hiding," and chaos.
Woody Guthrie
In 1959, an 11-year-old African American boy calling himself Woody Guthrie is freighthopping through the Midwestern United States. Carrying a guitar in a case bearing the slogan "this machine kills fascists", he plays blues music and sings about topics such as trade unionism. One African American woman advises him to sing about the issues of his own time instead. Woody is attacked by hobos and nearly drowns, but is rescued by a white couple who take him in. They are impressed with his musical talents, but Woody runs off when they receive a telephone call from a juvenile corrections center in Minnesota telling them he is an escaped fugitive. Upon learning that the real Woody Guthrie is deathly ill, Dylan travels to New Jersey to visit Guthrie in the hospital.
Jack Rollins/Father John
The career of folk musician Jack Rollins is framed as a documentary film, told by interviewees including folk singer Alice Fabian. Jack becomes a star of the Greenwich Village folk scene in the early 1960s, praised by fans for his protest songs. He signs to Columbia Records, but in 1963, just as the Vietnam War is escalating, he stops singing protest songs and turns away from folk music, believing that neither affects real social or political change. Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Jack gets drunk at a ceremony where he is receiving an award from a civil rights organization. Remarking in his acceptance speech that he saw something of himself in Kennedy's assassin Lee Harvey Oswald, he is booed and derided by the audience. He goes into hiding, and in 1974 enters a bible study course in Stockton, California, and emerges a born again Christian, denouncing his past and becoming an ordained minister performing gospel music under the name "Father John".
Robbie Clark
Robbie Clark is a 22-year-old actor who plays Jack Rollins in the 1965 biographical film Grain of Sand. During filming in Greenwich Village in January 1964, he falls in love with French artist Claire, and they soon marry. Grain of Sand is a hit and Robbie becomes a star, but their relationship is strained and Claire observes Robbie flirting with other women. She is particularly offended when, during an argument in 1968 over whether the evils of the world can be changed, he opines that women can never be poets. Eventually Robbie moves out of their house, then goes to London for four months to film a thriller and has an affair with his female co-star. Richard Nixon's January 1973 announcement of the Paris Peace Accords inspires Claire to ask for a divorce. She gains custody of their two daughters, but allows Robbie to take them on a boating trip.
Jude Quinn
Jude Quinn is a popular former folk singer whose performance with a full band and electric guitars at a New England jazz and folk festival outrages his fans, who accuse him of selling out. Travelling to London, Jude is asked by journalist Keenan Jones if he has become disillusioned or thinks folk music has failed to achieve its goals of sociopolitical change. Jude is attacked by a hotel employee, hangs out with the Beatles, encounters his former lover Coco Rivington, and meets poet Allen Ginsberg, who suggests that Jude "sold out to God." Interviewing Jude, Keenan notes that Jude's songs are being used as recruitment tools by the Black Panther Party and opines that Jude refuses to feel deeply about anything while simultaneously being very self-conscious; Jude is offended and walks out of the interview. At a concert performing "Ballad of a Thin Man", Jude is booed and called a "Judas" by the audience. Keenan reveals on television that, despite his claims of a rough-and-tumble vagabond past, Jude is actually Aaron Jacob Edelstein, the suburban, middle-class, educated son of a Brookline, Massachusetts department store owner. Faced with a long string of upcoming European tour dates, Jude spirals into drug use and is killed in a motorcycle accident.
Billy McCarty
Outlaw Billy McCarty, believed to have been killed by Pat Garrett, lives in hiding in rural Riddle, Missouri. Learning that Commissioner Garrett plans to demolish the town to build a highway, which has caused several townspeople to commit suicide, Billy confronts Garrett. Garrett recognizes Billy as the outlaw Billy the Kid and has him thrown in jail. He is broken out by his friend Homer and hops into a boxcar on a passing train, where he finds Woody's guitar. As he rides away, he remarks on the nature of freedom and identity.
The film concludes with footage of Dylan playing a harmonica solo during a live performance in 1966.
Cast
Main cast
These six characters represent different aspects of Dylan's life and music. Some of these share names with real historical figures or artists, some are wholly fictional characters.
Christian Bale as Jack Rollins/Pastor John.
Cate Blanchett as Jude Quinn.
Marcus Carl Franklin as Woody.
Richard Gere as Billy the Kid.
Heath Ledger as Robbie Clark, an actor who portrays Jack Rollins in a biographical film and becomes as famous as the person he portrays
Ben Whishaw as Arthur Rimbaud
Supporting cast
Charlotte Gainsbourg as Claire Clark, wife of Robbie Clark
David Cross as Allen Ginsberg
Eugene Brotto as Peter Orlovsky
Bruce Greenwood as Keenan Jones, a fictional reporter who investigates Jude Quinn, and Pat Garrett, nemesis of Billy the Kid.
Julianne Moore as Alice Fabian, a singer
Michelle Williams as Coco Rivington
Mark Camacho as Norman, the manager of Jude Quinn
Benz Antoine as Bobby Seale, the Black Panther leader, and Rabbit Brown
Craig Thomas as Huey Newton, the Black Panther leader
Richie Havens as Old Man Arvin
Kim Roberts as Mrs. Arvin
Kris Kristofferson as The Narrator
Don Francks as Hobo Joe
Vito DeFilippo and Susan Glover as Mr. and Mrs. Peacock, a middle-class couple who take "Woody Guthrie" in after a near-drowning incident
Paul Spence as Homer, Billy the Kid's friend
Production
Development
Todd Haynes and his producer, Christine Vachon, approached Dylan's manager, Jeff Rosen, to obtain permission to use Dylan's music and to fictionalize elements of Dylan's life. Rosen suggested that Haynes should send a one-page synopsis of his film for submission to Dylan. Rosen advised Haynes not to use the word "genius" or "voice of a generation". The page Haynes submitted began with a quote from Arthur Rimbaud: "I is someone else", and then continued:
Dylan gave Haynes permission to proceed with his project. Haynes developed his screenplay with writer Oren Moverman. In the course of writing, Haynes has acknowledged that he became uncertain whether he could successfully carry off a film which deliberately confused biography with fantasy in such an extreme way. According to the account of the film that Robert Sullivan published in the New York Times: "Haynes called Jeff Rosen, Dylan's right hand, who was watching the deal-making but staying out of the scriptwriting. Rosen, he said, told him not to worry, that it was just his own crazy version of what Dylan is."
In a comment on why six actors were employed to portray different facets of Dylan's personality, Haynes wrote:
A further Dylan-based character named Charlie, based on Charlie Chaplin, was dropped before filming began. Haynes described him as "a little tramp, coming to Greenwich Village and performing feats of magic and being an arbiter of peace between the beats and the folkies."
Grain of Sand
The film within a film, Grain of Sand, is not only important for the plot of I'm Not There but also for the film's connection to Bob Dylan's life. Larry Gross suggests that Grain of Sand actor Robbie may be the film's most accurate portrayal of Dylan despite being "a fictional actor playing a fictional alternative version of a real person" because of his tumultuous relationship with Claire. Gross also notes parallels between Robbie and Claire's ultimately failed marriage and Dylan's relationship with Suze Rotolo, claiming that Claire's character seems to be a portrayal of Rotolo, especially considering the shot in I'm Not There that mimicks the photo of Rotolo and Dylan on the cover of The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan.
Filming
Principal photography took place in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Music festival scenes were filmed in Chambly, Quebec in the summer of 2006.
Music
The film features numerous songs by Dylan, performed by Dylan and also recordings by other artists. The songs feature as both foreground—performed by artists on camera (e.g. "Goin' to Acapulco", "Pressing On")—and background accompaniment to the action. A notable non-Dylan song in the movie is "(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone" by The Monkees, which plays in the background of a party scene set in London.
Release
In January 2007, The Weinstein Company acquired U.S distribution rights to the film. I'm Not There had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on August 31, 2007. The film went onto screen at the Toronto International Film Festival, London Film Festival, and the New York Film Festival. The film opened in limited release in the United States on November 21, 2007. It was then released in Germany on February 28, 2008, by Tobis Film.
Home media
I'm Not There was released on DVD as a 2-disc special edition on May 6, 2008. The DVD special features include audio commentary from Haynes, deleted scenes, featurettes, a music video, audition tapes for certain cast members, trailers, and a Bob Dylan filmography and discography.
Reception
Critical response
I'm Not There received generally positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 77% approval rating based on 162 reviews, with an average rating of 7.06 out of 10. The site's critical consensus states: "I'm Not Theres unique editing, visuals, and multiple talented actors portraying Bob Dylan make for a deliciously unconventional experience. Each segment brings a new and fresh take on Dylan's life." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 35 reviews.
Writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education, Anthony DeCurtis wrote that casting six different actors, including a woman and an African-American child, to play Dylan was "a preposterous idea, the sort of self-consciously 'audacious'—or reassuringly multi-culti—gambit that, for instance, doomed the Broadway musical based on the life and music of John Lennon. Yet in I'm Not There, the strategy works brilliantly." He especially praised Blanchett:
Several other critics also praised Blanchett's performance as the mid-1960s Dylan. Newsweek magazine described Blanchett as "so convincing and intense that you shrink back in your seat when she fixes you with her gaze." The Charlotte Observer called Blanchett "miraculously close to the 1966 Dylan."
Todd McCarthy of Variety, concluded that the film was well-made, but was ultimately a speciality event for Dylan fans, with little mainstream appeal. He wrote: "Dylan freaks and scholars will have the most fun with I'm Not There, and there will inevitably be innumerable dissertations on the ways Haynes has both reflected and distorted reality, mined and manipulated the biographical record and otherwise had a field day with the essentials, as well as the esoterica, of Dylan's life. All of this will serve to inflate the film's significance by ignoring its lack of more general accessibility. In the end, it's a specialists' event." For Roger Ebert, the film was enjoyable cinematically, yet never sought to resolve the enigmas of Dylan's life and work: "Coming away from I'm Not There, we have, first of all, heard some great music ... We've seen six gifted actors challenged by playing facets of a complete man. We've seen a daring attempt at biography as collage. We've remained baffled by the Richard Gere cowboy sequence, which doesn't seem to know its purpose. And we have been left not one step closer to comprehending Bob Dylan, which is as it should be."
Dylan's response
In September 2012, Dylan commented on I'm Not There in an interview published in Rolling Stone. When journalist Mikal Gilmore asked Dylan whether he liked the film, he responded: "Yeah, I thought it was all right. Do you think that the director was worried that people would understand it or not? I don't think he cared one bit. I just think he wanted to make a good movie. I thought it looked good, and those actors were incredible."
Top ten lists
The film appeared on several critics' lists of the top ten films of 2007.
1st – J. Hoberman, The Village Voice
1st – Owen Gleiberman, Entertainment Weekly
1st – Stephanie Zacharek, Salon
1st – Ty Burr, The Boston Globe
3rd – Lisa Schwarzbaum, Entertainment Weekly
3rd – Marc Mohan, The Oregonian
4th – A. O. Scott, The New York Times
4th – Nathan Lee, The Village Voice
4th – Shawn Levy, The Oregonian
5th – Steven Rea, The Philadelphia Inquirer
6th – Kevin Crust, Los Angeles Times
7th – Marjorie Baumgarten, The Austin Chronicle
9th – Glenn Kenny, Premiere
9th – Peter Travers, Rolling Stone
10th – Ann Hornaday, The Washington Post
10th – Desson Thomson, The Washington Post
10th – Keith Phipps, The A.V. Club
10th – Tasha Robinson, The A.V. Club
Accolades
Academy Awards:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, nominee)
British Academy Film Awards
Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Cate Blanchett, nominee)
Broadcast Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, nominee)
Central Ohio Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Chicago Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Golden Globe Awards:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Independent Spirit Awards
Best Film (nominee)
Best Director (Todd Haynes, nominee)
Best Supporting Actor (Marcus Carl Franklin, nominee)
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Robert Altman Award (Todd Haynes, Laura Rosenthal, Christian Bale, Cate Blanchett, Marcus Carl Franklin, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Richard Gere, Bruce Greenwood, Heath Ledger and Ben Whishaw, winner)
Las Vegas Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Los Angeles Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, runner-up)
New York Film Critics Circle:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, runner-up)
New York Film Critics Online:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
National Society of Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Nilsson Awards for Film
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Best Cinematography
Best Compiled Soundtrack
Satellite Awards:
Best Actress – Comedy or Musical (Cate Blanchett, nominee)
Screen Actors Guild (SAG):
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, nominee)
Southeastern Film Critics:
Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett, runner-up)
Venice Film Festival:
CinemAvvenire Award – Best Film (winner)
Golden Lion (Todd Haynes, nominee)
Special Jury Prize (Todd Haynes, winner)
Volpi Cup Best Actress (Cate Blanchett, winner)
Correlations to Dylan's life
The character of Jack Rollins depicts Dylan during his acoustic, "protest" phase which includes The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan and The Times They Are a-Changin'. Rollins's speech mentioning Lee Harvey Oswald quotes from a speech Dylan made when receiving the Tom Paine Award from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee in December 1963. Pastor John embodies Dylan's "born-again" period when he recorded Slow Train Coming and Saved.
Jude Quinn "closely follows Dylan's mid-sixties adventures" and his "dangerous game propels him into existential breakdown." Quinn is an embodiment of Dylan in 1965–66, when he controversially played electric guitar at the Newport Folk Festival, toured the UK with a band and was booed. Quinn is seen at a folk festival performing a rock version of "Maggie's Farm" to outraged folk music fans; Dylan performed this song at the Newport Folk Festival in 1965, which provoked booing and controversy. Some of the questions Quinn is asked at a London press conference are quotes from Dylan's KQED press conference in San Francisco in December 1965. The sped-up film speed in the scene of Quinn gambolling with The Beatles echoes the style of Richard Lester's depiction in A Hard Day's Night. Quinn's reply, "How can I answer that if you've got the nerve to ask me?", to Bruce Greenwood's character comes from a similar response Dylan made to a reporter from Time magazine in Dont Look Back, Pennebaker's documentary about Dylan's 1965 English tour. The scene in which Jude is called "Judas" by an audience member is based on a May 17, 1966, concert in Manchester, captured on Dylan's album Live 1966. The Jude Quinn character's death reflects a serious motorcycle accident Dylan had in 1966.
The Woody character refers to Dylan's youthful obsession with folk singer Woody Guthrie. The slogan "This machine kills fascists" on Woody's guitar case mimics a label Guthrie famously had on his guitar.
Billy the Kid refers to Dylan playing the role of Alias in Sam Peckinpah's 1973 western Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid. Billy's final monologue in the film echoes remarks Dylan made in a 1997 interview with David Gates of Newsweek: "I don't think I'm tangible to myself. I mean, I think one thing today and I think another thing tomorrow. I change during the course of a day. I wake and I'm one person, and when I go to sleep I know for certain I'm somebody else. I don't know who I am most of the time. It doesn't even matter to me."
The character Robbie Clark is an actor who portrays Jack Rollins in a biographical film and becomes as famous as the person he portrays; he experiences the stresses of a disintegrating marriage, reflecting Dylan's personal life around the time of 1975's Blood on the Tracks. The scene in which Robbie and Claire run romantically through the streets of New York re-enacts the cover of the 1963 album The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan which depicts Dylan arm in arm with his then-girlfriend Suze Rotolo in Greenwich Village. Dylan was divorced from his first wife, Sara Dylan, in June 1977 and the divorce involved court battles over the custody of their children. In his production notes, Haynes wrote that Robbie and Claire's relationship is "doomed to a long stubborn protraction (not unlike Vietnam, which it parallels)." Claire Clark, the wife of Robbie Clark, is a representation of Sara Dylan and Suze Rotolo.
Arthur Rimbaud is depicted as a man being questioned and responding with quotes from Dylan's interviews and writings. Dylan wrote in his autobiography Chronicles that he was influenced by Rimbaud's outlook.
Keenan Jones, the name of the fictional reporter who investigates Jude Quinn and Pat Garrett, echoes Dylan's song "Ballad of a Thin Man" with its chorus: "Something is happening here/ And you don't know what it is, do you Mr. Jones?" The character's revelation of Jude's past is based on a hostile profile of Dylan published in the October 1963 issue of Newsweek, revealing that he was originally named Robert Zimmerman and implying that he had lied about his middle-class origins.
The character Alice Fabian is a singer who resembles folk singer Joan Baez.
The description of Coco Rivington as "Andy's new bird" suggests this character is modelled on Edie Sedgwick, a socialite and actress within Andy Warhol's circle.
Norman, the manager of Jude Quinn, is based on Albert Grossman, Dylan's manager until 1970.
Huey Newton depicts the real-life Black Panther leader. He and Bobby Seale, another Black Panther leader, listened "obsessively" to Dylan's song "Ballad of a Thin Man" while putting together the first issue of the Black Panther newspaper in 1967.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
"This Is Not a Bob Dylan Movie" (The New York Times)
2007 films
2007 biographical drama films
2000s musical drama films
American biographical drama films
American independent films
American musical drama films
American rock music films
Biographical films about musicians
Biographical musicals
Cultural depictions of Bob Dylan
Cultural depictions of the Beatles
Cultural depictions of Billy the Kid
Cultural depictions of Pat Garrett
Cultural depictions of Arthur Rimbaud
Cultural depictions of Woody Guthrie
2000s English-language films
Films about Bob Dylan
Films set in 1959
Films set in 1963
Films set in 1964
Films set in 1968
Films set in 1973
Films set in 1974
Films set in the United States
Films shot in Montreal
English-language German films
German biographical drama films
German musical drama films
German independent films
German rock music films
American nonlinear narrative films
Films with screenplays by Oren Moverman
Films directed by Todd Haynes
Films produced by Christine Vachon
Killer Films films
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Venice Grand Jury Prize winners
Films à clef
German nonlinear narrative films
2007 independent films
2007 drama films
2000s American films
2000s German films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques%20Perrey
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Jean-Jacques Perrey
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Jean Marcel Leroy (; 20 January 1929 – 4 November 2016), better known as Jean-Jacques Perrey, was a French electronic music performer, composer, producer, and promoter. He is considered a pioneer of pop electronica. Perrey partnered with composer-performer Gershon Kingsley to form the electronic music duo Perrey and Kingsley, who issued some of the first commercial recordings featuring the Moog synthesizer. Perrey was also one of the first to promote, perform, and record with the Ondioline, developed by Georges Jenny.
Biography
Early life
Jean Marcel Leroy was born in Amiens, in the north of France. He was given his first instrument, an accordion, at age 4 on Christmas Eve, 1933. He learned to play piano and studied music at a conservatory for two months, during which he and several classmates formed a jazz band, which performed at the school and at public venues. However, the school's director warned the students that they could either "continue playing jazz or continue your studies". Perrey was expelled from the conservatory for violating a prohibition against students performing in public; he later graduated from the Lycée d'Amiens. He studied medicine in Paris for four years, and planned to pursue scientific research. He was an avid reader of science fiction, in particular the works of Isaac Asimov, Aldous Huxley, Arthur C. Clarke, and Ray Bradbury, and took occasional work as an accordionist.
Start of music career
In 1950, while enrolled in medical school, Perrey heard inventor Georges Jenny playing and promoting his homemade Ondioline on a French radio show. "With the audacity of youth [Perrey] phoned the radio station and requested Georges Jenny's telephone number, which he was duly given," wrote music historian Mark Brend. "Perrey then phoned Jenny himself, saying he liked the sound of the Ondioline but couldn't afford to buy one." Perrey offered to promote the instrument if Jenny would give him one for free. After a visit to the inventor's workshop, Perrey was loaned an Ondioline. For six months Perrey practiced playing the Ondioline with his right hand while simultaneously playing piano with his left. Jenny was so impressed with Perrey's proficiency, he offered him a job as a salesman and product demonstrator. After earning substantial commissions on sales made during a trip to Sweden (during which he performed on TV), Perrey quit medical school and devoted his career to electronic music.
In 1951, singer/composer Charles Trenet heard about the Ondioline and requested a demonstration of the instrument by Perrey, who at the time was traveling to promote the new device. Trenet was so impressed that he hired Perrey for the recording session for the song "L'Âme des poètes" ("The Soul of Poets"). At a second session, Perrey played Ondioline on three more Trenet songs; the guitarist on two of those later tracks was Django Reinhardt. "L'Âme des poètes" became an international commercial success, and Perrey was asked to accompany Trenet on stage. "My collaboration with [Trenet] lasted a year," said Perrey, "during which I was able to meet other great artists and singers such as Yves Montand and Jacques Brel. I made my debut on radio and French television, not only as an accompanist of great singing stars, but also performing my own musical act." Perrey began to travel extensively, first in France and then abroad to attend international music fairs. Eventually he developed a cabaret act, "Around the World in 80 Ways", which was a showcase for the Ondioline's versatility. Perrey explained:
Thanks to the Ondioline, I could imitate instruments from around the world, such as bagpipes from Scotland, American banjo, Gypsy violin, soprano voice, Indian sitar, and so on. I made a world tour in music and finished it with a gag of whistling a tune. At the end, the whistling was still going on (thanks to the Ondioline), but I was drinking a glass of water. We all laughed.
Perrey's first commercially released recording under his own name was Prelude au Sommeil (Prelude to Sleep), issued in 1958, which was described by the artist as an "auditory recipe" to induce sleep in insomniacs. "I had the good fortune of meeting scientists who were interested in the possibilities of using electronic sound for psycho-medical purposes," Perrey later recalled. "Together we had the idea of creating sound complexes to induce calm in disturbed, agitated people. We created a team of researchers: acousticians, medical doctors, physicists, psychiatrists, a total of nine in all. I was the catalyzer, the musician. We spent many hours making experiments to determine which sounds would induce a state of serenity and calm."
In 1959 Perrey performed on a 10" LP entitled Cadmus, Le Robot de l'Espace, a children's record issued on the Philips label; Perrey played Ondioline and provided sound effects. That same year, composer Paul Durand hired Perrey to provide Ondioline accompaniment for the main theme of the French-Italian tragi-comedic film La Vache et le Prisonnier (The Cow and the Prisoner), which starred French actor-singer Fernandel.
Relocation to New York
At the Studio of Contemporary Music Research in France, Perrey met Pierre Schaeffer, who had pioneered the avant-garde sound art form known as musique concrète. Thereafter, Perrey began to experiment with tape manipulation. Around this time he performed at the Olympia Theater in Paris accompanying France's most acclaimed chanteuse, Edith Piaf, who became an enthusiastic proponent of Perrey's musical gifts. The association with Piaf, Perrey later wrote, proved pivotal in advancing his career.
Edith herself was very impressed by the immense possibilities of the Ondioline. From her, I learned many “tricks of the trade” having to do with show business and song arrangement. She gave me money to buy studio time, which allowed me to record a few pieces on magnetic tape which were a showcase for the Ondioline. She even decided herself which pieces I should record to obtain maximum effect. She was impeccable – very demanding. When she had decided that the tape was “almost perfect,” she told me, “Now you must mail this to a person I’m going to give you the name and address for in New York. I will write him as well, to let him know of your forthcoming correspondence. You’ll see; he will answer you.” It was impossible to debate with Edith; one always had to do as she decreed! Three weeks later, I received an envelope from America. There was no note enclosed – only a round-trip plane ticket with an open return date, plus one word written in big felt-tip pen on the envelope: “COME!” Thus began the fairy tale.
The man to whom Perrey had sent the tape was instrument contractor Carroll Bratman, the well-connected proprietor of Carroll Music.<ref name="Bratman" In March 1960, Perrey relocated to New York under the mentorship of Bratman, who sponsored Perrey's green card, paid Perrey's living expenses at the Bristol Hotel on West 48th Street, got him registered with the musicians' union, paid him a salary, and landed him appearances performing the Ondioline on television. Bratman built Perrey an experimental laboratory and recording studio, with state-of-the-art tape recorders, and accorded him free use of any instruments in the Carroll Music collection.
After his arrival in the United States, he recorded two EPs on the French label Pacific Records with the aim of demonstrating the capabilities of the Ondioline for the American public, the first Mr. Ondioline was released in 1960, it consists of four tracks showing Perrey on the cover "donning a dark hood with small slits for the yes and mouth in an attempt to conjure up the record's mysterious titular figure." The second entitled Ondiolinorama was released in 1961 with a much lower number of units. Both EPs featured Perrey's instrumental arrangements of other songwriters' work.
Perrey made his U.S. television debut on Tonight Starring Jack Paar; he also appeared on The Garry Moore Show, I've Got a Secret, and Captain Kangaroo. Perrey composed jingles for radio and television, sometimes in partnership with Harry Breuer and Angelo Badalementi (working under the name "Andy Badale"). In 1962 Perrey issued the LP Musique Electronique du Cosmos (Electronic Music from Outer Space), in collaboration with Sam Fiedel and Harry Breuer, on the MusiCues label. The album was recorded in New York, but the location was listed as Paris on the jacket to avoid union obligations. The 15 short tracks (most under two minutes long and all composed or co-composed by Perrey) were intended for television and radio background use. Less than 500 copies were reportedly pressed.
Perrey & Kingsley and the Moog Synthesizer
Perrey was introduced to German-American composer/musician Gershon Kingsley in 1965 at Carroll Music. As a duo, Perrey and Kingsley recorded two albums for the Vanguard label: The In Sound From Way Out! (1966), for which Perrey played Ondioline and provided musique concrète "rhythmic patterns", and Kaleidoscopic Vibrations (1967), on which the duo played mostly Moog synthesizer, with added special effects. Some tracks by Perrey and Kingsley were licensed for radio and television commercials. In 1968, "The Savers", from Kaleidoscopic Vibrations, won a Clio Award when it was used as the soundtrack for a No-Cal diet soft drink commercial.
After splitting from Kingsley, Perrey continued featuring the Moog (as well as Ondioline) on many of his subsequent solo records, most of which incorporated the name "Moog" in album titles like Moog Indigo (1970). On the Moog Indigo track "Flight of the Bumblebee" (adapted from an interlude composed by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov), Perrey began with a recording of actual bees:
For this composition, I took a Nagra tape recorder to an apiary in Switzerland to record the live sounds of bees buzzing about their hive. I took these bee tapes back to New York, where my studio had a variable-speed tape recorder. Using this machine, I transposed the bee buzzes to the subdivisions of the 12-tone equal-tempered scale and rerecorded them on another tape machine. Then, using manual splicing techniques, I edited the melody for one verse. Just this part took 52 hours of splicing work. People told me that I was crazy, but I told them to listen to the result! We added an accompaniment to the melody, recreating the "Flight of the Bumblebee" played by living bees.
The Happy Moog! was recorded with Harry Breuer, one of the first musicians he met when he moved to New York City. Perrey played Moog synthesizer and other keyboards, while Breuer played xylophone and other percussion.
Return to Europe (1970—2006)
After a decade in the United States, Perrey moved back to France in 1970, ostensibly for family reasons. He was named musical director of a ballet company, while continuing to explore therapeutic sounds to treat insomnia. That included a project that involved shooting with dolphins in the waters near Vancouver, Canada. He also wrote and recorded music for television commercials and various French cartoons, and released several albums of this music on the Montparnasse 2000 label. In 1996, after a decade of inactivity because of his mother's passing, Perrey began working occasionally with electropop musician/composer David Chazam; a collection of previously unreleased collaborative works, ELA, recorded over a number of years and at various locations, was independently issued by Chazam in May 2015; it was the final album of new Perrey material released during his lifetime.
In 1997 Perrey collaborated with the band Air on the tracks "Remember" (on the album Moon Safari) and "Cosmic Bird" (on the various artists compilation Source Lab 3 Y). The following year he performed at the Klinkende Munt festival in Brussels, Belgium, with David Chazam. In 1999 he composed and recorded "The Groovy Leprechauns" for a thematic compilation album At Home with the Groovebox, issued on the Beastie Boys' Grand Royal label. In 1995 the Beastie Boys had issued an album entitled The In Sound From Way Out! that was an obvious homage to Perrey and Kingsley. In 2001 Vanguard Records released a triple CD entitled The Out Sound From Way In!, which compiles four Perrey and Kingsley albums, two as a duet and solo, plus seven remixes of Perrey and Kingsley's work, including two reworkings from the Moog Indigo song, "E.V.A." by Fatboy Slim and five by Eurotrash.
In 2003, MediaDreams Productions produced a documentary titled Jean-Jacques Perrey: Extraterrestrial Musician, which was presented at MIPCOM in 2003. With Luke Vibert Perrey recorded an album titled Moog Acid, which was released in 2007. AllMusic reviewer John Bush observed that Perrey "uncannily conjures the rather eerie ghosts of musique concrète's past, while Vibert anchors them with expert productions. ... The tracks are ... the 21st century equivalent of Perrey-Kingsley's vision of lock-solid arrangements accompanied by the far-out sound of the Moog as a lead voice."
Later years (2006—2016)
Perrey and Dana Countryman released the collaborative album Destination Space in 2008; AllMusic reviewer William Ruhlmann wrote that "this is not an album to be taken seriously, but it is one to enjoy." Countryman also wrote a biography of Perrey titled Passport to the Future, which was published in 2010 through CreateSpace. In 2009 Gilles Weinzaepflen produced a film documentary, titled Prélude au Sommeil, about Perrey's life and work.
In 2013, Belgian-Australian musician Wally (Gotye) De Backer composed and recorded a song inspired by Perrey's work, then contacted Perrey to share the track for review. At the time, Perrey was 80 and living in Lausanne, Switzerland. "To my great joy, Jean-Jacques and his daughter, Patricia, both responded really warmly and said it was really sweet that a young musician would be inspired by his work but also respond to it in that way by writing a piece like that, and they invited me to visit,” said De Backer. “To me, it was incredible as a fan and long time listener just to meet the wonderful old man who had a lot of great stories and a wink in his eye, who made time for me to come and chat about the aspects of his work that I was really interested in." Over the next few years, De Backer visited regularly and began helping the aging musician catalog and preserve his legacy. De Backer also began purchasing existing Ondiolines, undertaking their restoration (with technical help from Stephen Masucci), and learning how to play the instrument.
Eventually, after a number of Ondiolines had been reconstructed, De Backer formed the Ondioline Orchestra, consisting of two Ondiolines (played by De Backer and Rob Schwimmer), Moog, Theremin, clarinet, guitar, bass, drums, and sampling devices. The ensemble's debut was scheduled for November 22, 2016, at National Sawdust, in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, with Perrey invited to attend. However, his health declined, and he could not travel. Two and a half weeks before the performance, Perrey died of lung cancer at the age of 87.
De Backer and the Ondioline Orchestra have staged several performances of Gotye Presents a Tribute to Jean-Jacques Perrey: at the Sydney Festival (January 16–17, 2017); at the Melbourne Recital Centre (January 20, 2017); and at the opening night of Roulette's Mixology Festival (February 3, 2018), in Brooklyn. The Sydney concert won a Helpmann Award in the Contemporary Music category. De Backer launched a record label, Forgotten Futures, whose first release was Jean-Jacques Perrey et son Ondioline, a compilation album featuring rare and unreleased tracks with Perrey on the Ondioline. The album was released on vinyl and digitally in May 2017.
Discography
Studio albums and EPs
1958: Prelude au Sommeil (Institut Dormiphone)
1959: Cadmus, Le Robot de l'Espace (with Henri Gruel) (Philips)
1960: Mr. Ondioline (Pacific)
1962: Musique Electronique Du Cosmos (Electronic Music From Outer Space) (MusiCues)
1966: The In Sound From Way Out! (with Gershon Kingsley) (Vanguard)
1967: Kaleidoscopic Vibrations: Electronic Pop Music From Way Out (with Gershon Kingsley) (Vanguard)
1968: The Amazing New Electronic Pop Sound of Jean Jacques Perrey (Vanguard)
1968: Electronic Music (unreleased studio demo acetate)
1969: The Happy Moog! (with Harry Breuer) (Pickwick)
1969: Switched On Santa (engineer, Moog programming; with Sy Mann) (Pickwick)
1970: Moog Indigo (Vanguard)
1971: Moog Sensations (Editions Montparnasse 2000)
1972: Moog Expressions (Editions Montparnasse 2000)
1972: Moog Generation (Editions Montparnasse 2000/Zero International Records)
1974: Moog Mig Mag Moog (Editions Montparnasse 2000)
1976: Dynamoog (with Gilbert Sigrist) (Mondiophone/Crea Sound Ltd)
1977: Moog is Moog (with Harry Breuer) (Editions Montparnasse 2000)
1980: Kartoonery (with Daniel Longuein and Guy Boyer) (Editions Montparnasse 2000)
1982: Energize with Exercise (with Bette and Ione Darrel) (Black & White)
1998: Eclektronics (with David Chazam) (Basetonic; Basta Music)
2000: Circus Of Life (with Gilbert Sigrist and O.C. Banks) (Koka Media)
2006: The Happy Electropop Music Machine (with Dana Countryman) (Olgio)
2007: Moog Acid (with Luke Vibert) (Lo Recordings)
2008: Destination Space (with Dana Countryman) (Oglio)
2010: Froots (with Cosmic Pocket) (In-Vitro Records)
2015: ELA (with David Chazam) (Freaksville)
Compilations
1973: The Best Of The Moog (Vanguard)
1975: Incredible Synthesizer (Vanguard)
1975: The Essential Perrey & Kingsley (Vanguard)
2000: Good Moog: Astral Animations and Komputer Kartoons (Kosinus)
2001: The Out Sound From Way In! The Complete Vanguard Recordings (Vanguard)
2007: Vanguard Visionaries: Perrey & Kingsley (Vanguard)
2012: The Electronic Pop Songs (Welk Music Group)
2012: Space Age Computer Music (Welk Music Group)
2017: Jean-Jacques Perrey et son Ondioline (Forgotten Futures)
2019: Past Future Sound Tracks
Soundtracks
1959: Les Folles Aventures d'omer et de Jacques Courtois: Omer en Synovie (Polydor)
1971: (Riviera)
2006: Moog (one track, with Luke Vibert) (Hollywood Records)
In popular culture
"Chicken on the Rocks" (from Musique Electronique du Cosmos) was used in a 1960s commercial for the Ideal Toy Company.
"The Minuet of the Robots" (from The Amazing New Electronic Pop Sound of Jean Jacques Perrey) served as the soundtrack for the Muppet feature "Big Bird's Dance" on December 14, 1969, in The Ed Sullivan Show, it was accompanied by arrangements made by the CBS Studio Orchestra.
"March of the Martians" (from The Happy Moog!) was used as the opening theme for the program The Hilarious House of Frightenstein.
"The Elephant Never Forgets" (from Moog Indigo) was used as main theme of the Canadian TV program The Buck Shot Show.
An orchestral adaptation of "Baroque Hoedown" (from Perrey & Kingsley's Kaleidoscopic Vibrations: Electronic Pop Music From Way Out!) was used as the Main Street Electrical Parade theme at Disney parks.
Two pieces by Perrey were used as principal themes for television comedy shows created by and starring Mexican comedian Chespirito (Roberto Gómez Bolaños): "The Elephant Never Forgets" also was used as the main theme for El Chavo, and "Baroque Hoedown" (co-composed by Perrey and Kingsley) was the closing theme for El Chapulín Colorado. "Country Rock Polka" was used in the program Chespirito. In 2009 the composers filed a lawsuit against the Televisa Network for improper use of their music; the case was settled and they now receive prominent credit in promotional materials for El Chavo del Ocho.
In 1973, a cover of "Passport to the Future" (originally from Moog Indigo) by instrumental rock band The Ventures peaked at #38 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart.
The track "E.V.A." (composed by Perrey, Badalamenti, and Marie Perreault, from the album Moog Indigo) has been sampled numerous times by hip-hop and rap artists, notable examples include "Just To Get A Rep" by Gang Starr (1990), "Lower da Boom" by Artifacts (1994), "Gameplan" by Lord Finesse (1995), "3000" by Dr.Octagon (1996), "Same Ol'Thing" by A Tribe Called Quest (1997), "Lunch Money" by Pusha T (2014), and "Every Little Thing I Do" by Jamila Woods and Taylor Bennett (2017).
In 1997 remix artist Fatboy Slim reconfigured the track, and in 2002 electronic artist Glyn Bush (under the name Lightning Head) recorded a "E.V.A." cover version for his album Studio Don.
In 2004, "E.V.A." featured in a Zelnorm commercial, in 2016 in an advertising campaign "Shot on iPhone" by Apple and also appeared in the 2018 film, Ocean's 8.
In 2010, a new recording by Perrey and Dana Countryman of "Chicken on the Rocks" (from The Happy Electropop Music Machine) was used in season 14, episode 3 ("Medicinal Fried Chicken") of the U.S. TV Series South Park. That same year, Perrey's "Brazilian Flower" was used in a soccer commercial, and Perrey's music was used in the TV series The Simpsons.
Perrey's music was used in three short films by David Lewandowsky: Going to the Store from 2011 (used the Perrey work "The Little Ships"); Late for Meeting from 2013 (used "The Mexican Cactus"); and Time for Sushi from 2017 (used the song "Dynamoog").
In 2018, Luke Vibert's Turn EP included a tribute song to Perrey titled "JJP".
His music was used in the later seasons of SpongeBob SquarePants and its spinoff series The Patrick Star Show.
The track "Boys and Girls" was used as the end credits theme for The Mighty B!.
References
Biography
External links
November 2006 interview with Perrey
Jstor.org - Jean-Jacques Perrey y la ondiolina
Ondioline.com, curated by Wally De Backer
1929 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from cancer in Switzerland
Deaths from lung cancer
Electroacoustic music composers
French composers
French male composers
French electronic musicians
Electronic musicians
French keyboardists
French experimental musicians
Vanguard Records artists
People from Amiens
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddington%2C%20Queensland
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Paddington, Queensland
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Paddington is an inner suburb in the City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. In the , Paddington had a population of 8,562 people.
Paddington is located west of the Brisbane CBD. As is common with other suburbs in the area, Paddington is located on a number of steep ridges and hills. It was settled in the 1860s. Many original and distinctive Queenslander homes can be found in the suburb. Houses are frequently built on stumps, owing to the steep nature of their blocks.
Paddington includes the neighbourhood of Rosalie, which has its centre at the junction of Baroona Road and Nash Street () and was a separate suburb until 1975.
Geography
Paddington lies in a valley in the foothills of Mount Coot-tha The area is extremely hilly with many peaks and gullies. Most of the retail is located along the ridgetops which contain the main roads of Given Terrace and Latrobe Terrace. Given Terrace commences near Suncorp Stadium and rises to the west (colloquially referred to as "lower Paddington"). At the junction of Latrobe Terrace and Given Terrace, Given Terrace turns south-west downhill towards Rosalie on the left while on the right there is a steep drop to a gully which then rises again to the Red Hill ridge. The Latrobe Terrace is colloquially known as "upper Paddington" with the road sticking to the ridgetop with gentle slopes on either side until moving uphill towards the suburb of Bardon.
The suburb is predominantly residential, on small blocks of land by Queensland standards, with many workers cottages and Queenslander-style homes with corrugated iron roofs. Paddington includes the small locality of Rosalie. The suburb of Petrie Terrace lies to the east.
Ithaca Creek, which now largely exists in the suburb of Red Hill, runs down from the Taylor Mountain Range and Paddington originally developed around a series of water holes that ran from the Creek to the Brisbane River.
History
The wooded slopes and ridges were home to the Turrbal, known by British settlers as the Duke of York's clan. In the early days Aborigines camped in Armstrong's Paddock on what is now Armstrong Terrace and also on the former Paddington Tram Depot on Enoggera Terrace.
British settlement
British settlement in Paddington commenced in the 1850s and the area was known as "Ti-Tree Flats" as the first residents moved there to cultivate gardens on the flats and to cut timber. The first sale of land occurred in 1859 with the sale of fifty-five lots. The name Paddington comes from the name of the farm of Mr B, Clay who named his farm after his London birthplace of Paddington. The Paddington farm was sold and subdivided in 1864.
Petrie Terrace State School opened in March 1868 with separate sections for boys and girls. In 1875 the school was split into Petrie Terrace Boys State School and Petrie Terrace Girls and Infants State School. In 1953 there was another re-arrangement resulting in Petrie Terrace Infants State School for the younger children and Petrie Terrace State School for the older children. In 1960 Petrie Terrace Infants State School closed and the Infants were transferred to Petrie Terrace State School.
A Primitive Methodist Church opened at 244 Given Terrace circa June 1877. In 1906, a new church building was erected on the site at 238 Given Terrace with the old church building moved to one side to become the church hall. The 1906 church was burned down in 1996. Some brick fencing from the church remains on the site, now occupied by modern commercial buildings.
Paddington was in the local government area of Ithaca Division from 1879 to 1887, then Shire of Ithaca from 1887 to 1903, and then Town of Ithaca from 1903 to 1925, after which Ithaca was amalgamated into the present City of Brisbane.
The Morris family owned and operated the boot and footwear factory on the corner of Hale and Caxton Streets from the 1880s until it was sold in the 1960s. The second factory building was built in 1930 and the F.T. Morris Footwear company employed up to 180 workers and could make 630 pairs of boots and shoes a day. The company was sold in the 1960s to Dixon & Sons and while the business continued to make a profit for a while bit eventually could not compete with cheaper imports and nylon and canvas mass-produced shoes. The factory closed in 1973. The second factory building in Caxton Street was reopened in 1976 as the "Spaghetti Emporium" restaurant, complete with a giant boot on the roof. In the 1980s, the building became the nightclub "Brisbane Underground" but it was demolished for the controversial Hale Street city by-pass in 1990.
The Brisbane Tramways Company, a private enterprise formed in 1895, introduced the first electric trams to Brisbane in mid-1897. Following lobbying by the Ithaca Shire Council, a tramway was extended along Musgrave Road to Red Hill, and a line was laid along Caxton Street and Given Terrace as far as Latrobe Terrace in 1898. By 1906-7 electric trams ran along Caxton Street and the Paddington line was extended until it reached Bardon in 1937. The Red Hill line was extended to Ashgrove in 1924. The tramways substation was erected in 1929–30 at the corner of Latrobe and Enoggera Terraces.
In 1898, the Roman Catholic Archbishop Robert Dunne purchased land on the corner of Given Terrace and Fernberg Road, Rosalie (), to build a Catholic church called Sacred Heart at a cost of £500. It was part of the parish of Red Hill and Father Hegarty, parish priest of Red Hill, celebrated the first Mass.
The 1900s
The spread of the tramways network was a catalyst for residential development in the western suburbs. It was during the first decade of the 20th century that Ithaca experienced a housing and population boom which was largely attributable to the expansion of the tramways through the area.
Sacred Heart Parish School was opened in 1906 in a building beside the church and was operated by the Sisters of Mercy. It closed on 12 November 1995 due to the changing demographics of the area reducing the number of children wanting Catholic education.
In the 1910s, the Ithaca Town Council embarked on a programme of civic improvements which included the establishment of Lang Park (1917), the Ithaca Swimming Pool (1917), and the Ithaca Children's Playground (1918) and associated formation of roads, tree planting, construction of embankment gardens, small reserves and street gardens throughout the suburbs of Red Hill, Kelvin Grove, Paddington, Rosalie, Bardon, and parts of Milton. Because of the hilly terrain, many of the new streets were divided, leaving embankments which the Ithaca Town Council considered were cheaper to plant and beautify than to cut down. This approach placed the Council at the forefront of street beautification projects in the Brisbane metropolitan area and Australia and led to numerous requests for advice in civic landscaping from other councils, interstate as well as within Queensland. At the second Australian Town Planning Conference and Exhibition, held in Brisbane in July–August 1918, the Ithaca Town Council exhibited photographs showing treatment of ugly cuttings and street improvements which beautify the street and at the same time solve practical difficulties. The Ithaca Embankments on mid Latrobe Terrace are a good example of the same.
On 25 February 1922, Sir Matthew Nathan, the Governor of Queensland unveiled the Ithaca War Memorial () to commemorate local people who had died in World War I.
Prior to 1925, the suburb was administered by the Ithaca Town Council. In that year the council was amalgamated with 24 other councils to form the Brisbane City Council.
In 1927, the water tower at Garfield Terrace was opened. At the opening the President said it had always been the aim of the Water Board to afford facilities to provide a full water supply to all residents on elevated land. For a time the area was referred to as Paddington Heights, supposedly to differentiate it from the more traditional working class Paddington.
Archbishop James Duhig wanted to establish a monastery and school in Rosalie for the Marist Brothers. On 29 July 1928, the foundation stone was laid by B. Catteneo at a site opposite the church on Fernberg Road (). Building work was completed in time for Marist Brothers College Rosalie to open on 28 January 1929 with an initial enrolment of 135 boys. The school was officially opened on 20 February 1929 by Archbishop Duhig. The monastery was also used as a boarding school until 1940. On Sunday 6 June 1948 the foundation stone for the new Brothers school building was laid by Duhg accompanied by Éamon de Valera, who was travelling around Australia to speak and associate with the many Irish immigrants who had made Australia their home, at the end of his term of office of Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland. De Valera's visit was controversial given his role in the Irish War of Independence against the British Government and there was reluctance to hold civic receptions in his honour. Nonetheless, a crowd of nearly 2.000 people attended the laying of the foundation stone including the Labor Premier of Queensland (and staunch Catholic and local resident) Ned Hanlon and the Works Minister, Bill Power. At the ceremony at Rosalie, de Valera said "...the new school was part of the evidence of the magnificent works of charity and community effort that he had seen in every capital of the Commonwealth." On 2 October 1949 Duhig formally opened the new school building which had cost £35,000. The school closed in 2008 despite considerable protests from families currently and formerly associated with the school.
In the early 1960s, Lord Mayor Clem Jones of the Labor Party embarked on an ambitious programme to "sewer" Brisbane and within five years all the residences were sewered. Occasionally "outhouses" can still be seen in back yards. Following on from that over the next 10 years or so bitumen was laid to the sides of all roads. Bitumen used to extend to curbs only on the main roads. The 1960s saw the first steps of inner Brisbane moving away from a "country" town to an urban city.
Until December 1968, electric trams, operated first by the Brisbane Tramways Company and later the Brisbane City Council, operated along all four main thoroughfares in the suburb. A tram depot (garage) was located on Latrobe Terrace between 1915 and 1962, when it was destroyed in one of Brisbane's largest fires. The cause of the Paddington tram depot fire is not known however arson and public corruption has been rumoured for years. Sixty-five of Brisbane's trams were destroyed which was a large proportion of its fleet. After the fire Old Dreadnought trams were pressed into service, and eight replacement (Phoenix) trams were built, but Lord Mayor Clem Jones began to close lines almost immediately. The destruction of the depot is generally seen as the beginning of the end for Brisbane's tram system, providing the justification for the subsequent closure of four tram routes, the gradual encroachment of bus operation on other tram routes with the final closure of the tram system occurring on 13 April 1969.
The 1970s reflected the new ethnic mix in Paddington and though still a working class area many Italian restaurants opened in the area as did various "fish and chip" shops, delicatessens, and tailors. Though hardly cosmopolitan by Melbourne and Sydney standards, Paddington along with New Farm and West End, was at the forefront of exposing traditional Brisbane residents to cuisines and cultures from around the world.
The 1974 Brisbane flood which ravaged much of Brisbane largely left Paddington proper alone. The main roads and shops of Paddington were on the ridge tops and it was only the houses in the gullies and dips that were affected.
In 1975, the suburb of Rosalie was merged into Paddington with Rosalie being accorded neighbourhood status within Rosalie.
Paddington was one of the first suburbs in Brisbane to undergo "gentrification" in the mid-1980s. Accommodation prices rose sharply as younger white collar workers moved closer to the CBD as factories, and factory workers, were relocated to the outer suburbs. As a result, there was much development in the area. The old Paddington Hotel in Given Terrace was demolished and an American style "tavern" was built in its place, whilst across the road the Paddington movie theatre was demolished in 1981 and a shopping arcade, "The Paddington Centre", was built on its site.
The Hale Street Inner City Bypass North-West Ring Road effectively split Petrie Terrace from Paddington and Red Hill and upset the local community greatly.
The 2000s
At the turn of century again there was a substantial local opposition to the Queensland Governments proposed redevelopment of Lang Park. The park was widely perceived to be adequate for the Rugby League games it held however the Labor Party State government and the Lang Park Trustees had other ideas of turning it into a modern large scale money making venue. The State government sold the idea, rather disingenuously, as an upgrade to the "home of the working mans game Rugby League in Queensland". Local opposition to the redevelopment was concerned with the lack of car parking at the venue, remote access to public transport as well as difficulties the suburb would have in dealing with the increased numbers of crowds. Vocal opponents frequently referred to the Brisbane Exhibition Grounds in the nearby Bowen Hills as being more suitable, with all the transport infrastructure already there and the already proven ability to deal with large crowds every Exhibition week. The issue threatened to be an election issue and though Labor was returned in the area and locally it is significant to note that Labor locally lost a substantial number of votes which were picked up by the local Greens party candidate who ran on a "no stadium" platform. With little public consultation the project went ahead and was renamed "Suncorp Stadium" after the chief money sponsor. Ultimately though the venue is an "eyesore" the surrounds are better maintained and neater than that of the previous Lang Park. Ironically, though crowd movement on event days is still a problem, the rugby league crowds are not greatly larger than before leading to the need for other sports to be played there including soccer and rugby union.
Demographics
In the , the population of Paddington was 7,987, 52.2% female and 47.8% male. The median age of the Paddington population was 32 years of age, 5 years below the Australian median. 73.6% of people living in Paddington were born in Australia, compared to the national average of 69.8%; the next most common countries of birth were England 4.5%, New Zealand 3.5%, Ireland 1.1%, United States of America 1%, South Africa 0.9%. 86% of people spoke only English at home; the next most common languages were 1.3% Italian, 0.8% German, 0.8% French, 0.8% Spanish, 0.5% Mandarin.
In the , Paddington had a population of 8,562 people.
Culture
Prior to the late 1980s, many factories circled the Brisbane CBD which had very little residential accommodation. Accordingly, the suburbs of Paddington, Red Hill, Milton, New Farm, Spring Hill, Fortitude Valley were considered "inner city" suburbs and housed many workers families as well as seasonal workers who worked in those factories. The relatively cheap housing also meant that new migrants, itinerants, students, artists, and disenfranchised Aboriginals lived in the area.
Accordingly, Paddington was traditionally working class mainly made of Australians, old Irish Catholic Australians, indigenous aboriginal people and new waves of Catholics migrants. The first Catholic migrants were the Irish and then the Italians, Croatians, Polish and Hungarians came in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.
The high proportion of Catholics in the area during those years is attested to by the fact that there are seven Catholic churches, one boys Catholic High school (threatened with closure), two girls Catholic high schools, four primary Catholic schools (one defunct), and various Catholic halls and refectories all within a three-mile radius.
Similarly the Catholic migrants had their clubs nearby with the Polish club in the neighbouring suburb of Milton, the Italian club a suburb away in Newmarket and the Croatian club formerly in Roma Street in the Brisbane CBD and then Fortitude Valley before securing premises at Morningside and then building a club and soccer fields at Rocklea.
Today the sons and daughters of immigrant families are a continuing presence in the Paddington area as many of the commercial and residential premises are owned by the "new" migrant families that settled in the area.
The low cost of the area also meant that young people and students moved to the area and brought their own "do it yourself" entertainment with them. By 1976 various members of the punk band "The Saints" lived in a share house in Petrie Terrace and even created a club there, "Club 76". It was Bailey's sister who rented the terrace house on the corner of Petrie Terrace and Milton Road, near the Windmill Café in Petrie Terrace. Bailey moved into the basement and, when his sister moved out, Hay and Wegener (of "The Saints") moved in. The band would frequently play parties there when no other venues were available, until the storefront was smashed in by an unhappy neighbour. Undaunted, the band nailed boards up and splashed "Club 76″ across the front of the place. Though in reality the club was a room in the house where they lived and was constantly harassed by police, and closed down by the Health department when it was found to have only one toilet. In January 1977 the Saints celebrated the release of the album and the cover picture (and subsequent video clip) was taken down the road from Club '76 in an abandoned terrace house.
With the influx of young people into the area there was a resurgence of popularity in the area as an entertainment precinct. The Paddington Tavern became a well known drinking spot for younger people. The Paddington Workers Club has at various times been used as a live band venue as has the Caxton Street Hall while the Paddington Centre upstairs housed the famous night clubs, Café Neon and Viva and the old boot factory on Caxton Street housed the "Spaghetti Emporium" restaurant and then the "Underground" night club before being demolished.
The Caxton Street Hall (which since has been the Velvet Cigar strip club and is now Lefty's Old Time Music Hall) was also a notorious live venue which hosted gigs by "The Saints", "The Go-Betweens", "The X-Men", "Died Pretty", "Xero", The Black Assassins, les Bon Bons, Razar and others as did the Lang Park Leagues Club. The general mood of the time was captured by The Saints in their song "Brisbane (Security City)"(1978).
The Caxton Street Hall was a natural target for plainclothes police and undercover operatives. The hall (then known as the Baroona Hall) had since its inception in the 1890s been a community centre with a largely working class association including being used by the suffrage movement, the anti World War I movement, as a meeting place for strike organisation, an Australian Labor Party meeting place and a co-operative community welfare centre. By the 1970s, it was serving as a venue of the burgeoning civil liberties movement and in 1976 the Baroona Legal Service (the Caxton Street legal Service after 1980) was established, much to the chagrin of the police, to provide free legal advice for people who could not afford it otherwise. It was there that the young people and elderly sought advice. At night the hall became a venue for local punks and local independent radio station 4ZZZ to put on concerts.
The most notorious gig at the Caxton was on 30 November 1979 following a gig by local punk band "The Sharks". As the crowd came out onto the footpath, police waded in and began arresting patrons. 12 teenagers were arrested and assaulted on the footpath and back and at the police watch house.
Transport
By road: the main thoroughfares of Paddington are Given, Latrobe and Enoggera Terraces. Most shops are located on Given and Latrobe Terraces.
By bus: Buses operated by Transport for Brisbane serve the suburb. And in conditions free of traffic congestion, a bus trip from the Brisbane CBD takes around ten minutes to upper Paddington.
Attractions
Nightlife and entertainment
Largely due to Paddington's proximity to the Brisbane CBD, tertiary institutions as the University of Queensland (in St Lucia), Kelvin Grove campus of the Queensland University of Technology (in Kelvin Grove), the Queensland University of Technology itself (in the Brisbane CBD), the Red Hill TAFE (in Red Hill), as well as housing suitable for "share-housing" (older wooden houses with multiple small rooms) and the general culture of the area (former working class and multicultural) many young people, especially students, live in the area.
As a result, there are a number of night clubs on Given Terrace including the Paddington Tavern, and many smaller bars that change owners on a regular basis. The Paddington Tavern also plays hosts to the "Sit Down Comedy Club" which over the years has hosted Arj Barker, Carl Barron, Dave Hughes, Eric Bana, Jimeoin, Judith Lucy, Kitty Flanagan, Lano and Woodley, Mick Molloy, Rodney Rude, Ross Noble, Shane Bourne, Steady Eddy, Tripod, The Umbilical Brothers and Wil Anderson amongst many others.
Paddington was one of the first, if not the first, suburbs to be gentrified, and developed a coffee culture in the 1980s which is still significant and vibrant today. Similarly, being an area with a large migrant population in the 1960s and 1970s, there are many restaurants in the area. Most of these coffee houses, small bars, eateries and restaurants are located along the Given Terrace and Latrobe Terrace that run through Paddington.
Similarly, there are many art galleries in the area and many artists as well as musicians and budding writers live in the area.
Traditional institutions like the Union Cooperative Society Ltd incorporating the Paddington Workers Club and the Brisbane Workers Community Centre exist. It is a member-owned organisation that aims to improve the social and economic well-being of its members and their community and was formed in 1965 to protect the incomes of workers from rising prices by providing goods and services at the lowest possible cost. While the Cooperative has largely moved out of retail there is still a small bar which doubles as a live venue but otherwise it is now a financial organisation that cares for members' financial interests.
Senior citizens are catered for by the Brisbane West Senior Citizens Club at 132 Latrobe Terrace which host activities and respite services for senior citizens.
The Centre for Multicultural Pastoral Care at 333 Given Terrace which was originally established in 1949 and provides pastoral care for post World War II immigrants from traditionally Catholic countries.
The nearby Brisbane Arts Theatre at 210 Petrie Terrace is a theatre company that has been producing plays for over 60 years.
The smaller localities of Rosalie and Torwood also has a thriving restaurant, café, and gourmet culture along Baroona Road which also hosts an annual Cheese Festival and where art house cinema can be viewed at the Blue Room Cinebar.
Shopping
Many houses along Given Terrace and Latrobe Terrace were converted into small shops in the 1980s and accordingly Paddington has a vibrant shopping scene for speciality shops of all types including fashion (clothes, shoes, male and female), food (chocolate, cheese, alcohol and organic), home wares (bathroom supplies and hardware) and entertainment (new and secondhand book stores, picture framing, video stores) and is largely devoid of the larger "chain" shops.
A thriving antique, second hand and opportunity shop scene exists in the area with the Paddington Antique Centre being the centrepiece. The Paddington Antique Centre is in the former Paddington Plaza Theatre located on Latrobe Terrace. The building has at various times been a movie theatre, dance hall and storage facility. It accommodates over 50 antique dealers trading under the one banner. The centre attracts many collectors both interstate and overseas.
The Union Cooperative Society building on the corner of Given and Latrobe Terraces was originally home to a grocery and petrol co-operative that provided lower cost household goods, groceries and petrol to its members. The building still houses the Workers' social club and is a hub of locally owned small businesses such as Chercher La Femme, Biome Eco Stores and Cocoon Petit Living and Simpatico restaurant.
Paddington Central on Latrobe Terrace, situated on the site of a former shopping complex which was originally the site of the Paddington Tram Station is the largest shopping complex in Paddington and contains a supermarket, a number of cafes, Il Posto Italian Restaurant as well as Paddington Medical Centre and Travel Clinic, a local family owned pharmacy Paddington Central Pharmacy and other speciality shops.
Outdoor
There a number of small parks in the area including the Neal Macrossan Park on Caroline Street (also known as Ithaca Playground) which also incorporates Paddington Skate Park and Tennis Courts and the adjacent Ithaca public pool on lower Caxton Street. The site has aesthetic significance as a public open space with extremely large Moreton Bay fig trees which line lower Caxton Street and Moreton Street and are significant landmark elements. The playground comprises three buildings along the northern boundary, adjacent to the kindergarten; a tennis court in the north eastern along Caroline Street; a skate bowl, known as Father Perry Place on the eastern side of the swimming pool; a large oval on the western side of the swimming pool and terraced playground space in the central area. The three buildings at the Neal Macrossan Playground are a large public hall facing Moreton Street, a small former free library to the east of this, and abutting this on the eastern side is a covered play area. A locomotive was added to the playground on 20 March 1973 but this was removed in 1995.
A larger multiuse park, Gregory Park, is located on Baroona Road near the Rosalie café precinct.
There is a fallen soldiers Memorial Park on the corner of Latrobe Terrace and Enoggera Terrace and a small park named after the former tram workers of the area, "Trammies Corner" on the corner of Latrobe Terrace and Prince Street.
The Suncorp Stadium (formerly known as Lang Park) is located on Castlemaine Street in Milton but fronts lower Caxton Street and hosts a number of sporting events. The Old Stadium, Lang Park, was the official home of Brisbane Rugby League, the defunct South Queensland Crushers, and then finally when Brisbane sponsored a national Rugby League club it became the home the "Brisbane Broncos". The old stadium was torn down in 2001 and te new stadium was built which hosts Brisbane Broncos Rugby league games, Rugby Union international test games, Brisbane Roar soccer games, as well as a number of other sporting and music one-offs.
Worship
There are a number of churches in Paddington proper including two Catholic and one Presbyterian Church. The Catholic parish of Jubilee has its parish headquarters on Given Terrace. The churches are located at:
Sacred Heart Catholic Church, 355 Given Terrace, Paddington.
St Thomas More Catholic Church, 111 Hale Street, Petrie Terrace, with mass in Italian.
Enoggera Presbyterian Church Building, 100 Enoggera Terrace, Paddington.
There are a further three Catholic churches in adjoining suburbs, a number of small Catholic Chapels, an Anglican church (in Milton, based at St Francis College on the historic Bishopbourne site), a Baptist church, and a Uniting Church. The nearest cemetery is the nearby Brisbane General Cemetery at Toowong (locally known as Toowong Cemetery) which is the largest cemetery in Brisbane though it is largely closed.
Education
Petrie Terrace State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 40 Moreton Street (). It is nestled below St Brigid's Church, Red Hill and behind the fig trees near the Ithaca Swimming Pool. In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 234 students with 20 teachers (15 full-time equivalent) and 18 non-teaching staff (9 full-time equivalent). It includes a special education program.
Schools in nearby suburbs also supply primary education to children in Paddington, including Ithaca Creek State School to the north in Bardon, Rainworth State School also in Bardon to the west, and Milton State School in Milton to the south.
There are no secondary schools in Paddington. The nearest secondary school is Kelvin Grove State College in Kelvin Grove.
There is a C&K childcare on Charlotte Street. There are also several nearby kindergartens including three Lady Gowrie Centres in Spring Hill. There is a Lady Gowrie day care centre and kindergarten on Enoggera Terrace, Red Hill, Kindy Patch Paddington, also on Enoggera Terrace behind a church, Chatterbox Long Day Care, which offers a Qld Govt approved Kindergarten program and is located on Guthrie Street and another in Elizabeth St, Rosalie. Avenues Child Care and Kindergarten and others are cropping up in the local area as well as a result of a focus by the federal government on early years education. From 2013 to Dec, 2019, the Federal Government has subsidised primary teachers wishing to/willing to transition to Early Years Education and Care.
Architecture
Brisbane has a lower inner city population density than Australia's two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne. The lower population density reflects the fact that most of Brisbane's housing stock formerly consisted of detached houses. Early legislation decreed a minimum size for residential blocks resulting in few terrace houses being constructed. The high density housing that did exist came in the form of miniature Queenslander-style houses which resemble the much larger traditional styles but are sometimes only 1/4 the size. Commonly they were called "workers cottages". Many of the residences in the area are still the original and distinctive workers cottages, which are frequently built on stumps owing to the steep nature of their blocks. Most of the blocks are 16 perch (405 square metres) in size though 24 perch (607 square metres) and 32 perch (809 square metres) are common though typical to all blocks the houses tend to be at the front of the block close to the street. There has been a tendency, mainly by real estate agents for selling purposes to label these houses "Queenslanders" and though they do exist in the area the vast majority of houses are the small wooded 2 or 3 bedroom "workers cottages" with front verandas. These houses are all wood as the material was cheap in south east Queensland. The houses usually had "hopper" windows, high ceilings, vertical internal "VJ" wall boards and wooden floors covered in linoleum floor covering. They were usually on wooden stumps with wooden vertical palings between the stumps. The height of the stumps, and how high off the ground the house was depended not so much on utilising the underneath of the house area but rather on the angle of the block or how likely the area was to flood. The houses were also raised to allow air to circulate freely underneath thereby reducing the internal temperature of the house in the summer months. Roofs were traditionally of corrugated iron.
There was a tendency to enclose the verandas in the 1940s and 1950s and create "sun rooms" or "sleep outs" so the family could have more internal living space. These modifications were usually made with fibro which was popular and affordable at the time (though if there was enough money wood was used) with windows in the vertical louver style.
The other noticeable influence on the local architecture came with the influx of southern European migrants, mainly Italians and Croatians in the 1950s and 1960s. These migrants brought trade skills with them from Europe, mainly brick laying, plastering or steel work. It became the norm for migrants to "convert' and update the workers cottages for their needs. Hopper windows were replaced with casement windows, internal "VJ" wall boards were covered with masonite, wood parquetry replaced the linoleum, wooden stumps were replaced with concrete stumps, the underneath of the house was enclosed with besser blocks, air blocks, or brick work whilst allowing a garage for a car, common areas underneath and around the house were concreted, and wooden hand rails were replaced with steel handrails in a number of designs popular in the early 1960s. There has been a tendency to "revert" these renovations to the more traditional cottage design though many examples of this unofficial architectural style still exist and have a charm in themselves which refers to a distinct era of development.
Subsequent to the mini housing boom of the 1980s, there was a flurry of activity in the area with many of the larger 32 perch blocks of land being sub-divided into two 16 perch blocks and residences in the workers cottage style being made on the new land.
Recent housing renovations trends have been to "lift" and build in underneath or more commonly extend off the back into the back yard to give more living space popular with families today. The increased "internal" living space means that the "big back yard" concept has virtually disappeared.
Multi residence accommodations (such as apartment blocks) are relative newcomers to Brisbane, with few such blocks built before 1970. Perhaps because of the trade skills of the new migrants though there were a number of "6 pack" brick apartment blocks made in the 70s and 80s.
Heritage listings
Paddington has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
14 Caroline Street: Neal Macrossan Playground
50 Elizabeth Street: Rosalie RSL Hall
57 Elizabeth Street: Rosalie Community Kindergarten and Preschool
Enoggera Terrace: Ithaca War Memorial
140 Enoggera Terrace: former Ithaca Fire Station
150 Enoggera Terrace: Paddington Tramways Substation
Fernberg Road: Marist Brothers College Rosalie Buildings
23 Fernberg Road: Lucerne
170 Fernberg Road: Government House
16 Garfield Drive: Paddington Water Tower
34 Howard Street: Glenworth
50 Howard Street: Boondah
90 Howard Street: Baroona
16 Latrobe Terrace: Foresters' Hall
163–169 Latrobe Terrace: Paddington Antiques Centre
Notable buildings
The majority of notable non-residential buildings exist in the area, notably along Caxton Street, Given Terrace, Latrobe Terrace and Enoggera Terrace.
Given Terrace
The Paddington Tavern at 186 Given Terrace, which is a modern tavern built on the site of the old Paddington Hotel which was demolished in the early 1980s
The Hanlon shops at 216–228 Given Terrace, which are "terraced" styled shops with accommodation above formerly owned by the family of Pat Hanlon, who was the brother to Premier Ned Hanlon. The building was originally constructed in the 1880s and has been modified since however the original structure is still visible.
The old Uniting Church at 234–244 Given Terrace was sold to private interests in the 1980s and burnt down in 1996 after development proposals were rejected by the Brisbane City Council (a fate that was to befall the Red Hill Roller Skating rink). The wooden building was built in 1906 to accommodate the new congregation of the merged local Wesleyan and Primitive Methodist churches. The building was designed specifically for the triangular block and the new commercial and residential building largely reflects the shape of the original building. The only remaining feature of the Church are the brick retaining walls facing Given Terrace.
The old Sheard's Bakery at 265–267 Given Terrace. Constructed around 1888 it was a bakery for many years before being sold and converted into a shop and then restaurant.
The Kookaburra Café at 280 Given Terrace. Built around 1888 the building stands on land once owned by a person using the name Louis Le Gould who claimed he was the son of a French General who was Aide-de-camp to Napoleon Bonaparte. Le Gould was a licensed surveyor who was an unsuccessful candidate for alderman in November 1863, a local newspaper calling him pseudo-Gallic, lacking honor and reputable conduct.
The former Paddington Post Office on 293 Given Terrace at the corner of Latrobe Terrace, is a classic example of a Type T15 Federation Timber design, built in 1900. These commercial buildings feature a gable in the facade, including vent; veranda / porch with near flat roof, columns span the front with a balustrade around the porch and a large lantern vent centrally place in the roof.
The Sisters of Mercy Sacred Heart Convent at 327 Given Terrace, Paddington built in 1917. The building is representative of the Federation Queen Anne style in the timber detailing and asymmetrical façade. It is a good typical of the design of convents throughout Australia, which were built as prominent and substantial buildings, and were designed with the chapel within, often expressed as a projecting bay. The convent was designed by the architect T. R. Hall who designed other buildings for the Catholic Church including Our Lady of Victories, Bowen Hills, in partnership with GG Prentice. Hall designed other prominent buildings during this partnership, including the city hall, McDonnell and East building and the travel centre of New South Wales. The building is in private ownership though is heritage listed.
The Sacred Heart Church, Rosalie, at 358 Given Terrace, is a large Catholic church which was opened on 16 June 1918 and designed by prominent architect G. M. Addison. The church has a single-manual mechanical action organ was originally installed by J. W. Walker & Sons of London in 1885 and it is fully enclosed. It suffered damage by fire in 1942. In 1982 restoration was undertaken by H. W. Jarrott of Brisbane. The building is heritage listed
The old Ashton butchers building at 7–9 Latrobe Terrace (now a private business). Originally built in 1888 it housed Ashton's Butchers until the 1910s when it was taken over by the government and became the State Butchery.
Foresters' Hall, at 16 Latrobe Terrace (now a St Vincent de Paul "Vinnies" opportunity Shop). This timber hall was built between June and September in 1888 for the Trustees of Court Foresters' Hope, number 6535 of the Ancient Order of Foresters' Friendly Society, United Brisbane District and demonstrates a way of life during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when friendly societies, which provided a welfare service by means of mutual aid, were a prominent and expanding part of Queensland society. The friendly societies came to Australia as part of the British philosophy of self-help and mutual aid which became prevalent during the industrial revolution. The building is also of interest for its legacy as part of the 1880s development boom which transformed Paddington from a semi-rural area into a commuter suburb of Brisbane. The Paddington Foresters' Hall had a seating capacity of 320 people and provided a thriving community service to the growing population of Paddington as a hall which could be let to the public for meetings including local Rechabites, the Salvation Army, the Ithaca Ratepayers Association, the Women's Christian Charity and the Theodore Unmack Society of Masons, the local Labour Party. In 1996, the hall was purchased by the present owners and Vinnies, an opportunity shop run by the Order of St Vincent de Paul, is there now.
The former Salvation Army Hall at 29 Latrobe Terrace (now Endeavour Opportunity Shop). The hall was built in 1897 and the "Army" played a vital role in providing relief during the various depressions. Its presence in the area reflects the former working class area of the suburb. The building was sold to private owners in the 1970s.
The former Paddington Plaza Theatre on 153–171 Latrobe Terrace (now the Paddington Antique Centre) is a traditional example of the 1930s movie house. It is a large and imposing timber building with rendered brickwork at either end and an awning which protrudes from the facade. The roof is gabled and constructed of corrugated iron. The building has been little modified internally and the main area is a large rectangular space with a vaulted plaster ceiling. The building is important in illustrating the pattern of development of suburban cinemas in Brisbane, and in illustrating the evolution of cinemas in Queensland, during the interwar years of the 20th century. It is important also in illustrating the pattern of development of the Paddington district. The building was erected circa 1929 by Brisbane contractor John Hutchinson [later J Hutchinson & Sons] for Greater Brisbane Motion Pictures Ltd and probably designed by Brisbane architect Richard Gailey jnr, the Plaza is a rare early 20th century 'atmospheric' theatre in Queensland. This ceiling was painted a vibrant blue and stars used to twinkle and backlit clouds and a moon moved across the sky on tracks. The blue paint is still apparent and some of the clouds still exist as does the proscenium which is constructed of plaster and features ornate plaster work. The term "atmospheric" denotes a picture theatre with an interior décor that simulated an exotic outdoor setting. Atmospheric cinemas were popularised in Australia in the late 1920s and early 1930s after the architect for Sydney-based Union Theatres, Henry White, travelled to the United States to study picture theatre design. Shortly after construction commenced, the Hutchinson family acquired both the building and the land, commencing a long association with the theatre. In 1929 the Plaza Theatre faced strong competition from at least two rival picture shows in the Paddington-Red Hill district: Stephens New Paddington Theatre on Given Terrace [c1924] (which was demolished in the early 1980s to make the Paddington Centre) and Red Hill Picture Pops on Enoggera Terrace [c1920] (which became the Red Hill Roller Skating rink and "mysteriously" burnt down following a development proposal in the early 2000s). Although the Plaza was by no means the first picture theatre in the Paddington district, it was the most ornate, erected in a third wave of picture theatre construction which swept Brisbane suburbs in the late 1920s and 1930s. The picture theatre was open seven days a week, with serials shown on Monday and Tuesday nights, films and newsreels on other nights, and a matinee programme on Sunday afternoons. On Saturdays, trams reputedly would stop outside the theatre at opening time and wait until the film finished to take patrons home again. Popular films attracted audiences of around 1200, for the movies appealed to all ages. A special soundproofed glass room, called the 'cry room', was provided for young mothers and their babies. The Plaza theatre also hosted dances and balls mainly for the local school of Marist Brothers Rosalie. The theatre operated successfully until television was introduced to Brisbane in the late 1950s, by which time Plaza audiences were reduced to 20–30 patrons per screening (though the auditorium in 1960 contained seating for 932 persons). In 1961 the Plaza Theatre ceased to operate as a cinema and a level floor was installed and the building was used for indoor basketball until a court case instigated by a neighbour who complained of the noise. The plaza remained mostly vacant until 1974 and was sold in 1977. It now houses an antiques retailing centre. The shops fronting Latrobe Terrace are still occupied by a variety of tenants, and the complex is still the focus of a small nodal shopping centre. The Plaza Theatre (Paddington Antique Centre) complex now includes a series of small retail shops on either side of the foyer entrance.
The Ithaca Embankments on Latrobe Terrace below the Ithaca War memorial on first blush appear to be nothing more than a cut away into the side of a hill. They however are important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of the Ithaca Town Council's early 20th century street beautification projects, being some of the best surviving examples, and provide important surviving evidence of stone retaining wall and edging techniques practised by Brisbane's public landscape gardeners in the early 20th century, which were influential on civic landscaping throughout Queensland and Australia.
Enoggera Terrace
Ithaca Presbyterian Church, 100 Enoggera Terrace, Paddington, built in 1928 and of the Interwar Gothic style with the use of simple Gothic details such as the pointed entrance arch and simple tracery to the windows and entrance. The building is heritage listed.
The distinctive Paddington Substation at 150 Enoggera Terrace erected in 1929-30 during a period of tramways expansion which followed the Brisbane City Council's 1925 acquisition of the tramways system from the Brisbane Tramways Trust. It was erected on Cook's Hill, along the Paddington line, on land which was formerly part of the adjacent Ithaca Fire Station. The function of the Paddington substation, was to assist the Petrie Terrace substation (erected 1927–28) in providing a better distribution of power to the increased western suburbs tram services from the powerhouse at New Farm. The Paddington substation, constructed of bricks and structural steel from the old Countess Street power house which closed in mid-1928, was the first of his substation designs to incorporate a parapet wall, flat roof and exterior render. The substation commenced operation on 11 August 1930 and remained in service until the phasing out of Brisbane's trams in the late 1960s. In 1969 the Paddington line was closed, the substation's electrical equipment was removed, and the building became a storage depot and subsequently an art space and art centre.
The former Ithaca Fire Station, at 140 Enoggera Terrace, constructed in two stages, 1918–19 and 1928, is an excellent example of "between the wars" Queensland civic architecture. The place is an integral member of an historic group on Cook's Hill which includes the adjacent Ithaca War Memorial and Park, The Paddington Substation, and Ithaca Embankments. The brigade was formed in 1918 by the merger of the Ithaca and Milton Volunteer Fire Brigades, and provided the inner western suburbs with a permanent fire fighting force of four, with six auxiliary staff. It was closed down in the early 1980s.
The Ithaca War Memorial located on a parcel of land sandwiched between Enoggera and Latrobe Terraces on Cooks Hill and erected circa 1922. The memorial at Ithaca demonstrates the principal characteristics of a commemorative structure erected as an enduring record of a major historical event but also is rare as an early example of the clock tower type of memorial in the Brisbane area. The memorial provides evidence of an era of widespread Australian patriotism and nationalism, particularly during and following the First World War and memorial services are still held there every year on Anzac day. The stone memorial honours the 130 local men who died on active service during the First World War. The small park surrounding the memorial also has special associations with landscape gardener Alexander Jolly as one of the few remaining examples of his work, and with monumental masonry firm AH Thurlow. Much of the impetus for the work came from Ithaca Town Council's landscape gardener, Alexander Jolly, (father of the first Mayor of Greater Brisbane, William Jolly), who was a horticultural enthusiast and whose lifetime of gardening experience transformed the Ithaca townscape in the period c1915-25. Some of Jolly's more prominent projects included the rockeries along Musgrave and Waterworks Roads; the landscaping of Cook's Hill; and the Ithaca War Memorial garden, which, after his death, was named Alexander Jolly Park, in memory of one of the most esteemed men in the district, and as a unique tribute to the pick and shovel. Only small sections of the Waterworks Road rockeries remain, and most of the Cook's Hill garden was destroyed when the Paddington Tramways Substation was erected in 1929–30.
Others
Government House at 168 Fernberg Road in upper Paddington and is the official residence of the governor of Queensland and has been since 1911. The main house, built in 1865 and originally known as Fernberg there were extensive additions in the 1880s. The building is the only remaining substantial residence and villa estate, of almost original proportions, in Brisbane from the 1860s and with the later additions is regarded among the finest examples of a Victorian Italianate villa in Brisbane. The building was originally built by businessman Johann Christian Heussler who is believed to have given his home "Fernberg" a name of German origin that meant "distant mountain". The property was sold to businessmen George and Nathan Cohen in 1878 and then to various other businessmen before finally being bought by the State Government in 1911.
The Marist Brothers Monastery, Fernberg Road, Rosalie. The building is heritage listed.
Paddington Water Tower at 16 Garfield Drive (on what is known as Archibald's Hill) is an elevated reinforced concrete water tank on Paddington's highest point which can be seen from miles around. It is probably the only one of its type in Queensland being a reinforced concrete tank elevated on concrete columns. The tank's height from the highest point is and the tank has a capacity of 100,000 gallons (.38 megalitre) though it is not in use at present. It is important in demonstrating a phase in the history of Brisbane's water supply and the technological difficulties of providing reticulated water to elevated sites. It was constructed for a cost of £12,000 and completed in 1927.
The La Boite building which formerly housed the "La Boite Theatre Group" at Hale Street, Milton. The building was Australia's first purpose-built, 200 seat theatre in the round (designed by architect Blair Wilson). The award-winning "modernist" building became an iconic and much loved Brisbane theatrical landmark. The La Boite officially opened on Sunday 4 June 1972 and hosted many plays, both mainstream and controversial before relocating in 2003 to the more sterile State sponsored Kelvin Grove Village. The building is occupied by Evans Harch builders.
Notable residents
Ned Hanlon (1887–1952) – railway worker, grocer and Premier of Queensland 1946–1952 was born in Paddington.
Hector Hogan (1931–1960) – sprinter and Olympic medallist was educated at Marist Brothers Rosalie
Terry Lewis – former disgraced Queensland Commissioner of Police lived in Paddington prior to his incarceration on corruption charges
Barry Maranta – educator, businessman, sports management, co-founder of the Australian-based Brisbane Broncos rugby league team, was educated at Marist Brothers Rosalie
Warren Moon – Australian Footballer, soccer player, plays in the Scottish Football first division, was educated at Marist Brothers Rosalie
Sir Arthur Morgan (1856–1916) – newspaper proprietor and "progressive" Premier of Queensland 1903–1906 lived in Paddington at the time of his death.
Sir Kenneth Morris (1903–1978) – army officer, shoe/boot manufacturer, liberal/conservative politician, deputy premier of Queensland 1957–1962 was born in Paddington.
Gordon Olive (1916–1987) – Australian fighter ace in the Battle of Britain, World War II
Stan Pilecki (1947) – Australian Team Rugby Union Captain 1970s–1980s, was educated at Marist Brothers Rosalie
Santo Santoro (1956) – former Liberal Party Senator, was educated at Marist Brothers Rosalie
Bull Tillney – WW2 veteran and POW lived next door (oral history J. Campbell)
The band The End lived in Paddington and played at the Caxton Street Hall in 1981, before transforming into the band Died Pretty.
Paul Piticco – music and hospitality entrepreneur, grew up in the suburb and attended Petrie Terrace State School.
Errol O'Neill (1945–2016) playwright, actor, writer, director, dramaturg and producer, specialising in the creation of new work for the theatre lived in Glanmire Street, Paddington for many years
Cultural references
Caxton Street is mentioned in the song "Brisbane (Security City)" by The Saints, from their 1978 album Prehistoric Sounds.
"THE PADDO BOYS – A baby boomer's journey through the Seventies" (Zeus Publications, 2017) by Peter Coman is a memoir, in part, about growing up in the Paddington working class milieu of the 1960s and 1970s. Peter Coman was raised in Paddington and went to school at Marist Brothers Rosalie.
Nick Earls’ 1996 novel "Zigzag Street" takes place around Brisbane's inner west - Red Hill, Paddington and Milton. Local references are frequent and specific.
Paddington is the main setting of Bluey, a television series that debuted in 2018.
References
Further reading
Heritage Trail: Latrobe and Given Terraces, Paddington, Series No 10, 2nd Edition, Brisbane City Council, 1995.
Padd, Paddo, Paddington, Dawn Buckberry (ed), Paddington History Group, 1999
The History of the Sacred Heart Parish Rosalie 1898–1998, Ellen Ries, Private Publication, 1998
Radical Brisbane: An Unruly History, Raymond Evans & Carole Ferrier (eds), The Vulgar Press, 2004
External links
Paddington Oral History, State Library of Queensland
Suburbs of the City of Brisbane
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20cannibalism
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Child cannibalism
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Child cannibalism or fetal cannibalism is the act of eating a child or fetus.
Mythology and folktales
Children who are eaten or at risk of being eaten are a recurrent topic in mythology and folktales from many parts of the world.
Greek mythology
In Greek mythology, several of the major gods were actually eaten as children by their own father or just barely escaped such a fate. Cronus (called Saturn in Roman mythology), once the most powerful of the gods, was dismayed by a prophecy telling him that he would one day be deposed by one of his children, just as he had formerly overthrown his own father. So as not to suffer the same fate, Cronus decided to consume all his children right after birth. But his wife and sister Rhea, unwilling to see all her children suffer such a fate, handed him a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes after the birth of Zeus, their sixth child. Apparently not noticing the difference in taste, he devoured the stone, allowing infant Zeus to grow up at some secret hiding place without his father having any idea that a threat to his power was still alive. Once grown, Zeus tricked his father into drinking an emetic that made him disgorge Zeus' swallowed siblings Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. Being immortal gods they had survived being eaten and had indeed grown to adulthood within their father's stomach. Understandably annoyed at their father's behaviour, the siblings then rose up against Cronus, overthrowing him and the other Titans in a huge war known as Titanomachy and thus fulfilling the prophecy.
Other Greek myths tell of children killed and served to their clueless parents in an act of revenge. Learning that his brother Thyestes had committed adultery with his wife, Atreus killed and cooked Thyestes's sons, serving their flesh to their father and revealing afterwards the hands and heads of the murdered boys, shocking Thyestes into realizing what he had eaten. Tereus is another mythic father who ate the flesh of his son without knowing it. In his case, his wife Procne killed and cooked her own child to punish her husband for the rape and mutilation of her sister Philomela.
Tantalus, on the hand, is a father who murdered and boiled his son Pelops, serving his flesh to several gods in an arrogant challenge to their omniscience. But they saw through his act and brought the boy back to life, though one of them, Demeter, had absent-mindedly already eaten part of his shoulder.
Lamia was a queen who had an affair with Zeus but became insane when his wife Hera killed or kidnapped her children to punish her for the adultery. To make up for her loss, she started to kidnap any children she could find, killing and devouring them.
Christian legends
Child cannibalism also plays a role in some Christian legends. One of the miracle stories told about the 4th-century bishop Saint Nicholas (who inspired the modern figure of Santa Claus) is that he brought three children back to life who had been killed by a butcher during a terrible famine. The butcher had pickled their flesh in brine in order to sell it as pork. But Nicholas, spotting the barrel, recognized what was really inside and resurrected the butchered children by making the sign of the cross.
European folktales
The (actual or attempted) consumption of children is a topic of many European folk and fairy tales. In the German fairy tale Hansel and Gretel, a witch entraps and tries to eat a pair of abandoned siblings, but Gretel kills her by pushing her into her own preheated oven. The Norwegian tale Buttercup is also about a witch trying to eat a child, but with a darker twist, since here the little boy, Buttercup, manages to save himself by killing the witch's daughter and boiling her body for the mother to eat. The witch eats the soup, thinking it "Buttercup broth", while it is actually "Daughter broth", as he comments triumphantly.
In the French tale Hop-o'-My-Thumb it is an ogre rather than a witch who tries to eat children. In the English fairy tale Jack and the Beanstalk, a giant wants to eat a little boy "for breakfast", since "there's nothing he likes better than boys broiled on toast", but the boy manages to trick and kill the giant and becomes wealthy by stealing his property. Similar tales were recorded in other countries, including Italy (Thirteenth).
The Juniper Tree is a dark German fairy tale in which a young boy is killed and cooked by his own stepmother, who serves his flesh to her clueless husband (his father). Other fairy tales, most famously Little Red Riding Hood, feature anthropomorphized animals eating (or trying to eat) human children, but this is not actually cannibalism, as eater and eaten belong to different species.
Baba Yaga is a supernatural being in Slavic folklore who appears as a deformed or ferocious-looking woman and likes to dine on children.
Ritual practice accusations
Since the twelfth century, Jews were repeatedly accused of murdering children in order to used their blood in religious rituals. Often this antisemitic canard included the charge that the blood was used for the baking of matzah eaten during Passover. In Muslim countries, such blood libels are still sometimes repeated in the 21th century.
During the witch-hunts in the early modern period, women suspected of witchcraft were repeatedly charged with killing, roasting, and eating babies in Satanic rituals. In a Satanic panic starting in the 1980s in the United States, thousands of people have been wrongly accused of abusing children in Satanic rituals, sometimes including claims that the victims were murdered and eaten. No evidence for such acts ever happening in such a context has been found.
Historical accounts
Famines
In severe famines, when all other provisions were exhausted, starving people repeatedly turned to cannibalism, eating the corpses of the deceased or deliberately killing others – most often children – for consumption. Two factors put children specifically at risk: they could be more "easily snatched" and killed than adults and their flesh was often considered "more palatable" than that of the latter. Famines bad enough to lead to the consumption of human flesh were usually caused either by natural disasters such as droughts or by wars and other social conflicts.
Soviet Union
In the Soviet Union, several severe famines between the 1920s and the 1940s led to cannibalism. Children were particularly at risk. During the Russian famine of 1921–1922, "it was dangerous for children to go out after dark since there were known to be bands of cannibals and traders who killed them to eat or sell their tender flesh." An inhabitant of a village near Pugachyov stated: "There are several cafeterias in the village – and all of them serve up young children." Various gangs specialized in "capturing children, murdering them and selling the human flesh as horse meat or beef", with the buyers happy to have found a source of meat in a situation of extreme shortage and often willing not to "ask too many questions". This led to a situation where, according to the historian Orlando Figes, "a considerable proportion of the meat in Soviet factories in the Volga area ... was human".
Cannibalism was also widespread during the Holodomor, a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine between 1932 and 1933. While most cases were "necrophagy, the consumption of corpses of people who had died of starvation", the murder of children for food was common as well. Many survivors told of neighbours who had killed and eaten their children. One woman, asked why she had done this, "answered that her children would not survive anyway, but this way she would". Moreover, "stories of children being hunted down as food" circulated in many areas, and indeed the police documented various cases of children being kidnapped and consumed. The Holodomor was part of the Soviet famine of 1930–1933, which also devastated other parts of the Soviet Union. In Kazakhstan, villagers "discovered people among them who ate body parts and killed children" and a survivor remembered how he repeatedly saw "a little foot float[ing] up, or a hand, or a child's heel" in cauldrons boiling over a fire.
During the German siege of Leningrad in 1941–1944, thousands of people were arrested for cannibalism. In most cases, parts of corpses were eaten, but children were also entrapped for consumption. A woman who had been a young girl during the siege had repeatedly been invited to a neighbour's house, but she didn't trust her and refused to come along. "It later turned out that she'd killed and eaten twenty-two children in this way." A couple who lived nearby later accidentally revealed that they had murdered and eaten their own son, avoiding suspicions about his disappearance by claiming that he had gone to the countryside. Another woman later remembered how she had once discovered "the body of a fifteen-year-old girl stowed under the stairwell of an apartment block. Bits of her body had been cut away", making her realize that the girl "had been killed for food." Many children disappeared for good; later only their clothes, and sometimes their bones, were found. The police kept a storeroom full of children's clothes, telling a mother missing a child: "If you find your daughter's underwear ... we can tell you where they killed her – and ate her."
China
In China, a custom known as "exchanging one's children and eating them" was practised over thousands of years during times of hunger. Neighbouring families swapped one of their children, each family then slaughtering and eating the child of the other family, thus "alleviat[ing] their hunger" without having to eat their own family members. The oldest references to this tradition are from a siege in the 6th century BCE; the most recent ones from the Great Chinese Famine triggered by the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962). It has also been recorded from various other famines in Chinese history, including other sieges, the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, and famines in the 1930s. Most of the victims were girls, since "boys were considered more valuable".
Early accounts of the practice treat it as "a sign of determination rather than desperation", since it made cities "essentially impossible to starve out". In the 1990s, survivors of the Great Chinese Famine told the journalist Jasper Becker that the deadly exchanges had been accepted as "a kind of hunger culture" driven by desperation.
The same famine-induced custom of swapping one's children with those of others and then eating the other child has also been reported from Fiji, French Polynesia, and (with only daughters as victims) from among the Azande people in Central Africa.
In other cases, children were kidnapped and eaten, and desperate parents sometimes killed and consumed their own children, both during the Great Chinese Famine and in various earlier famines. Children whose parents had died or abandoned them were particularly at risk. A relief worker in the 1870s famine observed that such children "were slaughtered and eaten by other famine victims as though they were sheep or pigs". Since "meat has become more valuable than human life" for the starving, abandoned children could expect no mercy from those who soon discovered that they could be killed as easily as pigs, states another account from the famine.
Accounts from earlier famines indicate that wealthy people sometimes purchased poor children when their starving parents had to sell them, and then used them as a source of meat. During a siege in the 9th century, "parents brought their children to butcher shops to sell them" for immediate processing. Oral accounts from the 1870s famine as well as earlier famines also indicate that human flesh, usually from "young women and children", was served at inns to customers who preferred it to a meatless diet.
Sometimes the flesh of butchered children was sold on markets. During a famine induced by the fighting between the Jin and the Song dynasty in the 12th century, little children were praised for their "superior tastiness" and sold whole to those who wanted to prepare and serve them like suckling pigs or steamed whole lambs. Like the sale of human flesh at inns, such customs indicate that the consumption of such flesh also had a culinary side, even in times of famine.
Consumption of slave children
Sumatra
According to the 14th century traveller Odoric of Pordenone, the inhabitants of Lamuri, a kingdom in northern Sumatra, purchased children from foreign merchants to "slaughter them in the shambles and eat them". Odoric states that the kingdom was wealthy and there was no lack of other food, suggesting that the custom was driven by a preference for human flesh rather than by hunger. He shows excellent knowledge of Sumatra, indicating that he had really been there, and several other sources confirm that cannibalism was practised in northern Sumatra around that time. The merchants, though likely not cannibals themselves, apparently had no scruples selling slave children for the "shambles". Odoric's account was later borrowed by John Mandeville for his Book of Marvels and Travels.
The Congo Basin
Up to the late nineteenth century, cannibalism was practised widely in the some parts of the Congo Basin, with slaves being frequent victims. Many "healthy children" had to die "to provide a feast for their owners". Young slave children were at particular risk since they were in low demand for other purposes and since their flesh was widely praised as especially delicious, "just as many modern meat eaters prefer lamb over mutton and veal over beef". Some people fattened slave children to sell them for consumption; if such a child became ill and lost too much weight, their owner drowned them in the nearest river instead of wasting further food on them, as the French missionary Prosper Philippe Augouard once witnessed.
Various reports from the late 19th century indicate that around the Ubangi River in the north of the Congo Basin, slaves were frequently exchanged against ivory, which was then exported to Europe or the Americas, while the slaves were eaten. The local elephant hunters preferred the flesh especially of young human beings – four to sixteen was the preferred age range, according to one trader – "because it was not only more tender, but also much quicker to cook" than the meat of elephants or other large animals. Sometimes ten or more purchased children were butchered and consumed in a single event in the vicinity of the Catholic mission station erected in today's Bangui.
In order a ensure a regular supply, "the chiefs raise herds of [children], like we do with sheep or geese at home", stated a missionary after a trip along the Ubangi. Several accounts indicate that children were indeed fattened and slaughtered on a regular basis. While one or two victims per village and week seem to have been typical, Augouard also mentions "a village which I know well, [where] a child aged ten to twelve was sacrificed every day to serve as food for the chief and the principals of the area," thus also indicating that the regular enjoyment of such dishes was a privilege of the influential and well-connected. The killing of slave children for culinary purposes is also documented for various other parts of the Congo Basin, including the north and northeast, the eastern Maniema region, and the Kasai region in the south.
Slave raiding and cannibalism often went hand in hand, as those killed in fighting and those who were too young, too old, or otherwise considered less suitable for sale, were often eaten right after a slave raid, or otherwise sold to nearby cannibals for consumption. The German ethnologist Leo Frobenius recorded that young children caught in raids were "skewered on long spears like rats and roasted over a quickly kindled large fire", while older captives were kept alive to be exploited or sold as slaves. In 1863, the English explorer Samuel Baker talked with a member of a Swahili–Arab raiding party, who told him that their local Azande allies routinely killed and ate the children captured in raids:
Another man told Baker that at Gondokoro, where they were at that time, he had once seen how several slave children were slaughtered and then served at "a great feast" held by the Azande members of a slave raiding party.
Children born to enslaved mothers could meet the same fate. The German ethnologist Georg A. Schweinfurth once say a newborn baby among the ingredients assembled for a meal. He learned that the baby, whose mother was a slave, would soon be "cooked together with the gourds", since capturing slaves was more convenient than raising them from birth. He also heard persistent rumours that little slave children were frequently served at the table of the Azande king.
Generally, slaves and their flesh were not expensive in the Congo region. In some areas, human flesh was up to twice as expensive as that of animals, while elsewhere the prices of both were comparable. Accordingly, a girl of six or ten years could be purchased for the price of a dwarf goat, or sometimes even cheaper, and people do not seem to have regarded the consumption of one as more morally troubling than the consumption of the other, though they generally preferred the taste of the child. Missionaries observed that a living slave child was nevertheless "worth less than a quarter of a hippopotamus or of a buffalo", due to the much smaller amount of meat which the child would yield.
Sometimes white men played a role in the death of Congolese slave children. In a case that shocked the European and American press, the Scot James Jameson, a member of Henry Morton Stanley's last expedition, apparently paid the purchase price of a 10-year-old slave girl and then watched and made drawings while she was stabbed, dismembered, cooked, and eaten in front of him. Jameson defended himself by claiming that he had considered the whole affair a joke and had not thought the child would really die until it was too late.
Other cases received little or no international attention. At about the same time as the Jameson affair, in the late 1880s, a white trader accidentally caused the death of a slave boy whom he had rented from a Bangala head man. When he complained about the boy's unreliability, the man reacted by killing the boy "with a thrust of his spear", and one day later his teenage son "nonchalantly remarked that – 'That slave boy was very good eating – he was nice and fat.'" According to Herbert Ward, who witnessed and documented the incident, "the pot" was the usual destination of any slave who annoyed or disappointed their owner, and "light repast[s] off the limbs of some unfortunate slave, slain for refractory behavior", were served in the village on an fairly regular basis. The relations between the locals and the white men at the trading post were nevertheless, "as a rule, friendly".
While travelling along the Ubangi River, the French explorer declined an opportunity to purchase a young slave girl, though there was "human meat" cooking in pots around them and he was well aware that the local demand for children her age was largely cannibalistic (indeed she might have been offered to his party as provisions). "Maybe at this hour she is being eaten. That is very likely", he commented in a diary-style letter. His colleague was more generous when he met in the same region a young slave boy who, "trembling all over and deeply ashamed", explained that he was destined to be beheaded and eaten soon. Dolisie approached the boy's owner who finally agreed to hand the boy over to him.
Angola and West Africa
There are also reports of the consumption of young slaves and victims of slave raids from other parts of Central and Western Africa. Around the Cuanza River in today's Angola, children caught in raids but too young to be profitably sold as slaves were butchered in public, their fresh flesh then sold to passers-by, according to the Hungarian explorer László Magyar, who states that he repeatedly saw such scenes himself. In regions that today belong to Nigeria, the baked bodies of deliberately fattened slave children were served as delicacies, as young children's flesh was said to be "the best [food] of all". Oral accounts indicate that around the beginning of the 20th century, children playing outside were still at risk of "being kidnapped and either killed and eaten or sold away or sacrificed to one god or the other."
Cannibalistic child murderers
Various cases of adult men – often serial killers – murdering and eating children have been recorded throughout newer history, especially in the 20th century. In the United States in the 1920s, Albert Fish killed at least three children, afterwards roasting and eating their flesh. "How sweet and tender her little ass was roasted in the oven", he wrote about one of his victims, 10-year-old Grace Budd.
In the 1990s, Nathaniel Bar-Jonah seems to have killed and consumed at least one boy, though further child victims are suspected. The body of his 10-year-old victim was never found, but after the boy's disappearance Bar-Jonah apparently did not buy any groceries for a month. At the same time he held a number of cookouts, at which he served burgers and other meat dishes to his guests, several of whom found that the meat "tasted strange". He told one of his guests that it came from a deer which he had personally "hunted, killed, [and] butchered". After his arrest, a number of recipes using children's body parts were found in his apartment, plus notes indicating that he had actually cooked some of these dishes for his neighbours.
In Germany, Fritz Haarmann, also called the "Butcher of Hanover", sexually assaulted and murdered at least 24 boys, most of them teenagers, between 1918 and 1924. He regularly sold boneless ground meat on the black market and gave different and contradictory explanations about the origin of this meat. Suspicions that this was his way of getting rid of some of the mortal remains of his victims were never definitively confirmed, nor refuted.
Between the 1950s and 1970s, Joachim Kroll, nicknamed the "Ruhr Cannibal", murdered probably more than a dozen women and girls. Most of his victims were girls from 4 to 16 years of age, and he usually raped them before strangling them. When he was arrested, parts of the body of 4-year-old Marion Ketter, his last victim, were in his freezer, while a small hand was cooking in a pan of boiling water.
In the Soviet Union, Andrei Chikatilo sexually assaulted and murdered more than 50 women and children between 1978 and 1990. His first victim was a 9-year-old girl and most of his victims were boys and girls, some as young as 7. Over time, he "started cutting off boys' genitals and excising the uterus from his female victims, chewing and eating them to attain new heights of sexual pleasure." The police also found evidence suggesting that he had roasted body parts of his victims on campfires. Many of the murdered were runaways or vagrants, and he motivated his acts as due to "his disgust at these kinds of people [who were] always pestering people".
While these and similar cases were generally committed by men and motivated, at least in part, by sexual sadism, an unusual case was committed by a couple and apparently motivated by hunger. During a severe famine in Iraq in 1917, Abboud and Khajawa murdered more than a hundred young children in order to cook and eat or sell their flesh. The couple deliberately targeted children because they found their flesh to be much tastier than of their first victim, an elderly woman.
Recent cases
Fetus eating in China
In the mid-1990s, Hong Kong journalists exposed "an underground market in human foetuses" in both Mainland China and Hong Kong. Traders connected to hospitals sold aborted fetuses for consumption, charging "up to $300 apiece" and promising "all sorts of medical benefits ... from rejuvenation to a cure for asthma". While recovering from an accident, the director Fruit Chan was repeatedly served an "'exceptional' soup" by his doctor, finding out only later that it was "made of fetus". Chan and the screenwriter Lilian Lee believe that they also unknowingly ate such soup while researching in hospitals for their movie Dumplings (2004), which features this custom.
Possibly inspired by reports of this custom, the Chinese performance artist Zhu Yu cooked and ate what he claimed to be a human fetus in a controversial piece of conceptual art. His performance entitled "Eating People" took place at a Shanghai arts festival in 2000. When pictures of it begin to circulate on the Internet one year later, both the FBI and Scotland Yard started investigations into the matter. Zhu claimed that "no religion forbids cannibalism, nor can I find any law which prevents us from eating people", and said that he "took advantage of the space between morality and the law", publicly performing an act that is widely considered immoral but not actually illegal. The work has been interpreted as "shock art".
Whether Zhu ate an actual fetus is unclear. Zhu himself claims to have cooked and eaten a six-month-old aborted fetus stolen from a medical school, but others maintain that the "fetus" might have been a prop, possibly constructed by placing a doll's head on a duck carcass. Other images of another art exhibit were circulated along with Zhu Yu's photographs and falsely claimed to be evidence of fetus soup.
In 2011/2012, more than 17,000 capsule pills purported to be filled with the powdered flesh of human fetuses or stillborns and "touted for increasing vitality and sex drive" were seized by South Korean customs officials from ethnic Koreans living in China, who had tried to bring them into South Korea in order to consume the capsules themselves or distribute them to others. Some experts later suggested that the pills may actually have been made of human placenta, as placentophagy is a legal and relatively widespread practice in China.
Critics see the spreading of unverified or mislabelled accounts of fetus eating as a form of blood libel – wrongly accusing one's enemy of killing or eating children – and blame members of the US Congress for using mere rumours as a political lever.
Famines in North Korea
Various reports of cannibalism began to emerge from North Korea during a severe famine in the mid-1990s. In 1998, several refugees reported that children in their neighbourhood had fallen victim to this custom. One told that "his neighbors [had eaten] their daughter", another knew a woman who had eaten "her 2-year-old child", and a third said that "her neighbor killed, salted and ate an uncared-for orphan". According to other refugees interviewed by the journalist Jasper Becker, similar acts were by no means rare. A former soldier told him that starving parents "kill and eat their own infants ... in many places". Other parents sold or abandoned their children, and the fate of parentless children was often dire. Becker heard of a "couple ... executed for murdering 50 children" and selling their flesh, "mixed with pork", in the market. Another executed woman was accused of having killed 18 children for food, and a whole "family of five" was executed "for luring small children into their house, drugging them, [and] chopping up their bodies" for consumption.
Episodes of famine that sometimes led to cannibalism continued into the new millennium. In 2012 it became known that three years earlier "a man was executed in Hyesan ... for killing a girl and eating her ... after supplies to the city dwindled" due to unsuccessful government attempts at currency reform. A few months later, reports of "citizen journalists" indicated that "a 'hidden famine' in the farming provinces of North and South Hwanghae has killed 10,000 people" and driven some to cannibal acts. One informant told: "In my village in May, a man who killed his own two children and tried to eat them was executed by a firing squad." Others stated that "some men boiled their children before eating them" – even an official of the ruling Workers' Party confirmed one such case.
Satire
Jonathan Swift's 1729 satiric article "A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public" proposed the utilization of an economic system based on poor people selling their children to be eaten, claiming that this would benefit the economy, family values, and general happiness of Ireland. The target of Swift's satire is the rationalism of modern economics, and the growth of rationalistic modes of thinking at the expense of more traditional human values.
In popular culture
Novels and short stories
The main part of Robert A. Heinlein's science fiction novel Farnham's Freehold (1964) is set in a distant future where, long after much of the northern hemisphere was devastated in a full-scale nuclear war, a dark-skinned ruling class (descendants of the Africans, Arabs, and Hindus of today) exploits white-skinned people as slaves, including sexually. White children are bred on ranches for consumption and slaughtered at around 12 to 14 years of age (when their flesh is considered particularly tasty) or sometimes already as babies. Boys are often castrated several years before their death, as that is thought to improve the quality of their meat. Despite apparently anti-racist in intent (Heinlein had wanted his white readers to think about how belonging to an exploited and despised minority would feel like), the novel was widely criticized for its racial stereotyping.
Donald Kingsbury's science fiction novel Courtship Rite (1982) takes place in a society of settlers whose ancestors arrived, centuries ago, on a planet whose own plants and animals have a biochemistry utterly different from that on Earth, rendering them poisonous to the settlers. The humans can therefore eat only the few plant species they brought from Earth, and as they brought no animals, they have turned to cannibalism in order to get meat. Children are taken from their parents immediately after birth and submitted to a highly competitive selection process while being raised in public "crèches". Those who fail any of the multiple tests are "culled" and butchered, their flesh then sold as food. Throughout the novel, the consumption of this human flesh is treated as a normal and uncontroversial act, deeply ingrained into the fabric of life and not a matter of ethical concern.
In Mo Yan's satirical novel The Republic of Wine (1992), roasted baby boys, called "meat boys" or "braised babies", are served whole as gourmet dishes in a fictional Chinese province called Liquorland. The book has been read as criticizing the increasing disparities in wealth and status in Chinese society, where the "pleasure and desire for delicacies" of the wealthy matter more than the lives of the poor, until "the inferior in social rank becomes food" in the novel's satirical exaggeration. It is also a criticism of the increasing commodification after China's turn to capitalism. In the novel, the inventor of the "braised baby" argues that "the babies we are about to slaughter and cook are small animals in human form that are, based upon strict, mutual agreement, produced to meet the special needs of Liquorland's developing economy and prosperity", not essentially different from other animals raised for consumption or other goods produced for sale. If anything can become a commodity based on the mutual consent of buyer and seller, then Liquorland's cannibalism is just the logical consequence.
In Vladimir Sorokin's short story "Nastya" (2000), a girl who has just turned 16 is cooked whole in an oven and eaten by her family and their friends, including an Orthodox priest. According to the story, which is set around the year 1900 in an alternative Russian Empire, "a lot of people get cooked". Indeed the celebrating families already plan the death of Nastya's friend Arina, who will be put into the oven in a few months (alive, as usual). The girls, though fearful, generally seem to submit willingly, not wanting to violate family traditions. Ignoring the dark story's satirical character, pro-Kremlin activists accused Sorokin of "promoting cannibalism" and "degrad[ing] people's Russian Orthodox heritage".
In Cormac McCarthy's post-apocalyptic novel The Road (2006), the protagonists find an abandoned campsite with a newborn infant roasted on a spit.
Movies
In the spy comedy Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999), the character Fat Bastard boasts of having once eaten a baby and later tries to eat a person with dwarfism because "he kinda looks like a baby".
In Fruit Chan's film Dumplings (2004), aborted fetuses are eaten by wealthy people because they are believed to have rejuvenating properties. The film has been called "one of the most realistic works of 'fiction'", since it deals with a practice that has been repeatedly reported from China's and Hong Kong's recent past. Indeed the director Fruit Chan and the screenwriter Lilian Lee believe that they were served fetus soup while researching for the film in a hospital and that Chan repeatedly consumed such soup while recovering after an accident, finding out only afterwards that "he had eaten soup made from a miscarried five-month fetus". The film has been interpreted as a criticism of China's one-child policy, which caused many parents to have abortions even against their will. It raises the question of who is more to blame: the government whose policy makes sure that the fetuses cannot be born, or those who then exploit their bodies for their own purposes?
See also
Albert Fish – murdered and ate several children
Child sacrifice – the sacrifice (and sometimes consumption) of children in religious contexts
Filial cannibalism – adult animals consuming young members of their own species
Human placentophagy – the consumption of the placenta after birth
Kindlifresserbrunnen – a Swiss fountain depicting a child eater
Saturn Devouring His Son – a famous painting by Francisco Goya (with similar paintings also made by other artists)
Traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body – among them human flesh and children's bones
References
External links
Photos of Zhu Yu's performance in a South Korean newspaper (accompanied by a letter which claims them to be of an actual practice)
News article from 2006 reporting that supposedly "cooked" body parts of children had not actually been cooked
Fact Check: Are Human Fetuses 'Taiwan's Hottest Dish'?
Cannibalism
Child murder
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hawkins%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201988%29
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Tom Hawkins (footballer, born 1988)
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Thomas John Hawkins (born 21 July 1988) is an Australian rules footballer playing for the Geelong Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). At 198 cm (6 ft 6 in) tall and weighing , Hawkins has the ability to play as either a full-forward or centre half-forward. He grew up in New South Wales before moving to Victoria to attend Melbourne Grammar School, where his football abilities earned him a spot in the first XVIII in year ten. He played top-level football with the Sandringham Dragons in the TAC Cup and Vic Metro in the AFL Under-18 Championships. His accolades as a junior include national and state representation, the Larke Medal as the AFL Under-18 Championships most valuable player, and All-Australian selection.
As the eldest son of former Geelong champion Jack Hawkins, Hawkins was drafted by Geelong under the father–son draft rule with the forty-first selection in the 2006 national draft. He made his AFL debut in 2007, which saw former coach Denis Pagan compare him to the highest goal scorer in the history of the league and former full-forward, Tony Lockett, after his debut game. His debut season saw him earn an AFL Rising Star nomination and he was part of Geelong's Victorian Football League (VFL) premiership side. He has since become a three-time AFL premiership player, a Coleman Medalist, an All-Australian full forward, a Carji Greeves Medallist as the club best and fairest player, an eleven-time leading goalkicker for Geelong, and a recipient of the former AFL Army Award—awarded to a player who produces significant acts of bravery or selflessness during a season.
Early life
Hawkins was born in Finley, New South Wales to Jack, and Jenny Hawkins. He grew up in the New South Wales region of Finley as the second child among four children. He attended Finley High School and played for the Finley Football Club before making the move south of the border to begin boarding at Melbourne Grammar School. Hawkins' footballing ability was recognised early on when he was selected to play first XVIII football for the school while still in year ten, when many of his teammates were completing their final year of schooling at year twelve. Hawkins kicked four goals on debut for the school and his performances up forward soon received attention from AFL recruiting teams. By the time he had reached his final school year he was rewarded with joint captaincy of the football team alongside Hawthorn draftee Xavier Ellis. He was also selected in the Associated Public Schools (APS) team to play the Associated Grammar School (AGS) selected football team in the traditional annual clash of schools, where he won best on ground honours for his performance.
Having gained permission to join local under-18 club in 2006, the Sandringham Dragons for numerous games during the season, Hawkins impressed in his limited appearances within the elite TAC Cup competition, highlighted by a twenty-two disposal, nine mark, and five goal effort in just his third game. In the same year, he was awarded an AIS/AFL academy scholarship as part of the ninth intake. The scholarship, awarded to outstanding young athletes entering the last year of their junior football development, saw Hawkins participate in several training camps, capped off with representation for Australia in the under-18 International Rules Series, before completing his summer training with the Geelong Football Club.
In the mid-year of 2006, Hawkins was selected to play in the 2006 AFL Under-18 Championships, lining up at full forward for Vic Metro. A best on ground performance which yielded twelve marks and six goals in the opening match against South Australia began a wave of unprecedented hype and attention, with Hawkins drawing comparisons to former forward, Jonathan Brown and leading Vic Metro coach David Dickson to declare the young forward as "the best footballer I've seen...since Chris Judd". Hawkins was awarded the Larke Medal as the most valuable player within division one and named as the tournament's All-Australian full-forward, just falling short of the all-time contested marking record held by Justin Koschitzke.
AFL career
2007–2011: early career
Hawkins was officially selected by Geelong in the 2006 national draft under the father–son rule. While many pundits lauded him as the best key position prospect within the draft, and felt Hawkins' junior performances warranted possible selection with the top overall pick, the father-son rules at the time only required Geelong to use a middle-tier third round pick to draft him. The subsequent controversy over what was widely acknowledged as a bargain gain for the Cats led to the AFL amending the father-son ruling for future use. With a reputation as one of the finest young tall forwards in the land, Hawkins was immediately billed as the successor to the legendary Gary Ablett, whose retirement ten years earlier had left a gaping hole in Geelong's forward line. A stress reaction injury to his right leg, however, halted Hawkins' pre-season, forcing his much-awaited debut in Geelong colours to take place in the Victorian Football League (VFL) side.
Hawkins made his highly anticipated debut for the Geelong seniors in round two of the 2007 season against . Opposed to Carlton captain Lance Whitnall, Hawkins impressed with three goals and several strong marks in Geelong's seventy-eight point victory, prompting then-Carlton coach, Denis Pagan to label him the next Tony Lockett. Other revered media figures, such as Gerard Healy and David Parkin, were moved enough to describe the debut as the best first-up performance in recent memory. Uncommonly for AFL debutants, he followed up with an even more impressive performance in his second game, kicking four first-half goals to help set up a victory against at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), earning the AFL Rising Star nomination for round three in the process. Question marks, however, were raised over his fitness and ability to run out entire games, and after nine games in his debut season, which saw him kick twelve goals, Hawkins saw out the rest of the year with the clubs' VFL side. There, Hawkins helped Geelong reach the VFL Grand Final for the second successive year, booting three goals as the Cats defeated the Coburg Tigers to claim their first VFL premiership since 2002.
Despite inconsistencies in Hawkin's form, he played twenty-four matches for the 2009 season, including the grand final, where he played alongside other father-son selections, Gary Ablett, Matthew Scarlett and Mark Blake. He scored two goals in the game to help Geelong defeat by twelve points, winning the 2009 AFL premiership. One of his goals was notably controversial, as it was later ruled it had hit the goal post, which should have been registered as a behind; this was one of the reasons behind the introduction of the goal review system implemented by the AFL during the 2012 season.
A mid-year footy injury saw Hawkins miss seven weeks of football in 2010, and he finished the season with eighteen matches and twenty-one goals. He did, however, play in Geelong's final series; a narrow loss to St Kilda in the qualifying final hampered Geelong's chances of retaining the premiership and a forty-one point loss to eventual premiers, , in the preliminary final ended Geelong and Hawkins' season.
Hawkins faced scrutiny during the 2011 season for his inconsistent form, which saw him dropped from the senior side in the middle of the season. He was highly praised during Geelong's finals series in which Herald Sun journalist, Scott Gullan labelled the qualifying win against the best match of Hawkins' career at the time. He bettered that performance two weeks later in the 2011 AFL Grand Final, where he finished the day with nineteen disposals, nine marks and three goals to win his second premiership medallion. An injury to fellow forward James Podsiadly in the second quarter meant Hawkins was the main target in the forward line where he kicked three goals in the third quarter and he was labelled as the unlikely hero by Fox Sports Australia journalist Mike Hedge. His performance saw him awarded five votes for the Norm Smith Medal, coming third behind Jimmy Bartel with thirteen votes and Joel Selwood with nine votes. It was later revealed in a book—Greatness, Inside Geelong's Path to Premiership History—that he was nearly dropped for the final series for retiring forward Cameron Mooney.
2012–present: Geelong leading goalkicker
In 2012, Hawkins had a breakout year, kicking sixty-two goals to finish equal second in the Coleman Medal. In the Round 19 match against Hawthorn, he kicked six goals, including a goal after the siren, to deliver Geelong a two-point victory. The win was Geelong's ninth consecutive victory over the Hawks since losing to them in the 2008 AFL Grand Final. After every season he participated in finished in at least making the preliminary final, Geelong exited the final series in the first week after the sixteen point loss to at the MCG. His emergence was rewarded with selection in the 2012 All-Australian team, the Carji Greeves Medal as the club best and fairest player, and he was Geelong's leading goalkicker.
After Hawkins' emergence in 2012, a bulging disc in his back impacted his abilities during the 2013 season; struggling with form throughout the season, he received bronx cheers from Geelong supporters in the round 20 match against at Simonds Stadium after he managed only six disposals and a goal. The persistent back injury forced him to miss the start of the finals series by missing the qualifying final match against Fremantle at Simonds Stadium. He played in the next two finals matches, including the five point loss against Hawthorn in the preliminary final which ended Geelong's season. Despite the back injury, he managed to play twenty-two matches for the season kicking forty-nine goals and he was Geelong's leading goalkicker for the second consecutive year.
Described as returning to being a "genuine match winner" during the 2014 season by teammate Tom Lonergan, Hawkins overcame his back injury to replicate his form from the 2012 season. He kicked sixty-eight goals for the season including a career-high seven goals against the in round 23. He had strong performances against Hawthorn, kicking five goals and , kicking four goals in rounds five and ten respectively; his performance against Hawthorn earned him the maximum three Brownlow votes making him the best player on the ground adjudged by the field umpires. During the qualifying final match against , he was scrutinised for a jumper punch against Ben Stratton, which was pondered whether Hawkins would face a suspension; he was ultimately cleared of the incident, which allowed him to play in the semi-final loss against North Melbourne. His season was rewarded with selection in the initial forty man All-Australian squad, although he missed out on the final team. In addition, he finished second in the best and fairest count behind Joel Selwood, he finished second in the Coleman Medal and he was Geelong's leading goalkicker for the third consecutive season.
Personal tragedy hit Hawkins early in the 2015 season when his mother, Jenny, died in April. He subsequently missed the round three match against before returning the next week against North Melbourne in which he paid tribute to his mother after his only goal in the match; in addition, the game saw him reach his 150-game milestone. He missed only one match for the remainder of the season, the Round 7 match against . Since joining Geelong, it was the first season the club missed the finals series, and he ultimately played nineteen games for the season and kicked forty-six goals, making him Geelong's leading goalkicker for the fourth consecutive season. Entering the season, he remained unsigned, meaning he would become a free agent if he remained out of contract at the end of the season. He ultimately ignored the lure of free agency, and he signed a five-year contract in July, tying him to the club until the end of the 2020 season.
The first half of the 2016 season saw Hawkins play inconsistently due to his form wavering, with Geelong coach, Chris Scott noting Hawkins' "impact isn't what he'd like it to be and hasn't been for some time"; despite his inconsistency, Scott reassured fans that he believed Hawkins' best was still ahead of him. It was revealed at the end of the season, that he had played with a small tear in his meniscus, which resulted in post-season surgery. He missed one match for the season after he was suspended for striking captain, Phil Davis, in Rround 11. The decision by the match review panel was criticised by the Herald Sun chief of football writer, Mark Robinson, where he labelled the decision "a joke", and the backlash forced match review panel member Nathan Burke to publicly defend the decision. Geelong returned to the final series in 2016, making it to the preliminary final and losing to Sydney by thirty-seven points at the MCG. He finished with twenty-three matches for the season, kicking fifty-five goals, and he was Geelong's leading goalkicker for the fifth consecutive season.
Hawkins won the Coleman Medal in 2020. He still holds the Cats leading goalkicker honour after the 2022 season. This season also marked his third premiership.
Hawkins kicked a career-high eight goals against Essendon in Round 7, 2023.
Statistics
Updated to the end of the 2022 season.
|-
| 2007 || || 26
| 9 || 12 || 10 || 52 || 25 || 77 || 33 || 9 || 1.3 || 1.1 || 5.8 || 2.8 || 8.6 || 3.7 || 1.0 || 0
|-
| 2008 || || 26
| 10 || 13 || 5 || 71 || 48 || 119 || 51 || 15 || 1.3 || 0.5 || 7.1 || 4.8 || 11.9 || 5.1 || 1.5 || 2
|-
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2009# || || 26
| 24 || 34 || 17 || 148 || 130 || 278 || 131 || 56 || 1.4 || 0.7 || 6.2 || 5.4 || 11.6 || 5.5 || 2.3 || 0
|-
| 2010 || || 26
| 18 || 21 || 13 || 95 || 131 || 226 || 102 || 47 || 1.2 || 0.7 || 5.3 || 7.3 || 12.6 || 5.7 || 2.6 || 0
|-
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2011# || || 26
| 18 || 27 || 17 || 125 || 98 || 223 || 88 || 38 || 1.5 || 0.9 || 6.9 || 5.4 || 12.4 || 4.9 || 2.1 || 0
|-
| 2012 || || 26
| 22 || 62 || 38 || 198 || 80 || 278 || 144 || 25 || 2.8 || 1.7 || 9.0 || 3.6 || 12.6 || 6.5 || 1.1 || 10
|-
| 2013 || || 26
| 23 || 49 || 20 || 141 || 74 || 215 || 93 || 22 || 2.2 || 0.4 || 6.4 || 3.4 || 9.8 || 4.2 || 1.0 || 0
|-
| 2014 || || 26
| 24 || 68 || 40 || 222 || 75 || 297 || 161 || 32 || 2.8 || 1.7 || 9.3 || 3.1 || 12.4 || 6.7 || 1.3 || 7
|-
| 2015 || || 26
| 19 || 46 || 20 || 145 || 51 || 196 || 93 || 31 || 2.4 || 1.1 || 7.6 || 2.7 || 10.3 || 4.9 || 1.6 || 3
|-
| 2016 || || 26
| 23 || 55 || 31 || 198 || 90 || 288 || 126 || 39 || 2.4 || 1.3 || 8.6 || 3.9 || 12.5 || 5.5 || 1.7 || 2
|-
| 2017 || || 26
| 22 || 51 || 26 || 199 || 100 || 299 || 116 || 61 || 2.3 || 1.2 || 9.0 || 4.5 || 13.6 || 5.3 || 2.8 || 3
|-
| 2018 || || 26
| 21 || 60 || 29 || 212 || 113 || 325 || 153 || 40 || 2.9 || 1.4 || 10.1 || 5.4 || 15.5 || 7.3 || 1.9 || 9
|-
| 2019 || || 26
| 24 || 56 || 32 || 203 || 106 || 309 || 126 || 37 || 2.3 || 1.3 || 8.5 || 4.4 || 12.9 || 5.3 || 1.5 || 5
|-
| 2020 || || 26
| 21 || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 49† || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 36† || 172 || 87 || 259 || 114 || 40 || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 2.3† || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 1.7† || 8.2 || 4.1 || 12.3 || 5.4 || 1.9 || 11
|-
| 2021 || || 26
| 25 || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 62†|| 37 || 215 || 127 || 342 || 129 || 50 || 2.5 || 1.5 || 8.6 || 5.1 || 13.7 || 5.2 || 2.0 || 6
|-
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2022# || || 26
| 25 || style="background:#CAE1FF; width:1em" | 67†|| bgcolor=CAE1FF | 43† || 221 || 107 || 328 || 142 || 39 || 2.7 || 1.7 || 8.8 || 4.3 || 13.1 || 5.7 || 1.6 || 8
|- class=sortbottom
! colspan=3 | Career
! 327 !! 732 !! 414 !! 2617 !! 1442 !! 4059 !! 1802 !! 615 !! 2.2 !! 1.3 !! 8.0 !! 4.4 !! 12.4 !! 5.5 !! 1.9 !! 66
|}
Notes
Honours and achievements
Team
3× AFL premiership player (): 2009, 2011, 2022
4× McClelland Trophy (): 2007, 2008, 2019, 2022
Individual
5× All-Australian team: 2012, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022(C)
Coleman Medal: 2020
11× Geelong leading goalkicker: 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
AFLPA best first year player: 2012
AFLCA best young player of the year: 2013
2× 22under22 team: 2013, 2015
Geelong F.C. Community Champion Award: 2019
Geelong F.C. Tom Harley Award for Best Clubman: 2021
AFL Rising Star nominee: 2007
Personal life
As well as his father, Hawkins' uncles Michael Hawkins and Robb Hawkins—and his maternal grandfather, Fred Le Deux—all played football for Geelong.
Hawkins' nickname 'Tomahawk' is a play on his first name and surname, with references to a tomahawk axe or tomahawk missile, and has proven a popular calling card within the league.
References
External links
1988 births
People educated at Melbourne Grammar School
Living people
Sandringham Dragons players
Geelong Football Club players
Geelong Football Club premiership players
Australian rules footballers from New South Wales
All-Australians (AFL)
Carji Greeves Medal winners
Coleman Medal winners
VFL/AFL premiership players
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5389390
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic%20networking
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Autonomic networking
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Autonomic Networking follows the concept of Autonomic Computing, an initiative started by IBM in 2001. Its ultimate aim is to create self-managing networks to overcome the rapidly growing complexity of the Internet and other networks and to enable their further growth, far beyond the size of today.
Increasing size and complexity
The ever-growing management complexity of the Internet caused by its rapid growth is seen by some experts as a major problem that limits its usability in the future.
What's more, increasingly popular smartphones, PDAs, networked audio and video equipment, and game consoles need to be interconnected. Pervasive Computing not only adds features, but also burdens existing networking infrastructure with more and more tasks that sooner or later will not be manageable by human intervention alone.
Another important aspect is the price of manually controlling huge numbers of vitally important devices of current network infrastructures.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous system of the higher life forms that is not consciously controlled. It regulates bodily functions and the activity of specific organs. As proposed by IBM, future communication systems might be designed in a similar way to the ANS.
Components of autonomic networking
As autonomics conceptually derives from biological entities such as the human autonomic nervous system, each of the areas can be metaphorically related to functional and structural aspects of a living being. In the human body, the autonomic system facilitates and regulates a variety of functions including respiration, blood pressure and circulation, and emotive response. The autonomic nervous system is the interconnecting fabric that supports feedback loops between internal states and various sources by which internal and external conditions are monitored.
Autognostics
Autognostics includes a range of self-discovery, awareness, and analysis capabilities that provide the autonomic system with a view on high-level state. In metaphor, this represents the perceptual sub-systems that gather, analyze, and report on internal and external states and conditions – for example, this might be viewed as the eyes, visual cortex and perceptual organs of the system. Autognostics, or literally "self-knowledge", provides the autonomic system with a basis for response and validation.
A rich autognostic capability may include many different "perceptual senses". For example, the human body gathers information via the usual five senses, the so-called sixth sense of proprioception (sense of body position and orientation), and through emotive states that represent the gross wellness of the body. As conditions and states change, they are detected by the sensory monitors and provide the basis for adaptation of related systems. Implicit in such a system are imbedded models of both internal and external environments such that relative value can be assigned to any perceived state - perceived physical threat (e.g. a snake) can result in rapid shallow breathing related to fight-flight response, a phylogenetically effective model of interaction with recognizable threats.
In the case of autonomic networking, the state of the network may be defined by inputs from:
individual network elements such as switches and network interfaces including
specification and configuration
historical records and current state
traffic flows
end-hosts
application performance data
logical diagrams and design specifications
Most of these sources represent relatively raw and unprocessed views that have limited relevance. Post-processing and various forms of analysis must be applied to generate meaningful measurements and assessments against which current state can be derived.
The autognostic system interoperates with:
configuration management - to control network elements and interfaces
policy management - to define performance objectives and constraints
autodefense - to identify attacks and accommodate the impact of defensive responses
Configuration management
Configuration management is responsible for the interaction with network elements and interfaces. It includes an accounting capability with historical perspective that provides for the tracking of configurations over time, with respect to various circumstances. In the biological metaphor, these are the hands and, to some degree, the memory of the autonomic system.
On a network, remediation and provisioning are applied via configuration setting of specific devices. Implementation affecting access and selective performance with respect to role and relationship are also applied. Almost all the "actions" that are currently taken by human engineers fall under this area. With only a few exceptions, interfaces are set by hand, or by extension of the hand, through automated scripts.
Implicit in the configuration process is the maintenance of a dynamic population of devices under management, a historical record of changes and the directives which invoked change. Typical to many accounting functions, configuration management should be capable of operating on devices and then rolling back changes to recover previous configurations. Where change may lead to unrecoverable states, the sub-system should be able to qualify the consequences of changes prior to issuing them.
As directives for change must originate from other sub-systems, the shared language for such directives must be abstracted from the details of the devices involved. The configuration management sub-system must be able to translate unambiguously between directives and hard actions or to be able to signal the need for further detail on a directive. An inferential capacity may be appropriate to support sufficient flexibility (i.e. configuration never takes place because there is no unique one-to-one mapping between directive and configuration settings). Where standards are not sufficient, a learning capacity may also be required to acquire new knowledge of devices and their configuration.
Configuration management interoperates with all of the other sub-systems including:
autognostics - receives direction for and validation of changes
policy management - implements policy models through mapping to underlying resources
security - applies access and authorization constraints for particular policy targets
autodefense - receives direction for changes
Policy management
Policy management includes policy specification, deployment, reasoning over policies, updating and maintaining policies, and enforcement. Policy-based management is required for:
constraining different kinds of behavior including security, privacy, resource access, and collaboration
configuration management
describing business processes and defining performance
defining role and relationship, and establishing trust and reputation
It provides the models of environment and behavior that represent effective interaction according to specific goals. In the human nervous system metaphor, these models are implicit in the evolutionary "design" of biological entities and specific to the goals of survival and procreation. Definition of what constitutes a policy is necessary to consider what is involved in managing it. A relatively flexible and abstract framework of values, relationships, roles, interactions, resources, and other components of the network environment is required. This sub-system extends far beyond the physical network to the applications in use and the processes and end-users that employ the network to achieve specific goals. It must express the relative values of various resources, outcomes, and processes and include a basis for assessing states and conditions.
Unless embodied in some system outside the autonomic network or implicit to the specific policy implementation, the framework must also accommodate the definition of process, objectives and goals. Business process definitions and descriptions are then an integral part of the policy implementation. Further, as policy management represents the ultimate basis for the operation of the autonomic system, it must be able to report on its operation with respect to the details of its implementation.
The policy management sub-system interoperates (at least) indirectly with all other sub-systems but primarily interacts with:
autognostics - providing the definition of performance and accepting reports on conditions
configuration management - providing constraints on device configuration
security - providing definitions of roles, access and permissions
Autodefense
Autodefense represents a dynamic and adaptive mechanism that responds to malicious and intentional attacks on the network infrastructure, or use of the network infrastructure to attack IT resources. As defensive measures tend to impede the operation of IT, it is optimally capable of balancing performance objectives with typically over-riding threat management actions. In the biological metaphor, this sub-system offers mechanisms comparable to the immune system.
This sub-system must proactively assess network and application infrastructure for risks, detect and identify threats, and define effective both proactive and reactive defensive responses. It has the role of the warrior and the security guard insofar as it has roles for both maintenance and corrective activities. Its relationship with security is close but not identical – security is more concerned with appropriately defined and implemented access and authorization controls to maintain legitimate roles and process. Autodefense deals with forces and processes, typically malicious, outside the normal operation of the system that offer some risk to successful execution.
Autodefense requires high-level and detailed knowledge of the entire network as well as imbedded models of risk that allow it to analyze dynamically the current status. Corrections to decrease risk must be considered in balance with performance objectives and value of process goals – an overzealous defensive response can immobilize the system (like the immune system inappropriately invoking an allergic reaction). The detection of network or application behaviors that signal possible attack or abuse is followed by the generation of an appropriate response – for example, ports might be temporarily closed or packets with a specific source or destination might be filtered out. Further assessment generates subsequent changes either relaxing the defensive measures or strengthening them.
Autodefense interoperates closely with:
security - receives definition of roles and security constraints, and defines risk for proactive mitigation
configuration management - receives details of network for analysis and directs changes in elements in response to anticipated or detected attack
autognostics - receives notification of detected behaviors
It also may receive definition of relative value of various resources and processes from policy management in order to develop responses consistent with policy.
Security
Security provides the structure that defines and enforces the relationships between roles, content, and resources, particularly with respect to access. It includes the framework for definitions as well as the means to implement them. In metaphor, security parallels the complex mechanisms underlying social interactions, defining friends, foes, mates and allies and offering access to limited resources on the basis of assessed benefit.
Several key means are employed by security – they include the well-known 3 As of authentication, authorization, and access (control). The basis for applying these means requires the definition of roles and their relationships to resources, processes and each other. High-level concepts like privacy, anonymity and verification are likely imbedded in the form of the role definitions and derive from policy. Successful security reliably supports and enforces roles and relationships.
Autodefense has a close association with security – maintaining the assigned roles in balance with performance exposes the system to potential violations in security. In those cases, the system must compensate by making changes that may sacrifice balance on a temporary basis and indeed may violate the operational terms of security itself. Typically the two are viewed as inextricably intertwined – effective security somewhat hopefully negating any need for a defensive response. Security’s revised role is to mediate between the competing demands from policy for maximized performance and minimized risk with auto defense recovering the balance when inevitable risk translates to threat. Federation represents one of the key challenges to be solved by effective security.
The security sub-system interoperates directly with:
policy management - receiving high-level directives related to access and priority
configuration management - sending specifics for access and admission control
autodefense - receiving over-riding directives under threat and sending security constraint details for risk assessment
Connection fabric
The connection fabric supports the interaction with all the elements and sub-systems of the autonomic system. It may be composed of a variety of means and mechanisms, or may be a single central framework. The biological equivalent is the central nervous system itself – although referred to as the autonomic system, it actually is only the communication conduit between the human body’s faculties.
Principles of autonomic networking
Consequently, it is currently under research by many research projects, how principles and paradigms of mother nature might be applied to networking.
Compartmentalization
Instead of a layering approach, autonomic networking targets a more flexible structure termed compartmentalization.
Function re-composition
The goal is to produce an architectural design that enables flexible, dynamic, and fully autonomic formation of large-scale networks in which the functionalities of each constituent network node are also composed in an autonomic fashion
Atomization
Functions should be divided into atomic units to allow for maximal re-composition freedom.
Closed control loop
A fundamental concept of Control theory, the closed control loop, is among the fundamental principles of autonomic networking. A closed control loop maintains the properties of the controlled system within desired bounds by constantly monitoring target parameters.
See also
Autonomic Computing
Autonomic system (computing)
Cognitive networks
Network Compartment
The Autonomic Network Architecture (ANA) Project
Collaborative innovation network
In-Network Management
Generic Autonomic Networking Architecture (GANA) EFIPSANS Project http://www.efipsans.org/
External links
IBM Autonomic Computing Website
Intel White Paper: Towards an Autonomic Framework
Ipanema Technologies: Autonomic Networking applied to application performance optimization
Research projects
ANA Project: Autonomic Network Architecture
ANAPORT is an open bibliography reference developed within the ANA project
Beyond-The-Horizon: Coordination Action by the European Commission
Bionets: Biologically-inspired concepts for networking
BiSNET: Biologically-inspired architecture for Sensor NETworks
BiSNET/e: A Cognitive Sensor Networking Architecture with Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization
Component-ware for Autonomic Situation-aware Communications, and Dynamically Adaptable Services
Diet Agents: Indefinitely scalable hosting for systems of autonomic interacting processes
EFIPSANS Project: Exposing the Features in IP version Six protocols that can be exploited/extended for the purposes of designing/building autonomic Networks and Services
Haggle: An innovative Paradigm for Autonomic Opportunistic Communication
SOCRATES: Self-Optimization and Self-Configuration in Wireless Networks
Dynamically Self Configuring Automotive System
Self-NET: Self-Management of Cognitive Future InterNET Elements
AutHoNe: Autonomic Home Networking
SymbioticSphere: A Biologically-inspired Architecture for Scalable, Adaptive and Survivable Network Systems
TRANS: TRANS demonstrate a tightly integrated network and service overlay architecture with advanced traffic-aware and self-organisation functionality
UniverSELF project: Realising autonomics for Future Networks
Blogs and Wikis
Autonomic Networking Wiki: A wiki dedicated to Autonomic Networking
Autonomic networking at the core of enterprise Wan governance blog
Artificial intelligence
Information technology governance
Wide area networks
WAN optimization
Network performance
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5389424
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino
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Arduino
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Arduino () is an Italian open-source hardware and software company, project, and user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices. Its hardware products are licensed under a CC BY-SA license, while the software is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public License (GPL), permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially from the official website or through authorized distributors.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards ('shields') or breadboards (for prototyping) and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs. The microcontrollers can be programmed using the C and C++ programming languages(Embedded C), using a standard API which is also known as the Arduino Programming Language, inspired by the Processing language and used with a modified version of the Processing IDE. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) and a command line tool developed in Go.
The Arduino project began in 2005 as a tool for students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, and motion detectors.
The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the project's founders used to meet. The bar was named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was the margrave of the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.
History
Founding
The Arduino project was started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller at a cost of $50. In 2003 Hernando Barragán created the development platform Wiring as a Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey Reas. Casey Reas is known for co-creating, with Ben Fry, the Processing development platform. The project goal was to create simple, low cost tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers. The Wiring platform consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega128 microcontroller, an IDE based on Processing and library functions to easily program the microcontroller.
In 2005, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, and David Cuartielles, extended Wiring by adding support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller. The new project, forked from Wiring, was called Arduino.
The initial Arduino core team consisted of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis.
Following the completion of the platform, lighter and less expensive versions were distributed in the open-source community. It was estimated in mid-2011 that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially produced, and in 2013 that 700,000 official boards were in users' hands.
Trademark dispute
In early 2008, the five co-founders of the Arduino project created a company, Arduino LLC, to hold the trademarks associated with Arduino. The manufacture and sale of the boards were to be done by external companies, and Arduino LLC would get a royalty from them. The founding bylaws of Arduino LLC specified that each of the five founders transfer ownership of the Arduino brand to the newly formed company.
At the end of 2008, Gianluca Martino's company, Smart Projects, registered the Arduino trademark in Italy and kept this a secret from the other co-founders for about two years. This was revealed when the Arduino company tried to register the trademark in other areas of the world (they originally registered only in the US), and discovered that it was already registered in Italy. Negotiations with Martino and his firm to bring the trademark under the control of the original Arduino company failed. In 2014, Smart Projects began refusing to pay royalties. They then appointed a new CEO, Federico Musto, who renamed the company Arduino SRL and created the website arduino.org, copying the graphics and layout of the original arduino.cc. This resulted in a rift in the Arduino development team.
In January 2015, Arduino LLC filed a lawsuit against Arduino SRL.
In May 2015, Arduino LLC created the worldwide trademark Genuino, used as brand name outside the United States.
At the World Maker Faire in New York on 1 October 2016, Arduino LLC co-founder and CEO Massimo Banzi and Arduino SRL CEO Federico Musto announced the merger of the two companies. Around that same time, Massimo Banzi announced that in addition to the company a new Arduino Foundation would be launched as "a new beginning for Arduino", but this decision was withdrawn later.
In April 2017, Wired reported that Musto had "fabricated his academic record... On his company's website, personal LinkedIn accounts, and even on Italian business documents, Musto was, until recently, listed as holding a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In some cases, his biography also claimed an MBA from New York University." Wired reported that neither university had any record of Musto's attendance, and Musto later admitted in an interview with Wired that he had never earned those degrees. The controversy surrounding Musto continued when, in July 2017, he reportedly pulled many open source licenses, schematics, and code from the Arduino website, prompting scrutiny and outcry.
By 2017 Arduino AG owned many Arduino trademarks. In July 2017 BCMI, founded by Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, David Mellis and Tom Igoe, acquired Arduino AG and all the Arduino trademarks. Fabio Violante is the new CEO replacing Federico Musto, who no longer works for Arduino AG.
Post-dispute
In October 2017, Arduino announced its partnership with ARM Holdings (ARM). The announcement said, in part, "ARM recognized independence as a core value of Arduino ... without any lock-in with the ARM architecture". Arduino intends to continue to work with all technology vendors and architectures. Under Violante's guidance, the company started growing again and releasing new designs. The Genuino trademark was dismissed and all products were branded again with the Arduino name.
In August 2018, Arduino announced its new open source command line tool (arduino-cli), which can be used as a replacement of the IDE to program the boards from a shell.
In February 2019, Arduino announced its IoT Cloud service as an extension of the Create online environment.
As of February 2020, the Arduino community included about 30 million active users based on the IDE downloads.
Hardware
Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available.
Although the hardware and software designs are freely available under copyleft licenses, the developers have requested the name Arduino to be exclusive to the official product and not be used for derived works without permission. The official policy document on the use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to incorporating work by others into the official product. Several Arduino-compatible products commercially released have avoided the project name by using various names ending in -duino.
Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8, ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, or ATmega2560) with varying amounts of flash memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row pins or female headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I2C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.
Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies the uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the Arduino Uno is the Optiboot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via a serial connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and transistor–transistor logic (TTL serial) level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the FTDI chip with a separate AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which is reprogrammable via its own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods. When used with traditional microcontroller tools, instead of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR in-system programming (ISP) programming is used.
The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs, which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of the board, via female 0.1-inch (2.54 mm) headers. Several plug-in application shields are also commercially available. The Arduino Nano and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards may provide male header pins on the underside of the board that can plug into solderless breadboards.
Many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards exist. Some are functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably. Many enhance the basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in school-level education, to simplify making buggies and small robots. Others are electrically equivalent, but change the form factor, sometimes retaining compatibility with shields, sometimes not. Some variants use different processors, of varying compatibility.
Official boards
The original Arduino hardware was manufactured by the Italian company Smart Projects. Some Arduino-branded boards have been designed by the American companies SparkFun Electronics and Adafruit Industries. , 17 versions of the Arduino hardware have been commercially produced.
Shields
Arduino and Arduino-compatible boards use printed circuit expansion boards called shields, which plug into the normally supplied Arduino pin headers. Shields can provide motor controls for 3D printing and other applications, GNSS (satellite navigation), Ethernet, liquid crystal display (LCD), or breadboarding (prototyping). Several shields can also be made do it yourself (DIY).
Software
A program for Arduino hardware may be written in any programming language with compilers that produce binary machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a development environment for their 8-bit AVR and 32-bit ARM Cortex-M based microcontrollers: AVR Studio (older) and Atmel Studio (newer).
Legacy IDE
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform application (for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux) that is written in the Java programming language. It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It includes a code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching and replacing text, automatic indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and provides simple one-click mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino board. It also contains a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and a hierarchy of operation menus. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public License, version 2.
The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project, which provides many common input and output procedures. User-written code only requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain, also included with the IDE distribution. The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert the executable code into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.
From version 1.8.12, Arduino IDE windows compiler supports only Windows 7 or newer OS. On Windows Vista or older one gets "Unrecognized Win32 application" error when trying to verify/upload program. To run IDE on older machines, users can either use version 1.8.11, or copy "arduino-builder" executable from version 11 to their current install folder as it's independent from IDE.
IDE 2.0
An initial alpha preview of a new Arduino IDE was released on October 18, 2019, as the Arduino Pro IDE. The beta preview was released on March 1, 2021, renamed IDE 2.0. On September 14, 2022, the Arduino IDE 2.0 was officially released as stable.
The system still uses Arduino CLI (Command Line Interface), but improvements include a more professional development environment, autocompletion support, and Git integration. The application frontend is based on the Eclipse Theia Open Source IDE. Its main new features are:
Modern, fully featured development environment
Dual Mode, Classic Mode (identical to the Classic Arduino IDE) and Pro Mode (File System view)
New Board Manager
New Library Manager
Board List
Basic Auto-Completion (Arm targets only)
Git Integration
Serial Monitor
Dark Mode
Sketch
A sketch is a program written with the Arduino IDE. Sketches are saved on the development computer as text files with the file extension .ino. Arduino Software (IDE) pre-1.0 saved sketches with the extension .pde.
A minimal Arduino C/C++ program consists of only two functions:
: This function is called once when a sketch starts after power-up or reset. It is used to initialize variables, input and output pin modes, and other libraries needed in the sketch. It is analogous to the function .
: After function exits (ends), the function is executed repeatedly in the main program. It controls the board until the board is powered off or is reset. It is analogous to the function .
Blink example
Most Arduino boards contain a light-emitting diode (LED) and a current-limiting resistor connected between pin 13 and ground, which is a convenient feature for many tests and program functions. A typical program used by beginners, akin to Hello, World!, is "blink", which repeatedly blinks the on-board LED integrated into the Arduino board. This program uses the functions , , and , which are provided by the internal libraries included in the IDE environment. This program is usually loaded into a new Arduino board by the manufacturer.
const int LED_PIN = 13; // Pin number attached to LED.
void setup() {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // Configure pin 13 to be a digital output.
}
void loop() {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); // Turn on the LED.
delay(1000); // Wait 1 second (1000 milliseconds).
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); // Turn off the LED.
delay(1000); // Wait 1 second.
}
Libraries
The open-source nature of the Arduino project has facilitated the publication of many free software libraries that other developers use to augment their projects.
Operating systems/threading
There is a Xinu OS port for the atmega328p (Arduino Uno and others with the same chip), which includes most of the basic features. The source code of this version is freely available.
There is also a threading tool, named Protothreads. Protothreads are described as "extremely lightweight stackless threads designed for severely memory constrained systems, such as small embedded systems or wireless sensor network nodes.
There is a port of FreeRTOS for the Arduino. This is available from the IDE version 1.x Library Manager. It is compatible with a number of boards, including the Uno.
Applications
Arduboy, a handheld game console based on Arduino
Arduinome, a MIDI controller device that mimics the Monome
Ardupilot, drone software and hardware
ArduSat, a cubesat based on Arduino
C-STEM Studio, a platform for hands-on integrated learning of computing, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (C-STEM) with robotics
Data loggers for scientific research
OBDuino, a trip computer that uses the on-board diagnostics interface found in most modern cars
OpenEVSE an open-source electric vehicle charger
XOD, a visual programming language for Arduino
Simulation
Tinkercad, an analog and digital simulator supporting Arduino Simulation, which is most commonly used to create 3D models
Wokwi, a digital and free to use simulator for Arduino boards
Recognitions
The Arduino project received an honorary mention in the Digital Communities category at the 2006 Prix Ars Electronica.
The Arduino Engineering Kit won the Bett Award for "Higher Education or Further Education Digital Services" in 2020.
See also
List of Arduino boards and compatible systems
List of open-source hardware projects
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
External links
How Arduino is open sourcing imagination, a TED talk by creator Massimo Banzi
Evolution tree for Arduino
Arduino Cheat Sheet
Arduino Dimensions and Hole Patterns
Arduino Shield Template
Arduino Board Pinout Diagrams: Due, Esplora, Leonardo, Mega, Micro, Mini, Pro Micro, Pro Mini, Uno, Yun
Historical
Arduino – The Documentary (2010): IMDb, Vimeo
Massimo Banzi interviews: Triangulation 110, FLOSS 61
Untold History of Arduino – Hernando Barragán
Lawsuit documents from Arduino LLC vs. Arduino S.R.L. et al. – United States Courts Archive
Microcontrollers
Open hardware electronic devices
Robotics hardware
Computer-related introductions in 2005
Physical computing
Italian inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson%20Silva
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Anderson Silva
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Anderson Silva (; born 14 April 1975) is a Brazilian mixed martial artist and boxer. He is a former UFC Middleweight Champion and holds the record for the longest title reign in UFC history at 2,457 days. This started in 2006 and ended in 2013 and included a UFC record 16 consecutive victories in that span. Silva left the UFC in November 2020 and returned to boxing.
UFC president Dana White, UFC commentator Joe Rogan and numerous mixed martial arts (MMA) pundits have named Silva as one of the greatest mixed martial artists of all time. Silva was inducted into the UFC Hall of Fame in July 2023.
Background
Silva was born on 14 April 1975, in São Paulo, Brazil. The son of a poverty-stricken family, he spent the majority of his childhood in Curitiba with his aunt and uncle, who was an officer with the Curitiba police force. Silva's first foray in martial arts began as a child training jiu-jitsu with neighborhood kids. As a teen, Silva began training in taekwondo, capoeira and muay thai.
Mixed martial arts career
Early career (19972002)
Silva initially fought in Brazil in the welterweight category. Silva made his professional debut in 1997 with a pair of wins. Silva recorded his first loss in 2000 to Luiz Azeredo by decision. After that fight, he went on a nine-fight winning streak, winning six of those fights by either submission or TKO. After winning his first match in Japan, he was put up against Shooto champion Hayato Sakurai on 26 August 2001. Silva beat Sakurai by unanimous decision after three rounds and became the new Shooto Middleweight Champion (at 167 lb) and the first man to defeat Sakurai, who was undefeated in his first 20 fights.
Pride Fighting Championships and Cage Rage (20022006)
In 2002, Silva was scheduled to fight then-current UFC Welterweight Champion, and future UFC Hall of Famer Matt Hughes at UFC 36. However, Silva instead signed a contract and began fighting for PRIDE Fighting Championships. In his first fight with the promotion, he stopped Alex Stiebling with a cut resulting from a high kick. In his next match, he won via decision against the "Diet Butcher" Alexander Otsuka. At Pride 25, Silva faced former UFC welterweight champion Carlos Newton. Newton tried to shoot in on Silva, but was hit with a flying knee. Newton collapsed and Silva finished the fight with strikes, winning by technical knockout.
At Pride 26, Silva faced Daiju Takase. Takase, with a record of four wins and seven losses, was the underdog. However Silva was dominated on the ground for almost the entire fight before being submitted by Takase when caught in a triangle choke late in the first round. After his loss to Takase, Silva became demotivated and thought about quitting MMA, but was convinced to keep on fighting by Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira. Silva then left Chute Boxe, joined Nogueira in Brazilian Top Team and started to fight in other promotions around the world. On 27 June 2004, Silva fought Jeremy Horn and earned a decision victory.
Three months later, Silva made his debut in the Cage Rage promotion in England. At Cage Rage 8 Silva fought and defeated noted striker Lee Murray by decision. That year, Silva returned to Pride FC on 31 December to face Ryo Chonan. Silva was in control with a take down and body triangle in the first round. Chonan was able to counter Silva's knees from the clinch, with knees, and takedowns. Chonan was perceived by some to be winning up until the finish. During the third round, Bas Rutten, commentating alongside Mauro Ranallo, stated that he believed Anderson must obtain a knockout or strong finish or he would lose the fight. Despite being the underdog, Chonan ended the fight in the third round with a rare flying scissor heel hook, forcing Silva to submit. After the loss to Chonan he was cut by Pride, Silva continued fighting in the Cage Rage promotion, as well as other promotions around the world. Silva defended his Cage Rage title against Curtis Stout.
Although he was slated to fight Matt Lindland at Cage Rage 16, Lindland's decision to fight Mike Van Arsdale at Raze Fight Night put an end to the highly anticipated match up. Instead, Silva defended his championship against Tony Fryklund, winning the fight with a reverse elbow, knocking out Fryklund early in the first round.
Silva competed in Hawaii's Rumble on the Rock promotion, where he fought Yushin Okami in the first round of the 175 lb tournament. Though labeled as a favorite to win the tournament, Silva was eliminated from the tournament when he kicked Okami in the face from the guard position. Okami's knees were on the ground at the time, making the attack an illegal strike to the head of a downed opponent. Silva later said that the rule had not been properly explained to him before the bout. "When I fought Okami the rules really weren't explained to me properly in the event I was fighting in," said Silva. "You could kick a downed opponent to the groin or to the head when your back's on the ground. So the rules weren't explained to me properly." While Okami was given the opportunity to recover and continue fighting, Okami opted for the disqualification win. Silva responded by saying he "felt it was a cheap, cowardly way of winning," and that "people that were there saw that he was in the condition to come back and keep fighting, and he didn't."
Ultimate Fighting Championship (20062020)
Debut and middleweight championship
Although speculation ran rampant about where Silva would sign next, the UFC announced in late April 2006 that they had signed him to a multi-fight contract. It was not long before the UFC started promoting Silva, releasing an interview segment almost immediately after announcing his arrival.
Silva made his debut at Ultimate Fight Night 5 on 28 June 2006. His opponent was The Ultimate Fighter 1 contestant Chris Leben who had gone undefeated in the UFC with five consecutive victories. Leben, confident of victory, had predicted he would KO Silva in a pre-fight interview. A relatively unknown fighter in the United States, Silva made an emphatic debut when he knocked out Leben with a flurry of pinpoint strikes, followed by a final knee strike at 49 seconds into the first round. Silva's striking accuracy was 85%.
In response to the victory, the UFC tallied a poll on their main page, asking viewers to select Silva's next opponent. The majority of voters selected the UFC Middleweight Champion Rich Franklin. Silva fought Franklin at UFC 64 on 14 October 2006, and defeated him by TKO (strikes) at 2:59 in the first round. Silva hit Franklin with knees to the body from the Muay Thai-clinch, then badly broke Franklin's nose with a knee to the face. Unable to strike back, Franklin dodged the last of Silva's strikes before falling to the ground, where referee "Big" John McCarthy ended the fight. Silva was crowned the new UFC Middleweight Champion, becoming the second man to defeat Franklin, after Black House-teammate Lyoto Machida.
Record-setting championship reign
On 3 February 2007, at UFC 67, Silva was scheduled to fight The Ultimate Fighter 4 winner Travis Lutter in what would be his first title defense since defeating Rich Franklin in October 2006. However, Lutter failed to make the weight limit and the match was changed to a non-title bout. Many felt that Lutter's best chance to win was to take the fight to the ground, with Lutter being an accomplished jiu-jitsu blackbelt. Silva won via submission with a combination of a triangle choke and elbow strikes in the second round.
In his next fight at UFC 73 on 7 July 2007, Silva successfully defended his title against Nate Marquardt, winning by TKO at 4:50 in the first round. Three months later, on 20 October 2007, at UFC 77, Silva fought a title defense rematch against Rich Franklin, in Franklin's hometown of Cincinnati, Ohio, at the U.S. Bank Arena. Silva defended his belt by defeating Franklin via TKO in the 2nd round. On 1 March 2008, at UFC 82 Silva fought Pride Middleweight champion Dan Henderson, in a title unification bout (UFC and Pride titles on the line). Henderson was believed to have the edge on the ground, having competed in the 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics in Greco-Roman wrestling. Silva defended his title by defeating Henderson via rear naked choke in the 2nd round. At UFC Fight Night 14 on 19 July 2008, Silva made his debut at Light Heavyweight () in a bout against James Irvin. Silva won via KO due to strikes in 1:01 of the first round after catching Irvin's attempted leg kick with his left arm and delivering a straight right that dropped Irvin to the mat, Silva then finished a prone Irvin with a blitz of punches to the head. Irvin later tested positive for methadone and oxymorphone.
Silva's next fight was on 25 October 2008, at UFC 90 in Rosemont, Illinois, Silva defended his Middleweight title against Patrick Côté. In the third round, Côté landed awkwardly on his right leg while throwing a kick and fell to the mat grasping his right knee in pain. Referee Herb Dean declared the fight over when Côté could not continue, ruling the bout a TKO victory for Silva. Côté, however, became the first of Silva's UFC opponents to make it past the 2nd round. After his fight with Côté, Silva was criticized for seemingly avoiding contact during the bout. Dana White criticized Silva, saying: "I didn't understand Silva's tactics... It wasn't the Anderson Silva I've been watching the last two years." Silva said in the post-fight news conference:
"There are many people saying I was disrespecting Côté, but this is absolutely not true. My game plan since the beginning was fight five rounds, inducing him to commit mistakes and capitalize on that during the first three rounds and look for the knockout during the fourth and fifth rounds. It was working, and the biggest proof of that is that I almost didn't waste any blows. I connected with a couple of good punches and knees, but unfortunately he got hurt and the fight was over. This is not my fault."
On 18 April 2009, at UFC 97 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Silva defeated Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu blackbelt Thales Leites by unanimous decision, and recorded his UFC record 9th consecutive win in the octagon. Leites is credited with being the first man in UFC history to take Silva through 5 rounds to a judges' decision. The crowd repeatedly booed his lackluster performance, bored expression, and frustrated attempts to goad his opponent into fighting, and in the 4th and 5th rounds took to dancing, lowering his guard and slapping his opponent without retaliation. Following the fight, Dana White has stated that he was "embarrassed" by Silva's performance, but still said that he believes him to be "the best pound-for-pound fighter in the world".
At UFC 101 which took place on 8 August 2009, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Silva again fought at 205 pounds against former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Forrest Griffin. Griffin was knocked down three times in the first round. The bout earned Silva Beatdown of the Year honors from Sherdog. The bout shared those honors with the second bout between Brock Lesnar and Frank Mir. Both fighters were awarded $60,000 as Fight of the Night bonuses and Silva received $60,000 in bonus money for Knockout of the Night.
After defeating Griffin, a Yahoo! Sports reporter allegedly claimed that Silva's manager, Ed Soares, had confirmed that Silva would abandon his Middleweight belt to fight at Light Heavyweight. However, Soares and a UFC spokesperson confirmed that a conversation agreeing Silva would permanently move up to Light Heavyweight never took place. Silva did not relinquish his title to fight exclusively at Light Heavyweight. Soares stated his attorney plans to speak to Yahoo! Sports about the matter.
Silva was expected to defend the UFC Middleweight Championship against Vitor Belfort on 2 January 2010, at UFC 108. However, Ed Soares announced that the bout would not take place as Silva would not be fully recovered from surgery. Silva was then set to face Belfort on 6 February 2010, at UFC 109. The fight, however, was dependent on Silva's healing, which he described as "not going as planned." The fight was canceled because of Silva's slow recovery. Silva was once again scheduled to face Belfort on 10 April 2010, at UFC 112. The fight was later canceled again due to an injury to Belfort. Demian Maia was selected to fill the spot and take on Silva for the belt.
In the first two rounds fighting Maia, Silva appeared to mock his opponent while employing quick, precise striking. In the third round, however, Silva's tempo seemed to change. He looked to Maia to be the aggressor while he largely circled and taunted his opponent. In the fifth round, Silva's lack of action prompted referee Dan Miragliotta to warn Silva for his conduct. The crowd began to side with Maia, who was the only fighter attempting to engage. After 5 rounds, Silva was declared the winner via unanimous decision.
Silva was widely criticized for his performance. Dana White said it was the most embarrassed he had ever been since becoming UFC president. Midway through the fourth round, White walked away from the fight and gave the championship belt to Silva's manager, Ed Soares. White was so annoyed that he declined to personally place the belt around Silva's waist, claiming it was the first time he had done so after a title match. It was also claimed that Silva verbally taunted Maia, saying, "Come on, hit me in the face, playboy." In the immediate post-fight interview, Silva apologized and said that he wasn't himself and that he would need to go back and reevaluate the humility that got him to where he is. In the post-fight interview, Silva made multiple references about how Demian insulted him before the bout. However, the pre-fight banter was seen by many as not out of the ordinary.
On 7 August 2010 Silva faced Chael Sonnen for the UFC Middleweight title at UFC 117. In the first round, Sonnen stunned Silva with a punch before taking him down and dominating from the top position, landing multiple blows. The following three rounds played out in a similar fashion, going to the ground early with Sonnen dominating from inside Silva's guard. In the fifth round, Silva slipped after being tagged by Sonnen's left hook and the challenger took advantage by once again establishing a top position and delivering strikes to Silva. With about two minutes left in the round, Silva was able to lock up a triangle armbar on Sonnen, forcing Sonnen to submit at 3:10 of Round 5.
In the fight, Sonnen had struck Silva more times than Silva had been hit thus far in his entire UFC career. According to CompuStrike, in his first 11 UFC fights, Silva had been hit 208 times. On 7 August Sonnen had landed a total of 289 strikes. After the bout it was revealed that Sonnen would have won a judges' decision. All three judges had Sonnen marked as the winner of all four rounds, judges Nelson Hamilton and Dan Stell had Sonnen taking Round 1 10–8, as well as Hamilton awarding the challenger another 10–8 total in Round 3. Silva later claimed to have gone into the fight with a cracked rib and that a doctor advised him not to fight. Dana White announced that Sonnen would get a rematch upon Silva's return.
Following the fight the California State Athletic Commission confirmed that Chael Sonnen tested positive for synthetic testosterone, with his test having revealed a high testosterone to epitestosterone ratio, indicative of testosterone replacement therapy. The promised rematch was revoked after the issue with his testosterone ratio came to light, however, after Sonnen came back and won two straight fights, Dana White scheduled the rematch.
Silva faced Vitor Belfort on 5 February 2011, at UFC 126. Belfort was expected to face Yushin Okami on 13 November 2010, at UFC 122, but was replaced by Nate Marquardt. After a "feeling out" period of about two and a half minutes in the first round, Silva and Belfort started to trade strikes. Silva landed a front kick to Belfort's jaw and followed up with punches to the grounded challenger. Referee Mario Yamasaki stopped the fight at 3:25 into the first round. With the win Silva handed Belfort his first KO loss in 28 career fights and extended his record streak of title defenses to eight. Silva then faced Yushin Okami on 27 August 2011, at UFC 134. He defeated the Japanese middleweight by TKO at 2:04 of round 2, displaying skilled head movement and accurate striking. His record then went to 31–4, avenging his DQ loss to Okami back in 2006.
A rematch with Chael Sonnen was to take place on 23 June 2012, at UFC 147, but the bout was moved back to 7 July 2012, at UFC 148, while the expected co-feature of the Brazilian event, a rematch between Vitor Belfort and Wanderlei Silva would headline the event. The change was due to a scheduling conflict with the UN Conference Rio+20, which occurred during the same time frame as UFC 147. At UFC 148, after again being dominated throughout the first round, Silva stopped Sonnen in the second with a TKO.
He became the first to stop Stephan Bonnar via strikes in the 1st round of a light heavyweight bout on 13 October 2012, at UFC 153.
Title loss and injury
Despite having decided to retire after the Bonnar fight, Silva faced Chris Weidman on 6 July 2013, at UFC 162. Although he was the heavy favorite, he lost by KO in the second round after show boating, ending his streak of the longest title reign in UFC history.
A rematch was held at UFC 168 on 28 December. Weidman dominated the first round; it was reported that Silva may have also cracked his shin bone against Weidman during the first leg check. In the second round Weidman checked one of Silva's leg kicks again, breaking Silva's left fibula and tibia and ending the fight via TKO. Immediately after the fight, Silva had orthopedic surgery to stabilize his tibia with an intramedullary rod; his fibula was reset and was not expected to require further surgery. A UFC statement called the surgery "successful" and said those with similar injuries generally take three to six months to recover.
Post-championship reign
Despite calls for Silva to retire from MMA, it was confirmed on 29 July 2014, that Silva would return to the organization. Before UFC 179, Silva and the UFC agreed on a new, 15-fight contract that replaced their previous deal which had eight fights remaining.
On 29 October 2014, it was announced that Silva would coach opposite Maurício Rua for The Ultimate Fighter: Brazil 4, which began filming in early 2015. Despite being coaches on the show, the two fighters will not face each other at the end of the season. Silva's continued participation was briefly in doubt during the filming after the announcement of his failed drug test. Initially, Dana White announced that Silva would remain on the show as a coach. Subsequently, Silva was pulled as one of the coaches and was replaced by Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira.
In his first fight post-injury, Silva faced Nick Diaz in the main event of UFC 183 on 31 January 2015. He won the fight via unanimous decision. In the days after the fight, it was revealed that Silva tested positive for Drostanolone and Androstane, two anabolic steroids, in pre-fight drug screening on 9 January 2015. Nevada State Athletic Commission chairman Francisco Aguilar confirmed that the fight has not yet been overturned and can't be until a motion is passed by a majority of the commission. Any penalties, suspensions or changes to the outcome of the fight have to be presented as a motion and then voted on by the commission to enact the order. On 11 February 2015, it was reported that Silva tested positive for an additional unknown illegal substance in a separate test that was related to UFC 183. On 17 February 2015, NSAC executive director Bob Bennett confirmed to ESPN.com that Silva failed his postfight urine test and that Silva had tested positive for the steroid Drostanolone—the same banned substance he tested positive for during an out-of-competition test taken on 9 January 2015. Silva also tested positive for the anti-anxiety medication Oxazepam and Temazepam, which is used to treat sleep deprivation.
On 13 August, after several reschedules, the disciplinary hearing was held to decide on the subject. Silva's defense argued that a tainted sexual enhancement drug that a friend had given to Silva after a trip to Thailand was the root of the two failed tests for drostanolone and also appealed to mistakes in the NSAC testing procedures, pointing to a pair of drug tests, one on 19 January and one after the fight, which Silva passed. He admitted to using both benzodiazepines the night prior to the fight as therapy to control stress and help him sleep. Silva's team was unable to explain the presence of androsterone in 9 January test. The commission rejected the defense and suspended him for one year retroactive to the date of the fight, as the current guidelines were not in effect at the time of the failed tests. He was also fined his full win bonus, as well as 30% of his show money, totaling $380,000. His victory was overturned to a no contest.
In his first fight after his PED suspension was lifted, Silva faced Michael Bisping on 27 February 2016, at UFC Fight Night 84. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. However, the fight was not without controversy as at the end of round three Silva dropped Bisping with a flying knee while Bisping was signaling to referee Herb Dean that he lost his mouthpiece. Silva believed he had won the bout and continued to celebrate as referee Herb Dean said the fight was not over, and it continued for another two rounds to the decision. Both participants were awarded Fight of the Night honours.
Silva was expected to face Uriah Hall on 14 May 2016, at UFC 198. However, Silva pulled out of the bout on 10 May after requiring a surgery to remove his gallbladder. As a result, Hall did not compete at the event.
Silva was a short notice replacement to face current UFC Light Heavyweight champion Daniel Cormier in a non-title bout on 9 July 2016, at UFC 200. Silva lost the fight via unanimous decision.
Silva faced Derek Brunson on 11 February 2017, at UFC 208. He was awarded a unanimous decision victory. 19 of 23 media outlets scored the bout in favor of Brunson.
Silva was expected to face Kelvin Gastelum on 3 June 2017, at UFC 212. However, Gastelum was pulled from the match-up after testing positive for marijuana. In turn, despite having two months to secure an opponent, Silva and promotion officials confirmed on 11 May that he would not compete at that event.
The bout with Gastelum was rescheduled and was expected to take place on 25 November 2017, at UFC Fight Night 122. However it was announced on 10 November 2017 that Silva would be pulled from the bout due to failing USADA drug test on 26 October. In July 2018, USADA announced that Silva had been exonerated from the failed test after finding contaminated supplements and received a one-year suspension from USADA dating back to November 2017 and would be free to resume fighting in November 2018.
Silva returned and faced Israel Adesanya on 10 February 2019, at UFC 234. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night award.
Silva faced Jared Cannonier on 11 May 2019 at UFC 237. He lost the fight via TKO in the first round after a kick from Cannonier to Silva's right leg injured him and rendered him unable to continue.
Silva faced Uriah Hall on 31 October 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Hall vs. Silva. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round four. In an Instagram post made after the fight, Silva hinted that his career in MMA was finished, though he did not officially announce retirement from the sport.
On 19 November 2020, the UFC announced that they had released Silva from his UFC contract, which would allow him to negotiate with other promotions.
Boxing career
Professional career
Silva vs. Chávez Jr.
In March 2021, it was announced that Anderson Silva would fight Julio César Chávez Jr. in a boxing match on 19 June 2021. Silva won the fight by split decision. Silva threw more punches throughout the fight throwing a total of 392 punches while Chávez Jr only threw 153.
Silva vs. Ortiz
Silva faced former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Tito Ortiz in a pro boxing bout on September 11, 2021. He won the fight via knockout in round one.
Silva vs. Paul
On September 6, 2022, it was announced that Silva would be facing YouTuber and professional boxer Jake Paul on October 29 in Phoenix, Arizona.
On the night of the fight, Silva lost to Paul by unanimous decision with the scores of 78–73 (twice) and 77–74, all in Paul's favor.
Exhibition bout
Silva vs. Machado
On May 21, 2022, Silva fought an eight round exhibition bout with fellow Brazilian MMA veteran Bruno Machado at a boxing event in Abu Dhabi. Despite a knockdown for Silva in the fifth, the fight would go the full distance, and no winner was declared.
Fighting style
An expert in Muay Thai, boxing and taekwondo, Silva is primarily a stand-up fighter. Owner of numerous UFC offensive striking records, Silva is widely regarded as one of the best strikers in the history of MMA and many consider him the best of all time. During his time in the UFC, he had a striking accuracy of 60%, attempting 1300 strikes and landing 779.
Silva's striking accuracy, knockout power, technically vicious Muay Thai and ability to counterstrike makes him a danger to his opponents. Silva's striking uses three major strengths: technical precision, the jab, and transitions and movement. Silva switches from southpaw to orthodox with little drop-off in effectiveness. Although it has been claimed that his ground game is not as good as his stand-up, Silva has submitted notable grapplers, including Olympic wrestler Dan Henderson, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu blackbelt Travis Lutter and Olympic alternate Chael Sonnen.
Sponsors
A friend of Brazilian World Cup winner Ronaldo, in 2011 Silva became the first client to be marketed by 9INE, a sports marketing company co-owned by Ronaldo. Since August 2011, Anderson has been sponsored by Corinthians, his favorite football club. He is also sponsored by fast food chain Burger King. Previously he had also sponsorship deal with sportswear and equipment supplier Nike, which ended in late 2014 due to Nike's self removal from the UFC.
Personal life
Silva has three sons and two daughters with his wife, Dayane.
Before he began his career as a professional fighter, Silva worked at McDonald's, and also as a file clerk. He considers Spider-Man, Bruce Lee, Muhammad Ali and his mother as biggest of his personal heroes, and has a stated love of comic books and comic book heroes.
Silva has said on numerous occasions that he believes long-time friend and former UFC Lightweight Champion and UFC Welterweight Champion B.J. Penn to be the greatest pound-for-pound fighter in the history of the sport.
Silva expressed interest in competing in the sport of taekwondo and boxing. He floated around the idea of competing at the Olympics in taekwondo and fighting Roy Jones Jr. in a boxing match.
Silva became a naturalized U.S. citizen in July 2019.
Filmography
Television and film
Championships and accomplishments
Mixed martial arts
Cage Rage Championships
Cage Rage Middleweight Championship (One time, Final)
Three successful title defenses
Shooto
Shooto Middleweight Championship (One time)
Ultimate Fighting Championship
UFC Hall of Fame (Pioneer wing, Class of 2023)
UFC Middleweight Championship (One time)
Ten successful title defenses
Most successful title defenses in UFC Middleweight division history (10)
Most consecutive title defenses in UFC Middleweight division history (10)
Second most consecutive title defenses in UFC history (10)
Third most combined title defenses in UFC history (10)
Longest title reign in UFC history (2457 days)
Most finishes in UFC title fights (9)
Most knockouts in UFC title fights (7)
Most knockdowns in UFC title fights (10)
Most UFC Middleweight title fights (13)
Most wins in UFC Middleweight title fights (11)
Tied (Amanda Nunes) for fourth most UFC title fights (11)
Unified the UFC Middleweight and Pride World Welterweight Championships
Fight of the Night (Five times)
Knockout of the Night (Seven times)
Most "Knockout of the Night" awards in UFC history (7)
Submission of the Night (Two times)
Most Post-Fight bonuses in UFC Middleweight division history (12)
Tied (Jim Miller) for fifth most Post-Fight bonuses in UFC history (14)
Longest win streak in UFC history (16)
Longest win streak in UFC Middleweight division history (13)
Longest finish streak in modern UFC history (8)
Most finishes in UFC Middleweight division history (11)
Tied (Uriah Hall & Thiago Santos) for most knockouts in UFC Middleweight division history (8)
Tied (Israel Adesanya) for most knockdowns in UFC Middleweight division history (13)
Tied (Jeremy Stephens) for second most knockdowns in UFC history (18)
Tied (Anthony Johnson & Thiago Santos) for third most knockouts in modern UFC history (11)
Tied (Dustin Poirier & Derrick Lewis) for fifth most finishes in UFC history (14)
Tied (Derek Brunson) for third most wins in UFC Middleweight division history (14)
ESPN.com
2011 Knockout of the Year vs. Vitor Belfort on 5 February
Inside MMA
2011 KO Kick of the Year Bazzie Award vs. Vitor Belfort on 5 February
MMA Live
2010 Fight of the Year vs. Chael Sonnen on 7 August
Sherdog
2009 Beatdown of the Year vs. Forrest Griffin on 8 August
2011 All-Violence 1st Team
Mixed Martial Arts Hall of Fame
Spike Guys' Choice Awards
2008 Most Dangerous Man
Sports Illustrated
2008 Fighter of the Year
World MMA Awards
2008 Fighter of the Year
2010 Fight of the Year vs. Chael Sonnen on 7 August
2011 Knockout of the Year vs. Vitor Belfort on 5 February
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Outstanding Fighter (2012)
MMA Most Valuable Fighter (2012)
Mixed martial arts record
|-
|Loss
|align=center|34–11 (1)
|Uriah Hall
|TKO (punches)
|UFC Fight Night: Hall vs. Silva
|
|align=center|4
|align=center|1:24
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|
|Jared Cannonier
|TKO (leg kick)
|UFC 237
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|4:47
|Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|34–9 (1)
|Israel Adesanya
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 234
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Melbourne, Australia
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|34–8 (1)
|Derek Brunson
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 208
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Brooklyn, New York, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|33–8 (1)
|Daniel Cormier
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 200
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Loss
| align=center|33–7 (1)
| Michael Bisping
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC Fight Night: Silva vs. Bisping
|
| align=center|5
| align=center|5:00
| London, England
|
|-
| NC
| align=center| 33–6 (1)
| Nick Diaz
| NC (overturned by NSAC)
| UFC 183
|
| align=center|5
| align=center|5:00
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 33–6
| Chris Weidman
| TKO (leg injury)
| UFC 168
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:16
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 33–5
| Chris Weidman
| KO (punches)
| UFC 162
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:18
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 33–4
| Stephan Bonnar
| TKO (knee to the body and punches)
| UFC 153
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:40
| Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 32–4
| Chael Sonnen
| TKO (knee to the body and punches)
| UFC 148
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:55
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 31–4
| Yushin Okami
| TKO (punches)
| UFC 134
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:04
| Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 30–4
| Vitor Belfort
| KO (front kick and punches)
| UFC 126
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:25
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 29–4
| Chael Sonnen
| Submission (triangle armbar)
| UFC 117
|
| align=center| 5
| align=center| 3:10
| Oakland, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 28–4
| Demian Maia
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 112
|
| align=center| 5
| align=center| 5:00
| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 27–4
| Forrest Griffin
| KO (punch)
| UFC 101
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:23
| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 26–4
| Thales Leites
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 97
|
| align=center| 5
| align=center| 5:00
| Montreal, Quebec, Canada
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 25–4
| Patrick Côté
| TKO (knee injury)
| UFC 90
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 0:39
| Rosemont, Illinois, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 24–4
| James Irvin
| KO (punches)
| UFC Fight Night: Silva vs. Irvin
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:01
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 23–4
| Dan Henderson
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| UFC 82
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 4:52
| Columbus, Ohio, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 22–4
| Rich Franklin
| TKO (knees)
| UFC 77
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:07
| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 21–4
| Nate Marquardt
| TKO (punches)
| UFC 73
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:50
| Sacramento, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 20–4
| Travis Lutter
| TKO (submission to elbows)
| UFC 67
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:11
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 19–4
| Rich Franklin
| KO (knee)
| UFC 64
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:59
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 18–4
| Chris Leben
| KO (knee)
| UFC Fight Night 5
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:49
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 17–4
| Tony Fryklund
| KO (elbow)
| Cage Rage 16
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:02
| London, England
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 16–4
| Yushin Okami
| DQ (illegal kick)
| Rumble on the Rock 8
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:33
| Honolulu, Hawaii, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 16–3
| Curtis Stout
| KO (punches)
| Cage Rage 14
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:59
| London, England
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 15–3
| Jorge Rivera
| TKO (knees and punches)
| Cage Rage 11
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 3:53
| London, England
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 14–3
| Ryo Chonan
| Submission (flying scissor heel hook)
| Pride Shockwave 2004
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 3:08
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 14–2
| Lee Murray
| Decision (unanimous)
| Cage Rage 8
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| London, England
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 13–2
| Jeremy Horn
| Decision (unanimous)
| Gladiator 2
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Seoul, South Korea
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 12–2
| Waldir dos Anjos
| TKO (corner stoppage)
| Conquista Fight 1
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 5:00
| Vitória da Conquista, Brazil
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–2
| Daiju Takase
| Submission (triangle choke)
| Pride 26
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 8:33
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 11–1
| Carlos Newton
| KO (flying knee and punches)
| Pride 25
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 6:27
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 10–1
| Alexander Otsuka
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pride 22
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Nagoya, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 9–1
| Alex Stiebling
| TKO (doctor stoppage)
| Pride 21
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:23
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 8–1
| Roan Carneiro
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Mecca 6
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 5:32
| Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 7–1
| Hayato Sakurai
| Decision (unanimous)
| Shooto 7
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Osaka, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 6–1
| Israel Albuquerque
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Mecca 5
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 6:17
| Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 5–1
| Tetsuji Kato
| Decision (unanimous)
| Shooto 2
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 4–1
| Claudionor Fontinelle
| TKO (punches and knees)
| Mecca 4
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:35
| Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 3–1
| Jose Barreto
| TKO (head kick and punches)
| Mecca 2
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:06
| Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 2–1
| Luiz Azeredo
| Decision (unanimous)
| Mecca 1
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 10:00
| Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 2–0
| Fabrício Camões
| TKO (retirement)
| rowspan=2|BFC 1
| rowspan=2|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 25:14
| rowspan=2|Campo Grande, Brazil
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–0
| Raimundo Pinheiro
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:53
|
Boxing record
Professional
Exhibition
Pay-per-view bouts
MMA
Boxing
Main Event
Co-Main Event
See also
List of male mixed martial artists
References
External links
|-
Brazilian capoeira practitioners
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Brazilian male judoka
Brazilian male mixed martial artists
Brazilian Muay Thai practitioners
Brazilian practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Brazilian male taekwondo practitioners
Brazilian Wing Chun practitioners
Brazilian Jeet Kune Do practitioners
Brazilian sportspeople in doping cases
Doping cases in mixed martial arts
Light heavyweight mixed martial artists
Living people
Middleweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing capoeira
Mixed martial artists utilizing Muay Thai
Mixed martial artists utilizing Wing Chun
Mixed martial artists utilizing Jeet Kune Do
Mixed martial artists utilizing taekwondo
Mixed martial artists utilizing suntukan
Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing
Mixed martial artists utilizing judo
Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Sportspeople from Curitiba
Ultimate Fighting Championship champions
Welterweight mixed martial artists
1975 births
Brazilian male boxers
Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
|
5390125
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%20VFL%20season
|
1953 VFL season
|
The 1953 VFL season was the 57th season of the Victorian Football League (VFL), the highest level senior Australian rules football competition in Victoria. The season featured twelve clubs, ran from 18 April until 26 September, and comprised an 18-game home-and-away season followed by a finals series featuring the top four clubs.
The premiership was won by the Collingwood Football Club for the twelfth time, after it defeated by twelve points in the 1953 VFL Grand Final.
Background
In 1953, the VFL competition consisted of twelve teams of 18 on-the-field players each, plus two substitute players, known as the 19th man and the 20th man. A player could be substituted for any reason; however, once substituted, a player could not return to the field of play under any circumstances.
Teams played each other in a home-and-away season of 18 rounds; matches 12 to 18 were the "home-and-way reverse" of matches 1 to 7.
Once the 18 round home-and-away season had finished, the 1953 VFL Premiers were determined by the specific format and conventions of the Page–McIntyre system.
Home-and-away season
Round 1
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.15 (87)
|
| 5.8 (38)
| Kardinia Park
| 19,877
| 18 April 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 17.9 (111)
|
| 12.16 (88)
| Windy Hill
| 23,100
| 18 April 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 17.16 (118)
|
| 11.11 (77)
| Victoria Park
| 29,678
| 18 April 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.18 (60)
|
| 9.11 (65)
| Princes Park
| 27,198
| 18 April 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.9 (57)
|
| 14.21 (105)
| Junction Oval
| 14,000
| 18 April 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.7 (73)
|
| 9.13 (67)
| Punt Road Oval
| 18,000
| 18 April 1953
Round 2
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.9 (57)
|
| 13.14 (92)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 12,000
| 2 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.13 (61)
|
| 15.12 (102)
| Western Oval
| 28,500
| 2 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.9 (81)
|
| 11.14 (80)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 21,000
| 2 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.21 (99)
|
| 13.11 (89)
| Lake Oval
| 29,231
| 2 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 18.10 (118)
|
| 11.9 (75)
| Arden Street Oval
| 21,377
| 2 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.11 (59)
|
| 13.12 (90)
| MCG
| 29,204
| 2 May 1953
Round 3
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 16.15 (111)
|
| 6.6 (42)
| Western Oval
| 15,000
| 9 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 17.20 (122)
|
| 7.16 (58)
| Windy Hill
| 18,000
| 9 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.19 (73)
|
| 14.14 (98)
| Victoria Park
| 33,000
| 9 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.12 (84)
|
| 11.17 (83)
| Arden Street Oval
| 12,000
| 9 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.15 (75)
|
| 12.14 (86)
| Lake Oval
| 24,000
| 9 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 15.8 (98)
|
| 16.8 (104)
| Punt Road Oval
| 31,000
| 9 May 1953
Round 4
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.11 (53)
|
| 9.9 (63)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 12,000
| 16 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.14 (86)
|
| 10.15 (75)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 20,500
| 16 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.11 (95)
|
| 14.19 (103)
| Princes Park
| 37,500
| 16 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.17 (83)
|
| 8.17 (65)
| Junction Oval
| 16,500
| 16 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 4.6 (30)
|
| 9.21 (75)
| MCG
| 23,727
| 16 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.7 (79)
|
| 9.11 (65)
| Kardinia Park
| 35,000
| 16 May 1953
Round 5
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 6.10 (46)
|
| 9.3 (57)
| Windy Hill
| 9,500
| 23 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.18 (96)
|
| 3.8 (26)
| Victoria Park
| 9,627
| 23 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.10 (52)
|
| 6.7 (43)
| Princes Park
| 9,150
| 23 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.10 (58)
|
| 9.8 (62)
| Lake Oval
| 11,000
| 23 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 6.16 (52)
|
| 15.16 (106)
| Punt Road Oval
| 10,000
| 23 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.6 (66)
|
| 1.0 (6)
| Western Oval
| 14,087
| 23 May 1953
Round 6
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.16 (100)
|
| 7.5 (47)
| Kardinia Park
| 24,832
| 30 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.8 (62)
|
| 5.9 (39)
| Victoria Park
| 23,036
| 30 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.9 (69)
|
| 14.9 (93)
| Junction Oval
| 19,000
| 30 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.11 (71)
|
| 12.9 (81)
| MCG
| 21,205
| 30 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.9 (51)
|
| 9.14 (68)
| Arden Street Oval
| 25,000
| 30 May 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.7 (67)
|
| 6.11 (47)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 12,000
| 30 May 1953
Round 7
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.11 (53)
|
| 18.16 (124)
| Junction Oval
| 21,000
| 6 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.12 (60)
|
| 5.14 (44)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 9,500
| 6 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.18 (84)
|
| 7.6 (48)
| Windy Hill
| 21,000
| 6 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.16 (100)
|
| 7.6 (48)
| Princes Park
| 22,219
| 6 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.10 (58)
|
| 11.16 (82)
| MCG
| 26,254
| 6 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.9 (51)
|
| 7.10 (52)
| Western Oval
| 32,114
| 6 June 1953
Round 8
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.14 (62)
|
| 12.8 (80)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 7,000
| 13 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 19.17 (131)
|
| 8.8 (56)
| Victoria Park
| 16,200
| 13 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.11 (77)
|
| 9.17 (71)
| Lake Oval
| 22,565
| 13 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.11 (59)
|
| 9.14 (68)
| Punt Road Oval
| 16,000
| 13 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 21.10 (136)
|
| 7.8 (50)
| Kardinia Park
| 21,489
| 13 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.14 (98)
|
| 7.11 (53)
| Windy Hill
| 30,300
| 13 June 1953
Round 9
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 6.9 (45)
|
| 5.12 (42)
| Arden Street Oval
| 9,000
| 20 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 5.13 (43)
|
| 11.6 (72)
| Western Oval
| 21,105
| 20 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 6.8 (44)
|
| 9.6 (60)
| Junction Oval
| 9,500
| 20 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.10 (64)
|
| 12.15 (87)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 8,000
| 20 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.6 (48)
|
| 9.9 (63)
| MCG
| 27,175
| 20 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.12 (54)
|
| 7.18 (60)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 15,000
| 20 June 1953
Round 10
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.9 (75)
|
| 7.10 (52)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 9,500
| 27 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.15 (63)
|
| 10.14 (74)
| Princes Park
| 32,526
| 27 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.7 (79)
|
| 6.14 (50)
| Lake Oval
| 17,000
| 27 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.14 (74)
|
| 16.6 (102)
| MCG
| 11,993
| 27 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 3.7 (25)
|
| 5.12 (42)
| Arden Street Oval
| 15,000
| 27 June 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.14 (80)
|
| 6.16 (52)
| Windy Hill
| 31,900
| 27 June 1953
Round 11
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.14 (86)
|
| 13.7 (85)
| Kardinia Park
| 21,130
| 4 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.19 (61)
|
| 9.8 (62)
| Victoria Park
| 25,078
| 4 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.13 (97)
|
| 10.13 (73)
| Princes Park
| 29,688
| 4 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.7 (73)
|
| 8.21 (69)
| Junction Oval
| 12,000
| 4 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.10 (82)
|
| 7.6 (48)
| Punt Road Oval
| 11,000
| 4 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.15 (69)
|
| 7.11 (53)
| Western Oval
| 34,884
| 4 July 1953
Round 12
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.9 (75)
|
| 11.9 (75)
| MCG
| 19,402
| 11 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.8 (62)
|
| 12.14 (86)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 14,000
| 11 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.12 (90)
|
| 8.18 (66)
| Western Oval
| 31,668
| 11 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 20.11 (131)
|
| 5.16 (46)
| Arden Street Oval
| 10,500
| 18 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.20 (62)
|
| 14.13 (97)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 25,500
| 18 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.9 (81)
|
| 17.17 (119)
| Lake Oval
| 30,000
| 18 July 1953
Round 13
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.11 (83)
|
| 8.14 (62)
| Windy Hill
| 23,000
| 25 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.16 (94)
|
| 8.17 (65)
| Victoria Park
| 23,868
| 25 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.24 (96)
|
| 10.10 (70)
| Princes Park
| 16,367
| 25 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.13 (67)
|
| 4.14 (38)
| Junction Oval
| 7,500
| 25 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.12 (78)
|
| 8.10 (58)
| Kardinia Park
| 32,093
| 25 July 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.7 (85)
|
| 13.12 (90)
| Punt Road Oval
| 15,000
| 25 July 1953
Round 14
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.13 (67)
|
| 8.16 (64)
| MCG
| 13,768
| 1 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.18 (90)
|
| 7.19 (61)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 16,000
| 1 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 15.16 (106)
|
| 10.19 (79)
| Princes Park
| 21,508
| 1 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 3.10 (28)
|
| 11.10 (76)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 10,000
| 1 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.10 (64)
|
| 14.15 (99)
| Junction Oval
| 19,500
| 1 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.13 (55)
|
| 10.15 (75)
| Kardinia Park
| 31,635
| 1 August 1953
Round 15
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.16 (94)
|
| 11.14 (80)
| Punt Road Oval
| 9,500
| 8 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.14 (98)
|
| 9.7 (61)
| Western Oval
| 18,075
| 8 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.13 (61)
|
| 7.8 (50)
| Windy Hill
| 41,000
| 8 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.12 (54)
|
| 9.8 (62)
| Lake Oval
| 8,500
| 8 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 17.19 (121)
|
| 7.9 (51)
| Arden Street Oval
| 12,000
| 8 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.15 (87)
|
| 9.16 (70)
| Victoria Park
| 31,277
| 8 August 1953
Round 16
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.8 (56)
|
| 11.21 (87)
| Arden Street Oval
| 8,000
| 15 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.18 (102)
|
| 4.9 (33)
| Kardinia Park
| 10,000
| 15 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 7.11 (53)
|
| 14.14 (98)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 17,500
| 15 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.9 (57)
|
| 12.10 (82)
| MCG
| 25,543
| 15 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 11.6 (72)
|
| 12.16 (88)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 7,000
| 15 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 8.15 (63)
|
| 7.16 (58)
| Junction Oval
| 9,700
| 15 August 1953
Round 17
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.18 (90)
|
| 4.5 (29)
| Western Oval
| 15,158
| 22 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 6.13 (49)
|
| 9.10 (64)
| Brunswick Street Oval
| 7,500
| 22 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.6 (78)
|
| 12.7 (79)
| Windy Hill
| 18,000
| 22 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.15 (87)
|
| 6.9 (45)
| Princes Park
| 8,500
| 22 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.14 (98)
|
| 8.7 (55)
| Lake Oval
| 21,000
| 22 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 12.9 (81)
|
| 13.17 (95)
| Punt Road Oval
| 18,000
| 22 August 1953
Round 18
|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF"
| Home team
| Home team score
| Away team
| Away team score
| Venue
| Crowd
| Date
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 16.14 (110)
|
| 8.8 (56)
| Kardinia Park
| 18,124
| 29 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 10.14 (74)
|
| 8.7 (55)
| Victoria Park
| 33,867
| 29 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.20 (98)
|
| 4.12 (36)
| Lake Oval
| 13,000
| 29 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 9.10 (64)
|
| 13.6 (84)
| Glenferrie Oval
| 5,000
| 29 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 13.7 (85)
|
| 19.12 (126)
| Punt Road Oval
| 19,000
| 29 August 1953
|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|
| 14.10 (94)
|
| 15.15 (105)
| Arden Street Oval
| 14,000
| 29 August 1953
Ladder
|- style=background:#FFFFBB
| 1 || align=left | || 18 || 15 || 3 || 0 || 1546 || 1079 || 143.3 || 60
|- style=background:#FFFFBB
| 2 || align=left | (P) || 18 || 14 || 4 || 0 || 1518 || 1229 || 123.5 || 56
|- style=background:#FFFFBB
| 3 || align=left | || 18 || 13 || 5 || 0 || 1309 || 959 || 136.5 || 52
|- style=background:#FFFFBB
| 4 || align=left | || 18 || 13 || 5 || 0 || 1529 || 1177 || 129.9 || 52
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 18 || 10 || 8 || 0 || 1409 || 1310 || 107.6 || 40
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 18 || 10 || 8 || 0 || 1208 || 1421 || 85.0 || 40
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 18 || 9 || 9 || 0 || 1388 || 1287 || 107.8 || 36
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 18 || 9 || 9 || 0 || 1385 || 1323 || 104.7 || 36
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 18 || 5 || 13 || 0 || 1065 || 1561 || 68.2 || 20
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 18 || 3 || 14 || 1 || 1220 || 1501 || 81.3 || 14
|-
| 11 || align=left | || 18 || 3 || 14 || 1 || 1137 || 1420 || 80.1 || 14
|-
| 12 || align=left | || 18 || 3 || 15 || 0 || 974 || 1421 || 68.5 || 12
|}
Rules for classification: 1. premiership points; 2. percentage; 3. points forAverage score: 72.6Source: AFL Tables
Finals series
Semi-finals
Preliminary final
Grand final
Season notes
Because Anzac Day fell on a Saturday, there was a fortnight between Rounds 1 and 2. On the evening of Friday 24 April a night-time exhibition match was held between Collingwood and Fitzroy, under lights, at the Royal Melbourne Showgrounds for the benefit of St Vincent's Hospital. Collingwood 9.13 (67) defeated Fitzroy 4.19 (43) before a crowd of 22,000.
Footscray won its first final since joining the league in 1925, their twenty-ninth season. This came after making the finals six times previously and being eliminated each time (1938, 1942, 1944, 1946, 1948 and 1951).
In Round 2, John Coleman kicked 11 of Essendon's 13 goals.
In Round 5, Fitzroy came close to becoming the first (and only) VFL/AFL team to be held scoreless in their match against Footscray at the Western Oval, which was played amidst heavy rain and a burst water main. Allan Ruthven managed their only scoring shot, a goal, with about six minutes remaining in the match. To date, it remains the longest amount of time a team has been kept scoreless in a match.
In a streak spanning from 1952 until 1953, won 23 consecutive matches and played 26 consecutive matches without defeat; both of these remain VFL/AFL records as of 2023. The winning streak ended in Round 14, when Collingwood defeated Geelong by 20 points. At the time, Geelong had a 13–0 record and a four game lead over second-place, but won only three of its eight remaining games for the season.
Overall it was a low-scoring season: Footscray's 959 points against remains the lowest average points conceded per game since 1919; the season's highest score of 21.10 (136) was the lowest since 1924; and, for the first time since 1927, there was no match in which both teams scored more than 100 points.
The Collingwood Grand Final team contained three sets of brothers: Lou Richards and Ron Richards; Bob Rose and Bill Rose; Bill Twomey Jr., Pat Twomey, and Mick Twomey.
Collingwood supporter and businessman John Wren suffered a heart attack at the 1953 Grand Final and died one month later.
Awards
The 1953 VFL Premiership team was Collingwood.
The VFL's leading goalkicker was John Coleman of Essendon who kicked 97 goals (including one goal in the finals).
The winner of the 1953 Brownlow Medal was Bill Hutchison of Essendon with 26 votes.
Hawthorn took the "wooden spoon" in 1953.
References
Maplestone, M., Flying Higher: History of the Essendon Football Club 1872–1996, Essendon Football Club, (Melbourne), 1996.
Rogers, S. & Brown, A., Every Game Ever Played: VFL/AFL Results 1897–1997 (Sixth Edition), Viking Books, (Ringwood), 1998.
Ross, J. (ed), 100 Years of Australian Football 1897–1996: The Complete Story of the AFL, All the Big Stories, All the Great Pictures, All the Champions, Every AFL Season Reported, Viking, (Ringwood), 1996.
Ken Piesse, "Stray Cat lifts lid on Grand Final dumping", (Sunday Herald Sun, 23 September 2007)
Sources
1953 VFL season at AFL Tables
1953 VFL season at Australian Football
Australian Football League seasons
VFL season
|
5390314
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Bolshevik%20Bloc%20of%20Nations
|
Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations
|
Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN) was an international anti-communist organization founded as a coordinating center for anti-communist and nationalist émigré political organizations from Soviet and other socialist countries. The ABN formation dates back to a conference of representatives of non-Russian peoples that took place in November 1943, near Zhytomyr as the Committee of Subjugated Nations/the Anti-Bolshevik Front on the initiative of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. It dissolved in 1996.
History
Background
The OUN
In the 1930s, in the region of Galicia which at the time belonged to Poland, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) had emerged among the Ukrainians of Galicia to fight for independence from Poland. In turn, the OUN had received support from the Abwehr, German military intelligence, in its struggle against Poland, marking the beginning of a relationship with Germany that continued into World War Two. The OUN-B faction led by Stepan Bandera had attracted many veterans of the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician), a Waffen-SS division mostly made up of Ukrainians from the Galicia region. The OUN in Galicia was in conflict with the Polish state in the 1930s, waging a terrorist campaign of bombings and assassinations. During the Second World War, the OUN fought against the Armia Krajowa (Home Army) resistance group for the control of Galicia, a region the OUN saw as part of the future Ukrainian state it wished to establish. Because of this background, Polish emigre groups shunned the ABN, which was regarded as a vehicle for the anti-Polish OUN.
The OUN was described by the historian Anna Holian as a "deeply anti-Semitic" group, citing the OUN's resolution at its Second Great Congress in 1941 that it "combats Jews as the prop of the Muscovite-Bolshevik regime". American journalist Russ Bellant described the OUN's program as: "OUN, even in its postwar publications, has called for ethno-genetically pure Ukrainian territory, which of course is simply calling for purging Jews, Poles, and Russians from what they consider Ukrainian territory." The OUN activists had provided many of the gunmen working for the SS who shot down 90, 000 Ukrainian Jews in 1941-42 and that Stetsko had organized a pogrom in Lviv in 1941 that killed thousands of Jews and Poles.
The Nazis' eastern policy
Alfred Rosenberg, the Minister of the East, has come to identify Russia with the Soviet Union, and Russia in turn with Asia. In contrast to his hostility towards the "Asiatic" Russians, Rosenberg had great hopes of using the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union to raise new armies to replace the Wehrmacht's heavy losses on the Eastern Front. Rosenberg favored an approach he called "political warfare", under which Germany would support the independence of the non-Russian peoples to undermine the Soviet Union.
Foundation: The Zhytomyr conference
According to Stephen Dorril, the Zhytomyr conference of 21–22 November 1943 - where the ABN's forerunner, the Committee of Subjugated Nations (CSN), was established - was part of Rosenberg's "political warfare". Dorril and Mark Aarons argue that the post-war claim that the ABN had been founded as an anti-Nazi and anti-Communist group has no basis in reality as the CSN had been founded by Rosenberg's Ostministerium. At a time when the Red Army was steadily pushing the Wehrmacht back, part of the purpose behind the Anti-Bolshevik Front was to create a framework for waging guerrilla warfare against the Soviets in territories such as Galicia that the Germans expected to lose in the near future.
About the formation of the CSN in 1943, Bellant stated in a 2014 interview:"The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in 1943 under German sponsorship organized a multinational force to fight on behalf of the retreating German army. After the battle of Stalingrad in ’43, the Germans felt a heightened need to get more allies, and so the Romanian Iron Guard, the Hungarian Arrow Cross, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, and others with military formations in place to assist came together and formed the united front called the Committee of Subjugated Nations, and again worked on behalf of the German military. In 1946, they renamed it the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations or ABN. Stetsko was the leader of that until he died in 1986.I mention this in part because the OUN tries to say, well, during the war we fought the Germans and the Communists. The fact of the matter is that they were the leadership of this whole multinational alliance on behalf of the Germans the last two years of the war and in the war thereafter. All the postwar leaders of the unrepentant Nazi allies were under the leadership of Yaroslav Stetsko."
Bellant described the ABN as "...the high council for the expatriate nationalist groups that formed the police, military, and militia that worked with Hitler during World War II. Some were organized as mobile killing teams that exterminated villages and sought to murder whole ethnic, racial and cultural groups". Bellant described the ABN as a coordinating group for genocidal collaborationist groups from eastern Europe. In support of this claim, Bellant noted the Byelorussian Central Council of the ABN was a continuation of the Central Rada set up by the German authorities in 1941, and that policemen serving the Central Rada played a decisive role in exterminating the Jewish community of Belarus in 1941–43. When Romania signed the armistice with the Allies in August 1944, the German government set up a Romanian "government-in-exile" headed by Sima of the Iron Guard, and the Romanian Liberation Movement led by Sima was a direct continuation of the "government-in-exile" that had existed in 1944–45. The leadership of the Croatian Liberation Movement of the ABN was led by men who served in the Independent State of Croatia in 1941–45, and the most of the men leading the World Federation of Free Latvians had served in the SS and "had assisted the Nazis in exterminating the Jews of their Baltic homeland". The Bulgarian National Front of the ABN led by Ivan Dochev was a continuation of the Union of Bulgarian National Legions, where Dochev had begun his political career.
The driving force at the Zhytomyr conference was the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. During the conference, a platform of joint revolutionary struggles against what the participants called Russian communism was formulated. The goal of the ABN was to remove Communists from power, abolish the Soviet Union and divide it into national states.
From Zhytomyr to Munich
After the war, the loyalty of men with military experience from Galicia, the eastern part of which had just reincorporated back into the Soviet Union, led British military intelligence agency MI6 to see the OUN as possibly useful for subversion against the Soviet Union. For two years after World War Two, the UPA, the guerrilla military arm of the OUN waged a guerrilla war in Galicia against the Soviet and Polish authorities.
The OUN comprised the largest contingent in the ABN, and the majority of the OUN members came from Galicia. Given an organizational structure in Munich in 1946 sponsored by MI6, the ABN extended its range of activity and began to include Eastern European emigration from other countries apart from Ukraine. In its founding statement in April 1946, the ABN declared "Bolshevism is the criminal theory and practice of terroristic nonparty dictatorship which excluded even the slightest bit of freedom, democracy and nationality". The ABN declared the Soviet Union to be the "prison of nations", and announced that the break-up of the Soviet Union was its principal goal. As a part of its critique of the USSR, the ABN identified the Soviet Union with Russia, presenting Soviet policies as merely a continuum of the policies of Imperial Russia. Typical of this viewpoint was an ABN pamphlet which stated: "Aggressive and destructive Bolshevism merely exhibits a new, higher form of Russian imperialism, which grew across the centuries by conquering foreign lands and subjecting foreign peoples in Europe as well as in Asia". The ABN presented Russians as biologically different from the rest of humanity, portraying the Russians as having a genetic predisposition towards extreme violence and aggression. The ABN argued that the peoples of Eastern Europe were white and thus had a "natural" love of freedom while the Russians were portrayed as having a "natural" inclination towards cruel despotism owing to an unfortunate infusion of Asian genes going back to the Mongol conquest of Russia in the 13th century. Because of what the ABN argued was this biological difference between the white peoples of Eastern Europe vs. the Russians whose Asian genes had deformed them, the ABN excluded Russia from the list of nations it wished to liberate. Throughout its existence, the ABN equated Russians and Communism as one and the same, engaging in propaganda that sought to "demonize" Russians as an utterly evil people for whom no redemption was possible.
The ABN envisioned a federation of independent states in eastern Europe after it broke up the Soviet Union to be called the "New Order". All of these states were to be "ethnically pure" with no place for minorities. As such, all of the minorities were to "return" to their proper homelands once the "New Order" was established. In particular, there was to be no place for Jews, who were portrayed as an "alien" people who did not belong in any of the envisioned states. Holian wrote that ABN tended to say little about the "Jewish question" after 1945 largely because of the "Final Solution" had largely "solved" the "Jewish question" by exterminating most of the once vast Jewish communities in Eastern Europe, but the group's ideology about the "Jewish Question" largely reflected the OUN's thinking on the subject.
Cold War
The most active groups among the Bloc were the Ukrainian national organizations. According to Dorril, in 1946–1947, with Anglo-American support, the OUN-B's secret police, the Sluzhba Bezpeky, conducted Operation Ohio, an assassination campaign in the Displaced Persons' camps in western Germany. The victims were suspected Soviet agents, members of rival Ukrainian groups, and those who knew too much about the collaborationist background of the ABN's leaders. One American, the controversial ex-military commentator and conspiracy theorist L. Fletcher Prouty, recalled that the assassins "were the best commercial hitmen you ever heard of".
The ABN was headed by Yaroslav Stetsko, a Ukrainian nationalist who supported the Holocaust and anti-Soviet politician, from the time of foundation until 1986, the year of his death. Stetsko was succeeded by his widow, Slava Stetsko. She wrote the foreword to the 1969 book Captive Nations-our first line of defense by Bailey Bernadine that offered the following political definitions:
"Anti-semitism: A smear word used by the Communists against those who effectively oppose and expose them.
Fascist: An anti-Communist.
Nazi or Hitlerite: An active anti-Communist".
In her foreword, she praised Captive Nations as "objective, factual" and "highly recommended".
In 1950, Stetsko hosted an ABN conference in Edinburgh funded by MI6 that Dorril describes as attended by several collaborators such as Alfrēds Bērziņš of Latvia; Dr. Stanislaw Stankievich who had headed the Belorussian National Council; and Kajum Khan of the National Turkestan Unity Committee. Representing Romania at the conference was the Legion of the Archangel Michael (better known as the Iron Guard); Bulgaria the Bulgarian National Front and Croatia members of the Ustaše. The conference attracted much publicity in Britain, most of it very favorable. Stetsko stated the ABN was ready and willing to fight and claimed to be able to "set up an army of more than ten million soldiers" to fight against the Soviet Union. A number of Polish emigre groups, which had boycotted the Edinburgh conference out of distaste for the OUN, accused the ABN of ignoring the "harsh reality" of Eastern Europe, namely that the vast military forces the ABN claimed to command did not exist. A press release issued by the Polish government-in-exile in London denounced the ABN, saying there was "no opportunity to shake off the hated Bolshevik yoke...Today, any active measures against Russia would be lunacy; it would only bring bloody repression, massacres, and mass deportations, without even the slightest hope of achieving the aim so much desired".
As early as 1951 the American anti-Stalinist magazine The New Leader ran a two-part series under the title "Allies We Don't Need" documenting the ABN was founded at the instigation of Rosenberg's Ostministerium in 1943 and that nearly all the ABN leaders had been on the Axis side. Under a photograph of Rosenberg with the caption "His memory lingers on", the article translated extreme anti-Russian ABN statements that were a direct continuation of wartime Ostministerium propaganda such as one ABN pamphlet that stated the Russians have "never been able to form an order of society worthy of human beings". Such criticism had some effect; the United States government which had initially supported the ABN came to shun it, saying that Stetsko had "totalitarian tendencies", not the least of which was his habit of ordering the assassinations of rivals. Furthermore, the American government came to feel that Stetsko was "too extreme" as his stated aim was to provoke World War Three, arguing that this was the best way to achieve his aim of breaking up the Soviet Union. The possibility of a nuclear war killing hundreds of millions of people and that a Soviet-American nuclear exchange would turn Eastern Europe into a radioactive wasteland did not concern Stetsko or any of the other ABN leaders. By the mid-1950s, both the British and American governments had ceased to subsidize the ABN, which was regarded as too dangerous.
The American historian Richard Rasche wrote that the ABN had "at least a dozen well known Nazi collaborators" on its board of directors. The chairmen of the ABN Peoples' Council included A. Bērziņš, V. Kajum-Khan, F. Ďurčanský, F. Farkas de Kisbarnak, and R. Ostrowski. The head of the Romanian Liberation Movement affiliated with the ABN was Horia Sima, formerly the leader of the Iron Guard. The long-time general secretaries were Dr. Niko Nakashidze and C. Pokorný. Bērziņš was a Latvian who served as an obersturmführer in the SS and was accused of torturing and murdering 2, 000 Jews. Also sitting on the ABN's board was Edward O'Connor, a former member of the American National Security Council who had favored using emigre groups to break-up the Soviet Union. O'Connor has been described as the "single most important activist" in the ABN. A number of Holocaust deniers such as Austin App, the author of The Six Million Swindle were ABN members.
The headquarters and cells of the ABN organized mass anti-Soviet rallies, protest demonstrations, press conferences, and international congresses, and the distribution of various memoranda. ABN activists held rallies outside of Soviet embassies and consulates; led boycott campaigns against department stores selling goods made in Eastern Europe; pressured school boards and libraries to remove books they considered to be pro-Communist; threw eggs at Soviet diplomats, and lobbied politicians. The ABN co-operated with the World Anti-Communist League (WACL) and the European Freedom Council (EFC). The ABN's magazine, ABN Correspondence, frequently praised wartime collaborationist leaders such as Ante Pavelić of Croatia and Father Jozef Tiso of Slovakia as "freedom fighters" against Communism. In the United States, ABN excelled at political organizing among Americans who were either immigrants from Eastern Europe and descended from immigrants from Eastern Europe. The ABN came to enjoy a certain power in the United States as many Americans of Eastern European background voted for candidates endorsed by the ABN, causing both Democratic and Republican politicians to court the favor of the ABN. ABN activists in the United States supported politicians who took the most extreme anti-Communist line such as Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy who in turn lavished praise upon the ABN. Besides for the United States, the ABN also came to enjoy power in Canada in the 1950s when there was a significant Ukrainian-Canadian population who voted for candidates endorsed by the ABN.
In March 1958, at a conference in Mexico City, the ABN united with the Asian People's Anti-Communist League, the Committee of One Million Against the Admission of Red China, and the Inter-American Confederation for the Defense of the Continent to form the World Anti-Communist Congress for Liberation and Freedom. The Asian People's Anti-Communist League was an organization supported clandestinely by the governments of the Republic of China (Taiwan), South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam. The ABN wanted an alliance with Asian People's Anti-Communist League largely to get a slice of the money provided by the Asian governments that supported it, and to do so, the ABN toned down the anti-Asian racism that previously characterized it. The cut-off in Anglo-American financial support had caused the ABN serious monetary problems, and thus led the group to seek financing from anti-Communist Asian governments as a way of compensation. The goal of the World Anti-Communist Congress for Liberation and Freedom was to render "moral and material support to forces behind the Iron Curtain in Europe and Asia" and to "achieve the ultimate objective of liberating and restoring national independence, freedom, and liberty to all the enslaved peoples on their ethnic territories". By July 1958, the Congress had collapsed as the leader of the Committee of One Million, Marvin Liebman, had pulled out saying he did not want to work with Stetsko again. Liebman, whose Jewish parents came from Galicia had been shocked to learn Stetsko had been involved in organizing pogroms against Galician Jews in 1941. Liebman called Stetsko and his followers "jerks", stating that Stetsko was an anti-Semite who equated Communism with Jews as he still maintained his belief in "Judeo-Bolshevism". After Liebman left, he started receiving death threats from OUN members calling him a "Jew Bolshevik".
In 1959, the ABN's American branch successfully lobbied Congress to proclaim the public holiday of Captive Nations week and to declare American support for independence for all of the "captive nations" as defined by the ABN. In several states in the Northeast and the Midwest, there were sufficient concentrations of voters influenced by the ABN to give the movement a degree of power as a lobbying group. The resolution was passed unanimously through according to one observer it was "churned out" out of Congress "along with casual holiday resolutions such as National Hot Dog Day". The ABN lobbyists help write the resolution, and much of the resolution reflected the ABN's ideas about which nations were "captive nations". The ABN equated Communism in the Soviet Union with Russians, and Russia was conspicuously absent from the list of "captive nations" listed in the resolution. The American journalist Christopher Simpson wrote that two of the "captive nations" mentioned in the resolution, Idel-Ural and Cossackia, were "fictitious entities created as a propaganda ploy by Hitler's racial theoretician Alfred Rosenberg during World War Two".
The American Vice President, Richard Nixon, was visiting Moscow at the time the resolution was passed, and the Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, was extremely angry about the resolution. Khrushchev asked Nixon how it was possible for him to negotiate with a nation that just proclaimed the break-up of his country as its foreign policy goal. Nixon, in effect, was forced to apologize for the resolution, saying that neither he nor President Eisenhower had any control over the resolutions passed by Congress, and stated: "Neither the President nor I would have deliberately chosen to pass a resolution of this type passed just before we visited the USSR". At the time, there was much tension in American-Soviet relations owing to the latest Berlin crisis, and Nixon had been sent to Moscow to find a way to ease tensions in order to end the Berlin crisis peacefully. The general feeling in Eisenhower administration was that the resolution was ill-timed.
The American diplomat George F. Kennan came to deplore the ABN, complaining the group had an over-sized influence over Congress as most congressmen and senators were afraid of being labeled "soft on Communism", and charged that the ABN had a vested interest in inflaming Cold War tensions. Kennan wrote that the ABN in the United States was a classic example of a domestic lobby taking over foreign policy to achieve its own ends, even if those goals were not necessarily in the broader interest of the United States. During his time as the American ambassador to Yugoslavia, Kennan complained that his efforts to influence Marshal Josip Broz Tito to undertake a more pro-American foreign policy were being constantly undercut by the ABN, which successfully lobbied Congress to pass resolutions calling for the overthrow of Tito and for the break-up of Yugoslavia.
From 1962 onward, the ABN worked closely with Lady Birdwood, described as the "largest individual distributor of racist and antisemitic material" in Britain. The leader of the British branch of the European Freedom Council, founded in 1967, was Lady Birdwood. The ABN activists in Britain who worked with Lady Birdwood expressed anti-Semitic and far-right views. Representatives from the ABN and related organizations participated in the congresses of the WACL and EFC.
In November 1967, the ABN organized rallies in Ottawa outside of the Soviet embassy and in Montreal outside of the Soviet consulate to protest the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution. The main speaker at the ABN rally in Ottawa was Stetsko whose speech calling for Ukrainian Independence caused the Ukrainian-Canadian audience to erupt in rapturous joy. At another ABN rally held shortly afterward was attended by the former prime minister, John Diefenbaker, and the Conservative MP Mike Starr, the first Ukrainian-Canadian cabinet minister.
In the 1968 election, a Hungarian-American ABN activist, Laszlo Pasztor, who began his political career as a student activist for the Arrow Cross while attending university in his native Hungary, campaigned hard for the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon. Pasztor had been convicted of crimes against humanity in Hungary in 1946 for his role in the Holocaust in Hungary as he served as a diplomat for the short-lived Arrow Cross regime of 1944–45 in Berlin. In 1969, Nixon rewarded Pasztor by creating the Republican Heritage Groups Council of the Republican National Committee, with Pasztor as its first chairman. Pasztor, in turn, recruited the leaders of ABN-affiliated groups to serve on the Republican Heritage Groups Council, shunning mainstream conservative groups in favor of the fascist groups affiliated with the ABN. For example, the conservative Bulgarian National Committee was denied permission to affiliate with the council, but the fascist Bulgarian National Front led by Ivan Dochev was allowed to join the council. About the leaders of the Heritage Groups Council, Bellant stated: "They didn't have a Russian affiliate because they hated all Russians of all political stripes. There were no African-Americans or Jewish affiliates either. It was just composed of these elements, and for a while, they had a German affiliate, but some exposure of the Nazi character of the German affiliate caused it to be quietly removed, but other [Nazi] elements were retained."
On 21 July 1984, Nikolai Nazarenko, president of the World Federation of the Cossack National Liberation Movement of Cossackia and the Cossack American Republican National Federation, gave a speech at an ABN diner in New York. Nazarenko, who by his own admission spent much of World War Two serving as a translator and an interrogator of POWs for the Wehrmacht, praised those who fought for Nazi Germany as heroes. Turning to his main subject, Nazarenko stated: "There is a certain ethnic group that makes its home in Israel. This ethnic group works with the Communists all the time. They were the Fifth Column in Germany and in all the Captive Nations...They would spy, sabotage, and do any act in the interest of Moscow. Of course, there had to be the creation of natural self-defense against this Fifth Column. They had to be isolated. Security was needed. So the Fifth Column was arrested and imprisoned. This particular ethnic group was responsible for aiding the Soviet NKVD. A million of our people were destroyed as a result of them aiding the NKVD...You hear a lot about the Jewish Holocaust, but what about the 140 million Christians, Moslems, and Buddhists killed by Communism? That is the real Holocaust and you never hear about it!". The audience roared its approval and Nazarenko's speech was the best received of the evening.
Nazarenko was accused of executing Red Army POWs and of hanging Jews from the lampposts in Odesa, claims which he denied, though he stated in an interview that Jews were his "ideological enemies". When interviewed by the American journalist Russ Bellant, Nazarenko produced a briefcase full of antisemitic literature on the "Jewish question", Cossack publications and memorabilia from his service in the Wehrmacht. Nazarenko when questioned, denied the Holocaust, saying that "Jews didn't die from gas chambers. Those mountains of bones are from people who starved to death or died of disease". Despite his views, Nazarenko took part in Captive Nations day parades in his Cossack uniform and as the president of the Cossack American Republican National Federation was active in Republican politics.
On 20 July 1988, the Republican candidate for the presidency, Vice President George H. W. Bush, spoke at an ABN rally in the company of a Ukrainian emigre and OUN/ABN member, Bohdan Fedorak. Fedorak, who served as president of Ukrainians for Bush, organized the rally at the Ukrainian Cultural Center in Warren, Michigan. At the rally, Fedorak denounced the Office of Special Investigations (OSI), which was in charge of investigating and deporting Nazi war criminals from the United States. Bellant recalled in 2014 about Bush's campaign appearance: "So they denounced them, the OSI investigations, in front of Bush. Bush nodded his head, but he wouldn't say anything because he didn't want to sound like he was sympathetic to the Nazi war criminals, but at the same time he didn't want to offend his hosts by disputing the issue with them."
The Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations was disbanded in 1996 after the collapse of the USSR and Soviet communism.
Members
Member organisation for various times:
Belarusian Central Rada (Belarus)
Bulgarian National Front (Bulgaria)
Cossack National Liberation Movement (see Cossacks)
Croatian Liberation Movement (Croatia)
Czech National Committee (Czech Republic): Lev Prchala
Estonian Liberation Movement (Estonia)
"Free Armenia" Committee (Armenia)
Georgian National Organization (Georgia)
Hungarian Liberation Movement (Hungary)
Hungarian Mindszenty Movement
Latvian Association for the Struggle against Communism (Latvia)
Lithuanian Rebirth Movement (Lithuania)
National Turkestanian Unity Committee (Turkestan)
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists-Bandera (Ukraine)
Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council (Ukraine)
Slovak Liberation Committee (Slovakia)
Romanian Liberation Movement (Romania)
Union of the Estonian Fighters for Freedom (Estonia)
United Hetman Organization (see Hetman)
World Federation of the Cossack National Liberation Movement of Cossackia (Cossackia)
Selected publications
Periodicals
ABN Correspondence: Bulletin of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (1950-2000). . .
Pamphlets and flyers
Letters from Political Prisoners. Munich: Ukrainian Information Service & Press Bureau of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN) (1975).
Cultural Exchanges and Cooperation: The Double-faced Policy. London: The ABN Delegation in Great Britain (1979).
Stetsko, Yaroslav. Revolutionary and Reactionary Forces in the World. Munich: Press Bureau of Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN) (1981).
See also
Anti-Bolshevist League
Congress of the Enslaved Peoples of Russia
Free Nations of Post-Russia Forum
League for the Liberation of the Peoples of the USSR
World Anti-Communist League
Notes
References
Books
Further reading
ALEXANDER NICHOLAS SOSENKO. EASTERN EUROPEAN UNITY UNDER RUSSIAN COMMUNISM AND THE ANTI-BOLSHEVIK BLOC OF NATIONS: CONCEPTION, IDEOLOGY, AND CONFERENCES (MA dissertation, 2010)
External links
Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations – Internet encyclopedia of Ukraine
Anti-communist organizations
Cold War organizations
Politics of the Soviet Union
Diaspora organizations
1946 establishments in Europe
1996 disestablishments in Europe
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
Anti-Russian sentiment
Nationalism in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology%20of%20Ayodhya
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Archaeology of Ayodhya
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The Archaeology of Ayodhya concerns the excavations and findings in the Indian city of Ayodhya in the state of Uttar Pradesh, much of which surrounds the Babri Mosque location.
British-era studies
In 1862–63, Alexander Cunningham, the founder of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), conducted a survey of Ayodhya. Cunnigham identified Ayodhya with Sha-chi mentioned in Fa-Hien's writings, Visakha mentioned in Xuanzang's writings and Saketa mentioned in Hindu-Buddhist legends. According to him, Gautama Buddha spent six years at this place. Although Ayodhya is mentioned in several ancient Hindu texts, Cunningham found no ancient structures in the city. According to him, the existing temples at Ayodhya were of relatively modern origin. Referring to legends, he wrote that the old city of Ayodhya must have been deserted after the death of Brihadbala "in the great war" around 1426 BCE. When King Vikramāditya of Ujjain visited the city around first century CE, he constructed new temples at the spots mentioned in Ramayana. Cunningham believed that by the time Xuanzang visited the city in 7th century, Vikramaditya's temples had "already disappeared"; the city was a Buddhist centre, and had several Buddhist monuments. Cunningham's main objective in surveying Ayodhya was to discover these Buddhist monuments.
In 1889–91, an ASI team led by Alois Anton Führer conducted another survey of Ayodhya. Führer did not find any ancient statues, sculptures or pillars that marked the sites of other ancient cities. He found "a low irregular mass of rubbish heaps", from which material had been used for building the neighbouring Muslim city of Faizabad. The only ancient structures found by him were three earthen mounds to the south of the city: Maniparbat, Kuberparbat and Sugribparbat. Cunningham identified these mounds with the sites of the monasteries described in Xuanzang's writings. Like Cunningham, Führer also mentioned the legend of the Ramayana-era city being destroyed after death of Brihadbala, and its rebuilding by Vikramaditya. He wrote that the existing Hindu and Jain temples in the city were modern, although they occupied the sites of the ancient temples that had been destroyed by Muslims. The five Digambara Jain temples had been built in 1781 CE to mark the birth places of five tirthankaras, who are said to have been born at Ayodhya. A Svetambara Jain temple dedicated to Ajitanatha was built in 1881. Based on local folk narratives, Führer wrote that Ayodhya had three Hindu temples at the time of Muslim conquest: Janmasthanam (where Rama was born), Svargadvaram (where Rama was cremated) and Treta-ke-Thakur (where Rama performed a sacrifice). According to Führer, Mir Khan built the Babri mosque at the place of Janmasthanam temple in 930 AH (1523 CE). He stated that many columns of the old temple had been utilized by the Muslims for the construction of Babri mosque: these pillars were of black stone, called kasauti by the natives. Führer also wrote that Aurangzeb had built now-ruined mosques at the sites of Svargadvaram and Treta-ke-Thakur temples. A fragmentary inscription of Jayachandra of Kannauj, dated to 1241 Samvat (1185 CE), and a record of a Vishnu temple's construction were recovered from Aurangazeb's Treta-ke-Thakur mosque, and kept in Faizabad museum.
Excavation of 1969-1970
Awadh Kishore Narain of Banaras Hindu University led an excavation in Ayodhya during 1969–70. He dated establishment of Ayodhya to early 17th century BCE, and also observed that there was evidence of strong Jain presence in the area.
Ramayana sites (1975-1985)
Excavations
Professor B. B. Lal led a more detailed ASI study of the area in 1975–76. The team of archaeologists of the ASI, led by former Director-General ASI (1968–1972), B.B. Lal in 1975–76, worked on a project titled "Archaeology of Ramayana Sites", which excavated five Ramayana-related sites of Ayodhya, Bharadwaj Ashram, Nandigram, Chitrakoot and Shringaverapura.
Though the results of this study were not published in that period, between 1975 and 1985 an archaeological project was carried out in Ayodhya to examine certain sites referenced to in the Ramayana or that belong to its tradition. Ascribed to the 14th century AD, it is the oldest image found in Ayodhya. The Babri Mosque site was one of the fourteen sites examined during this project. B. B. Lal conducted excavations in Ayodhya and found a terracotta image showing a Jain ascetic.
Jain claims
Jain Samata Vahini, a social organisation of the Jains stated that the excavation conducted at Hanuman Garhi by Prof B B Lal in 1976 threw up a grey terracotta figurine that was dated back to the fourth century BC, and Prof B B Lal, former director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India also acknowledge the same.
Lal's pillars (1990)
Lal took a controversial stance in the Ayodhya dispute. Writing in 1977, Lal stated in the official ASI-journal that finds were "devoid of any special interest."
In 1990, after his retirement, he wrote in a RSS magazine that he had found the remains of a columned temple under the mosque, and "embarked on a spree of lectures all over the country propagating th[is] evidence from Ayodhya." In Lal's 2008 book, Rāma, His Historicity, Mandir and Setu: Evidence of Literature, Archaeology and Other Sciences, he writes (that):
In a 2003 statement to the Allahabad High Court, Lal stated that he submitted a seven-page preliminary report to the Archaeological Survey of India in 1989, mentioning the discovery of "pillar bases", immediately south of the Babri mosque structure in Ayodhya. Subsequently, all technical facilities were withdrawn and the project wasn't revived for another 10–12 years, despite his repeated request. Thus the final report was never submitted, the preliminary report was only published in 1989, and in Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) volume on historicity of Ramayana and Mahabharat. Subsequently, in his 2008 book, Rama: His Historicity Mandir and Setu, he wrote, "Attached to the piers of the Babri Masjid, there were twelve stone pillars, which carried not only typical Hindu motifs and mouldings, but also figures of Hindu deities. It was self-evident that these pillars were not an integral part of the Masjid, but were foreign to it."
Lal's stance gave an enormous boost to the Ram Temple cause, but his conclusions have been contested by multiple scholars, questioning both the stratigraphic information, and the kind of structure envisioned by Lal. According to Hole,
Hole concludes that "the structural elements he had previously thought insignificant suddenly became temple foundations only in order to manufacture support for the nationalists' cause."
B. B. Lal's team also had K. K. Muhammed, who in his autobiography claimed that a Hindu temple was found in the excavation, and said that left historians are misleading the Muslim communities by aligning with fundamentalists.
June to July 1992
In July 1992, eight eminent archaeologists (among them former ASI directors, Dr. Y.D. Sharma and Dr. K.M. Srivastava) went to the Ramkot hill to evaluate and examine the findings. These findings included religious sculptures and a statue of Vishnu. They said that the inner boundary of the disputed structure rests, at least on one side, on an earlier existing structure, which "may have belonged to an earlier temple". The objects examined by them also included terracotta Hindu images of the Kushan period (100–300 AD) and carved buff sandstone objects that showed images of Vaishnav deities and of Shiva-Parvati. They concluded that these fragments belonged to a temple of the Nagara style (900–1200 AD).
Prof. S.P. Gupta commented on the discoveries:
1992 - Vishnu-Hari inscription
During the demolition of the Babri mosque in December 1992, three inscriptions on stone were found. The most important one is the Vishnu-Hari inscription inscribed on a 1.10 x .56-metre slab with 20 lines that was provisionally dated to ca. 1140. The inscription mentioned that the temple was dedicated to "Vishnu, slayer of Bali and of the ten-headed one". The inscription is written in the Nāgarī script, a Sanskrit script (or ) of the 11th and 12th century. It was examined by world class epigraphists and Sanskrit scholars (among them Prof. Ajay Mitra Shastri).
Ajay Mitra Shastri, Chairman of the Epigraphical Society of India and a specialist in epigraphy and numismatics, examined the Vishnu-Hari inscription and stated:
Following allegations that the Vishnu Hari inscription corresponded to an inscription dedicated to Vishnu that was supposedly missing in the Lucknow State Museum since the 1980s, the museum director Jitendra Kumar stated that the inscription had never been missing from the museum, although it was not on display. He showed the inscription held by his museum at a press conference for all to see. It was different in shape, colour and textual content from the Vishnu-Hari inscription.
2003 excavations
Radar search
In the January 2003, Canadian geophysicist Claude Robillard performed a search with a
ground-penetrating radar. The survey concluded the following:
Claude Robillard, the chief geophysicist stated the following:
Excavations
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) excavated the Ram Janambhoomi–Babri Mosque site at the direction of the Lucknow Bench of the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh in 2003. The archaeologists also reported indications of a large structure that pre-dated the Babri Masjid. A team of 131 labourers, including 52 Muslims was engaged in the excavations. On 11 June 2003 the ASI issued an interim report that only listed the findings of the period between 22 May and 6 June 2003. In August 2003 the ASI handed a 574-page report to the Lucknow Bench of the Allahabad High Court.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), who examined the site, issued a report of the findings of the period between 22 May and 6 June 2003. This report stated:
Finds
Archaeological layers
ASI mentioned in its report that they have found ruins of other eras also. These ruins could be the ruins of a Jain temples.
1000BCE to 300BCE: the findings suggest that a Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture existed at the mosque site between 1000 BCE and 300 BCE. A round signet with a legend in Ashokan Brahmi, terracotta figurines of female deities with archaic features, beads of terracotta and glass, wheels and fragments of votive tanks have been found.
Shunga Period. 200 BC: Typical terracotta mother goddess, human and animal figurines, beads, hairpins, pottery (includes black slipped, red and grey wares), and stone and brick structures of the Shunga period have been found.
Kushan period. 100–300 CE: terracotta human and animal figurines, fragments of votive tanks, beads, bangle fragments, ceramics with red ware and large-sized structures running into twenty-two courses have been found from this level.
Gupta era (320–600 CE) and post-Gupta era: typical terracotta figurines, a copper coin with the legend Sri Chandra (Gupta), and illustrative potsherds of the Gupta period have been found. A circular brick shrine with an entrance from the east and a provision for a water-chute on the northern wall have also been found.
11th to 12th century CE: a huge structure of almost fifty metres in north–south orientation have been found on this level. Only four of the fifty pillar bases belong to this level. Above this lay a structure with at least three structural phases which had a huge pillared hall.
Animal remains
Earlier excavations had unearthed animal bones and even human remains. According to historian Irfan Habib, the presence of animal bones meant that it was a residential area (and not a shrine) inhabited not necessarily by a non-vegetarian community and that it was in that Muslim habitat that a mosque was raised in 1528 or thereafter. The ASI report mentions the bones, but does not explain how they came to be there.
Muslim graves
Two Muslim graves were also recovered in the excavation, as reported in the Outlook weekly. While the ASI videographed and photographed the graves on 22 April, it did not perform a detailed analysis of them. The skeletons found at the site were not sent for carbon-dating, neither were the graves measured. Anirudha Srivastava, a former ASI archaeologist, said that in some trenches, some graves, terracotta and lime mortar and surkhi were discovered which also indicated Muslim habitation. It was surmised, also, that some mosque existed on the site and that Babri was built on the site of another mosque.
Criticism of the 2003 excavation
The ASI findings were disputed by several archaeologists.
According to archaeologist Supriya Verma and Jaya Menon, who observed the excavations on behalf of the Sunni Waqf Board, "the ASI was operating with a preconceived notion of discovering the remains of a temple beneath the demolished mosque, even selectively altering the evidence to suit its hypothesis."
Archaeologist Suraj Bhan, who has personally taken an inventory of the site, said the ASI had clubbed pottery from the 11th to the 19th centuries together and not really distinguished them by their different periods. However, he questioned the basis for the ASI's interpretation that the massive burnt brick structure was that of a Ram temple. "The Babri Masjid had a planned structure and the ASI findings conform to this plan. The Nagar style of star-shaped temple construction prevalent between the 9th and 12th centuries is not at all present in the structure," he said.
Political reaction
The leaders of Babri Masjid Action–Reconstruction expressed reservations on the credibility of the ASI in carrying out the assignment impartially, owing to political pressure. ASI comes under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, which was headed by Murli Manohar Joshi, himself an accused in the Babri Masjid demolition case.
The Muslim side expressed doubts on the final ASI report, claiming that the notes and other draft items were supposedly destroyed by the ASI, within 24 hours following the submission of the final report.
There were also attempts by Babri Masjid supporters to prohibit all archaeological excavations at the disputed site. Naved Yar Khan's petition at the Supreme Court to prohibit all archaeological excavations at the Mosque site was rejected. Similarly, there were questions raised as to what level the archaeological digging should reach – should they stop when evidence of a Hindu temple was found? Both Buddhists and Jains asked for the digging to continue much further to learn whether they, too, could lay claim to the site.
Along the same lines as Habib, Muslim Personal Law Board secretary Mohammed Abdul Rahim Quraishi "said a team of well-known archaeologists including Prof. Suraj Bhan had visited the site and inspected the excavated pits and was of [the] opinion that there was evidence of an earlier mosque beneath the structure of the Babri Masjid".
The two agree on a pre-Babri Muslim presence, but Quraishi's "interpretation" of the findings is already starkly at variance with Habib's: the latter saw no mosque underneath, while Quraishi's employee Bhan did.
Noted lawyer Rajeev Dhawan said the Ramjanmabhoomi-Babri Masjid case had taken a wrong turn and the ASI report had no historical or moral significance and the conclusions were based on political considerations. However, Mr. Dhawan said, "The legal case did not relate to the question of whether a temple existed on the site or not".
Buddhist claims
The Buddhists have also claimed the Ayodhya site. According to Udit Raj's Buddha Education Foundation, the structure excavated by ASI in 2003 was a Buddhist stupa destroyed during and after the Muslim invasion of India. Besides the 2003 ASI report, Raj has also based his claim on the 1870 report of the British archaeologist Patrick Carnegie. According to Carnegie, the Kasauti pillars at the Ayodhya site strongly resemble the ones at Buddhist viharas in Sarnath and Varanasi.
Court verdict after analysis of the 2003 ASI report
In October 2010, after sifting through all the evidence placed before it, the Allahabad High Court, in an order that ran into over 8,000 pages, said that the portion below the central dome under which the idols of Lord Ram and other Gods are placed in a makeshift temple, belongs to Hindus. All three judges agreed that the portion under the central dome should be allotted to Hindus.
The 2019 Supreme Court verdict on Ayodhya dispute states that the entire disputed land of area of 2.77 acres be handed over to a trust to build a Hindu temple. It also ordered the government to give an alternative 5 acre land to the Sunni Waqf Board.
See also
Ayodhya
Babri Masjid
Ram Janmabhoomi
Ramayana
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
Thakur Prasad Verma, S.P. Gupta, (2001), Ayodhya ka itihasa evam puratattva- Rgveda kala se aba taka. Delhi: D.K. Printworld (in Hindi)
Web-sources
External links
Ayodhya the spiritual abode. Complete details of Ayodhya, proofs and documents.
Hindu Temple lays beneath – dailypioneer.com – August 26, 2003
The "Ram temple" drama – Frontline
Ayodhya History
Times of India news on ASI excavations Times of India
Layers of truth From The Week – shows artist's impression of ASI underlying temple – archived here
Ayodhya on YouTube
Ayodhya and the Research on the Temple of Lord Rama
Proof of temple found at Ayodhya: ASI report
Ayodhya
History of Uttar Pradesh
Archaeological sites in Uttar Pradesh
Ayodhya dispute
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence%20of%20Lorraine%20toponyms%20in%20French%20and%20German
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Correspondence of Lorraine toponyms in French and German
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The various toponyms in the historical region of Lorraine are often known by very different names depending on the language in which they are expressed. This article provides an understanding of the linguistic and historical origin of this diversity and lists a number of correspondences for communes and lesser localities in the four departments of the former region: Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Moselle, and Vosges.
Exonyms and endonyms
In the context of toponyms, and with regard to the scope of this article, exonyms and endonyms are the differing external and internal names, respectively, used by different languages or cultures for a specific geographic place. For the people that speak German and live in Germany, for example, Deutschland is their endonym for that country. Conversely, Allemagne is the exonym in French, 'Germany' is the exonym in English, and so on.
The same idea can apply within a country too, between regions having vastly different linguistical and cultural histories. The emphasis in this article is on those toponyms that began as Gallo-Roman endonyms in some cases, but more often as endonyms following the Germanic migrations, and particularly what emerged from the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties. Now, more than a millennium later, many of these toponyms have three different names—in Lorraine Franconian, French, and German—due to shifts in culture and language and changes in land possession.
Linquistical aspects of toponyms in Lorraine
The 'determinant-determined' of the Romano-Francs
The origin of toponyms, of which exonyms are a certain type, is sometimes controversial, especially in Lorraine where successive or simultaneous occupations by different peoples and changes in culture have often influenced toponymy more than elsewhere.
As in all regions marked by Germanic influence, adjectives or appellatives often precede nouns. Many toponyms are formed with the name of a local lord or land owner. In some cases, however, a particular topographical, religious, or historical aspect may have played a more important role, which is difficult to determine in Gallo-Romance formations in particular. While Gallic toponyms are often poorly clarified due to insufficient knowledge of the language, Romanesque toponyms often play the role of those older Celtic toponyms that have been redesigned in the Romanesque style.
The Ripuarian and Salian Franks, and for some time also the Alemanni in eastern Lorraine, introduced Germanic toponyms. A patronymic practice of the Romano-Francs that developed from the Merovingian Dynasty was to merge Roman and Germanic habits. The Germanic rule of word composition from right to left (i.e. the decisive-determined order), largely governs the formation of Lorraine toponyms, both in Germanic and in Roman dialect.
For example, the Lorraine dialect places the adjective epithet before the noun it describes. A "white rupt" is a "white stream" (clear and transparent meaning). This is especially true for oronyms and toponyms in localities that make extensive use of local dialect. Gerardmer (Giraumouè) is the "Lake of Gerold", which can therefore be translated in the same order in German language: Geroldsee. The use of Geroltzsee is attested locally as early as 1484.
This information is fundamental in Romanesque toponymy and the determining-defined order, sometimes misunderstood, is the rule in Normandy (except Avranchin), Picardy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Champagne-Ardenne, northern Franche-Comté and Île-de-France, so it is not surprising that this method of composition is present in Romanesque Lorraine.
In the west and south, the reverse order — determined-determinant — is more dominant. Thus, for example, names like Neufchâteau, Neufchâtel, Neuville, and Neubourg du nord have opposite construction to Chateauneuf, Castelnau, Villeneuve, and Bourgneuf further south. Even if a Lorrain does not feel completely at home in Flanders because of the Flemish forms (-kerque, -em, -hem, -hout, -brouck, -berghe, -dorp) largely different from German forms, and even more so in Normandy with the Anglo-Norroese appellatives (-crique-, -ham, -londe, brique- [?], hougue / hogue, / {{Not a typo|-tour(ps))}}, they can easily feel a common practice (-kirch, -om, -heim, -holtz, -bruck, -berg, -troff / -droff).
In German-speaking Lorraine, the word dorf (for 'village') is often passed to troff by hardening from /d/ to /t/ and metathesis from /r/.
The toponyms in -angel (Common Germanic -ing) are typically Lorrainian and correspond to a relatively recent decline in Germanic speaking in Lorraine. Elsewhere this form is exceptional except in Luxembourg and the Luxembourgish part of Wallonia. In Flanders and Artois, -inge, -in, -ain, its correspondents, are also the expression of a decline in the Flemish language or at least a desire to make toponyms more Gallicized. In the Romanesque area, where Germanic speakers disappeared very early, the suffix is found in the forms -ans in Franche-Comté or Burgundy, in the southwest and a little in Languedoc in the forms -eins, -ens, -ein and sometimes also -ans. This suffix is much rarer in the west, where it sometimes takes the form of -an or -angles. Its absence is remarkable in northern Picardy, a region where Romanesque toponymy is the most "Germanized" in France.
Paradoxically, in Romanesque Lorraine, there is no common series of calls in the north and northwest, whose Germanic origin is proven. Thus, these types are not frequently found:
Husdinium of *husidinja (shelter) in Hodeng, Hodent, Houdan, Hesdin...
hlar (wasteland) in Mouflers, Flers, Meulers...
(temple) in Neauphe, Neaufles, Neauphle or Niafles, and Boffles, Bouafles...
afisna / avisna (pasture) in Avesnes, Avernes...
*Rosbaki (reed stream) has evolved in Frankish Lorraine in Rohrbach, Rorbach, elsewhere in the north and northwest, and there are Robecq, Rebecques, Rebais, or Rebets...
You can find toponyms in short from the Doubs to Normandy, from Ile-de-France to Walloon Belgium. The -court toponyms have been chronologically replaced by the -ville toponyms, of which Romanesque Lorraine is the second 'provider' after Normandy and before the exceptional area of Beauce. There are also some in the Charentes and in the southwest around Toulouse.
Lorraine diglossia
Independent ducal Lorraine included a Bailiwick of Germany that crossed the current Moselle border to the north. The Lorraine Romans referred to all those who spoke a Germanic dialect as 'Germans' as opposed to their Romance language. So a German (or Ollemand) for a Romanesque Lorrain can also be a Lorrain of the Bailiwick of Germany or an Alsatian, or any person living beyond that. Conversely, neighbouring German-speaking people often called the Welsches romanophones. This is also the case in Switzerland.
Lorraine's toponymy is not only a back-and-forth between the German and French forms more specific to the last two centuries. It is older, and shows a sensitivity common to all of eastern France where the 'determinant-determined' pair largely dominates while respecting habits and rules that ignore the heritage language.
In the Lorraine of the Ancient Regime Society, the coexistence of a Romanesque and Germanic form for the same place was not uncommon. It was only with the integration into France under Stanislaus and then under the Jacobin regime and Prussian imperialism that both language and toponyms took on a political, patriotic, symbolic and identity value. Previously, the Duke of Lorraine recognized the official existence of German and French on his lands at the risk of having to have the most important acts and charters translated one way or the other. In the regions of passage between the Germanic area and the Romanesque basin, the same place was named in the language of the respective speaker. This is the case for the toponym, Hautes Chaumes, in the Vosges, which is in a Vosges dialect and differs from the initial Alsatian dialect.
More than standard French, the Lorraine dialect allows a cross-reading of the region's toponyms and makes it possible to establish a correspondence between the two families of languages present on Lorraine's territory. This is one of Lorraine's unique characteristics, its function as a language buffer region, or space between.
Historical aspects of toponyms in Lorraine
Definition of terms
The subject of terms is very sensitive. It is linked to recent history, therefore the definition of terms is important.
Since that which is Germanic cannot be 'Germanized', the term "Germanization" for the periods 1870-1918 and 1940-1945 should be understood as an adaptation of form or graphics to standard German as intended by the heads of state of the last German empires. The Anglo-Saxons speak here rather of 'prussification' to avoid confusion. Moreover, many Moselle toponyms, characteristic of the Franconian Lorraine dialect, also exist in Germany or Austria. For a Francophone, Merlebach is objectively no less Germanic than Merlenbach.
The phenomenon is not specific to Moselle, a large part of Germany, especially in the south, had to willingly adopt standard German names for their official signs, but on the ground, the inhabitants continued to designate their village in the local form. No one is expecting to see 'Stuegert' on a city sign instead of Stuttgart today. Even today, an Alsatian and a Mosellan have their local form to designate their agglomeration. This also applies to village names in Lorraine dialect and beyond for all regions of France in local languages and dialects.
The difference is that Moselle suffered the arrival of 'prussification' as a denial of its specificity in view of the brutality of certain measures that followed the de facto annexation after the abandonment of the territories by the parliament meeting in Bordeaux in May 1871. This annexation was difficult to experience throughout the annexed Moselle because of the desire to 'prussify' Moselle by erasing its specificities. This was experienced as a constraint even in the Lorraine-Franco-speaking (Germanic) areas. It must also be said that part of the annexed Moselle known as Bezirk Lothringen, has always been Romanesque, mainly Metzgau and Saulnois, except formerly the Dieuze region. Here, the Germanization of the toponym is an indisputable fact (Fresnes - Eschen). The locals were forced to change their names. This is why it must always be borne in mind that the phenomenon of "Germanization" does not cover the same thing depending on whether you start from an original Romanesque or historically Germanic toponym.
French and Lorraine Franconian (and Alsatian in Alsace) serve to make an ideological and political break with everything that sounds 'Prussian' or 'standardized German', because the occupants forbade or fought them. Thus, a simple 'n' at the end of a local toponym is enough to "Germanize" it when it is Germanic: Thedinge becomes Thedingen. At the same time, French Francizes the name by removing the dialectal 'e' to give Théding. The accent adds a little more gallicity. As well, it frequently reverses the names from -er to -re. Diacritical signs such as accents and umlauts have indeed played a role in francization or Germanization (e.g. Buding / Büdingen). Similarly, the accentuation of names is central. Lorraine Franconian and German emphasize the same linguistic relationship, placing a tonic accent at the initial of words, in general. On the other hand, the French name is unemphasized and is characterized by an increase in tone on the final part of the word. The difference between the Germanic and French form is audible.
Waves of francization and germanization
In the south of the Pays de Nied, there are current toponyms using -court that were formerly -troff / -torff. For example, Arraincourt from Armestroff, Thicourt from Diederstroff, Thonville from Oderstroff, Hernicourt (in Herny) from Hermerstorf.
At the time of the Ancien Régime, referring to the sociopolitical system that prevailed in France for the two centuries preceding and up to the French Revolution, several Lorraine towns were recognized by two names, one in French and one in German. The following name-pair examples are found the dictionaries of Henri Lepage and Ernest de Bouteiller, respectively, and noted as recognized in 1594:
Mulcey was (fr) Mellecey alias (de) Metzingen
Zommange was (fr) Semanges alias (de) Simingen
Chemery-les-Deux was (fr) Clsmey alias (de) Schomberg
Les Étangs was (de) Tenchen alias (fr) Lestanche
Macker was (de) Machern alias (fr) Maizières
Many was (de) Niderheim alias (fr) Magny
Morhange was (fr) Morhanges alias (de) Morchingen
Ottonville was (de) Ottendorf alias (fr) Ottonville
Roupeldange was (de) Rupplingen alias (fr) Ruppeldanges
Suisse was (fr) Xousse alias (de) Soultzen
Varize was (fr) Warize alias (de) Weybelsskirchen
Pontigny, was (de) Nidbrücken alias (fr) Pont de Niet
These were certainly not the only spellings before or after 1594. The history for Pontigny, for example, a locality (or hamlet) in the commune Condé-Northen since 1810, is attested as:
(de) Bruque 1339
(de) Brücke 1485
(de) Nydbrück alias (fr) Pont de Nied by the 16th century
(de) Nidbrück and (fr) Pontnied in 1542
(de) Nidbrücken alias (fr) Pont de Niet in 1594
(de) Niedbruch in 1606
(de) Niedbroug by the 17th century
(fr) Pontigni 1756
(fr) Poutigny 1793
(de) Niedbrücken 1940-44
(fr) Pontigny ever since
There were further name or spelling differences in the centuries prior, after localities were formed under the Frankish dynasties up to when first attestations are known.
The names of many communes in Moselle were Francized at the end of the Revolution, in particular those having the suffix -engen or -ingen, which was sometimes simplified into -ing or definitively replaced by the Romanesque form in -ing (e.g. -ingen was Romanized into -ingas and -inges since the Middle Ages, hence -ang). While in Bas-Rhin -ingen was preserved. To a lesser extent, this suffix has also been Francized over the centuries in other forms, including -ang, -in, -court, -gny, and so forth.
The toponyms in German-speaking Moselle were often spelled -willer (sometimes -weiller) in the Bulletins des lois and several dictionaries from the 19th century until 1870. This form subsequently disappeared in the 20th century, after the World Wars. While in Alsace, the -willers were preserved, although they were sometimes mentioned -viller and -viler in 1793–1801.
Some municipalities had a standard German name between 1793 and 1802, such as Folschviller (Folschweiler 1793), Ébersviller (Ebersweiler 1793), Berviller-en-Moselle (Berweiler 1793), Schmittviller (Schmittweiler 1793), Bisten-en-Lorraine (Bisten im Loch 1793), Château-Rouge (Rothdorf 1793), Mouterhouse (Mutterhausen 1801), Soucht (Sucht 1801), Rodalbe (Rodalben 1801), Merlebach (Merlenbach 1801), Dalem (Dalheim 1801), Altrippe (Altrippen 1793).
The dictionaries of Henri Lepage on the Meurthe and Ernest de Bouteiller on the Moselle, written before 1871, prove that many municipalities still had an alias in German during the 19th century. For example, Hagondange, Haute-Vigneulles, and Lorquin cited 'in German' as Hagelingen, Oberfillen and Lœrchingen in these same dictionaries, most recently written in 1868. The Germanization of names by the Prussians from 1871 onwards is therefore not an invention (except in certain cases), which used old Germanic references, sometimes the latest one. For example Argancy Germanized in Argesingen during the World War II, refers to an old Germanic mention Argesinga dating from 848. and Chicourt Germanized as Diexingen (1915-1918) from the Diekesinga mention from 1121 and 1180 (-inga being the primitive form of -ingen).
All the toponyms in the department had been gradually Germanized in the German period of the Alsace-Lorraine. The place names of German-speaking Lorraine were first Germanized, adjectives (top, bottom...) were then translated, then the names of villages close to the linguistic boundary of Moselle and the last ones, including all those of French-speaking Moselle, were Germanized on 2 September 1915 (e.g. Augny).
At the end of the First World War in 1918, these place names reverted to their pre-1870 version.
All toponyms are Germanised after the annexation of 1940, most of the time using their 1918 form or another more or less different one. They were re-Francized in 1945.
Roman / Germanic correspondences
Comparison of Lorrain appellatives
Toponymic correspondences with communes in Meuse
Toponymic correspondences with communes in Moselle
Toponyms from the reorganization of territory
The reorganization of territory is a common occurrence throughout history, thus an important consideration in toponymy. Counties and cantons can be broken apart. New communes can be formed by joining several localities together. And sometimes through these changes a given name can migrate to a different locality that where it was originally used. Records of such territorial changes are increasingly scarce with the centuries, thus territorial histories tend to obscure with time. Few attestations are available for the founding or change of territory through the late first millennium, but records gradually improve, and by the late second millennium, scholars like Cassini, Lepage, and Boutilleir have largely collated all the toponyms attested in charts concerning the history of Austrasia into dictionaries and other tombs of reference.
Consider Condé-Northen in Moselle, which began as the ancient commune, Condé (specifically Condium or Condicum), attested as existing in 787. In 1804, a neighboring commune, Northen, was attached to Condé and the new territory became known by the name it bears today. But the growth did not stop there. In 1810, Pontigny was attached, and finally Loutremange was attached in 1979 by order of a prefectoral decree (arrêté préfectoral). While Northen, Pontigny, and Loutremange are no longer communes, thus no longer considered territorial collectivities, they are still recognized as localities within Condé-Northen.
Today communes increasingly join around large cities, where suburban communes grow into each other. For this to be possible, the communes must be adjacent and within the same department. Officials from both communes must jointly request the merger. The new municipality is typically named by hyphenating the two former toponyms together (seemingly in alphabetical order). Examples include Ancy-Dornot (formerly the communes of Ancy and Dornot) and Freyming-Merlebach (formerly Freyming and Merlebach), both in Moselle. Others certainly exist, and more likely will in the future. Municipalities of this kind are formed in the historical region of Alsace as well.
Yet another situation, though more rural and rare, is a large commune originally formed around multiple hamlets, farms, or other lesser localities that are nevertheless on the map. An example here concerns Métairies-Saint-Quirin, a relatively new commune formed around 1790 when the jurisdiction of the priory of Saint-Quirin was partially changed, possibly in relation to the National Convention. The distributed commune's domain originally encompassed eleven large farms, called censes: Craon (then Créon), Cubolot, Fontaine aux Chênes, Halmoze, Heille (or Helde), L'hor, Le Jardinot (became Haute-Gueisse during the Revolution), Jean Limon, La Petite Maladrerie, Rond-Pré, and Viller (or Courtegain). Of the original eleven properties making up the commune, only six still remain: Cubolot, Halmoze, Heille, Haute-Gueisse, Jean Limon, and Rond-Pré, as found on the map of Métairies-Saint-Quirin. The town hall of Métairies-Saint-Quirin has been located in Cubolot since 1920.
See also
German exonyms
List of European exonyms
References
Exonym
Moselle
Meuse (department)
Meurthe-et-Moselle
Moselle (department)
Vosges (department)
Lorraine
Names of places in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%202006%20in%20sports
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June 2006 in sports
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Days of the month
30 June 2006 (Friday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Quarter final
1 – 1 (a.e.t.) A 49th-minute header by Roberto Ayala shocks the huge German crowd, but competition top scorer Miroslav Klose scores his 5th in the 80th minute. No further goals, and so to penalties: both teams have previously been in three World Cup penalty shoot-outs and never lost. Germany win 4–2 on penalties.
3 – 0 A 6th-minute goal by Gianluca Zambrotta gives Italy the lead. Luca Toni scores a header after 59 minutes following poor Ukrainian defending, and he scores a second ten minutes later.
2006 Tour de France: On the day before the prologue in Strasbourg, Jan Ullrich and Óscar Sevilla are suspended by their T-Mobile Team following an anti-doping investigation in Spain and Team CSC rider Ivan Basso has been excluded from the tour. Ullrich and Basso were considered the favorites to claim the overall yellow jersey following the retirement of Lance Armstrong following his seven straight championships. Also excluded from the tour is Francisco Mancebo (Ag2r). Astana-Würth has decided to withdraw its team, on the basis of five of their riders, including Joseba Beloki, appearing on the investigation list, which also removes Alexander Vinokourov from the tour. (BBC Sport)
28 June 2006 (Wednesday)
2006 NBA draft: Andrea Bargnani is the first European player selected as the overall number one pick by the Toronto Raptors.
MLB: New York Mets pitcher Pedro Martínez is given a standing ovation by fans of the Boston Red Sox as he returns to Fenway Park for the first time since leading them to the 2004 World Series championship, but the Red Sox beat their former ace by scoring eight runs off him (six earned) on seven hits in a 10–2 blowout of the Mets.
27 June 2006 (Tuesday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Round of 16 (final day)
3 – 0 Ronaldo scores within 5 minutes to become the all-time highest-scoring player in World Cup finals (15). Adriano scores from an offside position just before half time, despite Ghana having the bulk of possession. Ze Roberto ends the Brazilian scoring in the 84th minute as he breaks through the defence and beats Ghana goalkeeper Richard Kingson. Asamoah Gyan gets red carded late in the game for an attempted dive.
1 – 3 Two evenly matched enterprising teams produce a fine advert for the beautiful game. A 28th-minute penalty by David Villa gives Spain the lead, while a 42nd-minute goal by Franck Ribéry following a beautiful run makes things all-square at half time. With seven minutes to full-time Patrick Vieira gives France the lead for the first time. Zinedine Zidane scores France's third goal in the 92nd minute to set up a rematch of the 1998 final against Brazil next Saturday in Frankfurt.
26 June 2006 (Monday)
Cricket: Indian cricket team in West Indies in 2006:
Third Test at St Kitts: Match drawn. Winning the toss and electing to bat, the West Indies compiled 581 in two-and-a-half days. Daren Ganga (135) and Ramnaresh Sarwan (116) scored centuries, while Indian spinner Harbhajan Singh claimed five wickets. India responded with 362 (VVS Laxman 100), short of the follow-on target, but Brian Lara opted to bat again. In the second innings, West Indies declared its innings closed at 172/6, giving India a victory target of 392 with under a day's play remaining. The visitors were unable to achieve the target in the time remaining, the Test ending in a draw. The four-Test series remains tied at 0–0. (Complete scorecard)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Round of 16
1 – 0 A fairly even match with Australia having most possession, conducted in a sporting manner despite Marco Materazzi's 50th minute dismissal for a scything tackle. Francesco Totti scores a penalty with the last kick of the match.
0 – 0 A profoundly tedious match between two teams both afraid of losing – there was not a single offside decision in the whole first 90 minutes, the match goes into extra time, and ends up in a penalty shootout, which Ukraine wins 3–0.
Baseball: NCAA College World Series Championship Series, Game 3 (best-of-three):
Oregon State 3, North Carolina 2. The Beavers, who won the series 2–1 over the Tar Heels, became the first northern-based CWS champions since Ohio State won in 1966, and the first to lose two CWS games since the introduction of the current format in 2002 thanks to Bill Rowe scoring on Tar Heels second baseman Bryan Steed's throwing error.
25 June 2006 (Sunday)
Auto racing
The Indianapolis Star reports that a merger is imminent between the Indy Racing League and the Champ Car series, leading to a single open-wheel series no earlier than 2008 with negotiations of co-ownership. This would end a war between the two when Indianapolis Motor Speedway broke away from what was the CART series to form the IRL.
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: Jeff Gordon wins the Dodge/Save Mart 350.
Baseball: NCAA College World Series Championship Series, Game 2 (best-of-three):
Oregon State 11, North Carolina 7. Oregon State evens the Championship Series on the power of a seven-run fourth inning. Series tied 1–1
Football: FIFA World Cup, Round of 16
1 – 0 David Beckham's first goal from a free kick for England since 2003, on the hour, separates the teams. (FIFA)
1 – 0 A Maniche goal midway through the first half gives Portugal the lead before the match gets out of hand and sees 16 yellow cards and 4 reds (a World Cup record for dismissals). (FIFA)
24 June 2006 (Saturday)
Baseball: NCAA College World Series Championship Series, Game 1 (best-of-three):
North Carolina 4, Oregon State 3. North Carolina leads series 1–0.
Football: FIFA World Cup, Round of 16
2 – 0 Two goals by Lukas Podolski (4 and 12 minutes) give Germany a fantastic start. Henrik Larsson blows a 52nd minute Swedish penalty chance. Germany go into the last 8 in the World Cup for the 15th time. (FIFA)
2 – 1 (a.e.t.) The game gets off to a scintillating start with two goals in the first nine minutes – Rafael Márquez puts Mexico ahead, then a goal by Hernán Crespo puts Argentina back on level terms. Still 1–1 at full-time, a wondergoal by Maxi Rodríguez in the eighth minute of extra time gives Argentina victory. (FIFA)
Rugby Union: Mid-year Tests:
19–25 (José Amalfitani Stadium, Buenos Aires)
37–15 Ireland (Subiaco Oval, Perth)
Ireland take a 15–11 lead early in the second half, but the Wallabies pull away for a comfortable win. (BBC)
26–36 (Newlands, Cape Town)
Les Bleus send the Springboks to their first home defeat since Jake White took over as Boks coach in February 2004. (BBC)
NHL: The 2006 NHL Entry Draft takes place at GM Place in Vancouver, British Columbia. American defenceman Erik Johnson goes first overall to the St. Louis Blues. Peterborough Pete Jordan Staal goes second to Pittsburgh, and University of North Dakota standout Jonathan Toews is taken third by the Chicago Blackhawks. (TSN)
23 June 2006 (Friday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase (final day)
Group H: 0 – 1 Saudi goalkeeper Mabrouk Zaid plays an inspired match as Spain, who had already advanced to the knockout stages, rest their entire first team and the young guns have trouble finding the net except for Juanito, scoring in the 36th minute. (FIFA)
Group H: 1 – 0 An uninspiring Ukrainian performance takes 70 minutes before Andriy Shevchenko sinks a penalty, advancing them to the elimination phase, even though Tunisia were reduced to 10 men before half time, with Ziad Jaziri's second yellow card. (FIFA)
Group G: 0 – 2 In this must-win match for France, they failed to break down the Togolese defence until Patrick Vieira scored in the 55th minute, followed six minutes later by Thierry Henry. (FIFA)
Group G: 2 – 0 A first-half Philippe Senderos header gives the Swiss the lead, and Alexander Frei seals the win – and qualification – in the 77th minute on a controversial non-offside call. (FIFA)
22 June 2006 (Thursday)
MLB: In his first major-league game since coming back from retirement, Roger Clemens of the Houston Astros gives up two runs on six hits in five innings against the Minnesota Twins, but is charged with the loss as the Twins win, 4–2. Jason Kubel had a RBI Double, and Michael Cuddyer, an RBI single in the third inning of Minnesota's win. Meanwhile, Twins rookie pitcher Francisco Liriano pitched eight solid innings for the win. (AP)
NHL: Joe Thornton of the San Jose Sharks wins the Hart Memorial Trophy as the Most Valuable Player at the NHL Awards show in Vancouver, British Columbia. Other major winners included Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals winning the Calder Memorial Trophy as Rookie of the Year, Lindy Ruff of the Buffalo Sabres winning the Jack Adams Trophy as Coach of the Year, Nicklas Lidström from the Detroit Red Wings as the winner of the Norris Trophy as the league's best defenceman, and Calgary Flames goalie Miikka Kiprusoff winning the Vezina Trophy as the most valuable goaltender. NHL.com
NBA: After only one season, New York Knicks president and general manager Isiah Thomas fires head coach Larry Brown and names himself the new head coach.
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group E: 0 – 2 Jan Polák gets red carded near halftime, and the Czechs flame out to the Italians. Goal scorers for Italy were Marco Materazzi and Filippo Inzaghi. (FIFA)
Group E: 1 – 2 The USA is upset by the youngest team in the World Cup, and finish last in their group, extending their winless streak in World Cup competition at European sites to no wins, one draw and nine losses while Ghana progresses to the round of 16 in their first appearance to face Brazil. Clint Dempsey scored for USA in the 43rd with Haminu Draman and Stephen Appiah scoring for the Black Stars on a penalty kick following a controversial call. (FIFA)
Group F: 1 – 4 Japan stun Brazil by taking the lead before Ronaldo equalizes just before half time, and also scores Brazil's fourth goal, equalling Gerd Müller's all-time record of 14 goals scored in the World Cup finals. (FIFA)
Group F: 2 – 2 A pulsating match between two closely related teams (seven of the Australian squad have Croatian antecedents, and three of the Croatian team are Australian-born), which Croatia needed to win and Australia only to draw. Croatia score in the second minute, Australia score a penalty, a goalkeeping howler gifts Croatia a second goal, Harry Kewell puts Australia back on level terms; both sides are reduced to 10 men in the last 10 minutes, and referee Graham Poll forgets to red-card Josip Simunic for a second bookable offence, but does for a third. A third Australian goal is disallowed as the full-time whistle is blown as it is going in. Brazil and Australia progress from the group. (FIFA)
21 June 2006 (Wednesday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group D: 2–1 (FIFA)
Group D: 1–1 This result means that Mexico advances to the Round of 16. (FIFA)
Group C: 0 – 0 Argentina wins the group on goal differential. (FIFA)
Group C: 3 – 2 Côte d'Ivoire record their first WC Finals win, coming back from 0–2 down in the first half. (FIFA)
20 June 2006 (Tuesday)
2006 NBA Finals Game 6: Miami Heat 95, Dallas Mavericks 92. Dwyane Wade scores 36 points and has 10 rebounds as Miami wins its first NBA championship in franchise history in six games, and is named Finals MVP. Dirk Nowitzki has 29 points and 15 rebounds for Dallas. Four Miami players have over 10 rebounds (Wade, Udonis Haslem, Antoine Walker and Shaquille O'Neal). The title is the fourth in the 2000s (decade) for O'Neal, the other three from 2000 to 2002 with the Los Angeles Lakers.
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group A: 0 – 3 Miroslav Klose puts the hosts ahead in the 4th and 44th minutes, fellow ex-Pole Lukas Podolski scores in the 57th. (FIFA)
Group A: 1 – 2 A 25th-minute goal by Ronald Gómez gives Costa Rica a good start, but a pair by Bartosz Bosacki in the 33rd and 66th minutes give Poland some consolation as both teams go home. (FIFA)
Group B: 2 – 2 In a hard-fought match, Michael Owen suffers a serious knee injury in the first minute, Joe Cole scores a spectacular opening goal, Marcus Allbäck's second half equaliser is the 2,000th goal in World Cup Finals history since 1930. Steven Gerrard gives England the lead again in the 85th minute. Henrik Larsson equalises again in the 90th minute (the first Swede to score in 5 major tournaments). England still haven't beaten Sweden since 1968. (FIFA)
Group B: 2 – 0 Brent Sancho's unfortunate headed own-goal gives Paraguay the lead, but Trini still fight doggedly to try to remain in the tournament, conceding another late goal. Both teams, however, still go home. (FIFA)
19 June 2006 (Monday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals Game 7: Carolina Hurricanes 3, Edmonton Oilers 1. Aaron Ward's goal 1:26 into the game sparks the former Hartford Whalers franchise to their first Stanley Cup championship in seven games. Goaltender Cam Ward (not related) wins the Conn Smythe Trophy as the Series MVP, and becomes the third rookie goaler in the last 40 seasons to lead his team to the championship. The other two: Ken Dryden and Patrick Roy, both with the Montreal Canadiens.
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group G: 0 – 2 Togo are eliminated, Switzerland goes top of the group, but any two of Switzerland, South Korea, and France can get to the second round. (FIFA)
Group H: 0 – 4 Recovering from last week's thrashing by Spain, Ukraine equals their largest-ever winning score. (FIFA)
Group H: 3 – 1 Mnari gives Tunisia a shock lead in the 12th minute, Raúl starts a comeback in the 71st minute and Fernando Torres, the tournaments' leading scorer, scores from open play in the 76th minute and a 90th-minute penalty. Spain qualify for the second round, almost certainly as group leaders; Tunisia must beat Ukraine on Friday in order to qualify. (FIFA)
18 June 2006 (Sunday)
Major League Baseball: In order to draw attention to the fact that one in every six men get prostate cancer, the traditional "Seventh inning stretch" will be moved to the sixth inning today at all fifteen games. Monies raised from the auctioning off of light-blue colored bases and lineup cards that will be earmarked for research of the Prostate Cancer Foundation, as well as home runs that have been hit starting on June 7.
Auto racing
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: 3M Performance 400: Pole-sitter Kasey Kahne wins in a race shortened to 129 of the scheduled 200 laps because of rain.
2006 24 Hours of Le Mans: The #8 Audi R10 of Frank Biela, Emanuele Pirro and Marco Werner wins the 74th edition of the Le Mans 24 Hours. They complete 380 laps in the 24-hour period, winning the race by 4 laps from the #17 Pescarolo–Judd of Éric Hélary, Franck Montagny and Sébastien Loeb, with the #7 Audi R10 of Rinaldo Capello, Tom Kristensen and Allan McNish third. Meanwhile, the #64 Chevrolet Corvette C6.R of Oliver Gavin, Olivier Beretta and Jan Magnussen wins the GT1 class, finishing 4th overall, the #25 RML MG-Lola of Thomas Erdos, Mike Newton and Andy Wallace wins the LMP2 class, and the all British crew of Tom Kimber-Smith, Richard Dean and Lawrence Tomlinson win the GT2 class, driving the #81 Panoz Esperante.
2006 NBA Finals Game 5: Miami Heat 101, Dallas Mavericks 100 (OT). Dwyane Wade scored 43 points, including a Finals game record 21 free throws, including the winning shots with 1.9 seconds left in the extra session to give the Heat a 3–2 series lead going back to Dallas. Jerry Stackhouse did not play for the Mavs due to a flagrant foul he committed in Game 4 against Shaquille O'Neal.
Cycling
Jan Ullrich overcomes a 50-second deficit to win the Tour de Suisse in preparation for his bid at the 2006 Tour de France.
Team CSC captures the UCI ProTour's Eindhoven Team Time Trial.
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group F: 0 – 0 A close-fought battle ends all-square, which probably gives Croatia a slightly better chance of making the second round than Japan. (FIFA)
Group F: 2 – 0 Adriano (46th min.) and Fred (89th min.) sink a battling Australia side who never gave up and remain second in the group. Brazil qualify for the last 16, Australia only need to draw against Croatia to qualify. (FIFA)
Group G: 1 – 1 Thierry Henry scores France's first World Cup Finals goal since the 1998 Final against Brazil. After dominating the match for 80 minutes, France concede an equaliser by Park Ji-Sung. (FIFA)
Golf: 2006 U.S. Open. Australian Geoff Ogilvy wins his first major championship, becoming the first Australian to win a men's golf major since Steve Elkington at the 1995 PGA Championship. Ogilvy survived a major 18th-hole collapse at Winged Foot Golf Club in Mamaroneck, New York that claimed Jim Furyk, Colin Montgomerie, and most notably Phil Mickelson, who was leading by a stroke heading into the final hole, but suffered a double bogey. Ogilvy's winning score of five over par (285) was the highest score to win since 1974's "Massacre at Winged Foot" when Hale Irwin shot seven over par (287).
17 June 2006 (Saturday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals Game 6: Edmonton Oilers 4, Carolina Hurricanes 0: Fernando Pisani, Raffi Torres, Ryan Smyth and Shawn Horcoff score for Edmonton, who will return to Carolina in the deciding seventh game on Monday. Goaltender Jussi Markkanen stops 16 shots for the shutout. Series tied 3–3
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group D: 2 – 0 Portugal is ensured a berth in the Round of 16, while Iran is eliminated from the World Cup. (FIFA)
Group E: 0 – 2 Asamoah Gyan shocks the Czechs with a goal within 75 seconds of the start, and misses a penalty when Tomáš Ujfaluši is red-carded, although he himself is needlessly yellow-carded and misses the final group game. (FIFA)
Group E: 1 – 1 An eventful match sees the USA reduced to 9 men, and Italy to 10, from early in the second half, and leaves Group E wide open. (FIFA)
Rugby Union: Mid-year Tests:
43–18 (Telstra Dome, Melbourne)
Mark Gerrard scores two tries to lead the Wallabies to an easy win. This is England's fifth consecutive Test defeat, their worst streak since 1984. George Gregan comes on as a substitute in the second half, earning his 120th cap and breaking the all-time record for international appearances of Jason Leonard (114 for England, five for the Lions). (BBC)
45–27 (José Amalfitani Stadium, Buenos Aires)
Los Pumas, led by 30 points from the boot of Federico Todeschini, score their largest win over Wales and also win a Test series against Wales for the first time. (BBC)
29–18 (Lawaqa Park, Lautoka)
27–17 Ireland (Eden Park, Auckland)
Unlike last week, the All Blacks did not have to come from behind, but still had to fight off a spirited Ireland side. (BBC)
14–62 (Cotroceni Stadium, Bucharest)
29–15 (EPRFU Stadium, Port Elizabeth)
Scotland score two tries to the Springboks' one, but seven penalties from Percy Montgomery see the Boks through to a comfortable win. Montgomery becomes the first Bok to score 600 Test points. (BBC) The Boks suffer a blow when 2004 World Player of the Year, flanker Schalk Burger, suffers a career-threatening neck injury. (BBC)
16 June 2006 (Friday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group C: 6 – 0 In one of the best World Cup finals matches in many tournaments, Argentina give a masterclass in possession football – Cambiasso's goal follows 23 consecutive passes – and a dire warning to all other competitors as the Argentines advance to the knockout phase. (FIFA)
Group C: 2 – 1 The Dutch take a two-goal lead before Côte d'Ivoire start to fight back, to no ultimate avail as they and Serbia and Montenegro are both eliminated from the second round. Didier Drogba is yellow-carded and will miss next Tuesday's final match. (FIFA)
Group D: 0 – 0 A hugely embarrassing result for world 4th-ranked Mexico, who failed to break down neophytes Angola, who were reduced to 10 men eleven minutes from the end. (FIFA)
Baseball: Houston Astros pitcher Roger Clemens allowed three runs in the first inning, but held on to win in his third minor league tune-up game as the Triple-A Round Rock Express defeated the Washington Nationals-affiliate New Orleans Zephyrs, 7–4. He only allowed two more hits and three walks in a total of 5 innings for the win, and threw five strikeouts. At the plate, he struck out twice, going 0-for-2. Nolan Ryan, Hall of Fame former pitcher and Round Rock Express owner, was in attendance.
Golf: U.S. Open. Tiger Woods misses his first cut in a major golf tournament as a professional when he shoots 12 over par after the first two rounds at Winged Foot's West Course. The 39 straight majors without missing the cut tied him with Jack Nicklaus.
15 June 2006 (Thursday)
NBA:
2006 NBA Finals Game 4: Miami Heat 98, Dallas Mavericks 74. Dwyane Wade deposited 36 points while the Mavs were limited to a total of seven fourth quarter points, a new Finals all-time low. The series is now guaranteed to return to Dallas Tuesday (June 20). Series tied at 2–2
Non-Finals news: Charlotte Bobcats principal owner Robert L. Johnson announces that Michael Jordan has become a minority owner in the team. Jordan will run the Bobcats' basketball operations. (Charlotte Bobcats)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group A: 3 – 0 This result confirms the elimination of Costa Rica and Poland even before they play each other. Ecuador meet Germany next Tuesday to determine who wins first and second place in the group (Ecuador currently leads on goal difference). (FIFA)
Group B: 2 – 0 The arrival of Wayne Rooney in the 58th minute as a substitute for Michael Owen injects urgency into the English attack, which still could not break down a redoubtable T&T defence until Peter Crouch scored in the 83rd minute. Steven Gerrard scored in the 91st minute. England qualify for the second round. (FIFA)
Group B: 1 – 0 Freddie Ljungberg scores an 89th-minute goal to relieve the vast throng of Swedish fans in Berlin's Olympiastadion. This eliminates Paraguay from the second round; Trinidad and Tobago retain a theoretical possibility of making the second round if England beat Sweden, and T&T beat Paraguay by a sufficient margin next Tuesday. (FIFA)
14 June 2006 (Wednesday)
Cricket: India in the West Indies:
Second Test at Beausejour Stadium, St Lucia: Match drawn. After winning the toss and electing to bat, India compiled an impressive 588/8 declared, with three batsmen – Wasim Jaffer (180), Mohammed Kaif (148), and captain Rahul Dravid (146) – scoring centuries. The West Indies lost early wickets and were unable to recover, scoring only 215. The West Indies required another 373 runs just to make India bat again, with three days remaining. Persistent rain interruptions and a patient Brian Lara century (120) allowed the West Indies to bat out the remaining time. The third and final Test begins in St Kitts on 22 June. (Scorecard)
Rugby league: State of Origin, Australia:
Game 2 at Suncorp Stadium, Brisbane: Queensland defeats New South Wales 30–6, levelling the three-match series after the New South Wales victory on May 24. The deciding match will be played in Melbourne on July 5. (ABC Australia)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals Game 5: Edmonton Oilers 4, Carolina Hurricanes 3 (OT). Fernando Pisani's short-handed breakaway goal just 3:31 into the overtime sends the series back to Alberta for Game 6 Saturday (June 17). It also marks the first time a short-handed goal ended a Stanley Cup Finals game. Carolina leads series 3–2
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group H: 4 – 0 David Villa scored two goals in a rout of the World Cup newcomers. (FIFA)
Group H: 2 – 2 (FIFA)
Group A: 1 – 0 A resolute Polish defense – reduced to 10 men in the 75th minute – keeps the Germans out until supersub Oliver Neuville scores in the 91st minute. (FIFA)
13 June 2006 (Tuesday)
2006 NBA Finals Game 3: Miami Heat 98, Dallas Mavericks 96. Dwyane Wade scored 42 points and the Heat guaranteed extending the series to five games with their first Finals game win. Dallas leads series 2–1
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group F: 1 – 0 A slightly disappointing performance from Brazil, winning on Kaká's 44th-minute goal, even with an out-of-sorts Ronaldo. (FIFA)
Group G: 2 – 1 Togo score their first-ever goal in the Finals, but 2002's 4th placed side score two cracking goals to take victory. (FIFA)
Group G: 0 – 0 Eight yellow cards (5 Swiss, 3 French) in a generally uninspiring match. (FIFA)
12 June 2006 (Monday)
NFL: Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback and Super Bowl XL star Ben Roethlisberger is injured in a motorcycle accident in Pittsburgh.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, Game 4: Carolina Hurricanes 2, Edmonton Oilers 1. Clutch goaltending by Edmonton native Cam Ward and goals by Cory Stillman and Mark Recchi put the former Hartford Whalers franchise one step away from their first Stanley Cup. Carolina leads series 3–1
Football (soccer): FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group E: 0 – 3 A comprehensive defeat of a one-dimensional US team by the reputedly "oldest team in the tournament", including two goals scored by Tomáš Rosický. However, the all-time leading Czech international goal scorer, Jan Koller, is stretchered off after suffering a hamstring injury late in the first half after scoring the first goal of the game in the fifth minute. (FIFA)
Group E: 2 – 0 (FIFA)
Group F: 3 – 1 After trailing from the 27th minute, the "Socceroos" stage a last-gasp comeback with Tim Cahill scoring the country's first-ever WC Finals goals in the 84th and 89th minutes, with John Aloisi wrapping things up in the 92nd minute. (FIFA)
Non-World Cup news:
Former Manchester United and Republic of Ireland great Roy Keane, currently with Celtic, retires due to a persistent hip condition at the age of 34.
11 June 2006 (Sunday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group C: 0 – 1 (FIFA)
Group D: 3 – 1 (FIFA)
Group D: 0 – 1 (FIFA)
Auto racing: Rookie pole sitter Denny Hamlin wins the NASCAR NEXTEL Cup Pocono 500.
Arena Football League:
ArenaBowl XX in Las Vegas, Nevada: Chicago Rush 65, Orlando Predators 61. The Rush becomes the first team with a sub-.500 regular season record (7–9) and win four games on the road to win the AFL Championship.
2006 NBA Finals, Game 2: Dallas Mavericks 99, Miami Heat 85. The Mavs converted two four-point plays, and Dirk Nowitzki had 26 points and 16 rebounds, while Dwyane Wade led Miami with 23 points. Shaquille O'Neal was limited to five points. Dallas leads series 2–0
Tennis: Roland Garros (French Open) – Men's singles Finals
Rafael Nadal def. Roger Federer, 1–6 6–1 6–4 7–6(4)
Rugby Union — Mid-year Tests:
34–3 (Telstra Stadium, Sydney)
The Wallabies hammer a young and mistake-prone England side. (BBC)
27–25 (Estadio Raúl Conti, Puerto Madryn)
Los Pumas claim a Six Nations scalp in a closely fought affair. The visitors were received warmly before the match, as it was held in a region settled by Welsh in the 1860s where Welsh is still widely spoken. (BBC)
Baseball
Roger Clemens of the Houston Astros strikes out eleven for the Double-A Texas League's Corpus Christi Hooks, allowing two hits and no runs in six innings. He set a new club record for strikeouts in one game. The Hooks beat the Seattle Mariners affiliate San Antonio Missions 5–1, earning Clemens the victory. (ESPN) (MinorLeagueBaseball.com)
10 June 2006 (Saturday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group B: 1 – 0 (FIFA)
Group B: 0 – 0 Tiny T&T, the smallest nation ever to qualify for the Finals, refuse to be beaten even after being reduced to 10 men thirty seconds into the second half. (FIFA)
Group C: 2 – 1 (FIFA)
Boxing: In what was likely his last fight, Bernard Hopkins wins the light-heavyweight championship of the world with a unanimous decision over Antonio Tarver in Atlantic City, New Jersey.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, Game 3: Edmonton Oilers 2, Carolina Hurricanes 1: Ryan Smyth's goal with 2:15 remaining wins the game for the Oilers in front of their home crowd. Shawn Horcoff also scores for Edmonton, while Rod Brind'Amour scores for Carolina. Carolina leads series 2–1 (Yahoo)
Rugby Union — Mid-year Tests:
34–23 Ireland (Waikato Stadium, Hamilton)
The top-ranked All Blacks retain their all-time unbeaten record against Ireland, but had to come back from a 23–15 deficit with nine minutes to go. (BBC)
36–16 (ABSA Stadium, Durban)
Early tries from Schalk Burger and Breyton Paulse stake the Springboks to a lead that they never relinquished. The final result was Scotland's worst-ever loss in South Africa, and keeps Scotland's winless record on South African soil intact. (BBC) (Planet-Rugby.com)
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing: Jazil, ridden by 18-year-old Fernando Jara, wins the 138th running of the Belmont Stakes. The race was "watered down" because neither Barbaro (the Kentucky Derby winner) or Preakness winner Bernardini competed, the former due to a career-ending injury, and the latter because of scheduling.
9 June 2006 (Friday)
Football: FIFA World Cup, Group Phase
Group A: 4 – 2 (FIFA)
Group A: 2 – 0 (FIFA)
8 June 2006 (Thursday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendly:
0 – 3
2006 NBA Finals Game 1: Dallas Mavericks 90, Miami Heat 80: Jason Terry leads the Mavs with 32 points; Shaquille O'Neal misses eight of nine free throws. Dallas leads series 1–0
7 June 2006 (Wednesday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies:
3 – 1
3 – 1 : In a major blow for France, Djibril Cissé suffers a broken leg in an innocuous tackle. (FIFA)
2 – 1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals Game 2: Carolina Hurricanes 5, Edmonton Oilers 0: Jussi Markkanen starts for the Oilers, but concedes five goals, three of them on power plays. Cam Ward stops all of the Oilers' 25 shots, becoming the first rookie goalie since Patrick Roy to have a clean slate in a Stanley Cup Finals game. Carolina leads series 2–0
6 June 2006 (Tuesday)
Cricket: India in the West Indies:
First Test at Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's, Antigua Match drawn. After winning the toss and batting, India reached a total of 241 in its first innings. West Indies replied with 371, half-centuries to Gayle, Bravo and Sarwan. In its second innings, a double century (212) to Wasim Jaffer guided India to 521/6 declared. West Indies required 392 runs to win. The Test ended in a draw after the West Indies were able to bat through the entire day. (Scorecard)
Baseball
Houston Astros pitcher Roger Clemens throws six strikeouts in his first minor-league tune-up start for the Class-A Lexington Legends, who defeated the Lake County Captains, 5–1. Clemens allowed three hits, including a home run to Johnny Drennen, and hit one batter. He only pitched three innings, failing to qualify for the decision. (MLB.com)
5 June 2006 (Monday)
Cricket: Sri Lanka in England
Third Test at Trent Bridge, Nottingham: Sri Lanka wins by 134 runs to tie three-Test series 1–1. Sri Lanka, having won the toss and electing to bat, compiled 231 in their first innings, courtesy of a solid performance from the Sri Lankan tail. England replied with 229. In its second innings, half-centuries to Kumar Sangakkara and Chamara Kapugedera lifted the visitors to a total of 322, English bowler Monty Panesar taking 5/78. England required 325 runs to win. Victory was thwarted by Muttiah Muralitharan, who claimed 8/70 as England were dismissed for 190. (Scorecard)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendly:
3 – 0
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup Finals Game 1: Carolina Hurricanes 5, Edmonton Oilers 4: Rod Brind'Amour scores on a turnover by substitute goalie Ty Conklin, in for the injured Dwayne Roloson who is out for the rest of the season with a knee injury, with 32 seconds left in regulation to give the 'Canes first blood in the Stanley Cup finals. The Oilers' Chris Pronger scores on a penalty shot, the first time in eleven attempts in a Stanley Cup Finals game. Carolina leads series 1–0
4 June 2006 (Sunday)
Football:
The Netherlands wins the UEFA U-21 Championship 2006, defeating the Ukraine 3–0 in the final.
Pre-World Cup friendlies:
1 – 0
1 – 1
4 – 0
3 – 0
1 – 3
Rugby union sevens:
In the final event of the 2005–06 World Sevens Series, held at Twickenham in London, Fiji clinch the overall series crown by defeating Kenya in the quarterfinals, and go on to win the London Sevens after defeating New Zealand in the semifinals and Samoa in the final. Fiji becomes the first team other than New Zealand to win the overall title in the seven-year history of the competition. (BBC)
Arena Football League
National Conference Championship Game
Orlando Predators 45, Dallas Desperados 28
Auto racing:
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: Matt Kenseth rallies to pass Roush Racing teammate Jamie McMurray with two laps left to win the Neighborhood Excellence 400 presented by Bank of America
3 June 2006 (Saturday)
Arena Football League
American Conference Championship Game
Chicago Rush 59, San Jose SaberCats 56
Baseball: In a wild game during the 2006 NCAA Baseball Tournament, North Carolina-Wilmington defeated Maine by the score of 21–19.
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies.
6 – 0
3 – 0
1 – 0
4 – 1
0 – 3
2 – 0
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Finals, Game 6
Dallas Mavericks 102, Phoenix Suns 93: The Mavs make history as they win the series 4–2 thanks to Dirk Nowitzki's 24 points and 10 rebounds and Josh Howard collected 20 and 15. Jerry Stackhouse added 13 of his team's 19 points in the fourth period, as the Mavs outscored the Suns by 13 in the quarter. The Mavs will host the Miami Heat starting Thursday (June 8) in the 2006 NBA Finals.
Horse racing:
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing
United Kingdom:
Sir Percy, ridden by Martin Dwyer, wins the Derby at Epsom Downs Racecourse. The 6/1 shot, trained by Marcus Tregoning, fended off three other horses in one of the tightest finishes of the Derby's long history. It beat off the 66/1 outsider Dragon Dancer, ridden by Darryll Holland, by a short head, with Dylan Thomas, ridden by Johnny Murtagh, finishing third at a price of 25/1. Pre-race favourite Visindar finished 5th after jockey Christophe Soumillon was boxed in. Horatio Nelson, the mount of Kieren Fallon, suffered a fracture to his front left leg while in the closing stages. After the race, the horse had to be put down. (BBC)
2 June 2006 (Friday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies.
3 – 0
1 – 1
0 – 1
2 – 3
0 – 0
0 – 0
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 6
Miami Heat 95, Detroit Pistons 78: The Heat advanced to their first NBA Finals in franchise history, winning the series 4–2 thanks to Shaquille O'Neal's 28 points and 16 rebounds. The Heat will meet the winner of the Western Conference Finals starting on Thursday, June 8.
1 June 2006 (Thursday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies.
0 – 0
2 – 1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 7
Carolina Hurricanes 4, Buffalo Sabres 2: Rod Brind'Amour registered the conference-winning goal for the 'Canes, and with their 4–3 series win, will host the Edmonton Oilers to begin the Stanley Cup Finals on Monday, June 5.
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 5
Dallas Mavericks 117, Phoenix Suns 101 Dallas leads series 3–2
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Louisville%20people
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List of University of Louisville people
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The following is a list of people associated with the University of Louisville.
Notable alumni
Arts and entertainment
Harriette Simpson Arnow (BS 1930) – former author, best known for The Dollmaker
Terry Bisson (BA 1964) – contemporary science fiction author
Nick DeMartino (BA) – former Senior Vice President, Media and Technology for the American Film Institute
Bob Edwards (BA 1969) – former host of NPR's Morning Edition, host of The Bob Edwards Show on XM Satellite Radio and PRI's Bob Edwards Weekend
Howard Fineman (JD 1975) – Newsweek chief political analyst
Sam Gilliam (BFA 1955, MFA 1961) – painter, specializing in color field and abstract art
Sue Grafton (BA 1961) – contemporary detective novel author
Edward N. Hamilton Jr (BFA 1969) – sculptor, works include York, the Spirit of Freedom, and the Amistad Memorial
Michael Jackman – columnist, poet, essayist, fiction writer, and college professor
Static Major – singer, songwriter, most famous from his work with Lil Wayne on "Lollipop"
Delfeayo Marsalis (MA 2004) – jazz trombonist and record producer; brother of Wynton Marsalis and son of Ellis Marsalis
Amanda Matthews (BA) – sculptor and painter
Beverle Graves Myers – author of historical mystery novels and short stories
Mary Spencer Nay (BA 1941, MA 1960) – painter and printmaker
Marsha Norman (BA 1969) – Pulitzer Prize and Tony Award-winning playwright
Barbara A. Perry (BA 1978) – author; political analyst; Senior Fellow, University of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs; former Carter Glass Professor of Government, Sweet Briar College
Diane Sawyer – attended but did not graduate law school; anchor of ABC World News
Ben Sollee – cellist, singer, and songwriter
Henry Strater – painter, illustrator
Kenneth Victor Young (BA, MA) – painter, designer, educator
Business
Owsley Brown Frazier (BA 1958, JD 1960) – former director of Brown-Forman Corporation
Robert Nardelli (MBA 1975) – CEO of Chrysler; former CEO of Home Depot; former CEO of General Electric Company
Frank Neuhauser (BS 1934) – patent attorney; winner of the first National Spelling Bee in 1925
James Patterson (MBA 1955) – co-founder of Long John Silvers, Rally's Hamburgers, and Chi-Chi's restaurant chains, President of Pattco Investments
Sadiqa Reynolds (BS 1993) – CEO of the Perception Institute; former president and CEO of the Louisville Urban League
Leslie Stephen Wright (1913–97) – President of Samford University in Birmingham, Alabama 1958–83
Politics
David L. Armstrong (JD 1969) – former mayor of Louisville (1996–2002)
Reuf Bajrovic – former Minister of Energy of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BA 2000)
Solon Borland (MD 1841) – former U.S. Senator (D), Arkansas
Christopher Dodd (JD 1972) – former U.S. Senator (D), Connecticut
James B. Edwards (DMD 1955) – former U.S. Secretary of Energy and Governor of South Carolina
Charles R. Farnsley (LL.B. 1926) – Kentucky General Assembly 1936–40; Mayor of Louisville 1948–53; U.S. House of Representatives 1965–67
Gina Haspel – Director of CIA (BA 1978)
Henry D. Hatfield (DMD 1900) – former U.S. Senator and Governor of West Virginia
David L. Huber – former U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Kentucky
Addison James – United States Representative from Kentucky
Thomas Lee Judge – 18th governor of Montana
John A. Logan (JD 1851) – Union General in the Civil War, won Medal of Honor at Vicksburg, led Union forces at Battle of Atlanta, Senator for Illinois
Romano Mazzoli (JD 1960) – representative for KY's 3rd US Congressional District 1971–95
Mitch McConnell (BA 1964) – U.S. Senator and Majority Leader (R), Kentucky
Louie Nunn (JD 1950) – Governor of Kentucky (1967–71)
Jim Smith – member of the Indiana Senate
Evan B. Stotsenburg – President Pro Tempore of the Indiana Senate; Indiana Attorney General (1915–1917)
Troy Stubbs, member of the Alabama House of Representatives
Ben Waide (BS) – member of the Kentucky House of Representatives
Religion
Aryeh Kaplan (BA 1961) – American Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator known for his knowledge of physics and kabbalah
Science and engineering
James Gilbert Baker (BA 1935) – winner of Presidential Award for Merit, developed the Baker-Schmidt telescope, pushed for U2 spy plane development
Lawrence F. Dahl (BS 1951) – professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison
Keith Fitzgerald (BA 1994) – political scientist and immigration policy pundit
Thomas L. Maddin (1826–1908) – Confederate physician, professor of medicine at the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
David Meade – book author
Renã A. S. Robinson (B.S. 2000) – spectrometry, proteomics, Alzheimer's disease and aging
Gary Sullivan (B.S. 1982, MEng 1983) – researcher and standardization leader in video compression technology including H.264/AVC and HEVC
Chang-Lin Tien (MEng 1957) – UC Berkeley chancellor 1990–97; engineering scholar
Notable faculty
William Burke Belknap – economist; hardware manufacturer; philanthropist; horse breeder; Professor of Economics at the University of Louisville
Jim Chen – legal scholar and expert on constitutional law
Colin Crawford – legal scholar and dean of the University of Louisville School of Law
Paul W. Ewald – evolutionary biologist credited as one scientist who devised the Trade-Off Hypothesis
Agnes Moore Fryberger – first director of music appreciation at the university
Kee Chang Huang – distinguished professor of pharmacology
Michael Jackman – columnist, poet, essayist and fiction writer
Melanie B. Jacobs – legal scholar and dean of the University of Louisville School of Law
John LaBarbera – jazz professor, nominated for 2005 Grammy award in the Best Large Jazz Ensemble category for his CD On the Wild Side
Justin McCarthy – discredited Armenian genocide denier
Mary Spencer Nay – painter and printmaker
Tom Owen – Professor of Libraries and Community Relations Associate, Louisville Metro Council representative
James Speed – lecturer, U.S. Attorney General under President Abraham Lincoln
Eugenia Wang – professor with a primary focus in researching the genetic aspect of aging in humans
Harold G. Wren – legal scholar and law school dean
Manning G. Warren III – holder of the H. Edward Harter Chair of Commercial Law
Roman Yampolskiy – computer scientist known for his work on artificial intelligence safety
Notable athletic alumni
Football
Current NFL players
Jaire Alexander – cornerback, Green Bay Packers
Teddy Bridgewater (2011–2014) – Minnesota Vikings, New Orleans Saints, Denver Broncos Miami Dolphins quarterback
Jamon Brown – offensive tackle, Green Bay Packers
Preston Brown (2010–13) – Buffalo Bills linebacker
Lamar Jackson (2015–2018) – quarterback for Baltimore Ravens; NFL; 2016 Heisman Trophy winner
DeVante Parker (2011–14) – Miami Dolphins wide receiver
Bilal Powell (2007–10) – New York Jets running back
Current CFL players
Victor Anderson
Otis Floyd (1995–98) – Hamilton Tiger-Cats linebacker
Adam Froman (2009–10) – Winnipeg Blue Bombers quarterback
Trent Guy – Toronto Argonauts slotback
Montrell Jones (2001–02) – Montreal Alouettes wide receiver
Joshua Tinch (2002–05) – Saskatchewan Roughriders wide receiver
Jonta Woodard (2001–02) – Hamilton Tiger-Cats offensive tackle
Current AFL players
Donovan Arp (1999–2000) – Austin Wranglers offensive/defensive lineman
Kevin Gaines (1990–93) – Grand Rapids Rampage defensive back
Jason Hilliard (2001–04) – Columbus Destroyers offensive lineman
Will Rabatin (2001–04) – Columbus Destroyers offensive/defensive lineman
Current UFL players
Brian Brohm (2004–07) – Las Vegas Locomotives quarterback 2011–present
Ronnie Ghent (1997–2001) – Hartford Colonials tight end
Former pros
David Akers (1992–95) – San Francisco 49ers kicker; five-time Pro Bowl selection (2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2010)
Bruce Armstrong (1983–86) – former New England Patriots offensive lineman; played in the NFL for 14 seasons; six-time Pro Bowl selection (1990, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 1997); one of only 11 inducted into the Patriots Hall of Fame; one of only seven to have his number retired
Deion Branch (2000–01) – New England Patriots wide receiver; Super Bowl XXXIX MVP with the New England Patriots, tied record for catches in a Super Bowl
Ray Buchanan (1989–91) – former Atlanta Falcons, Indianapolis Colts, and Oakland Raiders defensive back
Curry Burns (1998–2002) – free agent safety
Michael Bush (2003–06) – Chicago Bears running back
Mark Clayton (1979–82) – former Miami Dolphins and Green Bay Packers wide receiver; five-time Pro Bowl selection (1984, 1985, 1986, 1988 and 1991)
Harry Douglas (2003–07) – Tennessee Titans wide receiver
Elvis Dumervil (2002–05) – Denver Broncos, Baltimore Ravens defensive end; tied the NCAA single-season sack record (24); was a first team All-American and the 2005 Bronko Nagurski Trophy winner as college football's Defensive Player of the Year; 2005 Ted Hendricks Award as college football's top defensive end
Renardo Foster (2003–06) – free agent offensive lineman
William Gay (2003–06) – Pittsburgh Steelers cornerback
Antoine Harris (2002–05) – free agent defensive back
Nate Harris (2005–06) – free agent linebacker
Earl Heyman (2005–09) – New Orleans Saints defensive tackle
Ernest Givins (1984–85) – former Houston Oilers and Jacksonville Jaguars wide receiver; two-time Pro Bowl selection (1990 and 1992)
Ernie Green (1959–62) – former Green Bay Packers and Cleveland Browns running back and fullback
Jay Gruden (1985–88) – former Arena Football League quarterback for the Tampa Bay Storm, led the team to four ArenaBowl championships; League MVP in 1992 and MVP of ArenaBowl VII; first quarterback inducted into the Arena Football Hall of Fame in 1998; head coach of the Washington Redskins; former head coach of the Orlando Predators, led the team to titles in ArenaBowls XII and XIII
Tom Jackson (1970–72) – former Denver Broncos linebacker; three-time Pro Bowl selection (1977–79); analyst on ESPN's NFL Gameday; two-time Missouri Valley Conference player of the year (1971, 1972)
Joe Jacoby (1977–80) – former Washington Redskins offensive lineman; key member of "The Hogs"; member of Super Bowl XVII, Super Bowl XXII, and Super Bowl XXVI Championship teams; four-time Pro Bowl selection (1983–86)
Brandon Johnson (2002–05) – Cincinnati Bengals linebacker
Chris Johnson (2001–02) – Oakland Raiders defensive back
Joe Johnson (1990–93) – former New Orleans Saints and Green Bay Packers defensive end; two-time Pro Bowl selection (1998 and 2000)
Stefan LeFors (2000–05; played 2001–04) – former quarterback with the Carolina Panthers in the NFL and the Edmonton Eskimos and Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the CFL; head high school football coach at the Christian Academy of Louisville
Lenny Lyles (1954–57) – drafted by the Baltimore Colts in the first round (11th overall) of the 1958 NFL Draft; one-time Pro Bowl selection; one of the first African American football players at the University of Louisville; often referred to as "the fastest man in football"
Sam Madison (1993–96) – former Miami Dolphins and New York Giants defensive back; four-time Pro Bowl selection (1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002)
Frank Minnifield (1979–82) – former Cleveland Browns defensive back; four-time Pro Bowl selection (1986–89); co-creator of the "Dawg Pound"; led nation in kickoff returns in 1981 and punt returns in 1982
Roman Oben (1991–95) – offensive lineman
Amobi Okoye (2003–06) – Chicago Bears defensive lineman
Richard Owens (1999–2003) – free agent tight end
Chris Redman (1996–99) – Atlanta Falcons quarterback; 1999 Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award winner
Kerry Rhodes (2001–04) – Arizona Cardinals defensive back, 2005 NFL All-Rookie team
Kolby Smith (2003–06) – free agent running back
Jason Spitz (2002–05) – Jacksonville Jaguars offensive lineman
Montavious Stanley (2002–05) – free agent defensive tackle
Howard Stevens – running back, Baltimore Colts, New Orleans Saints; member of Louisville Athletic Hall of Fame
Johnny Unitas (1951–54) – former Baltimore Colts quarterback; Pro Football Hall of Fame member, three-time NFL Most Valuable Player
Dewayne White (2000–02) – Detroit Lions defensive end
Otis Wilson (1976–79) – first team All-American defensive end; member of the Chicago Bears Super Bowl XX Championship team
Men's basketball
Rakeem Buckles (2009–12) – professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Taqwa Pinero, formerly known as Taquan Dean (2003–05) - professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns (NBA Summer league 2008), Unicaja Málaga (2009–2010), Élan Béarnais Pau-Lacq-Orthez (2017-2019)
Trey Lewis (2015–2016) – professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Mangok Mathiang (born 1992) - Australian-Sudanese basketball player for Hapoel Eilat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Donovan Mitchell (2015–17) – professional basketball player for the Utah Jazz (2017-2022), Cleveland Cavaliers (2022-present)
Chinanu Onuaku (born 1996) - basketball player
Kenny Payne (1985–89) – professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers (1989–1993), coach for the University of Louisville (2022–present)
Derek Smith (1979–82) – professional basketball player for the Golden State Warriors (1982–1983), Los Angeles/San Diego Clippers (1983–1986), Sacramento Kings (1986–1989), Philadelphia 76ers (1989–1993), and Boston Celtics (1990–1991)
Russ Smith - former NBA player, currently in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
All-Americans
(listed in chronological order)
Bob Lochmueller (1949–52)
Charlie Tyra (1954–57)
Don Goldstein (1956–59) – All-American, Pan American Games gold medalist
Jack Turner (1958–61)
Wes Unseld (1965–68) – three-time All-American; former member of the Baltimore/Washington Bullets; 5-time NBA All-Star; second person ever to win both NBA Rookie of the Year and NBA Most Valuable Player in the same season; named to the NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time Team; inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1988
Butch Beard (1966–69)
Jim Price (1969–72)
Junior Bridgeman (1972–75) – All-American in 1975
Allen Murphy (1972–75)
Phil Bond (1973–76)
Wesley Cox (1974–77)
Rick Wilson (1975–78)
Darrell Griffith (1976–80) – 1980 John Wooden Award winner (player of the year) and Most Outstanding Player of the NCAA basketball tournament; former member of the Utah Jazz; 1981 NBA Rookie of the Year
Lancaster Gordon (1981–84)
Pervis Ellison (1985–89) – first freshman to be named Most Outstanding Player of the NCAA basketball tournament; first overall pick of the 1989 NBA Draft
Clifford Rozier (1991–94)
DeJuan Wheat (1994–97)
Reece Gaines (2000–03)
Francisco García (2003–05) – led team to 2005 Final Four; former member of Sacramento Kings; member of the Houston Rockets
Terrence Williams (2005–09) – led team to back to back Elite 8s; former member of Houston Rockets; member of the Boston Celtics
Women's basketball
Angel McCoughtry (2005–09) – Big East Player of the Year and All-American in 2007, 2008, and 2009; led the Cardinals to the 2009 NCAA final; first overall pick in the 2009 WNBA draft by the Atlanta Dream; 2009 Rookie of the Year
Shoni Schimmel (2010–14) – led the Cardinals to the 2013 NCAA final; chosen eighth overall in the 2014 WNBA draft by the Dream
Baseball
Zack Burdi – MLB pitcher in Arizona Diamondbacks organization
Reid Detmers – MLB pitcher for the Los Angeles Angels
Chris Dominguez – former MLB infielder and head coach for the Bellarmine Knights
Adam Duvall – MLB player for the Atlanta Braves and formerly the San Francisco Giants and Cincinnati Reds; 2016 All-Star and 2016 Home Run Derby participant
Drew Ellis – MLB infielder, Seattle Mariners
Cody Ege – former MLB pitcher
Adam Engel – MLB outfielder, Chicago White Sox
Kyle Funkhouser – MLB pitcher, Detroit Tigers
Chad Green – MLB pitcher, New York Yankees
Sean Green (1997–2000) – former MLB pitcher
Bryan Hoeing – MLB pitcher, Miami Marlins
Zach Jackson, – former MLB pitcher
Jarred Kelenic – MLB outfielder, Seattle Mariners
Dean Kiekhefer – former MLB pitcher
Matt Koch – MLB pitcher
Fred Koster (1926-1928), – former MLB outfielder
Trystan Magnuson – former MLB pitcher
Justin Marks – former MLB pitcher
Kyle McGrath – MLB pitcher
Brendan McKay (2014–2017) – first baseman and pitcher, Tampa Bay Rays; consensus national college player of the year in 2017
Corey Ray – MLB outfielder, Milwaukee Brewers
Josh Rogers – MLB pitcher, Miami Marlins
B. J. Rosenberg – former MLB pitcher
Will Smith – MLB catcher, Los Angeles Dodgers
Nick Solak – MLB infielder, Texas Rangers
Logan Wyatt – MLB first baseman, San Francisco Giants
Tony Zych – former MLB pitcher
Track and field
Tone Belt (2005–present) – won the 2007 NCAA indoor long jump national title, UofL's first-ever track national title in track and field
Andre Black (2005–present) – won the 2007 NCAA indoor triple jump national title, UofL's second-ever national title in track and field
Kelley Bowman (2002–06) – two-time All-American high jumper; finished 3rd in nation in the high jump at 2006 NCAA National Championships with a UofL record of 6 feet, 1.25 inches; holds Kentucky high school girls' record (5 feet, 10.5 inches); won four consecutive KY state titles at Berea High School; had 4th best jump in the nation in 2000
Wesley Korir (2006–08) – multiple All-America in distance running; winner of the 2012 Boston Marathon; member of the Kenyan Parliament, 2013–2017
Other sports
Adam Hadwin (2009) – PGA golfer, winner of 2017 Valspar Championship
Scott Harrington – Indy car race driver, 1999 Indycar Rookie of the Year
Denis Petrashov (born 2000) - Kyrgyzstani Olympic swimmer
Shannon Smyth (2005–08) – Republic of Ireland international soccer player
List of presidents of the University of Louisville
There have been 28 presidents and five interim presidents of what is (or was once a part of) the University of Louisville.
Jefferson Seminary (1813–29)
Mann Butler 1813–16
William Tompkins 1816–21
Charles M. M'Crohan 1821–25
Francis E. Goddard 1826–29
Louisville Collegiate Institute (1837–40)
Benjamin F. Farnsworth 1837–38
John Hopkins Harney 1838–40
Louisville College (1840–46)
John Hopkins Harney 1840–44
Louisville Medical Institute (1837–1846)
John Rowan 1837–42
William Garvin 1842–43
James Guthrie 1843–46
University of Louisville (post merger of LMI and LC) (1846–present)
Samuel Smith Nicholas 1846–47
James Guthrie 1847–69
Isaac Caldwell 1869–86
James Speed Pirtle 1886–05
Theodore L. Burnett 1905–11
David William Fairleigh 1911–14
Arthur Younger Ford 1914–26
George Colvin 1926–28
John Letcher Patterson 1928–29 (acting)
Raymond Asa Kent 1929–43
Einar William Jacobsen 1943–46
Frederick William Stamm 1946–47 (acting)
John Wilkinson Taylor 1947–50
Eli Huston Brown III 1950–51 (acting)
Philip Grant Davidson 1951–68
University of Louisville, as part of the Kentucky state system
Woodrow Mann Strickler 1968–72
William Ferdinand Ekstrom 1972–73 (acting)
James Grier Miller 1973–80
William Ferdinand Ekstrom 1980–81 (acting)
Donald C. Swain 1981–95
John W. Shumaker 1995–2002
Carol Garrison 2002 (acting)
James R. Ramsey 2002–16
Neville G. Pinto 2016–17 (acting)
Gregory C. Postel 2017–2018 (acting)
Neeli Bendapudi 2018–2022
Lori Stewart Gonzalez 2022–present (interim)
See also
University of Louisville
Louisville Cardinals
Louisville Cardinal's Radio Affiliates
Louisville Cardinals Conference Championships by Year
List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area
References
External links
UofL library archives list of presidents
University of Louisville people
Louisville, Kentucky-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Rugby%20Championship
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Australian Rugby Championship
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The Australian Rugby Championship, often abbreviated to the ARC and also known as the Mazda Australian Rugby Championship for sponsorship purposes, was a domestic professional men's rugby union football competition in Australia, which ran for only one season in 2007. It was the predecessor to the also now-defunct National Rugby Championship. The competition, similar to New Zealand's ITM Cup and South Africa's Currie Cup, aimed to bridge the gap between existing club rugby and the international Super Rugby competition then known as Super 14. The ARC involved eight teams: three from New South Wales, two from Queensland, and one each from the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Western Australia.
From its inception the ARC divided many in Australian rugby, with arguments over the structure and format of the competition, and concerns that the creation of arbitrary state-based teams would undermine the strong club competitions in Sydney and Brisbane. On 18 December 2007, the Australian Rugby Union (ARU) announced that the ARC would be shut down due to heavy financial losses: the ARC lost A$4.7 million during the 2007 season, with projected losses of $3.3 million for 2008.
On 10 December 2013, Bill Pulver, the CEO of the Australian Rugby Union, announced a new competition along similar lines, the National Rugby Championship, to include 8 to 10 teams in "major population centres".
History
The official announcement on the agreement to create a national rugby competition in Australia was made in mid-2006, following a 70-person three-day summit in Sydney that agreed to an eight team competition. However, the competition was not without its share of controversy, with some of the strong state-level clubs being against the formation of a new level of competition, claiming it could harm club and grassroots rugby. In September, an ARU board meeting, after hearing these concerns, officially approved the new competition.
A month later, the competition kicked off, however the Queensland teams performed poorly as the East Coast Aces and Ballymore Tornadoes finished last and second last respectively.
The Perth Spirit performed the best out of the regular rounds winning six out of eight games, but due to bonus points finished third on the ladder behind the Central Coast Rays and minor premiers the Western Sydney Rams.
After the top four teams took part in the semi-finals, the Melbourne Rebels and Central Coast Rays would compete in the first and last ARC Grand Final: the Rays defeated the Rebels 20–12 to win the premiership.
After a review of the ARC was undertaken following the 2007 season, it was found that it had run $1.3 million over budget and had lost $4.7 million for the 2007 season, with forecast losses for a 2008 season coming to a further $3.3 million. The ARU, concluding that a cumulative loss of $8 million over two years would be fiscal irresponsiblity and that it was likely there would be further heavy future losses beyond 2008, immediately decided to shut down the competition.
Final
Details for the only season held:
Format
Competition
The competition ran for eight weeks, with finals being competed over an additional two weeks - each side played eight games, with the top four teams qualifying for the semi-finals where the winners move into the final. The competition kicked off in August, after the Super 14 and the March to July club competitions finished, and avoiding a clash with Australian under-19 and under-21 duties and the Pacific Nations Cup (in which Australia A played). In total, 35 matches were played in the ARC over 10 weeks from 11 August and 14 October, with games played on Fridays and Sundays. It was originally planned that games would not be played at 'traditional' times for rugby matches, but this decision was changed when the ABC insisted that its televised games be played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons. The inaugural final was played between the Central Coast Rays and the Melbourne Rebels in Gosford.
Players
The timeframe of the season ensured the availability of Super 14 players (excluding Wallabies). There was no draft, and players were free to choose their team, although there was a salary cap in place. Players came from local competitions (which includes Super 14 players). Each Super 14 franchise was aligned with the respective teams, except for Melbourne, as Victoria had no Super rugby team at the time.
It was planned that although 35 footballers will be on international duty for the Wallabies, over 90 Super 14 players would go into the ARC, leaving the way for over 120 footballers to step up from first grade club competitions.
It was also planned that each team would have one "marquee" footballer not be subject to financial restrictions of the player contracting protocol. The player could be either foreign or a non-contracted domestic footballer, and if a team signed an Australian as their marquee footballer, they would still be able to sign up a foreign footballer, though they would have to fit within the contract restrictions.
Rules
The ARU announced in June 2007 that the inaugural championship would adopt the Experimental Law Variations (ELVs), which were initially trialled at South Africa's Stellenbosch University and which aim to bring more free-flowing play into the game. The laws were implemented in both the Sydney and Brisbane club competitions and were well received.
Referees
The referees supplied for the tournament predominantly come from the Australian Rugby Union Panels.
Referees for the tournament included: Matt Goddard, James Leckie, James Scholtens, George Ayoub, Daniel Cheever, Brett Bowden, Andrew Lindsay and Geoff Acton.
Stuart Dickinson and Paul Marks did not referee in the tournament, as they refereed at the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France.
Media coverage
The Championship was broadcast on free-to-air television during its only season. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) secured the rights to exclusively televise the competition from 2007 through to 2009 by agreeing to accept a substantial fee from the ARU in order to cover the matches.
The fact that the sport's governing organisation had to pay a television station to broadcast the Championship arguably left worrying implications for a code that was struggling to attract mainstream interest in Australia. The ABC committed to broadcast 19 matches during the season on ABC1 and ABC2: two matches from each round, the semi-finals and the final.
The previous time the ABC had covered elite-level rugby was for the 1991 Rugby World Cup (which Australia won).
Regular season 2007
The eight teams played four home games and four away games each during the preliminary competition rounds, consisting of a single round-robin with each team playing each other once plus an additional return match for the "derby" fixture played in the first round (these fixtures were matches between the closest neighbouring teams in most cases). The top four teams at the end of the preliminary competition rounds qualified for the title play-offs with semi-finals and finals.
Standings
Competition rounds
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Round 5
Round 6
Round 7
Round 8
Title play-offs 2007
The top four sides in the regular season advanced to the knock-out stage of semi-finals and final to decide the Australian Rugby Championship title.
Semi-finals
Grand Final
Players 2007
Leading try scorers
Source: rugby.com.au
Leading point scorers
Source: rugby.com.au
Squad lists
Team squad lists for the 2007 ARC:
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
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! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Ballymore Tornadoes squad – ARC
|-
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| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Ben Coutts THP (Souths)*
Greg Holmes LHP (Sunnybank)*
Peter Loane THP (Norths)
Brett Naylor THP (GPS)
Shon Siemonek LHP (Sunshine Coast)
Ernest Skelton LHP (Wests)*
Hookers
Geoff Abram HK (Wests)*
Sean Hardman HK (Brothers)
Joshua Mann-Rea HK (Easts)
Locks
Jared Hanna LK (Wests)
James Horwill LK (University)*
Tristan Hill LK (Norths)
Daniel Linde LK (University)**
Ed O'Donoghue LK (Wests)*
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| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Loose forwards
Leroy Houston BR (Sydney)*
Steve Miller BR (GPS)
Tom McVerry BR (GPS) Captain*
Ray Stowers BR (Norths)
Scott Higginbotham N8 (Wests)**
Charles Wyllie N8 (Sunshine Coast)
Scrum-halves
Sam Cordingley SH (Brothers)*
Will Genia SH (GPS)*
Brendan McKibbin SH (Brothers)**
Fly-halves
David Collis FH (Sydney)
Berrick Barnes FH (Wests)*
Peter Hynes FH WG (University)*
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Blair Connor CE WG (Norths)**
Brett Gillespie CE (University)**
Byron Roberts OB (GPS)
Tim Sampson CE (Sunnybank)
Donovan Slade CE (GPS)
Wings
Paul Doneley OB (Brothers)
Elia Tuqiri WG FH (GPS)
Anthony Sauer OB (Brothers)
Fullbacks
Clinton Schifcofske FB (Wests)*
* Contracted Queensland Reds player
** Reds Academy player
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Canberra Vikings – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Nic Henderson
Jack Kennedy
Pauliasi Tomoepeau
John Ulugia
Hookers
Saia Fainga'a
Anthony Hegarty
Dan Raymond
Locks
Alister Campbell
Peter Kimlin
Leon Power
Adam Wallace-Harrison
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Back row
Jarred Barry
Mark Chisholm
Dan Guinness
Julian Salvi
Jone Tawake
Henry Vanderglas
Halfbacks
Beau Mokotupu
Nick Haydon
Patrick Phibbs
Flyhalves
Christian Lealiifano
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Tim Cornforth
Matthew Carraro
Anthony Fainga'a
Gene Fairbanks
Rowan Kellam
Wings
Francis Fainifo
Solomona Fainifo
Eddie Mclaughlin
Fullbacks
Tim Wright
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Central Coast Rays squad – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Al Baxter†
Ofa Fainga’anuku
Nick Lah
Rod Moore‡
Aaron Tawera
Hookers
Alex Gluth
Al Manning
Dustin McGregor
Locks
John Adams
Nifo Nifo
Chris Thompson
Cameron Treloar
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Loose forwards
Ross Duncan
Steve Evans
Jared Waerea-Hargreaves
Jason Peseta
Wycliff Palu†
Vili Ratu
Beau Robinson
Dylan Sigg
Scrum-halves
Brett Sheehan
Fly-halves
Clint Eadie
David Harvey
Sam Norton-Knight
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Sam Harris
Ben Jacobs
Wings
Jordan Macey
Pat McCabe
Jye Mullane
Andrew Smith
Fullbacks
Peter Hewat
† Player not in initial squad
‡ Did not play
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 East Coast Aces squad – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Tama Tuirirangi (Gold Coast)
Ben Coutts (Souths)
Joe Tufuga (Sunnybank)
Hookers
Jade Ingham (Easts)
Ole Avei (Sunnybank)
Locks
Will Munsie (Gold Coast)
Luke Caughley (Gold Coast)
Rob Simmons (Sunnybank)
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Back row
Ben Mowen (Easts)
A.J. Gilbert (Souths)
Josh Afu (Sunnybank)
Halfbacks
Nic Berry (Sunnybank)
Sam Batty (Gold Coast)
Flyhalves
Ben Lucas (Sunnybank)
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Waitai Walker (Sunnybank)
Charlie Fetoai (Souths)
Henari Veratau (Sunnybank)
Wings
Caleb Brown (Gold Coast)
Brett Stapleton (Gold Coast)
Fullbacks
Chris Latham (Gold Coast)
Andrew Walker (Easts)
Marshall Milroy (Gold Coast)
John Dart (Sunnybank)
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em; text-align:center;"|2007 Melbourne Rebels squad – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Scott Cameron PR (Sydney Uni)
Heamani Lavaka PR (Easts, Sydney)
Dan Palmer THP (Southern Districts)
Mike Ross PR (Easts, Sydney)
Hookers
Nick Churven HK (GPS)
James Hanson HK (UQ)
Nick Hensley HK (Sydney Uni)
Locks
Matt Cockbain FL, LK (GPS)
Liam Shaw LK (Brothers)
Richard Stanford LK (Brumbies)
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Loose forwards
David Croft FL (Reds, Brothers) Captain
David Dennis FL (Waratahs)
Dave Haigh FL (Sydney Uni)
David Haydon FL (Sydney Uni)
Matt Hodgson FL (Force )
Shawn Mackay FL (Randwick)
Filipe Manu N8 (Souths, Brisbane)
Scrum-halves
Luke Burgess SH (Waratahs)
Jon McGrath SH (Force )
Fly-halves
Michael Hobbs FH (UQ)
Dan Kelly FH (Sydney Uni)
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| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Luke Cross CE (GPS)
Jack Farrer CE (Sydney Uni)
James Lew CE (Norths, Sydney)
Wings
Digby Ioane WG, CE (Reds)
Peter Playford WG, CE (Brumbies)
Peter Owens WG (Sydney Uni)
Nathan Trist WG (Sydney Uni)
Fullbacks
Damon Murphy WG, FB (Brothers)
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Perth Spirit squad – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Pekahou Cowan PR
Gareth Hardy PR
Troy Takiari PR
AJ Whalley PR
Hookers
Luke Holmes HK
Tai McIsaac HK
Ryan Tyrell HK
Locks
Tom Hockings LK
Sitaleki Timani LK
Rudi Vedelago LK
Luke Doherty LK BR
Scott Fardy LK BR
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Back row
Scott Fava BR
Will Bloem FL
Richard Brown N8
David Pocock OF
Halfbacks
Matt Henjak SH Captain
James Stannard SH
Flyhalves
Scott Daruda FH
Todd Feather FH
Jimmy Hilgendorf FH
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Ryan Cross CE
Junior Pelesasa CE
Kane Allen OB
Wings
Ed Jenkins WG
Jackson Mullane WG
Dan Bailey OB
Nick Cummins OB
Haig Sare OB
Ratu Siganiyavi WG
Fullbacks
Luke McLean FB
|}
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style=" width: 100%; margin: 0px; border: 1px solid darkgray; border-spacing: 3px;"
|-
! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 0.25em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Sydney Fleet squad – ARC
|-
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Props
Sean Baker (Randwick)
Dayna Edwards (Randwick)
Jeremy Tilse (Sydney Uni)
Laurie Weeks (Sydney Uni)
Hookers
Atonio Halangahu (Randwick)
Daniel Lewinski (Sydney Uni)
Todd Pearce (Eastwood)
Sam Zlatevski (Easts)
Locks
Adam Byrnes (Easts)
Ed Brenac (Easts)
Will Caldwell (Sydney Uni)
Matthew Whittleston (Randwick)
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Back row
Tim Davidson (Sydney Uni)
Chris Houston (Randwick)
Pat McCutcheon (Sydney Uni)
Dean Mumm (Sydney Uni)
Halfbacks
James Price (Randwick)
Nathan Sievert (Sydney Uni)
Josh Valentine (Manly)
Flyhalves
Danny Kroll (Randwick)
| width="3%"|
| width="30%" style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top"|
Centres
Morgan Turinui (Randwick)
Tom Azar (Easts)
Tom Carter (Sydney Uni)
Wings
Andrew Barrett (Souths)
Anton La Vin (Easts)
Junior Puroku (Easts)
Filipo Toala (Eastwood)
Fullbacks
Gavin Debartolo (Easts)
Arthur Little (Randwick)
|}
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! colspan="10" style="background-color:#f2f2f2; cell-border:2px solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center;" |2007 Western Sydney Rams squad – ARC
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Props
Ben Alexander LHP (Eastwood)
James Lakepa PR (Manly)
Peter Niumata PR (Penrith)
Benn Robinson LHP (Eastwood)
Hookers
Josh Mann-Rea HK (Manly)
Ben Roberts HK (West Harbour)
Locks
Ben Hand (c) LK (Eastwood)
Van Humphries LK (No Club)
Marty Wilson LK (Eastwood)
Sam Wykes LK (Parramatta)
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Loose forwards
Wil Brame FL (Manly)
Ben Coridas FL (Eastwood)
Mark Howell FL (West Harbour)
Gareth Palamo FL Eastwood)
Hugh Perrett FL (Eastwood)
Tom Egan N8 FL (Easts)
Scrum-halves
Josh Holmes SH (Eastwood)
Fly-halves
Kurtley Beale FH (Norths)
Fa'atonu Fili FH FB (No Club)
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Centres
Rory Sidey CE (West Harbour)
Luke Johnson CE WG (Manly)
Chris Siale CE WG (Manly)
Wings
Filipo Toala WG (Eastwood)
Lachlan Mitchell WG CE (Sydney Uni)
Fullbacks
Ben Martin UB (Eastwood)
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See also
National Rugby Championship
Australian Provincial Championship (defunct)
Australian Rugby Shield (defunct)
References
External links
2006 establishments in Australia
Defunct professional sports leagues in Australia
Defunct rugby union leagues in Australia
Sports leagues established in 2006
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supported%20living
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Supported living
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Supported living or supportive living refers to a range of services and community living arrangements (CLAs) designed with individuals with disabilities and their families to support disabled citizens to attain or retain their independence (see independent living) or interdependence in their local communities. Supported living is recorded in the history of the NASDDDS (National Association of State Directors of Developmental Disabilities Services), celebrating its 50th Anniversary. Community Supported Living Arrangements (CSLA) was a landmark federal multi-state demonstration to illustrate the federal role in community living in the US. Supported living is considered a core service or program of community living programs funded through federal-state-local partnerships.
In the United States
Supported living has been defined in diverse ways in the US, including early conceptualization in New York as integrated apartment living, and one early definition by the state of Oregon:
"Supported living is defined as persons with disabilities living where and with whom they want, for as long as they want, with the ongoing support needed to sustain that choice."
"Supported living...its simplicity is elegant. A person with a disability who requires long-term publicly funded, organized assistance, allies with an agency whose role is to arrange or provide whatever assistance is necessary for the person to live in a decent and secure home of the person's own."
As a form of community living development, supported living became identified with certain approaches to services and community, including the own home initiatives. These services involved an understanding of "formal" and "informal support" (and their relationship), and changes from "group thinking" approaches (e.g., ten intermediate care facilities for 15 persons each) to planning services for, with and by the person "targeted to be served." For example:
"Supportive living represents a movement within the (intellectual and) developmental disabilities field to provide support services in regular housing to adults with disabilities. Direct support services can be provided by paid staff, including live-in roommates or boarders, paid neighbors, a person hired as an attendant, a support worker or personal assistant, as well as more traditional agency and (modified) shift(live-in) staffing. Professionals, friends, families, and other "informal supports" can also assist people to live in their homes. Supported living may be joined to a movement toward decent, affordable and accessible housing."
Supported living in the US has multiple known origins, including:
The development of a service category of community living for people deemed capable of more independent living (also known as semi-independent living).
As a major reform initiative in the US to provide more choices, more integrated and more regular homes and apartments for people with the "most severe disabilities".
As part of organizational studies during that period (i.e., programs, agencies, and to some extent, state, regional and county systems), including differentiating family support for children and supportive living for adults.
As state reform and development to a supportive living approach, involving new service structures, program development and financing.
As a federal initiative to define and fund supportive living (and services and supports, such as personal care, respite care, environmental modifications, case management, chore services, companion services, skilled nursing, supportive living coach).
As provider and agency accounts, and organizational development (e.g., leadership, person-centered, individualized and flexible support services).
As part of the movement toward direct support professional and community support workers in the US and other countries such as Canada.
As parent and "service user" accounts of supported living, homes and support services, and as linking with self-advocacy efforts in states in the US.
As linking with independent living as supportive living in the community for "special population groups" or persons then "deemed in need of institutional settings", including nursing homes.
Finally, as federal, state and provider term applying to "all sorts" of community based living services (i.e., intellectual and developmental disabilities field). Recently, in one state that term even referred to a segregated residential campus, including for children, the antithesis of supportive living ideals and principles.
Evolution of the concept
Supported living also developed along different trend lines in the US, two of which included a broadening of the community living concepts in the new community paradigms of community membership of support and empowerment of conversion from an institutional to a community paradigm of person-centered planning of community regeneration (and neighborhood assets) and the service system change to housing, homes and personal assistance and supports in quality community living. Supportive living was an ally of independent living to assure that special population groups could also obtain the benefits of IL services and concepts.
Community participation
First, part of leadership (e.g., federal financing, state leaders, agency providers, knowledge dissemination networks) was back to the broadened concept of "community living" based on emerging concepts and practices in "community participation." Supported living linked with the concepts of integrated recreation, inclusive education with community opportunities, community membership, self-determination, "community seeding", "person-centered", and personalized supports. This resulted in projects such as the Community Opportunities Project of the Louisiana Developmental Disabilities Council, which were based on roles and relationships such as: Paul becoming a church member, fiancée, health club member, good neighbor, regular at Fred's Country Western and coffee shop, and self-advocate with statewide recognition.
Supportive living
Second, the concept of supportive living was broadened from a service category of a residential program (i.e., facility-based program model with bundled services) to bridge the gap toward the independent living concept of housing and personal assistance services (health-funded), the concept of regular homes with the availability of "intensive support services" (special population groups, "severe disabilities"), a "range of community support services" (e.g., community counseling, recreation support personnel), decent community life (e.g., community employment, financial security), and principles of community and self-determination/choice.
This agency and systems change work was based on the identification of leading practice of organizations supporting people with disabilities in the community, including the following program design components: the separation of housing and support, home ownership and leasing, individualized and flexible supports, and individual choice. This program design requires "service coordination/case management/service broker/support facilitator", "individualized funding" and "person-centered approaches to planning and supports". This framework has been used in the design of a person-centered course in community services and frames the supported/ive living approach of university doctoral students to graduates.
Housing and "homes of our own"
Generally, though the focus remained on making people's places into "homes of their own" which became a federal initiative to also explore other housing and support options on the local levels.
On the service configuration and program design levels, a multi-case study research design was used to explore the five identified characteristics of a "housing and support" approach: the separation of housing and support, "home ownership", including tenancy, close tie among assessment, individual planning and individualized funding, and flexible and individualized support services, and choice. Separate developments were proceeding on personal assistance services which began with the independent living movement led by leaders such as now Honorable Judith E. Heumann and late Ed Roberts; it remains current today (E.g., Center for Personal Assistance Services in the US of San Francisco State University, California; then the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Center for Personal Assistance Services of the World Institute on Disability, 1990).
A state policy study in South Dakota explored the relationship of state systems change necessary to move to a full range of regular housing and support options from the current facility-based service design in comparison to modifying the current small apartment/home structures such as those in Connecticut. To date, there is no evidence of this type of systems transformation in the US (as of 2012)though we have moved to reporting on homes of one's own, personal assistance services and supportive living approaches, including over 189,000 participants of the latter two categories.
In 2013, Robert Agranoff reported in the "Public Administration Review", that leading state systems in the US (in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities) indicated an 80-90% conversion from a large institutional system to small, dispersed community homes and services in the community. These changes were based on efforts in states which involved major organizational changes in the NGO (non-profit agency) sectors (e.g., Fratangelo, 1994), and with variability in state government public policies, departments and financing (e.g., Braddock, Hemp & Rizzolo, 2008).
Community support standards in the US
Supportive living in the US is an important movement within the context of decades of federal policies, sometimes reluctantly, for community support services in communities nationwide as part of community integration, community participation, independent living and inclusion. This movement has been accompanied by a strong emphasis on self-determination, with roots in rehabilitation in the 1950s and also, in education in the 2000s.
In the 1990s, this movement emphasized the skill standards of personnel, including direct service workers who were called "human service workers" and their "community managers" (2013, Department of Labor statistics). Increasingly, in 2013 with the consumer-directed services developed in these fields, education and training standards are being revamped within the context of the new US Direct Support Workforce and the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare.
Community living
The term community living was an outgrowth of the development of "residential services" in the communities in the US (e.g., Wolfensberger, Racino, Bersani, Nisbet, Taylor, and Bogdan of Syracuse University, Graduate Studies in Education, 600), and a departure from the development of institutional facilities. As part of this development and growth, different typologies of these services occurred beginning with group homes, staffed apartments, foster care, and then a variety of new and innovative services such as early intervention, family support services, supportive living and "related services" (e.g., supported employment, supported housing). Today, community living may involve over 43 residential typologies (e.g., Pynoos, Feldman & Ahrens, 2004), including board and care homes, personal care homes, nursing facilities, independent living facilities, supportive living and homeownership, family caregiving, personal assistance services, medical homes, and for elders, assisted living facilities.
In the United Kingdom
Supported living is the term given by local authorities in the United Kingdom to encompass a range of services designed to help disabled citizens retain their independence in their local community.
Previously, housing and support were usually provided by a charity or local council. Now mentally and physically disabled people can live in their own home and have personal support provided by another organisation or by hiring a personal assistant (paid visiting or live-in carer).
As of 2009, the government in the UK expected "local councils to give people with learning disabilities a genuine opportunity to choose between housing, care and support options that include:
Supportive living.
Small-scale ordinary housing.
Village or intentional communities." (p. 73)
In the research and development sector, the UK has been a leader in supportive living residences and group homes, and in a concept and practice termed active support as part of community integration.
In the early 1990's Paradigm launched the Reach Standards in Supported Living. Whilst the principles remain unchanged, the resource has evolved. You can now download (for free) The Reach Standards Practical Guide.
"Supportive living" in the "Valuing People, 21st Century" report defined this approach as: "concerned with designing services round the particular needs and wishes of individuals and is less likely to result in housing and support that is designed around congregate living. Department of Health research has shown that supported living is associated with people having greater overall choice and a wider range of community activities." (p. 73)
Teams in the UK
Local supported living teams can advise what supported housing is available in any given area. Other assistance may include:
a personal assistant or other care services
Direct Payments to pay for privately sourced care services
mobility equipment
home adaptations
security
emergency call centre
meals on wheels
International collaborations
As Linda Ward (1995) wrote in her edited text on "Values and Visions: Changing Ideas in Services for People with Learning Difficulties", "the flaws of the "group home model" were recognised sooner in the USA than the UK." (p. 12). Termed "supportive living", she says these developments have been richly documented by Racino, Walker, O'Connor, & Taylor (1993). Written at the time of the nine-state pilots by the federal government on Community Supported Living Arrangements in the US, she noted great interstate variability in what it was and did identify the primary principles near the 1991 national organizational study (separation of housing and support, one individual at a time, full user choice and control, rejecting no one, and a focus on relationships, with maximum use of informal support and community resources). For comparisons, about the same time, Paul Williams (1995) identified the residential services available in Great Britain, including life sharing, hostels, staffed houses, living alone, lodgings, family placements, group homes, living with families, short-term care, hospitals and village communities, among others.
One of the most important initiatives of the 1980s and 1990s on homes and community living in the United Kingdom was the "influential paper "An Ordinary Life"" which was shared in the US through our internationally known colleague David Towell, then of the King's Fund and Great Britain's National Development Team. One of his books, An Ordinary Life in Practice, was paired with his strategic framework for principled national change. Within the comprehensive book (1988), Richard Brazil and Nan Carle describe an ordinary home life, Linda Ward describes developing opportunities for an ordinary community life, Paul Williams and Alan Tyne values for service development (normalization-based, Wolf Wolfensberger), Alice Etherington, Keven Hall & Emma Whelan as service users (where I live, where I work), Philippa Russell on children and families, Jan Porterfield on regular employment, the late James Mansell on training, David Towell on managing strategic change, and Roger Blunden on safeguarding quality, among others.
In 2013, the current framework is inclusive and sustainable housing and communities, similar in both the US and UK with sustainability worldwide. In 2017, these inclusion initiatives were discussed in relationship to community integration theories at the American Society for Public Administration in Atlanta, Georgia. (Racino, Rolandi, Huston, & Begman, 2017)
Canadians, while not typically using the term supported living which is current in the US, were partners in the institution to community movement which included the "reallocation of some funds toward support and services for community living options" (Prince, 2002). Termed in historical texts, the deinstitutionalization movement, the Nordic countries, and New Zealand and Australia, were early partners in community development.
References
Disability
Housing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Price%20Is%20Right%20%281956%20American%20game%20show%29
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The Price Is Right (1956 American game show)
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The Price Is Right is an American game show produced by Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions, wherein contestants placed successive bids on merchandise prizes with the goal of bidding closest to each prize's actual retail price without surpassing it. The show was a precursor to the current and best-known version of the program, which premiered in 1972 on CBS's daytime schedule. It makes The Price Is Right one of only a few game show franchises to have aired in some form across all three of the Big Three television networks.
The series, hosted by Bill Cullen, premiered on NBC's daytime schedule on November 26, 1956, and quickly spawned a primetime series that aired once a week. The Price Is Right became one of the few game shows to survive the rigging scandals of the late 1950s, gaining even more popularity after other game shows had been canceled when exposed for being rigged.
The show was sponsored primarily throughout its run by Unilever, then known as Lever Brothers Corporation, and the specific products that were often featured were Imperial margarine, Wisk laundry detergent, Handy Andy liquid cleaner, and Dove bath and beauty bar.
The four contestants of the week would usually receive a complimentary supply of Dove beauty bars.
An alternate sponsor was Speidel watchbands, notably their then-new Twist-O-Flex bands.
In 1963, The Price Is Right switched networks and both the daytime and primetime series moved to ABC. On September 3, 1965, the show aired its final episode after nearly nine years on the air.
Game play
On the original version of The Price Is Right, four contestants – one a returning champion, the other three chosen from the studio audience – bid on items or ensembles of items in an auction-style format.
A prize was presented for the contestants to bid on. A minimum bid was specified. After the opening bid, contestants bid on the item in turn with each successive bid a certain amount higher than the previous bid. A contestant could freeze their current bid instead of increasing it if they believed their bid was close enough to win. A later rule allowed contestants, on their opening bid only, to "underbid" the other bids, but it automatically froze their bid and prevented them from later increasing the original bid. Some rounds were designated as "one-bid" rounds, where only one round of bidding was held (the format used on the current version of The Price is Right); sometimes the minimum-bid and higher-bid threshold rules also were waived.
Other than in one-bid rounds, the bidding continued until a buzzer sounded, at which point each contestant who had not yet "frozen" was given one final bid. Bidding also ended when three of the contestants had frozen, at which point the fourth contestant was allowed one final bid unless they already had the high bid. Cullen then read the actual retail price of the prize. The contestant whose bid was closest without going over the actual price won the item. If everyone overbid, the prize was not won; however, Cullen sometimes had the overbids erased and instructed players to give lower bids prior to reading the actual price (similar to what is done on the current CBS version and its syndicated spinoffs).
After most one-bid rounds, a bonus game was played, in which the winner of the one-bid prize would play a random game (such as wordplay or tune-matching) for additional prizes.
After a set number of rounds (four on the nighttime version, six on the daytime), the contestant who accumulated the highest value in cash and prizes became the champion and returned on the next show.
Home Viewer Showcases
The Price Is Right frequently featured a home viewer "Showcase", a multi-prize package for which home viewers were invited to submit their bids via postcard. The viewer who was closest to the actual retail price without going over won everything in the Showcase, but one item was sometimes handmade so the viewer could not check the price of all the items. The term "showcase" was later replaced by "sweepstakes".
Very often, home viewers were stunningly accurate with their bids, including several viewers who guessed the price correct down to the penny. In such a case, the tied contestants originally were informed via telegram and asked to give the price of a specific item and continuing until one broke the tie. Re-ties and all-overbids were thrown out. By the time of the ABC run, the tiebreaker changed so that the person who was first to send in the correct bid won the prize.
Home Viewer Showcases have also been featured on the CBS version, in 1972, 1978, annually from 1980–1987, 1990, and in 2011. Its format was unchanged through 1990, but the 2011 version, because of the advance in technology, changed to a ten-prizes-in-a-week format, with two prizes appearing per episode during the week. Each day the price of one of the prizes was revealed to the home audience, and the price of the second prize (which was in either of the two Showcases) was not provided. Instead of postcards, the bids had to be submitted through the show's website.
Prizes
While many of the prizes on the original Price Is Right were normal, standard game show fare (e.g., furniture, appliances, home electronics, furs, trips, and cars), there were many instances of outlandish prizes being offered. This was particularly true of the nighttime version, which had a larger prize budget.
Some examples:
A 1926 Rolls-Royce with chauffeur
A Ferris wheel
Shares of corporate stock
An island in the St. Lawrence Seaway
A Piper Caribbean airplane
A submarine
Sometimes, large amounts of food – such as a mile of hot dogs along with buns and enough condiments (perhaps to go with a barbecue pit) – were offered as the bonus.
Some other examples of outlandish or "exceptionally unique" bonus prizes:
Accompanying a color TV, a live peacock (a play on the NBC logo) to serve as a "color guide"
Accompanying a barbecue pit and the usual accessories, a live Angus steer
Accompanying a prize package of items needed to throw a backyard party, big band legend Woody Herman and His Orchestra
Accompanying a raccoon coat worth $29.95, a sable coat valued at $23,000
A bonus prize of a 16'x32' in-ground swimming pool, installed in the winner's back yard in one day's time
A bonus prize of a trip to Israel to appear as an extra in the 1960 film Exodus
In the early 1960s, the dynamic of the national economy was such that the nighttime show could offer homes in new subdivisions (sometimes fully furnished) as prizes, often with suspenseful bidding among the contestants.
In the last two seasons of the nighttime run, the series gave away small business franchises.
In some events, the outlandish prizes were merely for show; for instance, in one episode contestants bid on the original retail price for a 1920s car, but instead won a more contemporary model.
History
The Price Is Right was created and produced by Bob Stewart for Mark Goodson–Bill Todman Productions. Stewart already had created one hit series for Goodson-Todman, To Tell the Truth and he later created the enormously successful Password. In 1964, Stewart left Goodson-Todman to strike out on his own as a producer. (Frank Wayne, who later served as executive producer for the Barker version of The Price Is Right, took over Stewart's Password producer duties.)
Bob Stewart attributes the creation of The Price Is Right to watching an auctioneer from his office window in New York City, auctioning off various merchandise items.
In 1959, shortly after the quiz show scandal broke, most game and quiz shows lost their popularity rapidly and were canceled. The Price Is Right was an exception; Goodson and Todman had built a squeaky-clean reputation upon relatively low-stakes games. Thus, as the more popular competition was eliminated, The Price Is Right became the most-watched game show in the country, and remained so for two years.
ABC
When the series moved to ABC in 1963, three studio contestants – including the returning champion – played. The fourth chair was filled by a celebrity who played for either a studio audience member or a home viewer. If the celebrity was the big winner of the show, the civilian contestant who had the most winnings was considered the champion; it is unknown what would have happened in the event of a shut-out with the celebrity winning.
As Don Pardo was still under contract at NBC, he was replaced by Johnny Gilbert. Coincidentally, both Pardo and Gilbert also had long runs as announcers for another game show, Jeopardy!
When the show moved to ABC, several CBS affiliates took up ABC secondary affiliation to show The Price Is Right (especially if its market lacked full ABC affiliation), in part because of the still-high ratings the show enjoyed in daytime.
Goodson-Todman wanted The Price Is Right to be ABC's first non-cartoon color show, but the network could not afford to convert to color. This meant that the nighttime version reverted to black-and-white.
Afterward
After the success of The Price Is Right, To Tell the Truth, and Password, producer Stewart left Goodson-Todman in 1964. Stewart's follow-up to The Price Is Right, his first independent production, was The Face Is Familiar with Jack Whitaker as host. Later, Stewart created other successful shows such as Eye Guess, a sight-and-memory game with Bill Cullen as host, Jackpot! and The $10,000, $20,000, $25,000 Pyramid.
In 1972, Goodson-Todman proposed a reformatted version of the game. In the new version of the game, the auction rounds were eliminated, with every round becoming a one-bid round. The bonus games were reformatted as pricing games, as most involve the pricing of either the prize itself, grocery items, or small prizes under $100. Each winning bidder was removed from the game and replaced with another contestant, all of whom were drawn from the studio audience. A new round, borrowing the Showcase name, brought back the two biggest winners to bid on their own three-prize package, with the top winner choosing to either bid or pass on the first showcase in hopes of a better deal on the second. The pricing games, contestants from the audience, and the bid-or-pass on prizes hidden behind doors were all previously used on another hit game show of the era, Let's Make a Deal, and Goodson-Todman's first choice of host for The New Price Is Right, Dennis James, was Let's Make a Deal's regular guest host at the time. James would end up hosting five weekly seasons of The New Price Is Right in first-run syndication; when CBS picked up the show for daytime, it insisted that the show be hosted by Bob Barker, who hosted 35 seasons of daily episodes (plus three seasons of weekly syndicated episodes after James's retirement and several prime-time specials) until his retirement in 2007, after which comedian Drew Carey assumed hosting duties. Further alterations to the format were made in 1975 when the show expanded to a "fabulous 60-minute" time slot. Various other versions of The Price Is Right have aired over the course of American television history, including a daily syndicated version hosted by Tom Kennedy in 1985 and a radically altered version hosted by Doug Davidson in 1994; the latter was notable for eliminating the central conceit from the original series of bidding on prizes. Counting all incarnations, The Price Is Right has aired for more hours than any other nationwide game show in American television history.
Paul Alter, who directed the original version of the show, became the director of the current version in 1986, replacing Marc Breslow, who had been in that role since its start in 1972; he continued to hold the position until 2000.
Origin
The show originated from NBC's Hudson Theatre in New York City, also home to The Tonight Show and other NBC shows with a studio audience. A year later, after Abraham Hirschfeld bought the Hudson Theatre, the show moved to NBC's Colonial Theater at 66th and Broadway, with the Ziegfeld Theater used for a few shows as well. When the show moved to ABC, the Ritz Theater became the show's broadcast origination.
In addition to his hosting duties on The Price Is Right and his weekly appearances as a panelist on I've Got a Secret, Cullen also hosted a popular weekday morning radio show for WNBC in New York.
Substitute hosts
Over the eight-year run, various people sat in Cullen's place while he was on vacation.
Sonny Fox (June 10, 1957; first substitute host; he was also Bud Collyer's "designated" substitute host on Beat the Clock through 1960; it went off the air at the end of January, 1961)
Sam Levenson (March 11, 1958– for 2 weeks)
Merv Griffin (August 5 & 12, 1959 nighttime) – also filled in daytime during those two weeks
Jack Narz (month of May, 1960; Bill's brother-in-law, later that year he began hosting Video Village; his brother Tom Kennedy later hosted a syndicated version of the 1972 The Price Is Right revival during the 1985–86 season.)
Arlene Francis (January 25, 1961 – February 8, 1961 nighttime & January 25-February 12, 1961 daytime episodes)
Bob Kennedy (May 1–12, 1961/June 22, 1961)
Don Pardo (December 31, 1959/December 28, 1962)
Robert Q. Lewis (February 1–12, 1960/December 27, 1963 {Cullen himself was the celebrity guest})
Jack Clark (January 8–15, 1962/April 16-May 7, 1962/August 21-September 3, 1962/December 31, 1962-January 1, 1963/January 22-February 15, 1963/August 12–23, 1963/February 15-March 12, 1965, Dorothy Lamour was the celebrity guest)
Johnny Gilbert (June 19, 1964; Ed Jordan filled in as announcer)
Models
Throughout the nine-year run of The Price Is Right, the show also employed models, whose duties were similar to those of the models in the current version.
June Ferguson and Toni Wallace were the regular models, while Gail Sheldon also made frequent appearances. Ferguson, Wallace and Sheldon were featured during the show's entire nine-year run. Other models appearing included Beverly Bentley and Carolyn Stroupe; various other models either assisted Ferguson and Wallace or appeared during their absences.
Announcers
During the NBC run, Don Pardo was the main announcer. Whenever he was off or filling in for Cullen as host, substitute announcers included Dick Dudley, Vic Roby, Edward Haeffor, Roger Tuttle and Johnny Olson, who would go on to announce the 1972 version until his death in 1985.
Following the move to ABC (due to Don Pardo being under contract to NBC), Johnny Gilbert became the announcer; two fill-ins were Johnny Olson and ABC staff announcer Ed Jordan.
Theme songs
The first theme song (used from 1956–1961) was an arrangement of Charles Strouse's "Sixth Finger Tune", originally written for Milton Scott Michel's 1956 play Sixth Finger in a Five Finger Glove.
The second theme song (used from 1961–1965) was called Window Shopping and was composed by Robert Cobert. This theme was later used on another Goodson-Todman game, Snap Judgment, and later found its way back to Bob Stewart's stable with the short-lived game You're Putting Me On.
Episode status
Although The Price Is Right became Goodson-Todman's first regularly aired game show to be broadcast in color on September 23, 1957, no color kinescopes or videotapes are known to exist from the nighttime run.
Many monochrome NBC nighttime episodes (plus at least one ABC episode) aired on Game Show Network from 1996–2000, at which time the network's contract to air the show ended; it has not been renewed since. The 1961 episode hosted by Francis aired on Buzzr on March 8, 2019 as an homage to International Women's Day; Buzzr added the program to its weekend lineup in September 2019, with its package also including episodes hosted by Merv Griffin.
Most of the daytime run is believed to be wiped; the UCLA Film and Television Archive lists the first and third episodes from 1956 among its holdings. A few NBC daytime episodes with commercials intact, originally broadcast in the late spring/early summer of 1957, have been around the "collector's circuit." They are now available for viewing on YouTube.
Home media
Four episodes, including the 1964 nighttime finale, were released on "The Best of The Price is Right" DVD set (March 25, 2008). Despite pre-release assumptions that each of the four unique runs would be represented, as it was announced that there would be four Cullen episodes, none were of the ABC daytime run despite the existence of episodes from that era; a second NBC prime time episode instead filled that slot.
Many noticed that the four Cullen episodes lacked commercials, as well as the fact that all three NBC episodes had already been spotted prior to the DVD release. Both NBC primetime episodes (January 13 and 27, 1960) had aired on GSN before, while the daytime episode (February 21, 1957) had been available in the public domain for several years; the daytime episode is notable for not only missing its opening, but for Cullen promoting Charles Van Doren's match against Vivienne Nearing on Twenty One – which eventually led to Van Doren's defeat.
The Fremantle logo animation was added after each episode, as the production company currently owns all Mark Goodson properties.
The episode listing included with the DVD set states the daytime episode aired March 10, 1957, and the ABC episode aired September 4, 1964 (with guest Jose Ferrer); however, the former actually aired on February 21, 1957, and the latter is not actually present on the DVD set but had been aired by GSN. The 1964 finale featured Pat Carroll as the celebrity player, and the night's champion was invited back to appear on the following Monday's daytime episode.
In popular culture
In a 1962 episode of The Flintstones, Barney Rubble is invited to be a contestant on The Prize is Priced, a parody of The Price is Right. When it's his turn to bid, Barney says, "I'll just put in my two cents, and–" but before he's able to give his actual bid, his "bid" of two cents is locked in. (Season 2, episode 29, "Divided We Sail", original airdate April 6, 1962.)
References
External links
1956 American television series debuts
1965 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
1950s American game shows
1960s American game shows
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Television series by Fremantle (company)
The Price Is Right
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hujum
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Hujum
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Hujum ( ; , ) refers to a broad campaign undertaken by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to remove all manifestations of gender inequality within the Union Republics of Central Asia. Beginning in the Stalinist era, it particularly targeted prevalent practices among Muslims, such as female seclusion from society and female veiling practices. While it was often symbolized by the burning of the veils that Muslim women wore, the removal of veiling practices was not the campaign's sole goal. The Party began re-emphasizing their message of women's liberation within class consciousness. By abolishing Central Asian societal norms and heralding in women's liberation, the Soviets believed they could clear the way for the construction of socialism. The campaign's purpose was to rapidly change the lives of women in Muslim societies so that they would be able to actively participate in public life, formal employment, education, and ultimately membership in the Communist Party. It was originally conceived to enforce laws that gave equality to women in patriarchal societies by creating literacy programs and bringing women into the workforce.
The campaign was initiated on 8 March 1927 — that year's International Women's Day. It was a change from the earlier policies that were in place under the Bolsheviks, who prioritized unrestricted religious freedom for Central Asians. In contrast to how it was presented to the populace, Hujum was seen by Muslims as a campaign through which outsiders (i.e., Slavs) sought to force their cultural values onto the indigenous Turkic populations. Thus, the veil inadvertently became a marker of cultural identity; wearing it became an act of pro-Islamic political defiance as well as a sign of support for ethnic nationalism. However, over time, the campaign was a success: the rate of female literacy increased, while polygamy, honour killings, child marriages, and veiling diminished. Paranjas were rare by the 1950s in Soviet Central Asia and the same happened in Afghanistan by the 1960s (although they became popular again in Afghanistan after the fall of the communist secular government in the 1980s and the rise of Islamists).
Pre-Soviet traditions
Veiling in Central Asia was intricately related to class, ethnicity, and religious practice. Prior to Soviet rule, Nomadic Kazakh, Kirgiz, and Turkmen women used a yashmak, a veil that covered only the mouth. The yashmak was applied in the presence of elders and was rooted in Mediterranean and West Asian customs (see namus).
Tatars emigrating from Russia were unveiled. Though Muslim, they had been under Russian rule since the 16th century and were in many ways people of the middle and upper classes. Only settled Uzbeks,Tajiks and people of Caucasus had strict veiling practices, which Tamerlane and Mongols supposedly initiated. Even among this population, veiling depended on social class and location. Urban women veiled with (face veil) and paranja (body veil), although the cost of the veil prevented poorer women from using it. Rural Uzbeks, meanwhile, wore a chopan, a long robe that could be pulled up to cover the mouth in the presence of men.
Traditional culture
Pre-Soviet Central Asian culture and religion promoted female seclusion. Cultural mores strongly condemned unveiling as it was thought to lead to premarital or adulterous sex, a deep threat to Central Asian conceptions of family honor. Many mullahs also considered the full body veil Islamic, and strongly protested any attempts to alter it. Female seclusion in homes was encouraged for the same reasons although home seclusion was far more oppressive. Female quarters and male quarters existed separately, and women were not allowed in the presence of male non-relatives. Women from rich families were the most isolated as the family could afford to build numerous rooms and hire servants, removing the need for leaving the home. The traditional settled society encouraged seclusion as a way to protect family honor, as religiously necessary, and as a way of asserting male superiority over women.
The Jadids
Arrayed against the traditional practices stood the Jadids, elite Central Asians whose support for women's education would help spur Soviet era unveiling. Jadids were drawn primarily from the upper ranks of settled Uzbeks, the class in which veiling and seclusion were most prevalent. Very few were interested in banning the veil. However, Jadid nationalism did promote education for women, believing that only educated women could raise strong children. The Jadid's female relatives received good educations and would go on to form the core of Soviet-era feminism. The elite nature of the movement, however, restricted the education initiative to the upper class. Despite the Jadid's limited reach and modest goals, the mullahs criticized the Jadids harshly. Mullahs believed that education would lead to unveiling and subsequent immorality, an opinion most non-Jadids shared. The Jadids prepared the ground for women's rights in the Soviet era, but accomplished little outside their own circle.
Tsarist rule
Starting in the 1860s, the Tsarist conquest of Central Asia both increased the number who veiled and raised the status of veiling. Russia ruled Central Asia as one unit called "Turkestan", although certain zones retained domestic rule. The Tsarist government, while critical of veiling, kept separate laws for Russians and Central Asians in order to facilitate a peaceful, financially lucrative empire. Separate laws allowed prostitution in Russian zones, encouraging veiling as a firm way for Central Asian women to preserve their honor. Russian conquest also brought wealth and, subsequently, more hajj participation. Hajj participation sparked a rise in religious observance, and in public displays of piety via the veil. Tsarist control thus primarily served to indirectly increase the veil's use.
Russian control shifted Central Asian's attitude toward the veil by encouraging Tatar immigration. Tatars had spent centuries under Russian rule and had adopted many European customs, including forgoing the veil. As Turkic speaking Muslims, they also had a unique engagement with Central Asian life. Faced with this synthesis of Islamic and western practice, Central Asian women began to question, if not outright attack, veiling. By opening up Central Asian society to Tatar immigration, Russians enabled the spread of ideas that conflicted with traditional Central Asian mores.
Soviet pre-Hujum policies
Although the communist revolution promised to redefine gender, Soviet rule until 1924 did little to alter women's status in Central Asia. From 1918 to 1922 Soviet troops fought against revived Khanates, basmachi rebels, and Tsarist armies. During this time Tsarist Turkestan was renamed the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (TASSR). Initial central control was so weak that Jadids, acting under the communist banner, provided the administrative and ruling class. The Jadid's legislated against polygamy, Sharia, and bride price, but did not enforce these rulings. Veiling remained unaddressed. Moscow did not press the case; it was more interested in reviving war-ravaged Central Asia than altering cultural norms. Earlier, Soviet pro-nationality policies encouraged veil wearing as a sign of ethnic difference between Turkmen and Uzbeks.
This era also saw the mullahs gradually split over women's rights. Many continued to decry the USSR's liberal rulings, while others saw women's rights as necessary towards staying relevant. While Soviets were ideologically interested in Women's Rights, local instability prevented bold policies or implementation.
1924 ushered in a limited campaign against the veil. In accordance with the Soviet pro-nationality policy, the TASSR was split into five republics: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. The Soviets also took this time to purge the Jadids from government, either through execution or exile. Soviet rule encouraged the founding of the anti-veiling Women's Division, or Zhenotdel. Few married women joined as their immediate community strongly condemned unveiling. Consequently, its workers were usually Jadid educated women or widows.
State policy, operating through the Women's Division encouraged unveiling through private initiative rather than state driven mass unveilings. Stories written by activist authors encouraged unveiling and emphasized that women were not morally degraded by the decision to unveil. These stories targeted widows and impoverished women, as they had the least to lose by unveiling. Despite the Division's attempts, few women choose to unveil. The few who did unveil usually had Jadid or communist families. While some women unveiled during trips to Russia, many re-veiled upon returning to Central Asia.
Still, the chachvon and paranji aided women's rights by calling attention to disparities between male and female power. Compared to the chachvon and paranji, nomadic women's yashmak veiled comparatively little and was applied only in the presence of elders. Soviet authorities took this as evidence of women's freedom and praised the nomad's gender norms. Women's rights, though, were still curtailed in nomadic culture. Women were not given the right to divorce, had fewer inheritance rights, and were generally under the sway of male decisions. While the Women's Division attempted to use the yashmak as a rallying call for women's rights, its low symbolic appeal relative to the chachvon stymied change. The post-Jadid, more explicitly communist government encouraged women's activism but ultimately was not strong enough to enact widespread change, either in settled or nomadic communities.
Soviet motivations
The hujum was part of a larger goal to "create a cohesive Soviet population in which all citizens would receive the same education, absorb the same ideology, and identify with the Soviet state as a whole." The state championed women's rights so they could substitute State control for patriarchal control of women.
The Zhenotdel, mostly composed of women hailing from Russian and other Slavic areas, believed that such a campaign would be welcomed and adopted by the Muslim women in Central Asia. Throwing off the veil in public (an individual act of emancipation) was expected to correspond with (or catalyze) a leap upward in women's political consciousness and a complete transformation in her cultural outlook.
Launching the campaign
In 1927 Tashkent, Uzbekistan became the center of the campaign for women's liberation. The campaigns aimed to completely and swiftly eradicate the veils (paranji) that Muslim women wore in the presence of unrelated males.
The brunt of the campaign fell on the shoulders of the Slavic women of the Zhenotdel, who wished to complete the campaign in six months (allowing them to celebrate their success alongside the tenth anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1927). The hujum campaign was officially launched in Uzbekistan on International Women's Day (March 8, 1927).
Mechanics of the Hujum in Uzbekistan
To eradicate the intended target (that is, the paranji), the Zhenotdel workers designated their time to organizing public demonstrations on a grand scale, where fiery speeches and inspirational tales would speak for women's liberation. If all went according to plan, Uzbek women would cast off their paranjis en masse.
Usually, efforts to transform women were scheduled to follow or even accompany collectivization in most regions. By aligning collectivization with the hujum, the idea was that the Soviets could more easily control and intervene in the everyday life of the Uzbeks. In the beginning stages the hujum was not applied universally. Instead, only Communist Party members and their immediate families were required to participate in the campaign. The idea was that only after this portion of the campaign demonstrated the change in these families would it be spread to non-Communists, like trade-union members, factory workers, and schoolteachers.
Specifics of the campaign
"К наступлению!"(K nastupleniiu!) Meaning "To the Attack!" this phrase became the slogan associated with the hujum campaign. The Zhenotdel supplemented this assault with additional women's liberation institutions, which included the construction of women's clubs, the re-stocking of women's-only stores, and the fight against illiteracy among women.
In order to guarantee their hegemony over the indigenous population, Soviet authorities used direct physical force and coercion, along with laws and legal norms as a means to control the local populations and to propagate unveiling. Most women unveiled because they succumbed to the Party's coercive methods. The majority of women did not choose to unveil, they were either given orders directly from a government representative, or their husbands (under government pressure) told them to.
Uzbek reactions
Generally, the hujum met with resilience and resistance from the Uzbek population. Uzbeks outside the party ignored new laws, or subverted them in various ways. They utilized the weapons of the weak: protests, speeches, public meetings, petitions against the government, or a simple refusal to practice the laws.
Some welcomed the campaign, but these supporters often faced unrelenting insults, threats of violence, and other forms of harassment that made life especially difficult. Thus many Uzbek men and women who may have sympathized with the hujum campaign kept a low profile and opted out of the campaign altogether. Those brave enough to partake in the unveiling campaign were often ostracized, attacked, or even killed for their failure to defend tradition and Muslim law (shariah). The Uzbeth clergy encouraged Uzbek men to attack unveiled women, and about 2,500 unveiled women were reportedly murdered by men.
The Soviet attack on female veiling and seclusion proved to pin Party activists in direct confrontation with Islamic clergy, who vehemently opposed the campaign, some going so far as to advocate threats and attacks on unveiled women.
Every attack on the veil only proved to foment further resistance through the proliferation of the wearing of the veil among the Uzbeks. While Muslim cultural practices, such as female seclusion and the wearing of the paranji, were attacked by this campaign, they emerged from the hujum still deeply entrenched in Uzbek culture and society. Uzbek Communists were first and foremost loyal to their Uzbek Muslim culture and society.
The fundamental problem of the hujum was that women were trapped between the Soviet state and their own society, with little agency to make their own decisions. In the male-dominated society of Uzbekistan, men often went to great lengths to prevent their wives from attending Soviet meetings and demonstrations. Fearing of the public opinions of their mahallas, many women decided against unveiling. The mahalla's judgment could be unmerciful. In Uzbekistan, there was little to no middle ground. If women resisted state pressure, they complied with social pressure, or vice versa. Women often sided with their husbands in their reaction to the hujum: they would follow their husband's instructions.
Murder proved an effective method of terrorizing women into re-veiling. It also served to remind women where they stood in the social hierarchy. These murders were not spontaneous eruptions, but premeditated attacks designed to demonstrate that the local community held more authority over women's actions than did the state. Infamous premeditated murders of women that unveiled included those of Nukhon Yuldasheva and Tursunoy Saidazimova.
An unveiling campaign was also carried out in the predominantly Shia Muslim Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. The unveiling campaign in Azerbaijan was supported by the outreach efforts of the Ali Bayramov Club women's organization. The unveiling campaign in Azerbaijan is commemorated by the Statue of a Liberated Woman, showing a woman unveiling, which was erected in Baku in 1960.
Outcomes
There was fierce debate surrounding the idea of making veiling illegal, but it was eventually abandoned. It was believed that Soviet law could not advance without the support of the local populations. However, with the proliferation of murders linked to unveiling, new laws were introduced in 1928 and 1929 that addressed women's personal safety. These laws, deeming attacks on unveiling as "counterrevolutionary" and as "terrorist acts" (meriting the death penalty), were designed to help local authorities defend women from harassment and violence.
In the private domestic domain, women's roles changed little, however their roles in the public domain as well as material conditions changed drastically, because of the hujum. The hujum's multifaceted approach to social and cultural reform in the form of women's liberation transformed women in public, breaking seclusion and creating new and active members of society. The concepts of women's abilities were transformed, but little progress was made in challenging gender ideals and roles.
Decades after the hujum was first launched, the paranji was eventually phased out nearly completely, and mature women took to wearing large, loose scarves to cover their heads instead of paranjis. As a result of Soviet initiatives, literacy rates in Uzbekistan in the 1950s reached 70 to 75 percent. Employment for women rose rapidly in the 1930s due to the hujum. Women worked in the fields of the collective farms. By the late 1950s, women outnumbered men in the collective farms. Modernization's effects were clear in Uzbekistan: education was made available for most Uzbek regions, literacy rose, and health care was vastly improved.
See also
Women in Islam
Feminism
Niqāb
Honor killing
Violence against women
Nurkhon Yuldasheva
Tursunoi Saidazimova
Tadzhikhan Shadieva
Tamara Khanum
Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi
Yodgor Nasriddinova
Kashf-e hijab
Gruaja Shqiptare and the unveiling in Albania
Ali Bayramov Club and the unveiling in Azerbaijan
Huda Sha'arawi and the Egyptian unveiling of the 1920s.
Latife Uşaki and the Turkish unveiling of the 1920s.
Soraya Tarzi and the Afghan unveiling of the 1920s.
Humaira Begum and the Afghan unveiling of the 1950s.
Notes
References
Soviet Central Asia
Islamic female clothing
Islam in the Soviet Union
Feminism in the Soviet Union
Anti-religious campaign in the Soviet Union
Persecution by atheist states
Persecution of Muslims
Religious persecution by communists
Anti-Islam sentiment in the Soviet Union
Women's rights in the Soviet Union
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wentworth%20Military%20Academy%20and%20College
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Wentworth Military Academy and College
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Wentworth Military Academy and College was a private two-year military college and high school in Lexington, Missouri. Wentworth was one of six total military junior colleges in the United States. The institution was founded in 1880 and closed in 2017.
History
Background
Lexington's Civil War Battle of the Hemp Bales was still a recent memory when Stephen G. Wentworth founded Wentworth Military Academy in 1880. By the 1870s, the town had already attained the reputation as the "Athens of the West" for its many academic institutions. Lexington was home to three notable schools for girls. Lexington Baptist Female College was started in 1850 in the old county courthouse that had been abandoned upon the construction of the new Lafayette County Courthouse, built in 1847 and still in use today. In 1869 the Baptist Female College moved its operation to the former home of Pony Express Founder William B. Waddell at the corner of 13th and South Streets. Elizabeth Aull Seminary was opened in the fall of 1860 and operated in a large building on Highland Avenue. Central Female College, later Central College for Women, began in 1868 and, in 1871, took over the old Masonic College on the grounds of the Battlefield. However, Lexington's educators, business leaders and ministers had made numerous attempts to establish a school for boys and young men. Public schools were not yet widespread and there was a glaring need for a boys' school, but none had been successful. The most visible failed effort was the Masonic College of Missouri, which moved to Lexington in 1847 and operated until 1859.
Wentworth Male Academy
On May 12, 1879, Wentworth's 27-year-old son William died. As a memorial, Wentworth focused his attention on finally making a school for boys a reality in Lexington. In the spring of 1880, Mr. Wentworth announced that a new school named Wentworth Male Academy would begin operation in the fall. Mr. Wentworth had a long record of public service to Lexington. A local editorial writer proclaimed that Wentworth was "One of our oldest, most generous and most worthy citizens" and "no nobler name can this community furnish [the new school]. " On May 24, 1880, Mr. Wentworth bought the "New Presbyterian Church" at the southwest corner of 18th and Main Streets, directed that it be fitted up for the next term, and gave the school solid financial backing. Although his financial involvement was limited to the Academy's early years of operation, his foresight led to the establishment of the first board of trustees and his generosity provided a firm foundation for the school.
Wentworth also announced that 22-year-old Benjamin Lewis Hobson, the son of the local Presbyterian minister who had run a fledgling private boys’ school in town the previous year, would be given charge of W.M.A. Young Hobson had graduated from Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, with a degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1877, and had spent the next two years as teacher and then principal of Spencer Institute in Taylorsville, Kentucky. In the summer of 1879, he had returned to his hometown of Lexington and started Hobson's Select School for Boys.
Benjamin Hobson knew that he could not operate the new school alone, and he turned to Sandford Sellers, a 26-year-old friend and former classmate at Centre College in Kentucky. Sellers eagerly accepted Hobson's invitation to join him as co-principal at Wentworth Male Academy. When Hobson left to pursue a career in the ministry at the end of the 1880–81 school year, Sellers took full charge of the academy.
Wentworth Military Academy
Sandford Sellers became the force who forged Wentworth's national reputation, and his hand would guide the school for the next 58 years. In the early days, he handled all the institution's administrative affairs, academic planning, and student recruitment on his own, canvassing surrounding areas on horseback. In 1882, Wentworth became a military school, and Sellers hired Captain David W. Fleet, a graduate of Virginia Military Institute, as the first Commandant. Fleet brought VMI terms such as "rats", "rears", and "Old Boys" to the school. The school officially changed its name to Wentworth Military Academy in 1890.
Sellers' skills as educator, administrator, businessman, and promoter saw the institution through its first half-century of growth, and his vision remained throughout the history of the school. He led Wentworth through economic panics of the 1890s, when he struggled to keep enrollment above 100, and through the boom times of World War I, when enrollment more than doubled to over 500 cadets. He also oversaw the addition of the junior college in 1923.
During much of the 20th century, the annual football game with rival Kemper Military School and College in Boonville, Missouri was a huge event on Thanksgiving Day, with both corps of cadets boarding trains and either meeting on their home fields, or sometimes meeting on a neutral field in Sedalia or Marshall, Missouri. The Kansas City and St. Louis newspapers referred to the gridiron battle as the "Little Army-Navy Game", and gave front-page coverage to the outcome. This rivalry ended with the 2002 closure of Kemper.
By the mid-1920s, Sandford Sellers, handed over much of the day-to-day operations of the school to his sons, Sandford Sellers Jr., superintendent from 1923 to 1933, and James M. Sellers, Commandant and Assistant Superintendent. But Sandford Sellers stayed very involved until his death in 1938 after a fall in the school gymnasium.
From the Great Depression to post-World War II prosperity
When the Great Depression of the 1930s hit the country, Wentworth, like many institutions across the country, struggled to survive. In 1933, Colonel James M. Sellers assumed the superintendency of the school and was soon joined at the helm by Colonel Lester B. Wikoff, treasurer and business manager. Together, Sellers’ natural leadership and Wikoff's business acumen would lead the school to new heights. Colonel Sellers and Colonel Wikoff guided the school through the lean years of the 1930s and into the prosperity of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s. During their term of leadership, Wentworth added a number of buildings to the campus, including the Sellers-Wikoff Scholastic Building, the Memorial Chapel, Sandford Sellers Hall, and the Wikoff Field House. In addition, a unique military aviator training program complete with its own airport was launched to train pilots. A highlight of the Sellers-Wikoff era was President Harry S. Truman's speech to the cadet corps at Wentworth's 75th anniversary celebration in 1954.
In 1960, Sellers retired as superintendent but remained as president of the school, and Wikoff served as superintendent from 1960 to 1971. During that time, Wentworth had unparalleled enrollment, averaging over 550 students a year. Under Wikoff's leadership, the Wikoff Field House opened in 1966, including three basketball courts, a Laykold-type indoor track, a racquetball court, a weight room, a wrestling room, and a pool. Among the signature programs that Wentworth offered from 1966 until its closing was the Army's two-year Early Commissioning Program, an Army Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program through which qualified students can earn a commission as a Second Lieutenant after two years of college. Wentworth also participated in the Air Force Academy Falcon Foundation Scholarship program beginning in 1971 and continuing through 2016. Among the first class of Falcon Scholars at Wentworth was General Mark A. Welsh who would go on to be 20th Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air Force.
Continuity and change in the post-Vietnam era
In 1973, a third generation of the Sellers family assumed leadership of the Academy when Colonel James M. Sellers Jr., a 1945 Wentworth graduate, was named as superintendent. In the early 1970s, the school was again faced with crisis. Anti-military backlash from the country's continued involvement in the Vietnam War, combined with double-digit inflation, caused enrollment to plummet. Many military schools across the country simply closed their doors. Wentworth was dealt an additional blow when, in 1975, a fire destroyed two buildings and severely damaged others, causing the loss of over of space.
Despite these setbacks, Colonel J. M. Sellers Jr., was able to stabilize enrollment by 1978 and lead the academy through another period of growth. In 1980, Wentworth celebrated its centennial year, with Vice-President Walter Mondale addressing the corps of cadets at commencement. In the early 1980s, enrollment continued to rise, peaking at over 400 cadets in 1984. In 1990, Colonel Sellers Sr., who taught Latin until he was 95 years old, died, and Colonel Sellers Jr., resigned as superintendent, ending a remarkable 110 years of the Sellers family's continuous involvement in the active operation of the academy.
Last years
In the 1990s, Wentworth struggled with enrollment. As part of a new approach, female cadets were admitted for the first time in 1993, and soon made up about twenty-five percent of the corps. The Wentworth Foundation was created in an attempt to build stronger financial footing. In 2002, Major General John H. Little, Wentworth Class of 1961, returned to campus as superintendent. Under his stewardship, Tillotson barracks was constructed.
Closure and auction of assets
On April 7, 2017, the Board of Trustees announced that Wentworth Military Academy & College would be closed, with final commencement to occur on May 13, 2017 and the official date of closure set for May 31, 2017. An email was sent out to all alumni and employees, parents and cadets were informed. The announcement cited declining enrollment, an aging campus, and a lack of financial support for continued operations. Plans were announced to settle the school's debts, allow students and staff to seek enrollment and employment elsewhere. The 43 acre campus and buildings were sold to Jubilee University (a Christian based music boarding school) which has since maintained the facilities for their ongoing instructional operations. Also sold were the monuments honoring 130 years of valor and achievement, which were sold to the highest bidder by Oldham Auctions of Bates City MO. Many unique pieces of Wentworth's history were purchased at the auction by former cadet alumni, many of whom then donated it to the Wentworth Museum in downtown Lexington (WMAmuseum.org). Saved from the auction block for museum display were several large historic items, including the chapel's stained glass windows, and the actual WWI "Doughboy" statue which stood in front of the campus since 1921 and every cadet traditionally saluted when they passed by it.
Academic accreditation
Wentworth's college was accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The Higher Learning Commission placed Wentworth on probation in late 2015 "because of concerns related to integrity regarding the College's finances and resources to support its academic programs and operations." The high school was accredited by AdvancED, formerly the (North Central Association of Colleges and Schools).
Current status of the school and grounds
Following its closure in May 2017, the campus was put up for sale and purchased in June of 2020 by Jubilee University, a Christian music and performing arts organization based in St. Louis. They are currently in operation and plan to house as many as 600 students on the campus once COVID restrictions are reduced.
National Historic District
The Wentworth Military Academy was listed as a national historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. The district encompasses seven contributing buildings erected from approximately 1830 to 1920. They are Hickman Hall (1907), "D" Company (1884), The Administration Building (1865, 1895, 1905, 1938), The Student Union (1914, 1920, 1966), Marine Barracks (1918, 1928), Superintendent's Residence (1838, 1848) and Junior Barracks (1920).
Notable alumni
Politics
Ike Skelton (Class of 1951)– United States Congressman, 4th District of Missouri (1977–2011), Ranking Democrat and Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee (2007–2011).
Charles H. Price II – former United States Ambassador to Belgium (1981–1983) and United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (1983–1989); appointed by President Ronald Reagan
Newell A. George – United States Congressman, 1959–1961
Arts
Robert Altman – Academy Award winning Director of classic films such as M*A*S*H (1970), McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971), The Long Goodbye (1974), Nashville (1975), The Player (1992), Short Cuts (1993), Kansas City (1996), Dr. T & the Women (2000), Gosford Park (2001), The Company (2003), and A Prairie Home Companion (2006)
Lew Hunter - American screenwriter, author and educator
Marlin Perkins – world renowned zoologist and host of the television program Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom
Arthur Schneider – four-time Emmy Award winning television editor
Business
James "Bud" Walton – Co-founder of Wal-Mart
David C. Pratt - CEO/Owner of Gander Mountain and minority owner of the St. Louis Cardinals baseball team
Eddie Chiles – Founder of the Western Company of North America and owner of the Texas Rangers baseball team
William C. Schwartz – Physicist, Laser pioneer, and founder of International Laser Systems
Journalism
Paul Henderson – reporter for The Seattle Times, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting in 1982
Lewis Hill – co-founder of Pacifica Radio, the first public radio station in the U.S.
Bill Corum – (Class of 1913)- sports columnist for the New York Journal-American, boxing, baseball and horse racing sportscaster, and president of Churchill Downs. Coined the term "Run for the Roses" to describe the Kentucky Derby.
Academia
Ovid R. Sellers – internationally known Old Testament scholar and archaeologist
Athletics
Beals Becker – Major League baseball player for the Pittsburgh Pirates, the Boston Doves, the New York Giants, the Cincinnati Reds, and the Philadelphia Phillies.
Med Park – NBA player for the St. Louis Hawks.
Harry Ice – MVP of 1942 Sugar Bowl, member of University of Missouri's all-century football team.
Ben A. Jones – Thoroughbred horse trainer, six-time winner of the Kentucky Derby.
George E. Rody – Captain of the first national championship basketball team at the University of Kansas,1922. Head basketball and baseball coach at Oklahoma State University, 1929–31. Head basketball coach at Tulane University, 1931–33.
Ahmed bin Salman – Owner of 2002 Kentucky Derby winner War Emblem. Saudi royal and former owner of Saudi Research and Marketing Group.
Military
George B. Turner – Medal of Honor recipient, World War II
William E. Adams (Class of 1959)- Medal of Honor recipient, Vietnam War
William M. Hoge (Class of 1912)– oversaw construction of the ALCAN Highway and directed capture of the Remagen Bridge in World War II
Mark A. Welsh (Class of 1972)– 20th Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air Force, 2012–2016
Melvin F. Chubb Jr. (Class of 1951)– former Commander of Hanscom Air Force Base
LeRoy Lutes – Commanding General, Fourth United States Army, 1949–1952
Clarence L. Tinker (Class of 1908)– namesake of Tinker Air Force Base
Johnny R. Miller (Class of 1984)– Assistant Adjutant General of the Illinois Army National Guard
William W. Ashurst - Recipient of the Silver Star and Legion of Merit
Dale R. Buis – first casualty of Vietnam War
Presidents of Wentworth Military Academy & College
Colonel Sandford Sellers, 1880–1906, 1907–1923.
Colonel William McGuffey Hoge, 1906–1907.
Colonel Sandford Sellers Jr., 1923–1933
Colonel James M. Sellers, 1933–1960.
Colonel Lester B. Wikoff, 1960–1971.
Colonel Leon Ungles, 1971–1973.
Colonel James M. Sellers Jr., 1973–1990.
Colonel John Ryland Edwards, 1990.
Lieutenant General Robert Arter, 1991.
Colonel John Ryland Edwards, 1991.
Brigadier General Gerald Childress, 1991–1994.
Colonel Jerry E. Brown, 1994–2002.
Major General John H. Little, 2002–2007.
Captain (USN Retired) Basil Read, 2007–2008.
William W. Sellers, 2008–2013
Mr. Michael W. Lierman, 2013-2017
See also
Lexington Historical Museum
References
The Story of Wentworth, by Raymond W. Settle, 1950, Spencer Printing Co., Kansas City.
History of Wentworth Military Academy, by James M. Sellers Jr., 1984.
Wentworth Trumpeter, 1893–2011.
Wentworth Military Academy, 125th anniversary. Lil Touch Publishing. 2005.
External links
Wentworth Military Academy and College Website
Wentworth Military Academy Stories
Schools in Lafayette County, Missouri
Private high schools in Missouri
Military high schools in the United States
Boarding schools in Missouri
Educational institutions established in 1880
Educational institutions disestablished in 2017
USCAA member institutions
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
1880 establishments in Missouri
Two-year colleges in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Lafayette County, Missouri
Defunct schools in Missouri
Defunct private universities and colleges in Missouri
Defunct United States military academies
2017 disestablishments in Missouri
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5392961
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Brother%20%28Australian%20TV%20series%29
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Big Brother (Australian TV series)
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Big Brother Australia (also known simply as Big Brother) is an Australian reality show based on the international Big Brother format created by John de Mol.
Following the premise of other versions of the format, the show features a group of contestants, known as "housemates" who live together in a specially constructed house that is isolated from the outside world. The housemates are continuously monitored during their stay in the house by live television cameras as well as personal audio microphones. Throughout the course of the competition, housemates are evicted from the house - eliminated from the competition. The last remaining housemate wins the competition and is awarded a cash prize.
Big Brother was produced from 2001 and ran for eight seasons and a Celebrity edition on Network Ten before the network cancelled it in July 2008 after experiencing audience erosion and controversy. Big Brother returned in 2012 on the Nine Network. Nine's iteration of the series lasted 3 seasons and was not renewed beyond 2015. In 2019 the Seven Network picked up the series, which is produced by Endemol Shine Australia. All eleven previous seasons were produced by Endemol Australia and Endemol Southern Star. The twelfth season aired in 2020. The series was renewed for a 13th season in June 2020. Seven has also commissioned a new celebrity edition titled Big Brother VIP to air on 1 November 2021.
The Ten and Nine iterations of the series used a compound located at the Dreamworld theme park, on the Gold Coast, Queensland, as the Big Brother House. It has since been abandoned and vandalised. In June 2019, the house was set ablaze and burnt down entirely. The entire compound was demolished by Dreamworld in August 2019. A new Big Brother House located on Sydney Harbour's North Head is used for Seven's iteration of the series in season 12, although this house has since been pulled down following season 13. The following VIP season was filmed at a newly built compound in Sydney Olympic Park. The Season 14 was too filmed at this location.
The series was renewed for a fifteenth season at Sevens 2023 upfronts in October 2022, under the title Big Brother: House of Love. This is set to air in November 2023.
Format
Housemates must remain in the house at all times, with the aim of avoiding eviction from the house to be the last Housemate remaining to win a substantial cash prize at the end of the series. Alternatively, housemates can also be removed from the house if Big Brother feels this is necessary and can voluntarily leave the show at any time. In order to support the housemates' well-being, all participants have access to psychologists and a doctor at all times. Housemates are filmed 24 hours per day with edited highlights broadcast during prime time slots every evening.
Big Brother
While in the house, the housemates are under the watchful eye of "Big Brother" - the embodiment of the Show's Producers, who will act as an authoritative all-seeing voice of God to the housemates. Housemates are at all times under the control of Big Brother, a rule-enforcing authority figure who monitors the housemates' behaviour, sets tasks and punishments and provides the mechanism for contestants to make external requests.
Unlike other versions of Big Brother, housemates would refer to Big Brother as if it was one person. Over the course of the series, Big Brother developed a dry wit in his interactions with the Housemates. He would also offer to counsel his housemates in need of His wisdom.
Eviction Format
Over the duration of the competition, the Housemates will face nominations and evictions to eliminate housemates from the game. However, over the course of the series, the format regarding evictions has changed.
Original Format
For Ten's and Nine's iterations of the series, the format of the show resembled the original Dutch version of the show - a format adapted by most versions of the Big Brother format. In this format, the competitive aspects are minimised - The eviction decisions were determined by viewer voting, Housemates were not allowed to discuss nominations (at the risk of punishment) and most seasons did not feature any regular competitions for power or safety (with the exceptions being the ‘'Friday Night Games'’ and ‘'Showdowns'’). The main elements of the original format are as follows:
Nominations: Every week, the Housemates would participate in nominations, a secret voting process to determine who would be nominated for eviction that week. Each Housemate nominated two other fellow housemates in the Diary Room, providing full reasons to Big Brother for their nominations. The three or more housemates with the most nominations were nominated and faced Australia's vote
For Seasons 1-7 and the second half of Season 8; each housemate had 3 nomination points to allocate two housemates - one housemate for two points, and another with one.
For the first half of season 8; The power over nominations was given the viewers, with viewers voting to save a housemate via televoting and the 3 lowest vote receivers facing a House Eviction Vote.
For Seasons 9–11; each housemate had 5 Nomination Points to allocate to two housemates - For a 3/2 or 4/1 point allocation.
Eviction: After the nominations are finalised, voting for viewers is open, the Australian public voting via televoting (and in later seasons via social media) to determine the evictee of that week. As the first four seasons aired in New Zealand on a one-day delay, New Zealand viewers could also participate in the eviction voting (and then vote for the eventual winner). Later seasons aired in New Zealand on an extended delay, with New Zealand viewers being unable to vote.
For Seasons 1-5 and the second half of season 8; viewers voted to evict a nominee. The nominee with the most votes is evicted.
For Seasons 6 and 7; viewers had the option to both save and evict. Both vote tallies would be combined and the nominee with the highest net-evict vote (or lowest net-save vote), is evicted.
For the first half of season 8; the housemates voted between Australia's nominees in a similar style to the original nomination vote (3 Eviction Votes to be allocated in a 2/1 vote allocation). The housemate with the most votes is evicted.
For Seasons 9–11; viewers voted to save a nominee. The nominee with the fewest votes is evicted.
Finale: The final housemates would face a Final Vote to determine the winner of the series.
For Seasons 1–5; viewers voted to evict between the final 2 housemates. The housemate with the fewest votes is declared the winner.
For Seasons 6 and 7; viewers had the option to both vote to save and to evict between the final 2 housemates. Both vote tallies would be combined and the housemates with the highest net-save vote (or lowest net-evict vote), is declared the winner.
For Season 8; viewers voted to evict between the final 3 housemates. The housemate with the fewest votes is declared the winner.
For Seasons 9–11; final voting began with the final 5 or 6 housemates with Australia voted to win. Throughout the final week, the housemates with the lowest vote total are progressively evicted until 3 remain for the grand finale. Of the final 3, the finalist with the most votes to win is declared the winner.
Current format
In 2020, Seven Network revamped the format of the series to resemble the format of the American & Canadian editions - with housemates deciding both Nominations and Evictions among themselves. The new format added emphasis to the competitive aspect of surviving the eviction process. As such, the housemates will now be allowed to strategise, politic and collude about the nominations and evictions. However, there will still be key differences compared to the American/Canadian format, most prominently with the Australian public still deciding the eventual winner - rather than being decided by a "Jury" of evicted housemates (as is the case on the American and Canadian show).
Nominations: At the start of each round, the housemates compete in a "Nomination Challenge". The winner of the competition has immunity from the next eviction and the power over the nominations. Immediately after the challenge, the winning housemate will be called to the Diary Room by Big Brother to name their nominees, and provide full reasons for their nominations. The number of nominees is determined by how far into the overall game housemates are, as the game starts with three nominees and reduces to two nominees towards the end of the game.
Eviction: On eviction night, all housemates must vote to evict one of the nominees, with the exception of the nominating housemate (who will only cast a tie-breaker vote, if required), nor do the nominated housemates vote when there are only two nominees (on account of their votes cancelling the other's out). The eviction vote is by secret ballot, with housemates casting their votes orally in the Diary Room to Big Brother, and must provide a reason for their vote. The nominee with the most votes is evicted from the house.
Finale: The final three housemates will face Australia's vote to determine the winner. This vote is conducted on a dedicated website, with voters voting for a winner and the finalist with the most votes wins.
Prize money
The winner of Big Brother Australia receives a cash prize for being the last remaining housemate.
In Big Brother 1 - Big Brother 3, Big Brother 8 - Big Brother 10 & Big Brother 13, the prize was guaranteed A$250,000. Some seasons only mentioned the grand prize part-way through the series.
Big Brother 11 & Big Brother 12 also intended to have a A$250,000 prize, but tasks and challenges during both seasons resulted in the prize decreasing. In Big Brother 11, the final prize was A$200,000 and in Big Brother 12 the prize was $234,656.
In Big Brother 4, the prize money was a guaranteed A$1,000,000.
In Big Brother 5 and Big Brother 6 continued to offer the A$1,000,000, but introduced a fine system. The winner of Big Brother 5 received $836,000, while the winner of Big Brother 6 received $426,000.
Big Brother 7 was advertised as having no prize money. When the series began, it was revealed the grand prize would be based on the Household's completion of weekly tasks. The money earned for the grand prize was $450,000.
In both celebrity spin-offs, Celebrity Big Brother Australia and Big Brother VIP Australia, the winner was awarded $100,000 to the charity of their choice.
Tasks & Missions
During their time in the house, housemates are given tasks by Big Brother.
Punishments
Big Brother 5 introduced a fines system in which the $1,000,000 cash prize was decreased by $5,000 each time housemates violated a rule of Big Brother. The house used for the 6th season featured a Punishment Room, where housemates would sometimes be sent to be punished in addition to the $5,000 fine. In Big Brother 7, some changes were made. These monetary fines were subtracted from the household budget rather than from the prize money, while the Punishment Room remained.
In Big Brother 9 there was a small, rectangular-shaped room, linked to the lounge. This room was the Naughty Corner. This room was similar to the Punishment Room of the sixth and seventh series. The eighth and ninth series' featured no fines system at all. Instead, Big Brother used the original striking system more frequently that meant when a housemate received three strikes they were evicted.
Intruders
Most seasons of Big Brother Australia usually includes "Intruders". Intruders are new housemates added to the house by the show's producers as ongoing housemates after the series has started. Intruders will be eligible to win the series but will often face a special "Intruder Eviction" shortly after their entrance to the house (either by House Vote, Australia's vote or some combination of both).
Big Brother in Australia
Network Ten iteration (2001–08)
The first Australian series began to broadcast on 23 April 2001. It was hosted by Gretel Killeen from 2001 to 2007. In late 2007 it was announced that Gretel Killeen would not host the show for its 2008 return as part of a revamp of the formula.
In 2008, Big Brother returned for its eighth season with hosts Kyle Sandilands and Jackie O. Ten's chief programmer David Mott admitted the series had recently experienced "audience erosion" inherent with the show's long run. Mott defended the new hosts saying that the ratings for eviction shows held up.
Mike Goldman provided narration and voice-overs for all eight seasons.
First hiatus
Big Brother Australia was axed by Network Ten on 14 July 2008 with the broadcaster confirming that the 2008 season would be the last to air on the channel. A decrease in ratings for the daily shows was cited as the reason for Network Ten opting not to renew its contract for another season.
After the show was axed in 2008, there were many rumours about a possible revival by Nine, Seven, Ten, or SBS. SBS Programmer Shawn White denied the show would be revived on their channel despite rumours with Nine CEO David Gyngell notably 'interested' in the idea soon after the cancellation, only to turn it down days later. The Seven Network expressed interest since bidding for the show after the seventh-season finale; however, denied any and all revival occurring a week after the 2008 finale on morning program Sunrise.
Most notably, Network Ten expressed some interest in the format when on 3 June 2011, News Limited posted an article suggesting the network may be interested in putting it on its digital channel, Eleven. In the article, Chief Programming Officer David Mott stated that "...Ten have considered ways to bring the show back on a number of occasions'; however, was worried that audiences had 'moved on'. Made mention was the US version where the show has had 12 successful seasons, and a thirteenth on the way." Mott said; "It's a summer show for CBS, it doesn't play in the heart of the ratings season but it's done a pretty good job for them."
Nine Network iteration (2012–14)
On 9 September 2011, it was reported and later confirmed that the Nine Network had signed a deal with Southern Star Group to bring the Australian version of Big Brother back. On 22 February 2012 it was confirmed that Dreamworld will be used again as the location for the 2012 series.
The first episode of the revived series premiered on 13 August 2012 with its daily show airing five nights a week at a family-friendly timeslot of 7pm.
After a successful season in 2012, Nine confirmed that the series would be renewed for Season 10 in 2013 during their Nine Network 2013 promotion & during the 2013 finale, host Sonia Kruger confirmed the series renewal for Season 11 in 2014 formally opening auditions.
Second hiatus
In 2018, "Big Brother" returned to Australia as Nine confirmed they would air the first season of Celebrity Big Brother US. Nine created a special logo for the show resembling the eye logo of Nine's iteration of Big Brother Australia that previously aired on the network. Episodes were "fast-tracked" and available on their streaming service 9Now shortly after their American airing with televised broadcast on 9Go! starting 11 February 2018. Due to low ratings episodes were moved from the 9:30pm timeslot to 11:30pm effective 14 February 2018. No further American seasons of Big Brother aired.
On 1 April 2018, a highly publicised April Fools prank by the Australian television news blog TV Tonight reported the return of Big Brother on Ten with Lisa Wilkinson to host.
Seven Network iteration (2020–present)
On 23 October 2019, Seven Network confirmed it will be reviving the series in 2020. Rumors indicate the series will be closer in format to the American & Canadian versions - particularly given the upfronts trailer featured footage from Big Brother US 17, Big Brother Canada 2 and Big Brother Canada 3 as well as the emphasis on the phrase "Control, Evict, Win" in the promo.
The reboot has been compared to Survivor - in which the politicking and strategising regarding the Nomination and Eviction processes is allowed (being disallowed in earlier iterations) and central to the format, with Housemates directly voting each other out of the house. Seven's Director of Programming Angus Ross confirmed there would be no live shows on 26 October. It was announced on 5 February 2020 that Sonia Kruger will return to host Big Brother. The show was renewed for a 13th season (the second with 7) on the 28th of June, 2020.
In October 2021, the series was confirmed to return for its 3rd main season with Seven and 14th overall. In celebration of Big Brother Australia's 21st anniversary, season 14 would have former Housemates from all eras of the show returning to compete against new Housemate. A second VIP edition was also confirmed, and as well as Big Brother Canada being made available to stream in Australia on 7plus.
Series details and viewership
Location
First house (2001–2014)
The first Big Brother House was located at near Dreamworld, a theme park in Coomera, a northern suburb of the city of the Gold Coast, Queensland. The house was used for Ten and Nine's iteration of Big Brother. Footage from the house is monitored and edited in Dreamworld Studios. There is also an auditorium where the live audience shows, such as the eviction and finale episodes, were staged. The auditorium was an existing facility at Dreamworld used for live stage shows prior to the first series of Big Brother. It was leased to Endemol Southern Star for the duration of the series each year.
Only slight modifications were made to the interior of the house for the second series and the special Celebrity Big Brother Australia series that were screened in 2002. Subsequent to those series, the interior of the house has been rebuilt or extensively remodelled for each new series. Two separate houses were built for Big Brother 2003, and they were merged twenty-three days into the series when previously hidden connecting rooms were revealed. The fifth series introduced a Friday Night Live games arena. An animal enclosure was added to the side of the compound for the sixth series. It was retained for the seventh series.
During production on the series, visitors could access the Big Brother auditorium and view live footage from the house. This feature was, however, discontinued at the start of the ninth series.
Second house (2020–2021)
As the original house had burned down, Seven Network who currently produce and broadcast the series decided on a new location for the Big Brother House much closer to where production and crew members live. It has been understood the house has been built inside a warehouse which existed during World War II as an artillery shed, with a secondary building (previously used a gym) housing activities and challenges for the housemates. The exact location is next to the North Head Sanctuary Visitor Centre car park on Sydney Harbour's North Head near Manly. This house has since been pulled down following the 2021 season.
Third house (2021–present)
The third Big Brother house was built at Sydney Olympic Park in the White Pavilion for the 14th season.
Theme music
The theme music was adapted from the original theme used in the original Big Brother, which aired in the Netherlands. The theme for Big Brother Australia was written by Siew Ooi and 001 Productions in Melbourne. The track is an extended version of the main title theme used in the first two seasons of Big Brother Australia, and tracks heard throughout the seasons that followed are shorter, remixed versions of this track. The original track can sometimes be heard in the background when eviction votes, or the nomination tally in the Nominations show, are shown on screen, or when eviction phone numbers are during a show. In 2008, the theme music was retooled into an electric amplified remix, in counterpart of the format changes that were made that year. Four years later in the 2012 revival of the program, the original theme song returned with a futuristic remix. The theme song was completely absent from the 2020 season.
The title theme was initially released as a single. The track was an extended mix of the main title theme used in the first two seasons, and was released with an acoustic "Diary Room" mix and more trance influenced "Eviction" mix. It barely scraped in the top 50, but was re-released a few months later where it reached #12 on the ARIA charts in 2001 with a B-Side of The Sirens' hit "Don't You Think That It's Strange", which was also co-written by Big Brother 2001 housemates; the Diary Room mix; and an extended version of the Big Brother Uncut theme.
International broadcasts
New Zealand
Between 2001 and 2003, as well during 2005, Big Brother Australia aired on TV2 in New Zealand. The show aired on Prime in 2004. Between 2001 and 2004, the show aired on a one-day delay from the Australian broadcast. As such New Zealand viewers had the ability to cast eviction votes to determine the weekly evictee, however this did not continue in 2005 as the show aired on a three-week delay long after voting in Australia had concluded.
The show returned to New Zealand, as part of the TV3 summer line-up in November 2013 with the tenth season of the show. The following eleventh season was also broadcast by TV3 in November 2014.
The show then returned to New Zealand and TV3, which has since rebranded as Three, with the Seven iteration of the show in June 2020. This marked the first time the show has aired in primetime in New Zealand since the conclusion of the 2004 season due to the network needing to fill a scheduling gap caused by the COVID-19 pandemic delaying The Block NZ's ninth season to 2021. On 14 July 2020, it was announced due to low ratings, the show would be moving into a later timeslot and would drop to airing two episodes per week.
The second season to air on Seven was broadcast online-only, via TVNZ OnDemand, starting 4 May 2021 with the first four episodes and each subsequent episodes being released within 48 hours of the Australian broadcast.
Finland
The 2020 edition of the show was also broadcast on Finnish streaming service Ruutu.fi from 6 December 2020, with two episodes airing every Sunday.
The Netherlands
Dutch broadcaster RTL revealed that they are going to broadcast Big Brother Australia from season 12 on RTL 5, starting from 9 April 2021, only one day after their Dutch-Flemish version ended. The broadcast would occur each weekday at 9:30 pm.
United States
In the United States, seasons 12 and 13 were added to Paramount+ on 16 February 2022.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the VIP series and the 2020 season were broadcast on E4, with episodes being released on the Channel 4 on-demand service.
Companion shows
Reception
Criticism and controversy
The series received some criticism from commentators and audiences for its sexual content. The series was occasionally referred to as "Big Brothel" in the press, in reference to the sexual content of the Uncut episode. Criticism was also voiced in the Australian Government, with one politician referring to it as "toxic television". Complaints about Uncut led to it being rebranded Big Brother: Adults Only for the 2006 season. Adults Only was cancelled early in the season due to continuing controversy.
Censorship and sexual content
After the 2005 series, complaints prompted the Australian Communications and Media Authority to launch an investigation into Big Brother: Uncut. The main complaint was that Network Ten had breached the industry code of practice by broadcasting footage that went past the maximum MA15+ rating for Australian commercial television.
The ACMA found Network Ten had breached the code on a number of occasions:
The airing of housemate Michael massaging his penis on Gianna's back and hair, allegedly without her consent. Gretel Killeen later expressed her disapproval with Michael's indecent actions (BB 2005).
Vesna Tosevska plucking her pubic hair in bed (BB 2005).
A song about sexual fetishes (BB 2005).
Tim hogtied and dumped in the diary room, where he was tackled and had his testicles hit with a leather strap (BB 2005).
Airing of housemates Glenn Dallinger and Michelle Carew-Gibson appearing to have sex in a sauna (BB 2005).
In the 2001 season, Big Brother Uncut received backlash for airing a ‘sex scene’ between Peter Timbs and Christina Davis, though neither of the two were having sex, despite making rhythmic sexual movements under the bedsheets.
A 'bondage' party earlier in the 2001 season caused concerns when housemate Andrea Silva, a dominatrix in profession, displayed some of her sexual fetishes to the other housemates, where she tied up her shirtless male housemates, pinched their nipples and lashed them with a scourge.
Later that night, Sara-Marie Fedele tied up Gordon Sloan on a wooden table and sensually stroke his bare chest.
The ACMA did not impose any direct punishment on Network Ten, however outlined requirements for the 2006 series of Uncut. Included in those requirements is a commitment by Network Ten to compile episode footage early enough for censors to evaluate it. Two censors were taken on by the network specifically for Big Brother, and crew were trained on the restrictions of the MA15+ television rating. As a result of criticism, the show was renamed Big Brother: Adults Only for the 2006 season.
The daily shows in the first 4 seasons were rated G, despite their (mild) sexual references or innuendos and adult subject matter. The daily shows in the latter seasons were rated PG. Late Night Feast, an adult-oriented show first aired in the 2013 season, was rated M for moderate sexual references, (non-graphic) nudity and coarse language.
2006 alleged sexual assault controversy
On 1 July 2006 two housemates, Michael Cox (using the alias Ashley for the show) and Michael Bric (using the alias John), were removed from the house for allegedly sexually assaulting, "Turkey slapping" female housemate, Camilla Halliwell, in a season of the series that had already attracted significant controversy. Following the incident the live feed was temporarily replaced by an old UpLate update of the housemates completing their football task, continuously looped, and the forums on the Big Brother website were removed. Queensland Police were shown the relevant footage, but opted not to conduct a criminal investigation. Subsequent to this incident former housemate Rita Lazzarotto reported that she had been subjected to a similar incident during her time in the Big Brother house in the 2005 series.
Then Australian Prime Minister John Howard asked for Big Brother to be cancelled, saying, "Here's a great opportunity for Channel 10 to do a bit of self-regulation and get this stupid program off the air"; Leader of the Opposition Kim Beazley and Senator Steve Fielding supported this view. Queensland Premier Peter Beattie argued that the show employed many Australians in production and that, because of the already diminished size of the Australian television industry, the show should continue.
Housemate selection
The show's producers aim to get "real people" in the house. This has been done by personality testing, engaging with people around the country and appearances. While there are housemates who are "unique" and reflect many diverse people in Australia, there has been a high number of individuals in the latter seasons who come from a modelling background which has alienated them from the public audience.
In the 2007 season, to lower censorship controversies that stemmed from the housemates' generally salacious and revelling personality types from the previous seasons, producers selected more sophisticated, reserved and modest type of housemates, such as Rebecca Dent, a devout Mormon, and Jamie McDonald, a computer geek. Such practise of selecting more educated and mature type of people continued into the latter seasons, with other examples being Michael Beveridge from the 2012 season, who had the IQ of a genius, and Priya Malik, an Indian Australian schoolteacher with an English Honours degree from the 2014 season.
Awards and nominations
Other media
On 8 July 2003, a DVD entitled Big Brother: Unseen/Uncut/Unreel by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment, featuring risqué moments from the series was released and became marginally successful. It was rated M which means that the DVD requires a mature perspective, however there is no legal restriction on access. The DVD is broken down into three sections. Unseen showed Launch and Eviction episodes, while Uncut features clips from Big Brother Uncut; speaks of how television censorship laws of different countries that have Big Brother seasons that differ from Australia's; footage of the audition process; and a package where Peter Abbott, the voice of Big Brother for the first three seasons, was "Big Brother'd" for a day, where a camera followed him from the time he woke up to when he went to sleep. Unreel section has information on the first three seasons' housemates, including Big Brother 2003's housemates' introduction packages shown at In They Go; an image gallery with information on what the 24 original housemates of the first two seasons were doing at the time of the DVD's release; and an interactive tour of Big Brother 2003's Houses before and after they were merged.
Notable contestants
2001
Rachel Corbett
Christina Davis
Sara-Marie Fedele
Blair McDonough
2002
Nathan Morris
Brodie Young
2003
Regina Sorensen
Chrissie Swan
2004
Bree Amer
Trevor Butler
Wesley Dening
Ryan Fitzgerald
2005
Tim Brunero
Simon Deering
Greg and David Mathew
2006
Danielle Foote
Krystal Forscutt
2007
Jamie McDonald
2008
Craig Barnett
Michael Crafter
2012
Layla Subritzky
2013
Ed Lower
Tully Smyth
2014
Sam Bramham
Skye Wheatley
Aisha McKinnon
2020
Daniel Gorringe
Xavier Molyneux
2021
Nick Benton
Danny Hayes
Jess Trend
2022
Trevor Butler
Regina Sorensen
Layla Subritzky
Tully Smyth
See also
List of Australian television series
References
Bibliography
External links
Big Brother Australia
Seven Network original programming
Network 10 original programming
Nine Network original programming
Television shows set in Gold Coast, Queensland
2001 Australian television series debuts
2008 Australian television series endings
2012 Australian television series debuts
2014 Australian television series endings
2020 Australian television series debuts
Television series by Endemol Australia
Television series by Endemol
Australian television series revived after cancellation
English-language television shows
Dreamworld (Australia)
Australian television series based on Dutch television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20H.%20Malan
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David H. Malan
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David Huntingford Malan (21 March 1922 – 14 October 2020) was a British psychoanalytic psychotherapy practitioner and researcher recognized for his contribution to the development of psychotherapy. He promoted scientific spirit of inquiry, openness, and simplicity within the field. He is also noted for his development of the Malan triangles, which became a rubric in which therapists can reflect upon what they are doing and where they are in relational space at any given moment.
Early life
Malan was born in Ootacamund in the province of Tamil Nadu in India on 21 March 1922. His father was English, working in the Indian Civil service as Paymaster General of Madras State, and his mother Isabel (née Allen)was American. When Malan was seven years old his father died from pneumonia and Malan and his mother came to England. They moved into a house in Hartley Wintney which served as Malan's home throughout his life. This early experience of grief was formative for his later work.
At preparatory boarding school Malan particularly enjoyed learning Latin and Greek, but as a scholar at Winchester he became interested in chemistry which he then studied, winning a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. He graduated in 1944 with a 1st class Honours degree in chemistry.
During the war Malan was seconded to the Special Operations Executive (S.O.E), initially to develop devices for Resistance fighters, and later incendiary bombs for use in the Far East.
He was unable to partake in active service due to a foot injury. After the war he studied medicine at The London Hospital qualifying in 1952 and then trained in psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. Malan began his training in psychoanalysis whilst at Medical School. His initial analysis was with Michael Balint and then with Winnicott.
After a year at Courtaulds doing fundamental research, he knew he wanted to become a Psychotherapist.
Career
After qualifying from the London Hospital in 1952, he worked as a casualty officer, then as a psychiatrist at the Maudsley before transferring to the Tavistock Clinic in 1956. From 1956 to 1982, he remained at the Tavistock Clinic as a consultant psychiatrist, psychotherapist and psychoanalyst.
In 1956, at the Tavistock Clinic, Balint asked him to join his Brief Psychotherapy research group investigating whether brief focal therapy was effective. Malan analysed the results which were highly encouraging. During his early years as a psychotherapist, he already advocated the accurate, reproducible clinical descriptions, as well as the prediction of desirable outcomes prior to the process of therapy or an "intention to treat", which are then followed by unbiased evaluation post-treatment. This approach was met with suspicion during the 1950s within the analytic community, including Malan's colleagues at the Tavistock Clinic.
In 1967 Malan developed the Brief Psychotherapy workshop which all trainees were required to attend for one year and treat a patient under his supervision. It attracted students internationally as well as nationally. The aim was to achieve effective therapeutic results in the shortest possible time and to research the factors that made this happen.
The therapy was actively interpretive, using the elements of the Two Triangles – the Triangle of Conflict and the Triangle of Person - as the basis for many of the interventions that the therapists made.
The outcome data exploded the Myth of Superficiality whereby critics claimed that Brief Psychotherapy could only be helpful with superficially ill patients, that the technique used should be superficial and that only superficial improvements can be achieved.
At this time Malan lectured nationally and internationally many times in the US, Canada, Norway, Switzerland, Italy and Greece, describing his active interpretive approach and his investigation of the factors that made Brief Psychotherapy most effective. He received the highest medical Merit award for this work.
In 1974, Davanloo showed his tapes of Intensive Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy to Malan who was convinced by the evidence that the technique used was extremely effective. They began a twelve-year collaboration, doing workshops and lectures together with Davanloo showing his tapes of therapy and Malan outlining the concepts and explaining the principles of the technique.
In 1979, Malan wrote Individual Psychotherapy and the Science of Psychodynamics pub. Butterworth-Heinnemann which outlines the principles of Dynamic Psychotherapy from the most elementary to the most profound, using true case histories to illustrate each concept. It has been translated into 8 languages and following a second edition in 1995 is still in print as a classic textbook for psychotherapists.
Private life
He was married to Muriel (née Still) from 1959 to about 1982, with whom he had a son called Peter. He later married Jennifer (Jennie) Ann (née Stead). He enjoyed travelling in the countryside with his wife Jennie including in Scotland, New Zealand and India.
Retirement and death
After his retirement, Malan continued to write and lecture extensively on Brief Psychotherapy and Intensive Short Term Dynamic Therapy (ISTDP), publishing his last book "Lives Transformed", in 2006, which he co-authored with Patricia Coughlin. He also put on Conferences in Oxford in 2006 and 2008 to demonstrate the effectiveness of ISTDP as a method of Brief Psychotherapy. Following these conferences, core training courses developed, and therapists, who completed them and have become experienced, have continued to lecture and teach subsequent core trainings.
In 2005, Malan received a Career Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to Psychotherapy from the International Experiential Dynamic Therapy Association, of which he was Emeritus President since its inception. He died in 2020.
Brief Psychotherapy
Although trained as an analyst, initially using analysis in therapy, and recognising the validity of analytic insights, Malan has always been concerned that analysis takes too long and too few patients can be treated.
His research and writing therefore focussed on finding the most effective treatment that can help more patients in the shortest possible time.
Balint's Brief Therapy Research Group.
In 1956, after becoming a psychotherapist at the Tavistock Clinic, Malan was invited by Balint to join his Brief Psychotherapy research group investigating whether brief focal therapy was effective. Patients were treated using a radical interpretive approach and the results were evaluated against specified criteria and, in general, they were extremely good. Malan analysed the results in his Oxford DM thesis and subsequently developed the ideas in A Study of Brief Psychotherapy : Tavistock publications 1963. Other publications analysing aspects of the results were The Frontier of Brief Psychotherapy and Toward the Validation of Dynamic Psychotherapy - both published by Plenum in 1976.
Brief Psychotherapy Workshop
Following his appointment as a Consultant in the Adult dept., Malan introduced a Brief Psychotherapy workshop which all trainees were required to attend. They presented cases where they had used the principles of Brief Psychotherapy under his supervision. The aim was to achieve effective therapeutic results in the fewest sessions and to research the factors that made this possible.
In the workshop the technique was actively interpretive. The work was initially focussed on the presenting problems but became more wide-ranging with responsive patients and demonstrated deep and lasting changes.
An account of twenty-four therapies completed by trainees as part of the Brief Psychotherapy Workshop is summarised in ‘Psychodynamics, Training and Outcome’ by Malan and Osimo, pub. Butterworth –Heinemann 1992. It is based not only on the sessions but on the follow-up of a series of patients, and shows that good therapeutic results can be achieved by trainees under supervision.
The Two Triangles
A key element of therapy is the linking of the Two Triangles - the Triangle of Conflict (Defence, Anxiety and Hidden Feeling) and the Triangle of Persons (Current, Transference/Present and Past). The Triangle of Conflict illustrates the relation between anxiety, defences and the underlying impulses or feelings. The Triangle of Persons shows the links between the relationship with the therapist, with current people in the patient's life, and with people from their past.
Malan always acknowledges that each Triangle was independently devised by Ezriel (1952) and Menninger (1958) respectively, but he showed how, when put together, the relation between them for the patient at any given moment in therapy, can form a reliable basis for many of the interventions that the therapist makes. Ref: Individual Psychotherapy and the Science of Psychodynamics (p. 80)
As early as 1963 in his analysis of cases in Balint's workshop, Malan had identified that good outcome correlated with a high frequency of interpretations making a link between the transference and childhood, but the full significance and usefulness of the concept of linking the Triangles came later.
The Myth of Superficiality
Research from the workshop exploded the ‘myth of superficiality’ whereby critics maintain that Brief Psychotherapy is a superficial treatment that can only be effective with superficially ill patients, bringing about superficial results. Malan maintains that the aim of every session is to ‘put the patient in touch with as much of their true feelings as they can bear and that the long-term outcome should demonstrate deep and lasting changes.’ The work does not have to be focal and limited to specific problems and should lead to therapeutic changes that are wide-ranging, deep-seated and permanent. This has been shown in many of Malan's follow-up studies where Brief Therapy and Intensive Short-term Dynamic Psychotherapy have been used.
Collaboration with Habib Davanloo
In 1974 Davanloo presented videotapes of his therapeutic work using Intensive Short-term Dynamic Psychotherapy (ISTDP) at the Tavistock Clinic. The essence of ISTDP is to enable the patient to reach and experience their hitherto buried, and often unconscious feelings, which have been governing their emotional responses leading to deep-seated neurotic patterns of behaviour that in many cases have crippled their lives. He does this by challenging the defences that the patient has been using to avoid painful feelings of loss, grief, anger, hate and guilt about people who they loved and /or needed when children.
Although aspects of Davanloo's challenging and sometimes abrasive technique were antipathetic to him, Malan recognised that the challenge was to the defences, not to the patient directly, and results were conclusive and convincing. The videotapes showed undeniable evidence that patients could be treated in a relatively few sessions (40 or fewer) and fully recover from a range of longstanding emotional and psychosomatic illnesses.
Malan and Davanloo collaborated for twelve years from 1974, doing many Conferences and Workshops worldwide. Davanloo showed his tapes of therapy while Malan outlined the rationale and objectives of the technique and explained the elements of the therapy. After his retirement, Malan wrote many books and articles about Davanloo's concepts and technique.
Subsequent Developments using Intensive Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy.
It became apparent that the abrasive element when challenging the defences is not necessary, and the same results can be achieved by blocking them much more gently but persistently until they disintegrate. Malan recognised that as long as the patient reaches and experiences the buried, often previously unconscious painful feelings, they no longer have the power to govern their emotional responses. It is the avoidance of these feelings that underlies many neurotic and psychosomatic symptoms.
Malan has worked with many of Davanloo's ex-trainees lecturing and writing extensively. In 2006 he co-authored with Patricia Coughlin ‘Lives Transformed – a Revolutionary Method of Dynamic Psychotherapy’ pub. Karnac.
In order to introduce Intensive Short-term Dynamic Psychotherapy to the UK, Malan organised two Conferences in Oxford in 2006 and 2008, where video-tapes of therapies were shown. Following these Core Training groups were established. Subsequent Conferences have been held demonstrating ISTDP and currently there are Core trainings in London and the North of England. Malan hopes ISTDP will become available as a treatment method on the N.H.S. as it so effective, but it is difficult to learn and challenging to do.
Scientific principles and Brief Psychotherapy
A hallmark of Malan's work is his scientific approach to research in Psychotherapy. He is convinced that psychodynamic processes can and should be scientifically studied, and he rigorously insists on long-term follow-ups to see how effective therapy really has been and what factors contributed to this.
Outcome Studies
Malan believes that one of the most important tools for this ‘objective study of subjective matter’ is long-term follow-up interviews to obtain reliable psychodynamic outcome data. He considers that questionnaires are useless, and proper follow-up interviews are necessary based on the initial criteria the therapist sets for the complete resolution of the presenting problems. To this end he has carried out many such follow-ups and trained others to do so. These outcome studies are actually process and outcome studies as they analyse the process of change as well as the long-term results. He published papers throughout his career evaluating outcome data which showed that the results of Brief Psychotherapy are as good as, or better than, those found in long-term therapy.
Publications
Books
A Study of Brief Psychotherapy : Tavistock publications 1963 . Reprinted Plenum 1975. Translated into 7 languages.
The Frontier of Brief Psychotherapy : Plenum 1976
Towards the Validation of Brief Psychotherapy : Plenum 1979
Individual Psychotherapy and the Science of Psychodynamics : pub. Butterworth-Heinemann !979 Second edition 1995 Reprinted in 8 languages.
Psychodynamics, Training and Outcome in Brief Psychotherapy : Malan and Osimo pub. Butterworth-Heinemann 1992
Anorexia, Murder and Suicide : pub Butterworth-Heinemann 1997
Lives transformed – a Revolutionary Method of Dynamic Psychotherapy : Malan and Coughlin pub:Karnac 2006
Throughout his career Malan consistently published research papers and wrote chapters in books.
Significant ones include:
Malan, D.H. (1978a) Exploring the limits of brief psychotherapy. In H. Davanloo (Ed.) Basic Principles and Techniques in Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy (pp43 –67). New York. Spectrum Publications
Malan, D.H. (1978b) Evaluation criteria for selection of patients. In H.Davanloo (Ed) Basic Principles and Techniques in Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy (pp. 85 –97). New York. Spectrum Publications.
Malan, D.H. (1980) The most important development in psychotherapy since the discovery of the unconscious. In H. Davanloo (Ed) Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy, (pp. 13–23) Northvale NJ: Aronson.
Malan, D.H. (2001) The Way Ahead. In Short-Term Therapy for Long-term Change. New York. Norton.
Malan D.H. (1986) Beyond Interpretation: Part I and II. International Journal of Short-term Psychotherapy, I (2), (pp. 59–82, 83–106)
References
Sources
Malan, D.H. (1963) A Study of Brief Psychotherapy Tavistock Publications. Reprinted Plenum
Malan, D.H. (1976a). The Frontier of Brief Psychotherapy. New York: Plenum Press
Malan, D.H. (1976b). Toward the Validation of Dynamic Psychotherapy. New York: Plenum Press.
Malan, D.H. (1979). Individual Psychotherapy and the Science of Psychodynamics. London: Butterworth- Heinemann.
Malan, D.H. and Osimo, F. (1992). Psychodynamics, Training and Outcome in Brief Psychotherapy. London: Butterworth- Heinemann.
Malan, D.H. and Coughlin Della Selva, P. (2006) Lives Transformed – a Revolutionary Method of Dynamic psychotherapy. London Karnack
Osimo, F and Stein, M.J. Theory and Practice of Experiential Dynamic Therapy London: Karnac (pp 9–13, 23 -42).
1922 births
2020 deaths
Psychodynamics
British psychiatrists
British psychotherapists
British people in colonial India
British people of American descent
People from Nilgiris district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden%20Hauptbahnhof
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Dresden Hauptbahnhof
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Dresden Hauptbahnhof ("main station", abbreviated Dresden Hbf) is the largest passenger station in the Saxon capital of Dresden. In 1898, it replaced the Böhmischen Bahnhof ("Bohemian station") of the former Saxon-Bohemian State Railway (Sächsisch-Böhmische Staatseisenbahn), and was designed with its formal layout as the central station of the city. The combination of a station building on an island between the tracks and a terminal station on two different levels is unique. The building is notable for its train-sheds, which are roofed with Teflon-coated glass fibre membranes. This translucent roof design, installed during the comprehensive restoration of the station at the beginning of the 21st century, allows more daylight to reach the concourses than was previously possible.
The station is connected by the Dresden railway node to the tracks of the Děčín–Dresden-Neustadt railway and the Dresden–Werdau railway (Saxon-Franconian trunk line), allowing traffic to run to the southeast towards Prague, Vienna and on to south-eastern Europe or to the southwest towards Chemnitz and Nuremberg. The connection of the routes to the north (Berlin), northwest (Leipzig) and east (Görlitz) does not take place at the station, but north of Dresden-Neustadt station (at least for passenger trains).
Location
The station is located south of the Inner Old Town in the Seevorstadt and the district of Südvorstadtat reaches its southern edge. Next door to the station area is the Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden (University of Applied Sciences). Federal highway 170 passes under the station area to the east of the station building, running north–south.
Prager Straße, the inner-city shopping street, begins at Wiener Platz to the north. Road traffic on Wiener Platz was diverted in the 1990s to run through a road tunnel with connections to underground parking, and it is now a pedestrianised street. Several major buildings have been constructed in the area in the modern style and there is an excavation in Wiener Platz, which was dug a few years ago, but construction has been abandoned (2013).
History
In 1839, the Leipzig–Dresden Railway Company (Leipzig-Dresdner Eisenbahn-Compagnie) opened the first long-distance railway in Germany from Leipzig to its Dresden terminus, the Leipziger Bahnhof. In the following decades more railways were built, increasing the destinations that could be reached from Dresden. Each private company built its own station as the terminus of its lines. The Silesian Station (Schlesischer Bahnhof) was opened in 1847 as the terminus of the Görlitz–Dresden railway and the Bohemian station (Böhmische Bahnhof) was opened in 1848 on the line towards Bohemia. Seven years later, the Albert station (Albertbahnhof) was opened on the line towards Chemnitz and the Berliner station (Berliner Bahnhof) opened in 1875 on the line to Berlin.
Between 1800 and 1900, the population of Dresden grew from 61,794 to 396,146. As a result, traffic grew enormously. The existing railway facilities proved to be inadequate to satisfy the increasing traffic as a result of rising mobility, population increase and industrialisation. In particular, the railway tracks of the poorly interconnected stations were not designed for through traffic and the many level crossings created major traffic problems.
After the late 1880s, when all the railway infrastructure affecting the city had been nationalised, the Saxon government decided to carry out a fundamental reconstruction of the Dresden railway node under the leadership of the engineer Otto Klette. This would create a new central railway station, but there was no consensus on its location for a long time. After the Elbe flood of March 1845, the inspector of surveys, Karl Pressler suggested that the Weißeritz near Cotta should be relocated and that the existing riverbed could be used for a central station. This plan was taken up and the former riverbed was used for a connection line between Dresden's long-distance railway stations, but, instead of a central station, the planners foresaw a new main station in front of the former Bohemian station, as it was already the busiest station in Dresden and it was close to Prager Straße, which became the most important shopping street of Dresden in the last quarter of the 19th century.
Böhmischer Bahnhof
On 1 August 1848, the Saxon-Bohemian State Railway (Sächsisch-Böhmische Staatseisenbahn) opened the Bohemian station as the terminus of its line, which only extended to Pirna. It was initially only a barn-like half-timbered building spanning four tracks and it also had a makeshift locomotive depot, carriage sheds and workshops.
The opening ceremony took place on 6 April 1851, coinciding with the extension of the line to Bodenbach (now Děčín). A year later the opening of the Marienbrücke (Maria Bridge) for road and rail traffic on 19 April 1852 allowed the operation of traffic through the Bohemian station to the Leipziger station and the Silesian Station on the Neustadt side of the Elbe.
From 1861 to 1864, the passenger infrastructure was moved to the west, to make room for a new building. On 1 August 1864, a solid new entrance building replaced the previous provisional building Four long wings, which were designed by Karl Moritz Haenel and Carl Adolph Canzler in the form of Italian Renaissance buildings, were annexed.The main platform could handle two trains simultaneous at first, but it was only long. An additional -long island platform was built between 1871 and 1872. This extension had become necessary because in 1869 the Bohemian station took over the passenger traffic of the Dresden–Werdau railway from the Albert Station, which was located about to the northwest and subsequently only served coal traffic. In order to handle the traffic towards Chemnitz a new main station (Hauptbahnhof) was built in front of the Bohemian station. In addition, the new Hauptbahnhof would handle the passenger traffic of the Berliner station, which was also located in the Old Town (Altstädt) on the south side of the Elbe, but almost to the northwest.
Construction and opening
The basic functional design of the station with the combination of a large terminal hall at a low level and two flanking through halls at a high level is considered to be the work of Claus Koepcke, a ministry of finance official, and Otto Klette. This functional framework was based on an architectural competition held in 1892 for the design of the new station. Dresden architects Ernst Giese and Paul Weidner and Leipzig architect Arwed Roßbach each won a first prize. The realised design incorporates elements of both drafts. Construction began in the same year, led by Ernst Giese and Paul Weidner. Railway operations continued at the Bohemian station while the south hall was opened to traffic on 18 June 1895. Subsequently, the Bohemian station was demolished and the construction of the central and northern halls started on its site. Until the completion of the entire building, the south hall served as the provisional station.
The new building, which had six terminal platform tracks in the central hall, six through high-level tracks and other terminal tracks in the eastern precinct, met all the requirements for greatly expanded passenger operations. A roofed building with two elevated tracks was built for freight traffic between the south hall and Bismarckstraße (now Bayrischen Straße) to the south. The entrance building covered an area of approximately . The steel fabrication company, August Klönne supplied of steel for the structure of the platform halls and the masonry consists of Elbe Sandstone. The cost of construction amounted to 18 million marks; corresponding to the equivalent of about €320 million.
After more than five years of construction the whole building went into operation on 16 April 1898. At 2:08 AM the first train running as the 101 from Leipzig entered the newly opened Dresden Hauptbahnhof.
As a result of the restructuring of the Dresden railway infrastructure that was carried out simultaneously, the station received better links with the lines to Leipzig, Berlin and Görlitz, which had previously been poorly connected. A new high-capacity, continuous four-track urban connecting line was opened through the new Wettiner Straße station (now Dresden Mitte station) for suburban traffic and the Maria Bridge to Dresden-Neustadt station in 1901. It was connected by rail junctions to other stations, in particular to Dresden-Friedrichstadt station.
Although it was built in the heyday of luxury trains, it was almost unaffected by this phenomenon with only one branch of the Balkanzug (Balkan train) serving Dresden between 1916 and 1918.
Early conversions and extensions
The builders of the station assumed that the new facilities would provide sufficient capacity for many decades. In fact, the volume of traffic developed more rapidly than assumed as indicated in the table below.
Since the rapid increase in traffic could barely be handled, the first expansion of facilities was planned prior to the start of the First World War. In 1914, the Saxon Parliament approved funds for the expansion, but the beginning of the war prevented its realisation. The extension could not be started until the late 1920s.
One obstacle to operations until then was that it was difficult to reach the terminal tracks in the eastern precinct. As a remedy, a new through track was built through the north hall between platforms 10 and 11, replacing a luggage platform. This would henceforth be used for the passage of additional trains to the eastern precinct and for the passage of unattached locomotives and freight traffic. To take advantage of the sharp rise in through passenger traffic, the covered side hall next to the south hall was demolished, so that the two freight train tracks could be moved on to an outer track on a new concrete structure over the pavement and the released space could be used for an island platform.
The signal box equipment was modernised at that time. New electromechanical systems replaced the mechanical systems and a new command signal box tower was built on the Hohe Brücke (bridge) that at that time carried an extension of Hohe Straße over the station's western track field. The architecture of the station was also transformed. Numerous decorations and structures were replaced by modern plain surfaces.
During the Third Reich
In the 1930s, Deutsche Reichsbahn built a high-speed rail network. It operated high-speed diesel multiple units on routes between Berlin and Hamburg, Berlin and Cologne and Berlin and Frankfurt among other cities. However, the connection from Dresden to Berlin was served by a high-speed steam-hauled train, the Henschel-Wegmann Train. From 1936 until the outbreak of war in 1939, the journey time from Dresden to the Anhalter Bahnhof was about 100 minutes.
In the late 1930s, the Nazi Party planned to reconstruct the city with the intention of glorifying the Third Reich on an enormous scale. A new central train station to be built at Wettiner Straße station would have been wide and long. In addition, an oversized station courtyard and spacious streets were intended to create spaces for rallies and marches. With the outbreak of the Second World War, however, these plans lapsed.
During the Second World War, the station had only minor importance for the dispatch of troop and prisoner transports, though Dresden was a garrison town. However, it connected the Saxon railway network with Bohemia and formed a bottleneck as a result.
At the beginning of the war, Dresden hardly seemed threatened by air raids, so initially insufficient preparations were made and later additional preparations were no longer possible. The air raid shelters of the central station could accommodate about 2,000 people, but they lacked airlocks and ventilation systems. This had serious consequences: during the great air raid on the night of 13 and 14 February 1945 the station burned down, and the entrance to the luggage store was set alight; as a result 100 people were burned to death and another 500 people suffocated in the air raid shelters.
Subsequent air raids destroyed the railway tracks entirely. The station was made permanently inoperable during the eighth and final air raids on the city on 17 April 1945 by 580 USAAF bombers.
The long reconstruction
In spite of its severe war damage the station was one of the distinctive buildings in the central Dresden. The restoration of rail connections had to take precedence over the restoration of the historic building. So passenger services were restored to Bad Schandau by 17 May 1945.
A temporary reconstruction began after the war and was completed in the same year. Some parts of the building, such as the concourses and the dome, were not immediately repaired and continued to deteriorate. At the same time a far-reaching reorganisation of the railway infrastructure was considered as the large-scale destruction of the city seemed to make it possible. Draft plans from 1946 show a turning loop south of the station, which would have allowed east–west traffic on the Chemnitz–Görlitz route to stop without a change of locomotives. In 1946 and 1947, several drafts of a new, generously-dimensioned central station replacing the Wettiner Straße station emerged. The former Hauptbahnhof would have been renamed Bahnhof Dresden Prager Straße and passenger services would have operated only through the north hall and from the east side. Initially a postal station was planned for the remaining area. This was abandoned in the draft of 1947; the south hall would now also be used for passenger operations, while the central hall would be used for any purpose.
It is not absolutely certain why these plans ultimately did not proceed. Possible reasons were financial problems, material shortages, labour shortages and general planning uncertainty during a period of social and political changes. A planned new entrance building on Wiener Platz with an attached new administration building for the Reichsbahndirektion Railway division of Dresden was also not realised.
The remaining structure was restored from 1950 in a similar but simpler form, due to economic difficulties and the shortage of skilled workers. The roof, which had previously been partially covered with glass, was temporarily covered with wood, board and slate. The station building itself was only partially restored. In particular, the buildings south of the main hall remained hollow ruins, although the outer walls implied a complete reconstruction. The intact steel construction of the dome over the main hall was also externally covered with wood and slate and a coffered ceiling was built inside it. The construction work was not largely completed until the early 1960s. One of the last measures was the modification of the clock towers on either side of the entrance portal to fit the “skeletal” facade.
In the coming decades, the station's makeshift parking and traffic arrangements and its power lines shaped perceptions of it.
East German times
From the 1960s the station again became an important hub for long-distance services from Western Europe and Scandinavia to Southeastern Europe. The well-known services of this period were the Vindobona (Berlin–Vienna), the Hungaria (Berlin–Budapest) and the Meridian (Malmö–Bar).
As part of the change in traction, trains hauled by electric locomotives reached Dresden from Freiberg for the first time in September 1966. A good ten years later–on 24 September 1977–the final steam-hauled service departed the station towards Berlin as the Dresden Express. Steam-hauled passenger trains were still seen running towards Upper Lusatia until the late 1980s. Since the headroom in the western part of the station area was insufficient, the Hohe Brücke (bridge) had to be demolished to permit the electrification of the railway lines.
Within the city and the surrounding area, the Dresden S-Bahn has carried the majority of traffic to the station since 1973 and has operated as its central point. In 1978, the Dresden Hauptbahnhof was heritage-listed.
On the night of 30 September and 1 October 1989, six so-called refugee trains were operated from Prague through Dresden station and the territory of the German Democratic Republic to West Germany. Two hours before the news spread to the West German media about these trips, a few quick and resolute citizens managed to jump on a train during transit. More East Germans were queuing in the West German embassy in Prague and so more trains were run. Therefore, on the following days, more and more disgruntled citizens collected at the station, amounting to about 20,000 people on the night of 4 and 5 October, according to the police. While the majority of the demonstrators and the security forces confronted each other that night in Lenin-Platz (now Wiener Platz), three of the expected trains from Prague passed on the southern tracks of the Hauptbahnhof but were hardly noticed. Due to the critical situation in Dresden, five additional special trains were diverted via Vojtanov and Bad Brambach to Plauen. Most demonstrators were peaceful, but there were also violent clashes between about 3,000 demonstrators and the Volkspolizei and property at the station was damaged. In the following days, peaceful demonstrations took place in Lenin-Platz and the adjacent Prager Straße, resulting in the beginning of a dialogue on state power at the local level with the establishment of the Group of 20 (Gruppe der 20) on the evening 8 October.
With a combined 156 arrivals and departures of scheduled long-distance trains per day in the station in the summer 1989 timetable, it was the third most important node in the network of Deutsche Reichsbahn, after Berlin and Leipzig.
After the political changes in the GDR
Since the 1990s, Dresden has gradually become part of the Intercity network. From 1991, individual Intercity services ran via Leipzig and the Thuringian Railway to Frankfurt am Main and these service have run every two hours since 1992. The first pair of EuroCity services ran from Dresden to Paris-Est over the same route on 2 June 1991. That same year, InterRegio trains served Dresden for the first time. The 2048/2049 and 2044/2143 trains pairs ran between Cologne and Dresden. Later, other connections were added. In 1993, a north–south connection through Dresden was included in the EuroCity network and some of the eight EC trains that now run to Prague, Vienna and Budapest were introduced.
On 25 September 1994, scheduled Intercity-Express (ICE) services operated for the first time to the station. The ICE Elbkurier ran in the evening on the line from the Zoo station in Berlin to Dresden in one hour and 58 minutes. In the morning there was a service in the opposite direction. The introduction of the ICE meant that construction work at the station had to be carried out in advance.
Until the timetable change on 28 May 2000, a pair of trains ICE ran daily via Berlin to Dresden, then the hourly ICE line 50 service, which has continued to the present, was introduced from Dresden to Frankfurt via Leipzig, eliminating the connection via Berlin. Dresden station became the starting point of the central east–west connection in the German ICE network.
This change caused changes in locomotive-hauled long-distance operations, since Dresden was now served almost exclusively in the north–south direction by Intercity (IC) and EuroCity (EC) trains. There were other related changes to the IC/EC network. So already the service, subsequently numbered EC/IC 27 (Prague–Dresden–Berlin), received a through connection to Hamburg in 1994 and in 2003 two pairs of trains continued to Vienna and a pair of trains continued to Aarhus in Denmark for the first time.
ICE TD (class 605) services ran on the Saxon-Franconian trunk line to Nuremberg from 10 June 2001. These replaced InterRegio services that had been abandoned a year earlier. After the 2002 Elbe flood and the resulting disruption of the line between Chemnitz and Dresden, as well as problems with the tilting systems, Deutsche Bahn discontinued the operation of the trainsets from the summer of 2003. Instead services were operated with Intercity trains until the end of long-distance services in 2006.
A suitcase bomb was discovered in the station by an explosive-detection dog on 6 June 2003. After the evacuation of the entire building, the police destroyed the suitcase bomb. The bomb consisted of a standard wheeled suitcase which contained an alarm clock, a pressure cooker, explosives and stones as well as an ignition device with fuse. According to experts, this bomb was capable of exploding.
The fundamental renovation after 2000
The first restoration work took place in the 1990s. The bridges over federal highway 170 were renovated and the eastern building was given a new facade on the street side and new entrance steps.
A draft plan by Gerkan, Marg and Partners for the modernisation of the station in the mid-1990s envisaged part of the central hall remodelled as a market as well as the building of an office and hotel tower. This design was not realised.
At the end of December 2000, the Board of Deutsche Bahn, let a contract for modernisation work. The planned construction costs amounted to approximately DM 100 million, which was funded from the federal government's remediation funds, Deutsche Bahn's own funds and a grant from the state of Saxony (DM 13 million). The completion of construction works was scheduled for the spring of 2003.
The extensive redevelopment had already commenced in 2000 with the commissioning of the Leipzig remote electronic control centre. The additional redevelopment included the renovation of the entrance building and the train shed roof, track work of the north and south hall and changes to the track and signaling systems. To ensure uninterrupted movement of trains, the track structures of the north hall were first rehabilitated and recommissioned in November 2003. Subsequently, the renovation of the track structures of the south hall began at the end of 2004. The train shed roof was renovated from 2002 and the station building was renovated from the end of 2003. Because of the construction, shops were accommodated in containers in the station hall from 2002 to 2006. The dome above the connection hall between the two halls, which is up to high, the connecting hall and the large waiting rooms were restored to their historical designs. A travel centre and a supermarket were opened in the waiting rooms in July 2006, simultaneously with the commissioning of the central hall. The high-level platforms are now reached via escalators and lifts.
In December 2007, the newly designed network of tracks was put into operation on the station's south side, except for platform 1, which was opened at the end of 2008. In addition, the two freight train tracks outside the south hall were rebuilt, but omitting the platform between the tracks that had been built with the tracks in about 1930.
The 2002 floods delayed the renovation work significantly. On 12 August 2002, the station was closed due to flooding by the Weißeritz, which had returned to its old route through Dresden and followed the route of the line to Chemnitz to reach the Hauptbahnhof, reaching a height of up to at the station. Water, mud and debris caused damage of €42 million. Many sections of track were impassable for a long time, especially towards Chemnitz. After a few regional trains reached the station on 2 September 2002, a long-distance train also reached it. The building was, in part, demolished down to its basement, except for its facade; this work lasted until the end of 2004.
The cost of the remediation amounted to about €250 million up to November 2006. Of this amount, €85 million was spent on the membrane roof and €55 million on the entrance building. The federal government contributed about €100 million of this and the government of Saxony contributed about €11 million. The renewal of the elevated track structures in the south hall had still not been carried out at that time, it would be supported by the federal government with some €54 million.
The inauguration of the renovated station took place under the dome of the lobby on the evening of 10 November 2006. It was carried out in 2006 to coincide with the celebration of the 800-year anniversary of the city. The opening meant the end of a significant obstacle for tourism, but the renovations have not yet finished even in 2014.
After 20 months of construction, carried out as part of the federal economic stimulus package, the refurbishment of the station's energy systems were completed in June 2011. This construction work included the renovation of the royal pavilion. Since the summer of 2011, Deutsche Bahn has been developing a future retail space under the tracks of the north and south hall of the station. Around €25 million were expected to be invested by 2014. It has around 40 storefronts with a total area of . The first new stores opened in August 2013, although construction work had not been completed in April 2014. The second stage of the development of the Dresden railway node was planned in 2009 to be completed in 2011. However, this construction phase was not included in the 2011–2015 federal Investment Framework Plan (Investitionsrahmenplan) and construction is not currently scheduled (as of 2012). In September 2013, Deutsche Bahn said that the platforms of the central hall would be replaced by 2019 and they would also be slightly raised.
The Förderverein Dresdner Hauptbahnhof e. V. (Friends of Dresden Hauptbahnhof) supported the renovation and enabled the recovery of some details about the required conservation measures. So broken decorative elements on a sandstone facade of the clock tower were returned to their correct places, windows were equipped with arches and architraves and the crowning group statue of Saxonia with personifications of science and technology have been restored.
Building
The station building is oriented in a northwest–southeast direction and is divided along its longitudinal axis into three train sheds with eye-catching arched roofs. The lobby is located to the east of the central and largest of the three buildings and it is centered between the outer halls; it has an approximately square plan. A small forecourt facing on to federal highway (Bundesstraße) 170 is in front of the main entrance. This road passes at roughly right angles under the railways running through the other two halls.
The tripartite platform hall covers an area that is wide and long. The iron arch structure of the roof rises up to high and has a width of . The spans of the train sheds are and wide. The dimensions of the roof were necessary during the days of steam so that smoke could be blown away.
On the other side of federal highway 170 opposite the main entrance is the station's east wing. Several bay platforms are arranged in an elevated position between the running lines from the north and south hall. These are mainly used for stabling short sets.
Impressive entrances to the station building were built not only from the east, but also from the north and the south. Additionally from these sides there are direct entrances to the central train shed under the elevated through tracks. The entrance from Wiener Platz to the station hall was also perceived as the main entrance during construction, which led to contemporary criticism that "the organic development of the building had to suffer from the needs of two main entrances with one having greater architectural significance and the other responding more to the needs of users."
In the northwest is the royal pavilion (Königspavillon), which is built in the Baroque Revival style. Originally it served to receive state guests of the Kingdom of Saxony. After the end of the monarchy in 1918, it contained a ticket office before it was again reserved for functions and receiving dignitaries during the Third Reich. From 1950, the royal pavilion contained the Kino im Hauptbahnhof (cinema in the station), which had more than 170 places. On 31 December 2000, Deutsche Bahn dismissed the operator and the Pavilion has since been unused. During a renovation to make it energy-efficient in 2010, the facade of the Pavilion was repaired and new windows and a new roof were installed. In April 2014, the royal pavilion is to be opened as an additional entrance to the station, allowing direct access to platforms 17, 18 and 19 from the north-west side. In the royal pavilion itself there will be room for cultural projects and art exhibitions. Originally there was another entrance to the Pavilion on the north side. Eliminating it led to criticism from architects and the press, as the royal pavilion would now not be integrated into a harmonious structure.
Among the elevated tracks of the north and south hall there was originally facilities for loading luggage and offices for the management and inspection of operations (north hall) and rooms for the staff (south hall). Since the redevelopment there are shops for travel necessities below the eastern part of the north hall and a waiting hall with its own lost property office and sanitary facilities under a part of the south hall. The development of further rooms below the north hall and south hall is still continuing (as of 2013).
Platforms
The central train shed today serves as a terminal station with seven tracks running from the west. Originally, however, it housed only six platform tracks. Even before the Second World War another platform track was integrated into the train shed, the current platform 14. This change involved the abolition of two luggage platforms, leaving only the former luggage platform between platforms 6 and 9. The tracks of the central part of the station are approximately at street level, while all the through tracks run in a second level which is about higher.
The north and south halls house three through tracks (without platforms) that run in a southeasterly direction past the terminal hall. The eastern sections of platforms 1 and 2 are also referred to as platforms 1a and 2a. The north hall also houses an additional through track without platform. During the refurbishment works carried out since 2000, the platform height was adjusted to meet current standards. The east wing originally had a second terminal track, but only platform track 4 is still in use.
In addition to structural changes, the system of operations has also changed. It was initially mainly operated with tracks arranged according to direction (that is with fast and slow lines in the same direction). The tracks are now largely arranged as discrete lines (for instance some tracks are dedicated to S-Bahn services). The following table gives an overview of the aspects of the platform and their original and current use (November 2009). The island platform added between the freight tracks south of the south hall in the 1930s has not existed since the reorganisation in the new millennium and therefore it is not shown in the table.
Roof construction
A special feature of the station is the renovated roof, which was designed by the British architect Sir Norman Foster. The previous panes of framed glass were replaced by -thick glass fibre membranes which have been stretched between the arched halls. The membranes have double-sided Teflon coatings that are -thick and are self-cleaning. It was the first time that a historic building had been treated with this new material. Designed for a service life of 50 years, the membrane can resist tensile forces of up to about 150 kN per metre. It can be walked over by trained personnel with a safety harness.
The membrane is largely translucent during the daytime and reflects the light of the concourse back at night; the structure appears to be silver from the outside. Narrow slits between the membranes are left open over the hall arches, forming a total of 67 skylights. The roof area is about (of which is composed of glass fibre membrane), which covers a surface area about . The architects who won the competition emphasised their entry's relatively easy installation, low weight and low maintenance costs (self-cleaning). According to the Deutsche Bahn specifications, cooling is not required due to the "tent construction" of the roof even in bright sunlight.
The restoration was carried out between February 2001 and July 2006 with trains running through the station. of material were installed in the two outer halls from elevated work platforms and more than of material were installed in the central hall. On 15 May 2001, workers began with the removal of the old glass roof. Some of the old steel beams were rebuilt and some new ones have been inserted as wind bracing between the hall arches. Secondary structures were then built to attach the membranes on the beams. A total of more than 100,000 screws were installed, some of which also replaced rivets on the historic hall arches. A service lift was also installed.
The planning began in 1997 and originally a full canopy covering the outer platforms was envisaged, but this was rejected in 2000. Instead it was decided to take up an option to extend the two outer roofs by to the east above the outer platforms using a membrane roof.
The membrane roof has been damaged several times during bad weather. In the winter of 2010/2011, eight cracks, which were up to wide, were formed. Responsibility for the damage was still being contested in court in January 2013.
Main entrance and lobby
The main entrance of the station building forms part of a large circular portal window arch. The portal is installed in the massive Avant-corps that dominates the centre of the facade. In addition there is a statue of Saxonia, the embodiment of the spirit of Saxony, which is arranged between allegories of science and technology. Both the portal of the entrance building and the clock towers on both sides show the association of the station with the architectural style of Historicism, which was typical of the buildings of the kingdom of Saxony in Dresden.
The entrance building consists of two elongated, T-shaped crossings, which intersect under the large glass dome of the hall. The main corridor leads to the central hall, while the side halls can be reached by passages running parallel to the cross passage through the central hall. During the renovation of the business and administrative areas, large parts of the station building were converted into facades and additional areas of glass were inserted into its roofs for daylighting.
While the interiors of the lobby are now simply decorated, they appeared much more lively before the destruction of the station during World War II. Ceiling paintings and the 26 emblems of the administrative districts of the Kingdom of Saxony in their heraldic colours adorned the lobby. The waiting rooms of the first and second class were graced with large murals made of porcelain tiles to the design of Prof. Julius Storm of Meissen.
For a long time many locals have met at the Unterm Strick (“rope end"), which is just below the center of the dome of Dresden station. Before the renovation of the station, a so-called rope hung here in the middle of the entrance hall. Although nothing has hung here since the station redevelopment, the old name is still used for this meeting place by many in Dresden.
At this point of the roof, there is now a round cushion, in diameter and made of ETFE foil. Its height can be adjusted and it serves mainly to regulate the ventilation.
In the upper floor of the station there has been a DB Lounge for first class passengers and frequent travellers since September 2006. In the entrance building there are shops for travel needs. It includes leased retail space of in addition to the space below the elevated tracks of the south hall; this provision is low compared to other metropolitan stations.
Operations
As an important transport hub in Dresden, the station is linked to various transport services. It is not only a stop on the rail network, but it is also an important transfer point for public transport, a grade-separated crossing of two main roads and the beginning of the pedestrianised route through the inner city.
Railway lines and operations
Unifying railways
The Dresden station is located on three electrified double-track main lines:
The Děčín–Dresden railway (also called the Elbtalbahn–Elbe Valley Railway) (route 6240) passes through the station running over two lateral elevated railway tracks and runs to the south-east. It connects with Děčín and Prague through the valley of the Elbe. The section to Pirna is designed for speeds up to .
From Dresden Hauptbahnhof to the vicinity of Dresden-Neustadt station there is a parallel single or double-track line for freight traffic (route 6241). The double track line branches off in Dresden Hauptbahnhof and runs south of the south hall. The line is single track from the vicinity of Dresden Mitte station over the Marien Bridge to Dresden-Neustadt station and it is shared by passenger trains and runs as a single track to the line to Dresden-Klotzsche.
The Pirna–Coswig S-Bahn line (route 6239) runs parallel to the Elbe Valley Railway; it runs through the northern hall of Dresden station.
The Dresden–Werdau railway (route 6258) starts in the station and branches on the western approach over a grade-separated junction. It represents the first section of Saxon-Franconian trunk line via Chemnitz, Zwickau and Hof to Nuremberg.
The Hauptbahnhof is also connected with railway to Berlin via the triangle of rail tracks between Dresden Freiberger Straße and Dresden Mitte and with the railway to Leipzig and railway to Görlitz via Dresden-Neustadt.
Components of the station
An electronic interlocking controls the Dresden junction to the limits on Dresden station. For operational purposes, Dresden Hauptbahnhof (Hbf) is part of the Dresden “operating agency” (Betriebsstelle; DDRE), which consists of the following station parts:
Dresden Hbf
Dresden-Altstadt
Dresden Freiberger Straße
Dresden Freiberger Straße platform
Dresden Mitte
Dresden-Neustadt Pbf (passenger station)
Dresden-Neustadt Gbf (freight yard)
All lines to Dresden have entry signals, as do the opposite tracks. The operating agency of Dresden has a total of 15 entry signals.
Rail operations
Two long-distance railway corridors intersect in Dresden. In addition to the important long-distance route to Leipzig, there is also the north–south corridor from Berlin via Dresden and Prague to Vienna. A third corridor from Nuremberg to Wrocław has lost its importance in Germany and Poland and is no longer served by long-distance traffic.
Journey times are as follows from Dresden to:
Leipzig (120 km): 65 minutes, with stops in Dresden-Neustadt and Riesa; corresponding to an average speed of 110 km/h;
Berlin (Berlin Hauptbahnhof, low level) (182 km): 128 minutes, with stops in Dresden-Neustadt (some trains), Elsterwerda (some trains) and Berlin-Südkreuz; corresponding to an average speed of 85 km/h;
Prague (Holešovice) (191 km) 126 minutes, with stops in Bad Schandau, Děčín and Ústí nad Labem; corresponding to an average speed of 90 km/h.
In the plans of the European Union, the station is the starting point of "Pan-European Corridors III and IV" to Kyiv and southeast Europe.
Train services
Long-distance services
The station is served by the following long-distance services:
Regional services
It is also served by the following regional services:
S-Bahn
Traffic
Each day the station is used by around 60,000 passengers, 381 trains (including 50 long-distance services), including up to ten S-Bahn services each hour. In passenger traffic it is served by services operated by DB Fernverkehr (long-distance), DB Regio (Nordost and Südost), and Vogtlandbahn (under the brand name of Trilex). In addition, about 200 freight trains operated by different railway companies pass the station daily.
The most common direct destination outside the area of the Dresden S-Bahn is Leipzig with up to 32 services daily. The other most frequent long-distance destinations are Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Prague and Budapest. The Saxon-Franconian trunk line via Chemnitz and the Vogtland to Nuremberg has been discontinued in recent years, despite the growth of long-distance traffic and is now only operated by DB Regio as far as Hof.
The number of direct connections to the station mean that it has national significance as an interchange. It is one of the 21 stations of the highest category as classified by DB Station&Service.
Transport links
Public transportation
The station is the main inner-city hub for national passenger services. From the outset, it was the centre of the tram network of the Dresdner Verkehrsbetriebe (Dresden Transport) or its predecessor organisations. Today, along with Postplatz, Albertplatz and Pirnaischer Platz, it is one of the four major tram hubs of the city. The first bus service was operated in Dresden from April 1914 via the station as the overland buses of the Kraftverkehrsgesellschaft Freistaat Sachsen (KVG) from 1919 until the end of World War II.
Tram stops are located on the station forecourt fronting highway B170 and on Wiener Platz. The distance from the centre of the station to each of the tram stops is about . The connecting path runs at ground level from the head of the platforms. Also in front of the entrance building is the bus stop, which is served by city and regional buses. As part of further restructuring, a new central bus station (Zentraler Omnibus Bahnhof, ZOB) is being built at the western end of Wiener Platz. Bus passengers will then be able to use the station entrance by the royal pavilion.
Four tram lines (3, 7, 8, 10), a city bus route (66) and several regional bus services operated by Regionalverkehr Dresden (Regional Transport Dresden), line 261 operated by the Pirna-Sebnitz Upper Elbe Transport Company (Oberelbischen Verkehrsgesellschaft Pirna-Sebnitz) and other services operated by long-distance transport companies regularly stop at the station. Apart from destinations in the surrounding area of Dresden, services are also operated to Annaberg-Buchholz, Olbernhau and Mittweida as well as Teplice in the Czech Republic, among other places. In addition, tram lines 9 and 11 stop at the Hauptbahnhof Nord stop, which is about to the northeast of the station. In the Bayerischen Straße to the south of the station are the bus stops of several long-distance bus services. After the completion of the planned ZOB, this is to be served by all regional and long-distance bus services.
Private transport
Stopping places for cars are provided near the entrances on the south side of the station. An underground car park with 350 parking spaces is located at Wiener Platz in front of the northern entrances of the station. It is reached from the road tunnel under the Platz running to the east. Further parking is available in parking garages and parking lots along Prager Straße and south of the station.
Awards
The renovated station in Dresden received the 2007 Renault Traffic Future Award for special transport architecture. In addition, the architectural firm of Foster and Partners received a second place in the award of the Stirling Prize in the same year and in 2008 the new roof of the station hall received the Brunel Award, an award for railway design. In August 2014, the station was given an award by Allianz pro Schiene entitled "Station of the Year in the category of large city railway station". The jury praised the station as being a "monument of a clear, lilting lightness."
Notes
References
(brochure)
External links
Dresden Hauptbahnhof | Deutsche Bahn AG - Official DB site (in English).
Foster + Partners - project description
Hauptbahnhof
Foster and Partners buildings
Lattice shell structures
DresdenHauptbahnhof
Railway stations in Germany opened in 1897
Rebuilt buildings and structures in Dresden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taymouth%20Castle
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Taymouth Castle
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Taymouth Castle is situated to the north-east of the village of Kenmore, Perth and Kinross, in the Highlands of Scotland, in an estate which encompasses . It lies on the south bank of the River Tay, about from Loch Tay, in the heartland of the Grampian Mountains. Taymouth is bordered on two sides by mountain ranges, by Loch Tay on the third and by the confluence of the rivers Lyon and Tay on the fourth.
Taymouth Castle stands on the site of the much older Balloch Castle, which was built in 1552, as the seat of the Campbell clan. In the early 19th century, Balloch Castle was demolished by the Campbells of Breadalbane, so that the new, much larger castle could be rebuilt on the site. The new castle's blue-grey stone was taken from the quarry at Bolfracks.
Built in a neo-Gothic style and on a lavish scale, Taymouth Castle is regarded one of the most important Scottish castles in private ownership. Its public rooms are outstanding examples of the workmanship of the finest craftsmen of the 19th century. No expense was spared on the castle's interior, which was decorated with extravagant carvings, plasterwork and murals. Panels of medieval stained glass and Renaissance woodwork were incorporated into the scheme. Much of this decor still survives.
Francis Bernasconi, acknowledged as the greatest designer of fine plasterwork of the era, created the magnificent central staircase, that connects all four storeys of the central tower. Many of the ceilings were painted by Cornelius Dixon.
The castle is a Category A listed building, and the grounds, which include parklands and woodlands, are included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, the national listing of significant gardens. Historic Environment Scotland have graded the castle as 'outstanding' in all of the following categories; 'Work of Art', 'Historical', 'Architectural' and 'Scenic'. They also acknowledged that due to the remnants of its pinetum and the outstanding size of its remaining trees, it also has horticultural value. It is said that some of the first larches brought to Scotland from the Tyrol were planted on the estate.
Twelve of Taymouth Castle's buildings/structures are currently recorded on the Buildings at Risk Register for Scotland. Due to its severely deteriorating condition, Taymouth Castle has been empty since approximately 1982. However, its new owners are currently restoring and redeveloping the castle, as a luxury hotel resort.
The castle and golf course are currently closed until further notice, whilst it is being restored and re-modelled.
Features
Estate landmarks
Among the landmarks that still survive on the estate are:
A ruined 19th-century circular tower, known as the Rock Lodge. This is a single-storey building, built around 1830, with a two-stage circular Gothic folly. It was originally habitable, despite being built to appear as a ruin.
A derelict temple, known as Apollo's Temple. There is some evidence that this small circular building, which perhaps dates back to the 1770s, may have once housed a sculpture.
A semi-circular folly, known as The Fort.
Another temple, known as Maxwell's Temple. This temple, of an Eleanor cross type construction, was built in 1830 as a tribute to Mary, Countess of Breadalbane.
A historic dairy, standing on Tom Mor in the castle's grounds and described as the 'House that Sparkles'. It glistens 'white' due to the quartz from which it is made, taken from the spur of Ben Lawers. When Queen Victoria visited the dairy in 1842, she turned the handle of a churn, sipped a glass of milk and ate an oatmeal bannock. She described the dairy as a kind of Swiss Cottage.
A historic urn, known as The Monument.
A ruined tower.
All of the above structures are listed with Historic Environment Scotland.
Taymouth Castle Golf Club
Taymouth Castle has its own 18-hole golf course, operated by the Taymouth Castle Golf Club. The course was laid over the castle's former deer park and designed by the renowned golfer, James Braid in 1925. , the course is closed whilst it is being extended and re-modelled. At , it was regarded as too small for modern championship golf courses and so is being increased to . Also, much of Braid's original features disappeared over the last 90 years. These are being restored, with views of the River Tay also being introduced into the course.
In 1839, the deer park was said to contain 700 fallow deer, 100 red deer, some black deer and some moose deer. There were also some wild Indian buffaloes, taken from the 'rocky mountains of the New World'.
Fly fishing
The castle offers some of Scotland's finest fishing, with of salmon fishing through the estate, on the River Tay. The Tay is the longest river in Scotland and is one of the best rivers in the United Kingdom and Europe for Atlantic Salmon. The estate also has fishing rights on Loch Tay, which contains pike, perch, roach and trout.
Additional information
The Campbells of Breadalbane and Glenorchy
The first 12 owners of the Balloch/Taymouth Castle estate, who held the lands throughout its period of private ownership between 1550 and 1922, were all Campbells of the Clan Campbell and members of the Peerage of Scotland. In the usual way, the ownership of the estate (and the various titles) were generally passed from father to son, excepting when there were no male heirs. This particular branch of the Campbell family were given the titles of Breadalbane, an area in the Highlands of Scotland; and Glenorchy, a glen in Argyll and Bute.
A number of the Campbells were Earls of Breadalbane and Holland. The family were given the lands of Breadalbane and Lawers in the 15th century by King James III, for Sir Colin Campbell's help in capturing Thomas Chalmer, one of the assassins of King James I. The title of Holland refers to an area of Lincolnshire, England. The 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland married the 1st Earl of Holland's daughter, Lady Mary Rich. He therefore acquired the English title of Holland, through his wife. The 1st Earl of Holland was beheaded in London in 1649 for treason.
Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, who built Balloch Castle in 1552, was a knight, the lowest rank of all of the owners of Balloch and Taymouth Castle. As time went on, his descendants' rank gradually increased, until the last Campbell listed, Sir Gavin Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane until 1922, achieved the high rank of Marquess.
The Campbells of Breadalbane were incredibly powerful and influential, due to the vast amounts of land that they owned in Scotland. They were also involved in many of the violent events and battles during Scotland's historical clan feuds. They were thus, highly feared by the other clans, for their determination to both increase their power and influence and to defend their estates at all costs, throughout this bloody period in Scotland's history. There was also a long-running feud between the Campbells and the Gregors, who later went on to become known as the MacGregors, for whom the famous Rob Roy MacGregor belonged. More information about these events are detailed in the history sections below.
The Black Book of Taymouth
In 1855, the 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane allowed historical papers from the Breadlabane Charter Room to be published in printed form in a book called The Black Book of Taymouth. This book had in fact largely been written and compiled between 1598 and 1648 by William Bowie, although Cosmo Innes also contributed to the 1855 publication, which includes entries up to 1703. The book concentrates more on the history of the Central Highlands than that of the Breadalbane family, although this is referred to in the book.
The book is written in Scots, with William Bowie dedicating his version of the book to Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, 1st Baronet Campbell, otherwise known as 'Black Duncan'. Bowie was both the tutor to Duncan's children and the family scribe. The book has been reprinted a number of times, including in 2015.
Taymouth Castle ships
There have been at least three ships with the name Taymouth Castle. The first was a sailing vessel, built in 1851 by Scott & Sons. The second was a three-masted 'fully rigged' sailing vessel, built in 1865, by Charles Connell & Company. This was wrecked two years later, with the loss of all 19 crew and passengers on board, off the coast of Torr Head, Antrim, Northern Ireland in 1867. There was also the Royal Mail steam ship Taymouth Castle, built in 1877 by Messrs Barclay Curle & Co. Despite having steam engines and a screw propeller, it also had two masts, giving it an early hybrid power source.
Witches and ghosts
There is an old tale surrounding a blue sapphire stone which is set into a ring belonging to the Grahams of Inchbrakie, Perthshire. Some time in the 17th century, the Laird of Inchbrakie witnessed a large crowd, headed by one of the Campbells of Glenorchy, who were preparing to drown a witch. The Laird recognised the victim as being Katherine Niven, his old nurse and subsequently did his best to try and save her. He was unsuccessful, but she was still grateful enough to throw him a blue sapphire stone for his efforts. She said that whilst the stone remained with him, he would always have good fortune and that the Campbells would not have a male heir. Both prophecies were said to have come true. If there is any element of truth in this tale, then it would seem that the Campbell who was leading the witch-hunt may have been Sir Colin Campbell, 2nd Baronet, who died childless in 1640.
Taymouth Castle is said to be haunted.
Taymouth Castle history
The landowners of Taymouth Castle, together with dates of ownership and significant events are shown here. Details of Balloch Castle and its ancestral owners, which was demolished in 1806 and replaced by Taymouth Castle are shown further down.
John Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane (1782–1834)
John Campbell inherited the title of 4th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland at the age of 19, from his third cousin, who was John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland. In 1789, he called upon Robert Mylne to prepare plans for a new "chateau", although these plans were never carried out. It is said that he wanted to demolish Balloch Castle and build a new grander castle in its place, in order to overshadow the Duke of Argyll's castle at Inveraray.
However, 10 years later, he did completely transform the castle, using many architects, including Alexander Nasmyth. The main block of the old house was demolished, to be replaced from 1806, by a Gothic building, to the designs of the brothers James and Archibald Elliot. The English-Italian Francis Bernasconi carried out the ornate plasterwork of the staircase and drawing rooms between 1809 and 1812. In 1818, the old east wing was pulled down and replaced by a two-storey wing designed by William Atkinson.
In 1793, John Campbell formed three regiments of fencibles, known as the Breadalbane Fencibles to help defend the land in time of need. He managed to raise 2,300 men, of whom 1,600 were from his own estate. At one time, the castle also had its own fire brigade.
In 1819, Prince Leopold, the future king of Belgium visited the castle and was welcomed by more than 2,000 Highlanders. A royal salute was fired from the battery and the pipers were playing 'Phaill Phranse', the Prince's Welcome. During his stay, the Marquess assembled 1,400 of his tenants and held a grand gala, with entertainment and 'copious libations of porter and whiskey'.
In 1823, J.C. Loudon described Taymouth as the 'most magnificent residence in the country ... The mountain, lawn and banks of the waters, are richly clothed with wood, through which are led magnificent walks. Of trees, the lime and larches have attained to a great size, and there is an avenue of the former 450 yards in length, scarcely equalled anywhere.'
The 4th Earl, was created 1st Marquess of Breadalbane in 1831, but died in 1834. He was described as having unostentatious habits, devoting much of his time to the improvement of his 'princely' estates.
John Campbell, 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane (1834–1862)
John Campbell, 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane inherited the estate, on the death of his father in 1834. During his lifetime he was Lord Glenorchy, Earl of Ormerlie and an MP for both Okehampton and Perthshire. He also became a Knight of the Thistle, a Knight of the Black Eagle of Prussia, Lord Lieutenant of Argyllshire, and President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Records show that as well as his estates in Scotland, he owned Breadalbane House in Park Lane, London.
The 2nd Marquess continued with the improvements to the castle by the remodelling of William Adam's west wing, which was enlarged and refaced to match the main block. This time, the architect was James Gillespie Graham, with interiors designed by A. W. N. Pugin. The ceilings of the west wing are described by Historic Scotland as the "finest of their period in the UK". It took an Italian painter nearly 10 years to paint the ceilings with the various coats of arms of the Breadalbane family and their flags. He painted them lying on his back in rope slings. Ore smelting equipment was also installed into the West Wing, to smelt the specimens of ore that were occasionally found on the Breadalbane estates. The Marquess was hoping to find enough valuable minerals to pay for the huge cost of rebuilding the castle.
Records show that the Marquess was paid £6,630 in compensation by the British government in 1833, upon the abolition of slavery, in regard to his Hope Estate in Jamaica. Records also show that he is responsible for re-introducing the capercaillie to Great Britain at Taymouth Castle, after the original stock became extinct in this country in around 1785. Our present population is descended from the 28 birds that he introduced from Sweden in 1837–38. These in turn were descended from earlier Scottish birds.
In 1839, the Marquess entertained a succession of noblemen at the castle. They included Lord and Lady Seymour, the Earl of Ashburnham, Lord Stuart de Rothesay and Lord and Lady Hatherton.
In 1840, more noble guests stayed at the castle, including the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, the Earl and Countess of Camperdown, Lady Elizabeth Duncan, future Prime Minister Lord Haddo, the Earl and Countess of Cadogan and the Ladies Augusta and Honoria Cadogan.
The works to the castle were complete by 1842, just in time for the first visit to Scotland by the 'youthful' Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, when they stayed at Taymouth for three days. On their arrival, the castle's heavy guns fired off a royal salute, with over 200 traditionally-armed highlanders there to receive them. They were duly entertained with 'lavish pomp' and it was remarked that the scene would need the pen of a poet to give any justice to the splendour. In the evening, 50,000 lamps were lit on a slope outside the castle, arranged in such a fashion as they formed the words "Welcome Victoria and Albert". Apparently, their stay cost Campbell £60,000, whilst at the time, he was said to have an annual rental income of £45,000.
Later during their stay, the Queen was rowed up Loch Tay from Killin, whilst Prince Albert rode out on a stag hunt over the estate. Even then, the estate extended for 100 miles from Aberfeldy to Oban. The Prince's personal tally that morning was 19 roe deer, 4 1/2 brace of black game, 3 brace of grouse, 1 brace of the newly re-introduced capercaillie, 1 wood pigeon and 12 hares. Prince Albert was the first to be allowed to shoot the capercaillies, which were being so strictly preserved.
Before leaving the castle, the Queen and Prince Albert planted four ceremonial trees, on a spot just to the east of the castle. They were two Scotch Firs and two oak trees. Twenty-four years later, the Queen who was by then a widow, stopped by anonymously. She wrote in her journal, "Here, unknown and quite in private, I gazed, not without deep inward emotion, on the scene of our reception, twenty-four years ago".
John Campbell died childless in Lausanne, Switzerland in 1862 and all of his titles died with him. The estate then passed to his distant cousin (fourth cousin twice removed), John Campbell, who became the 6th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland.
John Alexander Gavin Campbell, 6th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1862–1871)
Upon the death of the 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane, there were two claimants to the estates and remaining titles. Both were only distantly related to the 2nd Marquess and could never have imagined that they could ultimately inherit. John Alexander Gavin Campbell of Glenfalloch's claim was disputed by Lieutenant Charles William Campbell of Borland. The dispute ultimately hinged on whether J A G Campbell's grandparents were legally married, and therefore the legitimacy of his father. There was apparently very little evidence on this fact, other than a letter written by his grandmother stating that they were married in 1782. However, it was ultimately decided that the marriage must have taken place, as J A G Campbell's claim was eventually ratified by the Scottish Court of Session. On appeal, this ruling was confirmed by a vote of two-to-one in the House of Lords.
John Campbell had four children from his marriage to Mary Theresa Edwards. He gained the rank of captain in the service of the 1st Royals.
He died at the age of 46 at The Albany, Piccadilly, London.
Sir Gavin Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane (1871-1922)
Gavin Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane served as a lieutenant in the 4th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. He also served in the House of Lords as a liberal politician. During his lifetime he amassed a number of titles and honours including; Knight of St John of Jerusalem, Knight of the Garter, Baronet of Nova Scotia, Baron Breadalbane, Lord of Glenorchy, Benederloch, Ormelie and Weick, Viscount Tay and Paintland, Earl of Ormelie and Marquess of Breadalbane. He was also a County Councillor in both Perth and Argyll, a Deputy Lieutenant of Argyll, a Privy Councillor, Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland, Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, Lord-in-waiting to Queen Victoria, Treasurer and Lord Steward of the Royal Household and an ADC to His Majesty.
In 1872, he married Lady Alma Imogene Graham, daughter of the 4th Duke of Montrose.
In 1877, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn visited the castle. In the same year, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, who was the youngest son of Queen Victoria, also visited.
In December 1879, the former prime minister William Gladstone stayed at Taymouth Castle for three days, whilst on a speech-making tour of Scotland. The tour was said to be an unusual event, as in those days it was pretty unheard of for a leading politician to 'stump' the country in this way. It was described as 'an American-style election campaign'. In the same year, Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden also visited the castle.
Sir Gavin started the Lock Tay Steamboat Company, to enable his tenants to travel more easily to the nearest railway station, on a vessel known as the Queen of the Lake. Later, the enterprise was transformed into a popular attraction, operating pleasure cruises between Kenmore and Killin. Eventually, the ship was taken over by British Railways.
In 1881, the castle had another royal visitor, being Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Later in 1884, King Oscar II of Sweden visited and in the following year, the Prince Frederick of Hanover visited the castle.
In 1888, Sir Gavin was awarded the Medal of the Royal Humane Society, for saving the life of a servant, whilst at the imminent risk to his own life. The servant, by the name of McLean, had fallen out of a boat and into the River Tay. At the time, the river was flooded and McLean was caught in a deep whirlpool, with eddies and rocks creating even more difficulties. Sir Gavin, who was out shooting at the time, stripped off his gunbelt and dived into the river to rescue him. The medal he earned for this, along with five more of his medals, were sold at auction in 2009 for £2,700.
Sir Gavin was also awarded the Swedish Order of the Seraphim, conferred upon him by King Oscar, for his hospitality to the then Prince Gustavus Adolphus, when he came to the UK to marry Princess Margaret of Connaught in 1905.
When he inherited his titles in 1871, his estate was still nearly half a million acres in size. It contained 'The Heart of Scotland', a thick wood of fir trees in the shape of a heart. Unfortunately, throughout Sir Gavin's tenure at Taymouth, he managed to lose most of this land. His worsening financial problems, were said to be due to an extravagant lifestyle, "bad management and his gambling addiction". His mountainous debts finally forced him to put the castle and its remaining 60,000 acres up for sale in 1920. Included in the sale were a number of farms, hotels, private houses and shooting and fishing rights. The sale was achieved in 1921, when the castle was sold for £20,000 to a syndicate, who intended to turn the estate into a hotel complex. However, the completion date was set for May 1922 and the Campbells continued to reside in the castle for the time being.
The father of the Scottish writer Fred Urquhart was chauffeur to the Marquess in the early twentieth century, and Urquhart's novel Palace of Green Days (1979) draws on his childhood memories of this.
In March 1922, the Marquess and Marchioness duly said farewell to the castle forever, after fifty years of occupation, and moved out to their other home in Craig, Dalmally.
Sir Gavin died childless, very shortly afterwards, in October 1922 and most of his titles died with him. However, even though every last acre of the original half a million acre estate had been sold off, there were still three more Earls of Breadalbane and Holland. The 10th and last Earl was John Romer Boreland Campbell, who died childless in 1995. Following his death, the title has remained dormant.
Taymouth Castle Hotel Company Ltd (1922–1940)
At the time of their purchase, the hotel company from Glasgow, which included the MacTaggart family, also bought 520 acres of adjoining land, which brought the estate back to around 2,000 acres. It was declared by the company that they intended to convert the castle into a hydropathic hotel, along with opening a brand new golf course on its lands. The company also acquired fishing rights on Loch Tay and part of the River Tay and shooting rights on Drumhill. At the same time, there was a huge auction at the castle, in which all of its furniture and effects were sold. The newspaper article reporting the event, said that 'the things that gave the castle its life and history, will be scattered to the four winds of heaven'. The auction realised total sales of £24,000, with half of that amount being paid by the new hotel owners, to retain furniture in the castle.
The hydro hotel opened on 30 June 1923, boasting around 100 bedrooms. Since buying the castle, its facilities had been greatly improved, including central heating and electricity being installed throughout. The hotel also offered music and dancing, a grass riding track and had four en tout cas tennis courts and a covered badminton court. They possessed a fleet of motor vehicles, offering drives to places of interest and steamer excursions on Loch Tay. The golf course had been finished and there was of course fly fishing. At the time of opening, they hadn't quite managed to offer shooting, but they had the shooting rights for Drummond Hill, on which 30 stags had been killed in the previous year.
Despite good patronage, the Taymouth Castle Hotel Company Ltd were forced into voluntary liquidation in March 1926. The blame was put on the high cost of all the alterations necessary to convert the castle. It was disclosed that as there were good Easter bookings, the hotel would remain open for the time being. The hotel eventually closed for the winter on 30 September 1926, with the liquidators having already sold off portions of the lands, dramatically reducing the size of the estate.
The hotel reopened on 1 June 1927, for the summer season. The advertised rate was 18s to 25s per person per day. In September 1927, the Prince and Princess Gin Ri of Korea visited the castle. Whilst at that time a colony of Japan, the prince was the son of the late Emperor of Korea and the princess was a cousin of the Empress of Japan.
The following year the hotel reopened for the 1928 season and its long-term future was secured, when the castle was bought by a 'well known London combine'. The new owners declared that the castle would continue as a 'hydro'.
Taymouth Castle Hospital (1940–1948)
After the outbreak of the Second World War, use of the castle was requisitioned by the War Office, to help with the war effort. From 1940, it became known as the No. 1 Polish General Hospital, or otherwise as the Taymouth Castle Hospital. It was the chief Polish hospital in the country and boasted some of the finest and most up-to-date equipment, with its operating theatres and X-Ray machines.
Also, in April 1940, the castle advertised that the golf course and Policy Parks were available for let, for sheep and cattle grazing. It was later noted that despite having its own golf course, the wounded Polish servicemen showed no interest in golf, although they were enthusiastic footballers.
Over the eight years of its use as a hospital, thousands of Polish patients were treated there, with its biggest influx after the battle of Cassino, when over 200 Polish casualties arrived. At its height, it had 1,200 beds and 200 staff. Despite still being under the control of the War Office, its use as a hospital came to an end in December 1947, with the remaining Polish patients being disbursed to hospitals in England.
The chairman of the owning hotel company said that he thought that it would be a year or two before the castle could be re-opened as a hotel. He said that the lack of tradesmen would be a big obstacle to its redecoration and renovation. Severe damage to one of the west towers, from a fire in 1946, would also have to be repaired. However, during its time as a hospital, care had been taken to protect the castle's magnificent carved oak walls and doors. These had been boarded up, using cardboard and plywood. Similar precautions had been taken to protect the marble mantelpieces and stained glass windows.
Seventy-five Nissen huts were removed from the castle grounds. However, their foundations can still be seen today.
Civil Defence Corps training school (1949–1968)
In February 1949, the government formed the Civil Defence Corps, which was a civilian volunteer organisation, which could take control of areas of the country in times of national emergency, such as after a nuclear attack. In a joint announcement by the Home Office and the Scottish Office, it was declared that Taymouth Castle was to be used as one of three training centres in Scotland, which would teach instructors in how to train a much bigger volunteer force. Alterations were made to the castle, which was designed to train between 100 and 150 men and women at a time. The cost of these alterations was finally put at £126,000, way past its original budget of £75,700.
When it was opened in December 1950 by the Scottish Secretary Hector McNeil, it was described as the most up-to-date in the world. The centre also included a mock 'blitzed village', for trainees to practice in. The village was built and then partially demolished, to provide defense volunteers with practical rescue training. Roofs were said to lie at 'drunken angles', walls gaped open, timber beams were scorched with fire; and all laid out to conform with Scottish types of architecture. The village was so realistic that the visiting Sir James Henderson-Stewart, Under-Secretary of State for Scotland said that there was a staggering contrast between the beauty of the castle and the scenes of ruin, bringing home more forcibly the devastation of war and the need to be ready for any emergency.
As part of their training, the volunteers were given advanced instruction in atomic, chemical and biological warfare.
By 1956, the Corps had grown to 330,000 personnel. However, the Corps was eventually disbanded in 1968, after a change of thinking in how to deal with nuclear attacks.
However, its role in national defence didn't end there. From 1968, it was also one of the designated locations for plan PYTHON, the plan for continuity of government in the event of nuclear war. The plan, which was classified as TOP SECRET, was that in the event of a nuclear attack, the government and other essential personnel could be dispersed around the country, to secret and protected locations. Taymouth Castle was chosen as one of these sites.
It is not known when Taymouth Castle ceased to be considered as one of these secret locations, but the three associated CalMac support ships, which were capable of acting as floating nuclear bunkers, were sold by CalMac in the 1980s. These ships operated from day-to-day as normal commercial car ferries, but had been designed and built in such a way that if needed, they could be used as radiation resistant transport and decontamination chambers.
Speech and drama school (1982)
In September 1981, it was advertised that the Taymouth Castle Residential School of Speech and Drama was starting classes in January 1982. Auditions were being held for three courses, which were a One-year Stage course, a Two-year Diploma and Stage course and a One-year course in puppetry.
At this time, nothing further is known about those courses, but the castle is known to have been closed and empty since around that time.
The golf course continued to be operated separately, but this too is currently closed, whilst alterations are being made to the course.
Restoration plans (1982–date)
Despite its many changes of use and its requisitioning by the government, through the war years and beyond, legal ownership of the castle was still retained by the MacTaggart family, who had first turned the castle into a hotel in 1922. However, they had been unable to make any real commercial use of the castle since the boarding school for children of American servicemen closed in 1979. Throughout the 1990s, the family had been unsuccessfully trying to sell the estate, with Madonna and Cher both being initially interested. In 1995, the castle and estate were on the market for £5.5m.
By the year 2000, the castle was suffering badly from leaks and rot. It was eventually sold to a building consortium in 2005 for £12m. At the time of purchase, plans to redevelop the castle as a "six-star" hotel with 150 rooms had already been approved by Perth and Kinross Council.
However, since then, due to the huge costs involved and the need to find suitable investment, progress has been slow, with work starting and stalling. Millions of pounds have already been spent in preventing further deterioration of the castle and upon its ongoing conversion. By May 2006, the main buildings were stabilised, with further restoration continuing in the following years. These included new windows, extensive refurbishment to the state rooms and a new roof.
Despite the difficulties in completing the project, one of the developers said in 2008 that "We have spent millions of pounds saving one of Scotland's finest, most beautiful properties and we are proud of that. The east wing and the west wing were totally derelict and the seven principal rooms have been saved, all under the watchful eye of Historic Scotland."
By 2015, work began on hotel suites under the banner of Taymouth Castle Estate. By 2016, enough work had been completed at the castle for it to operate as an events centre, hosting a number of weddings, corporate events and banquets. In October 2016, an Open Day was held at the castle, to promote it further as a wedding venue for 2017.
By 2018, previously-proposed plans for the restoration of the castle had foundered due to concerns about ownership and a possible connection to money-laundering The castle's ownership has passed through a number of unclear entities, including offshore accounts, but was believed to reside in the hands of Ali Ibrahim Dabaiba, the former chief of development for former Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi. The post-Gaddafi Libyan government requested the help of the UK authorities over what they described as Dahaiba's theft of government funds invested in multiple properties in Scotland, including Taymouth Castle. The company that had been the prime contractor had stopped work on the project by April, 2018, after a tax probe by HM Revenue and Customs and Companies House began the process to remove the company's listing and force it into dissolution. Further complicating development attempts, Scottish attorney Stephen Jones was convicted of diverting money the Scottsdale, Arizona-based upscale residential community developer Discovery Land Company (DLC) had sent to purchase the property. DLC was later able to finalize a deal to assume ownership, although specific development plans have not yet been disclosed.
Early history of Balloch Castle
The landowners of Balloch Castle, together with dates of ownership and significant events are shown below:-
Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy (1550–1583)
Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, otherwise known as 'Grey Colin', because of his white hair and long flowing beard, became laird of Glenorchy upon the death of his older brother John, in 1550. One of his first actions as laird, was to evict the Clan Gregor from Balloch (now Kenmore), at the east end of Loch Tay. In 1552, he consolidated his position and built a tower house there, known as Balloch Castle. Balloch means 'the house at the narrow pass'. Sir Colin is said to have chosen the site of the castle in a novel manner. He was apparently instructed in a dream to found the castle on the spot where he first heard a blackbird sing, whilst making his way down the strath of the Tay.
Later, in 1787, Robert Burns described the beauty of Balloch Castle and its surrounding lands in verse, as follows:-
The Tay meandering sweet in infant pride,
The Palace rising on its verdant side,
The lawns, wood fringed, in Nature's native taste,
The hillocks dropped in Nature's native haste...
The castle was the seat of Clan Campbell whose lands, at the height of their powers, extended over 100 miles from Taymouth to the west coast of Scotland. Another source quotes their estate as encompassing 437,696 acres. Sir Colin rapidly expanded his territory during his lifetime, also building or enlarging several castles.
There was a long-running feud between the Campbells and the Gregor clan, over the lands said to have been seized by the Campbells from them. This bitter and violent feud ran from 1562 until 1569, when their clan chief Gregor Roy, 10th Chief MacGregor, was captured by Sir Colin whilst visiting his wife. On 7 April 1570, after securing the consent of the Regent Morton, Sir Colin personally beheaded Gregor at Balloch Castle, in the presence of the Earl of Atholl, the Justice Clerk. Gregor's wife, Marion Campbell, who also witnessed her husband's execution, wrote a bitter lament about the affair, called 'Griogal Cridhe'. This has been described as 'Surely one of the greatest poems ever made in Britain'. The fighting continued on until 1570, even more bloody than before, with the Gregor Clan determined to avenge their chief's death. However, a settlement was finally reached between the two clans in the winter of 1570.
Sir Colin claimed to have 'the power of pit and gallows', which was the right to imprison and execute. In the Black Book of Taymouth, Sir Colin was described as a great 'justiciar' of his time, who sustained the deadly feud with the Gregor clan and executed many notable lymmars (rogues).
James VI visited Balloch Castle in August 1582, tipping the gardener 40 shillings. However, only a few days later, the king was seized at the Ruthven Raid.
Sir Colin had 10 children from two marriages, dying in April 1583.
Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, 1st Baronet Campbell (1583–1631)
Duncan Campbell was knighted in 1590, was declared MP for Argyllshire in 1593 and held the office of Hereditary Sheriff of Perthshire for life. He was also created 1st Baronet Campbell of Nova Scotia, in 1625. Sir Duncan had 23 children from three marriages, dying in 1631. It is said that he married a low-born lady as his second wife, but quickly regretted it. The traditional tale is that he had her locked in an underground vault, whilst he courted Elizabeth Sinclair, the daughter of the 5th Lord Sinclair. Wary that he might already be married, Elizabeth made him swear that he had no other wife and he solemnly swore on the cross of his sword that he 'had no wife above ground'. She did not realise the deception and they were indeed married. His other wife was ultimately released from the vault, after she had made a declaration that she was not his wife.
He had several nicknames, the first being 'Duncan of the (seven) Castles', as he was renowned for building them. His other nickname was 'Black Duncan'. He had been appointed by the King to keep the peace between the feuding clans in Argyll and Perthshire and was accordingly allowed to maintain a large force of armed soldiers to support him. However, he had a reputation for causing trouble, rather than stopping it and was said to be more interested in using his power to acquire extra land for himself. During his lifetime, he therefore managed to significantly enlarge the family's estate, by 'fair means or foul'. He also extended Balloch Castle.
On 1 August 1598, Glenorchy wrote to the English politician Sir Robert Cecil with thanks to Queen Elizabeth after his audience with the diplomat George Nicholson. Glenorchy sent his secretary John Archibald to London. It was hoped Glenorchy would help the English in Ireland.
In April 1603, King James VI and I outlawed the Clan Gregor, following the Battle of Glen Fruin, in which the Gregors killed between 200 and 300 men of the Clan Colquhoun. The name Gregor or MacGregor was abolished and it became entirely legal to kill anyone of that name and seize his property. Over the next ten years, over 100 Gregors were slain and their lands given to the Campbells. It was said that Sir Duncan was instrumental in this and got most of their leaders killed or hanged.
One of Sir Duncan's castles was Finlarig Castle, built in 1629. There is a pit in the courtyard, which can still be seen, where nobles were taken from the castle dungeons, through an underground passage, to be beheaded under the watchful gaze of Sir Duncan's men. Commoners were hanged from a nearby oak tree. The beheading axe was later put on display at Taymouth Castle, until it was finally turned into a hotel in 1922.
Sir Duncan was also said to be an astute manager of his estate. Not only did he build and repair castles, he also introduced livestock and planted woodlands. He ordered Drummond Hill to be planted with oak, birch and pine, creating Scotland's first managed forest.
Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, 2nd Baronet Campbell (1631–1640)
In comparison with his father, Sir Colin Campbell, 2nd Baronet Campbell, also the 8th Laird of Glenorchy, was a much more peaceful character and was known as a patron of the arts. As well as repairing and extending the family castles, including Balloch Castle, he also employed several famous artists to paint portraits for them, including George Jamesone. He also travelled extensively and was a collector of fine furniture and paintings. He employed a silk weaver from Antwerp, Nicolas Herman, who had set up his workshop in Perth, to make silk fringes and passementerie for his furnishings and clothes.
Sir Colin was married for many years, but died childless, in 1640. He did however, foster Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll. Archibald Campbell was ultimately executed in 1685, like his father, on the Maiden in Edinburgh. He faced his execution with calmness and good humour, joking on the scaffold that the guillotine, as his "inlet to glory" was "the sweetest maiden he had ever kissed".
Sir Robert Campbell of Glenorchy, 3rd Baronet Campbell (1640–1657)
Brother of the 2nd Baronet, he was also known as Robert Campbell of Glenfalloch. He was MP for Argyllshire between 1639 and 1641 and from 1643 to 1649.
Sir Robert lived through one of the stormiest and most trying periods in Highland history, during which time his estates were laid waste during the Scottish Civil War, by the 1st Marquess of Montrose and his Royalist forces. The Black Book of Taymouth states that in 1644 and 1645, his whole lands and estates, between the Ford of Lyon and the Point of Lesmore were burned and destroyed. These actions left Campbell with huge debts.
One of the key battles was the Battle of Inverlochy in 1645, which came shortly after Montrose had raided through the Taymouth area. Montrose had decided to attack the Covenanter forces which were under the command of Sir Duncan Campbell of Auchinbreck. The Campbell army were routed and of its 2,000 men, about 1,500 were killed during a running battle over 14 miles of countryside. Their commander, Auchinbreck, was captured and beheaded by Alasdair Mac Colla, who commanded part of the Royalist forces. Although they won this battle, Montrose suffered a heavy defeat seven months later at the Battle of Philiphaugh and his forces were ultimately crushed five years later, at the Battle of Carbisdale.
Sir Robert had 16 children from his marriage with Isabel MacIntosh, dying in 1657.
Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, 4th Baronet Campbell (1657–1677)
Sir John Campbell was Commissioner of Supply and Excise for Argyll and Perth and succeeded to the title of 4th Baronet Campbell, of Glenorchy. He gained the rank of Colonel in the service of the Perthshire of Foot and was MP for Argyllshire between 1661 and 1663.
He had 31 children from three wives and died in 1677.
John Campbell, 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1677–1717)
John Campbell, known as 'Slippery John', was created 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland in 1681. In 1692, he played a key role in the Massacre of Glencoe, by instructing a relative, Robert Campbell of Glenlyon, to carry it out. Thirty Eight McDonalds from the Clan McDonald of Glencoe were killed by their own guests and another 40 women and children died of exposure, after their homes were burned.
Campbell also took part in the abortive royalist uprising under John Campbell, 1st Earl of Loudoun in 1654 and was also implicated in the Montgomery Plot, a Jocobite scheme to restore King James II and VII to the thrones of England and Scotland. In 1692, he was imprisoned for a time in Edinburgh Castle for his involvement in negotiations between Jacobite chiefs. However, he was released after it was discovered that he was acting with the knowledge of King William III.
In 1672, Campbell acquired as payment of debts, the estates and titles of George Sinclair, 6th Earl of Caithness, which included the parish of Wick and the castles of Girnigoe, Ackergill and Keiss. He assumed the title of Earl of Caithness, although his right to these titles and lands were disputed by George Sinclair of Keiss, first cousin to the 6th Earl of Caithness. Sinclair lay siege to Girnigoe Castle, damaging it so badly that it has never been inhabited since. In a counter-attack, Campbell took his army and marched on Sinclair, to fight what was to become known as the Battle of Altimarlach. Campbell's force easily routed Sinclair's army, whose men fled across the River Wick. But, a large number were killed and it is said that so many lay slain, that Campbell's soldiers were able to cross the river over their bodies, without getting their feet wet. Despite this strategic victory, George Sinclair later won his argument in court in 1681 and claimed the title of Earl of Caithness and the lands. However, Campbell was compensated for the loss of these, by King Charles II and the Privy Council of Scotland elevating him to Lord of Glenorchy, Benederaloch, Ormelie and Wick, Viscount of Tay and Paintland, and 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland.
It was here that Campbell's piper composed the clan's famous pibroch, 'Bodach na Briogais', which ridicules the Sinclairs. The event is also commemorated in the famous song 'The Campbells are Coming'. Many people refer to the Battle of Altimarlach as the last clan battle in Scotland and it would seem that it was the last true clan battle. However, in 1689 there was a later fierce battle at Mullroy, Kilmonivaig, when the Macdonalds of Keppoch fought and defeated the MacIntoshes, over ownership of Glen Roy. However, the MacIntoshes had government support and part of their army was made up of government troops, making it more of a government action than a true clan battle.
It is said that the people of Wick, hated Campbell so much that they caused him no end of trouble. Wearied by these incessant vexations, he divided Wick into 62 portions in 1690 and sold them all.
At one time, King William III entrusted Campbell with £20,000, a huge sum of money, to use it to achieve peace between some warring Highland Chiefs. However, rather than spend the money, he managed to negotiate a deal between them. When asked to account for the £20,000, he replied "Gentlemen - the money is spent, the Highlands are at peace, and that is the only way of accounting among friends".
An early fan of golf, Slippery John is recorded as buying a pair of golf clubs for his children in 1672 and having one club repaired at a cost of four shillings.
The Black Book of Taymouth, the history of the Breadalbanes, published by the 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane states that in 1681, Gilleasba, chief of the MacDonalds of Keppoch, gave a bond of manrent to Sir John, promising that none of his clan or his people would commit robbery on his lands. In 1715, Campbell sent 500 of his men to join the Earl of Mar in his Jacobite uprising against the new king, George I.
Campbell had four children from three marriages, dying in 1717. Shortly before his death, he was described by a Government agent by the name of Mackay in this way; "He has the gravity of a Spaniard, is as cunning as a fox, wise as a serpent, and is as slippery as an eel".
John Campbell, 2nd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1717–1752)
In 1720, John Campbell, 2nd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland commissioned William Adam to remodel the castle and lay out extensive formal gardens. Adam's design included six radiating avenues, each over a mile long, which converged on the castle. Elaborate gardens and orchards were also planted on both sides of the Castle. To the south, Adam planted an avenue of trees in the shape of a D. On the banks of the river, he planted two long avenues of lime trees. These are known as the North and South Terraces.
In 1739, Jan Griffer was brought in to make further changes to the gardens. The long radiating avenues were removed and some new pavilions were built. Griffer also planted a lot more individual trees, which made the overall design of the castle less formal. Further changes that John Campbell made during his lifetime were the removal of the formal gardens, the remaining avenue and part of the terrace. He also moved the orchard to the west of the ridge where the Dairy now stands and moved the walled-garden to the north-east of the castle. He also planted woodland on Drummond Hill and Craig Hill.
John Campbell was Lord Lieutenant of Perthshire. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, it was said that he sent a thousand men into the field to fight. He had three children from his marriage to Henrietta Villiers, dying in 1752.
John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1752–1782)
Later, John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland oversaw further changes in the 1750s, including building a handsome bridge over the River Tay and also Kenmore's church, which dates from 1760, replacing the earlier church of 1579. By the 1780s, the formal gardens had been replaced with a picturesque landscape in the manner of Stourhead and Painshill Park. The main road had been moved to halfway up Taymouth Hill and the entrance drive re-aligned.
John was Lord of the Admiralty and an ambassador to the Danish and Russian courts. He had four children from his two marriages, dying in 1782. However, he had no surviving male heir and so his direct line ended, with the title 4th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland going to his third cousin, John Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane. The 1st Marquess went on to demolish Balloch Castle and build Taymouth Castle in its place.
Gallery
References
External links
Castles in Perth and Kinross
Category A listed buildings in Perth and Kinross
Listed castles in Scotland
Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes
James Gillespie Graham buildings
Country houses in Perth and Kinross
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland%20at%20the%20Olympics
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Ireland at the Olympics
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A team representing Republic of Ireland as an independent state or polity has competed at the Summer Olympic Games since 1924, and at the Winter Olympic Games since 1992. The Olympic Federation of Ireland (OFI) was formed in 1922 during the provisional administration prior to the formal establishment of the Irish Free State. The OFI affiliated to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in time for the Paris games.
For many sports, the respective national federation represents the entire island of Ireland, which comprises both the Republic of Ireland (originally a dominion with the title the Irish Free State) and Northern Ireland (which following the founding of the Irish Free State as an independent dominion remained part of the United Kingdom). Northern Ireland-born athletes are entitled to represent either Ireland or Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as they are automatically entitled to the citizenship of both countries. As a result, athletes will tend to represent the National Olympic Committee of the nation to which their sport federation is aligned. The smaller competition pool will also see athletes choose to represent Ireland to ensure greater Olympic qualification chances.
In addition, Ireland has regularly been represented by members of the Irish diaspora who are explicitly recognised in the nation's constitution, and who often have citizenship rights through family heritage e.g. a grandparent with Irish citizenship.
From the first modern-era games in 1896 until the 1920 games, Ireland was represented by the Great Britain and Ireland team. In early editions of the Games, 'Ireland' as a team was entered in certain events as one of several Great Britain and Ireland entries that mirrored the Home Nations.
To date, the highest number of medals won at an Olympiad is six, at the 2012 London games. The highest number of golds is three, at the 1996 Atlanta games, when Michelle Smith won all of Ireland's medals.
Boxing however is by far Ireland's most successful sport at the games, accounting for more than 50% of the medals won. Athletics has provided the most gold medals, with four.
Many of the sports most popular in Ireland are either not Olympic sports (such as Gaelic games, horse racing) or have only become so relative recently (Golf, rugby sevens), and this is reflected in a somewhat moderate overall record for Ireland at the Games outside of boxing. Notwithstanding this, however, Ireland has been a consistent and enthusiastic Olympic nation, and its medalists are widely publicised and celebrated, while Olympic qualification is highly valued even without medal success. Ireland notably was one of the nations that boycotted neither the 1980 Moscow or 1984 Los Angeles Games. Ireland did, however, choose not to participate in the 1936 Berlin Games in Nazi Germany.
Medal tables
Medals by Summer Games
Medals by Winter Games
As of 2021, Ireland's best result at the Winter Games has been fourth, by Clifton Wrottesley in the Men's Skeleton at the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City.
Medals by summer sport
List of medalists
The following tables include medals won by athletes on OCI teams. All medals have been won at Summer Games. Ireland's best result at the Winter Games has been fourth, by Clifton Wrottesley in the Men's Skeleton at the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City. Some athletes have won medals representing other countries, which are not included on these tables.
Medallists
Doping
Awarded:
Robert Heffernan finished fourth in the 2012 men's 50 kilometres walk won by Sergey Kirdyapkin. On 24 March 2016, the Court of Arbitration for Sport disqualified all Kirdyapkin's competitive results from 20 August 2009 to 15 October 2012. Heffernan was upgraded to third, and formally presented with a bronze medal in November 2016.
Stripped:
Cian O'Connor received the gold medal in the 2004 individual showjumping, but was formally stripped of it in July 2005 because his horse failed the post-event doping test.
Banned but not stripped:
Michelle Smith was banned from competitive swimming for four years by FINA two years after the 1996 Summer Olympics, for tampering with her urine sample using alcohol. She appealed the decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). FINA submitted evidence from Jordi Segura, head of the IOC-accredited laboratory in Barcelona, that said she took androstenedione, a metabolic precursor of testosterone, in the previous 10-to-12 hours before being tested. Smith denied this and androstenedione was not a banned substance. The CAS upheld the ban. She was 28 at the time, and the ban effectively ended her competitive swimming career. Smith was not stripped of her Olympic medals, as she had never tested positive for any banned substances. Her coach and husband, Erik De Bruin, previously served a four-year ban for using illegal drugs during his career as a discus thrower.
Medallists in art competitions
Art competitions were held from 1912 to 1948. Irish entries first appeared in 1924, when they won two medals; a third was won in the 1948 competition.
Before independence
Prior to 1922, Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: thus, competitors at earlier Games who were born and living in Ireland are counted as British in Olympic statistics. At early Olympics, Irish-born athletes also won numerous medals for the United States and Canada, notably the "Irish Whales" in throwing events.
The Irish Amateur Athletic Association was invited to the inaugural International Olympic Committee meeting in 1894, and may have been invited to the 1896 games: it has also been claimed the Gaelic Athletic Association was invited. In the event, neither participated.
Prior to the 1906 Intercalated Games, National Olympic Committees (NOCs) were generally non-existent, and athletes could enter the Olympics individually. John Pius Boland, who won gold in two tennis events in 1896, is now listed as "IRL/GBR". Boland's daughter later claimed that he had objected when the Union Jack was raised to mark his first triumph, vehemently pointing out that Ireland had a flag of its own; following this, the organisers apologised and agreed to prepare an Irish flag. While Kevin MacCarthy is sceptical of this story, by 1906, Boland was crediting his medals to Ireland.
Tom Kiely, who won the "all-around" athletics competition at the 1904 Olympics in St Louis is also listed as competing for Great Britain. He had raised funds in counties Tipperary and Waterford to travel independently and compete for Ireland. Frank Zarnowski does not regard the 1904 event as part of the Olympic competition, and also doubts the story that Kiely had refused offers by both the English Amateur Athletic Association (AAA) and the New York Athletic Club to pay his fare and cover his travel expenses so he could compete for them. Peter Lovesey disagrees with Zarnowski.
The British Olympic Association (BOA) was formed in 1905, and Irish athletes were accredited to the BOA team from the 1906 Games onwards. Whereas Pierre de Coubertin had recognised teams from Bohemia and Finland separately from their respective imperial powers, Austria and Russia, he was unwilling to make any similar distinction for Ireland, either because it lacked a National Olympic Committee, or for fear of offending Britain.
At the 1906 Games, both Peter O'Connor and Con Leahy objected when the British flag was raised at their victory ceremony, and O'Connor raised a green Irish flag in defiance of the organisers.<ref>{{cite journal|date=15 February 2008 |title=This Flag Dips for No Earthly King': The Mysterious Origins of an American Myth'|journal=International Journal of the History of Sport|publisher=Routledge|volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=142–162 |doi=10.1080/09523360701740299|s2cid=216151041}}</ref>
At the 1908 Games in London, there were multiple BOA entries in several team events, including two representing Ireland. In the hockey tournament, the Irish team finished second, behind England and ahead of Scotland and Wales. The Irish polo team also finished joint second in the three-team tournament, despite losing to one of two English teams in its only match.
At the 1912 Olympics, and despite objections from other countries, the BOA entered three teams in the cycling events, one from each of the separate English, Scottish and Irish governing bodies for the sport. The Irish team came 11th in the team time trial. The organisers had proposed a similar division in the football tournament, but the BOA declined.
A 1913 list of 35 countries to be invited to the 1916 Olympics included Ireland separately from Great Britain; similarly, Finland and Hungary were to be separate from Russia and Austria, although Bohemia was not listed. A newspaper report of the 1914 Olympic Congress says it endorsed a controversial German Olympic Committee proposal that "now—contrary to the hitherto existing practice—only political nations may participate as teams in the Olympic Games", with the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" among these "political nations". However, the games were cancelled due to the First World War.
After the war, John J. Keane attempted to unite various sports associations under an Irish Olympic Committee. Many sports had rival bodies, one Unionist and affiliated to a United Kingdom parent, the other Republican and opposed to any link with Great Britain. Keane proposed that a separate Irish delegation, marching under the Union Flag, should participate at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. At the time the Irish War of Independence was under way, and the IOC rejected Keane's proposal, pending the settlement of the underlying political situation.
Political issues
The OCI has always used the name "Ireland", and has claimed to represent the entire island of Ireland, even though Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom. These points have been contentious, particularly from the 1930s to the 1950s in athletics, and until the 1970s in cycling.
Northern Ireland
The governing bodies in the island of Ireland of many sports had been established prior to the 1922 partition, and most have remained as single all-island bodies since then. Recognition of the Irish border was politically contentious and unpopular with Irish nationalists. The National Athletic and Cycling Association (Ireland), or NACA(I), was formed in 1922 by the merger of rival all-island associations, and affiliated to both the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) and Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). When Northern Ireland athletes were selected for the 1928 games, the possibility was raised of using an "all-Ireland banner" as the team flag, rather than the Irish tricolour which unionists disavowed. J. J. Keane stated that it was too late to change the flag registered with the IOC, but was hopeful that the coat of arms of Ireland would be adopted afterwards. No such change was ever made, although Keane reported in 1930 that a council subcommittee had consulted the member federations and noted "a general desire towards agreement on a flag which would be acceptable to all parts of Ireland being substituted for that at present recognised ... by the International Olympic Committee [ie the tricolour]".
In 1925, some Northern Ireland athletics clubs left NACA(I) and in 1930 formed the Northern Ireland Amateur Athletics Association, which later formed the British Athletic Federation (BAF) with the English and Scottish Amateur Athletics Associations. The BAF then replaced the (English) AAA as Britain's member of the IAAF, and moved that all members should be delimited by political boundaries. This was not agreed in time for the 1932 Summer Olympics —at which two NACA(I) athletes won gold medals for Ireland— but was agreed at the IAAF's 1934 congress. The NACA(I) refused to comply and was suspended in 1935, thus missing the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The OCI decided to boycott the Games completely in protest.
The UCI likewise suspended the NACA(I) for refusing to confine itself to the Irish Free State. The athletics and cycling wings of the NACA(I) split into two all-island bodies, and separate Irish Free State bodies split from each and secured affiliation to the IAAF and UCI. These splits were not fully resolved until the 1990s. The "partitionist" Amateur Athletic Union of Éire (AAUE) affiliated to the IAAF, but the all-Ireland NACA(I) remained affiliated to the OCI. The IOC allowed AAUÉ athletes to compete for Ireland at the 1948 London Olympics, but the rest of the OCI delegation shunned them. At that games, two swimmers from Northern Ireland were prevented from competing in the OCI team. This was a FINA ruling rather than an IOC rule; Danny Taylor from Belfast was allowed by FISA to compete in the rowing. The entire swimming squad withdrew, but the rest of the team competed.
Some athletes born in what had become the Republic of Ireland continued to compete for the British team. In 1952, new IOC President Avery Brundage and new OCI delegate Lord Killanin agreed that people from Northern Ireland would in future be allowed to compete in any sport on the OCI team. In Irish nationality law, birth in Northern Ireland grants a citizenship entitlement similar to birth within the Republic of Ireland itself. In 1956, Killanin stated that both the OCI and the BOA "quite rightly" judged eligibility based on citizenship laws.
UCI and IAAF affiliated bodies were subsequently affiliated to the OCI, thus regularising the position of Irish competitors in those sports at the Olympics. Members of the all-Ireland National Cycling Association (NCA) with Irish Republican sympathies twice interfered with the Olympic road race in protest against the UCI-affiliated Irish Cycling Federation (ICF). In 1956, three members caused a 13-minute delay at the start. Seven were arrested in 1972; three had delayed the start and the other four joined mid-race to ambush ICF competitor Noel Taggart, causing a minor pileup. This happened days after the murders of Israeli athletes and at the height of the Troubles in Northern Ireland; the negative publicity helped precipitate an end to the NCA–ICF feud.
The Irish Hockey Union joined the OCI in 1949, and the Ireland team in non-Olympic competitions is selected on an all-island basis. Until 1992 the IHU was not invited to the Olympic hockey tournament, while Northern Irish hockey players like Stephen Martin played on the British Olympic men's team. In 1992, invitation was replaced by an Olympic qualifying tournament, which the IHU/IHA has entered, despite some opposition from Northern Irish members. Northern Irish players can play for Ireland or Britain, and can switch affiliation subject to International Hockey Federation clearance. The Irish Ladies Hockey Union has entered the Olympics since 1984, and in 1980 suspended Northern Irish players who elected to play for the British women's team.
Through to the 1960s, Ireland was represented in showjumping only by members of the Irish Army Equitation School, as the all-island civilian equestrian governing body was unwilling to compete under the Republic's flag and anthem.
In November 2003, the OCI discovered that the British Olympic Association (BOA) had been using Northern Ireland in the text of its "Team Members Agreement" document since the 2002 Games. Its objection was made public in January 2004. The BOA responded that "Unbeknown to each other both the OCI and BOA have constitutions approved by the IOC acknowledging territorial responsibility for Northern Ireland", the BOA constitution dating from 1981. OCI president Pat Hickey claimed the IOC's copy of the BOA constitution had "question marks" against mentions of Northern Ireland (and Gibraltar); an IOC spokesperson said "Through an error we have given both national Olympic committees rights over the same area." The 2012 Games host was to be selected in July 2004 and so, to prevent the dispute harming the London bid, its director Barbara Cassani and the Blair government secured agreement by which Northern Ireland was removed from BOA documents and marketing materials. Northern Ireland athletes retain the right to compete for Britain.
In October 2004, Lord McIntosh of Haringey told the House of Lords:
By contrast, OCI officers Pat Hickey and Dermot Sherlock told an Oireachtas committee in 2008:
Hickey also said:
In 2012, Stephen Martin, who has been an executive at both the OCI and the BOA, said "Team GB is a brand name. Just like Team Ireland. The British and Irish Olympic committees are seen by the International Olympic Committees as having joint rights over Northern Ireland."
In 2009, rugby sevens was added to the Olympic programme starting in 2016. While World Rugby states players from Northern Ireland are eligible to compete on the Great Britain team, the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU) director of rugby said in 2011 that "with the agreement of the [English, Scottish, and Welsh] unions" the "de facto position" was that Northern Ireland players must represent an IRFU team. In 2010 The Daily Telegraph'' opined that the IRFU would be entitled to refuse to release players under contract to it, but not to prohibit Northern Ireland players based outside Ireland; but that the issue needed to be handled "with extreme sensitivity".
Name of the country
The OFI sees itself as representing the island rather than the state, and hence uses the name "Ireland". It changed its own name from "Irish Olympic Council" to "Olympic Council of Ireland" in 1952 to reinforce this point. (The change from "Council" to "Federation" was a 2018 rebranding after the 2016 ticketing controversy.) At the time, Lord Killanin had become OCI President and delegate to the IOC, and was trying to reverse the IOC's policy of referring to the OCI's team by using an appellation of the state rather than the island. While the name "Ireland" had been unproblematic at the 1924 and 1928 Games, after 1930, the IOC sometimes used "Irish Free State". IOC President Henri de Baillet-Latour supported the principle of delimitation by political borders. At the 1932 Games, Eoin O'Duffy persuaded the Organisers to switch from "Irish Free State" to "Ireland" shortly before the Opening Ceremony. After the 1937 Constitution took effect, the IOC switched to "Eire"; this conformed to British practice, although within the state's name in English was "Ireland". At the opening ceremony of the 1948 Summer Olympics, teams marched in alphabetical order of their country's name in English; the OCI team was told to move from the I's to the E's. After the Republic of Ireland Act came into effect in 1949, British policy was to use "Republic of Ireland" rather than "Eire". In 1951, the IOC made the same switch at its Vienna conference, after IOC member Lord Burghley had consulted the British Foreign Office. An OCI request to change this to "Ireland" was rejected in 1952, In late 1955 Brundage ruled that "Ireland" would be the official IOC name, and Lewis Luxton of the Organising Committee for the 1956 Melbourne Games said that "Ireland" would be used on scoreboards and programmes. The OCI had argued that this was the name in the state's own Constitution, and that all the OCI's affiliated sports except the Football Association of Ireland were all-island bodies. However, in the buildup to the Games, Lord Burghley (now Marquess of Exeter) protested at the IOC decision and insisted that the athletics events would use the IAAF name of "Eire". On the first day of athletics, "Ireland" (code "IRE") was used, but from the second day it changed to "Eire"/"EIR".
See also
List of flag bearers for Ireland at the Olympics
:Category:Olympic competitors for Ireland
Ireland at the Paralympics
Ireland at the British Empire Games
2016 Summer Olympics ticket scandal
References
Sources
Notes
External links
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Left-wing terrorism
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Left-wing terrorism or far-left terrorism is terrorism motivated by left-wing or far-left ideologies, committed with the aim of overthrowing current capitalist systems and replacing them with communist or socialist societies. Left-wing terrorism can also occur within already socialist states as criminal action against the current ruling government.
The majority of left-wing terrorist groups originated in the aftermath of World War II and were predominantly active during the Cold War. Most left-wing terrorist groups that had operated in the 1970s and 1980s disappeared by the mid-1990s. One exception was the Greek Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N), which lasted until 2002. Since then, left-wing terrorism has been relatively minor in the Western world in comparison with other forms of terrorism, and is now mostly carried out by insurgent groups in the developing world.
Ideology
Left-wing terrorist groups and individuals have been influenced by various communist and socialist currents, including Marxism. Narodnaya Volya, a 19th-century revolutionary socialist political organization and left-wing terrorist group operating in the Russian Empire that killed Tsar Alexander II of Russia in 1881 and developed the concept of "propaganda of the deed", is considered a major influence.
According to Sarah Brockhoff, Tim Krieger, and Daniel Meierrieks, while left-wing terrorism is ideologically motivated, nationalist-separatist terrorism is ethnically motivated. They argue that the revolutionary goal of left-wing terrorism is non-negotiable whereas nationalist terrorists are willing to make concessions. They suggest that rigidity of the demands of left-wing terrorists may explain their lack of support relative to nationalist groups. Nevertheless, many on the revolutionary left have shown solidarity for national liberation groups employing terrorism, such as Irish nationalists, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the South American Tupamaros, seeing them as engaged in a global struggle against capitalism. Since the nationalist sentiment is fueled by socio-economic conditions, some separatist movements, including the Basque ETA, the Provisional Irish Republican Army, and the Irish National Liberation Army, incorporated communist and socialist ideologies into their policies.
David Brannan writes that left-wing terrorists and insurgents tend not to engage in indiscriminate attacks on the public as it not only runs contrary to the socialist ideals they espouse of being protectors of the working class, but they also do not want to alienate large swaths of the working population as such organizations and individuals seek to gain their support. Other researchers argue that left-wing terrorism may not be less indiscriminate than its right-wing counterpart.
History
Left-wing terrorism has its roots in the 19th and early 20th-century anarchist terrorism, and became pronounced during the Cold War following the aftermath of World War II. Modern left-wing terrorism developed in the context of the political unrest of 1968. In Western Europe, notable groups included the West German Red Army Faction (RAF), the Italian Red Brigades (BR), the French Action Directe (AD), and the Belgian Communist Combatant Cells (CCC). Asian groups have included the Japanese Red Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, although the latter organization later adopted nationalist terrorism. In Latin America, groups that became actively involved in terrorism in the 1970s and 1980s included the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, the Peruvian Shining Path and the Colombian 19th of April Movement. A 2014 paper by Kis-Katos et al. concluded that left-wing terrorism was the most prevalent terrorism in the past but has largely declined in the present day.
United States
The Weather Underground was a domestic terrorist group that developed as "a small, violent offshoot of Students for a Democratic Society," a group that originated in the 1960s to advocate for social change. Between 1973 and 1975, the Symbionese Liberation Army was active, committing bank robberies, murders, and other acts of violence. Other terrorist groups such as the small New World Liberation Front resorted to death threats, drive-by shootings and planting of pipe-bombs in the late 1970s. During the 1980s, both the May 19th Communist Organization (M19CO) and the smaller United Freedom Front were active. After 1985, following the dismantling of both groups, one source reports there were no confirmed acts of left-wing terrorism by similar groups. Incidents of left-wing terrorism dropped off at the end of the Cold War (circa 1989), partly due to the loss of support for communism.
In October 2020, the killing of Aaron Danielson was added to the CSIS terrorism database as a deadly "far-left" attack, the first such incident in over two decades. The killing is also referenced on the Anti-Defamation League's page on antifa, as the only "suspected antifa-related murder" to date; and the liberal think tank New America Foundation's tally of killings during terrorist attacks in the U.S. since 9/11, as the first recorded fatality in a far-left attack.
19 May Communist Organization
The May 19th Communist Organization, also referred to as the 19 May Communist Coalition, was a United States-based, self-described revolutionary organization formed by splintered-off members of the Weather Underground and the Black Liberation Army. The M19CO name was derived from the birthdays of Ho Chi Minh and Malcolm X. The 19 May Communist Organization was active from 1978 to 1985. It also included members of the Black Panthers and the Republic of New Africa (RNA). According to a 2001 US government report, the alliance between Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground members had three objectives: free political prisoners from US prisons; appropriate capitalist wealth (through armed robberies) to fund their operations; and initiate a series of bombings and terrorist attacks against the United States.
Latin America
Stefan M. Aubrey describes the Sandinistas, Shining Path, 19th of April Movement, and Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) as the main organizations involved in left-wing terrorism in Latin America during the 1970s and 1980s. These organizations opposed the United States government and drew local support as well as receiving support from the Soviet Union and Cuba.
FARC
The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) is a Marxist–Leninist organization in Colombia which has engaged in vehicle bombings, gas cylinder bombs, killings, landmines, kidnapping, extortion and hijacking as well as guerilla and conventional military. The United States Department of State includes the FARC-EP on its list of foreign terrorist organizations, as does the European Union. It funds itself primarily through extortion, kidnapping and their participation in the illegal drug trade. Many of their fronts enlist new and underage recruits by force, distribute propaganda and rob banks. Businesses operating in rural areas, including agricultural, oil, and mining interests, were required to pay "vaccines" (monthly payments) which "protected" them from subsequent attacks and kidnappings. An additional, albeit less lucrative, source of revenue was highway blockades in which guerrillas stopped motorists and buses in order to confiscate jewelry and money. An estimated 20 to 30 percent of FARC combatants are under 18 years old, with many as young as 12 years old, for a total of around 5000 children. Children who try to escape the ranks of the guerrillas are punished with torture and death.
Shining Path
The Communist Party of Peru, more commonly known as the Shining Path, is a Maoist guerrilla organization that launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980. Widely condemned for its brutality, including violence deployed against peasants, trade union organizers, popularly elected officials and the general civilian population, Shining Path is on the United States Department of State's "Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations" list. Peru, the European Union, and Canada likewise regard Shining Path as a terrorist group and prohibit providing funding or other financial support.
According to Peru's Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the actions of the Shining Path claimed between 31,331 and 37,840 lives.
Asia
Stefan M. Audrey describes the Japanese Red Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) as the main left-wing terrorist organizations in Asia, although he notes that the LTTE later transformed into a nationalist terrorist organization.
Communist Party of India (Maoist) and Naxalites
Armed Naxalite groups operate across large parts of the central and eastern rural regions of India. Informed by the People's War strategy of Maoism, the most prominent of the groups is the Communist Party of India (Maoist), formed through the merging of two previous Naxalite organizations, the People's War Group and the Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCC). Armed Naxalite movements are considered India's largest internal security threat. Naxalite militants have engaged in numerous terrorist attacks and human rights violations in India's Red Corridor. A Frontline magazine article calls the Bhamragad taluka, where the Madia Gond Adivasis live, the heart of the Naxalite-affected region in Maharashtra.
Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)
The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) has been responsible for hundreds of attacks on government and civilian targets.
After the United People's Front of Nepal (UPF)'s Maoist wing, CPN-M, performed poorly in elections and was excluded from the 1994 election, the Maoists turned to insurgency. They aimed to overthrow Nepal's monarchy and parliamentary democracy, and to change Nepalese society, including a purge of the nation's elite class, a state takeover of private industry, and collectivization of agriculture. In Nepal, attacks against civilian populations occurred as part of Maoist strategy, leading Amnesty International to state: The CPN (Maoist) has consistently targeted private schools, which it ideologically opposes. On the 14 April 2005 the CPN (Maoist) demanded that all private schools shut down, although this demand was withdrawn on 28 April. Following this demand, it bombed two schools in western Nepal on 15 April, a school in Nepalganj, Banke district on 17 April and a school in Kalyanpur, Chitwan on 21 April. CPN (Maoist) cadres also reportedly threw a bomb at students taking classes in a school in Khara, Rukum district.
Communist Party of the Philippines
The Communist Party of the Philippines has been responsible for several attacks on government and civilian targets. It was founded in 1968 by Jose Maria Sison, 4 years prior to Martial Law. They aimed to overthrow the Philippine President and the national government, and to change Philippine society, including a purge of the nation's elite class, a state takeover of private industry, and collectivization of agriculture thru National Democracy. The CPP's Armed wing, New People's Army is responsible for attacking the military in the Philippine Mountains. Between 2002 and 2005, these groups are designated as terrorists by the United States and the European Union.
Japanese Red Army
The Japanese Red Army (JRA) was founded in 1969 as the "Red Army Faction" by students impatient with the Communist Party. In 1970, they hijacked a plane to North Korea, where nine of their members were interned. Fourteen members were killed during an internal purge. In 1971, the renamed JRA formed a connection with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and established a base in Lebanon. Their major terrorist acts included an armed attack on the Tel Aviv airport, hijacking planes to Libya and Bangladesh, kidnapping the French ambassador to the Hague, and bombing a United Service Organizations (USO) nightclub in Naples, Italy. By the mid-1990s, their level of activity had declined and the US State Department no longer considered them a terrorist threat. In 2001, their leader announced the dissolution of the group, although some of its members were in prison and others were still wanted by police.
Europe
Typically small and urban-based, left-wing terrorist organizations in Europe have been committed to overthrowing their countries' governments and replacing them with regimes guided by Marxist–Leninist ideology. Although none have achieved any degree of success in accomplishing their goals, they have caused serious security problems in Germany, Belgium, Italy, Greece, France, Turkey, Portugal and Spain.
Action Directe
Action Directe (AD) was active in France between 1979 and 1987. Between 1979 and 1985, they concentrated on non-lethal bombings and strafings of government buildings, although they assassinated a French Ministry of Defense official. Following arrests of some of its members, the organization declined and became inactive. The French government has banned the group.
Communist Combatant Cells
The Communist Combatant Cells (CCC) was founded in 1982 in Belgium by Pierre Carette. With about ten members, the CCC financed its activities through a series of bank robberies. Over the course of 14 months, they carried out 20 attacks against property, mostly North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) facilities. Despite attempts to avoid loss of life, there were casualties as a result of these attacks. After Carette and other members were arrested in 1985, the group ceased to be operational. Carette served 17 years of a life sentence, although his colleagues that were convicted with him were released earlier.
First of October Anti-Fascist Resistance Groups
The First of October Anti-Fascist Resistance Groups (GRAPO) was a Maoist terrorist group in Spain that was founded in 1975. Since its inception until 2007, it assassinated 84 people, including police, military personnel, judges and civilians; either by bombings or shootings. The group has committed a number of kidnappings, initially for political reasons, later on, mainly for extortion. Its last attack was committed in 2006, when GRAPO militants shot dead Ana Isabel Herrero, the owner of a temporary work agency in Zaragoza.
Irish National Liberation Army
The Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) is an Irish republican communist paramilitary group formed on 10 December 1974, during "the Troubles". It seeks to remove Northern Ireland from British control and create a socialist republic encompassing all of Ireland. It is the paramilitary wing of the Irish Republican Socialist Party (IRSP).
The INLA was founded by former members of the Official Irish Republican Army who opposed that group's ceasefire. It was initially known as the "People's Liberation Army" or "People's Republican Army". The INLA waged a paramilitary campaign against the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Northern Ireland. It was also active to a lesser extent in the Republic of Ireland and Great Britain. High-profile attacks carried out by the INLA include the Droppin Well bombing, the 1994 Shankill Road killings and the assassinations of Airey Neave in 1979 and Billy Wright in 1997. However, it was smaller and less active than the main republican paramilitary group, the Provisional IRA. It was also weakened by feuds and internal tensions. Members of the group used the covernames People's Liberation Army (PLA), People's Republican Army (PRA) and Catholic Reaction Force (CRF) for attacks its volunteers carried out but the INLA did not want to claim responsibility for.
The INLA is a Proscribed Organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000 and an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland.
Popular Forces 25 April
The Popular Forces 25 April (FP-25) was formed in Portugal under the leadership of Lt. Col. Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho who lead the Carnation Revolution in 1974. It was a far-left terrorist group operating in Portugal between 1980 and 1987. Most of its members had previously been active in the Revolutionary Brigades (Brigadas Revolucionárias), an armed group with links to the Revolutionary Party of the Proletariat (Partido Revolucionário do Proletariado) extinguished in 1978. Over 7 years, FP-25 were responsible for 19 deaths, including a four-month-old baby, a General Director of Prison Service, a dissident/repentant terrorist, several National Republican Guards (GNR) soldiers and five terrorists killed during robberies or clashes with security forces. The violence was partially stopped in June 1984, with a secret police operation under a code name "Orion", which resulted in the arrest of most of its leaders and operatives. They would be later tried in October 1986.
Red Army Faction
The Red Army Faction (RAF), which developed out of the Baader-Meinhof Group in Germany, carried out a series of terrorist attacks in the 1970s and remained active for over 20 years. The RAF was organized into small isolated cells, and had connections with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and Carlos the Jackal. Although the group's leaders, including Gudrun Ensslin, Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof were arrested in 1972, it carried out major attacks, including the kidnapping and murder of Hanns-Martin Schleyer, president of the Confederation of German Employers' Associations and of the Federation of German Industries, and the hijacking of the Lufthansa Flight 181 in the so-called "German Autumn" of 1977.
Red Brigades
The Red Brigades were founded in August 1970, mostly by former members of the Italian Communist Youth Federation who had been expelled from the parent party for extremist views. The largest terrorist group in Italy, its aim was to violently overthrow the government and replace it with a communist system. Its members were responsible for the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro, a prominent member of Christian Democracy who served twice as prime minister of Italy.
Revolutionary Organization 17 November
The Revolutionary Organization 17 November, also known as 17N or N17, was a Greek urban terrorist organization named in commemoration of a 1973 mass demonstration and riot against the military junta. By 2001 the group had killed 23 people, including U.S. officials, NATO officials and Greek politicians, magistrates and businessmen. Attempts by the Greek police, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and Scotland Yard to investigate the group were unsuccessful. The group was captured in 2002, after one of its members was wounded by a bomb he was carrying. It has been recognized as a terrorist organization by the Greek State, the US and international law enforcement agencies.
Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front
The Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front is a militant Marxist–Leninist party in Turkey. The US, UK and EU categorize it as a terrorist organization. As of 2007, the Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of Directorate General for Security list it among the 12 active terrorist organizations in Turkey. It is one of the 44 names listed in the 2008 U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations, one of the 48 groups and entities to which the EU's Common Position 2001–931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism applies and one of the 45 international terrorist organisations in the list of Proscribed Terrorist Groups of the UK Home Office.
See also
Communist terrorism
Eco-terrorism
Left-wing extremism and anti-government in the United States
Propaganda of the deed
Religious terrorism
Right-wing terrorism/Far-right terrorism
Notes
References
Atkins, Stephen E. Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004.
Aubrey, Stefan M. The new dimension of international terrorism. Zurich: vdf Hochschulverlag AG, 2004.
Brockhoff, Sarah, Krieger, Tim and Meierrieks, Daniel, "Looking Back on Anger: Explaining the Social Origins of Left-Wing and Nationalist Separatist Terrorism in Western Europe, 1970–2007" (2012). APSA 2012 Annual Meeting Paper. Available at SSRN: Looking Back on Anger: Explaining the Social Origins of Left-Wing and Nationalist Separatist Terrorism in Western Europe, 1970-2007
Bush, George (task force). Terrorist Group Profiles. DIANE Publishing, 1989.
Kushner, Harvey W. Encyclopedia of terrorism. London: Sage Publications Ltd., 2003.
Moghadam, Assaf. The roots of terrorism. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006.
Pluchinsky, Dennis A. "Western Europes's red terrorists: the fighting communist organizations". In Yonah Alexander and Dennis A. Pluchinsky (Eds.), Europe's red terrorists: the fighting communist organizations. Oxford: Frank Cass and Company, 1992.
Smith, Brent L. Terrorism in America: pipe bombs and pipe dreams. Albany: SUNY Press, 1994
Far-left politics
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Joseph C. Porter
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Joseph Chrisman Porter (12 September 1809 – 18 February 1863) was a Confederate officer in the American Civil War, a key leader in the guerrilla campaigns in northern Missouri, and a figure of controversy. The main source for his history, Joseph A. Mudd (see below) is clearly an apologist; his opponents take a less charitable view of him, and his chief adversary, Union Colonel John McNeil, regarded him simply as a bushwacker and traitor, though his service under General John S. Marmaduke in the Springfield campaign ("Marmaduke's First Raid") and following clearly shows he was regarded as a regular officer by the Confederacy.
Early life
Joseph C. Porter was born in Jessamine County, Kentucky, to James and Rebecca Chrisman Porter. The family moved to Marion County, Missouri, in 1828 or 1829, where Porter attended Marion College in Philadelphia, Missouri, and was a member of the Presbyterian Church. About 1844, Porter married Mary Ann E. Marshall (d. DeWitt, AR "about two years after the war closed," according to Porter's sister). They subsequently moved to Knox County, remaining there until 1857, when they moved to Lewis County, and settled five miles east of Newark. Family members assert that only one photograph of Porter was known to exist, and it was destroyed when his home was burned by Union soldiers.
Porter had strong Southern sympathies, and was subject to harassment by pro-Union neighbors, since he lived in an area where loyalties were sharply divided. His brother, James William Porter (b. 1827, m. Carolina Marshall, sister to Joseph's wife Mary Ann, 1853), was also a Confederate officer and Joseph's trusted subordinate, reaching the rank of major. The brothers went to California during the Gold Rush of 1849, then returned to Missouri and farmed together before the war.
Civil War
The Porter brothers enrolled with Colonel Martin E. Green's Missouri State Guard regiment and participated in the attack on the union Home Guard at Athens; and they later participated in the Confederate attack on Lexington, September 1861. Joseph Porter had no prior military experience, but proved to be a natural leader and was elected a lieutenant colonel (an official commission would come later) in the Missouri State Guard.
Following his participation in the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, Porter returned home on the orders of General Sterling Price, to raise recruits throughout northeast Missouri. His duties included the establishment of supply drops, weapons caches and a network of pro-Southern informants. As a Colonel he commanded the 1st Northeast Missouri Cavalry.
Throughout Porter's brief military career, his status as a regular army officer was not fully recognized by his adversaries, particularly Colonel John McNeil. Those serving behind Union lines were not recognized as legal combatants and were threatened with execution if captured.
Though most of his activities were guerrilla operations or harassment, a few battles were fought. On June 17, 1862, near Warren or New Market, in Warren Township, Marion County with 43 mounted men, he captured four men of the Union regiment he found there. The prisoners' weapons and horses were taken, then they were paroled on their oath not to take up arms against the Confederacy until exchanged.
Cherry Grove
Moving northward through the western part of Marion, the eastern portion of Knox, and the western border of Lewis counties, Porter approached Sulphur Springs, near Colony, in Knox County. Along his route he collected perhaps 200 recruits. From Sulphur Springs he moved north, threatened the Union Home Guards at Memphis, picked up additional recruits in Scotland County, and moved westward into Schuyler County to get a company known to be there under Captain Bill Dunn. Union forces under Colonel Henry S. Lipscomb and others responded with a march on Colony. They overtook Porter at Cherry Grove, in the northeastern part of Schuyler County, near the Iowa line, where, with a superior force, they attacked and defeated him, routing his forces and driving them southward. Losses on both sides were minor. Porter retreated rapidly, pursued by Lipscomb, until his forces dispersed at a point about 10 miles west of Newark. Porter, with perhaps 75 men, remained in the vicinity of his home for some days, gathering recruits all the time, and getting ready to strike again.
Memphis
On Sunday, July 13, Porter approached Memphis, Missouri in four converging columns totalling 125–169 men and captured it with little or no resistance. They first raided the Federal armory, seizing about a hundred muskets with cartridge boxes and ammunition, and several uniforms (Mudd, see below, was among those who would wear the Union uniform, as he claimed, for its superior comfort in the heat, a fact which would later draw friendly fire and aggravate the view of Porter's troops as bushwhackers, neither obeying nor protected by the rules of war). They rounded up all adult males, who were taken to the court house to swear not to divulge any information about the raiders for forty-eight hours. Porter freed all militiamen or suspected militiamen to await parole, a fact noted by champions of his character. Citizens expressed their sympathies variously; Porter gave safe passage to a physician, an admitted supporter of the Union, who was anxious to return to his seriously ill wife. A verbally abusive woman was threatened with a pistol by one of Porter's troops, perhaps as a bluff; Mudd intervened to prevent bloodshed. Porter's troops entered the courthouse and destroyed all indictments for horse-theft; the act is variously understood as simple lawlessness, intervention on behalf of criminal associates, or interference with politically motivated, fraudulent charges.
At Memphis, a key incident occurred which would darken Porter's reputation, and which his detractors see as part of a consistent behavioral pattern which put him and his men beyond the norms of warfare. According to the "History of Shelby County," which is generally sympathetic to Porter, "Most conceded that Col. Porter's purpose for capturing Memphis, MO. was to seize Dr. Wm. Aylward, a prominent Union man of the community." Aylward was captured during the day by Captain Tom Stacy's men and confined to a house. After rousing him overnight and removing him, ostensibly to see Porter, guards claimed that he escaped. However, witnesses reported hearing the sounds of a strangling, and his body was found the next day, with marks consistent with hanging or strangulation.
At Memphis, Porter had been joined by Tom Stacy, generally regarded as a genuine bushwhacker – even the sympathetic Mudd says of him "if one of his men were captured and killed he murdered the man who did it if he could catch him, or, failing him, the nearest man he could catch to the one who did it." Stacy's company was called "the chain gang" by the other members of Porter's command. Supporters of Porter attribute the murder of Aylward to Stacy (who would be mortally wounded at Vassar Hill.) However, a Union gentleman who came to inquire about Aylward and a captured officer before the discovery of the body stated that when he asked Porter about Aylward, the response was, "He is where he will never disturb anybody else."
Vassar Hill
Union Col. (later General) John McNeil pursued Porter, who planned an ambush with perhaps 125 men according to participant Mudd (though Federal estimates of Porter's strength ran from 400 to 600 men). The battle is called "Vassar Hill" in the History of Scotland County; Porter himself called it "Oak Ridge," and Federal forces called it "Pierce's Mill," after a location 1.5 miles northwest of the battlefield. A detachment of three companies (C, H, I), about 300 men of Merrill's Horse, under Major John Y. Clopper, was dispatched by McNeil from Newark against Porter, and attacked him at 2 p.m. on Friday, July 18, on the south fork of the Middle Fabius River, ten miles southwest of Memphis. Porter's men were concealed in brush and stayed low when the Federals stopped to fire prior to each charge. Porter's men held their fire until the range was very short, increasing the lethality of the volley. Clopper was in the Federal front, and out of 21 men of his advance guard, all but one were killed and wounded. The Federals made at least seven mounted charges according to Mudd, doing little but adding to the body count. A battalion of roughly 100 men of the 11th Missouri State Militia Cavalry under Major Rogers arrived and dismounted. While Clopper claimed to have driven the enemy from the field after this, Mudd indicates that the Federals instead fell back and ended the engagement leaving Porter in possession of the field until he withdrew. Clopper's reputation suffered as a result of his poor tactics. Before the final charge one company officer angrily asked, "Why don't you dismount those men and stop murdering them?"
On page 86 of "With Porter in North Missouri", Mudd describes "One of our boys, down the line out of my sight, losing his head fired too soon and when the Federal was about to ride him down, had an empty gun in his hand. This he clubbed and striking his assailant a powerful blow on the neck, killed him." In Joseph Budd's pension records, his death is described as occurring due to "a stroke of a weapon breaking his neck". Joseph is pictured on the right.
Union casualties were about 24 killed and mortally wounded (10 from Merrill's Horse and 14 from the 11th MSM Cavalry), and perhaps 59 wounded (24 from Merrill's Horse, and 35 from the 11th MSM Cavalry.) Porter's loss was as little as three killed and five wounded according to Mudd, or six killed, three mortally wounded, and 10 wounded left on the field according to the Shelby County History. The Union dead were originally buried on the Jacob Maggard farm, which served as a temporary hospital.
After the fight, Porter moved westward a few miles, then south through Paulville, in the eastern part of Adair County; thence south-east into Knox County, passing through Novelty, four miles east of Locust Hill, at noon on Saturday, July 19, having fought a battle and made a march of sixty-five miles in less than twenty-four hours.
Florida
July 22: Detachments of F & G Companies (60 men total) of 3rd Iowa Volunteer Cavalry under Major Henry Clay Caldwell encountered Porter with 300 rebels at Florida in Monroe County, Missouri. The detachment fought outnumbered for one hour and fell back upon the post of Paris, Missouri, with 22 wounded and 2 captured.
Santa Fe
July 24: Major Caldwell and 100 men of his 3rd Iowa Volunteer Cavalry pursued Porter and his 400 men into dense brush near Botts' farm, near Santa Fe, Missouri. Porter fled and was pursued into Callaway County, Missouri. The Second Battalion suffered one killed and ten wounded.
Moore's Mill
July 28: Union forces under Colonel (later General ) Odon Guitar engaged Porter near Moore's Mill (now the village of Calwood) in Callaway County. The Union losses were 19 killed, 21 wounded. Guerrilla losses were 36-60 killed, 100 wounded. This was one of Porter's most aggressive actions, involving a daring charge and disabling the Federal artillery, until forced to retreat by the arrival of Union reinforcements and the exhaustion of his ammunition.
Newark
August 1: McNeil had dispatched Lair to Newark. Porter headed westward from Midway, putting his brother Jim Porter in charge of one column, himself at the head of another, approaching the town from east and south simultaneously, and closing the trap on the completely surprised federals at 5 p.m. on July 31.
Porter forced a company of 75 Federals to take refuge in a brick schoolhouse; when they refused terms, he had a loaded haywagon fired and threatened to run it into the building. The Federals surrendered, were paroled and permitted to keep their sidearms.
The Federal loss in the Newark fight was 4 killed, 6 wounded, and 72 prisoners. The Confederate loss was reported at from 10 to 20 killed, and 30 severely wounded. Union soldiers were treated well, but the Union-sympathizing storekeepers had their businesses gutted, and citizens were subjected to abuse. Some claim this was in spite of Porter's orders, and claimed that he bore his old neighbors no malice, while others view this action as Porter's revenge for previous ill-treatment.
Despite the victory at Newark, the high casualties on the winning side, attributed to chaotic advance and undisciplined exposure of Porter's troops to hostile fire, suggest growing disorder in his ranks. From here, records of his activities—and even the degree to which he can be said to have a unified command—are unclear. Various forces with varying degrees of official relation to Porter's command are credited with capturing Paris and Canton, and with bringing in new supplies and recruits. Porter's numbers had swelled to a size likely to be unmanageable, particularly considering the lack of trained officers and that not more than a quarter of his 2000 or so troops had regulation equipment. Perhaps another quarter had squirrel-guns or shotguns, while the rest no arms at all. Porter's objective was now to get south to Arkansas with his recruits, in order that they might be properly trained and equipped.
Kirksville
August 6, 1862
At Kirksville, Porter made a serious mistake in engaging Union forces under Col. John McNeil, whom he knew to have cannon – perhaps in overconfidence, as a result of his sharpshooters' ability to pick off the Federal artillerymen at Santa Fe. Traveling light had been Porter's great advantage -- "His troops lived off the country, and every man was his own quartermaster and commissary," in contrast to the elaborate baggage and supply trains of McNeil ("History of Shelby County"). Here Porter suffered unequivocal defeat, from which he would not recover.
Dispersal of forces
At Clem's Mills, five miles west of Kirksville, Porter crossed the Chariton River, seeking to link up with Col. John A. Poindexter in Chariton County, known to have 1,200 or 1,500 recruits; their combined forces would be able to force a passage of the Missouri River at Glasgow or Brunswick, and open a line to the Confederacy. Three miles north of Stockton (now New Cambria), in western Macon County, Porter encountered 250 men of the First Missouri State Militia, under Lieut. Col. Alexander Woolfolk, coming up to unite with McNeil. There was a brief fight at Panther Creek, Friday, August 8. Porter was turned from his course and retreated toward the northeast, away from his intended line of march and ultimate goal. The next day, Col. James McFerran, of the First Missouri State Militia, joined Woolfolk with 250 more men and took command. He caught up with Porter at Walnut Creek, in Adair County and drove him eastward to the Chariton. At See's Ford, where he recrossed the Chariton, Porter set up an ambush on the east bank with 125 men. Porter's forces opened fire at short range. Only two Federals were killed outright and 15 wounded, but the action seemed to have caused McFerran to break off pursuit.
Porter passed on to Wilsonville, in the south-east part of Adair. Here, a mass desertion took place among his discouraged troops; in a few hours, 500 had drifted away.
Capture of Palmyra and the Allsman incident
Porter wandered around the wilderness, his desertion-diminished troops feeding off the land, although there were some new recruits as well. On Friday, September 12, Porter, with 400 men, captured Palmyra, with 20 of its garrison, and held the place two hours, losing one man killed and one wounded. One Union citizen was killed and three Federals wounded. Porter's objectives were to liberate Confederates held in the jail there, and to draw Federal forces away from the Missouri River, so as to open it to southward crossing by rebels seeking to join Confederate units.
The Confederates carried away an elderly Union citizen named Andrew Allsman. The fate of Allsman remains something of a mystery, and there is disagreement as well about his character and his legitimacy as a target (see Palmyra Massacre).
Porter quickly abandoned Palmyra to McNeil, and another period of wandering ensued, in the general direction of his own home near Newark. There were further desertions, and a number of bands of organized rebels refused to place themselves under Porter's command, clearly indicating that he had lost public confidence. At Whaley's Mill, his men were definitively scattered, almost without a fight.
Death
After his rout by McNeil at Whaley's Mill, and the dispersion of his troops at Bragg's school house, Col. Porter kept himself hidden for a few days. He abandoned the idea of raising a militarily significant force, and entered Shelby County on a line of march to the south with fewer than 100 men remaining. He made his way safely through Monroe, Audrain, Callaway and Boone counties, and crossed the Missouri River in a skiff, continuing into Arkansas. Here he organized, from the men who had accompanied him and others whom he found in Arkansas, a regiment of Missouri Confederate cavalry. From Pocahontas, Arkansas, in the latter part of December 1862, as acting brigadier, he moved with his command and the battalions of Cols. Colton Greene and J. Q. A. Burbridge, to cooperate with Gen. John S. Marmaduke in his attack on Springfield. Through a mistake of Gen. Marmaduke, Col. Porter's command did not participate in this attack. It moved on a line far to the east. After the expedition had failed, the commands of Marmaduke and Porter united east of Marshfield, and started to retreat into Arkansas.
At the Battle of Hartville, in Wright Country on January 11, 1863, a small Federal force was encountered and defeated, although at severe loss to the Confederates, who had many valuable officers killed and mortally wounded. Among the latter was Colonel Porter, commanding a brigade, shot from his horse with wounds to the leg from an artillery shell. In Oates's account, (118-119), Porter died an hour later. According to Mudd, however, Porter was shot from his horse with wounds to the leg and the hand while leading a charge; in this account, Porter managed to accompany the army on a difficult trek into Arkansas, arriving at Camp Sallado on January 20, and at Batesville January 25, where he died from his wounds on February 18, 1863. The early date is refuted by Porter's own report, dated February 3, referencing the journey after the battle, as well as eyewitness Major G.W.C. Bennett's reference to "Porter's column" on the march several days after and dozens of miles away from the battle, and finally by Marmaduke's noting Porter among the wounded, in contrast to the listing of officers killed; additional near-contemporary sources also affirm Porter's survival of the journey to Arkansas. The January 11 date seems to originate with General Fitz Henry Warren, who reported as fact the speculation that a burial observed by a recently paroled Lieutenant Brown was that of Porter.
The location of Col. Porter's grave remains unknown. Oral traditions suggest that he was at some point buried on the farm of his cousin Ezekiel Porter (said to be a volunteer ambulance driver during the war), just north of Hartville, in what is now known as Porter's Cemetery, near Competition, Missouri.
Legacy and evaluation
Porter is credited variously with five and nine children, only two of whom were living at the time of Mudd's book, his daughter, Mrs. O.M. White, and his son, Joseph I. Porter of Stuttgart, AR, who wrote: "I know but little about the war and have been trying to forget what I do know about it. I hope never to read a history of it."
Porter's daughter O. M. White wrote that the family did not have a picture of their father, "the only one we ever had was destroyed when our home was burned by the soldiers during the war."
Porter's character is hard to estimate: clearly he possessed considerable personal courage, but was also a prudent tactician, often declining battle when he could not choose his ground and when he thought the potential for casualties disproportionate to projected gains. Declining the option to pursue the retreating Union force at Santa Fe, Mudd has him say "I can't see that anything would be accomplished by pursuing the enemy. We might give them a drive and kill a dozen of them and we might lose a man or two, and I wouldn't give them one of my men for a dozen dead federals unless to gain some particular purpose."
A number of atrocities are attributed to him, but the partisanship of accounts makes it difficult to ascertain his responsibility for the killings of Dr. Aylward, Andrew Allsman, James Dye at Kirksville, a wounded Federal at Botts' Farm, and others, though it must be concluded that he failed to communicate the unacceptability of such actions to his subordinates. There is reliable eyewitness testimony to his intervening to prevent the lynching of two captured Federals in retaliation for the execution of a Confederate prisoner at the Battle of Florida.
References
Further reading
Oates, Stephen B., Confederate Cavalry West of the River: Raiding Federal Missouri, U-TX, 1961, rpt 1992.
House, Grant, "Colonel Joseph C. Porter's 1862 Campaign in Northeast Missouri." M.A. thesis. Western Illinois University, 1989.
Mudd, Joseph A., With Porter in North Missouri. Washington, DC: National Publishing Co., 1909. 452p.
Roth, Dave and Sallee, Scott E., "Porter's Campaign in Northeast Missouri and the Palmyra Massacre." Blue & Gray Magazine 17 (February 2000): 52–60. A tour of modern-day Northeast Missouri sites involved in Porter's campaign of 1862. Illus.
History of Shelby County, Chapter 8. (1884). Shelby County Historical Society.
The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate armies, Volume XXII, Part 1, pages 205-207 contain Porter's report. The header is: "HDQRS. PORTER'S BRIG., MISSOURI CAV., C. S. ARMY, Camp Allen, February 3, 1863."
People from Jessamine County, Kentucky
Confederate States Army officers
People of Missouri in the American Civil War
American guerrillas killed in action
Bushwhackers
Confederate States of America military personnel killed in the American Civil War
Missouri State Guard
1819 births
1863 deaths
People from Memphis, Missouri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20Alliance%20for%20Democracy
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People's Alliance for Democracy
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The People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD; ; commonly known as "Yellow Shirts") is a Thai reactionary, monarchist political movement and pressure group. It was originally a coalition of protesters against Thaksin Shinawatra, the former Prime Minister of Thailand.
Its leaders included media-mogul Sondhi Limthongkul and Major General Chamlong Srimuang. The PAD was a chief player in the political crisis of 2005–2006, the 2008 crisis, and the Cambodian–Thai border stand-off. Its membership consisted mainly of ultra-royalist middle-class and working-class Bangkok residents and anti-Thaksin Southerners, supported by some factions of the Thai Army, some leaders of Democrat Party, and the members of the state-enterprise labor unions.
People's Alliance for Democracy announced to end the political role on August 23, 2013.
Name
The movement is also called the National Liberation Alliance (กลุ่มพันธมิตรกู้ชาติ, Klum Phanthamit Ku Chat), the Thai Patriots Network, or more commonly the Yellow Shirts (, Suea Lueang).
General information
The PAD was formed to lead demonstrations against the government of Thaksin Shinawatra, whom they accused of being anti-monarchy. Two days after a military junta's 2006 military coup overthrew Thaksin's interim government (between elections), the PAD voluntarily dissolved after announcing its goals had been accomplished. The PAD re-established itself after Thaksin-affiliated parties, led by Samak Sundaravej's People's Power Party (PPP), won a plurality in the 2007 general election. In May 2008, PAD again began street protests and in August seized Government House to pressure Samak's coalition government to resign. PAD supporters also seized airports in Phuket, Krabi, and Hat Yai and blocked major roads and highways. Sympathetic state-enterprise labour unions assisted by stopping train services across the kingdom and threatened to shut off electricity and water services to non-PAD supporters. Armed PAD forces "Srivichai Warriors" seized a government television broadcaster as well as several government ministries. Violence between PAD supporters and anti-PAD protesters left dozens injured and one PAD protester dead. Wealthy PAD supporters threatened a bank run that could destabilize the Thai financial system if the Samak government did not resign.
PAD's protests escalated after the Constitutional Court found Samak guilty of violating a law which prohibits government ministers from receiving a salary from another job. PAD forces surrounded Parliament and used razor wire barricades to prevent the legislature from meeting to hear Samak's replacement, Thaksin's brother-in-law Somchai Wongsawat, formally announce his policies. Police used force to disperse the protesters, resulting in hundreds of serious injuries and the death of a young woman, all caused by the explosions of Chinese-made tear gas grenades, which the poorly trained police fired directly at the protesters. As a result, the PAD formally renounced non-violence and vowed bloody revenge. In November, the PAD blockaded Parliament prior to a crucial legislative session, used hijacked public buses to take control of the government's provisional offices at Don Mueang International Airport, and seized control of Suvarnabhumi International Airport. The PAD also threatened to lay siege to the seaports of the Eastern Seaboard. The PAD's sieges and protests ended after the Constitutional Court dissolved the PPP, banned its leaders from politics, and Army Commander Anuphong Phaochinda pressured many PPP MPs to defect to the Democrat Party and elect Abhisit Vejjajiva as Premier. PAD activist Kasit Piromya was appointed Foreign Minister in the new government.
The PAD called en masse for the resignations of Thaksin, Samak Sundaravej, and Somchai Wongsawat, whom the PAD accused of being proxies for Thaksin. Sondhi originally proposed Somchai as an acceptable alternative to Samak. However, when Somchai replaced Samak, the PAD refused to stop its protests, noting that Somchai is Thaksin's brother-in-law. At the height of the sieges, the PAD openly stated that the only person they would accept as premier was Abhisit. PAD leader Khamnoon Sitthisamarn called Abhisit's premiership a "genuine PAD victory" and a "Anuphong-style coup d'état".
Citing the claimed failure of popular democracy in Thailand, the PAD has suggested constitutional amendments that would make parliament a largely royally appointed body. It was strongly opposed to Thaksin's populist economic policies and attempts to decentralize political power. The Asian Human Rights Commission has noted of the PAD and their agenda that, "although they may not describe themselves as fascist, have fascist qualities." The PAD is largely composed of royalists, has regularly invoked king Bhumibol Adulyadej in its protests, and has claimed that its enemies are disloyal to the monarchy. It has openly called for the military and Thailand's traditional elite to take a greater role in politics. The PAD is fiercely anti-Cambodian, with PAD leader and Foreign Minister Kasit Piromya calling Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen a "gangster" or "tramp", "deranged", and speculated that he was a "slave" of Thaksin.
Origins and leadership
The People's Alliance for Democracy had its source in weekly public tapings of Sondhi Limthongkul's weekly political talk show 'Muang Thai Rai Sapda' (Thailand Weekly). Attendance grew after the talkshow was dropped by MCOT Channel 9 and Sondhi started webcasting the show on his website. As the tone grew more controversial, the tapings gradually turned into protests against the government. The PAD was formally established on February 8, 2006, after Thaksin's family sold shares in Shin Corp to Temasek Holdings. The PAD saw the transactions as a proof of a conflict of interest.
The central committee of the PAD consisted of:
Media mogul Sondhi Limthongkul
Major General Chamlong Srimuang, former governor of Bangkok, leader of the Palang Dharma Party, spokesman of the Confederation for Democracy (1992 oppositional movement)
Activist Phiphob Thongchai (Campaign for Popular Democracy)
State enterprise labor union leader Somsak Kosaisuuk, former spokesman of the Confederation for Democracy
University lecturer Somkiat Pongpaiboon, activist of the Assembly of the Poor
Besides the five leaders, ten others form the PAD management committee: Pitaya Wongkul, Rewadee Prasertcharoensuuk, Rosana Tositrakul, Chaiwat Sindhuwong, Preeda Tiasuwan, Sirichai Maingam, Suwit Watnuu, Kochawan Chaiyabut, Weerapol Sopa, Ouychai Wata.
Other leaders include famous entertainer Sarunyoo Wongkrachang and Campaign for Popular Democracy leader Suriyasai Katasila. Several current and former employees of Sondhi played a role, including Panthep Puapongbhant, Khamnoon Sitthisaman, Samran Rodpetch, Sarocha Pornudomsak, Anchalee Paireerak, Yuthayong Limlertwatee, and Torpong Sewatarm.
Supporters
PAD protesters initially consisted mostly of middle to upper-class residents of Bangkok. These included prominent socialites (dubbed the "Blue Blood Jet Set" by the Bangkok Post) and some little known minor members of the Thai royal family. The PAD's support base has since expanded to include civil servants, state enterprise labor unions, the urban middle-class of other cities, conservative Buddhist groups, Southerners and the so-called "elite". Except for the South, PAD has mainly urban support in contrast to Thaksin, whose base has been essentially rural.
Buddhist groups supporting the PAD include the Santi Asoke sect and their "Dharma Army" (led by Thaksin's former mentor Chamlong Srimuang).
General Pathompong Kesornsuk, a close aid of Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda, appeared in full uniform at PAD protests and urged his fellow soldiers to follow suit. The Army openly ignored government orders to evict the PAD from Government House, Don Muang Airport, and Suvarnabhumi Airport. Former Army Commander Anupong Paochinda publicly called for the government to resign several times, though he also asked the PAD to leave the airports.
The PAD dress in yellow, the royal color, and claim they are defending King Bhumibol Adulyadej and the monarchy against the alleged disloyalty of Thaksin. Bhumibol has remained completely neutral, though Queen Sirikit did attend the cremation of a young PAD woman killed by a police grenade at a protest and described her as a "good girl" and a "protector of the monarchy and the country". However, HRH Princess Sirindhorn, when asked at a US press conference if she thought the PAD was acting on behalf of the monarchy, replied: "I don't think so. They do things for themselves."
In the past, many PAD members received financial support from their leader, Sondhi Limthongkul.
Political Proposals
The PAD state they stand for honest politics, promoting justice and the rule of law, while fighting against corruption among politicians and civil servants. They also claim to be upholding the constitutional monarchy and oppose those they view as wanting to change the monarchy's status. Two days after the 2006 Thailand coup, the PAD voluntarily disbanded after announcing its goals had been accomplished.
"Representative democracy is not suitable for Thailand," commented Sondhi Limthongkul, claiming the electoral system has repeatedly elected corrupt, populist governments. To correct this, the PAD proposed what it called "New Politics" and on June 2, 2009 founded the New Politics Party. Although most of its leaders supported, and in some cases helped draft the post-coup 2007 Constitution, the PAD proposed constitutional amendments that would make 70% of MPs appointed, based on professional groups, with elections choosing only 30%. On 21 September, the PAD changed its formula to 100% elections, but with 50% of Parliament voted for by geographic area and the rest voted for by occupational representatives.
Nationalism
The PAD has been described as "hyper-nationalist" and is strongly opposed to what it claims are infringements upon the national sovereignty of Thailand.
It opposed the Samak government's decision to support the Cambodian government's unilateral application for the listing of Preah Vihear Temple as a World Heritage site, since land next to the temple is still in dispute. PAD charged the PPP-led cabinet with helping Thaksin Shinawatra to make large profits with Cambodia by using this agreement as an exchange. It also called for Thai investors to withdraw from Cambodia, the closure of all 40 Thai-Cambodian border checkpoints, a ban on all flights from Thailand to Phnom Penh and Siam Reap, the construction of a naval base at Koh Kut near the border, and abolishing the committee which oversees demarcation of overlapping sea areas and a unilateral declaration of a Thai marine map.
Government System Proposals
In contrast to Thaksin, who claimed he wanted to elevate Thailand to the developed world, Sondhi advocates an anti-materialistic, "reasonable society" with as little as possible consumer debt and little concern over "how many cars or washing machines" people own. The PAD favors limits on foreign investment, opposes privatization of state enterprises, and is generally skeptical of foreign investment. "Don't impose a free trade, consumer-oriented society on Thailand," noted Sondhi in an interview.
While Thaksin and Samak championed voters in rural areas and in the agricultural sector with their "dual-track" economic policies that combined populist policies such as universal healthcare with greater participation in the global economy, the PAD in contrast are hardline monetarists. They propose interest rate hikes to reduce public debt, and cutting down spending on populist welfare projects and "mega-projects".
Demand for royal intervention
Amid rising political tensions, Thaksin dissolved Parliament on 24 February 2006, just one year after being re-elected. He called for new House elections on 2 April. In March, the PAD requested the King intervene and remove Thaksin from power. The PAD claimed that royal intervention was the only possible peaceful answer to the political crisis. The King rejected the idea in a speech on April 26, saying: "Asking for a Royally appointed prime minister is undemocratic. It is, pardon me, a mess. It is irrational."
2008 Re-establishment
The People's Alliance for Democracy was re-established in Thailand on March 28, 2008 at Thammasat University auditorium. Several issues were raised by the PAD, including the Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej's ties to Thaksin Shinawatra, ties between some People's Power Party members and the banned-Thai Rak Thai party, alleged interference in the justice system, and attempts to amend the 2007 Constitution.
Among the changes proposed as constitutional amendments were the removal of Article 237, which necessitated the dissolution of a political party if one of the executives was involved in vote buying. Yongyuth Tiyapairat, People's Power Party executive who was also the Parliamentary president after the election, was being tried for vote buying. Yongyuth was later found guilty by the Supreme Court on July 8, 2008.
Several key persons involved in cases against Thaksin and the People's Power Party were removed from their posts for interfering with the justice system. This includes Sunai Manomai-udom, then Department of Special Investigation (DSI) director-general working in the case about Thaksin's asset concealment charges, Seripisut Temiyavet, then National Police chief who was installed by the coup but is well known for taking on mafias including those in the police, and Chaiwat Changkaokam, then the head of Tambon Chanchawa who was the key witness to Yongyuth Tiyapairat's alleged vote buying.
Demonstrations and street protests by PAD restarted on May 25, 2008 at Democracy Monument on Ratchadamnoen Road. The PAD supporters amassed to protest against the proposed constitutional amendments. The rally attracted ten thousand supporters. However pro-government supporters gathering nearby started attacking PAD protesters. The clash was the first between the two groups, and many were wounded on both sides. The plan was to march the supporters from Democracy Monument to the front of Government House.
However, the crowd was stopped by a large police barrier at Makkhawan Rangsan Bridge.
PAD settled at Makkhawan Rangsan Bridge and staged continuous rally there.
As the rally went on, the PAD announced their effort to collect signatures to request the removal of members of the House of Representatives and Senators who supported the amendment on May 30, 2008.
The next day Samak expressed on government-run NBT television channel his intention to dissolve the rally by force. In reaction to Samak's speech, the PAD issued announcements against the government's move.
Preah Vihear issue
PAD opposed Noppadon Pattama's move to allow Cambodia to singly apply Preah Vihear Temple as World Heritage Site.
As it lies near the Thai-Cambodia border with land surrounding the temple still under dispute, many scholars feared Thailand would lose sovereignty over the land surrounding the site and preferred the site to be listed jointly between Cambodia and Thailand. It is also claimed that the hidden motive behind them was to exchange for oil and gas concessions to Chevron.
Noppadon proceeded to sign the Thai-Cambodia Joint Communique on June 18, 2008. Thailand Administrative court issue injunction against the action on June 28
and them found the agreement to be unconstitutional on July 8, 2008.
However, UNESCO awarded World Heritage Site to Cambodia later on the same day.
Moving the PAD stage
On June 20, 2008 PAD and supporters made through police blockades and successfully gathered in front of Government House, an effort to pressure the government to resign.
Both police and PAD declared victory as violence was avoided. However, the Prime Minister was not pleased.
The new PAD stage blocked Phitsanulok and Rama V roads, causing inconvenience to schools in the area. Other problems include loud speaker noise. Teachers and parents of Ratchawinit Secondary School filed lawsuit against PAD, which PAD appealed and lost. PAD moved its stage back to Makkhawan Rangsan Bridge on July 8.
Siege of Government House
Samak Sundaravej's government was in difficulty on 10 July 2008, after Pattama, the third top official in the ruling People Power Party (PPP), resigned from his post. The deputy leader of the party Yongyut Tiyapairat was also banned from politics for 5 years, and Chiya Sasomsub was removed for illegally concealing his wife's assets. The Constitutional Court had already ruled that the entire cabinet violated the charter, and the Opposition filed a petition to impeach Noppadon Pattama. Even though the demands for Samak resignation were abundant, he remarked, "I will never resign in response to these threats. I will not dissolve the House. I will meet the king today to report what's going on." Later Samak met with King Bhumibol Adulyadej at Hua Hin palace.
A few days after, 30,000 protesters led by the People's Alliance for Democracy occupied Samak's Government House compound in central Bangkok so as to force him and his advisers to work out of a military command post. Thai riot police entered the occupied compound and delivered a court order for the eviction of protesters, but was instead abused. Chamlong Srimuang ordered 45 PAD guards to break into the main government building on Saturday. 3 regional airports remain closed and 35 trains between Bangkok and the provinces were canceled. Protesters raided the Phuket International Airport tarmac on the resort island of Phuket Province resulting to 118 flights canceled or diverted, affecting 15,000 passengers.
Widespread protests
Protesters also blocked the entrance of the airports in Krabi and Hat Yai. Police issued arrest warrants for Sondhi Limthongkul and 8 other protest leaders on charges of insurrection, conspiracy, unlawful assembly and refusing orders to disperse. Meanwhile, Gen. Anupong Paochinda stated: "The army will not stage a coup. The political crisis should be resolved by political means." Samak and the Thai Party ruling coalition called urgent parliamentary debate and session for August 31.
Clash between PAD and Anti-PAD
On 31 August, Metropolitan Police chief Pol Lt Gen Asawin Kwanmuang was transferred to an inactive position. He had been in charge of handling the PAD and favored a soft approach to avoid bloodshed. The protests were then assigned to deputy police chief Pol Gen Jongrak Juthanont. PAD spokesmen expressed fear that this would lead to violence by the police against PAD.
Government House as a protest site
Government House and the area around it became an open-air market during the months-long protest and seizure. The PAD put up posters with photos of a woman their security forces claimed was a prostitute because they found condoms in her purse. Mounds of garbage piled up in Government House, clothes were left to dry on the lawn, and the lack of sanitary facilities caused a stench to envelop the compound. A Khao Sod journalist claimed glass pipes that can be used for smoking methamphetamine (commonly known as "ICE") being sold near the protest site. The journalist noted that the stalls selling the pipes were attracting many potential buyers and that several people tried them out before making their purchase.
Arrest
On October 5 and 4, 2008, Chamlong Srimuang and rally organiser, Chaiwat Sinsuwongse were detained by the Thai police led by Col. Sarathon Pradit, by virtue of August 27 arrest warrant for insurrection, conspiracy, illegal assembly and refusing orders to disperse (treason) against him and 8 other protest leaders. At the Government House, Sondhi Limthongkul, however, stated demonstrations would continue: "I am warning you, the government and police, that you are putting fuel on the fire. Once you arrest me, thousands of people will tear you apart." Srimuang's wife, Ying Siriluck, visited him at the Border Patrol Police Region 1, Pathum Thani. Other PAD members still wanted by police include Sondhi, activist MP Somkiat Pongpaibul and PAD leaders Somsak Kosaisuk and Pibhop Dhongchai.
Closing off Parliament
In early October, PAD leader Chamlong Srimuang left the protest site to vote in the Bangkok governor elections. He was arrested by police after he left the voting booth and did not request bail. Fellow PAD leader Pallop Pinmanee noted that Chamlong intended to be arrested in order to increase attendance at the PAD's protests.
Thousands of PAD forces soon surrounded Parliament to prevent the Somchai government from announcing its policies to the legislature within 15 days of swearing in, as mandated by the Constitution. A police loudspeaker lorry ordered protesters to disperse and warned that teargas would be fired. At 6.00 am, 7 October 2008, police at Ratchawithi Road and Pichai Road shot a barrage of teargas grenades. Police clashed with protesters. Many were injured on both sides. Police made no effort to negotiate with the anti-government protesters. Eventually the doors to Parliament could be opened for the attending legislators. PAD forces later regrouped around Parliament and again blocked the gates. After the government had made its policy statement to the legislature, police again clashed with PAD forces so that the legislators could leave the building. Clashes continued into the night.
Several protesters lost hands and legs, although at first it was not clear if these injuries were caused by tear gas canisters or the 'ping-pong' bombs which are explosives housed in ping-pong sized plastic balls. Director of the Central Institute of Forensic Science Pornthip Rojanasunand used the GT200 explosive detection device to try to identify explosive residue on the protesters; not finding any, she concluded that faulty Chinese-made tear gas grenades had caused the injuries. A PAD protester, Miss Angkhana Radappanyawut, was killed. Dr.Pornthip stated unequivocally that her death was caused by the explosion of a tear gas canister directly striking the victim's body. She also stated that there was no need to conduct further investigations into the death and injuries of protesters because it was clear they were caused by police weapons.
Afterwards, doctors from many major hospitals issued a statement, calling the counterattack by the Prime Minister and police unnecessary "brutality", and refusing to provide medical care to the police. The doctors claimed that many field rescue workers, including doctors and nurses, had also been attacked, and some were wounded. Doctor Suthep Kolcharnwit of the Chulalongkorn University Faculty of Medicine, with several doctors from Chulalongkorn Hospital, also refused to provide medical care to policemen injured in the clash, and urged doctors of other hospitals to boycott the police as well, though his actions were later disowned by the hospital and a case against him was filed with the Medical Council's ethics committee.
PAD vowed to file charges against the government and police.
On 8 October, Queen Sirikit attended the cremation of one of the young PAD woman who had been killed.
Seizure of Suvarnabhumi International Airport
Seizing the airport
On the evening of Tuesday 25 November 2008, the PAD executed what they called "Operation Hiroshima." A convoy of hundreds of PAD members dressed in yellow blocked the two ends of the road in front of the terminal building of Suvarnabhumi International Airport and blockaded the main road to the airport. The airport is Bangkok's main airport and an important regional hub. PAD forces quickly overpowered hundreds of policemen armed with riot gear. PAD leaders mounted a mobile stage and proceeded to criticize the government. All Suvarnabhumi flights were soon canceled, leaving thousands of travelers stranded in the airport.
The government called on the Royal Thai Army to restore order at the airport. The Army did not follow the orders. In a press conference on 26 November, Army Commander General Anupong Paochinda proposed that the PAD withdraw from the airport and that the government resign. He also proposed that if the PAD did not comply, that they be subject to "social sanctions", whereas if the government did not comply, that the bureaucracy stop implementing government orders. A written copy of the proposal was sent to the government. Neither the PAD nor the government complied with the proposal.
At 4:30 AM on the morning of 26 November, three explosions were heard on the fourth floor of Suvarnbumi on the outside of the passenger terminal. Another explosion was reported at 6 AM. Several people were injured. It was not clear who set off the explosions. The PAD did not allow the police or forensics experts to investigate the explosions.
The PAD became the de facto authority over the airport and the airplanes within it. Airports of Thailand, which planned to use U-Tapao military airbase outside of Bangkok as a replacement for Suvarnabhumi, pleaded with PAD leadership to release nearly a hundred empty aircraft from Suvarnabhumi.
Attempts to evict the PAD
Also on 26 November, the Civil Court issued an injunction ordering the PAD to leave the Suvarnabhumi International Airport immediately. Notices of the injunction were placed on the front doors of the houses of the 13 PAD leaders. The PAD did not comply with the injunction.
On the evening of 27 November, the government declared a state of emergency around the two occupied airports and ordered police to clear out PAD forces. The state of emergency allowed the military to ban public gatherings of more than five people. The Navy was assigned to aid police at Suvarnabhumi, while the Air Force was assigned to aid police at Don Muang. The Army's spokesman noted, "The army disagrees with using troops to resolve the problem. The army does not want to do that, and it is not appropriate to do that."
The PAD was defiant. PAD leader Suriyasai Katasila announced that the PAD would fight off police. "If the government wants to clear the protesters, let it try. The PAD will protect all locations because we are using our rights to demonstrate peacefully without causing damages to state properties or rioting," Suriyasai said. Suriyasai also threatened to use human shields if police attempted to disperse the PAD. Human shields of 300-400 women were assigned to physically surround each PAD leader. Foreign journalists reported that the PAD was paying people to join them at the airport, with extra payment being given to parents bringing babies and children.
On the morning of 28 November, PAD leader Chamlong Srimuang announced to PAD forces that he had received a call from an unspecified "senior person" (ผู้ใหญ่ท่านหนึ่ง) telling him to end the rallies. But he refused to do what the senior person told him. "For the past 108 days, the Alliance has protested together under hardship, while another group of people has remained in comfort. They can't just suddenly ask us to stop protesting," he told the assembled forces. Addressing supporters on ASTV, Sondhi said, "If we have to die today, I am willing to die. This is a fight for dignity."
Police manned checkpoints on roads leading to the airport. At one checkpoint, police found 15 home-made guns, an axe and other weapons in a Dharma Army six-wheel truck taking 20 protesters to Suvarnabhumi airport. Another checkpoint found an Uzi submachine gun, homemade guns, ammunition, sling shots, bullet-proof vests and metal rods. The vehicle had the universally recognised Red Cross signs on its exterior to give the impression it was being used for medical emergencies. At another checkpoint, about 2 kilometers from the airport, was attacked by armed PAD forces in vehicles, causing the police to withdraw. Police Senior Sgt Maj Sompop Nathee, an officer from the Border Patrol Police Region 1, later returned to the scene of the clash and was detained by PAD forces. He was interrogated by Samran Rodphet, a PAD leader, and then detained inside the airport. Reporters and photographers tried to follow Sompop to his interrogation, but PAD forces did not allow them. PAD supporters were moved from Government House to the airport.
The airport remained closed due to the PAD seizure as of 2 December. With the exception of one airplane leaving for the Hajj, no flights were allowed. The PAD has been apologetic to inconvenienced foreigners in the airports and offered them food.
End of the siege
Shortly after the Constitutional Court dissolved the three parties of the government coalition on 2 December 2008, the PAD held a press conference where they announced that they were ending all of their protests as of 10 AM on 3 December 2008. "We have won a victory and achieved our aims," said Sondhi Limthongkul.
Views on the siege
Democrat Party MP for Sukhothai, Samphan Benchaphon, said of the airport seizure that the PAD "have the right to do it." Democrat Party MP for Bangkok, Thawil Praison, said that the PAD "could seize the airport and doing so is not excessive. The entire world understands that this is a normal matter in the struggle of democratic countries."
The governments of China, France, Italy, Germany, New Zealand, Singapore, Britain, the United States, Australia and Japan warned their citizens to avoid Thailand and steer clear of protesters at the airport.
The European Union urged the protesters to peacefully leave the airports. EU ambassadors to Thailand write in a joint statement that the demonstrators are hurting Thailand's image and economy, continuing "While respecting the right of protesting and without interfering in any way with the internal political debate in Thailand, the EU considers that these actions are totally inappropriate".
US State Department spokesman Gordon Duguid said that occupying the airports was "not an appropriate means of protest" and that the PAD should "walk away from the airports peacefully."
Closure of Bangkok Don Muang Airport
On the night of 26 November 2008, the services at the Don Mueang Airport were stopped after the People's Alliance for Democracy seized control of the domestic passenger terminal.
A bomb exploded near a bunker made of tyres near the main entrance to the passenger terminal at Don Muang Airport at 3:55 AM on 30 November. Before the explosion occurred, about 7 gunshots were heard from the direction of a warehouse deeper inside the airport compound. No one was injured in the explosion. It was not clear who or what set the bomb off.
A plainclothes policewoman at the airport was identified and captured by PAD security forces and forced onto the main PAD stage inside the airport. Angry PAD protesters threw water at her and many tried to hit her. She was eventually allowed to leave the airport.
Flights from Don Mueang Airport began again on 5 December.
2009 unrest
Pattaya
In March 2009, Thaksin Shinawatra claimed via video broadcast that Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda masterminded the 2006 military coup, and that Prem and fellow Privy Councilor members Surayud Chulanont and Chanchai Likhitjittha conspired with the military and PAD to ensure that Abhisit became Premier. Although Abhisit denied the accusations, thousands protested in Bangkok early April demanding that Abhisit resign from the Premiership and that Prem, Surayud, and Chanchai resign from the Privy Council.
The protests, led by the red-shirted National United Front of Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) expanded to Pattaya, causing the Fourth East Asia Summit to be canceled and a state of emergency to be declared in the region. The PAD issued a statement demanding that Abhisit dismiss Deputy Prime Minister in charge of security Suthep Thaugsuban, Defence Minister Gen. Prawit Wongsuwan, and Thailand's army, navy and police chiefs immediately for failed to contain the UDD protesters. PAD leader Chamlong Srimuang told a press conference that if the government could not help the country, the PAD would "come out."
Bangkok
As the week-long Songkran (Thai New Year) holiday began, protests escalated in Bangkok. Fighting erupted between anti-government protesters, PAD members, and the general population. At a demonstration in front of Prem's residence, a PAD supporter plunged her car into a crowd of UDD protesters before driving away. Abhisit declared a state of emergency for Bangkok and surrounding areas and denounced the anti-government protesters as "national enemies".
In a pre-dawn raid on Monday April 13, Thai soldiers in full combat kit fired live rounds and training rounds from automatic weapons to clear protesters from the Din Daeng intersection near the Victory Monument in central Bangkok, injuring at least 70 people. Violent clashes at numerous locations in Bangkok continued while arrest warrants were issued for Thaksin and 13 protest leaders. Surrounded by the military, many protest leaders eventually gave in to police on 14 April 2009, ending the violence.
Shooting of Sondhi Limthongkul
Days after the Bangkok unrest was quelled by military forces, gunmen ambushed Sondhi's car at a petrol station, shot out the tires, and fired over 100 M-16 and AK-47 assault rifle rounds at the car. Sondhi suffered one wound to the head and was conscious, standing, and lucid before being sent to the hospital for surgery. Sondhi survived the surgery and was visited by relatives afterwards. It was not clear who ordered the shooting, although the PAD's spokesman speculated that a faction of the military or police could have been behind it.
2005-2009 media
2005–2006
The PAD is supported by the Sondhi Limthongkul-owned Manager Media Group, including Manager Daily newspaper and the ASTV satellite television channel. Sondhi had originally co-hosted a political talk show called Muangthai Raisabdah on MCOT's Channel 9. Sondhi's pro-Thaksin views (in a 23 September 2003 broadcast, he noted that Thaksin was "the best prime minister our country has ever had.") started changing in 2004 after the government fired Sondhi's banker, Viroj Nualkhair, from Krung Thai Bank for incurring too many bad debts. In September 2005, Sondhi allegedly made repeated disrespectful on-air references to King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Among these references was a claim that the government's 2004 appointment of Somdet Phra Buddhacharya as acting Supreme Patriarch of Thailand in place of the critically ill Somdet Phra Yanasangworn contravened the prerogative of the King. After discussions with King's principal private secretary, Arsa Sarasin, MCOT executives cancelled the program. Sondhi took his increasingly anti-Thaksin talkshow on the road, broadcasting via satellite (through his NEWS1 ASTV channel based out of Hong Kong) and webcasting via the website of his Manager Daily newspaper. Talkshow sites, including Sanam Luang and the King Rama V equestrian statue, became magnets for the PAD crowds.
After the 2006 military coup, the military junta ordered broadcaster MCOT to cover weekly tapings of Muangthai Raisabdah. Sondhi was also given a slot on the junta-run National Broadcasting Service of Thailand's Channel 11 where he hosted Yam Fao Paendin, a pro-junta, anti-Thaksin talkshow which made accusations of excessive government spending at Suvarnabhumi Airport.
2008
During the 2008 political crisis, armed masked PAD forces broke into the government-owned National Broadcasting Service of Thailand and seized control of the television station. The television broadcast of the morning news program briefly showed pictures of PAD forces breaking into the gates of the station before blacking out for several hours. NBT employees were threatened with violence and forced out of the station. Police eventually regained control of the building and arrested 80 of the raiders, seizing guns, knives, golf clubs, and drugs. The raiders were charged with causing damage to public property and illegal possession of weapons and drugs. Later in the same day, hundreds of hundreds of PAD members, led by Amorn Amornrattananon, again seized the NBST station. Police eventually regained control of the station. The Southeast Asian Press Alliance and the Thai Journalists Association condemned what it called the "mob attack" on the station, and noted that the unjustifiable and went against the principles of democracy, free flow of information, and fair play that the PAD themselves have claimed to justify their illegal act.
Journalists at PAD-controlled Government House reported that they were intimidated, pelted with water bottles, and attacked with a metal pipe. The Nation a journalist reported that PAD leaders incited hostility towards outsiders, particularly journalists. Channel 9 news crew were attacked after the PAD claimed their news reporting was biased toward government. The PAD limited media access to Government House claiming that the media might be undercover policemen or anti-PAD groups in disguise.
A photographer from the Thai-language newspaper Thai Rath was attacked by PAD security forces after he took photos of them beating a man at Don Muang airport. PAD security forces also stopped reporters and photographers from covering the detention capture of Sompop Nathee, a captured policeman, at Suvarnabhumi airport.
A TNN television truck was repeatedly shot at by PAD security forces while lost in PAD-controlled Don Muang airport. Phanumart Jaihork, a TNN relay controller, said his truck came under heavy gunfire even though it carried the logos of the company and TV station on its sides and a microwave transmitter in its bed.
After 2009 protests
On June the second 2009, the PAD formed a political party called New Politics Party or NPP. This party split into two factions in 2011. It holds no seats in the parliament.
Many important PAD leaders have been involved in the 2013-14 protests against the government of Thaksin's sister, Yingluck Shinawatra. The group renamed itself the "People's Movement to Overthrow the Thaksin Regime" () and is a key member of the People's Democratic Reform Committee (PDRC). Leaders Sondhi Limthongkul, Chamlong Srimuang and others were indicted on December 27, 2012 for storming the prime minister's office compound and sealing off Parliament during the massive anti-government rallies in 2008.
See also
2010 Thai political protests
Politics of Thailand
Sale of Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings
April 2006 Thai general election
October 2006 Thai general election
References
Literature
External links
Manager Online (website of a news group close to the PAD)
People's Alliance for Democracy - Personal Blog
AntiThaksin - People's Alliance for Democracy
Political advocacy groups in Thailand
Political history of Thailand
2005 establishments in Thailand
Far-right politics in Thailand
Fascism in Thailand
Network monarchy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta%20Vaux%20Warrick%20Fuller
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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller
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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller ( ; born Meta Vaux Warrick; June 9, 1877 – March 13, 1968) was an African-American artist who celebrated Afrocentric themes. At the fore of the Harlem Renaissance, Warrick was known for being a poet, painter, theater designer, and sculptor of the black American experience. At the turn of the 20th century, she achieved a reputation as the first black woman sculptor and was a well-known sculptor in Paris before returning to the United States. Warrick was a protégée of Auguste Rodin, and has been described as "one of the most imaginative Black artists of her generation." Through adopting a horror-based figural style and choosing to depict events of racial injustice, like the lynching of Mary Turner, Warrick used her platform to address the societal traumas of African Americans.
Early life
Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on June 9, 1877. Her parents were Emma (née Jones) Warrick, an accomplished wig maker and beautician for upperclass white women, and William H. Warrick, a successful barber and caterer. Her father owned several barber shops and her mother owned her own beauty salon. Warrick was, in fact, named after Meta Vaux, the daughter of Senator Richard Vaux, one of her mother's customers. Her maternal grandfather, Henry Jones, was a successful caterer in the city. Both of her parents were considered to have influential positions in African-American society.
Her family's class status was a special privilege that was afforded to them through their talent and their location. After an influx of free blacks began making a home in Philadelphia, the available jobs were generally physically hard and low-paying. Only a few people were able to find desirable jobs as ministers, physicians, barbers, teachers, and caterers. During the Reconstruction, due to racism, legalized racial segregation laws, including Jim Crow laws limited social progress of African Americans into the 20th century. Despite this, Warrick's parents were able to find creative success amongst the "vibrant political, cultural, and economic center" the African-American community of Philadelphia had established.
Due to her parents' success, she was given access to various cultural and educational opportunities. Warrick trained in art, music, dance and horseback riding. Warrick's art education and art influences began at home, nurtured from childhood by her older sister Blanche, who studied art, and visits to Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts with her father, who was interested in sculpture and painting. Her older sister, who later became a beautician like their mother, kept clay that Meta was able to use to create art. She was enrolled in 1893 in the Girls' High School in Philadelphia, where she studied art as well as academic courses. Warrick was among the few gifted artists selected from the Philadelphia public schools to study art and design at J. Liberty Tadd's art program at the Philadelphia School of Industrial Art in the early 1890s.
Her brother and grandfather entertained and fascinated her with endless horror stories. These influences partly shaped her sculpture, as she eventually developed as an internationally trained artist known as "the sculptor of horrors."
Marriage and family
In 1907, Warrick married Dr. Solomon Carter Fuller, a prominent physician and psychiatrist, known for his work with Alzheimer's disease. Born in Liberia, Dr. Fuller was one of the first black psychiatrists in the United States. The couple settled on Warren Road in Framingham, Massachusetts where they were one of the first black families to join the community. She continued to create works of art, against the stigma that she should settle down and become a housewife once she and her husband had three children one of which, her son Perry, went on to become a sculptor as well. Prominent African-American people visited their house, as did the Prince of Siam. Within the community, Warrick Fuller helped establish and was involved in the lighting of productions put on by the Framingham Dramatic Society. She was an active member of the St. Andrew's Episcopal Church where she directed and costumed their plays and pageants.
After the fire in 1910, Warrick Fuller built a studio in the back of her house, something which her husband strongly opposed. Between domestic duties, she found herself inspired by her religion and began to sculpt traditional biblical scenes. Warrick believed making art was her divine calling so her being cast out didn't discourage her reignited motivation to create.
Dr. Fuller died in 1953. Warrick Fuller died on March 13, 1968, at Cardinal Cushing Hospital in Framingham, Massachusetts.
Education
Warrick's career as an artist began after one of her high-school projects was chosen to be included in the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Based upon this work, she won a four-year scholarship to the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art (now The University of the Arts College of Art and Design) in 1894, where her gift for sculpture emerged. In an act of independence and nonconformity as an up-and-coming woman artist, Warrick defied traditionally "feminine" themes by sculpting pieces influenced by the gruesome imagery found in the fin de siècle movement of the Symbolist era. At various times, she was a literary sculptor, at others a creator of portrait art - which she studied under Charles Grafly at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Although she said that she could not specialize in African-American types, Fuller became one of the most effective chroniclers of the black experience within the United States. In 1898, she received her Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art diploma and teacher's certificate as well as a scholarship for an additional year of study.
Upon graduation in 1899, Warrick traveled to Paris, France, where she studied with Raphaël Collin, working on sculpture and anatomy at the Académie Colarossi and drawing at the École des Beaux-Arts. Warrick had to deal with racial discrimination at the American Women's Club, where she was refused lodging although she had made reservations before arriving in the city. African-American painter Henry Ossawa Tanner, a family friend, found lodging for her and gave her community amongst his group of friends.
Warrick's work grew stronger in Paris, where she studied until 1902. Influenced by the conceptual realism of Auguste Rodin, she became so adept at depicting the spirituality of human suffering that the French press named her "the delicate sculptor of horrors." In 1902, she became the protege of Rodin. Of her plaster sketch entitled Man Eating His Heart, Rodin remarked, "My child, you are a sculptor; you have the sense of form in your fingers."
Career
Warrick created works of the African-American experience that were revolutionary. They touched on the complexities of nature, religion, identity, and nation. She is considered part of the Harlem Renaissance, a flourishing in New York of African Americans making art of various genres, literature, plays and poetry. The Danforth Museum, which received a $40,000 grant from the Henry Luce Foundation to safeguard Warrick Fuller's work, states that Fuller is "generally considered one of the first African-American female sculptors of importance."
Paris
In Paris, she met American sociologist W. E. B. DuBois, who became a lifelong friend and confidant. He encouraged Warrick to draw from African and African-American themes in her work. She met French sculptor Auguste Rodin, who encouraged her sculpting. Her real mentor was Henry Ossawa Tanner while learning from Raphaël Collin. It was the "masculinity and primitive power" of her sculptures that drew the French crowds to her work and generated her acclaim. The Paris crowd was astonished that a woman could produce works that depicted such "horror, pain, and sorrow." It was a relief for Warrick that her gender wasn't an inhibitor of how the public reacted to her racially themed pieces, as it would be in the United States. By the end of her time in Paris, she was widely known and had had her works exhibited in many galleries.
Samuel Bing, patron of Aubrey Beardsley, Mary Cassatt, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, recognized her abilities by sponsoring a one-woman exhibition including Siegfried Bing's Salon de l'Art Nouveau (Maison de l'Art Nouveau). In 1903, just before Warrick returned to the United States, two of her works, The Wretched and The Impenitent Thief, were exhibited at the Paris Salon.
United States
Returning to Philadelphia in 1903, Warrick was shunned by members of the Philadelphia art scene because of her race and because her art was considered "domestic." However, Fuller became the first African-American woman to receive a U.S. government commission. For this award, she created a series of tableaux depicting African-American historical events for the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition, held in Norfolk, Virginia in 1907. The display included fourteen dioramas and 130 painted plaster figures depicting scenes such as slaves arriving in Virginia in 1619 and the home lives of black peoples.
Mary Turner was her response to the 1918 lynching of a young, pregnant black woman in Lowndes County, Georgia. Fuller's contemporary, Angelina Weld Grimké, wrote the short story "Goldie" based on this murder. Warrick's activism also spanned into feminist work. She participated in the Women's Peace Party and the Equal Suffrage Movement, but abruptly stopped once she realized that black women were not included in the fight for equal voting rights. She often sold pieces to fund voter registration campaigns in the South.
Warrick exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia in 1906. She exhibited there again in 1908. In 1910, a fire at a warehouse in Philadelphia, where she kept tools and stored numerous paintings and sculptures, destroyed her belongings; she lost 16 years' worth of work. Among her oeuvre, only a few early works stored elsewhere were preserved. The losses were emotionally devastating for her.
Exhibitions
1907 Jamestown Tercentennial
In February 1907, Warrick secured a contract to create 14 dioramas depicting the African-American experience. At the time, it was described as the "Historic Tableaux of the Negroes' Progress." Historian W. Fitzhugh Brundage has described Fuller's tableaux as one that suggested "the expansiveness of black abilities, aspirations and experiences, [presenting] a cogent alternative to white representations of history." Warrick's tableaux were given prominent display in the Negro Building at the Jamestown Tercentennial, where they occupied 15,000 square feet. Each scene consisted of painted plaster figures and extensive painted backdrops. The 14 tableaux depicted the following: the landing of the first slaves at Jamestown; slaves at work in a cotton field; a fugitive slave in hiding; a gathering of the first African Methodist Episcopal Church; a slave defending his owner's home during the Civil War; newly freed slaves building their own home; an independent black farmer, builder and contractor; a black businessman and banker; scenes inside a modern African-American home, church and school; and finally, a college commencement. For her work on the tableaux, Warrick was awarded a gold medal by the directors of the exposition.
Ethiopia and beyond
Fuller exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in 1920. She created one of her most famous works,
Ethiopia (also known as Ethiopia Awakening), for America's Making Exhibition in 1921. This event was meant to highlight immigrants' contributions to US artistic society and culture. This sculpture was featured in the exhibition's "colored section," and it symbolized a new black identity that was emerging through the Harlem Renaissance. It represented the pride of African Americans in African and black heritage and identity. Ethiopia, drawn from Egyptian sculptural concepts, is an academic sculpture of an African woman emerging from a mummy's wrappings, like a chrysalis from a cocoon, represented her statement on black consciousness globally. Fuller made multiple versions of Ethiopia, including a small maquette with the figure's left hand projecting from its body (now lost) and two full-size bronze casts, one with the left hand projecting and a second made incorrectly, with the left hand flush to the figure's side.
In 1922, Fuller showed her sculpture work at the Boston Public Library. Her work was included in an exhibition for the Tanner League, held in the studios of Dunbar High School in Washington, D.C. The federal commissions kept her employed, but she did not receive as much encouragement in the US as she had in Paris. Fuller continued to exhibit her work until her last show (1961) at Howard University (Washington, D.C.) in 1961.
Poetry
Her poem "Departure" was included in the 1991 collection Now is Your Time! The African-American Struggle for Freedom.
The time is near (reluctance laid aside)
I see the barque afloat upon the ebbing tide
While on the shores my friends and loved ones stand.
I wave to them a cheerful parting hand,
Then take my place with Charon at the helm,
And turn and wave again to them.
Oh, may the voyage not be arduous nor long,
But echoing with chant and joyful song,
May I behold with reverence and grace,
The wondrous vision of the Master's face.
Theater
Warrick Fuller made significant contributions to theater. She was a multi-faceted designer, director, and actress. One of her focuses was stage lighting, which was not considered a true art form until the late 1920s; moreover, lighting design was dominated by men. Fuller was able to design for both African-American and white theater companies, which was unheard of at the time. In 1918, she joined theater organizations in Boston, Massachusetts. She was known for her paintings of "living pictures" as well as the creation of props, scenery, and masks. The Answer was an African-American stage production where Fuller designed costumes while also performing a small role. She became active in the Civic League Players (CLS) in the late 1920s and was the only African-American in the organization. With the CLS, Fuller worked on over thirty shows in all different areas of production and taught workshops. In 1928, she was taking theater classes at Wellesley College and Columbia University that focused on pageantry, lighting, and playwriting. After becoming less active in the CLS, Fuller joined a Black theater company called the Allied Arts Theatre Group (AATG) where she worked as a head designer, director, and board member. She was involved with the AATG until the founder's death in 1936. Even with her commitments of being an artist and working in theater, Fuller wrote at least six plays under the pseudonym, Danny Deaver. The following is an excerpt of stage directions in her production titled, A Call After Midnight:"On the long hall table is a lamp, which the characters snap on and off, as they stop to look for mail, which is left in a receptacle for that purpose. The wall lights of the room are controlled by a switch at right of entrance, but these are of dull amber, the candle variety, the light is never bright."
Legacy
Warrick Fuller's work has received new interest since the late 20th century. Her work was featured in 1988 in a traveling exhibition at the Crocker Art Museum, along with artists Aaron Douglas, Palmer C. Hayden and James Van Der Zee. Her work was also featured in a traveling exhibition called Three Generations of African American Women Sculptors: A Study in Paradox, in Georgia in 1998.
The Danforth Museum has a large collection of Fuller's sculptures, including many unfinished works from her home studio. Many were exhibited in a solo retrospective show of her work from November 2008 to May 2009.
Fuller's work was included in the 2015 exhibition We Speak: Black Artists in Philadelphia, 1920s-1970s at the Woodmere Art Museum.
Works
Bacchante, painted plaster sculpture, 1930
Emancipation, in plaster, 1913; in bronze, 1999. Featured on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
Ethiopia, small maquette cast in plaster and painted to resemble bronze, c. 1921, 13 × 3 1/2 × 3 7/8 in., National Museum of African American History and Culture.
Ethiopia Awakening, bronze sculpture, greenish-black patina, with hand incorrectly placed flush with the figure's side, , 67 x 16 x 20 in., Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library.
Henry Gilbert, painted plaster sculpture, 1928
Jason, painted plaster sculpture, Danfort Museum
La petite danseuse, bronze sculpture, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Les Miserables, bronze sculpture, Maryhill Museum of Art, Goldendale, Washington
Lazy Bones in the Shade, sculpture,
Man Eating Out His Heart, painted plaster sculpture, 1905–1906. It represents a kneeling male nude eating his heart.
Mary Turner (A Silent Protest Against Mob Violence), painted plaster sculpture, 1919, Museum of Afro-American History, Boston, Massachusetts
Mother and Child, cast bronze sculpture, 1962, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Peace Halting the Ruthlessness of War, c.1917, renamed and unveiled as "Ravages of War" on October 15, 1999, at West Virginia State College
Phyllis Wheatley (c. 1753-1784), painted plaster sculpture, . It was made based upon an engraving published in 1773
Refugee, sculpture, . Hunched male figure with a cane in his hand
Talking Skull, bronze sculpture, 1937, Museum of Afro-American History, Boston, Massachusetts. Kneeling male figure facing a skull
The Good Shepherd, painted plaster sculpture,
Waterboy, sculpture, 1930
See also
Lois Mailou Jones
Sargent Claude Johnson
Jacob Lawrence
Archibald Motley
Romare Bearden
Notes
References
Bibliography
Ater, Renée. Remaking Race and History: The Sculpture of Meta Warrick Fuller. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2011.
Driskell, David C. et al. Harlem Renaissance: Art of Black America, New York, 1994.
Igoe, Lynn Moody with James Igoe, 250 years of Afro-American Art: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Bowker, 1981.
An Independent Woman: The Life and Art of Meta Warrick Fuller (1877-1968). Framingham, MA: Danforth Museum of Art. 1984. Exhibition catalogue.
Kerr, N. God-Given Work: The Life and Times of Sculptor Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, 1877-1968, Amherst, 1987.
King-Hammond, L. et al. 3 Generations of African American Women Sculptors: A Study in Paradox, Philadelphia, 1996.
Powell, Richard J. and David A. Bailey. Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance, 1997.
Schneider, Erika. (2022). “Asserting Agency: Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller’s Scrapbook,” ' Panorama: Journal of the Association of Historians of American Art 8 (2). https://doi.org/10.24926/24716839.15090
External links
"Meta Warrick Fuller" Unladylike2020.
1877 births
1968 deaths
Artists from Philadelphia
University of the Arts (Philadelphia) alumni
Académie Colarossi alumni
American women poets
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
African-American poets
Harlem Renaissance
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American women artists
African-American sculptors
Sculptors from Pennsylvania
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American artists
African-American women writers
20th-century American women sculptors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20S.%20Duncanson
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Robert S. Duncanson
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Robert Seldon Duncanson (1821 – December 21, 1872) was a 19th-century American landscapist of European and African ancestry. Inspired by famous American landscape artists like Thomas Cole, Duncanson created renowned landscape paintings and is considered a second generation Hudson River School artist. Duncanson spent the majority of his career in Cincinnati, Ohio and helped develop the Ohio River Valley landscape tradition. As a free black man in antebellum America, Duncanson engaged the abolitionist community in America and England to support and promote his work. Duncanson is considered the first African-American artist to be internationally known. He operated in the cultural circles of Cincinnati, Detroit, Montreal, and London. The primary art historical debate centered on Duncanson concerns the role that contemporary racial issues played in his work. Some art historians, like Joseph D. Ketner, believe that Duncanson used racial metaphors in his artwork, while others, like Margaret Rose Vendryes, discourage viewers from approaching his art with a racialized perspective.
Early life
Robert Seldon Duncanson was born in Fayette, New York, in 1821. Duncanson was one of the five sons of John Dean Duncanson (c. 1777 – 1851), a free black tradesman, and Lucy Nickles (c. 1782 – 1854). Often, it is cited that Robert's father was Scot-Canadian; however, there is no evidence to support this claim, and it is unclear when or where the original source of the claim began. All evidence points to Robert Seldon being the descendant of freed slaves from Virginia. John Dean's father, Charles Duncanson, was a former slave from Virginia who was freed from bondage by his owner. Charles received special privileges, including his emancipation and the opportunity to learn a skilled trade, because he was likely the illegitimate son of his owner. After becoming emancipated, Charles and his son John Dean lived as freemen in Virginia. However, at the end of the eighteenth century, white opposition toward free black men grew in the Upper South. In response, Charles, his son John Dean, and his wife Lucy Nickles, like many free African Americans, moved north. The Duncanson family settled in Fayette, New York, where Robert Seldon was born. Charles' knowledge of carpentry and house painting was passed down to his son, John Dean, and his grandchildren. This knowledge would later allow Robert Seldon Duncanson to develop as an artisan and later as an artist.
In 1828, the family moved to the “boomtown” of Monroe, Michigan, following the death of Charles. In Monroe, John Dean found considerable success working as a housepainter and a carpenter. This success allowed him to support his family and educate his children. During their childhood, Robert and his four brothers apprenticed in the family trades of house painting and carpentry. While Robert's brothers achieved modest success as housepainters, Robert emerged as the most talented of his siblings in his apprenticeships. In 1838, Robert established a painting business with partner John Gamblin. Robert and his partner frequently advertised their services in local publications, like the Monroe Gazette. However, in 1839, Robert suspended the business in order to pursue his ambition to work as a portrait painter.
In 1840, nineteen-year-old Duncanson left Monroe and moved to Mount Pleasant, Ohio, a town north of Cincinnati later known as Mount Healthy, to begin his career in fine arts. Duncanson lived in Mt. Healthy with the Reuben Graham family who were also descendants of Virginian slaves. The community of Mt. Healthy, like Cincinnati, had a substantial free black population. In the nineteenth century, Cincinnati was considered a southern' town on free soil”. Cincinnati was a fast-growing city—the city’s population grew from 43,000 to 115,000 between 1840 and 1850. In particular, Cincinnati attracted many freed or escape slaves in search of a new community. The city hosted one of the largest African-American communities in the U.S. Upon Duncanson’s arrival, the African-American population of the city was approximately 3,000. Many of these 3,000 African-Americans living in Cincinnati were previously enslaved. By 1870, the city had 5,900 African-American residents, with an overall population of 216,000.
Duncanson was primarily attracted to Cincinnati for its strong arts community. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was referred to as "the Athens of the West". It was also referred to as the "emporium of the West" by its free black population who had much greater access to opportunities of advancement there than in other parts of antebellum America. During the 19th century, Cincinnati and the American west became well known for its landscape artists, including William Louis Sonntag, Godfrey Frankenstein, T. Worthington Whittredge, and Duncanson himself.
Career
Itinerant portrait painting
Robert Seldon Duncanson had no formal art education, and thus had to teach himself by copying prints, copying engravings of European works, sketching from nature, and painting portraits. In the 1840s, Duncanson worked primarily as an itinerant portrait painter, like many African-American artists at the time, traveling among Cincinnati, Detroit, and Monroe, Michigan. His first datable work is from 1841—The Portrait of a Mother and Daughter. This work is similar to the style of many contemporary painters, demonstrating Duncanson's experience learning by copying others' works. In 1842, Duncanson had three portraits—Fancy Portrait, Infant Savior, a copy, and Miser—accepted to the second exhibition hosted by the Cincinnati Academy of Fine Arts.(p. 15) While Duncanson's work was accepted into the show, and was well received, it is likely that Duncanson was not allowed to take art classes at the Academy because of his race. This exhibition served as his public debut to the art world, but none of Duncanson’s family members were permitted to attend the show because of their race. His mother, while unable to attend the show, is reported to have said “I know what they look like ...I know that they are there! That’s the important thing.”
Taking a short break from portrait work, Duncanson collaborated with another artist, photographer Coates. Together, on March 19, 1844, Coates and Duncanson advertised a spectacle of "Chemical Paintings...comprising four splendid views after the singular style of Daguerre.”(p. 18) Duncanson was believed to have been the artistic mind behind the composition of the images while Coates took care of the technical side. Although Duncanson was making progress as an artist personally and publicly, the lack of commissions for his work pushed him to move around and work as an itinerant portrait painter beginning in 1845, spending the majority of his time in Detroit.
While in Detroit, Duncanson worked primarily as a portrait painter and was well received by the local press. In 1846, the Detroit Daily Advertiser praised Duncanson for his skill and color usage, adding, “Mr. Duncanson deserves, and we trust will receive the patronage of all lovers of the fine arts.” Portrait commissions in Detroit were forthcoming. Duncanson received his most substantial portrait commission by the Berthelet family, a prominent Detroit family. However, Duncanson became more interested in the genre painting tradition. He was first exposed to the tradition of genre painting through the work of fellow Cincinnati artist James H. Beard.(p. 19) Duncanson returned to Cincinnati in 1846, aspiring to expand his repertoire.
Landscape painting
Landscape painting was an important genre from the 1830s to the 1900s. Artist Thomas Cole and other members of the Hudson River School used nature to convey ideas about America and its ideals. Duncanson was intrigued by landscape painting. As he moved away from portrait work, Duncanson became intrigued by travel prints, particularly the exploration journals of John Stevens and Frederick Catherwood, Incidents of Travel in the Yucatan. The prints in these books prompted Duncanson to experiment with depicting exotic places and forgotten civilizations in his work. Back in Cincinnati and full of new inspiration, he received a commission from Charles Avery, an abolitionist Methodist minister, in 1848. Not only did Cliff Mine, Lake Superior—the work Duncanson created for Avery—bolster his career as a landscape painter, it also established him within a network of abolitionist patrons who sustained most of his career.
After completing Cliff Mine, Lake Superior (1848) for Charles Avery, Duncanson pursued landscape painting in earnest. Along with two other Cincinnati artists, T. Worthington Whittredge and William Louis Sonntag, Duncanson became inspired by the work of the Hudson River School artists and aspired to paint the American landscape. Together, the three artists set out on a series of sketching trips around the country to provide them with the necessary material and inspiration to bring back to their Cincinnati studios.(p. 28) After finishing the sketching tours, Duncanson focused on the Ohio River Valley in the early 1850s. With his ambitions cast on landscape work, operating on the style of the Hudson River School, Duncanson strived to transform his topographical works into romantic landscapes with literary allusions In order to accomplish this, he turned to Thomas Cole, copying many of his works dealing with paradise and drawing parallels between the imaginary lands painted and America. Around 1850, Duncanson was given his largest commission of his career by Nicholas Longworth to paint 8 landscape panels in Longworth's Cincinnati estate Belmont.The panels have been called the regarded as "among the most accomplished domestic mural paintings of pre-Civil War America." In 1851, Duncanson's created one more well-known landscape paintings from this time period, Blue Hole, Flood Waters, Miami River. In 1853, Duncanson embarked on the traditional "grand tour" of Europe, completed by many contemporary artists, which exposed him to the art world and provided inspiration for many of his future landscape works. In 1859, Duncanson finished his painting Landscape with Rainbow which, when exhibited, was "hailed as 'one of the most beautiful pictures painted on this side of the [Allegheny] mountains.’" This painting was prominently shown during Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021 when he and his wife entered the U.S. Capitol.
In 1861, Duncanson created his "greatest work": Land of the Lotus Eaters. This painting was Duncanson's most widely acclaimed work. Moreover, Duncanson intended for the work to receive this tremendous acclaim. He planned to exhibit the work on a European tour before he began painting it.
European Travels and Romantic Literary Landscape Painting
Many of Duncanson's paintings, such as Land of the Lotus Eaters, were influenced by works of British Romantic poets to include mythical themes. This attraction to European poetry and novels was developed through many trips Duncanson took to Europe over a period of 20 years. These trips were funded by Cincinnati-based Abolitionist patrons like Nicholas Longworth and a local Anti-Slavery league. The opportunities provided by these "grand tours" of Europe gave Duncanson the ability to study the works of the Old Masters while exploring the historic landscapes of the European countryside. Two of the works that came out of Duncanson's trips to Europe were Italian Landscape and Italian Landscape with Ruins.
Abolitionist patronage
Duncanson's success as an artist is partially attributed to the many abolitionist patrons who supported him. Abolitionist patrons provided him with ample commissions, acquired his paintings, financed his travel to various locations nationally and abroad, and introduced him to other prominent people in the art community. Abolitionists were motivated to support artists like Duncanson because it emphasized the abilities of African Americans to participate in and contribute to mainstream culture. Additionally, abolitionists would often commission works with overtly racial themes in order to further the antislavery cause. Duncanson likely received even more support from abolitionist patrons because he was of mixed race, as reflected in his complexion and facial features, which likely allowed him greater access into the art world than African Americans with darker complexions. There were a number of other African-American artists who shared these advantages due to their light skin, including African-American painter Joshua Johnston -- these "advantages" should be understood in terms of white prejudice against Blacks rather than as indicating that people with some white ancestry were inherently superior artists. The North, particularly cities like Cincinnati with substantial black populations and strong abolitionist presences, was a more advantageous place for African-Americans to pursue fine arts professions. Although Duncanson never explicitly addressed race issues in his work, there is debate among historians on whether or not Duncanson subtly referenced, or alluded to racial problems and racism in the United States. For example, Joseph Ketner II argues that in Duncanson's painting Garden of Eden (1852) "paradise with its palm trees might also be the promised land of slave songs." David Lubin also believed that Duncanson's paintings "may have contained hidden allegories on racial themes whose meanings were available only to certain audiences."
Uncle Tom and Little Eva, 1853
Robert Duncanson’s Uncle Tom and Little Eva, painted in 1853, is housed at the Detroit Institute of Arts. This work demonstrates Duncanson's growth in his early years of landscape painting. The painting depicts a scene from Harriet Beecher Stowe's anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The painting is a copy of an engraving from the novel's illustrations. While Stowe's novel has many violent scenes that address the brutality of slavery, Duncanson chose to paint an innocuous scene from the book. He depicts two characters, a slave named Tom and the young daughter of a slave owner named Eva, set in an idyllic landscape. Tom and Eva are looking up at the sky—to the heavens and God—at the shore of Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana. The scene is a critical moment in Beecher's novel related to the theme of salvation from slavery through spiritual love and sacrifice. In the 1850s, Duncanson gained popularity amongst abolitionist patrons. Reverend James Francis Conover, an outspoken abolitionist minister and news editor, recognized Duncanson's rise to prominence in the abolitionist art community and commissioned the work. Many abolitionists would commission works that explicitly portrayed the contemporary racial issues. While some art historians believe that Duncanson's works contained metaphors pertaining to issues of race, Uncle Tom and Little Eva is his only painting that explicitly addresses the racial issues of antebellum America by portraying an abolitionist story. As a free black artist active prior to the Civil War, Duncanson was in a unique position to make statements about racial issues, but he typically did not address these issues explicitly in his work. Although Duncanson’s son urged him to address contemporary racial concerns in his works, Duncanson wrote to his son, “I have no color on the brain; all I have on the brain is paint.” Some art historians, such as Joseph D. Ketner, believe that Duncanson intended to make an indictment of the institution of slavery by depicting this delicate yet profound scene from Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Other art historians, like Margaret Rose Vendryes, assert that Uncle Tom and Little Eva (1853) demonstrates Duncanson's desire to satisfy abolitionist patrons, and not necessarily his own views.
Nicholas Longworth's Belmont Mansion
Duncanson's success in the Cincinnati art community brought him many substantial commissions, such as that of Nicholas Longworth, one of the city's wealthiest citizens. In 1851, Longworth commissioned Duncanson to paint murals on the walls of his home, which was called the Belmont Mansion. Duncanson created eight murals for the entry of the Belmont Mansion, each nine feet high and six and a half feet wide, that depicted landscapes of the American West. Although the scale of the job was large, and Duncanson was still relatively new to the profession, Longworth selected him to decorate his home because he thought Duncanson to be “one of our most promising painters.” Duncanson's previous training in the trade of house painting served him well in his work on the Belmont Mansion. Duncanson's work on the murals in the Belmont Mansion greatly increased his popularity in the art community of Cincinnati, particularly among the white abolitionist contingent. The murals were eventually covered by wallpaper, but were rediscovered in 1933 and are now displayed in the Taft Museum of Art in Cincinnati.
Work with daguerrotypist James Presley Ball
Beginning in 1854, Duncanson worked in the photography studio of James Presley Ball, a prominent African-American photographer, retouching portraits and coloring photographic prints.(pp. 101–103) In 1855, Duncanson and Presley Ball created an anti-slavery panoramic painting titled Mammoth Pictorial Tour of the United States Comprising Views of the African Slave Trade which toured across the country. The work displayed images of the African slave trade, sugar and cotton plantations, and American landscape scenes.
Self-imposed exile and international acclaim
With the onset of the Civil War, Duncanson exiled himself to Canada and the United Kingdom. In 1863, Duncanson settled in Montreal, where he would work for two years. Duncanson was inspired by the Canadian landscape, as is evident from his works produced then. While in Montreal, Duncanson developed important relationships within the Canadian art scene. He was accepted enthusiastically by the Montreal art community and served as an inspiration for Canadian painters such as Otto Reinhold Jacobi. The Canadians thought of Duncanson as one of “the earliest of our professional cultivators of the fine arts.” Duncanson had a tremendous influence on 19th century Canadian art; he inspired the creation of the first Canadian school of landscape painting. In 1865, he left Canada for the United Kingdom, particularly England and Scotland, to tour one of his most well-known works, The Land of the Lotus Eaters (1861). In Europe, his work was well received and the prestigious London Art Journal declared him a master of landscape painting. In the winter of 1866–1867, Duncanson returned to Cincinnati. Inspired by his European travels, he painted many scenes of the Scottish landscape. Duncanson's time in Canada and the United Kingdom allowed him to gain even greater recognition in the international art scene.
Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, 1871
This painting was inspired by a selection from Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott's 1810 poem, The Lady of the Lake. The narrative poem was important to several important contemporary African American leaders, such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Frederick Douglass. Art historian Joseph D. Ketner considers Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine to be the "pinnacle of [Duncanson's] aesthetic and technical accomplishments." The work shows Duncanson's use of the conventions of Hudson River School artists, as well as his own romantic vision for landscape painting.
Final years
Throughout his career, Duncanson's works had always tended toward the pastoral, and his late works continued to show his love of landscape painting and resonated calmness and serenity.(p. 157) In the final years of his life, Duncanson developed dementia, possibly from lead poisoning. The dementia, and possibly schizophrenia, caused Duncanson to act unpredictably and erratically. He developed a belief in spiritualism and was convinced that he was possessed by a master painter. While Duncanson continued to create artwork, his behavior and declining physical health was alarming to his patrons. In 1872, Duncanson suffered a seizure while setting up an exhibition in Detroit, which eventually led to his death. Duncanson died on December 21, 1872; he was 51 years old. He was buried at the Woodland Cemetery in Monroe, Michigan.
Legacy
Robert Seldon Duncanson was one of few African American landscape painters of the nineteenth century, and he achieved levels of success unknown to his contemporaries. By the 1860s, Duncanson was proclaimed to be the "greatest landscape painter in the West" by the American Press and London newspapers held him in equal regard to other British artists at the time. Richard Powell of American Visions says that Duncanson’s success is a “victory over society’s presumptions of what African-American artist should create.” Duncanson became nationally and internationally known for his landscape paintings modeled after the Hudson River School tradition, and is credited with developing the regional Ohio River Valley art form. Art historian Joseph D. Ketner claims that Duncanson's greatest contribution to art was "his distinctively picturesque-pastoral vision of landscape painting with allusions to popular romantic literature."
Duncanson was largely forgotten from American art history until his work was rediscovered in the 1950s and 1960s. However, art historians maintained a false narrative about Duncanson for several decades. Beginning in the 1990s, art historians like Ketner made an effort to research Duncanson's life and work to develop an accurate portrayal of the artist.
The primary art historical controversy surrounding Duncanson is whether or not he represented racial issues in his art. Some art historians, like Ketner, theorize that there are veiled racial meanings in his paintings, while others, like Vendryes, consider his landscapes to be “race-free." Ketner asserts that Duncanson's artworks are representations of his cultural and racial identity. Vendryes argues that Duncanson did not explicitly represent contemporary racial issues in his work, and warns viewers from interpreting Duncanson and his art solely through the lens of his race, as it may limit the viewer's understanding of his work.
Since 1986, the Taft Museum of Art in Cincinnati, Ohio has maintained an artist-in-residence program for contemporary African-American artists in honor of Duncanson.
Abbreviated list of artworks
Portrait of a Mother and Daughter, 1841 (Fulton County Arts Council, Hammonds House, Atlanta, Georgia)
Trial of Shakespeare, 1843 (Douglass Settlement House, Toledo, Ohio)
Roses Fancy Still Life, 1843 (National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.)
Mt. Healthy, Ohio, 1844 (National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.)
Drunkard's Plight, 1845 (Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan)
At the Foot of the Cross, 1846 (Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan)
Cliff Mine, Lake Superior, 1848 (F. Ward Paine, Jr., Portola Valley, California)
Mayan Ruins, Yucatan, 1848 (Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio)
The Belmont Murals, c. 1850–1852 (Taft Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio)
Blue Hole, Flood Waters, Little Miami River, 1851 (Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio)
View of Cincinnati, Ohio From Covington, Kentucky, 1851 (Cincinnati Historical Society)
The Garden of Eden (after Cole), 1852 (High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia)
Dream of Arcadia (after Cole), 1852 (Private Collection, New York City)
Uncle Tom and Little Eva, 1853 (Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan)
Italianate Landscape, 1855 (California African American Museum, Los Angeles, California)
Robbing the Eagle's Nest, 1856 (National Museum of African American History and Culture)
Untitled (Landscape), late 1850s (Princeton University Art Museum)
Landscape with Rainbow, 1859 (National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.)
Land of Lotus Eaters, 1861 (Collection of His Royal Majesty, the King of Sweden)
Faith, 1862 (National Afro-American Museum and Cultural Center, Wilberforce, Ohio)
Vale of Kashmir, 1863 (Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio)
Silver River, North Carolina, 1863 (The Columbia Museum of Art, Columbia, South Carolina)
Lake Beauport, 1864 (Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Québec, Canada)
Lake Saint-Charles, 1864 (Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Québec, Canada)
A Dream of Italy, 1865 (Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Alabama)
Cottage Opposite Pass at Ben Lomond, 1866 (Museum of Art, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina, purchase)
Mountain Landscape with Cows and Sheep, 1866 (Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey, purchase)
Loch Long, Scotland, 1867 (National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.)
The Caves, 1869 (Amon Carter Museum of American Art)
Dog's Head Scotland, 1870 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, Massachusetts)
Gallery
Exhibitions
1842: Annual Exhibition of Paintings and Statuary, Western Art Union, Cincinnati, Ohio
1843: Annual Exhibition of Paintings and Statuary, Western Art Union, Cincinnati, Ohio
1864: Art Association of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
1865: Dublin Exhibition, Art Association of Montreal, Ireland
1871: Western Art Gallery, Detroit, Michigan
1943: Balmoral Castle, Scotland, Museum of Modern Art, New York City
1953: Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado
1955: Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio
1961: Indianapolis Museum of Art Indianapolis, Indiana
1967: Howard University Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
1970: La Jolla Museum of Contemporary Art, La Jolla, California
1971: Bowdoin College, Museum of Contemporary Art, Brunswick, Maine
1972: Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio
1972: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
1976: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles
1979: Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan
1983: National Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C.
1992: National Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C.
1996: Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri
1999: To Conserve a Legacy - American Art from History, Black Colleges and Universities, Studio Museum in Harlem, New York City
2003: Then and Now: Selection of 19-20th Century Art by African American Artists, Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan
2009: Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio
See also
List of Hudson River School artists
List of African-American visual artists
Notes
External links
American Paradise: The World of the Hudson River School, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Duncanson (see index)
Ohio Collection, Dayton Museum of Art
artcyclopedia
Long Island University
1821 births
1872 deaths
Burials at Woodland Cemetery (Monroe, Michigan)
19th-century American painters
American male painters
Painters from Cincinnati
Hudson River School painters
People from Fayette, New York
People from Mount Healthy, Ohio
African-American painters
19th-century American male artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska%20Television%20Network
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Nebraska Television Network
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The Nebraska Television Network (NTV) is the ABC affiliate for most of central and western Nebraska. It consists of two full-power stations—KHGI-TV (channel 13) in Kearney, with its transmitter near Lowell, and KWNB-TV (channel 6) in Hayes Center—as well as two low-power stations in McCook and North Platte. NTV is owned by Sinclair Broadcast Group, alongside Lincoln-licensed Fox affiliate KFXL-TV (channel 51), and operates from studios on Nebraska Highway 44 east of Axtell, about south of Kearney, with a secondary studio and news bureau at the Conestoga Mall in Grand Island.
NTV serves North Platte as well as the western half of the Lincoln–Hastings–Kearney market, though it has never been the ABC affiliate of record for Lincoln. Historically, Lincoln viewers watched Omaha stations; in 1996, KLKN (channel 8) was launched as a Lincoln-based ABC affiliate. Though KLKN and NTV generally focus on separate areas, satellite television providers Dish Network and DirecTV provide both stations across the entire market.
The first station in the network went on the air as KHOL-TV in December 1953. Owned by a group of businessmen from Holdrege, it was a primary affiliate of CBS and the first station in Nebraska outside of Lincoln or Omaha. To bring television to southwestern Nebraska, local residents contributed money to construct channel 6 at Hayes Center, originally designated KHPL-TV, which began broadcasting in February 1956. The stations became primary ABC affiliates in 1961. In the 1960s, two additional transmitters were built: KHQL-TV (channel 8) at Albion and KHTL-TV (channel 4) in Superior. The network was sold to NTV Enterprises in 1974; the stations adopted their present call signs. In 1983, the Albion station was separated from the network as the short-lived independent station KBGT-TV "Big 8"; the translators in McCook and North Platte were constructed in the late 1980s.
In 1994, NTV began managing KTVG-TV in Grand Island, which became a Fox affiliate; KSNB-TV was switched from ABC to Fox in 1996. NTV's owner in the 1990s and 2000s, Pappas Telecasting, started Lincoln's channel 51 in 2006; that station and subchannels of most of the NTV stations became Fox affiliates in 2009. Sinclair acquired NTV at bankruptcy auction in 2015. The station produces news programs focusing on southwestern Nebraska and the Tri-Cities area.
History
Early years
On March 20, 1953, the Bi-States Company, a group of businessmen from Holdrege and Alma, applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for permission to build channel 13 at Kearney. For several months, it appeared as though Bi-States would have to compete for the channel with the Central Nebraska Broadcasting Company, which owned Kearney radio station KGFW; however, when that company withdrew its bid in July, the FCC immediately granted a construction permit to Bi-States. The station, KHOL-TV, was built on a plot of land near Axtell, it signed for affiliation with CBS in September and the DuMont Television Network in October. Even though the station was licensed to Kearney, it was largely intended by its founding owners as a vehicle to promote Holdrege.
Construction was completed on December 24, 1953, when the transmitter was turned on and began broadcasting a test pattern. The next day, December 25, the first program was broadcast. In February 1954, 5,000 people turned out for an open house, cars lining the highway for miles with just as many having turned away due to long lines. In 1954, the station also added secondary affiliations with ABC and NBC; however, KHOL nearly lost CBS that same year before protests from viewers, who sent in tens of thousands of postcards, led the network to sign a two-year renewal of the station's affiliation. Channel 13 would lose NBC a year later in advance of the 1956 launch of KHAS-TV (channel 5), an NBC affiliate; to allow KHOL-TV to carry the 1955 World Series, community members started a fund drive to cover the expenses of arranging long lines service from Omaha to Axtell.
In its early years, KHOL-TV featured extensive local programming; by July 1954, the station was producing 13 of its 24 weekday programs from the lone studio at the facility in Axtell, including a women's program, The Woman's Voice, and local news and sports coverage. Bob Stoltz, an early station employee, described the studio as a "cracker box" before it was tripled in size in 1955. Early popular shows included Saturday night studio wrestling and Friday night boxing; the wrestling program was discontinued after hostile combatants kicked a television monitor.
Bi-States applied in February 1955 to have channel 6 allotted at Hayes Center after local residents petitioned the station to extend its service area further west. The request was part of a plan by which residents in an 11-county area would contribute $245,000 for the establishment of the additional transmitter. In North Platte, radio station KODY held a nine-hour radiothon that raised more than $12,000 in donations to support the effort to bring a television signal to the region. Once the FCC assigned channel 6, Bi-States filed for and received the construction permit for KHPL-TV, which was built north of Hayes Center. Even though the local fundraising goal fell tens of thousands of dollars short, the additional transmitter went into program service on February 15, 1956. Other proposals—none of which materialized—would have seen Bi-States support the establishment of similar stations at Ainsworth, Alliance, and Sterling, Colorado.
Bi-States expanded into radio in June 1959 with the launch of KHOL-FM (98.9 FM, now KKPR-FM); in 1961, the company also purchased KRNY (1460 AM, now KXPN). KRNY was sold to Radio Kearney in 1964; the following year, the same company purchased KHOL-FM.
On February 2, 1961, KHOL-TV and KHPL-TV dropped CBS to become full ABC affiliates, eight months before KGIN-TV (channel 11) signed on from Grand Island in October as a satellite of Lincoln's CBS affiliate, KOLN-TV (channel 10). In 1962, the FCC permitted KHOL-TV to build a new tower near Lowell, which would be tall—the tallest structure in the state—and carry a maximum-power signal. Construction was completed in 1963.
The 1960s brought two more transmitters into the network. Bi-States petitioned the FCC in 1960 and 1961, respectively, to allot channel 4 to Superior, to the southeast, and channel 8 to Albion, a community to the northeast of the Tri-Cities. In November 1962, the FCC affirmed the assignment of both channels after educational television interests also sought channel 8. Formal applications were then made for Superior and Albion in November 1963, with construction permits issued in February 1964 for both stations. With the call sign KHQL-TV—matching KHOL-TV and its satellite KHPL-TV—the Albion station was constructed and began telecasting on December 3, 1964. KHTL-TV in Superior followed on October 1, 1965. The four stations began branding as the Nebraska Television Network.
In the late 1960s, KHOL-TV produced a local weekly variety show: The Bobby Mills Show, featuring the Bobby Mills Orchestra, similar to The Lawrence Welk Show. The program aired for 86 consecutive weeks from 1968 to 1970.
NTV
NTV Enterprises—a company owned by the Oldfather and Payne families of Kearney—acquired the NTV stations in 1974 for $1.9 million. On June 3, the new owners changed the call letters of all the stations: KHOL became KHGI-TV, KHPL became KWNB-TV, KHQL became KCNA-TV, and KHTL became KSNB-TV. The new call signs were chosen to reflect the areas served by each station; KHGI stands for "Kearney, Hastings, Grand Island", while KWNB refers to that station's service to western Nebraska.
After negotiations with Grit Publishing of Pennsylvania stalled, Joseph Amaturo bought the NTV stations in 1979 in an $8.5 million deal funded by the sale of KQTV in St. Joseph, Missouri. KCNA was split off from NTV on November 1, 1983, to become an independent station under the call letters KBGT-TV; Amaturo Group sold KHGI-TV, KWNB-TV, and KSNB-TV to Gordon Broadcasting for $10 million in 1985; the sale separated the NTV stations from the money-losing KBGT-TV, which was separately sold a year later to Citadel Communications and became KCAN, a satellite of Sioux City, Iowa's KCAU-TV. Gordon passed on buying Big 8 because it was unsure if cable systems in Lincoln would continue to carry the station.
While NTV had lost one of its four high-power stations with the failed Big 8, Gordon Broadcasting tried to extend and improve the network's reach in the late 1980s. In January 1987, NTV attempted to enter Lincoln when it announced its intent to acquire a channel 45 construction permit held by Native American Communications Corporation. The permit had been awarded in April 1984 but never built; however, the deal fell apart when the FCC refused to grant additional time for channel 45 to be constructed. Later that year, Gordon applied for four new low-power facilities: channel 13 at North Platte, channel 21 in McCook, channel 17 in Beatrice, and channel 18 in Lincoln. Lincoln was of particular importance because, by 1993, 85,100 households lived in the "Metro 1" portion of the Arbitron-defined area of dominant influence, comprising Lancaster County, compared to 44,600 households in the "Metro 2" area of Adams, Buffalo, and Hall counties.
Gordon Broadcasting planned to sell the NTV stations to Sterling Communications for $11 million in 1989. However, the Sterling sale was unable to be completed, and in May, ownership reverted to Joseph Amaturo under a court-appointed receivership. The next month, Chicago-based Heller Financial sued Gordon Broadcasting; Gordon had borrowed $7 million from Heller to purchase the stations and still owed the entire principal and $1.6 million in interest on the loan. Joseph Girard was appointed successor receiver in 1991. During this time, NTV was put on the market; a bid by Pappas Telecasting in 1990 received court approval, but the company failed to obtain financing, while television meteorologist John Coleman later sought to purchase the stations. Under Girard, who operated NTV through Girard Communications, KHGI-TV, KWNB-TV, and KSNB-TV were sold to Fant Broadcasting, owner of WNAL-TV in Gadsden, Alabama, for $2 million in 1993. The Fant purchase took a year to come together because the receivership status required the company to buy NTV's assets on an individual basis.
Addition of Fox stations; sale to Pappas
On April 1, 1994, Fant took over the operations of Hill Broadcasting Company's KTVG-TV (channel 17), an upstart independent station in Grand Island, under a local marketing agreement (LMA), making it a sister station to the NTV stations. After the LMA was signed, NTV secured a primary Fox affiliation for KTVG-TV; as part of the deal, the NTV ABC stations took on a secondary Fox affiliation to carry the network's NFL coverage. Fant also activated the Lincoln translator—changed from channel 18 to 22—in 1994. The Lincoln translator attracted little interest locally, and NTV was not added on cable there.
In July 1995, Fant announced a deal to sell KHGI, KWNB, and KSNB to Blackstar, LLC, a minority-controlled company in which nonvoting equity interests were held by Fox Television Stations and Silver King Communications, for $13 million. Blackstar was a vehicle for acquiring stations in medium to small markets and switching them from their existing networks to Fox; the company stated its intent to switch the NTV stations to Fox if the deal was approved. However, the deal hit a snag for other reasons. Fant Broadcasting had applied for a newly allocated channel 18 at Albion. That allocation had been made because Citadel Communications was in the process of moving KCAN to Lincoln, where it would become a standalone ABC affiliate; a replacement TV station needed to be established at Albion if channel 8 was to be moved to Lincoln, and Citadel had also filed for that channel. When the Blackstar sale agreement was filed with the FCC, Citadel protested, feeling that Fant Broadcasting had attempted to block its Lincoln proposal by applying for Albion; company president Anthony Fant denied this, noting that his main goal for seeking the Albion channel was to restore the coverage lost a decade prior and "try to put that part of the NTV puzzle back together". Citadel's objection, as well as two federal government shutdowns, delayed FCC approval; Fant walked away from the deal in May 1996 because of continuing delays.
In July 1996, Fant agreed to sell KHGI-TV, KWNB-TV, and KSNB-TV to Pappas Telecasting Companies for $12.75 million. Pappas immediately assumed control of the NTV stations through a local marketing agreement that began on July 1 and, that September, switched KSNB, as well as the Lincoln and Beatrice translators, to rebroadcasting KTVG and Fox; KHGI and KWNB remained with ABC. In 1997, Pappas sold its right to acquire KSNB-TV and its translators to Colins Broadcasting Company for $10 (with Colins paying $333,333 to Fant), as channel 4's signal overlapped with Pappas's Omaha station, KPTM; Pappas also entered into an LMA with Colins to continue operating KSNB. The sales of KHGI and KWNB to Pappas and KSNB to Colins were approved by the FCC on February 17, 1999, and completed on May 24. In 2009 and 2010, KSNB-TV and KTVG-TV were supplanted by Pappas-operated KFXL-TV (channel 51) in Lincoln as the market's Fox affiliate when the other two stations closed.
KHGI-TV and KWNB-TV shut down their analog signals on February 17, 2009, the original target date on which full-power television stations in the United States were to transition from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate (which was later pushed back to June 12, 2009). Both stations relocated their digital signals from their pre-transition frequencies (KHGI-TV from UHF channel 36 to VHF channel 13, and KWNB-TV from UHF channel 18 to VHF channel 6, respectively).
NTV converted from analog to digital broadcasting in McCook in March 2010, when KWNB-LD, previously KUVR-LD, replaced what was the former KBVZ-LP on channel 42 as well as WCWH-LD, which rebroadcast Fox on channel 40. KUVR-LD had previously broadcast Fox only.
NTV's Grand Island news bureau moved to the Conestoga Mall in 2011; the new bureau featured a floor-to-ceiling window allowing mall shoppers to see news employees at work and live reports in progress. At the same time, the station considered moving its studios from Axtell to a site in Kearney to reduce travel from the rural location.
Sale to Sinclair
Pappas Telecasting filed for bankruptcy in May 2008. Seven years later, in August 2015, the liquidating trust for Pappas announced that it was soliciting bids for a bankruptcy auction of the company's central and western Nebraska stations—NTV and KFXL—which took place October 27, 2015. Of the four companies that participated in the auction, Sinclair Broadcast Group emerged as the winning bidder; on November 4, 2015, the company announced that it had agreed to acquire the stations for $31.25 million. The sale was completed on May 1, 2016.
In 2021, KHGI-TV received FCC approval to convert to the UHF band on channel 18; the change was completed on June 29, 2023, after the removal of the original channel 13 antenna and the installation of a new antenna for the UHF channel.
News operation
NTV's news established itself as the second-place news in the Kearney–Hastings–Grand Island portion of the market by 1989, behind KOLN/KGIN, though its news staff was half the size. The news department produced 6:30 a.m., noon, and 6 and 10 p.m. newscasts by 1995; the market's only 5 p.m. newscast debuted in 1997, though the station had previously aired a news program in that time slot in the 1980s.
As with its competition in the market, NTV has generally been characterized by long-tenured, homegrown news personalities. Bob Booe anchored the news in the late 1970s and then again from the early 1980s to 1992; upon his death in 2011, he was remembered as a reason people tuned in to the station's newscasts and for training young journalists. Bob Geiger was weather forecaster for the station from 1981 until he died of a heart attack in 2005; his replacement, Kent Boughton, has been with the station for more than 20 years.
Pappas brought additional resources to NTV during its ownership, particularly because it owned KPTM in Omaha. In 1998, when that station got a new set, the previous set was shipped to Axtell and reassembled at NTV's studios. In addition, Pappas included NTV in equipment purchases along with its news-producing stations in Omaha and Fresno, California. The station was number two in the market by 2002, despite not covering it in its entirety. In May 2013, NTV added a weekly agricultural news program, called NTV's Grow, which was the station's first regular broadcast in high definition.
A 2016 incident in which an NTV crew unwittingly filmed potential jurors for a murder trial in Kansas led to the judge declaring a mistrial; in an apology, NTV's news director cited differences with courtroom filming practices in Nebraska and Kansas. In March 2018, a producer for NTV's morning newscast resigned, citing what he called Sinclair's "obvious bias" and requirements that stations include conservative-leaning national news packages in their newscasts. The resignation came after the company required its stations to produce and air local promotions, with local anchors reading a script provided by the corporate office.
Former on-air staff
Rick Benjamin — news anchor (1986–1988)
Marg Helgenberger – weekend weather anchor (1980; now an actress, best known for playing Catherine Willows on CSI)
Howard Morgan – weather forecaster (1950s)
Linda Vester — reporter (late 1980s)
Stations
In 2021, NTV shut down a fifth transmitter, KHGI-LD in O'Neill.
Technical information
Subchannels
The stations' signals are multiplexed:
Unlike the other three stations, KHGI-CD only carries the main ABC NTV subchannel. The Fox affiliate in North Platte is KIIT-CD.
Notes
References
External links
ABC network affiliates
TBD (TV network) affiliates
Sinclair Broadcast Group
Television channels and stations established in 1953
1953 establishments in Nebraska
Television stations in Nebraska
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return%20to%20Base
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Return to Base
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Return to Base is the eighth studio album by the British rock group Slade. It was released on 1 October 1979 by Barn Records, and did not enter any national album charts. At the time of the album's release, the band's success had waned and were receiving little fortune. Forced to play at small halls and clubs around the UK, the only income they were reliant on was Noddy Holder and Jim Lea's songwriting royalties. Their recent singles had sold poorly and they were no longer drawing in large audiences. Prior to their last-minute call up for the 1980 Reading Festival, they were on the verge of disbanding.
The band's previous album, Whatever Happened to Slade (1977), featured a "straight" hard rock sound, dropping the band's glam rock image, and despite critical acclaim, had brought the band little commercial fortune. Return to Base was conceived as a continuation of the band's sound, and an attempt to raise the band's fortune. The band aimed to record twenty songs, with the best eleven being put onto the album. In the 1979 July–August fan club magazine, drummer Don Powell confirmed that seventeen tracks had been recorded at the time. However, while the critical reaction to the album was generally positive, the album sold poorly, something partially blamed on Barn Records, who only pressed a total 3,500 copies of the album's lead single "Ginny, Ginny", virtually guaranteeing its failure to enter the charts. Even the single that followed, "Sign of the Times", failed to chart and most copies which were left were melted down.
Some of the tracks from Return to Base re-appeared on Slade's 1981 album We'll Bring the House Down, released following their successful appearance at the Reading Festival in 1980. The remainder tracks from Return to Base were included as bonus tracks on the 2007 "Feel the Noize" remaster of We'll Bring The House Down. As such, the album was the band's only album not to be included in the series of remastered releases.
Background
Having returned to the UK from the United States in August 1976, Slade found themselves out-of-favour at the time of the UK's Punk rock explosion. The band's 1977 album Whatever Happened to Slade proved a commercial failure while their tour that spring had shown that they could no longer fill large venues. Slade's waning success soon led to the band taking any gig they could. They found themselves playing small venues, mainly universities and clubs. The band's tours often ran at a loss, with the band having to bring their own PA and lightshow. Bassist Jim Lea however was unphazed. "I still thought the band was great," he told Chris Charlesworth in 1983, "We were playing as well if not better than we ever had... now we had something to prove again."
Despite being successful at filling small venues for their live performances, the band's new records were barely selling. With the band's new output no longer being released on Polydor Records but instead on manager Chas Chandlers' label Barn records, singles such as "Burning in the Heat of Love", "Give Us a Goal", "Rock 'n' Roll Bolero" and "Ginny, Ginny" were all chart failures. Even the band's second live album Slade Alive, Vol. 2 (1978), the sequel to their critically acclaimed and commercially successful Slade Alive! (1972), was a commercial failure.
Recording
The album was recorded over a period of six weeks in 1979. The album saw the band produce together for the first time. In a 1979 fan club interview, Hill said: "We each took it in turn to produce certain parts ourselves – which makes it the first album we have solely produced ourselves."
Disagreements between the group – especially Lea and their producer/manager Chas Chandler – had been brewing since the recording of Whatever Happened to Slade, and, having continued throughout 1978, came to a head during the recording sessions for Return to Base. "Jim was becoming more and more involved in that side of things," lead vocalist Noddy Holder told Chris Charlesworth. "He wanted to produce the group and he didn't think that Chas was coming up with the goods." Chandler, for his part, was unimpressed with the group's current material: "They felt that a great sound was the all important thing," he told Charlesworth. "I've always felt that the song comes first and you craft your sound to suit the song... not the other way round." Although Chandler offered to end his association with Slade altogether, the band asked him to remain as manager while they produced themselves. Chandler said: "I agreed to this because if I refused I felt I would have been kicking them when they were down."
Asked in 1979 for his thoughts on the album, Hill said: "I'm very satisfied with it. It's got a mixture of different types of songs on it, all of which adds up to it being a good album! My favourites are the rock 'n' roll one "I'm a Rocker" and the instrumental one "Lemme Love into Ya" – probably because of the way that they come over on stage more than anything else."
In a 1980 fan club interview, Holder spoke of the album. "Over the last couple of years me and Jim have been writing a lot of songs, but we haven't known which way to approach them really. With Return to Base we were really pleased with the album, we thought that it turned out really well, but it didn't sell. Everyone around the band was saying to us that we weren't coming up with as good songs as we used to, but me and Jim knew that we were, we knew that we were coming up with strong songs. Some of the songs on Return to Base we thought were some of the best songs that we'd ever written. There only seemed to be me and Jim that had confidence in the songs; people like Chas, Dave and Don said that they didn't think our songs were as strong, some of them they did but some of them they didn't. But we ourselves thought that they were. Thus it was a case of getting the album down; and in our minds it turned out to be a great album."
During the recording of Return to Base, Slade were persuaded by engineer Andy Miller to record a song he had co-wrote with Bernie Frost. The song, "Another Win", recorded by Slade but was not released. In 2011, the song emerged on the internet through the Slade in England website.
Music
As the album title suggested, the album continues the "back to basics" sound of their previous album Whatever Happened to Slade (1977). AllMusic stated that "the sound of this record harkens back to the hit single sound, a bit less overdriven and heavy, and a bit more hook-filled and light. Acoustic guitars even appear at times."
Side one
"Wheels Ain't Coming Down" tells the tale of a near-death flying experience suffered by Holder and Lea when travelling to Los Angeles. The track was later released as a single in 1981 and peaked at No. 60. "Hold on to Your Hats" is a mid-tempo track influenced by a more rock 'n' roll sound. The track uses backward reverb effects and features a question and answer technique between Holder and the other band members Hill and Lea during the chorus. "Chakeeta" is a more commercial sounding track on the album. "Don't Waste Your Time (Back Seat Star)" is an acoustic-based ballad, described by Holder in 1988 as a "surrealistic social comment". "Sign of the Times" is a ballad based on technological revolution. Released as a single in its own right, which did not chart, it was later featured as the B-Side to Slade's 1981 hit single "Lock Up Your Daughters".
Side two
"I'm a Rocker" is a cover of the Chuck Berry track. To promote the album in Belgium, a Belgian film crew recorded the band performing the song at Portland Studios in London. The song was released as a single in Belgium in 1980, peaking at number one there. The song originally came to Holder's attention when it was played on Radio One by DJ Annie Nightingale. In a 1980 interview, Holder said: "I really liked it [and] mentioned to the others in the band that I'd heard a really great Chuck Berry number". After spending time trying to get hold of a copy of the song, Holder obtained the album of the same name from an import shop. Holder revealed: "After listening to it, we started to play it live on stage, first of all just as a jam at the end of the set. Then one night we went into the studio, we'd been all over the pub, and we had half an hour left at the end of a session, and we decided to record it, and we got it down in one take. The feel is there in that song, it's us, Slade – it's what we are all about."
"Nuts Bolts and Screws" is another rock-based track which AllMusic states ranks among the band's best work. "My Baby's Got It", is a track influenced by rock 'n' roll and boogie rock. "I'm Mad" is an acoustic-based track which portrays a man who is in thrall with his fantasies and dreams. Record Mirror stated that the song "is the nearest thing to a hit single with its jump along beat and pure sixties chord changes." "Lemme Love into Ya" is a minor-key ballad which became a regular inclusion in the band's live set-list. Record Mirror noted the song's "backwards tremeloed guitar intro" and "very ambient sound". The song was later re-worked into the song "Poland", which Lea recorded as a solo venture under the name Greenfields of Tong. His version was released as a single in 1982. "Lemme Love into Ya" was voted #2 of the top three Slade album tracks in the Slade Fan Club Poll of 1979.
"Ginny, Ginny" was released in May of that year, vaguely feted as the lead single from the album (despite coming out five months in advance of the album itself). The single failed to chart; however, according to the official Slade fan club newsletter of the time, the track had entered the UK best sellers Top 200 chart. The song was originally named "Jeanie Jeanie" and was issued on a yellow vinyl as a single in hope of interesting buyers. Lea also recorded his own version of the song with his brother Frank as part of his side-project The Dummies. Recorded during 1979–80, it was later released in 1991 on A Day in the Life of the Dummies, an album that gathered The Dummies' recordings.
Title and packaging
The album title is a line from the album's song "Sign of the Times". In response to how the album's title was decided, Hill said the band "had a whole list of suggestions for the title, and Return To Base is from one of the lines in the song "Sign of the Times". In the November–December 1979 fan club magazine, it was stated that the album's title also described the band's actions of the time. Both Lea and Hill lived in Wolverhampton while Holder and Powell lived in London. By the album's release, all members were living in Wolverhampton.
Dressed in a plain red sleeve with the stark black title in a battered typeface, the album cover was intended to reflect a no-nonsense, back-to-basics, "never-say-die" attitude, although it was noted that "it ended up looking as threadbare as much of the public assumed Slade to be." Upon asking if the album's artwork had been designed, Hill replied "It's still being done, but I understand that it is going to have a photo of a ticker-tape message on the front saying "Return To Base", in computer-like lettering. But it should be a very basic cover – so that it ties in with the "basic" reference in the title."
Release
The album was released on their manager Chas Chandlers' label Barn Records on 1 October 1979 in the United Kingdom, over two and a half years since their previous studio release, Whatever Happened to Slade, which was their first album on the label.
Commercial performance
In the United Kingdom, the album continued the band's commercial failures, and found no audience other than the band's already existing fan base. As with their previous album Whatever Happened to Slade, the album did not enter the UK Album Chart. Their seasonal party single "Okey Cokey", released in December 1979, also failed to enter the UK Singles Chart. A similar fate greeted the 12-inch extended play, Six of the Best, released in June 1980. The EP, priced at the cheap price of £1.49, contained three tracks from Return to Base and three new tracks.
The album saw success in Belgium in 1980, reaching No. 1 on the albums chart. As the album was not available in Belgium, fans in the country originally had to buy the album as an import. The album soon climbed to No. 1 on the Telemoustique chart, a weekly rock chart compiled by public votes. It also topped the Belgian radio station Impedance's daily chart on several occasions. As a result of the interest in the album, the album was released in the country by Warner Bros. in 1980. The album climbed to number one there, as did the Belgian-only single "I'm a Rocker.
In a 1980 fan club interview, Noddy Holder spoke of the success in Belgium: "What happened in Belgium was that Return to Base was available on import, and it started to climb the import charts. I don't know why, it was as much a surprise to us as it was to anybody. Warner Bros. Records then said to us, due to it starting to show some action, would we want to release it over there as a major release. We thought "why not?" – and now it's the number one album over there!" Speaking of "I'm a Rocker", Holder said: "That was the track getting the most airplay from the album. But it's not just a case of that applying in Belgium – we've had so many people writing to us asking why we've not released it as a single. "I'm a Rocker" is not even one of our songs though – it's a Chuck Berry number."
Initial critical reception
Shortly before the release of the album, the Slade fan club newsletter editor Dave Kemp stated how he felt on the rough copy he had heard. "Having heard the rough copy of it, all I can say is that it's amazing, totally different to anything Slade have done before, you'll love it."
At the time of release, professional reviews were overall mixed. Record Mirror stated: "Assuming that the title should be taken to mean that the group are trying to visit the territorial war grounds of their golden years in the singles charts I reckon they are in for a shock. I expect a little more than references to Big Brother, Stereo, Radio etc, in the otherwise catchy "Sign of the Times" and the reflection of "Born to Run" in "Wheels Ain't Coming Down". On "Nuts Bolts & Screws" and "My Baby's Got It" Slade start to rock, but there's nothing here to distinguish them from any other rocking combo. I wasn't expecting another "Cum On Feel the Noize" or "My Friend Stan" but just something a little more inspired. From a new band this would be a fairly good debut, from Slade I want more." Sounds were similar in their reception, writing: "Slade have managed to pull a fair to impressive performance out of the bag with this one. Sure to new wave lugs it sounds dated, but Return to Base still rocks like a good un', utilising standard rock 'n' roll/hard rock foundations for commendable displays of tightness and old time rock bite. Noddy's got one of the all time classic rock voices as he belts through ten steamy originals and one Chuck Berry cover. Slade may have stood still, but their own brand of rock shout clout still sounds good to these biased ears."
A more positive review came from Wolverhampton Express and Star: "Slade haven't had a big hit for some time now, but it would be silly to write them off just yet, to judge by their new album Return to Base. There is definitely a Sixties feel to some of the songs, though others are vintage Slade. Most striking thing about the album is its variety, for Slade have loosened up a bit for this one and included much more variety of mood. It certainly pays off. Another striking factor is the guitar playing of Dave Hill, who has really been allowed to branch out on this disc. In all, it's an album which will please Slade's still huge army of fans, both for its fidelity to the Slade sound and for its inventiveness and freshness." In May 1980, Jon Young of New York magazine Trouser Press reviewed the album and stated: "On Return to Base, seven of the eleven cuts connect in every possible way, for a batting average of .636. If it had been released in 1973, the classic "Nuts, Bolts and Screws" would've easily topped the UK charts. Okay, there's nothing here quite as wonderful as "Cum On Feel the Noize". But whose fault is that? This kind of music isn't meant for a vacuum! It's meant to be enjoyed! Give Slade some encouragement! You will be glad that you did!!"
The album was voted No. 2 of the top three Slade albums in the Slade Fan Club Poll of 1979.
Legacy and later reviews
In mid-1980, by which point the band were on the verge of disbanding, the band were offered to appear at Reading Festival in August 1980 in a last minute call-up. The band only had a couple of their road crew to help them on the day. Jim Lea recalled "We had to pay to park in the public area. With no roadies, we had to carry our own gear and there was even trouble getting into the backstage area." Despite the failure of Return to Base and the band's lack of success, the performance at the festival was a success and the band became popular once again. As a result of this success, several tracks from the album which the band considered the strongest reappeared on the band's next album, We'll Bring the House Down (1981), which successfully rejuvenated the band's successes, both critically and commercially.
A retrospective review from AllMusic noted that Return to Base "marks Slade's low ebb in terms of popularity and morale", and were mixed in their reception to the album, rating it two stars out of five and noting the album was "certainly not a high point for the band, but they kept on keepin' on, no matter how bad things got. Secure in the knowledge that practically no one had ever heard the thing, Slade eventually redid the record as We'll Bring the House Down, a fully realized project." In early 2010, Classic Rock considered the album "superior, reputation cementing" and wrote: "We'll Bring the House Down was cobbled together quickly after the band's Reading triumph, largely from the contents of their previous (overlooked) album, Return to Base." Colin Harper of Record Collector said: "Searching for the UK zeitgeist, 1979's now abjectly obscure Return to Base ironically had a pleasingly diverse, reinvigorated musical palette."
The album was re-released on CD in Germany in 1997 by RCA and BMG, and was remastered for another CD release in Japan in 2006 by Air Mail Recordings in their Archive series as part of the band's band catalogue remasters there from the label. However, the album was not remastered for its own album release in 2007 for the UK "Feel the Noize: Slade Remastered" series unilke the rest of their studio albums. Instead, the songs from the album which did not also appear on We'll Bring This House Down (1981) were remastered as bonus tracks for that album's remaster. Thus Return to Base remains the only Slade album never released in the UK on CD, or re-released on any other format.
Track listing
Charts
Personnel
Slade
Noddy Holder – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, producer
Dave Hill – lead guitar, backing vocals, producer
Jim Lea – bass, piano, synthesizer, backing vocals, producer
Don Powell – drums, percussion, backing vocals, producer
Additional personnel
Andy Miller – engineer
Dave Garland, Mark O'Donoughue – assistant engineers
George Peckham – cutting engineer
Eric Massey – art direction
References
Slade albums
1979 albums
Albums produced by Noddy Holder
Albums produced by Jim Lea
Albums produced by Dave Hill
Albums produced by Don Powell
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edendale%2C%20Los%20Angeles
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Edendale, Los Angeles
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Edendale is a historical name for a district in Los Angeles, California, northwest of Downtown Los Angeles, in what is known today as Echo Park, Los Feliz and Silver Lake.
In the opening decades of the 20th century, in the era of silent movies, Edendale was known as the home of most major movie studios on the West Coast. Among its many claims, it was home to the Keystone Kops, and the site of many movie firsts, including Charlie Chaplin's first movie, the first feature-length comedy,
and the first pie-in-the-face. The Edendale movie studios were mostly concentrated in a four-block stretch of Allesandro Street, between Berkeley Avenue and Duane Street. Allesandro Street was later renamed Glendale Boulevard (and a smaller nearby street took on the name Allesandro).
Edendale's hilly streets and nearby lake lent themselves to many silent movie gags. The district's heyday as the center of the motion picture industry was in the 1910s. By the 1920s, the studios had moved elsewhere, mostly to Hollywood, which would come to supplant it as the "movie capital of the world".
In the years prior to World War II, Edendale had a large artist community and a large communist community. Many of its residents were transplants from the Eastern United States or the Soviet Union.
Edendale was known as such at least until 1940, as the Pacific Electric Railway operated an Edendale Line of its "red cars" that ran the course between Downtown Los Angeles and the top of Edendale. The red car ran down the median of Allesandro Avenue (Glendale Blvd.), which was double-tracked, and even triple-tracked between Sunset and Effie, as the tracks were also used by the interurban Glendale-Burbank Line. After 1940, the Edendale Line as such ceased, though service continued in the form of local service on the Glendale-Burbank Line. Rail service on that line ended completely in 1955, and the tracks have been abandoned. Soon after, the region was cut in two by the construction of the Glendale Freeway.
The name Edendale is no longer used as a place name, and is little known today. A few remnants of the name are the local post office (officially called Edendale Station), a public library branch, an urban farm called Edendale Farm and a restaurant called Edendale. Although many of the structures from the 1910s remain and can be identified by careful comparison with old photos, this district today is located in an unremarkable commercial zone called the "Glendale Boulevard Corridor," which is known mostly for its function as a commuter thoroughfare between the southern end of the Glendale Freeway and downtown Los Angeles. (See vintage and modern site photos.)
Motion picture industry in Edendale
In its July 1911 issue, movie trade publication "Motography" described Edendale thus: "Edendale...is a very beautiful suburb of Los Angeles. It is the motion picture center of the Pacific Coast. With clear air and sunshine three hundred days out of the year, conditions are ideal for perfect picture making. The scenic advantages of the location, too, are unique. From [Edendale] can be seen the Pacific Ocean, twenty-two miles to the west, and the broad panorama of Southern California, with its fruit and stock ranches, its snowcapped mountains and its tropical vegetation, to the east, north and south. Within a short distance of Edendale may be found every known variety of national scenery, seemingly arranged by a master producer expressly for the motion picture camera."
Selig-Polyscope studio
In 1909, the Selig-Polyscope Company established the first permanent Los Angeles motion picture studio at the northeast corner of Clifford and Allesandro in Edendale. The company was founded by Colonel William Selig in Chicago, and it was his associate, Francis Boggs who first established the Los Angeles studio in Edendale. Within a few years, Selig had shifted most of his operations to Los Angeles. Cowboy movie star Tom Mix made his first movies with Selig-Polyscope out of their Edendale studio. The studio was originally completed in 1910, and featured a mission-style façade on the front entrance patterned after the bells at Mission San Gabriel. This mission-style entrance set a style that was echoed by other Edendale studios.
In 1913, Selig acquired of land in Lincoln Heights and began shifting operations to the new location. By 1917, he had leased his Edendale location to William Fox.
Bison studio
In 1909, Selig-Polyscope was followed into Edendale by the New York Motion Picture Company, making mostly one-reel westerns under the brand name Bison Pictures. The original studio was located at 1719 Allesandro Street, a "tract of land graced only by a four-room bungalow and a barn." Originally under the management of Fred J. Balshofer, the directorial reins were taken over a couple years later by motion picture innovator Thomas H. Ince. Ince made only two or three one-reelers at the Edendale studio. Shortly after arriving in California, Ince acquired a lease on of land in Santa Ynez Canyon, above Santa Monica. He shifted the operations of Bison Pictures to that location, later known as "Inceville".
Universal Studio Edendale 1912
On June 8, 1912, the New York Motion Picture Company agreed on merger with the Universal Film Company. In exchange for money and shares of the new company, the owners of the New York Motion Picture Company turned over all of the company's properties to the newly formed Universal Film Company. They also agreed to release the Bison 101 films through the Universal Program. Charles O. Baumann was elected the first president of Universal Film Manufacturing Company, though he was soon replaced by Carl Laemmle after a lawsuit was filed. In 1912 the Universal Film Manufacturing Company founded its first studio in Edendale, called the Universal Edendale plant. During a legal battle between Balshofer and Carl Laemmle, Balshofer refused to supply Bison 101 productions to the Universal Program in spite of the contract. At the end of the Bison lawsuit, Universal won the use of the Bison name. The Universal/Bison Plant was returned to the New York Motion Picture Company at the end of the litigation.
In late 1912, Bison's Edendale lot was bought by Mack Sennett.
Mack Sennett and Keystone Studios
After a rough start in New Jersey, movie maker Mack Sennett and his Keystone Comedies arrived in Edendale in September, 1912, and took up the studio lot that had been left by Bison Pictures when they decamped to Inceville. Though he started in Edendale with a run-down and mostly vacant lot, he soon achieved great success, and took up on both sides of the street within a few years. Between 1913 and 1917, comedy was synonymous with Keystone. There, Mack Sennett was the first important producer and director of screen farce, where speed, irreverence, exaggeration, sight gags, and bam-bam-bam delivery defined comedy. "You had to understand comic motion," Sennett once told an interviewer, whereupon he pushed the interviewer into a swimming pool. "That is comic motion." Sennett was famous for his Keystone Cops, who bumbled all around Echo Park, and his Sennett Bathing Beauties, who included Gloria Swanson and Carole Lombard. Fatty Arbuckle made many movies at Keystone, and Charlie Chaplin was discovered there. His great female lead was Mabel Normand, his sometime girlfriend (who inspired the 1974 Broadway musical Mack & Mabel).
Coy Watson, Jr., who grew up in Edendale in its heyday, recalls:
<blockquote>
Life in Edendale was exciting. Sennett needed to produce a 12 to 15 minute long two-reel comedy every week. These were the original slapstick, belly-laugh-a-minute flickers. They made the world laugh as the dignified were made to look ridiculous. The best-dressed folks got hit in the face with the biggest pies. Fat ladies sat down on break-away chairs or fell on the funniest, littlest guy on the set.
Kids watched them shoot the first fast-moving chases with horses and wagons, automobiles, fire engines, bicycles and baby buggies running wild all over Edendale and into Echo Park Lake. The Keystone Cops rode in their police patrol wagon skidding on the soaped streets. Dressed in ill-fitting New York policemen's uniforms, they hit fruit stands, popcorn wagons, telephone poles and chicken coops. They took pratfalls and lifted their knees high as they ran and took corners on one foot, waving their billy clubs over their heads. They were always called to restore law and order to some impossible, funny scene hurriedly created by the wit of Hollywood's comedy gagmen. The director had the story line in mind, but the gags came from everywhere as the shooting progressed. When the crew learned the themes of the story, each one was encouraged to come up with a funny thought or idea that might suggest an additional gag to help the picture get another laugh. Each idea gave birth to another. Those early comedy idea men set the formula for the way movies, radio and television comedy would be written for many years. Edendale became one great big background set for comedy. Early film makers didn't build street sets. To save money, they used the actual stores, shop buildings and neighborhood homes.</p></blockquote>
A 1917 article in The Moving Picture World described the Keystone Edendale studio thus:
When Keystone got going its rise was rapid. Today [1917] the open air stages of the Keystone Film Company cover . In addition to this are buildings of wood, brick and concrete, housing all the industries to be found in the average city of several thousand population, including a five-story planing mill and restaurant.
Another feature of the Mack Sennett Keystone studios is the big open air plunge, which is electrically heated. When not in use for pictures it is at the disposal of the actors, who may bathe in as they desire. A modern cafeteria is conducted by the company. Here everybody employed at the plant may obtain the best of food at prices considerably lower than are demanded downtown.
In the planing mill is made everything from patrol wagons to the various sections of Swiss-chalet bungalows and skyscrapers. The painters supply the realistic touches, which are given finish by wall paper and designers' department. All kinds of mechanical devices are made in the machine shops, and in the garage the scores of autos used in the Keystone's activities are housed and maintained. Many touches of humor are added to the comedies by the sign painters' staff. The plumbing department provided water and sewerage connections.
Separate buildings are maintained for the general offices, scenario and publicity departments and for other activities allied with the manufacture of motion pictures.
The studios comprise a city within a city, giving employment to more than 1,000 people.
Another feature of the Keystone Studios was the "cyclorama", where a background scene was painted onto a huge rotating cylinder that rotated while actors ran in place, creating the illusion of moving across the landscape.
Fox Studios
By 1916, Selig, having relocated to Lincoln Park, leased out his original Edendale studio lot to film director William Fox. At the Edendale studios, Fox made films with Theda Bara (including Cleopatra) and Tom Mix (whom Fox also bought out from Selig). His success quickly outgrew the lot, and within a year, he opened Fox Studios on a lot at Sunset and Western.
After Fox moved on from Edendale, the original Polyscope lot, with its distinctive mission-style entrance, served a series of studios, including Clara Kimball Young and Garson Studios (1920), and Marshall Neilan Studios (1925). In 1930, the lot, then abandoned but with its facade remaining, was the scene of a rape. Within the next year, the site was demolished. The lot has hosted various commercial buildings, most recently BertCo Graphics, but is currently empty. A historical plaque installed on the site in 1954 commemorated Mack Sennett (whose studio was actually two blocks south), but the plaque was removed in September 2007, when the BertCo Graphics building was demolished. A large apartment complex now exists on the site.
Mixville
Tom Mix, a popular and enduring star of early western films, was famous for trick riding, stunts, and flashy clothes. He started his career with Selig-Polyscope, was taken over by William Fox in 1917, was picked up by FBO (a precursor to RKO) in 1928, and made the jump to "talkies" with Universal in the 1930s. Mix, managing his own films under Fox, acquired a parcel of land just north of Edendale's main strip, and built a western set there that became known as Mixville. In her memoir The Fabulous Tom Mix, his wife recalls Mixville:
When Tom reigned as William Fox's biggest star in the postwar [World War I] period, he had an even more elaborate organization for the production of his pictures than with Selig. Production activities were carried on at a special studio lot covering of ground near Edendale, California. This home of Tom's Fox pictures was appropriately called Mixville. Tom was undisputed "King of Mixville," just as he was the king of the screen cowboys.
Many of the interior scenes were made at Mixville. Almost everything pertaining to the Old West could be found tucked away somewhere in this unique settlement. There was a complete frontier town, with a dusty street, hitching rails, a saloon, Jail, bank, doctor's office, surveyor's office, and the simple frame houses typical of the early Western era. Only the signs on the buildings were changed from picture to picture, and some rearrangement of the furnishings.
There was an Indian village with several lodges nestled in a flat piece of land at the rear of the lot. From the range of plaster-of-Paris mountains surrounding the village Tom led many a convincing attack on a tribe of warriors, the whole thing looking real when the picture was screened.
There was a simulated desert, through which Mix wandered on many occasions in search of the "bad man". Although Mix preferred actual locations, Fox executives always held the budget over his head.
Among other things at Mixville there were a ranch house, sans a ceiling, a corral that would hold 100 horses, and a great barnlike structure to hold props, such as saddles, uniforms, guns, and various items of furniture that conformed to the Old West tradition.
Tom Mix's original horse, Old Blue, was buried on the lot, which today is occupied by a couple of banks and shops in an undistinguished commercial strip at the NE corner of Glendale Blvd and Silver Lake Blvd.
Norbig Film Company
At 1745 Allesandro, on the block between the Selig lot and the Sennett lot, another studio was set up during 1914-1919 by the Norbig Film Company. Norbig was a rental film studio that provided a home for many director/producers who were getting started (a business model that today would be called an "incubator"). Director Hal Roach worked here, making films starring Harold Lloyd as "Lonesome Luke". (Roach was well known in this period, and became more famous in the 1920s with hits including the "Our Gang" / "Little Rascals" series, and would build his own studio in Culver City.) Charlie Chaplin worked here briefly, under the Lone Star Studios moniker, before establishing a studio at 1025 Lillian Way in Hollywood. Other studios that operated here included French & Forman, Bronx, Reaguer Productions, Western Arts, Westwood Productions, and Harry Keaton.
Pathé West Coast
The Pathé West Coast Film Company had offices at 1807 Allesandro (NW corner of Branden), but it is unknown if any films were made there.
Edendale commune
From November 1914 to June 1916, Edendale was also home to the Edendale commune, founded by Mexican anarcho-communist radicals of the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM). After their release from the penitentiary at McNeil Island in 1914 as political prisoners accused of inciting rebellion, criminal libel and violating neutrality laws, Ricardo Flores Magon and his wife, Maria Talavera, her daughter Lucille Norman, his brother Enrique and Enrique's companion Teresa Arteaga and other PLM members and their families settled on five acres of rented farm land near 2325 Ivanhoe Ave, Edendale in Silver Lake. Other members of the PLM, Rivera and Palma moved near by. Later, other anarchists and members of the Industrial Workers of the World settled in nearby shacks. They shared this space with the pre-Hollywood film studio colony. The PLM members lived the communal lives they envisioned for the rest of the world by raising fruit, vegetables and chickens at Edendale that they sold on the streets of Los Angeles and at the Plaza Olvera's open market. With their farming proceeds, they purchased necessary goods such as print supplies to continue publishing Regeneracion, the Mexican anarchist newspaper published by the PLM.
Notes
Sources and related Links
Motion Picture Studios of California - article, written by G.P. von Harleman, originally appeared in the March 10, 1917, issue of The Moving Picture World
Film History Before 1920 - from filmsite.org
biography of Col. William Selig - from Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences / Margaret Herrick Library
Hollywood Heritage archive - story on establishment of the first studio in LA
Echo Park Historical Society - a history of Edendale
Edendale restaurant page - from a local restaurant that commemorates the name and displays memorabilia from Edendale's heyday.
Keystone Studio - Then & Now - a nice collage of vintage photos juxtaposed with present-day photos of the same sites
Edendale in the Golden Age of Silent Film - a geocache puzzle that involves finding multiple clues in Edendale's history; the page contains a number of vintage photos
Edendale and Echo Park History - Brief History of Edendale
Edendale Farm
Neighborhoods in Los Angeles
History of Hollywood, Los Angeles
Artist colonies
Echo Park, Los Angeles
Silver Lake, Los Angeles
Central Los Angeles
Northwest Los Angeles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treehouse%20of%20Horror
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Treehouse of Horror
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Treehouse of Horror is a series of annual Halloween-themed anthology episodes of the animated sitcom The Simpsons. Also known as The Simpsons Halloween Specials, each episode typically consists of three separate, self-contained segments. Each segment involves the Simpson family in some comical horror, science fiction, or supernatural setting; plot elements operate beyond the show's normal continuity, with segments exaggeratedly more morbid and violent than a typical Simpsons episode. With 33 episodes as of 2022, each Treehouse of Horror episode is numbered in Roman numerals, one less than the respective season it is in.
The eponymous first installment "Treehouse of Horror" aired on October 25, 1990, during the second season, broadly inspired by EC Comics horror tales. In addition to parodies of horror, science fiction, and fantasy films, episodes include the recurring alien characters Kang and Kodos, unique opening sequences, and 'scary' pseudonyms in the credits. Treehouse of Horror episodes have earned high ratings and broad popularity, spawning a steady stream of merchandise, including a comic book series that ran from 1995 to 2017.
Segments
Treehouse of Horror episodes typically consist of four parts: an opening and Halloween-themed version of the credits, followed by three segments. These segments usually have a horror, science fiction or fantasy theme and quite often are parodies of films, novels, plays, television shows, Twilight Zone episodes, or old issues of EC Comics. Although they are sometimes connected by "wraparounds", the three segments rarely have any kind of continuing connection within the episode. Some have recurring elements, such as "Treehouse of Horror V", in which Groundskeeper Willie is killed by an axe in all three segments. The episodes are considered to be non-canon, which means they take place outside the normal continuity of the show.
The number of episodes of Treehouse of Horrors matches the number of series of the show: there are no such specials in season 1, two in season 34 and one in each other season. From "Treehouse of Horror" to "Treehouse of Horror XIII" and resuming with "Treehouse of Horror XXXIII", all three segments were written by different writers. In some cases there was a fourth writer who wrote the opening and wraparound segments. For the original "Treehouse of Horror", there were three different directors for the episode. From season 15's "Treehouse of Horror XIV" to season 33's "Treehouse of Horror XXXII", however, only one writer was credited with writing each Treehouse of Horror episode. "Treehouse of Horror XXXII" featured five segments. One of the season 34 Treehouse of Horror specials, "Not It", is distinguished by its uncharacteristic title and one full-length segment (divided in the two parts).
On occasion, the episodes will be used to showcase special animation, such as the "Treehouse of Horror VI" segment "Homer3", in which a computer-animated Homer is shown in a non-animated setting. At the time (1995), it was unusual for a television show to use such animation. The segment was executive producer Bill Oakley's idea and included live-action directed by David Mirkin. "Treehouse of Horror XX" included the segment "There's No Business Like Moe Business", which was the first to be musically themed.
Traditions
Opening sequence
The first, second, and fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes open with Marge standing on a stage and warning parents about the content of the episode, advising them to put their children to bed. The warning in the first episode was put in as a sincere effort to warn young viewers, as the producers felt it was somewhat scary. The entire segment was a parody of Edward Van Sloan's pre-credits warning from the 1931 film Frankenstein. Marge's warnings quickly became a burden to write, particularly because – as she herself noted – they were mostly ignored, so after "Treehouse of Horror V", they were dropped. The segment returned in the season 31 episode "Thanksgiving of Horror".
Other Treehouse of Horror episodes have opened with parodies; for example, "Treehouse of Horror III" had Homer introduce the episode in a manner similar to Alfred Hitchcock in Alfred Hitchcock Presents, "Treehouse of Horror IV" had Bart introduce the episode and segments in a manner similar to Night Gallery, and "Treehouse of Horror V" featured a parody of The Outer Limits. The sixth and seventh episodes featured short clips with no lines because the episodes had run long, and longer segments were cut. Following "Treehouse of Horror VII", the opening has been upwards of a minute long and sometimes featured an introduction by a character, such as Mr. Burns in "Treehouse of Horror XVII" or included over-the-top violence, such as "Treehouse of Horror VIII" (which showed a Fox Network censor being brutally murdered) and "Treehouse of Horror XIV" (which showed the Simpson family killing each other).
In the opening segment of the first five episodes, the camera zooms through a cemetery where tombstones with humorous epitaphs can be seen. These messages include the names of canceled shows from the previous season, deceased celebrities such as Walt Disney and Jim Morrison, and a tombstone with an inscription that read "TV violence" that was riddled with bullets as the camera panned on it. They were last used in "Treehouse of Horror V", which included a solitary tombstone with the words "Amusing Tombstones" to signal this. The tombstone gags were easy for the writers in the first episode, but like Marge's warnings, they eventually got more difficult to write, so they were abandoned. Another reason they were dropped was that the tombstones would list television shows that had been canceled the previous season; after a few years, several of the shows that were canceled were produced by former Simpsons writers. However, after two decades, this gag made a brief comeback in "Treehouse of Horror XXIX" at the very beginning, this time appearing before the main opening sequence and title.
While the early Treehouse of Horror episodes featured a Halloween themed opening sequence, the later ones only included the title and the "created by" and "developed by" credits. Every episode between "Treehouse of Horror III" and "Treehouse of Horror X" featured a couch gag with a Halloween theme, including the Simpson family dressed as skeletons, zombies, and characters from previous Halloween episodes.
Wraparounds
The first four Treehouse of Horror episodes had brief wraparounds that occurred before each segment and loosely tied together all three stories. "Treehouse of Horror" was the only one that actually included a treehouse as a setting. In that episode, Bart and Lisa sat in it telling stories to each other. "Treehouse of Horror II" presented all of the segments as being nightmares of Lisa, Bart and Homer; "Treehouse of Horror III" had Lisa, Bart and Grampa telling stories at a Halloween party; and "Treehouse of Horror IV" is presented by Bart in a parody of Rod Serling's Night Gallery. After a few years, the amount of broadcast time for an episode was shortened, allowing less time to tell a proper story. There were no wraparounds for "Treehouse of Horror V" because they had been cut to make more time for the segments. Following that, the writers permanently dropped them.
Kang and Kodos
Two characters that are virtually exclusive to the Treehouse of Horror series are Kang and Kodos, a pair of large green space aliens who were introduced in the "Hungry are the Damned" segment of "Treehouse of Horror". Kang and Kodos have since appeared in every Treehouse of Horror episode, often in cameos. In some episodes, they only appear in the opening segment, but often they will make a cameo appearance in the middle of a different story. For example, a story about zombies attacking the town briefly cuts to them in their space ship, watching the events and laughing maniacally at the Earthlings' suffering. The action then switches back to the actual story. According to Al Jean in 2022, an unofficial rule is that they must be in every episode, although quite often they will be forgotten and are added at the last moment, resulting in only a brief appearance. Their scene in "Treehouse of Horror VIII" nearly did not make the final cut of the episode, but David X. Cohen managed to persuade the producers to leave the scene in.
Kang and Kodos were prominent characters in the 2015 episode "The Man Who Came to Be Dinner", which was not Halloween themed.
Scary names
Beginning with "Treehouse of Horror II", the producers decided to give the cast and crew of the show 'scary names' in the opening and closing credits. Although the names quickly became more silly than scary, there have been a wide variety of special credits, from simple names like "Bat Groening" (for Matt Groening) or "Chains Hell Brooks" (for James L. Brooks) to complex ones like "David²+S.²=Cohen²" (for David X. Cohen). Sam Simon, who left the show during the fourth season, still receives "developed by" and "executive producer" credits, and until "Treehouse of Horror XXII", he had been listed in Treehouse of Horror episodes as "Sam 'Sayonara' Simon" and between "Treehouse of Horror XXII" and "Treehouse of Horror XXV" as "simonsam@TWITterror". However, following his death in March 2015, he has simply been credited as "Sam Simon" starting from "Treehouse of Horror XXVI".
The idea for 'scary names' came from executive producer Al Jean, who was inspired by EC Comics because some of the issues also used 'scary' alternate names. The "scary names" became such a burden to write that they were cut for "Treehouse of Horror XII" and "Treehouse of Horror XIII", but after hearing complaints from the fans, Jean decided to bring them back. Matt Groening's rule for the "scary names" is that they cannot be longer than a person's real name, but this is rarely followed by anyone else.
Cultural references
References to films, novels, plays, television shows, and other media are commonly featured, and many segments have been parodies of a specific work in the horror, science fiction, or fantasy genre. Many segments are spoofs of episodes of The Twilight Zone, and entire segments will be based on a single episode. Some of the Twilight Zone episodes parodied include "A Kind of a Stopwatch", "To Serve Man", "A Small Talent for War", "Living Doll", "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet", "Little Girl Lost", and "The Little People". The "Bart's Nightmare" segment of "Treehouse of Horror II" parodies the episode "It's a Good Life" and is even presented in a format similar to an episode of The Twilight Zone.
Horror and thriller films parodied include The Exorcist, The Amityville Horror, King Kong, Night of the Living Dead, The Shining, A Nightmare on Elm Street, The Fly, Paranormal Activity, and Dead Calm. Robert Englund had a cameo appearance in "Treehouse of Horror IX" as his character from A Nightmare on Elm Street, Freddy Krueger. Science fiction films have also occasionally been used as inspiration for segments, and in later episodes, many of the segments were based more on science fiction than horror. Science fiction works parodied include The Omega Man, the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, The Island of Doctor Moreau, and Orson Welles's The War of the Worlds radio broadcast. In "Treehouse of Horror", Edgar Allan Poe's poem "The Raven" is read by James Earl Jones, while the parts are acted by various characters.
Recent parodies have included films and television specials in more varied genres, including Mr. & Mrs. Smith, It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown, Transformers, Sweeney Todd, the Twilight film series, and Jumanji.
Closing logos
A modified version of the production logo for Gracie Films is displayed after the closing credits. The shushing sound is replaced by either a scream or another sound effect from the episode, and the jingle is played in a minor key on a pipe organ. The first three episodes did not feature the scream. "Treehouse of Horror VI" and "Treehouse of Horror XIX" did not feature the organ or scream; the former incorporated a Myst homage and the latter used a piano rendition following its parody of Peanuts. The music in "Treehouse of Horror VI" was reused in "The Scorpion's Tale" without the Gracie Films jingle.
Production
The first Treehouse of Horror installment aired on 1990 as part of the second season, and its on-screen title was "The Simpsons Halloween Special." ("Treehouse of Horror XIII" was the first to feature "Treehouse of Horror" in the on-screen title.) It was inspired by EC Comics Horror tales. Although every episode is entitled Treehouse of Horror, the first was the only episode that actually used the treehouse motif. During production of the first episode, Matt Groening was nervous about "The Raven" segment, and felt it would be "the worst, most pretentious thing [they had] ever done."
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are difficult for both the writers and the animators. The episodes were originally written at the beginning of the production run, but in later seasons they were written at the end and aired at the beginning of the next season as holdovers, giving the animators more time to work. Part of the difficulty for the animators is that the episodes always involve many complex backgrounds, new characters and new designs. They are difficult for the writers because they must produce three stories, an opening and, in the early episodes, a wraparound. They would have to try to fit all of this into a 20–22 minute episode. The episodes often go through many last minute changes, with rewrites requiring new lines to be recorded. "Treehouse of Horror III" in particular underwent somewhere between 80 and 100 line changes in the six-week period between the arrival of the animation from Korea and the airing of the episode. By the fourth season, executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss were less enamored of Treehouse of Horror episodes and considered dropping them, but the other writers insisted that they be kept.
Part of the attraction for the writers is that they are able to break the rules and include violence that would not make a regular episode. In some cases, the writers will have an idea that is too violent and far-fetched or too short for a normal episode, but can be used as a segment in the seasonal special. Several of the writers, former executive producer David Mirkin among them, believe that the episodes should be scary and not just funny. "Treehouse of Horror V" was described by Mirkin as being one of "the most intense, disturbing Halloween show ever" as it was filled with violence and gore in response to new censorship rules. Early episodes seem mild compared to the carnage that followed in later episodes, according to Jean, who calls it "a societal thing". He points out that his 10-year-old daughter loves films like Coraline, and that, "[in] the age of scary stories [...] appropriateness has gotten lower."
Although gruesome for the most part, some segments, such as "Citizen Kang" in "Treehouse of Horror VII", satirize political issues. The opening segment of "Treehouse of Horror XIX" featured Homer attempting to vote for Barack Obama but a rigged electronic voting machine instead registers a vote for John McCain. Rather than taking sides in the election, Jean says it is "mostly a comment on what many people believe to be the irregularities in our voting system". In "Treehouse of Horror XVII", a segment called "The Day the Earth Looked Stupid" ends with Kang and Kodos taking over Springfield as part of a mission called "Operation: Enduring Occupation". The script originally called for Kodos and Kang to look over the smoking ruins of Springfield and say: "This sure is a lot like Iraq will be." The Fox network did not have any objection to the line, but it was rejected by some of the writers as too obvious and was cut from the broadcast. While cut from the aired version, the line does appear in the "review" version sent to newspapers and magazines.
The first Treehouse of Horror episode marked the first time that an alternate version of the theme that airs over the end credits was used. Originally, it was intended to use a theremin, but one could not be found that could hit all the necessary notes. Usually when the producers submit an episode for the Primetime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore)", they submit a Treehouse of Horror episode, and to date, seven episodes have been nominated. The closing of "Treehouse of Horror IV" features a version of the theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpiscord and clicking from the Addams Family theme song.
Üter Zörker is so far the only human character introduced in a Treehouse of Horror to make it into canon. His debut episode was "Treehouse of Horror IV" in the segment "Terror at Feet". He is an obese German exchange student obsessed with candy and was voiced by Russi Taylor until her death.
2019's Treehouse of Horror was the 666th episode of the series. Jean stated that this was planned since 1989. For the 34th season of The Simpsons, two Treehouse of Horror episodes were produced; the first episode was "Not It", a parody of the 2017 supernatural horror film It and its 2019 sequel It Chapter Two.
Scheduling
Although Treehouse of Horror episodes are Halloween-themed, for several years, new episodes premiered in November following the holiday, due to Fox's coverage of Major League Baseball's World Series. Season 12's "Treehouse of Horror XI" was the first episode to air in November. There have been several references to this in the show, such as in Season 15's "Treehouse of Horror XIV" where Kang looks at a TV Guide and says, "Pathetic humans. They're showing a Halloween episode... in November!" and Kodos replies "Who's still thinking about Halloween? We've already got our Christmas decorations up!" The camera then cuts to a shot of the fireplace with Christmas decorations, and festive Christmas music plays over the opening credits. Season 21's "Treehouse of Horror XX" aired October 18, before the World Series, but the following year's episode, Season 22's "Treehouse of Horror XXI", aired on November 7. Season 23's "Treehouse of Horror XXII" aired on October 30 as the 2011 World Series (which went the maximum of seven games) had concluded on October 28.
Subsequent Treehouse of Horror episodes have premiered in the month of October, although they have moved back to November on occasion. The 31st season included a Thanksgiving-themed spinoff, "Thanksgiving of Horror". The 32nd season however pushed "Treehouse of Horror XXXI" to November 1, 2020 because the National League Championship Series went into Game 7, with the World Series that followed stretching to Game 6, resulting in Fox airing Treehouse after Halloween for the first time since 2010. Citytv in Canada however aired the episode as originally scheduled. "Treehouse of Horror XXXII" aired in 2021 on October 10 to avoid airing in November due to the World Series overrun, and, with no 2022 World Series game scheduled on a Sunday, "Treehouse of Horror XXXIII" aired on October 30, 2023. However, "Treehouse of Horror XXXIV" is scheduled to air on November 5, 2023.
Prior to 2011, new shows have been known to have aired exclusively on the West Coast at the appropriate time prior to the rest of the nation's airing after Halloween.
Merchandise
There has been a variety of merchandise based on the Treehouse of Horror episodes, including books, action figures, comic books, video games, DVDs and a "Treehouse of Horror" version of Hasbro's board game Monopoly. Although every Treehouse of Horror episode until "Treehouse of Horror XIX" has been released along with its season in a boxset, in 2003, The Simpsons: Treehouse of Horror DVD was released. It includes Treehouse of Horrors V, VI, VII and XII. A Treehouse of Horror comic book was published annually from 1995 to 2017, and collected into several books, including The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Fun-Filled Frightfest, Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror Spine-Tingling Spooktacular, Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror Heebie-Jeebie Hullabaloo and The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Hoodoo Voodoo Brouhaha.
Several video games based on The Simpsons include levels with a Halloween theme, including The Simpsons: Hit & Run and The Simpsons Game. In 2001, Fox Interactive and THQ released The Simpsons: Night of the Living Treehouse of Horror on Game Boy Color. The entire game has a Halloween theme as the player tries to save the Simpson family from the Treehouse of Horror.
Many of the special character designs featured in the episodes have become action figures. Four different playsets have been made by Playmates Toys and released as Toys "R" Us exclusives:
The "Treehouse of Horror I" set was released in 2000 and included a cemetery playset as well as "Devil Flanders", "Bart the Fly", "Vampire Burns", and "King Homer". It also came with an "Evil Krusty Doll" and Gremlin as accessories.
The "Treehouse of Horror 2" set was released in 2001 and included an interior alien spaceship playset as well as Kang, Kodos and "Alien Ship Homer". The entire set was based on "Treehouse of Horror".
The "Treehouse of Horror 3" set was released in 2002 and included a playset based on the "Ironic Punishment Division" of Hell in "Treehouse of Horror IV". It came with "Donuthead Homer", "Witch Marge", Hugo Simpson and "Dream Invader Willie".
The final "Treehouse of Horror 4" set was released in 2003 and included a playset based on Comic Book Guy's "Collector's all-plastic lair". It came with "The Collector", "Clobber Girl Lisa", "Stretch Dude Bart" and Lucy Lawless. All the designs were based on "Treehouse of Horror X".
On 2019, Funko revealed a 2-pack Kang and Kodos vinyl figure set presented as an exclusive for San Diego Comic Con 2019, along with a Treehouse of Horror Pop! wave, including King Homer (Treehouse of Horror III), Fly Bart (Treehouse of Horror VIII), Cat Marge (Treehouse of Horror XIII), Demon Lisa (Treehouse of Horror XXV), and Alien Maggie (Treehouse of Horror IX).
After the Playmates Toys sets were finished, McFarlane Toys produced four Treehouse of Horror themed playsets including the "Ironic Punishment Box Set" released in 2004, the "In the Belly of the Boss — Homer & Marge Action Figures" released in 2005, "The Island of Dr. Hibbert Box Set" released in 2006, and a "Lard Lad Box Set" released in 2007.
Reception
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are often among the top-rated episodes of their seasons, and many of the Treehouse of Horrors have generally been well-received by fans. However, like The Simpsons itself, critics have noted a decline in the quality of the later episodes. In its first airing, "Treehouse of Horror" finished with a 15.7 Nielsen rating and a 25% audience share, less than The Cosby Show. It was said that it "set a level of excellence that viewers never expected creator Matt Groening to repeat", although it was also described as "kind of stupid and unsatisfying".
"Treehouse of Horror V" is considered the best episode by several critics: it finished ninth on Entertainment Weeklys top 25 The Simpsons episode list, fifth on AskMen.com's "Top 10: Simpsons Episodes" list, and was named best episode of the sixth season by IGN.com. In 2006, James Earl Jones, who guest starred in "Treehouse of Horror" and "Treehouse of Horror V", was named seventh on IGN's "Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances" list.
In 2006, IGN.com published a list of the top ten Treehouse of Horror segments, and they placed "The Shinning" from "Treehouse of Horror V" at the top, saying it was "not only a standout installment of the annual Halloween episode, but of The Simpsons, period". Rounding out the list were "Dial "Z" for Zombies", "The Devil and Homer Simpson", "Time and Punishment", "Hungry Are the Damned", "Clown Without Pity", "Citizen Kang", "If I Only Had a Brain", "Bart Simpson's Dracula", and "Starship Poopers". The third, fourth, and fifth episodes were each represented by two segments. The most recent episode on the list was "Treehouse of Horror IX", from 1998.
In 2000, "Treehouse of Horror VII" was ranked Simpsons creator Matt Groening's seventh-favorite episode, and the line he likes best is: "We have reached the limit of what rectal probing can teach us." "King Homer" of "Treehouse of Horror III" is one of Groening's favorite segments. "Treehouse of Horror III" is also noted for the moment where Homer shoots Ned Flanders and Bart says "Dad, you killed the Zombie Flanders!" only for Homer to reply, "He was a zombie?" It is also one of Groening's favorite lines.
Awards
In 1996, the "Homer³" segment of "Treehouse of Horror VI" was awarded the Ottawa International Animation Festival grand prize. In 1998, "Treehouse of Horror VIII" won a Golden Reel Award for "Best Sound Editing – Television Animated Specials"; the recipients were Robert Mackston, Travis Powers, Norm MacLeod, and Terry Greene. Bob Beecher also received a nomination for "Best Sound Editing in Television Animation – Music" for "Treehouse of Horror X".
The second, third, fifth, eighth, ninth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and eighteenth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore)" at the Primetime Emmy Awards. The second and third "Treehouse of Horror" episodes were also nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special". In 1996, "Treehouse of Horror VI" was submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming less than One Hour)" category because it had a 3D animation sequence, which the staff felt would have given it the edge. The episode failed to win, and Bill Oakley later expressed regret about submitting the episode. The twenty-third and twenty-fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for the same award in 2013 and 2015 respectively.
See also
List of The Simpsons "Treehouse of Horror" episodes
"Halloween of Horror", the first Halloween episode not part of the "Treehouse of Horror" series
"Thanksgiving of Horror", a non-Halloween episode and also not part of the "Treehouse of Horror" series
Notes
References
1990 introductions
American annual television specials
Black comedy television episodes
Halloween television specials
Horror comedy
The Simpsons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20student%20protests%20in%20Chile
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2006 student protests in Chile
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The 2006 student protests in Chile (also known as the Penguins' Revolution or The March of the Penguins, because of the students' uniform) were a series of ongoing student voice protests carried out by high school students across Chile (from late April to early June 2006) against the privatization of the Chilean education system, implemented by dictator Augusto Pinochet in the 1970's. The protests peaked on May 30, when 790,000 students adhered to strikes and protests throughout the country, becoming Chile's largest student demonstration of the past three decades and the first political crisis of president Michelle Bachelet's administration.
Over 400 educational establishments adhered to the protests and paralyzed all classes and extracurricular activities. The protests started with the early and organized support of 100 establishments (schools) that started taking action on Friday, May 26th.
Amongst the students' short-term demands were free travel passes on buses and the waiving of the university admissions test (PSU) fee, while the longer term demands included: the abolition of the Organic Constitutional Act of Teaching (LOCE), the end to municipalization of subsidized education, a reform to the Full-time School Day policy (JEC) and a quality education for all.
On June 1, Bachelet addressed the nation by television, announcing several new measures for education that met most of the students' demands. On June 7 the president announced a 73-member presidential advisory committee – promised by Bachelet on her speech to discuss the students' long-term demands – which included six seats reserved for high school students. Initially hesitant to join the committee, on June 9 the student assembly finally accepted the invitation and called for an immediate end to strikes and school take-overs.
On August 23, around 2,000 students were marching in Santiago and other cities in the country, in protest of the slow speed that the reforms were taking place. The rally eventually got violent when small groups turned away from the peaceful demonstrations and started throwing rocks at the police. The police responded with tear gas and water cannons. More than 200 of the demonstrators were arrested and over a dozen were injured.
Background
The Organic Constitutional Act of Teaching or LOCE (Act Nº 18,962) was enacted on March 7, 1990, and came into force on March 10, the last day of Pinochet's 16 year dictatorship. Despite being widely criticized by both students and teachers as well as the ruling coalition (Concertación), it has remained largely unmodified since the restoration of democracy.
Critics of LOCE point out that it reduces the state's participation in education to a solely regulatory and protective role, whilst the true responsibility of education has been transferred to private and public corporations (public schools being managed by local governments — Municipalidades), thus reducing the participation that students, parents, teachers and non-academic employees had previously enjoyed in their schools.
During the 1990s, one of the main objectives of the Concertación administration was a so-called Educational Reform. One of the main pillars of this reform, launched during the Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle administration, was the Jornada Escolar Completa, JEC (Full-time School Day policy) — a plan to increase the hours that high school students actually spend in classrooms (in many cases not increasing the number of additional classrooms and other infrastructure required). However, many consider that the quality of education has dropped to worrying levels despite the high level of government spending on public education. Studies have showed that the JEC still has not been correctly implemented nor has it achieved the desired results.
Since 2000 a new demand has emerged with respect to the transport system's school pass and the new University Selection Test, and although much progress was made in some areas, the core of the students' demands have remained unsolved as of 2006.
The Penguin Movements were not a new phenomenon: its roots lie in the nineteenth century. Modern Chile has one of the highest levels of inequality in the world. Yet the country enjoyed a remarkable political stability since the return to democracy in 1990. In October 2019, though, what had seemed to be an oasis within Latin America erupted as the most intense and dramatic social unrest in Chilean recent history. Inequality is at the root of this social earthquake. The President and his advisors seemed to be puzzled: they thought that the negative consequences of inequality on well-being had been counterbalanced by the high average income of Chileans. If Chile wants to continue human-capital based development following the model of high-income countries, stronger redistribution elements in the tax system are necessary to reduce inequality.
Initial demonstrations
Following the announcement on April 24 of a new increase in fees for the PSU (up to $28,000 Chilean Pesos or around US$50) and the rumored introduction of a new restriction in the students' transport pass (Pase Escolar) that would limit reduced bus fares to only two travels per day, several public schools in Santiago organized demonstrations in the Alameda Avenue (Santiago's main street) demanding gratuity for transport passes, bus fares and university admissions tests. These demonstrations ended in some outbursts of violence — the Carabineros (the uniformed police) subsequently arrested 47 secondary students on April 26.
In the following days, new demonstrations took place without the permission of the regional authority. Despite the Ministry of Education acceding to minor demands, the students were left unsatisfied.
On May Day, secondary students of Santiago took part in a massive demonstration on Parque Almagro, near downtown Santiago. Violence again erupted and 1,024 students were arrested by the police in Santiago as well as in other cities throughout the country. The violence was consequently condemned by the Government.
Take-overs
Following three weeks of protests, little progress for the students' demands had been achieved. A turning point arose when students of the prestigious school Instituto Nacional and Liceo de Aplicación overran the school campuses during the night of May 19, 2006 demanding an improvement in the educational reform including: the ending of the system of schools being run by municipalities (present since 1982), the abolition of the LOCE, as well as a clear declaration by President Bachelet in her traditional May 21 speech to the National Congress. In her speech, the President only indirectly referred to the students' demands and instead focused in condemning the students' recent acts of violence.
The government's reply did not satisfy the students' leaders who called for the continuation of demonstrations, even though the Instituto Nacional students desisted in its school take-over in exchange for a school strike which was supported by teachers, parents and the school administrators alike. Occupations of several Liceos (public high schools) continued — among others Liceo A-13 (formerly, Confederación Suiza) and Liceo Carmela Carvajal — and two failed attempts to occupy the Liceo José Victorino Lastarria in Providencia. Although peaceful, the occupations were rejected by the government and the Education Minister Martín Zilic, broke off negotiations stating that he would not come back to the table as long as the mobilizations continued.
However, the ministerial strategy of avoiding dialogue did not work out. Since April 24, there were fourteen schools either occupied or on strike including the Liceo Nº1 de Niñas — the school that President Bachelet herself attended as a student.
That same night, eleven schools in Santiago downtown, Ñuñoa, Estación Central, La Cisterna, Maipú, Providencia and Recoleta were occupied by students. The students received political support from deputies from the governing coalition, the College of Teachers and other institutions, leaving Minister Zilic in a fragile position. He finally called for a new round of negotiations with "all representatives of schools in conflict" which was scheduled for the following Monday May 29. Throughout the day, more schools were occupied in Arica, Iquique, Valparaíso, Rancagua and Concepción.
On May 26, the situation escalated, as students from Maipú, San Miguel, Las Condes, Puente Alto and Pudahuel carried out peaceful marches and private schools adhered to the events. One-hundred thousand students (and up to a 100 schools) were on mass demonstrations throughout the country. Meanwhile, the ACES called for a national strike on Tuesday May 30, which was supported by the Student Federation of the University of Chile (FECH), and the Teachers National Union.
Public opinion became increasingly critical of the government and its mishandling of the crisis, forcing President Bachelet to express her will to reestablish a dialogue "in an agenda without exclusions" but reaffirming that this new stand was not a contradiction nor a defeat: "What we have here is the decision to sit down to talk and listen. There will be things which we agree on and there will be others which we do not".
The last opportunity to avoid a nationwide strike was the meeting called by the Minister Zilic with the representatives of the schools in conflict. However, this meeting was not presided by the minister himself but rather by the deputy minister Pilar Romaguera, a situation which was rejected by the students. In addition, the site chosen for the negotiations did not have the capacity for the approximately one hundred student representatives, leading to the secondary students refusing to continue the negotiations unless all school representatives were in one room. The government maintained confidence in continuing negotiations, refusing to consider the situation as a failure and insisting that a small step had been achieved.
After the breakdown of the meeting, the ACES reorganized itself into six regional branches and set up a meeting with senators of both the Concertación and the Alliance for Chile, another sign of the widespread support the movement had won across the political spectrum.
First national strike
According to ACES, more than 250 schools were paralyzed on May 30, 2006 in a day that was characterized by diverse acts of violence, despite many calls to carry out peaceful demonstrations. The secondary students' call to strike was followed by university students from Universidad de Chile, Universidad Católica and the Universidad de Santiago. The actual number of students on strike was calculated at between 600,000 and one million.
During that morning, President Bachelet, summoned her Political Team — the Ministers of Interior, Finance, Gen. Sec. of Gov. and Gen. Sec. of the Presidency — as well as Minister Zilic to a special meeting in La Moneda. Zilic was sent away to meet directly that afternoon with 23 student leaders at the National Library — a neutral place chosen because of the symbolism of being Chile's main public library.
In other areas of the country, a number of demonstrations took place, many being broken up by the police. The main incidents took place in Maipú, Puente Alto, La Florida (all large middle-class districts of Santiago) and in Santiago itself, around the Liceo de Applicación and the University of Chile's head office. The police were widely criticized for firing tear gas at people gathered outside the National Library, waiting for the meeting's resolution.
The press showed images of policemen arresting students and bystanders inside buses and private houses, and even press members being attacked by the police's special forces. Fighting extended throughout the night, with 725 people arrested and 26 injured. The actions of the police were strongly repelled by the public. Some of the strongest reactions came from the press and the President herself:
Despite having initially backed the police, the regional government and the Interior Minister, Andrés Zaldívar, later severely criticized them as did the Gen. Director of Carabineros who opened an investigation and dismissed ten officers including the Special Forces Prefect and his deputy.
Further demonstrations, mostly peaceful, took place in Temuco and Valparaíso, with some riots in Santiago's Plaza Italia, resulting in the arrest on May 31 of 54 people.
Ongoing negotiations
On May 31, 2006, ACES members gathered at the Instituto Nacional to analyze the Minister's proposal to exempt the PSU fees for applicants of the population's three lowest-income quintiles. After hours of debate by the hundreds of student leaders, their spokespersons declared their disagreement with the proposal and extended an ultimatum for the following Monday in which they would call for a national general strike, which would also include university students, teachers and workers.
Minister Zilic met with the students again at the Recoleta Domínica, an old church in Santiago. After seven hours of negotiations the students declared that they had not received new offers and that their call for a general strike would continue. Zilic declared the unwillingness of the government to negotiate under such pressure.
In the evening of June 1 president Bachelet addressed the nation by radio and television to announce new non-negotiable measures on education:
Reorganization of the Ministry of Education, creating a separate regulatory institution to allow for independent supervision by a superintendence.
Establishment of an Assistant Presidential Council on Education with the task of proposing measures to improve the quality of education.
Reform of the LOCE and the Constitution, consecrating not only the freedom of education, but also the right to quality education as well as outlawing any unjustified discrimination of students by institutions. This measure is intended to prohibit the present practice of many schools of selecting the best students and blocking or expelling the worst ones.
Benefits for half a million new students in free lunches and meals in 2006, to be extended to 770,000 by 2007.
Extensive investment in infrastructure in 520 schools and the replacement of school furniture in 1,200.
Free Transport Pass (Pase Escolar) for the most needy students, as well as extending use to seven days a week, twenty four hours a day for all students.
Free PSU for 150,000 students, equivalent to 80% of annual applicants.
Bachelet also referred specifically to the government's incapacity to deliver free transport fare to all students, due to prohibitively high costs (166 billion Chilean pesos annually, US$300 million), which she equated to the funding of 33,000 new social houses, the whole cost of the health system or the creation of seventeen new fully equipped hospitals. Nevertheless, she did announce a 25% rise in family benefits for 2007 that would affect 968,000 beneficiaries. The following day, the economic proposals were detailed by the Finance Minister Andrés Velasco who announced that the total cost of the measures would reach 60 million dollars in 2006 and 138 million dollars per year from 2007 onwards.
The students met to analyze the president's proposal at the Instituto Superior de Comercio (Insuco) on June 2. After a long meeting of more than eight hours, the ACES met with the Education minister. Close to 10 p.m., Minister Zilic announced that he had not been able to reach an agreement with the students, which was later confirmed by the student spokespersons, who further announced another meeting for the following day in the Internado Nacional Barros Arana in order to organize the national strike to take place on June 5.
Second national strike and movement decay
On 3 June 2006, the Coordinating Assembly held a new assembly in the Internado Nacional Barros Arana. However, speculation began to arise concerning a split between the radical and moderate groups of the Assembly, which would explain the resignation of César Valenzuela as spokesperson (he insisted that he had stepped down in order to look after his sick mother). Rumors began to spread that some of the traditional schools of Providencia and Santiago were holding parallel talks with Zilic and that one of the leaders of the Assembly, the communist spokesperson María Jesús Sanhueza, had been removed because of her extremist positions. Nevertheless, the ACES later expressed that all of these rumors were unfounded and part of a government strategy to undermine the movement.
Meanwhile, more than one hundred groups showed their support for the Monday 5 June strike, including a call from the Frente Patriótico Manuel Rodríguez (FPMR) to march in protest, contrary to the wishes of the student leaders who had called for peaceful demonstrations from within the schools. The call from the FPMR provoked much annoyance in the government (motivating the Minister Ricardo Lagos Weber to declare that this act was condemnable); however, the student leaders expressed that the FPMR were within their rights to demonstrate as they wished but that they should assume full responsibility for their actions.
The strike was held on Monday with the additional support of university students, high school teachers, truckers and workers amongst other unions. There was relative calm during the morning apart from a few minor isolated incidents close to the Plaza Italia by an unauthorized march and the burning of tires in the Alameda and Del Sol Highway around 7 a.m. Throughout the country, protest activity was dissimilar: while there were almost no protests in Punta Arenas, more than 140 establishments in the Bío-Bío Region, 58 in Iquique, 9 in Coihaique were occupied as well as the only school on Easter Island. Peaceful marches took place in Osorno, Puerto Montt and La Serena as well as Valparaíso where more than 12,000 people peacefully gathered.
In Santiago, the majority of the occupied schools underwent protests of a cultural nature, within their premises, the largest of which took place in the Instituto Nacional and the nearby University of Chile's main campus. Nevertheless, as the afternoon wore on, disorderly behavior and looting began to take place which led to the mobilization of the Carabineros, who later attacked the people gathered at the Instituto Nacional with tear-gas and water cannons, which according to Germán Westhoff, President of the Student Center, was a "provocation on the part of the Carabineros". In all, more than 240 people were detained during this day of mobilizations.
On June 6, the student assembly wrote a letter to the Minister of Internal Affairs informing him that they saw the creation of a presidential advisory committee — announced by Bachelet in her speech of June 1 to discuss the long-term demands — as a positive step, adding that it should include students, teachers, school administrators, education experts and other social stakeholders and that half of them should be determined by the student assembly. This petition was rejected by the government because it was considered excessive, explaining that the president was free to decide who should be included. On June 7, the president announced a committee of 73 members, which included six seats reserved for high school students.
According to El Mercurio, on 7 June, 50 schools in Santiago and 175 across the country ended the strikes and were ready to return to classes. According to La Tercera, the number of schools ending mobilizations was close to 500.
On June 9 the student assembly agreed to participate in the committee and put an end to strikes and school take-overs.
See also
2006 labor protests in France
2008 student protests in Chile
2011–13 Chilean student protests
Chilean transition to democracy
Education in Chile
2019 Chilean protests
Mochilazo
References
External links
"Ley Orgánica Constitucional de Enseñanza" (PDF file)
"La voz de los estudiantes a todo volumen" (EMOL.com special report)
"La marcha de los estudiantes" (EMOL.com special report)
"Guía para entender las demandas al Gobierno" (La Tercera special report)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flores%20de%20Mayo
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Flores de Mayo
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Flores de Mayo (Spanish for "flowers of may") is a festival held in the Philippines in the month of May. It is one of the May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary and lasts for the entire month.
The Santacruzan (from the Spanish santa cruz, "holy cross") is the ritual pageant held on the last day of the Flores de Mayo. It honors the finding of the True Cross by Helena of Constantinople (known as Reyna Elena) and Constantine the Great. Its connection with May stems from the May 3 date of Roodmas, which Pope John XXIII deleted in the 1960s due to the trend at the time to abolish holy days that were either duplicates or dedicated to ahistorical saints. The Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, which commemorates the recovery of the relic by Emperor Heraclius from the Persians instead of the finding by Saint Helena combines that occasion with Roodmas in the present General Roman Calendar.
Etymology
The name of the festival is derived from the Spanish language word flores meaning "flowers." Other names are "Flores de María" ("Flowers of Mary") and "Álay" (Filipino for "offering").
In the Bicolandia
In the Bicol Region, the ritual begins with the recitation of the rosary, and the last day is simply called the "katapusan" which is marked with a Mass, a Santacruzan and procession of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
The traditional "Martía" with its respective meaning is said after the recitation of the Salve Regina in Spanish and the Litany of Loreto. After the ceremony, simple snacks are given to the children who attended the devotion. Alabasyón (from the Spanish for "praising") is the term for prayers sung in honor of the Holy Cross.
In Western and in some parts of Eastern Visayas
The towns particularly in Iloilo has their respective puroks or streets and the barangays which has their respective chapel or house of prayer or even in the church where an image of the Virgin Mary is venerated and children gathers to have a simple catechism and teachings about the life and story of Mary, history of Marian apparitions, Christian doctrines and values, holistic values and virtues and other life's teachings. They were also taught some prayers and some songs uniquely recited only during the Flores de Mayo and the children offer some flowers before the image of the Virgin Mary as a symbol of love, affection and veneration. This is a commemoration and reminiscent of the Our Lady of Fatima apparition to the three children which first took place on May 13 in 1917. After a while, they were offered some snacks.
Some churches and areas are giving children some paper tickets for actively participating and doing well during the catechism in which at the end of the month of May which also coincides with the end of the Flores de Mayo, the children redeem the value of the tickets which are school supplies ready for the school opening. Until 2019, this was in June, the supplies are brought currently in August or September beginning 2020, depending on the date set by the Department of Education. With the switch of the calendar, the paper ticket tradition among these children also mark one of the final salvos of the school year. Santacruzan is usually held during the last few days of May to coincide with the end of the catechism for children.
In the Katagalugan
Amongst the Tagalog people, the custom began after the proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854 and after the circa 1867 publication of Mariano Sevilla's translation of the devotional "Flores de María" ("Flowers of Mary"), also known by its longer title "Mariquít na Bulaclac nasa Pagninilaynilay sa Buong Buannang Mayo ay Inihahandog nañg mañga Devoto cay María Santísima" ("Beautiful Flowers that in the Meditations in the Whole Month of May are Presented by Devotees to Mary Most Holy").
One famous May tradition in Batangas (particularly in Lipa) is the Luglugan, or nightly devotion and party honoring the Virgin Mary. Held in structures called tuklóng, devotees offer flowers and prayers to an image of Mary every night. After the prayer, the Hermanos or Hermanas for the day will give away treats to the participants, followed by the party. The Luglugan lasts for a month until the Tapusan ("ending") which is marked with a Mass, a Santacruzan and procession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and capped with a final Luglugan that lasts until the following morning.
The Santacruzan
A Santacruzan is a religio-historical beauty pageant held in many cities, towns, and even in small communities throughout the Philippines during the month of May. One of the most colorful aspects of this festival, the pageant depicts the finding of the True Cross by Queen Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. Many movie and television personalities participate in the events and are featured in major santacruzan. This festival became part of Filipino traditions identified with youth, love, and romance. Prior to the Santacruzan, a novena is held in honor of the Holy Cross. The procession itself commemorates the search of the Holy Cross by Reyna Elena and her son, Emperor Constantine. It is said to have roots in the joyous thanksgiving celebrations that followed the finding of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem and its translation to Constantinople (now İstanbul).
General order of the procession
The participants of this procession would follow this typical arrangement:
The Cross or the Image of Saint Helena with the Cross is used for Santa Cruzan, while the Image of Blessed Mother is used for Flores de Mayo that is the distinction of the two festivals but some organizers mixed the two festivals together in one celebration, Flores and Santa Cruzan.
Additional Titles (Pamayanan or Communities)
Each figure in this group refers to a Marian Apparition or Marian Dogma.
Pamayanan Inmaculada - She is the Representation of the Immaculate Conception. It Retells The Story of the Proclamation of the Said Dogma on December 8, 1854.
Pamayanan La Naval - She is the Representation of Our Lady of the Rosary. She Carries A Rosary. She is Included in the Santacruzan Because of its Sister Title, Reina del Santísimo Rosario, and Because of the Miraculous Story of the Victory of the Catholics Over the Turkish Moslems in the Battle of Lepanto on October 7, 1571, and the Victory of the Filipinos and Spaniards Over the Dutch on the Battle of La Naval de Manila on March 15, 1646 - October 4, 1646.
Pamayanan Asunción - She is the Representation of the Assumption of Mary. It Also Retells The Story of the Proclamation of the Said Dogma on November 1, 1950.
Pamayanan Del Carmen - She is the Representation of Our Lady of Mount Carmel Who Appeared to Saint Simon Stock in Mount Carmel in Israel on July 16, 1251. She Carries the Scapular of Mt. Carmel. She is the First Ever Title in the Santacruzan, Named After Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, Who Kept the Promise of the Mt. Carmel Scapular, Saying "Whosoever Dies, Vested in this Scapular, Shall Never Suffer Fires of Hell".
Pamayanan Dela Paz - She is the Representation of Our Lady of Peace. She Carries a Dove, Real Or Otherwise. She is Included in the Santacruzan Because of its Sister Title, Reina de la Paz, who carries the same attribute, the Dove, Symbol of World Peace.
Pamayanan Fatima - She is the Representation of Our Lady of Fatima Who Appeared to Three Children of Fátima, Portugal, Namely The Saints Francisco and Jacinta Marto, and Servant of God Sister Lúcia on May 13, 1917. She Carries A Rosary Or Wears A Crucifix Necklace.
Pamayanan Lourdes - She is the Representation of Our Lady of Lourdes Who Appeared to Saint Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes, France on February 11, 1858. She Carries A Large Rosary.
Pamayanan Guadalupe - She is the Representation of Our Lady of Guadalupe Who Appeared to Saint Juan Diego in Guadalupe, Mexico on December 9, 1531.
Biblical and Historical Figures, with Traditional Personifications
Matusalén (Methuselah) – He is bearded and bent with age, he rides a cart and is preoccupied with toasting grains of sand in a pan over a fire. It is an allegory of the transience of the world, which will be like the dust he is toasting.
Reina Banderada (Queen with a Banner) – She is a young lady dressed in a long red gown, bearing a yellow and/or white pennant or preferably, the Flag of Vatican City. She represents the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines.
Reina Aeta (Queen Aeta) – She is the representation of the dark-skinned indigenous peoples of the Philippines such as the Aeta and Ati. These aboriginal groups predate the ancestors of today's majority Austronesian Filipinos by tens of thousands of years. She Carries the Philippine Flag.
Reina Mora (Queen Moor) – She is the representation of the Muslim Filipinos, who are concentrated in Mindanao and large cities such as Manila. Islam arrived in the archipelago two centuries before Christianity, and is now the country's second-largest religion. Mary is also honoured in Islam, and her story is found in the 19th sura (chapter) of the Qur'an.
Reina de Saba/Reina Sheba (Queen of Sheba) – She is the representation of the unnamed queen who visited King Solomon, and was overwhelmed with his wisdom, power, and riches. She carries a jewelry box. She is included in the Santacruzan because the Legenda Aurea describes how she venerated the beam of a bridge she was crossing, prophesying the wood's future role as part of the True Cross.
Rut y Noemi/Reina Ruth and Reina Naomi (Ruth and Naomi) – She is the Moabite convert to Judaism together with her mother-in-law, from whom she was inseparable. Ruth is an ancestress of King David, and is one of four women listed in the genealogies of Jesus in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. These Roles Can Be Together Portrayed by One Participant or Separately Portrayed by Two Participants for Each Role.
Reina Judith (Queen Judith) – She is the representation of the Biblical widow Judith of Bethulia, who saved her city from the Assyrians by beheading their brutal general Holofernes. Also titled "Infanta" ('Princess') Judith, she carries the Decapitated Head of Holofernes in one hand and a sword with(out) the Stain of Blood in the other.
Reina Esther (Queen Esther) – She is the Jewish queen of Persia, who spared the Jewish people from the genocidal plot at the hands of Haman through timely intervention with her husband, King Xerxes. She carries a sceptre.
Cleopatra – She is the representation of Cleopatra VII Philopator (69-30 BC), the last active pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Her male escort is often understood to represent the Roman senator and general Mark Antony (83-30 BC).
(Reina) Samaritana/Santa Photina (The Female Samaritan) – She is the Samaritan woman at the well (traditionally named Photini) with whom Christ conversed about the Water of Life. She carries a water jug on her shoulder.
Santa Verónica/Reina Verónica – She is the woman who wiped the face of Jesus who bears her Veil; in traditional Hispanic-Filipino iconography, the cloth bears three miraculous blood imprints of the Holy Face of Jesus instead of one.
Tres Marías (Three Marys) – Each Mary holds a unique attribute associated with the Entombment of Christ:
Santa María Magdalena/Reina María Magdalena (Mary Magdalene) – She bears a perfume bottle as Catholic tradition once conflated her with Mary of Bethany as the woman who anointed and wiped Jesus' feet.
Santa María Cleofe/Reina María Cleofe (Mary, the mother of James, wife of Clopas) – She bears a whisk broom, as tradition holds she swept the Holy Sepulchre before Christ was laid in it.
Santa María Salome/Reina María Salome (Mary Salome) – She bears a thurible or oil bottle, pointing to her role as a Myrrhbearer.
Reina Fé (Queen Faith) – She is the symbol of Faith, the first theological virtue. She carries a cross or crucifix.
Reina Esperanza (Queen Hope) – She is the symbol of Hope, the second theological virtue. She carries an anchor.
Reina Caridad (Queen Charity) – She is the symbol of Charity, the third theological virtue. She carries a red heart or the image of the Sacred Heart.
Reina Sentenciada (Queen Convicted) – She has her hands bound with a rope or chains of iron. She is the representation of the Early Christians, particularly virgins, who were persecuted and martyred for the Faith. She is sometimes escorted by two Roman soldiers.
Marian Titles
Each figure in this group refers to a title of the Virgin Mary in the Litany of Loreto, or to a figure associated with her. They are preceded by adolescent or adult ladies dressed in white ball gown as angels, each holding a letter of the Angelical salutation Ave Maria.
Reina Abogada (Queen Advocate/Lawyer) – She is the defender of those who are poor and those who are oppressed, she wears a black mortarboard cap and graduation gown, and carries a large book. Her appearance is a representation of Mary, Help (Advocate) of Christians. Some processions add the Reina Doctora ("Queen Doctor") as another title connected with a degree-holding profession, and may allude to the title "Mary, Health of the Sick".
Reina Justícia (Queen Justice) – She is a personification of the title "Mirror of Justice" (Speculum Iustitiæ), her attributes are a Scale of Justice and a sword.
Divina Pastora (Divine Shepherdess) – She bears a shepherd's crook or an image of the lamb or young Sheep. She is the Representation of the Care of Jesus Christ to the Flock of Christians.
Reina de los Ángeles (Queen of the Angels) – She bears a bouquet or garland of white and/or colored flowers, and is escorted by adolescent or adult ladies dressed in white ball gown.
Luklukan ng Karunungan/Asiento de la Sabiduría (Seat of Wisdom) – She carries the Bible, and represents Mary as Sedes Sapientiæ.
Susì ng Langit/Clavé del Cielo (Key of Heaven) – She bears two keys, one gold and the other silver, adapted from the Papal arms. It is Also a Representation of the Title "Porta Coeli" ("Gate of Heaven") where Mary Welcomes Mankind to the Kingdom of God.
Reina de las Estrellas (Queen of the Stars) – She holds a wand or baston topped with a star. It can be taken as an allusion to the title Stella Maris ("Star of the Sea"), where Mary has been invoked by sailors for her protection.
Rosa Mística (Mystical Rose) – She bears a bouquet or garland of roses, a single rose, or preferably, the Barra Alta. She is the Representation of the Crown of Roses Given to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Pusò ni María/Corazón de María (Heart of Mary) – She is the Representation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. She holds a pink heart or the image of the Immaculate Heart of Mary.
Reina del Santísimo Rosario (Queen of the Most Holy Rosary) – She carries a large rosary, symbol of Devotion to Mary. The Philippines is Also Called Pueblo Amante de María or People in the Love of Mary Because of their Devotion to Our Lady.
Reina Luna (Queen Moon) – She is the representation of the moon, the footstool of Mary as the Woman of the Apocalypse. She carries a wand or baston topped with the crescent moon.
Reina Candelaria (Queen of Candles) – She carries a long, lit taper, symbolising the Purification of Mary, or sometimes, the Menorah, symbol of Judaism, with Seven Small candles, representing Seven Sacraments, Seven Virtues or Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Reina de la Paz (Queen of Peace) – She carries a dove, symbol of World Peace or the Holy Spirit, real or otherwise.
Reina de los Patriarcas (Queen of Patriarchs) – She bears a wooden rod or staff, symbol of Authority or Superiority. The Patriarchs are the Ancestors of the Israelites Who Lived Serving God.
Reina de los Profetas (Queen of Prophets) – she holds an hourglass or Clock, symbol of the Time: the Past, the Present, and the Future. Mary was the Queen of Prophets Because God Introduced Her to the People of God, A Long Time Ago.
Reina de los Confesores (Queen of Confessors) – she holds a scroll, whether open or closed, or a purple candle, symbol of confession, one of the Seven Sacraments.
Reina de los Mártires (Queen of Martyrs) – she bears the Crown of Thorns or a pierced heart, as a second representation of the Mater Dolorosa. She is the Representation of the Martyrs who Faced Death for the Sake of their Faith.
Reina de los Apóstoles (Queen of Apostles) – she holds the Palm of Martyrdom, symbol of triumph of Apostles and Martyrs who chose death for the sake of their faith rather than renunciation of the Christian faith.
Reina de los Santos (Queen of Saints) – She bears a golden wreath, symbol of the Crown of the Saints; often accompanied by two ladies dressed in white ball gown.
Reina del Cielo (Queen of Heaven) – She holds a flower; often accompanied by two ladies dressed in white ball gown.
Reina de las Vírgenes (Queen of Virgins) – She carries a rosary or lily, the latter signifying chastity; also escorted by two ladies dressed in white ball gown.
Prominent titles
1. Reina de las Flores (Queen of Flowers) – She is The Queen of the Flores de Mayo. She walks under an arch festooned with the blossoms of flowers and She carries a grand bouquet of flowers.
2. Reina Elena (Queen Helena) – She is the Representation of Saint Helena herself, whose the symbol of the finding of the True Cross is the cross or crucifix that she bears in her arms. This considerably prestigious role is often awarded to the most beautiful girl or most important matron in the pageant. Some communities keep the identity of the chosen Reina Elena a closely guarded secret, revealing her identity at the Santacruzan itself. Other places are more accommodating, allowing three women to be Reina Elena.
Constantino - the escort of Reina Elena, representing her son, Constantine the Great (272 – 337 AD). Despite the Emperor having been an adult when his mother found the True Cross, this role is almost always played by a young male or even an adolescent or adult male in princely or royal garment.
3. Reina Emperatríz (Queen Empress) – She is always the last member of the procession, a representation of Saint Helena of Constantinople, specifically her title Augusta ('empress' or 'queen mother'), which she received from Constantine in 325 AD. It is Quite Wise to Take Note That It is Best to Omit the Title Reina Emperatriz Because Having So Will Duplicate the Representation of Saint Helena in the Procession. A Belief Commonly Held As to The Origin of the Two Titles Existing is the Possibility of Two Women Wanting to Portray The Most Important Role in the Procession, Thus Creating the Title Reina Emperatriz.
The procession is accompanied by the steady beat of a local brass band, playing and singing the Dios te salve (the Spanish version of the Hail Mary). Devotees bear lighted candles and sing the prayer as they walk. Due to modernization and unavailability of the brass band, It is sometimes accompanied by a speaker truck playing trending songs from the app TikTok or from the app Spotify. It is customary for males participating in the Santacruzan to wear traditional Barong Tagalog or Sometimes, Suits or Tuxedos, while females wear any Filipiniana-inspired dress or Sometimes, Renaissance-inspired or Baroque-Inspired Queen's Dress.
See also
May Day
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20170301112727/http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/culture2.htm
Christian festivals in the Philippines
May observances
Marian devotions
Helena, mother of Constantine I
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%20blue
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Egyptian blue
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Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate (CaCuSi4O10 or CaOCuO(SiO2)4 (calcium copper tetrasilicate)) or cuprorivaite, is a pigment that was used in ancient Egypt for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. It was known to the Romans by the name . After the Roman era, Egyptian blue fell from use and, thereafter, the manner of its creation was forgotten. In modern times, scientists have been able to analyze its chemistry and reconstruct how to make it.
The ancient Egyptian word signifies blue, blue-green, and green.
The first recorded use of "Egyptian blue" as a color name in English was in 1809.
Definition
Egyptian blue is a synthetic blue pigment produced from a mixture of silica, lime, copper, and an alkali. Its color is due to a calcium-copper tetrasilicate CaCuSi4O10 of the same composition as the naturally occurring mineral cuprorivaite. It was first synthesized in Egypt during the Fourth Dynasty and used extensively until the end of the Roman period in Europe, after which its use declined significantly.
The term for it in the Egyptian language is ḫsbḏ-ỉrjt (khesbedj irtiu), which referred to artificial lapis lazuli (ḫsbḏ). It was used in antiquity as a blue pigment to color a variety of different media such as stone, wood, plaster, papyrus, and canvas, and in the production of numerous objects, including cylinder seals, beads, scarabs, inlays, pots, and statuettes. Sometimes, it is referred to in Egyptological literature as blue frit. Some have argued that this is an erroneous term that should be reserved for use to describe the initial phase of glass or glaze production, while others argue that Egyptian blue is a frit in both the fine and coarse form since it is a product of solid state reaction. Its characteristic blue color, resulting from one of its main components—copper—ranges from a light to a dark hue, depending on differential processing and composition.
Apart from Egypt, it has also been found in the Near East, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the limits of the Roman Empire. It is unclear whether the pigment's existence elsewhere was a result of parallel invention or evidence of the technology's spread from Egypt to those areas.
History and background
The ancient Egyptians held the color blue in very high regard and were eager to present it on many media and in a variety of forms. They also desired to imitate the semiprecious stones turquoise and lapis lazuli, which were valued for their rarity and stark blue color. Use of naturally occurring minerals such as azurite to acquire this blue was impractical, as these minerals were rare and difficult to work. Therefore, to have access to the large quantities of blue color to meet demand, the Egyptians needed to manufacture the pigment themselves.
The earliest evidence for the use of Egyptian blue, identified by Egyptologist Lorelei H. Corcoran of The University of Memphis, is on an alabaster bowl dated to the late pre-dynastic period or Naqada III (circa 3250 BC), excavated at Hierakonpolis, and now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In the Middle Kingdom (2050–1652 BC) it continued to be used as a pigment in the decoration of tombs, wall paintings, furnishings, and statues, and by the New Kingdom (1570–1070 BC) began to be more widely used in the production of numerous objects. Its use continued throughout the Late period and Greco-Roman period, only dying out in the fourth century AD, when the secret to its manufacture was lost.
No written information exists in ancient Egyptian texts about the manufacture of Egyptian blue in antiquity, and it was first mentioned only in Roman literature by Vitruvius during the first century BC. He refers to it as caeruleum and describes in his work De architectura how it was produced by grinding sand, copper, and natron, and heating the mixture, shaped into small balls, in a furnace. Lime is necessary for the production as well, but probably lime-rich sand was used. Theophrastus gives it the Greek term κύανος (kyanos, blue), which originally probably referred to lapis lazuli. Finally, only at the beginning of the nineteenth century was interest renewed in learning more about its manufacture when it was investigated by Humphry Davy in 1815, and others such as W. T. Russell and F. Fouqué.
Composition and manufacture
Several experiments have been carried out by scientists and archaeologists interested in analyzing the composition of Egyptian blue and the techniques used to manufacture it. It is now generally regarded as a multiphase material that was produced by heating together quartz sand, a copper compound, calcium carbonate, and a small amount of an alkali (ash from salt-tolerant, halophyte plants or natron) at temperatures ranging between (depending on the amount of alkali used) for several hours. The result is cuprorivaite or Egyptian blue, carbon dioxide, and water vapor:
In its final state, Egyptian blue consists of rectangular blue crystals together with unreacted quartz and some glass. From the analysis of a number of samples from Egypt and elsewhere, the weight percentage of the materials used to obtain Egyptian blue in antiquity was determined usually to range within these amounts:
60–70% silica (SiO2)
7–15% calcium oxide (CaO)
10–20% copper(II) oxide (CuO)
To obtain theoretical cuprorivaite, where only blue crystals occur, with no excess of unreacted quartz or formation of glass, these percentages would need to be used:
64% silica
15% calcium oxide
21% copper oxide
However, none of the analyzed samples from antiquity was made of this definitive composition, as all had excesses of silica, together with an excess of either CuO or CaO. This may have been intentional; an increase in the alkali content results in the pigment containing more unreacted quartz embedded in a glass matrix, which in turn results in a harder texture. Lowering the alkali content (less than 1%), though, does not allow glass to form and the resultant Egyptian blue is softer, with a hardness of 1–2 Mohs.
In addition to the way the different compositions influenced texture, the way Egyptian blue was processed also had an effect on its texture, in terms of coarseness and fineness. Following a number of experiments, Tite et al. concluded that for fine-textured Egyptian blue, two stages were necessary to obtain uniformly interspersed crystals. First, the ingredients are heated, and the result is a coarse-textured product. This is then ground to a fine powder and water is added. The paste is then reshaped and fired again at temperatures ranging between 850 and 950 °C for one hour. These two stages possibly were needed to produce a paste that was fine enough for the production of small objects. Coarse-textured Egyptian blue, though, would not have gone through the second stage. Since it usually is found in the form of slabs (in the dynastic periods) and balls (in the Greco-Roman period), these either could have been awaiting to be processed through a second stage, where they would be ground and finely textured, or they would have been ground for use as a blue pigment.
The shade of blue reached was also related to the coarseness and fineness of Egyptian blue as it was determined by the degree of aggregation of the Egyptian blue crystals. Coarse Egyptian blue was relatively thick in form, due to the large clusters of crystals which adhere to the unreacted quartz. This clustering results in a dark blue color that is the appearance of coarse Egyptian blue. Alternatively, fine-textured Egyptian blue consists of smaller clusters that are uniformly interspersed between the unreacted quartz grains and tends to be light blue in color. Diluted light blue, though, is used to describe the color of fine-textured Egyptian blue that has a large amount of glass formed in its composition, which masks the blue color, and gives it a diluted appearance. It depends on the level of alkali added to the mixture, so with more alkali, more glass formed, and the more diluted the appearance. This type of Egyptian blue is especially evident during the eighteenth dynasty and later, and probably is associated with the surge in glass technology at this time.
If certain conditions were not met, the Egyptian blue would not be satisfactorily produced. For example, if the temperatures were above 1050 °C, it would become unstable. If too much lime was added, wollastonite (CaSiO3) forms and gives the pigment a green color. Too much of the copper ingredients results in excesses of copper oxides cuprite and tenorite.
Sources
The main component of Egyptian blue was the silica, and quartz sand found adjacent to the sites where Egyptian blue was being manufactured may have been its source, although no concrete evidence supports this hypothesis. The only evidence cited is by Jakcsh et al., who found crystals of titanomagnetite, a mineral found in desert sand, in samples collected from the tomb of Sabni (sixth dynasty). Its presence in Egyptian blue indicates that quartz sand, rather than flint or chert, was used as the silica source. This contrasts with the source of silica used for glass-making at Qantir (New Kingdom Ramesside site), which is quartz pebbles and not sand.
It is believed that calcium oxide was not added intentionally on its own during the manufacture of Egyptian blue, but introduced as an impurity in the quartz sand and alkali. As to whether the craftsmen involved in the manufacture realized the importance of adding lime to the Egyptian blue mixture is not clear from this.
The source of copper could have been either a copper ore (such as malachite), filings from copper ingots, or bronze scrap and other alloys. Before the New Kingdom, evidence is scarce as to which copper source was being used, but it is believed to have been copper ores. During the New Kingdom, evidence has been found for the use of copper alloys, such as bronze, due to the presence of varying amounts of tin, arsenic, or lead found in the Egyptian blue material. The presence of tin oxide could have come from copper ores that contained tin oxide and not from the use of bronze. However, no copper ores have been found with these amounts of tin oxide. Why a switch from the use of copper ores in earlier periods, to the use of bronze scrap during the Late Bronze Age is unclear as yet.
The total alkali content in analyzed samples of Egyptian blue is greater than 1%, suggesting the alkali was introduced deliberately into the mixture and not as an impurity from other components. Sources of alkali either could have been natron from areas such as Wadi Natroun and El-Kab, or plant ash. By measuring the amounts of potash and magnesia in the samples of Egyptian blue, it is generally possible to identify which source of alkali had been used, since the plant ash contains higher amounts of potash and magnesia than the natron. However, due to the low concentration of alkali in Egyptian blue, which is a mere 4% or less, compared to glass, for example, which is at 10–20%, identifying the source is not always easy. The alkali source likely was natron, although the reasons for this assumption are unclear. However, analysis by Jaksch et al. of various samples of Egyptian blue identified variable amounts of phosphorus (up to 2 wt %), suggesting the alkali source used was in actuality plant ash and not natron. Since the glass industry during the Late Bronze Age used plant ash as its source of alkali, a link in terms of the alkali used for Egyptian blue before and after the introduction of the glass industry might have been possible.
Archaeological evidence
Amarna
In the excavations at Amarna, Lisht, and Malkata at the beginning of the twentieth century, Petrie uncovered two types of vessels that he suggested were used in antiquity to make Egyptian blue: bowl-shaped pans and cylindrical vessels or saggers. In recent excavations at Amarna by Barry Kemp (1989), very small numbers of these "fritting" pans were uncovered, although various remaining pieces of Egyptian blue 'cake' were found, which allowed the identification of five different categories of Egyptian blue forms and the vessels associated with them: large round flat cakes, large flat rectangular cakes, bowl-shaped cakes, small sack-shaped pieces, and spherical shapes. No tin was found in the samples analyzed, which the authors suggest is an indication that use of scrap copper was possible instead of bronze.
Qantir
In the 1930s, Mahmud Hamza excavated a number of objects related to the production of Egyptian blue at Qantir, such as Egyptian blue cakes and fragments in various stages of production, providing evidence that Egyptian blue was actually produced at the site. Recent excavations at the same site uncovered a large copper-based industry, with several associated crafts, namely bronze-casting, red-glass making, faience production, and Egyptian blue. Ceramic crucibles with adhering remains of Egyptian blue were found in the excavations, suggesting again it had been manufactured on site. These Egyptian blue 'cakes' possibly were later exported to other areas around the country to be worked, as a scarcity of finished Egyptian blue products existed on site. For example, Egyptian blue cakes were found at Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham, a Ramesside fort near the Libyan coast, indicating in fact that the cakes were traded, and worked at and reshaped away from their primary production site.
Connections with other vitreous material and with metals
Egyptian blue is closely related to the other vitreous materials produced by the ancient Egyptians, namely glass and Egyptian faience, and it is possible that the Egyptians did not employ separate terms to distinguish the three products from one another. Although it is easier to distinguish between faience and Egyptian blue, due to the distinct core of faience objects and their separate glaze layers, it sometimes is difficult to differentiate glass from Egyptian blue due to the very fine texture that Egyptian blue occasionally could have. This is especially true during the New Kingdom, as Egyptian blue became more refined and glassy and continued as such into the Greco-Roman period.
Since Egyptian blue, like faience, is a much older technology than glass, which only begins during the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), changes in the manufacture of Egyptian blue undoubtedly were associated with the introduction of the glass industry.
Analysis of the source of copper used in the manufacture of Egyptian blue indicates a relationship with the contemporaneous metal industry. Whereas in the earlier periods, it is most probable that copper ores were used, during the reign of Tutmosis III, the copper ore is replaced by the use of bronze filings. This has been established by the detection of a specific amount of tin oxide in Egyptian blue, which only could have resulted from the use of tin bronze scraps as the source of copper, which coincides with the time when bronze became widely available in ancient Egypt.
Occurrences outside Egypt
Egyptian blue was found in Western Asia during the middle of third millennium BC in the form of small artifacts and inlays, but not as a pigment. It was found in the Mediterranean area at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, and traces of tin were found in its composition suggesting the use of bronze scrap instead of copper ore as the source of copper. During the Roman period, use of Egyptian blue was extensive, as a pot containing the unused pigment, found in 1814 in Pompeii, illustrates. It was also found as unused pigment in the tombs of a number of painters. Etruscans also used it in their wall paintings. The related Chinese blue has been suggested as having Egyptian roots.
Later, Raphael used Egyptian blue in his Triumph of Galatea.
Roman production of Egyptian blue
Around the turn of the eras, Roman sources report that a certain Vestorius transferred the production technology from Alexandria to Pozzuoli near Naples (Campania, Southern Italy). In fact, archaeological evidences confirm production sites in the northern Phlegraean Fields and seem to indicate a monopoly in the manufacture and trade of pigment spheres. Due to its almost exclusive use, Egyptian blue is the blue pigment par excellence of Roman antiquity; its art technological traces vanish in the course of the Middle Ages.
In 2021, Early Medieval Egyptian blue (fifth/sixth century AD) was identified on a monochrome blue mural fragment from the church of St. Peter above Gratsch (South Tyrol, Northern Italy). By a new analytical approach based on Raman microspectroscopy, 28 different minerals with contents from the percent range down to 100 ppm were identified. Inclusion of knowledge from neighbouring disciplines made possible to read out the information about the type and provenance of the raw materials, synthesis and application of the pigment and ageing of the paint layer preserved in the previously not accessible trace components, and thus to reconstruct the individual "biography" of the Egyptian blue from St. Peter. This paradigm shift in the research history of Egyptian blue provided natural scientific evidences for the production in the northern Phlegraean fields (agreement with trace minerals found in the beach sands at the Gulf of Gaeta), the use of a sulphidic copper ore (instead of often-mentioned metallic copper or bronze), and plant ash as flux in the raw material mixture. Furthermore, indications for a synthesis predominated by solid state reactions were found, while the melting of the raw materials into glass most likely played a negligible role.
A follow-up study on Roman Imperial pigment balls excavated in Aventicum and Augusta Raurica (Switzerland; first to third century AD) confirmed the results in 2022. The consistent composition of around 40 identified minerals establishes a connection to the northern Phlegraean Fields; a sulphidic copper ore and plant ash have also left their marks. Thus, the Roman production monopoly probably existed for centuries. In addition, the analyses revealed unwanted by-products of the synthesis, locally limited to microparticles on the sphere's surfaces, which can be traced back to suboptimal burning times or mixing ratios, respectively: a cuprorivaite with crystal defects in its layer structure and a copper-bearing green glass phase, characterised by Raman spectroscopy for the first time.
Modern applications
Egyptian blue's extremely powerful and long-lived infrared luminescence under visible light has enabled its presence to be detected on objects which appear unpainted to the human eye. This property has also been used to identify traces of the pigment on paintings produced as late as the sixteenth century, long after its use was presumed to have died out. The luminescence in the near-infrared, where neither fat nor hemoglobin show high absorption coefficients, in conjunction with the capacity of Egyptian blue to delaminate by splitting into nanosheets after immersion in water, also indicates it may have several high-technology applications, such as in biomedicine (e.g. bioimaging), telecommunications, laser technology, and security inks.
Researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory discovered that Egyptian blue pigment absorbs visible light, and emits light in the near-infrared range. This suggests that Egyptian blue pigment could be used in construction materials designed to cool rooftops and walls in sunny climates, and for tinting glass to improve photovoltaic cell performance.
See also
References
Further reading
Dayton, J. 1978, Minerals, Metals, Glazing & Man, or, Who Was Sesostris I? London: Harrap. .
Lucas, A. & Harris. J.R. [1948] 1999, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. Dover books on Egypt. Mineola, N.Y. : Dover. .
Noll, W. 1981, Mineralogy and technology of the painted ceramics of ancient Egypt. In: M.J. Huges (ed.) Scientific studies in ancient ceramics. Occasional paper 19. London : British Museum, .
Rehren, Th. & Pusch, E.B. & Herold, A. 1998, Glass coloring works within a copper-centered industrial complex in Late Bronze Age Egypt. In: McCray, P (ed), The prehistory and history of glassmaking technology. Ceramics and Civilization 8. Westerville, OH: American Ceramic Society.
Riederer, J. 1997, Egyptian Blue. In: E.W. Fitzhugh, (ed.), Artists’ pigments 3: 23–45. Oxford university Press.
Tite, M.S. 1985, Egyptian blue, faience and related materials: technological investigations. In: R.E. Jones & H.W. Catling (eds.) Science in Archaeology: Proceedings of a Meeting Held at the British School at Athens, January 1985. London : Leopard's Head. .
Warner, T.E. 2011, Artificial Cuprorivaite CaCuSi4O10 (Egyptian Blue) by a Salt-Flux Method. In: Terence E. Warner, Synthesis, Properties and Mineralogy of Important Inorganic Materials, 26–49. Chichester: Wiley. .
Wiedemann, H.G., Bayer, G. & Reller, A. 1998, Egyptian blue and Chinese blue. Production technologies and applications of two historically important blue pigments. In: S. Colinart & M. Menu (eds.), La couleur dans la peinture et lémaillage de l’Egypte Ancienne. Scienze e materiali del patrimonio culturale 4. Bari: Edipuglia. .
External links
Egyptian blue, ColourLex
Egyptian Blue, Pigments through the ages
4th-millennium BC establishments
Inorganic pigments
Silicates
Calcium compounds
Copper(II) compounds
Shades of blue
Ancient Egypt
Naqada III
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ONCE%20%28cycling%20team%29
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ONCE (cycling team)
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ONCE cycling team, () also known as Liberty Seguros, Liberty Seguros–Würth and in succession in its final year, Astana–Würth and Astana was a Spanish cycling team. It competed in the UCI ProTour circuit.
On 25 May 2006, Liberty Mutual ("seguros" means "insurance" in Spanish) pulled out of primary sponsorship due to a doping scandal involving the directeur sportif, Manolo Saiz. On 2 June 2006, the team acquired a primary sponsor named Astana, after the capital of Kazakhstan. Würth was co-sponsor until 3 July 2006, withdrawing at the end of the 2006 Tour de France, in which didn't compete . At the end of the season, Astana also withdrew due to the non-participation in the Tour. On 16 December 2006, the UCI withdrew the ProTour licence of Saiz's company, Active Bay .
Some riders and staff formed the Kazakhstan-based Astana Team.
History
ONCE
The team traces its lineage to the Spanish team, ONCE, sponsored by a lottery for the blind. Manolo Saiz, one of few managers who was not a former rider, introduced more professional management, closer supervision in coaching, equipment and training. In the 2003 Vuelta he was banned from the race after insulting a motorcycle-mounted TV cameraman, his comments broadcast live.
ONCE team was known for its association with Laurent Jalabert and Alex Zülle in the 1990s, dominating spring races such as Paris–Nice, La Flèche Wallonne and the Tour de Romandie. The team won the Vuelta a España in 1995, 1996 and 1997. It dominated the 1995 Vuelta with Jalabert winning overall, the points competition and the mountains. It was also best team, with Johan Bruyneel third. ONCE team in the Tour de France had stage wins from Jalabert and domination in the team time trial.
Zülle won the Vuelta in 1996 and 1997 but left the team in 1998. The team signed the 1998 winner and individual time trial specialist, Abraham Olano, who challenged in the 1999 Vuelta but never won a second Grand Tour. Joseba Beloki became leader and challenged Armstrong in the 2002 and 2003 Tours.
Isidro Nozal led the 2003 Vuelta until Roberto Heras took the lead on the penultimate day. ONCE's sponsorship was so successful that brand penetration was 100% in Spain, meaning every Spaniard surveyed knew ONCE. At the end of 2003 ONCE stopped sponsorship. Saiz obtained a new sponsor, Liberty Mutual. Most of the riders stayed, including Isidro Nozal and Igor González de Galdeano. Saiz signed Heras; he did not perform well at the 2004 Tour de France but won the 2004 Vuelta after a battle with Santiago Pérez.
Liberty Seguros
In the 2005 the team started with wins in the Tour Down Under through Alberto Contador and Luis León Sánchez. In the 2005 Tour the team won the stage to Mende courtesy of Marcos Antonio Serrano, reminiscent of Laurent Jalabert's win in 1995.
Alexander Vinokourov joined in 2006 for three seasons to challenge for top finish in the Tour de France. Fellow Kazakhstan riders Andrei Kashechkin, formerly of Crédit Agricole, and Sergei Yakovlev also joined.
On 25 November, Roberto Heras was fired after a urine sample from the 2005 Vuelta a España, which he had won, tested positive for the blood-boosting drug EPO. Heras was stripped of what would have been a record-breaking fourth win and banned for two years.
Sponsorship Changes and 2006 Season
On 23 May 2006, Saiz was arrested in relation to the Operación Puerto blood doping scandal. Liberty Mutual retracted sponsorship on 25 May 2006, promising only to finance current obligations. On 2 June 2006, the team acquired a new primary sponsor – named Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan – for three years, with an option to extend to six. It was headed by a consortium of five Kazakh companies. Long before Saiz was ensnared in Operación Puerto, the team had been notorious for doping dating back to its days as ONCE, and was considered one of the dirtiest teams in the European peloton.
On June 30, 2006, Astana-Würth was excluded from the 2006 Tour de France after five riders were implicated in a doping scandal, leaving Vinokourov with three remaining teammates, below the minimum six for the Tour. Würth stopped its commitment on 3 of July.
On 26 July 2006, the five riders excluded from the Tour were cleared by Spanish officials, and the team returned to competition at the Tour of Germany in August, Assan Bazayev winning the first stage. One rider, Joseba Beloki, would never ride a professional race again.
At the end of 2006, Saiz listed Astana as his team's backer. Astana also claimed to have withdrawn support due to non-participation in the Tour. On 16 December 2006, the UCI withdrew the ProTour license of Saiz's Active Bay company.
Major victories
1989
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Pello Ruiz Cabestany
Stage 5b, Pello Ruiz Cabestany
Stage 1 Vuelta al País Vasco, Johnny Weltz
National Road Race Championships, Johnny Weltz
Stage 10 Vuelta a España, Herminio Díaz Zabala
Stage 5 Vuelta a Burgos, Pedro Muñoz Machín Rodríguez
1990
Overall Vuelta a Andalucia, Eduardo Chozas
Mountains classification, Miguel Ángel Martínez
Stage 4, Eduardo Chozas
Stage 6, Kenneth Weltz
Stage 3b (TTT), Celestino Prieto, Pedro Luis Díaz Zabala & Eduardo Chozas
Stages 1 & 20 Vuelta a España, Pello Ruiz Cabestany
Stage 3 Giro d'Italia, Eduardo Chozas
Stage 13 Tour de France, Eduardo Chozas
Stage 14 Tour de France, Marino Lejarreta
Overall Escalada a Montjuich, Marino Lejarreta
Stage 1b, Marino Lejarreta
Overall Vuelta a Burgos, Marino Lejarreta
Stages 2 & 4, Marino Lejarreta
Clásica a los Puertos de Guadarrama, Stephen Hodge
1991
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Melchor Mauri
Stage 1, José Luis Villanueva
Stages 3 & 6, Melchor Mauri
Overall Vuelta a Murcia, José Luis Villanueva
Stage 4a, Eduardo Chozas
Overall Vuelta a España, Melchor Mauri
Stages 1, 8 & 19, Melchor Mauri
Stage 2b (TTT)
Stage 3 Tour de Romandie, Stephen Hodge
Stage 5 Giro d'Italia, Marino Lejarreta
Stage 13 Giro d'Italia, Eduardo Chozas
Biel-Bienne–Magglingen, Stephen Hodge
1992
Overall Vuelta a Andalucia, Miguel Ángel Martínez
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Melchor Mauri
Stage 5b, Melchor Mauri
Stage 4 Vuelta a Murcia, Melchor Mauri
Stage 1 Critérium International, Stephen Hodge
Stage 12 Vuelta a España, Johan Bruyneel
Stages 2, 5a & 7 Volta a Catalunya, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 4 Volta a Catalunya, Alex Zülle
Points classification Tour de France, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 6, Laurent Jalabert
Biel-Bienne–Magglingen, Stephen Hodge
Stage 1 Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Melchor Mauri
Stage 3 Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Kenneth Weltz
Decazeville Criterium, Philippe Louviot
Coppa Placci, Johan Bruyneel
Grand Prix des Nations, Johan Bruyneel
Overall Escalada a Montjuich, Alex Zülle
Stage 1a, Alex Zülle
Subida a Txitxarro, Marino Lejarreta
1993
Stage 1 Vuelta a Andalucia, Juan Llaneras
Trofeo Luis Puig, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2 Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Erik Breukink
Stage 6 Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Paris–Nice, Alex Zülle
Stages 1 & 8b, Alex Zülle
Stage 3 (TTT)
Stage 8a, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Critérium International, Erik Breukink
Stage 3, Erik Breukink
Stages 1, 6 & 21 Vuelta a España, Alex Zülle
Stages 3 & 7 Vuelta a España, Laurent Jalabert
Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Critérium du Dauphiné, Laurent Dufaux
Stage 5, Laurent Dufaux
Stage 6 Tour de France, Johan Bruyneel
Trofeo Comunidad Foral de Navarra, Johnny Weltz
Geraardsbergen, Criterium, Johan Bruyneel
Stages 3 & 4 Volta a Catalunya, Laurent Jalabert
Aalsmeer Criterium, Erik Breukink
Overall Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 1, Kiko García
Stages 2 & 3, Laurent Jalabert
1994
Stage 2 Vuelta a Murcia, Herminio Díaz Zabala
Points classification Vuelta a España, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 2, 3, 5, 12, 13, 16 & 20, Laurent Jalabert
Classique des Alpes, Oliviero Rincón
Overall Critérium du Dauphiné, Laurent Dufaux
Stage 5 GP du Midi-Libre, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 3 Vuelta a los Valles Mineros, Santos Hernández
Stage 1 Volta a Catalunya, Alex Zülle
Stage 5 Volta a Catalunya, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 3 Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Johan Bruyneel
Paris–Tours U23, Nicolas Jalabert
1995
Overall Bay Cycling Classic, Neil Stephens
Stages 1, 3 & 4, Neil Stephens
National Road Race Championships, Neil Stephens
Overall Summer Tour
Stages 1, 4, 5 & 6, Neil Stephens
Overall Vuelta a Mallorca, Alex Zülle
Stage 2, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Alex Zülle
Stage 2a, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2b, Alex Zülle
Overall Paris–Nice, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2, Laurent Jalabert
Milan–San Remo, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5b Setmana Catalana de Ciclismo, Alex Zülle
Overall Critérium International, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1 & 2, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta al País Vasco, Alex Zülle
Stages 3 & 5b, Alex Zülle
Klasika Primavera, Laurent Jalabert
La Flèche Wallonne, Laurent Jalabert
Calais Criterium, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 3 GP du Midi-Libre, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 14 Giro d'Italia, Oliviero Rincón
Stage 5 GP du Midi-Libre, Johan Bruyneel
Stage 4 part b Euskal Bizikleta, Alex Zülle
Stages 1 & 6 Tour de Suisse, Alex Zülle
Overall Volta a Catalunya, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1 & 7, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 6, Melchor Mauri
National Time Trial Championships, Melchor Mauri
Points classification Tour de France, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 7, Johan Bruyneel
Stage 9, Alex Zülle
Stage 12, Laurent Jalabert
Aalst Criterium, Johan Bruyneel
Profronde Stiphout, Erik Breukink
Villafranca de Ordizia, Neil Stephens
Ronde des Korrigans, Laurent Jalabert
Bol d'or des Monédières, Laurent Jalabert
Château-Chinon Criterium, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 3 Volta a Galicia, Laurent Jalabert
Circuit de l'Aulne, Laurent Jalabert
National Time Trial Championships, Erik Breukink
Overall Vuelta a España
Points classification, Laurent Jalabert
Mountains classification, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 3, 5, 8, 15 & 17, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 16, Alex Zülle
Toulouse criterium, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Alquerias del Niño Perdido, Omnium, Kiko García
Overall Playa de Aro Omnium, Juan Llaneras
Stage 1a, Juan Llaneras
Overall L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Criterium, Melchor Mauri
Overall Leganés, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Alcobendas, Laurent Jalabert
Overall UCI Road Ranking, Laurent Jalabert
1996
Stage 4 Bay Cycling Classic, Patrick Jonker
Classic Haribo, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta a Andalucia, Neil Stephens
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 1, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5b Melchor Mauri
Overall Vuelta a Murcia, Melchor Mauri
Stage 5, Melchor Mauri
Overall Paris–Nice, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 3 & 4
Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclismo, Alex Zülle
Stages 3 & 5b
Trofeo Comunidad Foral de Navarra, Alex Zülle
Stage 1 Vuelta al País Vasco, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5a Vuelta al País Vasco, Neil Stephens
Overall Vuelta a Aragón, Melchor Mauri
Stage 2, Aitor Garmendia
Stage 4b, Melchor Mauri
Stage 3 Vuelta a Asturias, David Etxebarria
Overall GP du Midi-Libre, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 2 & 5, Laurent Jalabert
Classique des Alpes, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Roberto Sierra
Overall Volta a Catalunya, Alex Zülle
Prologue, Stages 3 & 6, Alex Zülle
Stage 4, Patrick Jonker
Overall Route du Sud, Laurent Jalabert
Prologue Tour de France, Alex Zülle
GP Llodio, David Etxebarria
Overall Tour de l'Avenir, David Etxebarria
Overall Vuelta a España, Alex Zülle
Points classification, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 3 & 13, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 15, Alex Zülle
Stage 17, Oliviero Rincón
UCI Road World Championships, Time Trial, Alex Zülle
UCI Road Ranking, Laurent Jalabert
1997
Trofeo Soller, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Challenge Mallorca, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Paris–Nice, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1 & 6, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Critérium International, Marcelino García
Stage 2, Marcelino García
Stage 3, Aitor Garmendia
Trofeo Comunidad Foral de Navarra, Mikel Zarrabeitia
Vuelta al País Vasco, Alex Zülle
Stages 2 & 4, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5b, Alex Zülle
Circuit Cycliste Sarthe, Melchor Mauri
Stage 4, Melchor Mauri
Klasika Primavera, Mikel Zarrabeitia
La Flèche Wallonne, Laurent Jalabert
Vuelta a Aragón, Aitor Garmendia
Stage 3, Mikel Zarrabeitia
Stage 4b, Aitor Garmendia
Volta ao Alentejo, Aitor Garmendia
Stage 5, Aitor Garmendia
Stage 3 Vuelta a los Valles Mineros, David Etxebarria
Stage 6 Tour de Suisse, David Etxebarria
Callac Criterium, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 1 Vuelta Castilla y Leon, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Volta a Galicia, Aitor Garmendia
Stage 3b, Aitor Garmendia
Overall Vuelta a Burgos, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta a España, Alex Zülle
Points classification, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 6 & 20, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 9, Melchor Mauri
Stage 21, Alex Zülle
1997 UCI Road World Championships, Time Trial, Laurent Jalabert
Milano–Torino, Laurent Jalabert
Giro di Lombardia, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Escalada a Montjuich, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1a & 1b, Laurent Jalabert
UCI Road Ranking, Laurent Jalabert
1998
Overall Vuelta a Andalucia, Marcelino García
Stage 3, Marcelino García
Tour du Haut-Var, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2 Paris–Nice, David Etxebarria
Stage 1 Vuelta al País Vasco , Laurent Jalabert
Overall Circuit Cycliste Sarthe, Melchor Mauri
Stage 4, Melchor Mauri
Overall Vuelta al País Vasco, Iñigo Cuesta
Stage 5b, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Volta ao Alentejo, Melchor Mauri
Stage 5, Melchor Mauri
Overall Vuelta a Asturias, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1 & 6, Laurent Jalabert
GP du Midi-Libre, Melchor Mauri
Stages 3 & 4a Euskal Bizikleta, Laurent Jalabert
Classique des Alpes, Laurent Jalabert
Prologue, Stages 3 & 8, Tour de Suisse, Laurent Jalabert
National Road Championships, Road Race, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 3 Volta a Galicia, Rafael Díaz Justo
Subida a Txitxarro, Alberto Leanizbarrutia
L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Criterium, Melchor Mauri
1999
Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclismo, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5b, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta al País Vasco, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 1 & 5b, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Tour de Romandie, Laurent Jalabert
Prologue, Stages 2 & 3b, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 2b Vuelta a Asturias, Abraham Olano
Overall Euskal Bizikleta, David Etxebarria
Stage 4b, Abraham Olano
Points classification Giro d'Italia, Laurent Jalabert
Stages 4 & 9 , Laurent Jalabert
Stage 16, Laurent Jalabert
Prologue Tour de Suisse, Laurent Jalabert
National Road Championships, Time Trial, Santos González
Stages 12 & 16 Tour de France, David Etxebarria
Clasica a los Puertos, Miguel Ángel Martín
Trofeo Luis Ocana, José Luis Rebollo
Overall Volta a Galicia, Marcos Serrano
Stage 5, Marcos Serrano
Overall Vuelta a Burgos, Abraham Olano
Stage 1, Abraham Olano
Stage 2, Miguel Ángel Martín
Stage 6 Vuelta a España, Abraham Olano
UCI Road Ranking, Laurent Jalabert
2000
Overall Tour Méditerranéen, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Vuelta a Andalucia, Miguel Ángel Peña
Stage 3, Miguel Ángel Peña
Overall Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana, Abraham Olano
Stage 5b, Abraham Olano
Overall Vuelta a Murcia, David Cañada
Stages 4 & 5, David Cañada
Overall Tirreno–Adriatico, Abraham Olano
Stage 3, Laurent Jalabert
Stage 5, Abraham Olano
Overall Critérium International, Abraham Olano
Stage 4 Vuelta al País Vasco, Laurent Jalabert
Overall Circuit Cycliste Sarthe, David Cañada
Stage 4, David Cañada
Stage 2 Euskal Bizikleta, David Etxebarria
Stage 6 Critérium du Dauphiné, Iñigo Cuesta
Stage 7 Critérium du Dauphiné Laurent Jalabert
Stage 1 (TTT) Volta a Catalunya, Santos González
National Road Championships, Time Trial, José Iván Gutiérrez
Stage 1 Vuelta Castilla y Leon, Santos González
Stage 3 Volta a Galicia, David Etxebarria
Mountains classification Vuelta a España, Carlos Sastre
Stage 9, Abraham Olano
Stage 21, Santos González
2001
Stage 3 Volta ao Algarve, José Azevedo
Overall GP Mosqueteiros - Rota do Marquês, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 4, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 2a (TTT) GP Internacional MR Cortez-Mitsubishi
Overall Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Abraham Olano
Stage 3, Jan Hruška
Stage 3 Vuelta a Asturias, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 1 Euskal Bizikleta, Mikel Zarrabeitia
National Road Championships, Time Trial, José Azevedo
Overall Volta a Catalunya, Joseba Beloki
Stage 1 (TTT)
Stage 8, Joseba Beloki
National Road Championships, Time Trial, Santos González
National Road Championships, Road Race, José Iván Gutiérrez
Overall Vuelta Castilla y Leon, Marcos Serrano
Stage 3 Vuelta a Burgos, Carlos Sastre
Stage 9 Vuelta a España, Igor González De Galdeano
Overall GP CTT Correios de Portugal, José Iván Gutiérrez
Overall Escalada a Montjuich, Joaquim Rodríguez
Stage 1a, Joaquim Rodríguez
2002
Stage 5 Volta ao Algarve, Jan Hruška
Stage 5 Vuelta a Murcia, René Andrle
Stage 3 Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Isidro Nozal
Stage 3 GP du Midi-Libre, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 4b Euskal Bizikleta, Mikel Zarrabeitia
Overall Deutschland Tour, Igor González De Galdeano
Overall Euskal Bizikleta, Mikel Zarrabeitia
Stage 5, Joseba Beloki
National Road Championships, Time Trial, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 4 Tour de France, Abraham Olano
Villafranca de Ordizia, Mikel Zarrabeitia
Stage 3 (TTT) Vuelta a Burgos, David Arroyo
Stage 1 (TTT) Vuelta a España, Jörg Jaksche
Stage 8 Tour de l'Avenir, Xavier Florencio
Overall Escalada a Montjuich, Joseba Beloki
Stage 1a, Joseba Beloki
2003
Stage 5 Tour Down Under, Giampaolo Caruso
Trofeo Manacor, Allan Davis
Stage 6 Paris–Nice, Joaquim Rodríguez
Stage 2 Vuelta al País Vasco, Ángel Vicioso
Stage 4 Circuit Cycliste Sarthe, Allan Davis
Stage 3 Vuelta Ciclista a la Rioja, Jan Hruška
Overall Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Joseba Beloki
Stage 3, Joseba Beloki
Stage 5 Deutschland Tour, José Azevedo
Stage 5 Euskal Bizikleta, Joseba Beloki
Stage 7 Volta a Catalunya, Ángel Vicioso
Stage 1 Vuelta a España, Igor González De Galdeano
Stage 6 Vuelta a España, Isidro Nozal
Stage 8 Tour de Pologne, Alberto Contador
Stage 8 Vuelta a España, Joaquim Rodríguez
Stage 13 Vuelta a España, Isidro Nozal
Noosa Criterium, Allan Davis
2004
Trofeo Palma de Mallorca, Allan Davis
Trofeo Alcudia, Allan Davis
Terezin Criterium, René Andrle
Overall Vuelta Castilla y Leon, Koldo Gil
Stage 3 Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Luis León Sánchez
Stage 1 Vuelta a Asturias, Luis León Sánchez
Stage 3 Vuelta a Asturias, Carlos Barredo
Stage 5 Deutschland Tour, Allan Davis
Overall Euskal Bizikleta, Roberto Heras
Stages 3 & 4b, Ángel Vicioso
Points classification Tour de Pologne, Allan Davis
Stage 3, Allan Davis
Overall Vuelta a España, Roberto Heras
Combination classification, Roberto Heras
Stage 12, Roberto Heras
Milano–Torino, Marcos Serrano
Giro del Piemonte, Allan Davis
South Bank GP, Allan Davis
2005
National Road Championships, Criterium, Allan Davis
Overall Tour Down Under, Luis León Sánchez
Stage 3, Luis León Sánchez
Stage 5, Alberto Contador
Overall Vuelta a Murcia, Koldo Gil
Stages 3 & 5, Allan Davis
Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclismo, Alberto Contador
Stage 3, Alberto Contador
Stage 5b Vuelta al País Vasco, Alberto Contador
Klasika Primavera, David Etxebarria
Stage 5 Vuelta a Aragón, Allan Davis
Stage 4 Tour de Romandie, Alberto Contador
Stage 3 Clásica Internacional de Alcobendas y Villalba, Luis León Sánchez
Stage 7 Giro d'Italia, Koldo Gil
Stages 1 & 4a Euskal Bizikleta, Ángel Vicioso
Stage 18 Tour de France, Marcos Serrano
Points classification Benelux Tour, Allan Davis
Stage 3, Allan Davis
Stages 6 & 15 Vuelta a España, Roberto Heras
Stage 4 Tour de l'Avenir, Koen De Kort
G.P. Jatorena, Roberto Heras
2006
Stages 2 & 5 Tour Down Under, Allan Davis
Stage 3 Tour Down Under, Carlos Barredo
Stage 6 Paris–Nice , Andrey Kashechkin
Mountains classification Tirreno–Adriatico, José Joaquín Rojas
Overall Vuelta Castilla y Leon, Alexandre Vinokourov
Stage 5, Alexandre Vinokourov
Stage 3 Tour de Romandie, Alberto Contador
Stage 4 Tour de Suisse, Ángel Vicioso
National Road Championships, Road Race, Andrey Kashechkin
Stage 8 Tour de Suisse, Alberto Contador
Stage 1 Deutschland Tour, Assan Bazayev
Stage 1 Vuelta a Burgos, Aaron Kemps
Overall Vuelta a España, Alexandre Vinokourov
Stages 8, 9 & 20, Alexandre Vinokourov
Stage 10, Sérgio Paulinho
Stage 18, Andrey Kashechkin
Noosa Criterium, Allan Davis
Notable riders
References
External links
Defunct cycling teams based in Spain
Cycling teams established in 1989
Cycling teams disestablished in 2006
Former UCI WorldTeams
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5399584
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20German%20names%20for%20places%20in%20the%20Czech%20Republic
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List of German names for places in the Czech Republic
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The names of places in what is today the Czech Republic have evolved during their history. The list concerns primarily the settlements, but bilingual names for significant mountains and rivers are also listed. Places are sorted alphabetically according to their German names.
Many of the German names are now exonyms, but used to be endonyms commonly used by the local German population, who had lived in many of these places until shortly after World War II.
Until 1866, the only official language of the Austrian Empire administration was German. Some place names were merely Germanized versions of the original Czech names, as seen e.g. from their etymology. The compromise of 1867 marked a recognition of the need for bilingualism in areas where an important portion of the population used another language; the procedure was imposed by official instructions in 1871.
Explanatory notes
For each settlement, it is stated in which municipality it is located according to the current division. The following abbreviations are used:
* – extinct (indicating that the settlement no longer exists)
MTA – military training area (belonging to one of the four military areas in the country, which are the only areas not incorporated to any municipality)
p. of – administrative part of the municipality that follows
A
Aag: Doubí, p. of Třebeň
Abaschin: Závišín, p. of Zádub-Závišín
Abdank: Adámky, now Loučovice*
Abertham: Abertamy
Abtsroth: Opatov, p. of Luby (Cheb District)
Abtsdorf bei Zwittau: Opatov
Adamsfreiheit: Hůrky, p. of Nová Bystřice
Adamstadt: Adamov (České Budějovice District)
Adamsthal:
Adamov (Blansko District)
Adamov, p. of Trutnov
Adamov, now Karlovice (Bruntál District)*
Adelsdorf: Adolfovice, p. of Bělá pod Pradědem
Adersbach: Adršpach
Adlerdörfel: Orličky
Adlerhütte: Samoty, now Horní Vltavice*
Adlerkosteletz: Kostelec nad Orlicí
Admannsdorf: Adamov (Kutná Hora District)
Adolfsgrün: Adolfov, now Telnice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Ahornhütte: Javory
Ahornsäge: Javoří Pila, now Modrava*
Ahlkirschen: Bílá Třemešná
Ahrendorf: Pavlov, now Klášterec nad Ohří*
Aich: Doubí, p. of Karlovy Vary
Aichen: Horní Sukolom, p. of Uničov
Ainsersdorf: Jednov, p. of Suchdol (Prostějov District)
Albendorf: Bělá u Jevíčka
Alberitz:
Albeřice, p. of Verušičky
Malměřice, p. of Blatno (Louny District)
Albern: Albeř, p. of Nová Bystřice
Albernhof: Alberov, now Královské Poříčí*
Albersdorf:
Albrechtice (Karviná District)
Písařova Vesce, p. of Lesná (Tachov District)
Albersdörfer Brand: Milíře
Albrechtitz:
Albrechtice (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Albrechtice, p. of Malešov
Albrechtsschlag: Albrechtovice, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Albrechtsdorf: Albrechtice v Jizerských horách
Alfredshof: Alfrédov, now Kostelec (Tachov District)
Algersdorf: Valkeřice
Allenkowitz: Halenkovice
Allerheiligen: Vyšehorky, p. of Líšnice (Šumperk District)
Allusch: Záluží, p. of Přídolí
Aloisdorf: Alojzov
Alschowitz: Alšovice, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Altalbenreuth: Mýtina, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Alt Benatek: Benátky nad Jizerou II
Alt Biela: Stará Bělá, p. of Ostrava
Alt Bohmen: Stará Bohyně, p. of Malšovice
Altbrunst: Starý Brunst, now Čachrov*
Altbunzlau: Stará Boleslav
Alt Bürgersdorf: Staré Purkartice, p. of Hošťálkovy
Altdorf: Stará Ves, now Hradiště MTA*
Alt Ehrenberg: Staré Křečany
Altenberg: Staré Hory, p. of Jihlava
Altenbuch: Staré Buky
Altenburg: Staré Hrady
Altendorf:
Stará Ves (Bruntál District)
Stará Ves (Přerov District)
Stará Ves, p. of Stará Ves nad Ondřejnicí
Stará Ves, p. of Vysoké nad Jizerou
Staré Oldřůvky, p. of Budišov nad Budišovkou
Altengrün: Dolní Nivy
Altenteich: Starý Rybník, p. of Skalná
Alt Erbersdorf: Staré Heřminovy
Altfürstenhütte: Stará Knížecí Huť, p. of Lesná (Tachov District)
Alt Georgswalde: Starý Jiříkov, p. of Jiříkov
Alt Grafenwalde: Staré Hraběcí, p. of Velký Šenov
Alt-Grammatin: Mutěnín
Althabendorf (Alt-Habendorf): Stráž nad Nisou
Althammer: Staré Hamry
Althart: Staré Hobzí
Alt Harzdorf: Liberec XV-Starý Harcov
Alt Hrosenkau: Starý Hrozenkov
Althütten:
Stará Huť
Stará Huť, now Ktiš*
Stará Huť, p. of Nemanice
Staré Hutě
Staré Hutě, p. of Horní Stropnice
Alt Hwiezdlitz: Staré Hvězdlice, p. of Hvězdlice
Altkinsberg: Starý Hrozňatov, now Cheb
Alt-Kolin: Starý Kolín
Altleipa: Stará Lípa, p. of Česká Lípa
Altliebe: Stará Libavá, p. of Norberčany
Alt Moletein: Starý Maletín, p. of Maletín
Alt Oderberg: Starý Bohumín, p. of Bohumín
Alt Ohlisch: Stará Oleška, p. of Huntířov
Altpaka: Stará Paka
Alt Parisau: Starý Pařezov, p. of Pařezov
Alt Paulsdorf: Liberec XII-Staré Pavlovice
Alt Petrein: Starý Petřín
Altpocher: Stoupa, now Lesná (Tachov District)*
Alt Prachatitz: Staré Prachatice, p. of Prachatice
Alt Prennet: Starý Spálenec, p. of Česká Kubice
Alt Raunek: Starý Rounek, now Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Alt Raußnitz: Rousínovec, p. of Rousínov
Alt Reisch: Stará Říše
Alt Rognitz: Starý Rokytník, p. of Trutnov
Alt Rohlau: Stará Role, p. of Karlovy Vary
Alt Rothwasser: Stará Červená Voda
Altsattel:
Staré Sedlo, p. of Orlík nad Vltavou
Staré Sedlo (Tachov District)
Altsattl:
Staré Sedlo (Sokolov District)
Staré Sedlo, p. of Teplá
Alt Schallersdorf: Starý Šaldorf, now Znojmo*
Alt Schokau: Starý Šachov
Alt Sedlowitz: Starý Sedloňov, now Velké Svatoňovice
Altspitzenberg: Starý Špičák, now Boletice MTA*
Altstadt:
Stará Ves, p. of Bílovec
Děčín III-Staré Město
Staré Město (Bruntál District)
Staré Město (Frýdek-Místek District)
Staré Město (Svitavy District)
Staré Město, p. of Karviná
Staré Město, p. of Náchod
Staré Město, p. of Třinec
Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Altstadt bei Ungarisch Hradisch: Staré Město (Uherské Hradiště District)
Alt Steindorf: Starý Hubenov, now Hubenov
Alt Tabor: Sezimovo Ústí
Alt Thein (Altthein): Starý Týn, p. of Úštěk
Alttitschein (Alt Titschein): Starý Jičín
Alt Traubendorf (Alt Hrosenkau): Starý Hrozenkov
Alt Turkowitz: Staré Dobrkovice, p. of Kájov
Altvatergebirge: Hrubý Jeseník (mountain range)
Altvater: Praděd (mountain)
Alt Vogelseifen: Stará Rudná, p. of Rudná pod Pradědem
Altwasser:
Stará Voda (Cheb District)
Stará Voda, p. of Světlá Hora
Alt Wiklantitz: Staré Vyklantice, p. of Vyklantice
Alt Zechsdorf: Staré Těchanovice
Alt Zedlisch: Staré Sedliště
Amalienfeld: Amalín, p. of Slezské Rudoltice
Amonsgrün: Úbočí, p. of Dolní Žandov
Amplatz: Oplotec, p. of Horšovský Týn
Amschelberg: Kosova Hora
Andersdorf:
Ondrášov, p. of Moravský Beroun
Ondřejov, p. of Rýmařov
Andreasberg: Ondřejov, now Boletice MTA*
Andreasdorf: Ondřejov (Pelhřimov District)
Angel: Úhlava (river)
Angern: Bujanov
Anischau: Úněšov
Annadorf:
Anenská Ves, p. of Krajková
Annín, p. of Tovačov
Annathal: Annín, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Antiegelhof: Antýgl, now Srní
Antoniendorf: Cihelna, p. of Hlavňovice
Antonienhöhe: Antonínova Výšina, p. of Vojtanov
Antonienthal: Antonínův Důl, p. of Jihlava
Antoniwald: Antonínov, p. of Josefův Důl (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Antoschowitz: Antošovice, p. of Ostrava
Arbesau: Varvažov, p. of Telnice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Archlebau: Archlebov
Arletzgrün: Arnoldov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Arnau: Hostinné
Arnitzgrün (Arnetzgrün): Arnoltov, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Arnsdorf: Arnoltice
Arnoltice, p. of Bulovka
Arnultovice, p. of Jindřichov (Bruntál District)
Arnultovice, p. of Nový Bor
Arnultovice, p. of Rudník (Trutnov District)
Arnultovice, p. of Velké Chvojno
Artholz: Artolec, p. of Nová Bystřice
Asch: Aš
Aschendorf: Okřešice, p. of Česká Lípa
Aspendorf: Osikov, p. of Bratrušov
Atschau: Úhošťany, p. of Kadaň
Attes: Zátes, now Přídolí*
Au: Loužek, p. of Cheb
Aubeln: Úblo, p. of Brumovice (Opava District)
Aubotschen (Aubotsch): Úboč
Audechen: Zálužice, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Audishorn: Útěchovice, p. of Hamr na Jezeře
Aue: Luhy, p. of Horní Benešov
Auern: Návary, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Augezd:
Újezd (Olomouc District)
Újezd (Zlín District)
Újezd, p. of Mohelnice
Augiesel: Újezd, p. of Trmice
Auherschitz:
Uhřice (Kroměříž District)
Uhřice (Hodonín District)
Auhertschitz: Úherčice
Auhertz: Úherce (Louny District)
Aujezd ob der Mies: Újezd nade Mží
Aujest bei Hochfeld: Újezd (Zlín District)
Aujestel: Újezdec, p. of Bolešiny
Aujestetz:
Újezdec (Prachatice District)
Újezdec (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Aumonin: Úmonín
Auperschin: Úpořiny, p. of Bystřany
Auporsch: Úpoř, p. of Světec
Auras: Úraz, p. of Nemyšl
Auretz: Úherce (Louny District)
Aurim (Groß Aurim): Uhřínov, p. of Liberk
Aurinowes (Aurschinewes): Prague 22-Uhříněves
Auscha: Úštěk
Auschitz: Úžice (Mělník District)
Auschowitz: Úšovice, p. of Mariánské Lázně
Auspitz: Hustopeče
Aussee: Úsov
Außergefild: Kvilda
Aussig: Ústí nad Labem
Austerlitz: Slavkov u Brna
Autieschau: Útěšov, p. of Bavorov
Autschin: Ujčín, p. of Kolinec
Autschowa: Ohučov, p. of Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Auwal: Úvaly
B
Babe (Baby): Babí, p. of Náchod
Babilon: Babylon (Domažlice District)
Babina I: Babiny I, p. of Malečov
Babina II: Babiny II, p. of Homole u Panny
Babtschitz: Babčice, p. of Vodice (Tábor District)
Bachelsdorf: Děčín XXVI-Bechlejovice
Backofen an der Iser: Bakov nad Jizerou
Bad Bielohrad: Lázně Bělohrad
Bad Johannisbrunn: Jánské Koupele, p. of Staré Těchanovice
Bad Karlsbrunn: Karlova Studánka
Bad Königswart: Lázně Kynžvart
Bad Liebwerda: Lázně Libverda
Bad Lindewiese: Lipová-lázně
Bad Neudorf: Konstantinovy Lázně
Bad Schlag: Jablonecké Paseky, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Bad Sternberg: Lázně Šternberk, now Ledce (Kladno District)
Bad Wurzelsdorf: Kořenov
Badstübel: Podštěly, p. of Chyše
Bäckenhain: Pekařka, p. of Bílý Kostel nad Nisou
Baislowitz: Zbyslavice
Bärn: Moravský Beroun
Barnsdorf: Bernartice nad Odrou
Bärnsdorf an der Tafelfichte: Horní Řasnice
Bärnwald: Neratov v Orlických horách, now Bartošovice v Orlických horách
Bärringen: Pernink
Bakow an der Iser: Bakov nad Jizerou
Balklhota: Balkova Lhota
Banow: Bánov (Uherské Hradiště District)
Banowitz: Báňovice
Barau: Bavorov
Barchowitz: Barchovice
Barking: Borek, p. of Malšovice
Bartelsdorf:
Bartoňov, p. of Ruda nad Moravou
Bartovice, p. of Ostrava
Bartultovice, p. of Vysoká (Bruntál District)
Dřínov, now Most*
Barzdorf:
Bernartice (Jeseník District)
Božanov
(am Rollberge): Pertoltice pod Ralskem
Basberg: Hora Svatého Šebastiána
Baschka: Baška (Frýdek-Místek District)
Baschten: Holubovská Bašta, p. of Čakov (České Budějovice District)
Batschetin: Bačetín
Battelau: Batelov
Batzdorf:
Bartošovice v Orlických horách
Bartultovice, p. of Vysoká (Bruntál District)
Bauschenhof: Pouchov, p. of Hradec Králové
Bauschowitz (an der Eger): Bohušovice nad Ohří
Bausnitz: Bohuslavice, p. of Trutnov
Bautsch: Budišov nad Budišovkou
Bayerhof: Bajerov
Bechin (Beching): Bechyně
Becwar: Bečváry
Bedihoscht: Bedihošť
Bejscht (Beyscht): Býšť
Benatek: Benátky nad Jizerou
Beneschau:
Benešov
Benešovice
Dolní Benešov
Benetschlag: Bláto, now Boletice MTA*
Benhof: Beňovy, p. of Klatovy
Benke: Benkov, p. of Dlouhomilov
Benkowitz: Benkovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Bennisch: Horní Benešov
Bensen: Benešov nad Ploučnicí
Beraun: Beroun
Berg:
Hora Svatého Václava
Horka, p. of Nový Kostel
Bergau: Bergov, p. of Vlčice (Jeseník District)
Bergersdorf: Kamenná (Jihlava District)
Bergesgrün: Chudeřín, p. of Litvínov
Berggraben: Vrchová, now Bernartice (Trutnov District)
Berghäuseln: Hůrky, p. of Karlovy Vary
Bergjanowitz: Vrchotovy Janovice
Bergles: Bražec
Bergreichenstein: Kašperské Hory
Bergstadt: Horní Město
Bergstadt Platten: Horní Blatná
Bergstadtl:
Hory Matky Boží, p. of Velhartice
Ratibořské Hory
Berlau: Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Bernarditz: Bernartice (Písek District)
Bernau:
Bernov, p. of Krajková
Bernov, p. of Nejdek
Berneck: Pernek, p. of Horní Planá
Bernetzreith: Pernolec, p. of Částkov (Tachov District)
Bernhau: Barnov, now Libavá MTA*
Bernklau: Bezvěrov
Bernschlag:
Podlesí, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Nový Vojířov, p. of Nová Bystřice
Bernsdorf: Bernartice (Trutnov District)
Berzdorf:
Liberec XX-Ostašov
Pertoltice (Liberec District)
Besdiedowitz (Besdietowitz): Bezdědovice
Besdiekau (Bezdiekau):
Bezděkov (Klatovy District)
Bezděkov pod Třemšínem
Beseditz (Besseditz): Besedice, p. of Koberovy
Besikau: Bezděkov, p. of Toužim
Beskiden: Beskydy (mountain range)
Bessenitz: Besednice
Bestwin: Běstvina
Bettlern: Žebrák (Beroun District)
Bezdiek:
Bezděkov, p. of Žatec
Bezděkov u Úsova, p. of Úsov
Biberswald: Bobrovníky, p. of Hlučín
Biberteich: Bobrovník, p. of Lipová-lázně
Biebersdorf: Příbram, p. of Verneřice
Biechowitz: Prague-Běchovice
Biechtschin (Biechzin): Běštín
Biela:
Bělá (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Bělá (Pelhřimov District)
Česká Bělá
Děčín X-Bělá
Rohovládova Bělá
Bielau:
Bělá (Opava District)
Bílov (Nový Jičín District)
Bielenz: Bílence
Bieletsch: Běleč (Kladno District)
Bieloschitz: Bělušice (Most District)
Bieltsch:
Běleč (Brno-Country District)
Běleč (Tábor District)
Běleč, p. of Těšovice (Prachatice District)
Bieltscher Öd: Bělečská Lhota, p. of Těšovice (Prachatice District)
Bieltschitz: Bělčice
Bienendorf: Včelná
Bierbruck (Bierbrücke): Můstek, now Záblatí (Prachatice District)*
Bierloch: Brloh, p. of Louny
Bieschin (Beschin): Běšiny
Bieschtin: Běštín
Bilin: Bílina
Bilkau: Bílkov, p. of Dačice
Billowitz (Bilowitz):
Bílovice
Velké Bílovice
Binaberg: Vinná, p. of Křemže
Binowe: Byňov, p. of Homole u Panny
Binsdorf: Bynovec
Birgstein: Liberec IV-Perštýn
Birkau: Březí, p. of Čachrov
Birkenberg: Březové Hory, p. of Příbram
Birkenhaid: Březová Lada, p. of Horní Vltavice*
Birkigt: Děčín XXVII-Březiny
Birnai: Brná, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Birnbaumhof: Hruškové Dvory, p. of Jihlava
Birndorf: Hrušková, p. of Sokolov
Bischitz: Byšice
Bischofteinitz: Horšovský Týn
Bisenz: Bzenec
Biskupitz: Biskupice (Prostějov District)
Bisterz: Brno-Bystrc
Bistrau: Bystré (Svitavy District)
Bistritz an der Angel: Bystřice nad Úhlavou, p. of Nýrsko
Bistritz am Hostein: Bystřice pod Hostýnem
Bistritz bei Beneschau: Bystřice (Benešov District)
Bistritz ob Pernstein: Bystřice nad Pernštejnem
Bistrzitz: Bystřice (Frýdek-Místek District)
Bitouchow: Bítouchov
Bittau: Bítov (Nový Jičín District)
Bladensdorf: Mladoňov, p. of Nový Malín
Blankersdorf: Blankartice, p. of Heřmanov (Děčín District)
Blanz: Blansko
Blaschdorf: Lhotka, p. of Bílovec
Blaschin: Blažim (Plzeň-North District)
Blaschkau: Blažkov
Blaschke: Vlaské, p. of Malá Morava
Blatna: Blatná
Blatnitz (Blattnitz): Blatnice (Třebíč District)
Blattendorf: Blahutovice, p. of Jeseník nad Odrou
Blauda: Bludov (Šumperk District)
Blauendorf: Bludovice, p. of Nový Jičín
Blauenschlag: Blažejov
Bleich: Bělidla, p. of Olomouc
Bleistadt: Oloví
Bleiswedel: Blíževedly
Blisowa: Blížejov
Blosdorf: Mladějov na Moravě
Blottendorf: Polevsko
Blowitz: Blovice
Bludau: Bludov (Kutná Hora District)
Blumenau:
Květná
Květná, now Boletice MTA*
Plumlov
Blumendorf: Květnov, p. of Havlíčkův Brod
Bobow: Bobov, p. of Malá Skála
Bobrau: Bobrová
Bobrownik: Bobrovníky, p. of Hlučín
Bochdalau: Bohdalov
Bochdalitz: Bohdalice, p. of Bohdalice-Pavlovice
Bockhütte: Pokovy Hutě, now Nové Hutě
Bodenbach: Děčín IV-Podmokly
Bodenstadt: Potštát
Bodisch: Bohdašín, p. of Teplice nad Metují
Bohauschkowitz: Bohouškovice, p. of Křemže
Böhmdorf:
Byňov, p. of Nové Hrady (České Budějovice District)
Dolní Brzotice, now Boletice MTA*
Böhmen: Čechy
Böhmerwald: Šumava (mountain range)
Böhmisch Aicha: Český Dub
Böhmisch Bela: Česká Bělá
Böhmisch Bernschlag: Nový Vojířov, p. of Nová Bystřice
Böhmisch Bokau: Český Bukov, now Povrly
Böhmisch Borau: Beranov, p. of Teplá
Böhmisch Brod: Český Brod
Böhmisch Domaschlag: Domaslav, p. of Lestkov (Tachov District)
Böhmischdorf:
Česká Ves
Česká Ves, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Böhmisch Einsiedel: Mníšek, p. of Nová Ves v Horách
Böhmisch Gilowitz: Horní Jílovice, now Rožmberk nad Vltavou
Böhmisch Grillowitz: České Křídlovice, now Božice
Böhmisch Haidl: Maňávka, now Horní Planá*
Böhmisch Hammer:
České Hamry, p. of Strážov (Klatovy District)
České Hamry, p. of Vejprty
Böhmischhäuser: České Chalupy, p. of Nová Ves (Český Krumlov District)
Böhmisch Hörschlag: Český Heršlák, p. of Horní Dvořiště
Böhmisch Kahn: Velké Chvojno
Böhmisch Kamnitz: Česká Kamenice
Böhmisch Killmes: Český Chloumek, p. of Útvina
Böhmisch Kopist: České Kopisty, p. of Terezín
Böhmisch Krumau: Český Krumlov
Böhmisch Kubitzen: Česká Kubice
Böhmisch Leipa: Česká Lípa
Böhmisch Lichwe: České Libchavy
Böhmisch Liebau: Dolní Libina, p. of Libina
Bömisch Lotschnau: Český Lačnov, p. of Opatovec
Böhmisch Märzdorf: Bohdíkov
Böhmisch Matha: Dědová
Böhmisch Meseritsch: České Meziříčí
Böhmisch Müglitz: Mohelnice, now Krupka*
Böhmisch Neudörfel: Český Újezd, p. of Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Böhmisch Neustadtl: Dolní Bělá
Böhmisch Pokau: Český Bukov, now Povrly
Böhmisch Röhren: České Žleby, p. of Stožec
Böhmisch Rudoletz: Český Rudolec
Böhmisch Rust: Kadaňský Rohozec, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Böhmisch Rybna: Česká Rybná
Böhmisch Skalitz: Česká Skalice
Böhmisch Sternberg: Český Šternberk
Böhmisch Trübau: Česká Třebová
Böhmisch Ullersdorf: Oldřichov na Hranicích, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Böhmisch Weigsdorf: Višňová (Liberec District)
Böhmisch Wiesen: Česká Dlouhá, now Březová nad Svitavou
Böhmisch Wiesenthal: Loučná pod Klínovcem
Böhmisch Zlatnik (Böhmisch Schladnig): České Zlatníky, p. of Obrnice
Bohutschowitz: Bohučovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Boidensdorf: Bohdanovice, p. of Jakartovice
Boksgrün: Srní, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Bölten: Bělotín
Bössig: Bezděz (mountain)
Bogumin: Bohumín
Bohaunowitz (Bohounowitz):
Bohouňovice I, p. of Červené Pečky
Bohouňovice II, p. of Horní Kruty
Bohdalowitz: Bohdalovice, p. of Velké Hamry
Bohdanetsch:
Bohdaneč
Lázně Bohdaneč
Bohentsch: Vahaneč, p. of Verušičky
Bohnau: Banín
Bohuslawitz:
Bohuslavice (Náchod District)
Bohuslavice (Šumperk District)
Bohuslavice u Zlína
Bohutin: Bohutín (Šumperk District)
Bojkowitz (Boikowitz): Bojkovice
Bolatitz: Bolatice
Bolehoscht: Bolehošť
Bolehradice: Boleradice
Boniowitz: Bohuňovice (Olomouc District)
Boor: Bor, p. of Velešín
Bordowitz: Bordovice
Boreschnitz: Borečnice, p. of Čížová
Boreslau: Bořislav
Boritz: Bořice (Chrudim District)
Borken: Borek, p. of Dačice
Borotin:
Borotín (Blansko District)
Borotín (Tábor District)
Borotitz: Borotice (Příbram District)
Borowa: Borová (Svitavy District)
Borowitz: Borovnice (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Borownitz: Borovnice (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Borry: Bory (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Borschanowitz: Bořanovice, p. of Vimperk
Borschau: Boršov
Borschim: Bořejov, p. of Ždírec (Česká Lípa District)
Bösching: Bezděčín, p. of Frýdštejn
Boschowitz: Bošovice
Bosenitz: Tvarožná (Brno-Country District)
Bosin: Boseň
Boskowitz: Boskovice
Boskuwek: Moravské Prusy, p. of Prusy-Boškůvky
Bosowitz: Pozovice, p. of Štoky
Botenwald: Butovice, p. of Studénka
Bowitz: Babice (Prachatice District)
Bozegow (Boschejow): Božejov
Bradlenz: Bradlo, p. of Velký Beranov
Brand
(Brand I): Milíře
Milíře, p. of Rozvadov
Paseka, now Deštné v Orlických horách
(Brand II): Žďár, p. of Chodský Újezd
Žďár, p. of Tanvald
Brand an der Adler: Žďár nad Orlicí
Brand an der Mettau: Žďár nad Metují
Brandau: Brandov
Brandeis an der Adler: Brandýs nad Orlicí
Brandeis an der Elbe: Brandýs nad Labem
Brandeisl (Brandeisek): Brandýsek
Brandschau: Branišov
Brandzeif: Ždárský Potok, p. of Stará Ves (Bruntál District)
Branek: Branky
Branik: Prague-Braník
Branischau: Branišov, p. of Toužim
Branitschau (Branitschkow): Braníčkov, p. of Velhartice
Brankowitz: Brankovice
Branowitz: Vranovice (Brno-Country District)
Branschau:
Branišov, p. of Kdyně
Branišov, p. of Zdíkov
Bransdorf: Brantice
Brany (Bran): Braňany
Bratelsbrunn: Březí (Břeclav District)
Bratschikow (Bratrikow): Bratříkov, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Bratschitz bei Tschaslau: Bratčice (Kutná Hora District)
Brättersdorf: Bratříkovice
Brattersdorf: Bratrušov
Braunau: Broumov
Braunöhlhütten: Vranová Lhota
Braunbusch (Braunpusch): Prapořiště, p. of Kdyně
Braunsberg: Brušperk
Braunsdorf: Brumovice (Opava District)
Braunseifen: Ryžoviště
Brawin: Bravinné, p. of Bílovec
Breitenau: Široká Niva
Breitenbach: Potůčky
Breitenfurt: Široký Brod, p. of Mikulovice (Jeseník District)
Brenn: Brenná, p. of Zákupy
Brenndorf: Spálená, p. of Nový Kostel
Brennei (Brana): Horní Branná
Brennporitschen: Spálené Poříčí
Brenntenberg: Spálenec, p. of Zbytiny
Bresetz: Březce, p. of Štěpánov
Bresnitz: Březnice (Příbram District)
Brettern: Desky, p. of Malonty
Bretterschlag:
Ostrov u Macochy
Petřejov, now Vyšší Brod*
Brettmühl: Pila, now Potůčky*
Brezno: Březno (Mladá Boleslav District)
Bries (Brezy):
Březí (Prague-East District)
Březí, p. of Dražíč
Briesau: Březová (Opava District)
Briesen: Břežánky, now Bílina*
Brims: Brniště
Brockersdorf: Čabová, p. of Moravský Beroun
Brod: Vráto
Brodek: Brodek u Konice
Broden: Bradné, p. of Čachrov
Brodetz: Brodce
Brösau: Březová (Sokolov District)
Brosdorf: Bravantice
Brozan (Brosan):
Brozany, p. of Staré Hradiště
Brozany nad Ohří
Bruch: Lom (Most District)
Bruck am Hammer: Brod nad Tichou
Bruneswerde: Stará Ves nad Ondřejnicí
Brünn: Brno
Brünnersteig: Brlenka, now Čistá (Svitavy District)
Brünnl: Dobrá Voda, p. of Horní Stropnice
Brünnles (Brünles): Brníčko
Brünnlitz: Brněnec
Brüsau: Březová nad Svitavou
Brüx: Most
Brumow: Brumov
Brunn:
Studenec, p. of Nicov
Studnice, p. of Lodhéřov
Brunnersdorf: Prunéřov, p. of Kadaň
Brzeznik: Březník
Brzezolup: Březolupy
Brzuchotein: Břuchotín, p. of Křelov-Břuchotín
Brzas (Bschas): Břasy
Bubentsch (Bubenc): Prague-Bubeneč
Bubna: Bubny, now Prague-Holešovice
Bucharten: Stará Pohůrka, p. of Srubec
Buchau: Bochov
Buchberg: Bukovec
Buchbergsthal: Železná, p. of Vrbno pod Pradědem
Buchelsdorf
Bukovice, p. of Jeseník
Bukovice, p. of Velké Losiny
Buchen:
Buk (Prachatice District)
Buk (Přerov District)
Buchers: Pohoří na Šumavě, p. of Pohorská Ves
Buchholz: Pohorsko, p. of Nezdice na Šumavě
Buchlowitz: Buchlovice
Buchsdorf: Buková, p. of Bernartice (Jeseník District)
Buchwald: Bučina, p. of Kvilda
Buchwaldsdorf: Bučnice, now Teplice nad Metují
Buda: Budov, p. of Verušičky
Budaschitz: Bohdašice, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Budigsdorf: Krasíkov
Budin (an der Eger): Budyně nad Ohří
Budischau: Budišov
Budischkowitz: Budíškovice
Budischowitz: Budišovice
Budkau: Budkov (Třebíč District)
Budnian: Budňany, now Karlštejn (Beroun District)
Budweis (Böhmisch-Budweis): České Budějovice
Budwitz: Moravské Budějovice
Buggaus: Bukovsko, p. of Malonty
Bühlöding (Büleding): Bíletín, p. of Tachov
Bukau:
(Bukow, Buck): Bukov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Bukov, p. of Třešť
Bünauburg: Děčín IX-Bynov
Bürgleins am Wlarapass: Hrádek na Vlárské dráze, p. of Slavičín
Bürgles: Hrádek (Hradec Králové District)
Bürgstein: Sloup v Čechách
Bukawitz: Bukovice (Náchod District)
Bukowitz:
Bukovice (Brno-Country District)
Bukovice, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Bukovice, p. of Písařov
Bukowka: Bukovka
Bukwa (Buckwa): Bukovany (Sokolov District)
Bullendorf: Bulovka
Bunzendorf: Boleslav, p. of Černousy
Burgstadtl: Hradec, p. of Rokle
Burgstall: Hradiště, p. of Nová Bystřice
Burgwiese: Burkvíz, p. of Město Albrechtice
Burkersdorf: Střítež, p. of Trutnov
Busau: Bouzov
Buschin: Bušín
Buschtiehrad: Buštěhrad
Buschullersdorf: Oldřichov v Hájích
Busk: Boubská, p. of Vimperk
Buslawitz: Bohuslavice (Opava District)
Butsch: Budeč (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Butschafka: Bučávka, p. of Liptaň
Butschin: Velká Bučina, p. of Velvary
Butschina: Bučina (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Butschowitz: Bučovice
Butzkow: Buštěhrad
Bystrey: Bystré (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Bzi: Bzí, p. of Dolní Bukovsko
C
Cachrau (Czachrau): Čachrov
Cakowitz: Prague-Čakovice
Caslau (Caßlau): Čáslav
Castolowitz: Častolovice
Cechtitz (Czechtitz): Čechtice
Celakowitz: Čelákovice
Cellechowitz: Čelechovice
Cerekwitz:
Cerekvice nad Bystřicí
Cerekvice nad Loučnou
Cerhenitz: Cerhenice
Cerhof: Crhov, p. of Štíty
Cernahora (Czernahora): Černá Hora (Blansko District)
Cernositz: Černošice
Cernowitz: Černovice (Blansko District)
Cestin: Čestín
Cestitz: Čestice (Strakonice District)
Chabitschau: Chabičov, p. of Háj ve Slezsku
Chanowitz: Chanovice
Charlottendorf: Karlín, now Gruna
Charlottenfeld: Karlín (Hodonín District)
Charwath: Charváty
Chawwytetz: Charvatce
Chaustnik: Choustník
Cheynow: Chýnov
Chiesch: Chyše
Chinitz-Tettau: Vchynice-Tetov, p. of Srní
Chirles: Krchleby (Šumperk District)
Chlistow: Chlístov, p. of Železný Brod
Chliwitz: Chlívce, p. of Stárkov
Chlodow: Chloudov, p. of Koberovy
Chlumcan (Klumtschan): Chlumčany (Plzeň-South District)
Chlumetschek: Chlumeček, p. of Křemže
Chlumetz:
Chlum u Třeboně
(an der Cidlina): Chlumec nad Cidlinou
Vysoký Chlumec
Chlumtschan (Klumtschan): Chlumčany (Louny District)
Chlunz: Chlumec, p. of Dačice
Chmelna:
Chmelná
Chmelná, p. of Křemže
Chodau: Chodov (Sokolov District)
Chodenschloß: Trhanov
Chodolitz: Chodovlice
Choltitz: Choltice
Chorin: Choryně
Chotieborsch (Chotebor, Choteborz): Chotěboř
Chotieschau:
Chotěšov (Litoměřice District)
Chotěšov (Plzeň-South District)
Chotimiersch: Chotiměř, p. of Blížejov
Chotowin: Chotoviny
Chotsche: Chodeč, p. of Velešín
Chotusitz: Chotusice
Chotzen: Choceň
Chräntschowitz: Chrančovice, p. of Všeruby (Plzeň-North District)
Chrast: Chrast
Chraschtian: Chrášťany (České Budějovice District)
Chrisdorf: Křišťanovice
Chrises: Křižanov, p. of Hynčina
Christelschlag: Křišťanovice, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Christianberg: Křišťanov
Christianstadt: Liberec V-Kristiánov
Christiansthal: Kristiánov, now Bedřichov (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Christofsgrund: Kryštofovo Údolí
Christophhammer: Kryštofovy Hamry
Chrobold: Chroboly
Chropin: Chropyně
Chrostau Ölhütten: Chrastová Lhota, p. of Brněnec
Chroustowitz: Chroustovice
Chrudim: Chrudim
Chudenitz: Chudenice
Chuderitz: Chudeřice
Chudiwa: Chudenín
Chumau: Chlumany, now Boletice MTA*
Chumen: Chlumany
Chumo: Chlum, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Chunzen: Chlumec (Český Krumlov District)
Chwalkowitz:
Chvalíkovice
Chvalkovice (Náchod District)
Chválkovice, p. of Olomouc
Chwalenitz: Chvalenice
Chwaletitz (Chwalletitz): Chvaletice
Chwalschowitz: Chvalšovice, p. of Čachrov
Chwojno: Vysoké Chvojno
Cimelitz (Czimelitz): Čimelice
Cirkwitz: Církvice (Kolín District)
Cischkau: Čížkov (Plzeň-South District)
Cistowes: Čistěves
Cizowa: Čížová
Ckin: Čkyně
Cyrillhof: Cyrilov, p. of Bory (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Czabischau: Čavisov
Czalositz: Žalhostice
Czarlowitz: Černovice (Plzeň-South District)
Czaslau: Čáslav
Czastrow: Častrov
Czech: Čechy pod Kosířem
Czeikowitz: Čejkovice (Hodonín District)
Czelakowitz: Čelákovice
Czerhowitz: Cerhovice
Czetkowitz: Cetkovice
Czischkow: Čížkov (Pelhřimov District)
D
Dachau: Dachov, p. of Vlachovo Březí
Daleschitz: Dalešice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Dalleken: Daleké Popelice, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Dallwitz: Dalovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Damadrau: Domoradovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Damasko: Damašek, p. of Třemešná
Damborschitz (Damboritz): Dambořice
Damirow: Damírov, p. of Zbýšov (Kutná Hora District)
Damitz:
Damice, p. of Krásný Les (Karlovy Vary District)
Damnice
Damnau: Damnov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Darkau: Darkov, p. of Karviná
Darmschlag: Darmyšl, p. of Staré Sedlo (Tachov District)
Darowa: Darová, p. of Břasy
Daschitz: Dašice
Daßnitz: Dasnice
Datschitz: Dačice
Daub: Dub, p. of Starý Jičín
Dauba: Dubá
Daubitz: Doubice
Daubrawitz: Doubravice nad Svitavou
Daubrawnik: Doubravník
Daudleb: Doudleby nad Orlicí
Dawle: Davle
Deblin: Deblín
Dechant Gallein: Děkanské Skaliny, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Dechtar: Dehtáře
Dechtern: Dehtáře, p. of Žabovřesky (České Budějovice District)
Deffernik: Debrník, p. of Železná Ruda
Dehenten: Dehetná, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Dejwitz: Prague-Dejvice
Dekau: Děkov
Deslawen (Deslaven): Zdeslav, p. of Čistá (Rakovník District)
Depoldowitz: Děpoltice, p. of Dešenice
Dereisen: Zderaz (Chrudim District)
Derflik: Víska u Jevíčka
Deschau: Dešov
Deschenitz: Dešenice
Deschna: Deštná (Blansko District)
Deschney: Deštné v Orlických horách
Dessendorf: Desná (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Detenitz (Diettenitz): Dětenice
Deutsch Beneschau: Benešov nad Černou
Deutsch Bernschlag: Podlesí, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Deutsch Bielau: Bělá nad Svitavou
Deutsch Borau: Beranovka, p. of Teplá
Deutsch-Brod (Deutschbrod): Havlíčkův Brod
Deutsch Brodek: Brodek u Konice
Deutschbundesort: Dolní Rozmyšl, now Vintířov*
Deutsch Eisenberg: Ruda, p. of Tvrdkov
Deutsch Gabel: Jablonné v Podještědí
Deutsch Gießhübel: Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Deutsch Gilowitz: Dolní Jílovice, p. of Vyšší Brod
Deutsch Haidl: Maňava, now Horní Planá
Deutsch Hause: Huzová
Deutsch Horschowitz: Hořovičky
Deutsch Jassnik: Jeseník nad Odrou
Deutsch Kahn: Luční Chvojno, p. of Velké Chvojno
Deutsch Kamnitz: Kamenice, p. of Zákupy
Deutsch Kilmes: Německý Chloumek, p. of Bochov
Deutsch Konitz: Miroslavské Knínice
Deutsch Kopist: Nové Kopisty, p. of Terezín
Deutsch Kralup: Kralupy u Chomutova, now Málkov (Chomutov District)*
Deutsch Krawarn: Kravaře
Deutsch Kubitzen: Nová Kubice, p. of Česká Kubice
Deutsch Leuten: Dolní Lutyně
Deutsch Liebau: Libina
Deutsch Lodenitz: Horní Loděnice
Deutsch Märzdorf: Horní Bohdíkov, now Velké Losiny
Deutsch Matha: Česká Metuje
Deutsch Moliken: Malíkov nad Nežárkou, p. of Horní Pěna
Deutsch Neudörfel: Podhoří, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Deutsch Neustadtl: Nové Městečko, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Deutsch Neuhof: Nové Dvory, p. of Polná
Deutsch Pankraz: Jítrava, p. of Rynoltice
Deutsch Paulowitz: Slezské Pavlovice
Deutsch Petersdorf: Petrovičky, p. of Mladkov
Deutsch Prausnitz: Německá Brusnice, now Hajnice
Deutsch Reichenau:
Rychnov u Nových Hradů, p. of Horní Stropnice
Rychnůvek, now Přední Výtoň*
Deutsch Rust: Podbořanský Rohozec
Deutsch Schützendorf: Střelecká, now Dobronín
Deutsch Thomaschlag: Domaslavičky, now Chodová Planá*
Deutsch Trebetitsch: Nové Třebčice, p. of Veliká Ves (Chomutov District)
Deutsch Welhotta: Lhota pod Pannou, p. of Homole u Panny
Deutsch Wernersdorf: Vernéřovice
Deutsch Zlatnik: Slatinice
Deutzendorf: Domaslavice, p. of Háj u Duchcova
Deyschina (Deischina): Dýšina
Dianaberg: Diana, p. of Rozvadov
Dieditz: Dědice, p. of Vyškov
Dielhau: Děhylov
Dietschan: Děčany
Dimokur: Dymokury
Dingkowitz: Jeníkovice, p. of Meclov
Dirna: Dírná
Distlowitz: Tisovka, now Boletice MTA*
Ditmannsdorf (Dittmarsdorf): Dětmarovice
Dittersbach:
Dětřichov (Liberec District)
Horní Dobrouč, p. of Dolní Dobrouč
Jetřichov
Jetřichovice
Stašov (Svitavy District)
Dittersbächel: Detřichovec, p. of Jindřichovice pod Smrkem
Dittersdorf:
Dětřichov (Svitavy District)
Dětřichov nad Bystřicí
Dětřichov u Moravské Třebové
Dětřichov, p. of Světlá Hora
Dětřichov, p. of Uničov
Větřkovice
Dittershof: Dětřichov, p. of Jeseník
Dittmarsdorf (Dittmannsdorf): Dětmarovice
Diwischau: Divišov
Diwischowitz: Divišovice, p. of Dešenice
Dlasckowitz: Dlažkovice
Dluhe:
Dlouhá, p. of Netřebice (Český Krumlov District)
Dlouhý, p. of Slavíkov
Dnespek: Nespeky
Döba: Děvín
Döberle: Debrné, now Trutnov*
Dobern:
Dobranov, p. of Česká Lípa
Dobrná
Döberney: Debrné, p. of Mostek (Trutnov District)
Doberschisch: Dobříš
Dobeschitz: Dobešice, p. of Kluky (Písek District)
Doberseik: Dobřečov, p. of Horní Město
Dobertschitz: Dobrčice
Dobichau: Dobechov, p. of Kaplice
Dobischwald: Dobešov, p. of Odry
Dobraken: Doubravka, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Dobrassen: Dobroše, p. of Odrava
Dobrau: Dobrá (Frýdek-Místek District)
Dobrawod: Dobrá Voda, p. of Toužim
Dobremielitz: Dobřemilice, p. of Čachrov
Dobrenitz: Dobřenice
Dobrenz: Dobronín
Dobrey: Dobré
Dobrichowitz: Dobřichovice
Dobring: Dobřín, now Loučovice*
Dobrisch (Dobrzisch): Dobříš
Dobritschan: Dobříčany, p. of Liběšice (Louny District)
Dobriw: Dobřív
Dobrkowitz: Dobrkovice
Dobrochau: Dobrochov
Dobromielitz (Dobromillitz): Dobromilice
Dobroslawitz: Dobroslavice
Dobroten: Dobrotín, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Dobrowa: Doubrava, p. of Puclice
Dobrowitz (Dobrawitz): Dobrovice
Dobrusch: Dobročkov, p. of Ktiš
Dobruschka: Dobruška
Dobschan: Dobřany (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Dobschikau: Dobříkov, p. of Kdyně
Dobschitz:
Dobrčice, p. of Skršín
Dobšice (České Budějovice District)
Dobrzan: Dobřany (Plzeň-South District)
Doglasgrün: Vřesová
Dohle: Dalov, p. of Šternberk
Dolan:
Dolany (Klatovy District)
Dolany (Náchod District)
Dolanken: Dolánky, p. of Ohníč
Dölitschen: Telice, p. of Prostiboř
Doll: Důl
Dollan: Dolany (Plzeň-North District)
Dollein (Dolein): Dolany (Olomouc District)
Dollern: Dolany, now Kájov
Döllnitz: Odolenovice, p. of Krásné Údolí
Dolniemtsch: Dolní Němčí
Domamühl: Domamil
Domanin: Domanín (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Domaschin: Domašín, p. of Štědrá
Domaschow: Domašov
Domauschitz: Domoušice
Domazlitzl: Domažličky, p. of Bolešiny
Dombrau: Doubrava (Karviná District)
Domousnitz: Domousnice
Domsdorf: Tomíkovice, p. of Žulová
Domstadtl: Domašov nad Bystřicí
Donau: Hájek, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Donawitz: Stanovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Dönis: Donín, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Doppitz: Dobětice, now Ústí nad Labem
Dörfel:
Liberec XXV-Vesec
Víska, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Dörfles:
Vesce, p. of Horní Stropnice
Víska u Jevíčka
Dörflitz: Derflice, p. of Znojmo
Dorf Stankau: Staňkov II, p. of Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Dorfteschen: Deštné, p. of Jakartovice
Dornfeld: Trnové Pole
Dörnsdorf: Dolina, now Kryštofovy Hamry*
Dörnthal: Suchdol, p. of Křimov
Dörrengrund: Suchý Důl
Dorrstadt: Městiště, p. of Dešenice
Dörrstein: Suchý Kámen, p. of Chudenín
Döschen: Dešná (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Dotterwies: Tatrovice
Doubrawitz: Doubravice, p. of Moravičany
Doudlewetz: Doudlevce, p. of Plzeň
Doxan: Doksany
Dozitz (Doschitz): Dožice, p. of Mladý Smolivec
Drachkau: Drahkov
Drahan: Drahany
Drahanowitz: Drahanovice
Drahenitz: Drahenice
Drahenz: Drahonice
Drahomischl: Drahomyšl, p. of Lipno (Louny District)
Drahotusch: Hranice IV-Drahotuše
Drahowitz: Drahovice, p. of Karlovy Vary
Drakowa: Drahkov, p. of Modlany
Draschitz (Drazitz): Dražice (Tábor District)
Draschkow: Dražkov, p. of Sezemice
Drasow (Drassow): Drásov (Brno-Country District)
Drazenov: Draženov
Dreiborn: Studnice, now Jívka
Dreibuchen: Buková, now Mohelnice
Dreihacken: Tři Sekery
Dreihäuser: Třídomí, now Horní Slavkov*
Dreihöf:
Oldřichovice, p. of Ústí nad Orlicí
Záhoří, p. of Žatec
Dreihöfen: Tři Dvory
Dreihunken: Drahůnky, p. of Dubí
Dresnitz: Strážnice
Drewohostitz: Dřevohostice
Dries: Dřísy
Drissgloben: Třískolupy, p. of Přimda
Drnowitz: Drnovice (Vyškov District)
Drohau (Drauhau): Drouhavec, p. of Velhartice
Drosau: Strážov (Klatovy District)
Droschdein: Droždín, p. of Olomouc
Drosenau: Drozdov (Šumperk District)
Droslau: Tvrdoslav, p. of Velhartice
Drschke: Držkov
Drzitsch (Dritsch): Dříteč
Drum: Stvolínky
Druzetz: Družec
Drzkow (Drschkow, Drschke): Držkov
Dub:
Dub (Prachatice District)
(an der March): Dub nad Moravou
Dubany: Dubany
Dubcan: Dubčany
Duben: Dubné
Dubenetz: Dubenec (Trutnov District)
Dubiken: Dubičné
Dubitz: Dubice, p. of Řehlovice
Dubitzko: Dubicko
Dublowitz: Dublovice
Dubnian: Dubňany
Dubrowitz: Dubovice
Dubschan (Dubczan): Dubčany
Dukowan: Dukovany
Dumrowitz: Domoradice, p. of Český Krumlov
Dunkelthal: Temný Důl, p. of Horní Maršov
Duppau: Doupov, now Hradiště MTA*
Dürchel: Drchlava, p. of Chlum (Česká Lípa District)
Dürnbach: Potočiště, p. of Odrava
Dürnberg: Suchá, p. of Jáchymov
Dürnholz: Drnholec
Dürre: Suchá
Dürrengrün: Výspa, now Luby (Cheb District)*
Dürrmaul: Drmoul
Dürrseifen: Suchá Rudná, p. of Světlá Hora
Duschnik: Trhové Dušníky
Duschowitz: Tuškov, p. of Kašperské Hory
Dux: Duchcov
Dworetz: Dvorec, p. of Radhostice
E
Ebenau: Zátoňské Dvory, p. of Větřní
Ebersdorf:
Habartice (Liberec District)
Habartice, now Krupka
Habartice, p. of Jindřichov (Šumperk District)
Hybrálec
Ebmeth: Rovná (Sokolov District)
Eckersbach: Rokytnice, now Kryštofovo Údolí
Eckersdorf: Jakartovice
Edersdorf: Edrovice, p. of Rýmařov
Edersgrün: Odeř, p. of Hroznětín
Eger:
Cheb
Ohře (river)
Egersee: Vyhlídky, p. of Horní Stropnice
Eggetschlag: Bližná, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Egrisch Reuth: Nebesa, p. of Aš
Ehrenberg: Loučka, p. of Nový Jičín
Eibenberg:
Tisová, p. of Kraslice
Tisová, p. of Nejdek
Eibenschütz (Eibenschitz): Ivančice
Eibis: Ivaň (Brno-Country District)
Eichelhäuser: Dubí, now Lenora (Prachatice District)
Eichen: Dubí, p. of Kladno
Eichenhof: Dubina, p. of Šemnice
Eichhorn Bittitschka (Bititschka): Veverská Bítýška
Eichicht: Liberec XXIII-Doubí
Eicht: Dubičná, p. of Úštěk
Eichwald: Dubí
Eidlitz: Údlice
Eiland: Ostrov, now Tisá
Eilowitz: Jílovec, p. of Fulnek
Einoth: Renoty, p. of Uničov
Einsiedel: Mnichov, p. of Vrbno pod Pradědem
Einsiedel in Isergebirge: Mníšek
Einsiedl:
Mnichov (Cheb District)
Mníšek, p. of Nová Ves v Horách
Poustevna, now Rožmberk nad Vltavou*
Eipel: Úpice
Eisenberg:
Jezeří, p. of Horní Jiřetín*
Ruda (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
(an der March): Ruda nad Moravou
Eisenbrod: Železný Brod
Eisendorf: Železná, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Eisengrub: Záhliní, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Eisenhüttel: Záchlumí (Tachov District)
Eisenstadtel (Eisenstadtl): Železnice
Eisenstein: Železná Ruda
Eisenstraß: Hojsova Stráž, p. of Železná Ruda
Eisgrub: Lednice
Eiwan: Ivaň (Prostějov District)
Eiwanowitz in der Hanna: Ivanovice na Hané
Elbe: Labe (river)
Elbekosteletz: Kostelec nad Labem
Elbeteinitz: Týnec nad Labem
Elbleiten: Labská Stráň
Elbogen:
Loket
Milbohov, p. of Stebno
Elend: Nemrlov, now Oskava
Elendbachel: Polka, p. of Horní Vltavice*
Eleonorenhain: Lenora (Prachatice District)
Elexnitz: Olešnice (České Budějovice District)
Elhenitz: Lhenice
Elhotten:
Lhota, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
(bei Mies): Lhota u Stříbra, p. of Stříbro
Elisenthal: Alžbětín, p. of Železná Ruda
Elisienthal: Oslí Mlýneček, now Nový Kramolín
Ellgoth:
Lhota, p. of Háj ve Slezsku
(Ellguth): Lhotka, p. of Ostrava
Ellhoten: Lhota, p. of Plzeň
Ellischau: Nalžovy, p. of Nalžovské Hory
Elm: Stráň, p. of Sadov
Elsch: Olešná, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Elschelin: Lšelín, p. of Kostelec (Tachov District)
Elstin (Elschtin):
Lštění, p. of Blížejov
Lštění, p. of Radhostice
Emaus:
Emauzy, p. of Vražné
Nemojov
Emern (Emmern): Bednáře, now Černá v Pošumaví
Endersdorf: Ondřejovice, p. of Zlaté Hory
Endersgrün: Ondřejov
Engelhaus (Engelsberg): Andělská Hora (Karlovy Vary District)
Engelsberg: Andělská Hora (Bruntál District)
Engelsdorf: Andělka, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Engelsthal: Andělské Žleby, now Loučná nad Desnou
Engelswald: Mošnov
Engelthal: Jesenný
Enkengrün: Jankovice, p. of Teplá
Ensenbruck: Povodí, p. of Třebeň
Epperswagen: Nepřívaz, now Libavá MTA*
Erdberg: Hrádek (Znojmo District)
Erdmannsdorf: Nové Zálužné, now Radkov (Opava District)
Erdweis: Nová Ves nad Lužnicí
Erlitz: Orlice, p. of Letohrad
Ermelei: Jermaly, now Kaplice*
Ermesgrün: Smrčina, p. of Plesná
Ernstberg: Arnoštka, p. of Vimperk
Ernstbrunn: Arnoštov, p. of Křišťanov
Ertischowitz: Rtišovice, p. of Milín
Esche: Eš
Eschen: Jasenná (Náchod District)
Eschowitz: Čečkovice, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Espenthor: Olšová Vrata, p. of Karlovy Vary
Esseklee: Nesachleby, now Znojmo
Eulau: Jílové
Eule:
Jílové u Prahy
Sovín, now Albrechtice v Jizerských horách
Eulenberg: Sovinec, p. of Jiříkov (Bruntál District)
Eulhütten: Sova, now Hartmanice (Klatovy District)*
Eywan: Evaň
F
Falgendorf (Falkendorf): Horka u Staré Paky
Falkenau:
Falknov, p. of Kytlice
Sokolíčko, p. of Stonařov
Falkenau an der Eger: Sokolov
Falkendorf: Děčín XXVIII-Folknáře
Fassattengrün: Božetín, p. of Nový Kostel
Felden: Pole, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Feldkretschen: Krčmov, now Adršpach
Feldsberg: Valtice
Ferbenz: Rvenice, p. of Postoloprty
Ferbka: Vrbka, p. of Postoloprty
Ferchenhaid: Borová Lada
Ferdinandsdorf: Ferdinandov, p. of Choustníkovo Hradiště
Ferdinandsthal: Ferdinandov, p. of Hejnice (Liberec District)
Fichtau: Smrčná, p. of Nová Bystřice
Fichtenbach: Bystřice, now Česká Kubice*
Fichtenheid: Smrčná, p. of Svatá Maří
Filz: Slatina, p. of Horní Vltavice*
Finkendorf: Polesí, p. of Rynoltice
Fischbach: Rybná, p. of Pernink
Fischern:
Hranice V-Rybáře
Rybáře, p. of Karlovy Vary
Stěžerov, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Fischhäusel: Hostěrádky, now Vranovská Ves
Flecken: Fleky, p. of Chudenín
Fleißen: Plesná
Fleissheim: Horní Borková, now Horní Planá*
Fleyh: Fláje, p. of Český Jiřetín
Flöhau: Blšany
Flößberg: Plešivec, p. of Český Krumlov
Försterhäuser: Myslivny, now Boží Dar
Fonsau: Vonšov, p. of Skalná
Forbes: Borovany
Forstbad: Lázně Fořt, now Rudník (Trutnov District)
Fösselhof: Svachova Lhotka, p. of Mirkovice
Frain: Vranov nad Dyjí
Frainersdorf: Vranovská Ves
Frainspitz: Branišovice
Frankenhammer: Prague-Liboc
Frankenhammer: Liboc, p. of Kraslice
Frankstadt: Nový Malín
Frankstadt (unter dem Radhoscht): Frenštát pod Radhoštěm
Franowa: Vránov, p. of Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Franzberg:
Františkov, now Velké Kunětice
Františkův Vrch, p. of Huntířov
Franzdorf: Františkov, p. of Blížejov
Franzendorf: Liberec X-Františkov
Franzensbad: Františkovy Lázně
Franzensthal: Františkov, p. of Kvilda
Franzenthal-Ulgersdorf: Františkov nad Ploučnicí
Franzthal: Dolina, p. of Vilémov (Děčín District)
Fratting: Vratěnín
Frauenberg:
Hluboká nad Vltavou
Panenská Hůrka, p. of Bílý Kostel nad Nisou
Frauendorf: Panenská, p. of Jemnice
Frauenreith: Svobodka, p. of Halže
Frauenreuth: Kopanina, p. of Nový Kostel
Frauenthal:
Frantoly, now Loučovice*
Frantoly, p. of Mičovice
Pohled (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Frauschile: Vrahožily, p. of Rtyně nad Bílinou
Frei Hermersdorf: Svobodné Heřmanice
Freiberg in Böhmen: Příbram
Freiberg (in Mähren): Příbor
Freidau: Frýdava, now Přední Výtoň
Freidorf (Freydorf):
Svobodín, p. of Dolní Bousov
Svobodná Ves, now Úštěk
Freiheit (an der Aupa): Svoboda nad Úpou
Freiheitsau: Háj ve Slezsku
Freiheitsberg: Svobodín, now Vernířovice*
Freihöls: Stará Lhota, p. of Nýrsko
Freihofen: Svobodné Dvory, p. of Hradec Králové
Freistadt: Fryštát, p. of Karviná
Freistadtl: Fryšták
Freistein: Podhradí nad Dyjí
Freiung: Lipka, p. of Vimperk
Freiwaldau: Jeseník
Freudenberg: Veselé (Děčín District)
Freudenheim: Veselíčko 1. díl, p. of Veselé (Děčín District)
Freudenthal: Bruntál
Friedau: Frýdava, now Frymburk
Friedberg: Frymburk
Friedeberg: Žulová
Friedek (Friedeck): Frýdek, p. of Frýdek-Místek
Friedek-Mistek: Frýdek-Místek
Friedenau: Mírovka, p. of Havlíčkův Brod
Friedersdorf: Čaková
Friedersreuth: Pastviny, p. of Hranice (Cheb District)
Friedland an der Mohra: Břidličná
Friedland (an der Ostrawitza): Frýdlant nad Ostravicí
Friedland in Böhmen: Frýdlant
Friedrichschlag (Fridretschlag): Bedřichov, p. of Horní Stropnice
Friedrichsdorf: Bedřichov, p. of Oskava
Friedrichshain: Liberec XXXIV-Bedřichovka
Friedrichshof: Bedřichov, now Rybník (Domažlice District)*
Friedrichshütten: Nová Huť, p. of Nemanice
Friedrichsthal: Chalupy, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Friedrichswald:
Bedřichov (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Hnátnice
Friedstein: Frýdštejn
Friesendorf: Březná, p. of Štíty
Frischau: Břežany (Znojmo District)
Frischau: Fryšava pod Žákovou horou
Fritschowitz: Fryčovice
Frobelhof: Lední Domky, now Sosnová (Opava District)
Frohenbruck (an der Lainsitz): Veselí nad Lužnicí
Fröhlichsdorf: Veselí, p. of Štětí
Frohnau: Vranov, now Rovná (Sokolov District)*
Fröllersdorf: Jevišovka
Frühbuß: Přebuz
Fuchsberg:
Liščí, p. of Chudenín
Lišcí Hora, p. of Rybník (Domažlice District)*
Füllerdörfel: Vesnička, p. of Prysk
Füllstein: Bohušov
Fünfhunden: Pětipsy
Fünfzighuben: Padesát Lánů, now Potštát
Fürstenbruck: Kněžmost
Fürstenhut: Knížecí Pláně, p. of Borová Lada*
Fürstenwalde: Knížecí, p. of Velký Šenov
Fürthel: Brůdek, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Fürwitz:
Vrbice, p. of Hořovičky
Vrbice u Bezdružic, p. of Lestkov (Tachov District)
Fugau: Fukov, now Šluknov*
Fulnek: Fulnek
Funkenstein: Háje, p. of Kolová
Fussdorf: Rantířov
G
Gabel:
Jablonné v Podještědí
Vidly, p. of Vrbno pod Pradědem
Gabel an der Adler: Jablonné nad Orlicí
Gaberhäuser: Podstrání, p. of Rovná (Sokolov District)
Gaberle: Javoří, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Gabersdorf: Libeč, p. of Trutnov
Gabhorn: Javorná, p. of Bochov
Gablonz:
(an der Neiße): Jablonec nad Nisou
Jabloneček, p. of Ralsko
Gabrielahütten: Gabrielina Huť, now Kalek*
Gabrielendorf: Gabrielka, p. of Kamenice nad Lipou
Gaierle: Kavrlík, p. of Kašperské Hory
Gaischwitz: Kýšovice, p. of Výsluní
Gaisdorf: Kyžlířov, p. of Potštát
Gaiwitz: Kyjovice (Znojmo District)
Galtenhof: Branka, p. of Halže
Gamnitz: Jemnice, p. of Tisová (Tachov District)
Gängerhof: Chodov (Karlovy Vary District)
Gansau: Pravětín, p. of Vimperk
Gansauerhaid: Pravětínská Lada, now Borová Lada*
Garschönthal: Úvaly, p. of Valtice
Gärten: Zahrady, p. of Krásná Lípa
Gartitz: Skorotice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Gässing: Jesen
Gaßnitz: Jesenice, p. of Okrouhlá (Cheb District)
Gastorf: Hoštka
Gatterschlag: Kačlehy
Gauendorf: Mokré, p. of Litvínovice
Gaya (Geyen): Kyjov
Gayer: Gajer, p. of Janov (Svitavy District)
Gebharz: Skalka, p. of Nová Bystřice
Gebirgskamnitz: Horská Kamenice, p. of Železný Brod
Gebirgsneudorf: Nová Ves v Horách
Gehaag: Háje, p. of Cheb
Gehae: Háj, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Gehäng: Láz, p. of Nová Pec
Geiersberg: Letohrad
Geiersgraben: Čertův Důl, now Zdobnice
Geislersfeld: Lomy, now Supíkovice
Georgendorf: Český Jiřetín
Georgengrund: Jirský Důl, now Staré Buky*
Georgenthal: Jiřetín pod Bukovou
Georgswalde: Jiříkov
Geppersdorf:
Kopřivná
Linhartovy, p. of Město Albrechtice
Geppertsau: Keprtovice, now Libavá MTA*
Gerbetschlag: Herbertov, p. of Vyšší Brod
Gereuthern: Jitronice, now Pohorská Ves*
Gerlsdorf: Jerlochovice, p. of Fulnek
Gersdorf:
Kerhartice, p. of Česká Kamenice
Mezihoří, p. of Blatno (Chomutov District)
Gerstenfeld: Ječmeniště, now Vrbovec*
Gerten: Krty
Gesen: Jesení, p. of Čachrov
Geserzen: Jezerce, p. of Stříbro
Gesmesgrün: Osvinov, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Gesna: Jezná, p. of Úlice
Gessing: Jesínky, p. of Bochov
Gesteinigt: Kamenná, p. of Jílové
Gestrzeby (Jestreby): Jestřebí (Šumperk District)
Gestob: Ždov, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Geweihtenbrunn: Boží Voda, now Liběchov
Gewitsch: Jevíčko
Gfell: Kfely, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Gibacht: Pozorka, p. of Nejdek
Gibian: Jivjany, p. of Velký Malahov
Giebau: Jívová
Giessdorf: Jišterpy, p. of Chotiněves
Gießhübel:
Kyselov, now Olomouc
Olešnice v Orlických horách
Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Gießhübl (Gießhübel):
Boršov, now Malšín
Stružná
Gießhübl-Sauerbrunn (Gießhübel-Puchstein): Kyselka
Gilschwitz: Kylešovice, p. of Opava
Girnberg: Zadní Milíře, p. of Milíře
Girsch: Krsy
Girschen: Jeřeň, p. of Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)
Girschowa: Krsov, p. of Ostrov u Bezdružic
Girsig: Jiříkov (Bruntál District)
Gitschin: Jičín
Glasau: Neblašov, p. of Chodský Újezd
Glasberg: Sklená, p. of Kraslice
Glasdörfel: Sklené, p. of Malá Morava
Glaselsdorf: Sklené (Svitavy District)
Glasern: Klažary, p. of Kamenná (České Budějovice District)
Glashof: Skláře, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Glashütten:
Hutě, p. of Cejle
Skelná Huť, p. of Chudenín
Skelná Huť, now Horní Planá*
Skláře, p. of Vimperk
Glasshüte: Skelná Huť, now Libavá MTA*
Glatzen: Kladská, p. of Mariánské Lázně
Gleimen: Hliněná, p. of Malšovice
Glemkau: Hlinka (Bruntál District)
Glieden: Lideň, p. of Málkov (Chomutov District)
Glitschau: Klíčov, p. of Kočov
Glöckelberg: Zvonková, now Horní Planá
Glomnitz: Hlavnice
Glosau: Dlažov
Gmünd (Gmünd-Bahnhof, Gmünd III): České Velenice
Gnadlersdorf: Hnanice
Gnoitz: Hnojice
Gobitschau: Chabičov, p. of Šternberk
Godrusch: Jadruž, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Göding: Hodonín
Göhe: Háj, p. of Habartice (Liberec District)
Göhren: Klíny
Gojau: Kájov
Goldberg: Zlatá, now Boletice MTA*
Goldbrunn
Balda, now Stašov (Svitavy District)
Zlatá Studna, now Horská Kvilda*
Golddorf: Zlatá, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Goldeck: Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Goldendorf: Zlatá
Goldenhöhe: Zlatý Kopec, p. of Boží Dar
Goldenfluß: Zlatý Potok, p. of Malá Morava
Goldenkron: Zlatá Koruna
Goldenöls: Zlatá Olešnice (Trutnov District)
Goldenstein: Branná
Goldwag: Řešanov, now Planá (Tachov District)
Gollitsch: Kaliště, p. of Bohdalovice
Göllitz: Jedlice, now Nové Hrady (České Budějovice District)*
Gollnetschlag: Klení, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Goltsch Jenikau: Golčův Jeníkov
Görkau: Jirkov
Görsdorf: Loučná, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Gösen: Kadaňská Jeseň, p. of Kadaň
Gossau:
Kosov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Kosov, p. of Jihlava
Gossengrün: Krajková
Goßmaul: Kosmová, p. of Toužim
Gossolup: Horní Kozolupy
Gotschdorf: Hošťálkovy
Göttersdorf: Boleboř
Gottesgab: Boží Dar
Gottmannsgrün: Trojmezí, p. of Hranice (Cheb District)
Gottschau: Kočov
Götzdorf: Božíkov, p. of Zákupy
Grabau: Hrabová, p. of Ostrava
Graben: Strouhy, now Boletice MTA*
Graber: Kravaře (Česká Lípa District)
Gradlitz: Choustníkovo Hradiště
Gräfenberg: Gräfenberk, now Jeseník
Grafendorf:
Hrabětice
Hrabětice, p. of Janov nad Nisou
Hrabětice, p. of Jeseník nad Odrou
Grafenhütte: Hraběcí Huť, p. of Kvilda
Grafenried: Lučina
Grafenstein: Grabštejn
Grambach: Potočná, p. of Číměř (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Granesau: Chranišov, p. of Nové Sedlo (Sokolov District)
Gränzendorf: Hraničná, p. of Janov nad Nisou
Gränzdorf: Hraničky, p. of Uhelná
Gränzgrund: Hraničná, now Skorošice*
Grasengrün: Hájek (Karlovy Vary District)
Grasfurth: Brod, now Stožec*
Graslitz: Kraslice
Grasset: Jehličná, p. of Královské Poříčí*
Gratschen: Radešín, p. of Chuderov
Grätz: Hradec nad Moravicí
Gratzen: Nové Hrady (České Budějovice District)
Graupen: Krupka
Greifendorf: Hradec nad Svitavou
Grenzdörfel: Pomeznice, p. of Meziměstí
Griesbach: Křemenitá, now Tatrovice
Gritschau: Krčín, p. of Horní Stropnice
Grodischt: Hradiště, p. of Těrlicko
Gröditz-Neudorf: Hradec-Nová Ves
Gröna: Křínov, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Gröschlmaut: Grešlové Mýto
Groschau: Chrašťany, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Groß Aujezd (Groß Augezd, Groß Aujest): Velký Újezd
Groß Aupa: Velká Úpa, p. of Pec pod Sněžkou
Großbieltsch: Běleč nad Orlicí
Groß Bechar: Běchary
Groß Beranau: Velký Beranov
Groß Bistrzitz: Valašská Bystřice
Groß Bittesch: Velká Bíteš
Großblanitz: Blanice, p. of Bavorov
Groß Blatnitz (Groß Blattnitz): Blatnice pod Svatým Antonínkem
Großblatzen: Blatce
Groß Bocken: Velká Bukovina
Groß Borowitz: Borovnice (Trutnov District)
Groß Bürglitz: Velký Vřešťov
Groß Butschin: Velká Bučina, p. of Velvary
Groß Cakowitz: Prague-Čakovice
Groß Cejtitz: Čejetice, p. of Mladá Boleslav
Groß Cekau: Čakov (České Budějovice District)
Groß Cermna: Velká Čermná, p. of Čermná nad Orlicí
Groß Darkowitz: Darkovice
Gross Deschau: Velký Dešov, now Dešov
Groß Dittersdorf: Čermná, now Libavá MTA*
Großdorf:
Veliká Ves (Prague-East District)
Velká Ves, p. of Broumov
Groß Drewitsch: Velký Dřevíč, p. of Hronov
Groß Drossen: Velké Strážné, now Světlík*
Grosse: Hrozová, p. of Rusín
Großenteich: Velký Rybník, p. of Hroznětín
Großfürwitz: Vrbice (Karlovy Vary District)
Groß Gallein: Velké Skaliny, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Groß Glockersdorf: Klokočov, p. of Vítkov
Groß Gorschin: Velký Horšín, now Rybník (Domažlice District)*
Groß Grillowitz: České Křídlovice, now Božice
Groß Gropitzreith (Großgropitzreith): Velký Rapotín, p. of Tachov
Groß Grünau: Velký Grunov, p. of Brniště
Groß Gürsch: Krsy
Großhaid: Velký Bor
Groß Hammer (Großhammer): Velké Hamry
Groß Heilendorf: Postřelmov
Groß Heinrichschlag: Velký Jindřichov, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Groß Hermsdorf: Heřmanice u Oder
Großherrlitz (Groß Herrlitz): Velké Heraltice
Groß Herrndorf: Kněžice (Chrudim District)
Großherrndorf (Großhirndorf): Kněžice, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Groß Hitschitz: Velké Hydčice
Groß Hluschitz: Hlušice
Groß Holletitz: Holedeč
Großhorka: Hrubá Horka, p. of Železný Brod
Groß Hoschütz: Velké Hoštice
Groß Hrabowa: Hrabová, p. of Ostrava
Groß Hubina: Velký Hubenov, p. of Snědovice
Groß Jentsch (Groß-Jenc): Jeneč
Groß Jessenitz: Velká Jesenice
Groß Jirna: Jirny
Groß Jober: Velká Javorská, p. of Žandov
Groß Karlowitz: Velké Karlovice
Groß Kaudern: Chuderov
Groß Kletzan: Klecany
Groß Kostomlat: Kostomlaty nad Labem
Groß Kraschtitz: Chraštice
Groß Krosse: Velká Kraš
Groß Kuchel: Prague-Velká Chuchle
Groß Kuntschitz: Kunčice pod Ondřejníkem
Großkunzendorf: Kunčice, p. of Ostrava
Groß Kunzendorf: Velké Kunětice
Groß Latein: Slatinice
Groß Lhotta: Lhota (Zlín District)
Großloh: Velký Luh
Großlohowitz: Hlohovice
Groß Losenitz (Groß Lossenitz): Velká Losenice
Groß Lowtschitz: Lovčice (Hodonín District)
Großlubigau (Groß Lubigau): Velký Hlavákov, p. of Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)
Gross Lukau: Lukov (Zlín District)
Großmallowa: Velký Malahov
Großmalowitz: Malovice
Groß Meierhöfen: Velké Dvorce, p. of Přimda
Großmergthal: Mařenice
Gross Meseritsch (Großmeseritsch): Velké Meziříčí
Großmohrau: Velká Morava, p. of Dolní Morava
Groß Morschin (Gross-Morzin): Mořina
Groß Nehwizd: Nehvizdy
Gross Niemtschitz: Velké Němčice
Groß Olbersdorf: Velké Albrechtice
Groß Olkowitz: Oleksovice
Groß Opatowitz: Velké Opatovice
Groß Opolan: Opolany
Groß Orzechau: Velký Ořechov
Groß Otschehau: Očihov
Groß Pantschen: Velký Pěčín, p. of Dačice
Gross Pawlowitz: Velké Pavlovice
Groß Petersdorf: Horní Vražné, now Vražné
Groß Peterswald: Petřvald (Nový Jičín District)
Groß Petrowitz: Petrovice
Groß Pohlom: Velká Polom
Groß Poidl: Podolí, p. of Mohelnice
Großpopowitz: Velké Popovice
Groß Poreschin: Pořešín, p. of Kaplice
Groß Poric: Velké Poříčí
Groß Priesen (Großpriesen): Velké Březno
Groß Prossenitz: Velké Prosenice, now Prosenice
Groß Pschilep: Velké Přílepy
Groß Pulitz: Pulice, p. of Dobruška
Groß Raden: Radim, p. of Brantice
Groß Rammerschlag: Velký Ratmírov
Groß Rasel (Groß Raasel): Rájec (Šumperk District)
Groß Ritte: Řetová
Groß Schinian: Žíňany, p. of Soběhrdy
Groß Schönau (Großschönau): Velký Šenov
Groß Schüttüber: Velká Šitbor, p. of Milíkov (Cheb District)
Groß Schwadowitz: Velké Svatoňovice
Groß Seelowitz: Židlochovice
Groß Senitz: Senice na Hané
Groß Sichdichfür: Velká Hleďsebe
Groß Skal: Hrubá Skála
Groß Spinelsdorf: Velká Lesná, now Hradiště MTA*
Groß Steurowitz: Starovice
Groß Stohl: Velká Štáhle
Groß Strodau: Stradov, p. of Omlenice
Groß Tajax: Dyjákovice
Groß Teinitz: Velký Týnec
Groß Temelin: Temelín
Groß Trestny: Velké Tresné
Groß Tschakowitz: Čakovice
Großtschekau: Čakov (České Budějovice District)
Groß Tschernitz: Velká Černoc, p. of Měcholupy (Louny District)
Groß Tschernosek (Groß Czernosek): Velké Žernoseky
Groß Tschochau: Řehlovice
Groß Ullersdorf: Velké Losiny
Groß Umlowitz: Omlenice
Groß Uretschlag: Černíkov
Groß Urhau: Ořechov (Brno-Country District)
Groß Walten: Velký Valtinov
Groß Waltersdorf: Velká Střelná, now Libavá MTA*
Großwasser: Hrubá Voda, p. of Hlubočky
Großwehlen (Großwöhlen): Děčín XXX-Velká Veleň
Groß Werscheditz: Verušice, p. of Žlutice
Groß Wisternitz: Velká Bystřice
Groß Witschitz: Vitčice, p. of Veliká Ves (Chomutov District)
Groß Wonetitz: Bonětice, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Groß Wosek: Velký Osek
Groß Woslawitz: Oslavice
Groß Wosnalitz: Osinalice, p. of Medonosy
Großwossek: Velký Osek
Groß Wrbka: Hrubá Vrbka
Groß Wschelis: Velké Všelisy
Groß Würben: Velké Vrbno, now Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Groß Würbka (Groß Wrbka): Hrubá Vrbka
Groß Zdikau: Zdíkov
Groß Ziegenruck: Velký Kozí Hřbet, p. of Rejštejn
Groß Zmietsch: Smědeč, p. of Ktiš
Grottau: Hrádek nad Nisou
Grub: Jáma, p. of Mičovice
Grün
Doubrava, p. of Aš
Louka, p. of Nová Ves (Sokolov District)
Novina, p. of Sokolov
Zelená, p. of Skalná
Zelená Lhota, p. of Nýrsko
Grünau: Gruna
Grünberg:
Zelená Hora (Vyškov District)
Zelená Hora, p. of Kraslice
Grünlas: Loučky, p. of Nové Sedlo (Sokolov District)
Grünwald:
Pastviny, now Moldava (Teplice District)*
Zelený, p. of Úštěk
Grünwald an der Neiße: Mšeno nad Nisou, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Grulich: Králíky
Grumberg: Podlesí, p. of Malá Morava
Grunddorf: Dlouhá Ves, p. of Hynčina
Grundmühlen: Mlýny, p. of Hrob
Grussbach: Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou
Gschwendt: Světví, p. of Horní Stropnice
Gsenget: Pomezí
Gstom: Stan, p. of Lestkov (Tachov District)
Gügel: Dolní Bukovina and Horní Bukovina, now Levín
Güntersdorf: Huntířov
Gürsch: Krsy
Guldenfurth: Brod nad Dyjí
Gumplitz: Kumpolec, p. of Tisová (Tachov District)
Gumpolds: Humpolec
Gundersdorf: Guntramovice, p. of Budišov nad Budišovkou
Gundrum: Komořany (Vyškov District)
Guratin: Krtín, p. of Skapce
Gurein: Kuřim
Gurenitz: Skoronice, p. of Bujanov
Gurim: Kouřim
Gurschdorf: Skorošice
Gurwitz: Krhovice
Gut Wellowitz: Bílovice
Gutbrunn: Dobrá Voda, now Jablonec nad Nisou
Gutenbrunn: Meziluží, p. of Horní Stropnice
Gutenfeld: Dobruška
Guthausen: Dobrá, p. of Stožec
Guttenfeld: Dobré Pole
Guttowitz (Kottowitz): Kotovice
Gutwasser: Dobrá Voda u Českých Budějovic
H
Haag: Zahrádka, p. of Rožmitál na Šumavě
Haan: Háj u Duchcova
Haardt: Staré Hobzí
Haatsch: Hať
Habakladrau: Ovesné Kladruby
Haber: Habřina, p. of Úštěk
Haberdorf: Ovesná, p. of Benešov nad Ploučnicí
Habern: Habry
Habersbirk: Habartov
Habicht: Jestřabí, now Libavá MTA*
Hablesreith: Havlov, now Rožmitál na Šumavě*
Habrina: Habřina
Habrowan:
Habrovany (Ústí nad Labem District)
Habrovany (Vyškov District)
Habrzi: Habří, p. of Řehlovice
Habstein (Habichstein): Jestřebí (Česká Lípa District)
Hackenhäuser: Sekerské Chalupy, p. of Stará Voda (Cheb District)
Hadruwa: Hadrava, p. of Chudenín
Hafnerluden: Lubnice (Znojmo District)
Hafnern: Klení, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Hagengrün: Zeleny Háj, p. of Vojtanov
Hagensdorf: Ahníkov, now Málkov (Chomutov District)*
Haid:
Bor (Tachov District)
Bor, p. of Sadov
Haida: Nový Bor
Haidberg: Vřesná, now Frymburk
Haidedörfel: Boreček, p. of Ralsko
Haidl:
Lomek, now Boletice MTA*
Zhůří, p. of Rejštejn
Hainbuchen: Habřina
Haindorf:
Hajnice
Hejnice (Liberec District)
Hainspach: Lipová (Děčín District)
Haje: Háje nad Jizerou
Halbendorf: Polouvsí, p. of Jeseník nad Odrou
Halbgebäu: Podílná, now Hazlov
Halbmeil: Rozhraní
Halbstadt: Meziměstí
Hallenkau: Halenkov
Halmgrün: Podlesí, p. of Sadov
Hals: Halže
Hammer: Hamr, p. of Litvínov
Hammer am See: Hamr na Jezeře
Hammerhäuseln: Hamrníky, p. of Mariánské Lázně
Hammern:
České Hamry, p. of Strážov (Klatovy District)
Hamry (Klatovy District)
Hammerstadt: Vlastějovice
Hamstein: Hamštejn, p. of Koberovy
Hangendorf: Svahy, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Hangenstein: Skály, p. of Horní Město
Hannersdorf: Jindrišská, p. of Jirkov
Hannsdorf: Hanušovice
Haratitz: Haratice, p. of Plavy
Hardetschlag: Hartunkov, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Hareth: Horany
Harlosee: Horní Polžice, p. of Bezdružice
Harrachsdorf:
Harrachov
Harrachov, p. of Rýmařov
Harrachsthal: Harrachov, p. of Šluknov
Hart: Lesina, p. of Třebeň
Harta: Podhůří, p. of Vrchlabí
Hartenberg: Hřebeny, p. of Josefov (Sokolov District)
Hartessenreuth: Hartoušov, p. of Nebanice
Hartlas: Lesinka, p. of Třebeň
Härtlings: Hořepník
Hartmanitz: Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Hartmannsgrün: Lučiny, p. of Doupovské Hradiště
Hartowitz: Hrdějovice
Haschowa: Hašov, p. of Horšovský Týn
Hasel: Líska, p. of Česká Kamenice
Haselbach: Lísková, p. of Nemanice
Haselberg: Lískovec, now Nemanice*
Haslau: Hazlov
Haslicht: Varhošť, now Libavá MTA*
Haßlitz: Haslice, p. of Homole u Panny
Hatschein: Hejčín, p. of Olomouc
Hatzles: Hodslav, now Vyšší Brod*
Hau: Horní Pochlovice, p. of Kaceřov (Sokolov District)
Hauenstein: Horní Hrad, p. of Krásný Les (Karlovy Vary District)
Hauptmannsdorf: Hejtmánkovice
Hausbrunn: Úsobrno
Hausdorf: Hukovice, p. of Bartošovice
Hawlovitz: Havlovice
Hawran: Havraň
Hegeholz: Hajniště, now Jeníkov (Teplice District)*
Hegewald: Hajniště, p. of Nové Město pod Smrkem
Heideburg: Borohrádek
Heidenpiltsch: Bílčice
Heidenstein: Kámen (Děčín District)
Heidles: Borek, now Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Heilbrunn: Hojná Voda, p. of Horní Stropnice
Heiligen: Světce, p. of Tachov
Heiligenberg: Svatý Kopeček, p. of Olomouc
Heiligenkreuz:
Chodský Újezd
Svatý Kříž, now Cheb
Svatý Kříž, p. of Havlíčkův Brod
Újezd Svatého Kříže, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Heiligenulrich: Světce
Heiligkreuz: Újezd u Svatého Kříže
Heindorf:
Hájov, p. of Příbor
Hejnov, p. of Holčovice
Heinersdorf am Jeschken: Liberec XXIV-Pilínkov
Heinersdorf an der Tafelfichte: Jindřichovice pod Smrkem
Heinitz: Hejnice (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Heinrichs: Velká Bíteš
Heinrichsberg: Jindřichova Hora, p. of Klenčí pod Čerchovem
Heinrichschlag: Jindřiš, p. of Rodvínov
Heinrichsdorf: Jindřichova Ves, p. of Kalek
Heinrichsgrün: Jindřichovice (Sokolov District)
Heinrichsheid: Jindřichovice, p. of Kolinec
Heinrichsöd: Hrdoňov, now Frymburk
Heinrichsthal: Jindřichov (Šumperk District)
Heinzendorf:
Henčov, p. of Jihlava
Hynčice (Náchod District)
Hynčice, p. of Město Albrechtice
Hynčice, p. of Vražné
Heinzendorf an der March: Hynčice nad Moravou, p. of Hanušovice
Heinzhof: Hynčina
Helmbach: Michlova Huť, p. of Vimperk
Hemmehübel: Kopec, p. of Staré Křečany
Hengstererben: Hřebečná, p. of Abertamy
Henne: Huníkov, p. of Česká Kamenice
Henneberg: Borová, p. of Bolatice
Hennersdorf:
Dolní Branná
Dubnice
Jindřichov (Bruntál District)
Jindřichov, p. of Lučany nad Nisou
Heraletz:
Herálec (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Herálec (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Heraltitz: Heraltice
Herautz: Heroltice, p. of Štíty
Herbau: Hrbov, p. of Polná
Herbitz: Hrbovice, p. of Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Herbstwiese: Děčín VI-Letná
Herdly: Hrdly, p. of Bohušovice nad Ohří
Herlsdorf: Heroltovice, p. of Město Libavá
Hermanitz: Heřmanice (Náchod District)
Hermanmestec (Hermanmiestetz): Heřmanův Městec
Hermannschlag: Kuří, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Hermannsdorf: Heřmanov, p. of Teplá
Hermannseifen: Rudník (Trutnov District)
Hermannsgrün: Heřmanov, now Jindřichovice (Sokolov District)
Hermannshütte: Heřmanova Huť
Hermannstadt: Heřmanovice
Hermannstädtel: Heřmanův Městec
Hermannsthal: Jeřmanice
Hermersdorf:
Heřmanov (Děčín District)
Kamenná Horka
Hermitz: Heřmanice, p. of Starý Jičín
Hermsdorf:
Heřmanice (Liberec District)
Heřmanice, p. of Žandov
Heřmanice v Podještědí, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Heřmaničky, p. of Česká Lípa
Heřmánkovice
Heřmánky
Heřmánky, now Libavá MTA*
Herrlich: Hrdlovka, now Duchcov*
Herrndorf: Kněževes (Rakovník District)
Herrnsdorf: Heřmanice, p. of Králíky
Herrnskretschen: Hřensko
Herrnwalde: Panský, p. of Staré Křečany
Herscheditz: Herstošice, p. of Bochov
Herschichlau: Hřešihlavy, p. of Kladruby (Rokycany District)
Herschmanitz: Heřmanice, p. of Ostrava
Hertin: Rtyně v Podkrkonoší
Hertine: Rtyně nad Bílinou
Hertitz: Hertice, p. of Dolní Životice
Herzogwald: Lesy, now Budišov nad Budišovkou
Hesselsdorf: Hošťka
Hetschigau: Hostíčkov, p. of Chodová Planá
Hettau: Hetov, now Hrobčice*
Heuhof: Sruby
Heumahd: Senožaty
Hielgersdorf: Severní, p. of Lobendava
Hilbersdorf: Heroltice, p. of Jihlava
Hilbeten: Hylváty, p. of Ústí nad Orlicí
Hillau: Hýlov, p. of Klimkovice
Hillemühl 1. Teil: Mlýny, p. of Kytlice
Hillemühl 2. Teil: Hillův Mlýn, p. of Kytlice
Hillersdorf: Holčovice
Himmelreich: Nebesa, p. of Aš
Himmlisch Ribnai: Nebeská Rybná, p. of Rokytnice v Orlických horách
Hinkowitz: Hynkovice, now Strážov (Klatovy District)*
Hinterglöckelberg: Zadní Zvonková, now Horní Planá
Hinterhaid: Zadní Bor, now Boletice MTA*
Hinterhäuser: Zadní Chalupy, now Hamry (Klatovy District)*
Hinter Heuraffl: Zadní Výtoň, now Přední Výtoň
Hinter Kotten: Zadní Chodov
Hinterstift: Další Lhota, now Horní Planá
Hinterstrietesch: Zadní Střítež
Hinterwasser: Zářečí, now Březová nad Svitavou
Hinter Zinnwald: Cínovec, p. of Dubí
Hintring: Záhvozdí, p. of Želnava
Hirschau: Hyršov, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Hirschberg: Jelení, p. of Holčovice
Hirschberg am See: Doksy
Hirschbergen: Jelení, p. of Nová Pec
Hirschenstand: Jelení, now Nové Hamry
Hirschenstein: Jelenov, p. of Rejštejn
Hirschdorf: Jelenice, p. of Vítkov
Hirschfeld: Polná, p. of Hazlov
Hlinay: Hliňany, p. of Řehlovice
Hlinsko am Hostein: Hlinsko pod Hostýnem, p. of Bystřice pod Hostýnem
Hlinsko: Hlinsko
Hlintsch: Hlince
Hlinz: Hlinsko, p. of Rudolfov
Hlubocep: Prague-Hlubočepy
Hlubosch: Hluboš
Hluck: Hluk
Hniemitz: Hněvnice
Hnojnik (Hnoynik, Hnoinik): Hnojník
Hobitschau: Hlubočany
Hoch Aujest: Vysoký Újezd
Hochberg:
Morašov, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Vyšehoří
Hoch Chlumetz: Vysoký Chlumec
Hochchwojno: Vysoké Chvojno
Hochdobern: Dobrná
Hochdorf:
Nahořany, p. of Větřní
Vysoká, p. of Jihlava
Hochgarth: Obora, p. of Šindelová
Hochkirchen: Kostelec, p. of Fulnek
Hochlibin: Vysoká Libyně
Hochmorschin: Mořina
Hochofen: Vysoká Pec (Karlovy Vary District)
Hochpetsch: Bečov
Hochsemlowitz: Semněvice
Hochstadt an der Iser: Vysoké nad Jizerou
Hochstein: Hoštejn
Hochtann: Vysoká (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Hochwald:
Hukvaldy
Hvozd, now Boletice MTA*
Hochwessely (Hoch Wessely): Vysoké Veselí
Hodolein: Hodolany, p. of Olomouc
Hodonin: Hodonín, p. of Zdíkov
Hödlwald: Hejdlov, p. of Chvalšiny
Hödnitz: Hodonice (Znojmo District)
Höfen:
Dvorce (Jihlava District)
Dvory, p. of Loket
Hoffnung: Naděje, p. of Cvikov
Hof in Mähren: Dvorce (Bruntál District)
Höflas: Dvorek, p. of Třebeň
Höflein: Hevlín
Hoflenz: Mlýnický Dvůr, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Höflitz:
Hvězdov, p. of Ralsko
Jedlka, p. of Malá Veleň
Hohenbruck:
Bojiště, p. of Trutnov
Třebechovice pod Orebem
Hohendorf:
Vysoká, p. of Dalovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Zádub, p. of Zádub-Závišín
Hohendorf-Abaschin: Zádub-Závišín
Hoheneck: Růžek, p. of Nová Ves (Liberec District)
Hohenelbe: Vrchlabí
Hohenfeld: Vysoké Pole
Hohenfluß: Vysoký Potok, p. of Malá Morava
Hohenfurth: Vyšší Brod
Hohenjamny: Vysoké Jamné, p. of Lestkov (Tachov District)
Hohenleipa: Vysoká Lípa, p. of Jetřichovice
Hohenmauth: Vysoké Mýto
Hohenofen: Vysoká Pec (Chomutov District)
Hohenschlag: Vysoká, now Světlík*
Hohenseibersdorf: Vysoké Žibřidovice, p. of Hanušovice
Hohenstadt: Zábřeh
Hohenstegen: Vysoké Lávky, now Prášily*
Hohenstein: Unčín, p. of Krupka
Hohenstollen: Vysoká Štola, p. of Nejdek
Hohentann: Vysoká Jedle, p. of Místo
Hohentrebetitsch: Vysoké Třebušice, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Hohenwald: Vysoký, now Heřmanice (Liberec District)*
Hohen Zetlisch: Vysoké Sedliště, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Hohlen: Holany
Hoihäuser: Seníky, now Františkovy Lázně
Holaschowitz: Holašovice, p. of Jankov (České Budějovice District)
Holitz:
Holice
Holice, p. of Olomouc
Holkau: Holkov, p. of Velešín
Höll: Peklo, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Höllegrund: Pekelský Důl, p. of Česká Kamenice
Holleischen: Holýšov
Holletitz:
Hodousice, p. of Nýrsko
Holedeč
Holleschau: Holešov
Hollezrieb: Holostřevy, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Hollin: Holyně, p. of Svojšín
Höllmühl: Peklo, p. of Stružná
Hollowing: Holubín, p. of Chodová Planá
Hollubau: Holubov
Hollunder: Chebzí, p. of Písečná (Jeseník District)
Holstein: Holštejn
Holoubkau (Holaubkau): Holoubkov
Holubschen: Holubeč, p. of Hostouň (Domažlice District)
Holzbach: Plavno, now Krásný Les (Karlovy Vary District)*
Holzhof: Dřevíkov
Holzschlag: Paseka, now Prášily*
Hombok: Hlubočky
Honau: Hanov, p. of Lestkov (Tachov District)
Honetschlag: Hodňov, p. of Horní Planá
Honnersdorf: Jindřichov, p. of Cheb
Honnersgrün: Hanušov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Honositz: Honezovice
Hopfendorf: Chmelík
Hopfengarten: Děčín XXV-Chmelnice
Horatitz: Hořetice, p. of Žiželice (Louny District)
Horaschdowitz (Horazdiowitz): Horažďovice
Horauschen: Horoušany
Horek: Horky, p. of Frýdštejn
Horenowes: Hořiněves
Horenz: Hořenec, p. of Libčeves
Horepnik (Horschepnik): Hořepník
Horikowitz: Hoříkovice, p. of Chotěšov (Plzeň-South District)
Horitz (Horic): Hořice
Höritz (im Böhmerwalde): Hořice na Šumavě
Horschitzka: Hořičky
Horka:
Dolejší Hůrky, p. of Postoloprty
(an der Iser): Horky nad Jizerou
Horkau (Horka): Horka nad Moravou
Horn:
(Hornberg): Hory
Hory, p. of Oloví
Hora, now Hradiště MTA*
Horniemtsch: Horní Němčí
Hornschlag: Hodoň, now Loučovice*
Horosedl: Hořesedly
Horschau: Horšov, p. of Horšovský Týn
Horschelitz: Hořelice, now Rudná (Prague-West District)
Horschepnik: Hořepník
Hörschin: Hrzín, p. of Nový Kostel
Horschitz: Hořice
Horschowitz (Horowitz, Horzowitz):
Hořovice
Hořovičky
Hörsin: Hrzín, p. of Nový Kostel
Hortau: Děčín XXXV-Lesná
Hörwitzel: Hořičky, now Boletice MTA*
Hoschialkowitz: Hoštálkovice, p. of Ostrava
Hoschlowitz: Hašlovice, p. of Větřní
Hoschtitz-Heroltitz: Hoštice-Heroltice
Hoslau:
Blata, p. of Nýrsko
Hvožďany (Domažlice District)
Hosposin: Hospozín
Hossau: Hosov, p. of Jihlava
Hossen (Hosen): Hostínov, now Polná na Šumavě*
Hossenreuth: Jenišov, now Horní Planá
Hostaschowitz: Hostašovice
Hostau: Hostouň (Domažlice District)
Hostaun: Hostouň (Kladno District)
Hostein: Hostýn
Hosterlitz:
Hostěradice
Hostice, p. of Ruda nad Moravou
Hosterschlag: Člunek
Hostes: Hostkovice, p. of Dačice
Hostialkow (Hostialkau): Hošťálková
Hösting: Hostim
Hostitz: Děčín XXIX-Hoštice nad Labem
Hostiwitz: Hostivice
Hostomitz:
Hostomice (Beroun District)
Hostomice (Teplice District)
Hostowitz: Hostovice, p. of Pardubice
Hottendorf: Hodkovice, now Jívka
Hottowies: Hostovice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Hotzendorf: Hodslavice
Hotzenplotz: Osoblaha
Hrabin: Hrabyně
Hrabstwie: Hrabství, p. of Skřipov
Hradek: Hrádek (Klatovy District)
Hradzen: Hradec (Plzeň-South District)
Hraidisch: Hradiště nad Ohří, p. of Postoloprty
Hranitz: Hranice, p. of Karviná
Hriwitz: Hřivice
Hrobschitz: Hrobčice
Hrochow-Teinitz (Hrochowteinitz): Hrochův Týnec
Hronow: Hronov
Hrottowitz: Hrotovice
Hrozna Lhotta: Hroznová Lhota
Hruschau: Hrušov, p. of Ostrava
Hruschowan:
Hrušovany (Chomutov District)
Hrušovany, p. of Polepy (Litoměřice District)
Hubene: Hubenov, p. of Kaplice
Hüblern: Houžná, p. of Lenora (Prachatice District)
Hühnerwasser: Kuřívody, p. of Ralsko
Hulken: Hluk
Hullein: Hulín
Hultschin: Hlučín
Hulwaken: Hulváky, p. of Ostrava
Hummel: Homole u Panny
Hummeln: Homole (České Budějovice District)
Humpoletz: Humpolec
Humwald: Chlum, p. of Volary
Hundorf: Hudcov, p. of Teplice
Hundsnursch: Koryto, p. of Zbytiny
Hundsruck: Hřbítek, now Loučovice*
Hungertuch: Hladov
Hunkowitz: Unkovice
Huntir: Huntířov
Hurka: Hůrka, p. of Jeseník nad Odrou
Hurkau: Hůrky
Hurkenthal: Hůrka, now Prášily*
Hurschippen: Hořipná, now Rožmberk nad Vltavou*
Hurschk: Hoštec, p. of Teplá
Hurz: Zhořec, p. of Bezdružice
Huschitz: Šumavské Hoštice
Hussinetz: Husinec (Prachatice District)
Hussowitz: Brno-Husovice
Hustienowitz: Huštěnovice
Hustopetsch (an der Betschwa): Hustopeče nad Bečvou
Hut: Klobuky
Hutberg: Hony, p. of Police nad Metují
Hüttel: Chaloupky
Hüttenberg: Pastviny, now Deštné v Orlických horách*
Huttendorf: Zálesní Lhota, p. of Studenec (Semily District)
Hüttenhof:
Huťský Dvůr, now Horní Planá*
Huťský Dvůr, now Vimperk*
Hüttmesgrün: Vrch, now Krásný Les (Karlovy Vary District)*
Hwiezdlitz: Hvězdlice
Hwozdian: Hvožďany (Příbram District)
I
Igel: Jihlava (river)
Iglau: Jihlava
Illemnik: Jilemník, p. of Havlíčkův Brod
Illeschowitz: Jilešovice, p. of Háj ve Slezsku
Imlikau: Jimlíkov, p. of Nová Role
Imling: Jimlín
Indic: Jindice, p. of Rašovice (Kutná Hora District)
Ingrowitz: Jimramov
Innergefild: Horská Kvilda
Innichen: Mchov, p. of Staré Sedliště
Innozenzidorf: Lesné, p. of Jiřetín pod Jedlovou
Irmsdorf: Jamartice, p. of Rýmařov
Irresdorf: Lštín, now Polná na Šumavě*
Irrgang: Bludná, p. of Pernink
Irritz: Jiřice u Miroslavi
Irschings: Jiřín, p. of Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Itschina: Jičina, p. of Starý Jičín
J
Jablon: Jablonná, p. of Chyše
Jablonetz an der Iser: Jablonec nad Jizerou
Jablunka: Jablůnka
Jablunkau: Jablunkov
Jäckelthal: Údolí, now Frýdlant
Jagdhase: Kolná, p. of Brumovice (Opava District)
Jägerdörfel: Myslivny, now Mařenice
Jägerndorf: Krnov
Jägersdorf: Lada, p. of Česká Lípa
Jaispitz: Jevišovice
Jaktar: Jaktař, p. of Opava
Jakubschowitz: Jakubčovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Jalub: Jalubí
Jamles: Jamné, p. of Boršov nad Vltavou
Jamnei an der Adler: Jamné nad Orlicí
Jamnitz:
Jamnice, p. of Stěbořice
Jemnice
Janauschendorf: Janoušov
Jandles: Mošna, now Zbytiny
Janegg: Jeníkov (Teplice District)
Janessen: Jenišov
Jankau: Jankov (Benešov District)
Janketschlag (Jangetschlag): Jankov, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Jankowitz: Jankovice, p. of Letohrad
Janowitz:
Janovice
Janovice, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Janovice, p. of Pelhřimov
Janovice, p. of Polná
Janovice, p. of Rýmařov
Janovice, p. of Starý Jičín
(an der Angel): Janovice nad Úhlavou
Janovičky, p. of Zámrsk
Jansdorf: Janov (Svitavy District)
Jareschau (an der Naser): Jarošov nad Nežárkou
Jarkowitz: Jarkovice, p. of Velhartice
Jarmeritz (Jaromeritz): Jaroměřice nad Rokytnou
Jarmirn: Jaroměř, p. of Malonty
Jarohnowitz: Jarohněvice
Jaromieritz: Jaroměřice
Jaronin: Jaronín, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Jasena: Jasenná (Náchod District)
Jassenitz: Jasenice, p. of Lešná
Jassenka: Horní Jasenka, p. of Vsetín
Jastersdorf: Jestřabí, p. of Fulnek
Jauernig: Javorník (Jeseník District)
Jauernig Dorf: Ves Javorník, now Javorník (Jeseník District)
Jawornitz: Javornice
Jechnitz: Jesenice (Rakovník District)
Jedownitz: Jedovnice
Jeedl: Jedlí
Jelemka: Jelemek, p. of Nebahovy
Jenewelt: Onen Svět, p. of Čachrov
Jenschowitz: Jenišovice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Jentsch: Jeneč, p. of Brťov-Jeneč
Jentschitz: Jenčice
Jerschmanitz: Jeřmanice
Jermer: Jaroměř
Jesau: Ježená
Jeschken: Ještěd (mountain)
Jeschkowitz: Jezdkovice
Jeseney (Jesenei): Jesenný
Jessenetz: Jesenec
Jessenitz: Jesenice (Prague-West District)
Jestrabi: Jestřabí v Krkonoších
Jetietitz: Jetětice
Jetschan: Děčany
Jeschin: Ješín, p. of Velvary
Jettenitz:
Dětenice
Řetenice, p. of Nicov
Jetzlau: Jeclov, p. of Velký Beranov
Jewan: Jevany
Jibka: Jívka
Jicinowes: Jičíněves
Jilau: Jílové u Držkova
Jinetz: Jince
Jirkau: Jirkov, p. of Železný Brod
Jistebnitz: Jistebnice
Jistey (Gistej): Jistebsko, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Jitschin: Jičín
Jitzkowitz: Jickovice
Joachimsdorf: Jáchymov, p. of Brniště
Joachimsthal: Jáchymov
Jogsdorf: Jakubčovice nad Odrou
Johanidorf: Johanka, p. of Kamenice nad Lipou
Johannaburg: Johanka, now Stará Červená Voda*
Johannesberg:
Janov nad Nisou
Janovičky, p. of Heřmánkovice
Janovka, p. of Velký Šenov
Svatý Jan nad Malší
Johannesdorf:
Janov, p. of Kočov
Janov, p. of Nový Bor
Janova Ves, p. of Pohorská Ves
Johannesfeld: Zadky, p. of Neplachovice
Johannesgunst: Janovice, p. of Rudník (Trutnov District)
Johanneskirchl: Kosteliště, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Johannesthal:
Janov (Bruntál District)
Janské Údolí, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Liberec IX-Janův Důl
Johannisbad: Janské Lázně
Johnsbach (Jonsbach): Janská
Johnsdorf:
Habrovice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Janov, p. of Litvínov
Janovice, now Jívka
Janovice v Podještědí
Janovice, p. of Kravaře
Jokelsdorf (Jockelsdorf):
Jakubovice
Jakubovice, p. of Dolní Čermná
Jokes: Jakubov, p. of Vojkovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Jonsdorf: Janov (Děčín District)
Josefihütte: Josefova Huť, now Planá (Tachov District)
Josefsburg: Josefovice, p. of Hrabyně
Josefschlag: Žižkovo Předměstí, now České Velenice
Josefsdorf:
Josefov (Hodonín District)
Josefov (Sokolov District)
Josefov, p. of Rožná
Josefovice, p. of Klimkovice
Svobodná Ves, p. of Horka I
Josefstadt:
Josefov, p. of Jaroměř
Prague-Josefov
Josefsthal:
Josefodol, p. of Světlá nad Sázavou
Josefův Důl (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Josefswille: Mlatce, p. of Františkov nad Ploučnicí
Josephsthal: Josefův Důl (Mladá Boleslav District)
Joslowitz: Jaroslavice
Judendorf:
Přítkov, p. of Proboštov
Židněves
Julienau: Julín, p. of Úštěk
Julienheim (Julienhain): Hranice (České Budějovice District)
Juliusthal: Juliovka, p. of Krompach
Jungbuch: Mladé Buky
Jungbunzlau: Mladá Boleslav
Jungfern Berschan: Panenské Břežany
Jungferndorf:
Kobylá nad Vidnavkou
Panenská, now Petrovice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Jungfernteinitz: Panenský Týnec
Jung Smoliwetz: Mladý Smolivec
Jung Woschitz: Mladá Vožice
Juratin: Kurojedy, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Jurau: Jírov, now Hradiště MTA*
K
Kaaden: Kadaň
Kabischowitz: Chabičovice, p. of Mirkovice
Kahau: Kahov, p. of Prachatice
Kahudowa: Kohoutov, p. of Bezdružice
Kahn über Bodenbach: Velké Chvojno
Kahr: Úžlabí, p. of Habartov
Kaile: Kyje
Kailowitz: Kajlovec, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Kainratsdorf: Kondratice, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Kainretschlag: Konratice, p. of Horní Stropnice
Kaiserswalde: Císařský, p. of Šluknov
Kaitz: Kyjice, now Vrskmaň*
Kaladey (Kaladei): Koloděje nad Lužnicí, p. of Týn nad Vltavou
Kalenitz: Chválenice
Kalkpodol: Vápenný Podol
Kallendorf: Chvalovice (Znojmo District)
Kallenitz: Kalenice
Kallich: Kalek
Kalischt: Kaliště (Pelhřimov District)
Kalmswiese: Děčín XVII-Jalůvčí
Kalsching: Chvalšiny
Kaltenbach: Nové Hutě
Kaltenbach: Studený, p. of Kunratice (Děčín District)
Kaltenbirken: Zahořánky, p. of Přídolí
Kaltenbrunn:
Studánky, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Studánky, p. of Vyšší Brod
Kaltenhof: Oblanov, p. of Trutnov
Kaltenlautsch: Studená Loučka, p. of Mohelnice
Kaltseifen: Studený Zejf, p. of Písečná (Jeseník District)
Kaltwasser: Studená Voda, p. of Božanov
Kalwitz: Kalovice, p. of Úštěk
Kamaik:
Kamýk (Litoměřice District)
Kamýk nad Vltavou
Kamberg: Kamberk
Kamen: Kámen (Pelhřimov District)
Kamenitschek (Kamenicek): Kameničky
Kamenik: Kamýk, p. of Švihov (Klatovy District)
Kameral Ellgoth: Komorní Lhotka
Kamiegl: Kamýk, p. of Bezdružice
Kamitz: Kamenka, p. of Odry
Kammer: Komora, p. of Holčovice
Kammerdorf: Lužná
Kammersgrün: Lužec, p. of Nejdek
Kamenitz:
Kamenice (Jihlava District)
Kamenice (Prague-East District)
(an der Linde): Kamenice nad Lipou
Kamenná (Třebíč District)
Trhová Kamenice
Kamentz: Kamenec, p. of Holasovice
Kamnitzleiten: Kamenická Stráň, p. of Růžová
Kamnitz-Neudörfel: Kamenická Nová Víska, p. of Česká Kamenice
Kanitz: Dolní Kounice
Kanowsko: Kanovsko, p. of Vlkoš (Přerov District)
Kapellen: Kapličky, now Loučovice*
Kapellenhäuser: Kaplice, p. of Lenora (Prachatice District)
Kapellner Waldhäuser: Kaplické Chalupy, now Přední Výtoň*
Kaplitz: Kaplice
Kapsch: Skapce
Karbitz: Chabařovice
Kardasch Retschitz: Kardašova Řečice
Kares: Kařez
Karlbachhütte: Karlova Huť, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Karlowitz: Velké Karlovice
Karlsbad (Carlsbad): Karlovy Vary
Karlsberg:
Karlov, p. of Josefův Důl (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Karlovec, p. of Bruntál
Karlsbrunn: Karle (Svitavy District)
Karlsburg: Kašperk
Karlsdorf:
Karlov pod Pradědem, p. of Malá Morávka
Karlov, p. of Bohušov
Karlslau: Karlovec, p. of Opava
Karlstein: Karlštejn (Beroun District)
Karlsthal:
Karlovice (Bruntál District)
Karlovka, p. of Velká Bukovina
Karlswald: Liberec XXXV-Karlov pod Ještědem
Karolinsfeld: Liberec XVIII-Karlinky
Karolinenthal: Prague-Karlín
Karolinsthal (Carolinsthal, Karolinstal): Karlín, p. of Dolní Poustevna
Karolinthal: Peklo, now Raspenava
Kartaus (Karthaus): Čertousy, now Prague 20
Karthaus-Walditz: Valdice
Kartitz: Choratice, p. of Malšovice
Kartouze: Královo Pole
Karwin: Karviná
Kaschitz: Kaštice, p. of Podbořany
Kaschkowitz: Kaškovice, p. of Frýdštejn
Kassejowitz: Kasejovice
Kastlern: Hradový, now Vyšší Brod
Katharein: Kateřinky, p. of Opava
Katharinaberg:
Hora Svaté Kateřiny
Kateřinov, now Polná
Katharinadorf: Kateřina, p. of Skalná
Katharinberg: Liberec XVII-Kateřinky
Katharinenthal: Kateřina, p. of Dolní Podluží
Katowitz: Katovice
Kattendorf: Kateřinice (Nový Jičín District)
Katusitz: Katusice
Katzendorf: Starojická Lhota, p. of Starý Jičín
Katzengrün: Kaceřov (Sokolov District)
Katzow: Kácov
Kaunitz: Kounice
Kaunowa: Kounov
Kaurzim (Kaurim): Kouřim
Kauth: Kout na Šumavě
Kauthen: Kouty, p. of Kravaře
Kautz: Chouč, p. of Hrobčice
Kawarn: Koberno, p. of Slezské Rudoltice
Kaznau (Kasenau, Kasnau): Kaznějov
Keilberg: Klínovec (mountain)
Keltsch: Kelč
Keltschan: Kelčany
Ketten: Chotyně
Kellersdorf: Šimanov
Kerndorf: Jadrná, now Orlické Záhoří
Kernin: Krnín, p. of Chlumec (Český Krumlov District)
Kettowitz: Chotěbudice, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Ketzelsdorf:
Koclířov
Kocléřov, p. of Vítězná
Khaa: Kyjov, p. of Krásná Lípa
Khan: Chanov, p. of Obrnice
Kiefergratschen: Borová Krčma, now Vendolí
Kienberg: Loučovice
Kienhaid: Načetín I, now Kalek*
Kienwald: Borovnice (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Kieselhof: Čkyně
Kiesenreuth: Kříženec, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Killitz (Kilitz): Chylice, p. of Útvina
Kinitz: Knínice (Jihlava District)
Kinitz-Tettau: Vchynice-Tetov, p. of Srní
Kinsberg: Hrozňatov, p. of Cheb
Kirchberg:
Kámen (Pelhřimov District)
Kostelní, p. of Kraslice
Kirchenbirk: Kostelní Bříza, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Kirchsassen: Rudná (Prague-West District)
Kirchschlag: Světlík
Kiritein: Křtiny
Kirsch: Krsy
Kirschbaum: Třešňovice, now Rožmitál na Šumavě*
Kirwein: Skrbeň
Kitlitzdorf: Kytlice, now Citice*
Kladek: Kladky
Kittlitz (Kittelwitz): Kytlice
Kladen:
Kladné, p. of Kájov
Kladno
Kladerlas: Kladruby, p. of Teplá
Kladrau: Kladruby (Tachov District)
Kladrub:
Kladruby (Benešov District)
(an der Elbe): Kladruby nad Labem
Klantendorf: Kujavy
Klapay (Klappay): Klapý
Klattau: Klatovy
Klattau Prager Vorstadt: Klatovy II
Klattau Reichsvorstadt: Klatovy III
Klattau Stadt: Klatovy I
Klattau Vorstadt: Klatovy V
Klattau Wiener Vorstadt: Klatovy IV
Klebsch: Chlebičov
Klein Aicha (Kleinaicha): Dubice
Klein Augezd:
Malý Újezd
Újezdeček
Klein Aupa (Kleinaupa): Malá Úpa
Klein Aurim: Malý Uhřínov, now Liberk
Klein Barchow: Barchůvek, p. of Měník
Klein Bieschitz: Zběšičky
Klein Blatzen: Blatečky, p. of Blatce
Klein Bocken (Klein Boken): Malá Bukovina, p. of Velká Bukovina
Klein Bor (Kleinheid): Malý Bor
Klein Bösig: Bezdědice, p. of Bělá pod Bezdězem
Kleinbrand: Žďárky
Klein Borowitz: Borovnička
Klein Bressel: Vraclávek, p. of Hošťálkovy
Klein Bubna: Bubny, now Prague-Holešovice
Klein Bukovina: Malá Bukovina, p. of Chvalkovice (Náchod District)
Klein Cejtitz: Čejetičky, p. of Mladá Boleslav
Klein Cekau: Čakovec, p. of Čakov (České Budějovice District)
Klein Chischka: Chyšky
Klein Chotieschau: Chotěšovičky, p. of Pňovany
Klein Tschernosek (Klein Czernosek): Malé Žernoseky
Klein Darkowitz: Darkovičky, p. of Hlučín
Klein Deschau: Malý Dešov, now Dešov
Kleindrossen: Malá Strašeň, now Světlík*
Klein Eicha: Dubice, p. of Česká Lípa
Klein Ellgoth: Dolní Lhota (Ostrava-City District)
Klein Fürwitz: Vrbička, p. of Vroutek
Klein Gallein: Pusté Skaliny, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Klein Glockersdorf: Klokočůvek, p. of Odry
Klein Gorschin: Malý Horšín, now Rybník (Domažlice District)*
Klein Grabau: Hrabůvka, p. of Ostrava
Klein Grillowitz: Křídlůvky
Klein Gropitzreith: Malý Rapotín, p. of Tachov
Kleingrün: Drnovec, p. of Cvikov
Kleingrün: Malý Hrzín, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Kleinhan: Malý Háj, p. of Hora Svaté Kateřiny
Klein Heilendorf: Postřelmůvek
Klein Heinrichschlag: Malý Jindřichov, now Benešov nad Černou*
Klein Hermigsdorf: Helvíkov, p. of Anenská Studánka
Klein Hermsdorf: Heřmánky
Klein Herrlitz: Malé Heraltice, p. of Velké Heraltice
Klein Hitschitz: Malé Hydčice, p. of Malý Bor
Klein Hluschitz: Hlušičky, p. of Hlušice
Klein Holetitz: Holedeček, p. of Holedeč
Kleinhorka: Malá Horka, p. of Železný Brod
Klein Hoschütz: Malé Hoštice, p. of Opava
Klein Hrabowa: Hrabůvka, p. of Ostrava
Klein Hubina: Malý Hubenov, now Želízy
Klein Iser: Jizerka, p. of Kořenov
Klein Kahn: Malé Chvojno, p. of Velké Chvojno
Klein Karlowitz: Malé Karlovice, p. of Velké Karlovice
Klein Kaudern: Chuderovec, p. of Chuderov
Klein Kinitz: Brno-Kníničky
Klein Körbitz: Malé Krhovice, p. of Chbany
Kleinkositz: Kosičky
Klein Krosse: Malá Kraš, now Velká Kraš
Klein Kuchel: Malá Chuchle, now Prague-Velká Chuchle
Klein Kunzendorf: Kunčičky, p. of Ostrava
Kleinlaschitz: Lažišťka, p. of Nebahovy
Klein Lhota: Hranice II-Lhotka
Klein Lomnitz: Lomnička (Brno-Country District)
Kleinlubigau (Klein Lubigau): Malý Hlavákov, p. of Verušičky
Klein Meierhöfen: Malé Dvorce, p. of Přimda
Klein Mallowa: Malý Malahov, p. of Puclice
Kleinmergthal: Mařeničky, p. of Mařenice
Klein Mohrau:
Malá Morava
Malá Morávka
Klein Nedanitz: Nedaničky, p. of Měčín
Klein Nepodritz: Malé Nepodřice, p. of Dobev
Klein Neustift: Cerekvička, p. of Cerekvička-Rosice
Klein Niemtschitz: Němčičky (Břeclav District)
Kleinnixdorf: Mikulášovičky, p. of Mikulášovice
Klein Olbersdorf: Albrechtičky
Klein Olkowitz: Oleksovičky, p. of Slup
Klein Otschehau: Očihovec, p. of Očihov
Klein Pantschen: Malý Pěčín, p. of Dačice
Klein Petersdorf: Dolní Vražné, now Vražné
Klein Peterswald: Petřvaldík, p. of Petřvald (Nový Jičín District)
Klein Petrowitz:
Petrovičky
Petrovičky, p. of Týniště nad Orlicí
Klein Poidl: Podoličko, now Mohelnice
Klein Popowitz: Modletice
Klein Poreschin: Pořešinec, p. of Kaplice
Klein Prennet: Spáleneček, p. of Česká Kubice
Kleinpriesen: Malé Březno (Most District)
Klein Priesen: Malé Březno (Ústí nad Labem District)
Klein Prossenitz: Malé Prosenice, now Prosenice
Klein Rammerschlag: Malý Ratmírov, p. of Blažejov
Klein Ritte: Řetůvka
Klein Schinian (Klein Zinian): Žíňánky, p. of Soběhrdy
Klein Schönau: Malý Šenov, p. of Velký Šenov
Klein Schönhof: Krásný Dvoreček, p. of Rokle
Klein Schokau: Malý Šachov, p. of Starý Šachov
Klein Schüttüber: Malá Šitbor, p. of Milíkov (Cheb District)
Klein Schwadowitz: Malé Svatoňovice
Klein Semlowitz: Zámělíč, p. of Poběžovice
Klein Senitz: Senička
Klein Sichdichfür: Malá Hleďsebe, p. of Velká Hleďsebe
Kleinskal: Malá Skála
Klein Sliwno: Mečeříž
Klein Spinelsdorf: Malá Lesná, now Hradiště MTA*
Klein Stiebnitz: Zdobnička, now Zdobnice
Klein Stohl: Malá Štáhle
Klein Studnitz: Studénky, p. of Puklice
Klein Tajax: Dyjákovičky
Klein Teinitz: Týneček, p. of Olomouc
Klein Tesswitz: Dobšice
Kleinthal: Údolíčko, p. of Perštejn
Klein Trestny: Malé Tresné, p. of Rovečné
Kleintschekau: Čakovec
Klein Tscherma: Malá Čermná, p. of Čermná nad Orlicí
Klein Tschernitz: Malá Černoc, p. of Blšany
Klein Umlowitz: Omlenička, p. of Omlenice
Klein Uretschlag: Dvořetín, now Světlík*
Klein Wanau: Vanůvek
Klein Werscheditz: Verušičky
Klein Wöhlen (Klein Wehlen): Malá Veleň
Klein Wonetitz: Bonětičky, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Klein Zdikau: Branišov
Klein Zdikau: Zdíkovec, p. of Zdíkov
Klein Ziegenruck: Malý Kozí Hřbet, p. of Rejštejn
Klein Zmietsch: Smědeček, p. of Ktiš
Kleische: Klíše, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Klemensdorf:
Klimentov, p. of Velká Hleďsebe
Lasvice, p. of Zákupy
Klenowitz:
Klenovice
Klenovice, p. of Mičovice
Klenovice, p. of Milešov
Klenovice, p. of Všeruby (Plzeň-North District)
Klenovice na Hané
Klentnitz: Klentnice
Klentsch: Klenčí pod Čerchovem
Kleppel: Klepáčov, p. of Sobotín
Kleppen: Klepná, now Pohorská Ves*
Kletten: Kletné, p. of Suchdol nad Odrou
Klingen: Hlínová, now Odrava
Klingenberg: Zvíkov (Český Krumlov District)
Klinghart: Křižovatka
Klistau: Chlistov
Klitschney: Klíčnov, p. of Pulečný
Klobauk (Klobouk): Klobouky u Brna
Kloben: Hlavno, p. of Citice
Klobuk: Klobuky
Klomin: Chlumín
Kloppe: Klopina
Kloster:
Klášter, p. of Nová Bystřice
(an der Iser): Klášter Hradiště nad Jizerou
Klösterle:
Klášterec, p. of Olšany (Šumperk District)
Klášterec, p. of Vimperk
(an der Eger): Klášterec nad Ohří
Klášterec nad Orlicí
Klosterdorf: Černé Budy
Klostergrab: Hrob
Klostermühle: Klášterský Mlýn, p. of Rejštejn
Kloster Radisch: Klášterní Hradisko, p. of Olomouc
Klum:
Chlum (Česká Lípa District)
Chlum, p. of Pšov
Klumtschan: Petrohrad
Klutschenitz: Klučenice
Klutschkau: Kluček, p. of Liběšice (Louny District)
Knezic (Kniezitz): Kněžice (Chrudim District)
Kniebitschken: Pňovičky, p. of Ohníč
Knieschitz: Kněžice (Jihlava District)
Knihnitz: Knínice (Blansko District)
Kninitz: Knínice, p. of Libouchec
Knöba: Hněvín
Knönitz: Knínice, p. of Žlutice
Knöschitz: Kněžice, p. of Podbořany
Kobels (Kobilly, Kobylli): Kobylí
Koberwald: Koberovy
Köberwitz: Kobeřice
Kobilla (Kobyla): Kobylé, p. of Pšov
Köblau: Keblov
Koblau: Koblov, p. of Ostrava
Kochendorf: Kochánov
Kocourow: Kocourov
Kodetschlag: Jenín, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Köhlersdorf: Uhlířov
Kohlfelden: Prague-Hlubočepy
Kohlgruben: Jámy
Kohlhau (Kohlau): Kolová
Kohlheim: Uhliště, p. of Chudenín
Kohlige: Uhelná, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Kohling: Milíře, now Šindelová*
Kohljanowitz: Uhlířské Janovice
Kohl Pribrams (Kohlpribram): Uhelná Příbram
Kohlsdorf: Kolnovice, p. of Mikulovice (Jeseník District)
Kohlstatt (Kohlstadt): Milíře, p. of Rádlo
Kohlstätten: Šnory, now Pelechy*
Köhmet: Komňátka, p. of Bohdíkov
Kojatek: Kojátky
Kojetein:
Kojetín (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Kojetín (Přerov District)
Kojetín, p. of Nový Jičín
Kojetitz:
Kojetice (Mělník District)
Kojetice (Třebíč District)
Kojetice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Kojetín, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Kokaschitz: Kokašice
Koken: Kohoutov
Kokor: Kokory
Kokorow:
Kokořov, p. of Všeruby (Plzeň-North District)
Kokořov, p. of Žinkovy
Koleschowitz: Kolešovice
Koletsch: Koleč
Kolin (Köln an der Elbe): Kolín
Kolinetz (Kollinetz): Kolinec
Kollautschen: Koloveč
Köllein: Cholina
Kolleschau: Kolešov, p. of Pšov
Kolleschau: Kolšov
Kolleschowitz (Koleschowitz): Kolešovice
Köllne: Včelná pod Boubínem, p. of Buk (Prachatice District)
Kolmberg: Plešivec, now Volary
Kolosoruk (Kollosoruk): Korozluky
Kolmen: Děčín XXXIV-Chlum
Komarschitz: Komařice
Komein: Brno-Komín
Komeise: Chomýž, now Krnov
Kommern: Komořany, p. of Most
Komoran: Prague 12-Komořany
Komorau:
Komárov (Beroun District)
Komárov, p. of Opava
Komotau:
Chomoutov, p. of Olomouc
Chomutov
Konakow: Koňákov, p. of Český Těšín
Konarowitz: Konárovice
Konetzchlum: Konecchlumí
Königgrätz: Hradec Králové
Königinhof an der Elbe: Dvůr Králové nad Labem
Königliche Weinberge: Prague-Vinohrady
Königreich: Hájemství, p. of Vítězná
Königsaal: Prague-Zbraslav
Königsberg:
Klimkovice
(an der Eger): Kynšperk nad Ohří
Königseck: Kunžak
Königsfeld:
Anenská Studánka
Brno-Královo Pole
Königsfeld Waschan: Královopolské Vážany, p. of Rousínov
Königsgrund: Králec, p. of Dolní Studénky
Königshain: Královka, p. of Šluknov
Königshan (Königshann): Královec
Königshof: Králův Dvůr
Königstadtl: Městec Králové
Königswald: Libouchec
Königswalde: Království, p. of Šluknov
Königswart: Lázně Kynžvart
Königswerth: Královské Poříčí
Konin: Konín, p. of Velhartice
Konitz: Konice
Konkolna: Koukolná, p. of Dětmarovice
Konojed: Konojedy, p. of Úštěk
Konopischt: Konopiště
Konraditz:
Kundratice
Kundratice, p. of Přimda
Konrads: Klášter
Konradsgrün: Salajna, p. of Dolní Žandov
Konstadt: Mlýnská, p. of Kraslice
Konstantinsbad: Konstantinovy Lázně
Kopain:
Kopanina, p. of Pulečný
Kopaniny, p. of Chvalkovice (Náchod District)
Köppeln: Keply, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Kopetzen: Kopec, p. of Prostiboř
Kopidlno (Kopidlelau): Kopidlno
Kopitz (Kopist): Kopisty, now Most
Koppertsch: Koporeč, p. of Lišnice
Körbern: Prague-Košíře
Körbitz: Krbice, now Spořice*
Koritschan: Koryčany
Korkushütten: Korkusova Huť, p. of Vimperk
Kornau: Obilná, p. of Odrava
Kornhaus: Mšec
Kornitz: Chornice
Kornsalz: Prostřední Krušec, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Koschatka: Košatka, p. of Stará Ves nad Ondřejnicí
Koschendorf: Košetice, p. of Velké Heraltice
Koschetitz (Koschen): Košetice
Koschowitz: Kojšovice, p. of Toužim
Kosel: Kozly (Česká Lípa District)
Koslau:
Kozlov (Jihlava District)
(Kozlau): Kozlov (Olomouc District)
Koslike: Kozlíky, p. of Rtyně nad Bílinou
Kosmatschow (Kosmacow): Kosmáčov, p. of Klatovy
Kosmanos: Kosmonosy
Kosmütz: Kozmice (Opava District)
Kosolup: Horní Kozolupy
Kosow: Kozov, p. of Bouzov
Kosse: Kosov (Šumperk District)
Kosslau (Koslau):
Kozlov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Kozlov, p. of Bochov
Kostel (Kostl): Podivín
Kösteldorf: Rajec
Kosteletz
Červený Kostelec
(an der Moldau): Kostelec nad Vltavou
(bei Holleschau): Kostelec u Holešova
(in der Hanna): Kostelec na Hané
Kostelzen: Kostelec (Tachov District)
Kosten: Košťany
Kosten: Koštov, p. of Trmice
Kostenblatt: Kostomlaty pod Milešovkou
Kosterschan: Kostrčany, p. of Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)
Kostomlat unterm Georgsberg: Kostomlaty pod Řípem
Kotieschau (Kotieschow): Chotěšov, p. of Velhartice
Kotigau: Chotíkov, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Kötschwitz: Chocovice, p. of Třebeň
Kottiken: Chotíkov
Köttnitz: Skotnice
Kottomirsch: Chotiměř
Kottowitz: Kotovice
Kottwitz: Chotěvice
Kotzehrad (Kotzerad, Kozehrad): Chocerady
Kotzendorf: Moravskoslezský Kočov
Kotzianau: Kociánov, p. of Loučná nad Desnou
Kotzobendz: Chotěbuz
Kotzoura: Kocourov
Kowarschow: Kovářov
Kowarschen: Kovářov, p. of Čichalov
Kozlan (Koschlan): Kožlany
Kozuschan: Kožušany, p. of Kožušany-Tážaly
Kradrob: Kladruby (Teplice District)
Krainhof: Dvorečky, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Kralik: Králíky (Hradec Králové District)
Kralitz:
(in der Hanna): Kralice na Hané
Kralice nad Oslavou
Krallen: Kralovice, p. of Nebahovy
Kralowitz: Kralovice
Kralup an der Moldau: Kralupy nad Vltavou
Kramitz: Chrámce, p. of Skršín
Krasch: Krašov, p. of Bezvěrov
Kraschowitz: Krašovice
Krasensko: Krásensko
Krasna: Krásno nad Bečvou, p. of Valašské Meziříčí
Krasnahora: Krásná Hora
Krassetin: Krasetín, p. of Holubov
Krassonitz: Krasonice
Kratenau: Kratonohy
Kratzau: Chrastava
Kratzdorf: Chrastice, p. of Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Krawska: Kravsko
Kreibitz: Chřibská
Kreibitz-Neudörfel: Rybniště
Krelowitz: Křelovice (Pelhřimov District)
Kremetschau: Křemačov, p. of Mohelnice
Krems: Křemže
Kremsier: Kroměříž
Kremusch (Krzemusch): Křemýž, p. of Ohníč
Krenau: Křenov, p. of Kájov
Kreppenschläger: Křeplice, now Prachatice
Kresane: Křesanov, p. of Vimperk
Kreschtowitz: Chřešťovice, p. of Albrechtice nad Vltavou
Kretscham: Krčma, now Domašín
Kreutzberg: Křížová, p. of Hošťálkovy
Kreuz-Kosteletz: Kostelec u Křížků
Kreuzberg:
Krucemburk
Kružberk
Kreuzendorf: Holasovice
Kreuzenstein: Podhoří, p. of Cheb
Kreuzweg: Křížatky, p. of Litvínov
Kriebaum: Vitěšovice, now Boletice MTA*
Kriebaumkollern: Vitěšovičtí Uhlíři, now Boletice MTA*
Krieblitz: Kryblice, p. of Trutnov
Kriegern: Kryry
Kriegsdorf: Valšov
Kriesdorf: Křižany
Kriesenitz (Krisenitz): Kříženec, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Krinsdorf:
Křenov, p. of Bernartice (Trutnov District)
Křižanov, p. of Hrob
Krima: Křimov
Krimitz (Krzimitz): Křimice, p. of Plzeň
Krinetz: Křinec
Krippau: Skřipová, p. of Vrbice (Karlovy Vary District)
Krips: Křivce, p. of Bezdružice
Krisch (Krzisch): Kříše, p. of Břasy
Krischek: Křížky, p. of Malá Skála
Krischwitz: Děčín XXXI-Křešice
Krisowitz: Křížovice
Kritschen: Podolí (Brno-Country District)
Krisaudow (Kschiwsoudow): Křivsoudov
Krizanau (Krzizanau, Krischanau): Křižanov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Krizinkau (Krischinkow): Křižínkov
Krizlitz: Křížlice, p. of Jestřabí v Krkonoších
Krochwitz: Děčín VII-Chrochvice
Krokersdorf: Krakořice, p. of Šternberk
Krombach: Krompach
Kröna: Křenová, now Brno-střed
Krönau: Křelov, p. of Křelov-Břuchotín
Krondorf: Korunní, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Kronland: Lanškroun
Kronsdorf: Krasov
Kronstadt: Kunštát, now Orlické Záhoří
Kropfetschlag: Klopanov, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Kropfschlag: Mýtiny, now Nové Hrady (České Budějovice District)*
Kropitz: Krapice, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Kropsdorf: Zábraní, now Malšín*
Krotiw: Krotějov, p. of Strážov (Klatovy District)
Krottensee: Mokřina, p. of Milíkov (Cheb District)
Krauna: Krouna
Krautenwalde: Travná, p. of Javorník (Jeseník District)
Kruch: Kruh
Krugsreuth: Kopaniny, p. of Aš
Krumau (Krummau, Krumau an der Moldau): Český Krumlov
Krummwasser: Křivá Voda, p. of Malá Morava
Krumpisch: Chromeč
Kruschowitz: Krušovice
Krzenowitz (Krenowitz):
Křenovice (Přerov District)
Křenovice (Vyškov District)
Krzetin (Kretin): Křetín
Krzeschitz: Křešice
Kschakau (Krakau): Křakov, p. of Mířkov
Kschellowitz (Krellowitz): Křelovice (Plzeň-North District)
Kscheutz: Kšice
Kschiha: Číhaná, p. of Teplá
Ktowa: Ktová
Kubitzen: Česká Kubice
Kublow (Kublau): Kublov
Kubohütten: Kubova Huť
Kuchelna: Chuchelná
Kühberg: Chřepice, p. of Čachrov
Künast: Sosnová (Česká Lípa District)
Kührberg: Mezihorská, now Jindřichovice (Sokolov District)
Kukan: Kokonín, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Kuklen: Kukleny, p. of Hradec Králové
Kukus: Kuks
Kulm: Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Kulsam: Odrava
Kumerau: Komárov, p. of Toužim
Kummer: Hradčany, p. of Ralsko
Kummerpursch: Konobrže, now Most*
Kumrowitz: Brno-Komárov
Kundratitz:
Kundratice
Kundratice, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Kunewald: Kunín
Kuniowitz: Kunějovice
Kunkowitz:
Kunkovice
Kunkovice, p. of Čachrov
Kunnersdorf:
Kunratice (Děčín District)
Kunratice (Liberec District)
Kunratice u Cvikova
Liberec XXIX-Kunratice
Kunratice, p. of Šluknov
Kunowitz:
Kunovice (Uherské Hradiště District)
Kunovice (Vsetín District)
Kunstadt: Kunštát
Kunwald (Kunewalde): Kunvald
Kunzendorf:
Dolejší Kunčice, p. of Fulnek
Kunčice, p. of Letohrad
Kunčice, p. of Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Kunčice pod Ondřejníkem
Kunčina
Kupferberg: Měděnec
Kuprowitz: Kupařovice
Kurschin: Kořen, p. of Olbramov
Kuschwarda: Strážný
Kutsch: Chudeč, p. of Bezvěrov
Kutscherau: Kučerov
Kutschersch: Kučeř
Kutschlin: Kučlín, p. of Hrobčice
Kuttelberg: Spálené, p. of Holčovice
Kuttenberg: Kutná Hora
Kuttendorf: Chotiněves
Kuttenplan: Chodová Planá
Kuttenplaner Schmelzthal: Chodovská Huť, p. of Tři Sekery
Kuttenschloß: Trhanov
Kuttenthal: Chotětov
Kutterschitz:
Chudeřice
Chudeřice, p. of Bílina
Kuttnau: Chotěnov
Kuttowenka: Chotovenka, now Světec*
Kuttowitz: Chotějovice, p. of Světec
Kwasney (Kwasin): Kvasiny
Kwassitz: Kvasice
Kwetow: Květov
Kwietoschin: Květušov, p. of Polná na Šumavě
Kwitkau: Kvítkov, p. of Modlany
Kwittein: Květín, p. of Mohelnice
Kwon: Chbany
Kyowitz (Kiowitz): Kyjovice (Opava District)
L
Laab: Labe, p. of Malá Skála
Laaden: Lada v Podještědí, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Laas: Láz (Příbram District)
Labant: Labuť, p. of Staré Sedliště
Labau: Huť, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Lachenwitz: Lachovice, p. of Vyšší Brod
Lachowitz: Lachovice, p. of Toužim
Ladowitz: Ledvice
Ladung:
Lesná, p. of Nová Ves v Horách
Loučná, p. of Lom (Most District)
Lämberg: Lvová, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Lagau: Slavkov, p. of Bohdalovice
Lahowitz: Lahovice
Lahrenbochen: Mlýnec, now Vyšší Brod*
Lainsitz: Lužnice (river)
Lakowitz: Slavíkovice, p. of Rousínov
Lammeldorf: Jehnědí
Lampersdorf: Lampertice
Lana (Lahna, Lahn): Lány (Kladno District)
Landek: Otročín
Landschau über Frain: Lančov
Landshut in Mähren: Lanžhot
Landskron: Lanškroun
Landstein: Landštejn, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Landstrassen: Silnice, now Strážný*
Lang Lammitz (Langlamnitz): Dlouhá Lomnice, p. of Bochov
Lang Lhotta: Dlouhá Lhota (Blansko District)
Langstrobnitz: Dlouhá Stropnice, p. of Horní Stropnice
Lang Ugest: Jenišuv Újezd, now Bílina*
Langenau:
Dlouhý Luh, now Hradiště MTA*
Lánov
Skalice u České Lípy
Langenberg: Dlouhá Stráň
Langenbruck:
Dlouhé Mosty, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Dlouhý Most
Olšina, parts of Horní Planá and Polná na Šumavě
Langendörflas: Dlouhý Újezd
Langendorf:
Dlouhá Loučka (Olomouc District)
Dlouhá Ves (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Dlouhá Ves, p. of Holčovice
Dlouhá Ves, p. of Vrchoslavice
Langengrund: Dlouhý Důl, p. of Krásná Lípa
Langenlutsch: Dlouhá Loučka (Svitavy District)
Langentriebe: Dlouhá Třebová
Langewiese: Dlouhá Louka, p. of Osek (Teplice District)
Langgrün: Bystřice, p. of Hroznětín
Langhaid: Dlouhý Bor, p. of Nová Pec
Lang Pirnitz (Langpirnitz): Dlouhá Brtnice
Langwasser: Dlouhá Voda, p. of Město Albrechtice
Langwiesen:
Dlouhá Louka, p. of Lípa nad Orlicí
Dlouhá Louka, p. of Lužany (Plzeň-South District)
Lanz: Lomnice (Sokolov District)
Lapitzfeld: Lipoltov, p. of Tuřany (Cheb District)
Lappersdorf: Lipoltov, now Hradiště MTA*
Larischau: Láryšov, p. of Býkov-Láryšov
Laschan (Lazan):
Lažany (Blansko District)
Lažany (Liberec District)
Lažany (Strakonice District)
Laschan Desfours: Defurovy Lažany, p. of Chanovice
Laschin: Lažany, p. of Štědrá
Laschkau: Laškov
Laschkles: Blažkov, p. of Omlenice
Laske: Lazce, p. of Olomouc
Latron: Latrán, p. of Český Krumlov
Laube: Děčín XIII-Loubí
Laubendorf: Pomezí
Laubias: Lubojaty, p. of Bílovec
Laucha: Louchov, p. of Domašín
Laudmer: Luboměř
Lauka: Louka, p. of Jemnice
Laun: Louny
Launitz: Lounice, p. of Litvínov
Launowitz: Louňovice pod Blaníkem
Lausitzer Neiße: Lužická Nisa (river)
Lauterbach:
Čirá, p. of Kraslice
Čistá (Svitavy District)
Čistá, now Rovná (Sokolov District)*
Potůčník, p. of Hanušovice
Lautersdorf: Čistěves
Lauterseifen: Pustá Rudná, p. of Andělská Hora (Bruntál District)
Lauterwasser: Čistá v Krkonoších, p. of Černý Důl
Lautsch:
Loučky, p. of Odry
Mladeč
Lautsche: Loučná, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Lautschek: Sekerkovy Loučky, p. of Mírová pod Kozákovem
Lautschim: Loučim
Lautschin: Loučeň
Lautschitz: Lovčice (Hradec Králové District)
Lautschnei: Loučná nad Nisou, p. of Janov nad Nisou
Lauxmühle: Výsada, p. of Vejprty
Lazan:
Lažany (Blansko District)
Lažany (Liberec District)
Lažany (Strakonice District)
Lazy: Lazy, p. of Orlová
Lechwitz: Lechovice
Ledau (Leedau): Letov, p. of Podbořany
Ledenitz: Ledenice
Ledetsch (an der Sasau): Ledeč nad Sázavou
Leibitsch: Liboc, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Leickow: Lejčkov, p. of Dolní Hořice
Leierwinkel: Háje, p. of Lesná (Tachov District)
Leimgruben: Hlinky, p. of Stanovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Leimsgrub: Hliništĕ, p. of Strážný
Leinbaum: Klenová, p. of Nová Bystřice
Leipertitz: Litobratřice
Leipnik (Leibnik): Lipník nad Bečvou
Leiter: Řebří, p. of Svojšín
Leitersdorf: Litultovice
Leitmeritz: Litoměřice
Leitnowitz: Litvínovice
Leitomischl: Litomyšl
Lellowa: Lelov, p. of Žalany
Leneschitz: Lenešice
Lenzdorf: Mlýnice, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Leopoldsdorf: Leopoldov
Leopoldsruh: Leopoldka, p. of Velký Šenov
Lerchenhof: Skřivánek, p. of Okrouhlička
Lesche: Leština (Šumperk District)
Leschowitz: Lechovice
Leschtina: Leština (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Leschtine: Leština, p. of Malé Březno (Ústí nad Labem District)
Leskau:
Brno-Starý Lískovec
Lestkov (Tachov District)
Leskenthal: Vítkov, p. of Česká Lípa
Leskowetz: Lískovec, p. of Frýdek-Místek
Lesna: Brno-Lesná
Lesnitz: Lesnice
Lessau: Lesov, p. of Sadov
Lettin: Letiny
Lettowitz: Letovice
Leukersdorf: Čermná, p. of Libouchec
Lewanitz: Levonice, p. of Postoloprty
Lewin: Levín
Lexen: Líšnice (Šumperk District)
Lhota unter Liebtschan: Lhota pod Libčany
Lhotka: Městská Lhotka, p. of Prachatice
Liban: Libáň
Libein: Libivá, p. of Mohelnice
Libejitz: Libějice
Libetin: Libentiny, p. of Líšný
Libesnitz: Líbeznice
Libin: Libyně, p. of Lubenec
Libisch: Libiš
Libitz:
(an der Zidlina): Libice nad Cidlinou
Libice nad Doubravou
Liblin: Liblín
Liblitz (Lieblitz): Liblice
Liboch: Liběchov
Libochowan: Libochovany
Libochowitz: Libochovice
Liboritz: Libořice
Liboschan: Libočany
Libotin: Libotyně, p. of Radhostice
Libotz: Prague-Liboc
Libschitz an der Moldau: Libčice nad Vltavou
Libusin: Libušín
Lichnau: Lichnov (Nový Jičín District)
Lichten: Lichnov (Bruntál District)
Lichtenau: Lichkov
Lichtenberg: Světlík, p. of Horní Podluží
Lichtenhain:
Světliny 1.díl, p. of Varnsdorf
Světliny 2.díl, p. of Dolní Podluží
Lichtenstadt: Hroznětín
Lichtenstein:
Ladečka, p. of Horní Podluží
Líšťany (Plzeň-North District)
Lichtewerden: Světlá, p. of Světlá Hora
Liditz: Lidice
Liditzau (Lititzau): Liticov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Liebau: Libina
Liebauthal: Libavské Údolí
Lieben:
Prague-Libeň
Libov, p. of Chuderov
Liebenau:
Hodkovice nad Mohelkou
Libnov, p. of Krajková
Liebenstein: Libá
Liebenthal:
Dolní Dobrouč
Liptaň
Luboměř pod Strážnou
Liebeschitz (Libeschitz):
Liběšice (Litoměřice District)
Liběšice (Louny District)
Liebesdorf:
Hněvanov, p. of Rožmitál na Šumavě
Obědné, p. of Libina
Liebeswar: Libosváry, p. of Vidice (Domažlice District)
Liebinsdorf (Libinsdorf): Karlov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Liebisch: Libhošť
Lieboritz: Libořice
Liebotschan: Libočany
Liebshausen: Libčeves
Liebstadtl: Libštát
Liebtschan (Libcan): Libčany
Liedlhöfen: Lídlovy Dvory, p. of Kašperské Hory
Liehn: Líně
Liesdorf: Liboňov, p. of Telnice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Liessnitz: Lysec, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Lihn: Hlinné, p. of Tisová (Tachov District)
Liliendorf: Lesná (Znojmo District)
Limpach: Lipnice, p. of Kunratice (Děčín District)
Lindau: Lipná, p. of Hazlov
Linden:
Linda, now Přední Výtoň*
Lípa (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Machnatec, now Rožmberk nad Vltavou
Lindenau:
Lindava, p. of Cvikov
Lipná, p. of Potštát
Lindenhau: Lipová (Cheb District)
Lindewiese: Lipová-Lázně
Lindig: Lípa, p. of Merklín (Karlovy Vary District)
Lindles: Mlyňany, now Žlutice*
Lindner Waldhäuser: Lindské Chalupy, now Přední Výtoň*
Lingau: Nynkov, p. of Svojšín
Linschen: Hlince, p. of Kostomlaty pod Milešovkou
Linsdorf: Těchonín
Lintsch: Hlinec, p. of Bochov
Linz: Mlýnce, p. pf Vroutek
Lipkau: Libkov (Domažlice District)
Lipkowawoda (Libekswasser): Libkova Voda
Lipnik:
Lipník (Mladá Boleslav District)
Lipník (Třebíč District)
Lipnitz (an der Sasau): Lipnice nad Sázavou
Lipolz: Lipolec, p. of Dačice
Lippen: Lipno nad Vltavou
Lippin: Lipina, p. of Štáblovice
Lippowetz: Lipovec (Blansko District)
Lipthal: Liptál
Liquitz: Libkovice, p. of Mariánské Radčice*
Lischan: Lišany (Louny District)
Lischau: Lišov
Lischin: Líšina
Lischnei: Líšný
Lischnitz: Lišnice
Lischtian: Líšťany (Louny District)
Lischwitz: Liběšovice, p. of Blšany
Lisek: Lísek
Lispitz: Blížkovice
Lissa an der Elbe: Lysá nad Labem
Lissitz: Lysice
Lissowa: Lisov
Lissowitz: Lysovice
Litentschitz (Littentschitz, Litenschitz): Litenčice
Lititz: Litice nad Orlicí
Litschau: Ličov, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Litschkau: Líčkov, p. of Liběšice (Louny District)
Litschnitz: Ličenice, p. of Úštěk
Littau: Litovel
Litten: Liteň
Littengrün: Lítov, p. of Habartov
Littitsch: Litíč
Littitz an der Adler: Litice nad Orlicí, p. of Záchlumí (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Littmitz: Lipnice, now Vintířov*
Lobeditz: Zlovědice, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Lobendau: Lobendava
Lobenstein: Úvalno
Lobes:
Lobeč
Plzeň-Lobzy
Lobeskirchen: Horní Cerekev
Lobiesching: Lověšice, now Přídolí*
Lobieschinger Ruben: Lověšické Rovné, now Přídolí*
Lobnig: Lomnice (Bruntál District)
Lobositz: Lovosice
Lobs: Lobzy, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Loch: Dolina, p. of Krajková
Lochowitz: Lochovice
Lochutzen: Lochousice
Lodenitz:
Loděnice (Beroun District)
Loděnice (Brno-Country District)
Loděnice, p. of Holasovice
Lodus: Mladoňov, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Lohof: Luhov, p. of Toužim
Lösch: Brno-Líšeň
Löschna: Lešná
Lohhäuser: Slatina, now Stará Voda (Cheb District)*
Lohm: Lomy, p. of Kokašice
Lohm bei Mies: Lom u Stříbra, p. of Benešovice
Lohm bei Tachau: Lom u Tachova
Lometz: Lomec
Lomigsdorf: Dlouhomilov
Lomnitschka: Lomnička (Brno-Country District)
Lomnitz:
Lomnice (Brno-Country District)
(an der Lainsitz): Lomnice nad Lužnicí
(an der Popelka): Lomnice nad Popelkou
Loosch: Lahošť
Loosdorf (Losdorf): Ludvíkovice
Loschau: Lošov, p. of Olomouc
Loschitz: Loštice
Losnitz: Lazec, p. of Kájov
Lossin:
Losiná
Losina, p. of Chotěšov (Plzeň-South District)
Lotschenitz: Ločenice
Lounowitz: Louňovice
Louschnitz (Louznitz): Loužnice
Lsten: Lštění
Lub: Luby, p. of Chyše
Lubens (Lubenz): Lubenec
Lubokey: Liberec XXVIII-Hluboká
Luck:
Luka, p. of Verušičky
Lukavec, p. of Fulnek
Ludgierzowitz (Ludgerstal): Ludgeřovice
Ludikau: Ludíkov
Luditz: Žlutice
Ludwigsthal:
Ludvíkov
Ludvíkov, p. of Velké Losiny
Luggau: Lukov (Znojmo District)
Luhatschowitz: Luhačovice
Luh: Luhov, p. of Brniště
Luk: Luká
Luka: Lukov, p. of Úštěk
Lukau:
Hlávkov, p. of Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Loučová, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Lukawetz (Lukawitz):
Lukavec (Pelhřimov District)
Lukavice (Šumperk District)
Lukavec, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Luken: Luka (Česká Lípa District)
Lukow: Lukov (Teplice District)
Lukowa: Luková, p. of Brodek u Přerova
Lultsch: Luleč
Lundenburg: Břeclav
Lupelle: Lupěné, p. of Nemile
Lupenz: Slupenec, p. of Český Krumlov
Luppetsching: Slupečná, p. of Lipno nad Vltavou
Lusading: Služetín, p. of Teplá
Luschan:
Lužany (Hradec Králové District)
Lužany (Plzeň-South District)
Lusche: Luže (Chrudim District)
Luschetz an der Moldau: Lužec nad Vltavou
Luschitz:
Lužice (Hodonín District)
Lužice (Most District)
Luschtienitz (Lustenitz): Luštěnice
Luschna: Lužná (Rakovník District)
Luschne: Lužná, p. of Větřní
Luschnitz: Lužnice, p. of Pohorská Ves
Lusdorf an der Tafelfichte: Ludvíkov pod Smrkem, p. of Nové Město pod Smrkem
Lusen: Lužná, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Lusetin: Služetín, p. of Bezvěrov
Lutschau: Loučej, p. of Křemže
Lutschen: Loučky, p. of Vílanec
Lutschkahäuseln: Loučky
Luxdorf: Lukášov, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Luzan:
Lužany (Hradec Králové District)
Lužany (Jičín District)
M
Machau: Machov
Machendorf: Liberec XXXIII-Machnín
Machowitz: Machovice, p. of Pertoltice (Kutná Hora District)
Mader: Modrava
Maffersdorf: Liberec XXX-Vratislavice nad Nisou
Mähren: Morava
Mährisch Altstadt: Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Mährisch Aussee: Úsov
Mährisch Budwitz: Moravské Budějovice
Mährisch Chrostau: Moravská Chrastová, p. of Brněnec
Mährisch Hause: Moravská Huzová, p. of Štěpánov
Mährisch Karlsdorf: Moravský Karlov, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Mährisch Kotzendorf: Moravský Kočov, p. of Moravskoslezský Kočov
Mährisch Kromau: Moravský Krumlov
Mährisch Lotschnau: Lačnov, p. of Svitavy
Mährisch Neudorf: Moravská Nová Ves
Mährisch Neustadt: Uničov
Mährisch Ostrau: Moravská Ostrava, p. of Ostrava
Mährisch Pisek: Moravský Písek
Mährisch Pruß (Mährisch Preußen): Moravské Prusy, p. of Prusy-Boškůvky
Mährisch Rothwasser: Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Mährisch Schönberg: Šumperk
Mährisch Trübau: Moravská Třebová
Mährisch und Schlesisch Kotzendorf: Moravskoslezský Kočov
Mährisch Weißkirchen: Hranice (Přerov District)
Mährisch Wiesen: Moravská Dlouhá, now Březová nad Svitavou
Maidelberg: Dívčí Hrad
Maierhof: Humenice, p. of Horní Stropnice
Maierhöfen: Dvory, now Bukovany (Sokolov District)*
Maiersgrün: Vysoká, p. of Stará Voda (Cheb District)
Maiwald: Májůvka, p. of Bílčice
Malec: Maleč
Malenitz: Malenice
Malenowitz: Malenovice
Maleschitz: Malesice, p. of Dříteň
Malesitz:
Malesice, p. of Plzeň
Prague-Malešice
Maleschau: Malešov
Malhostitz: Malhostice, p. of Rtyně nad Bílinou
Malkau: Málkov (Chomutov District)
Malkowitz: Málkovice, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Mallinetz: Malinec
Mallowitz: Malovice, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Malnitz: Malnice, p. of Postoloprty
Malonitz: Malonice, p. of Blížejov
Malotitz: Malotice
Maloweska: Malá Víska
Malschen: Malečov
Malsching: Malšín
Malschitz: Malšice
Malschwitz: Malšovice
Malspitz: Malešovice
Maltheuern: Záluží, p. of Litvínov
Maltsch: Malše (river)
Maltsche: Malče, p. of Besednice
Maltschitz: Malčice, p. of Mirkovice
Manetin: Manětín
Manisch: Manušice, p. of Česká Lípa
Mankendorf: Mankovice
Mansdorf: Jedvaniny, p. of Nečtiny
Mantau: Mantov, p. of Chotěšov (Plzeň-South District)
March: Morava (river)
Margarethendorf: Marketa, p. of Dolní Poustevna
Maria Kulm: Chlum Svaté Maří
Maria Ratschitz: Mariánské Radčice
Maria Schnee: U Svatého Kamene, now Dolní Dvořiště
Maria Teinitz: Mariánský Týnec
Mariafels: Slavice, p. of Horní Kozolupy
Mariaschein: Bohosudov, p. of Krupka
Mariasorg: Mariánská, p. of Jáchymov
Mariastock: Skoky, p. of Žlutice
Marienbad: Mariánské Lázně
Marienberg:
Mariánské Hory, p. of Ostrava
Mariánská Hora, p. of Albrechtice v Jizerských horách
Marienthal:
Mariánské Údolí, p. of Hlubočky
Mariánské Údolí, p. of Horní Jiřetín
Markhausen:
Hraničná, p. of Kraslice
Pomezná, now Libá*
Markausch: Markoušovice, p. of Velké Svatoňovice
Markersdorf:
Markvartice (Děčín District)
Markvartice, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Nová Hradečná
Markvartovice
Markl: Pomezí, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Markscheid: Rozdělov, p. of Kladno
Markt Bürglitz: Velký Vřešťov
Markt Eisenstein: Železná Ruda
Markt Janowitz: Vrchotovy Janovice
Markt Joslowitz: Jaroslavice
Markt Kamnitz: Trhová Kamenice
Markt Roßwald: Slezské Rudoltice
Markt Stankau: Staňkov I, p. of Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Markt Stiepanau: Trhový Štěpánov
Markt Türnau: Městečko Trnávka
Markus zu Krizowitz: Markov or Marky
Markusgrün: Podlesí, p. of Dolní Žandov
Markwarding: Markvarec, p. of Český Rudolec
Markwartitz: Markvartice, p. of Zubčice
Marletzgrün: Maroltov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Maroditz: Martice, now Bochov*
Marschen: Maršov, p. of Krupka
Marschendorf:
Horní Maršov
Maršíkov, p. of Velké Losiny
Marschow (Marschau): Maršov
Marschowitz: Maršovice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Martetschlag: Martínkov
Martinau: Martinov, p. of Ostrava
Martinitz: Martinice v Krkonoších
Martnau: Martinov, p. of Vlkovice
Märzdorf: Martínkovice
Maschakotten: Maršovy Chody, p. of Částkov (Tachov District)
Maschau: Mašťov
Maßhaupt: Kročehlavy, p. of Kladno
Mastig: Mostek (Trutnov District)
Mastirowitz: Mastířovice, p. of Vrbice (Litoměřice District)
Mastung: Mostec, p. of Štědrá
Matschitz: Mačice, p. of Soběšice
Matzdorf: Matějovice, p. of Rusín
Mauth: Mýto
Mauthaus: Mýtnice, now Nemanice*
Mauthdorf: Mýto, p. of Tachov
Mauthstadt: Mýto, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Maxberg: Maxov, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Maxdorf:
Děčín XVIII-Maxičky
Maxov, p. of Radvanec
Mayerbach: Dolní Borková, now Horní Planá*
Medleschitz: Medlešice, p. of Chrudim
Medlitz: Medlice
Meedel (Meedl): Medlov (Olomouc District)
Meeden: Medná, p. of Srby (Domažlice District)
Mehlhiedl: Lhotka, p. of Křemže
Mehlhüttel: Masákova Lhota, p. of Zdíkov
Mehregarten: Zahrádky, p. of Borová Lada
Meierhöfen: Dvory, p. of Karlovy Vary
Meigelshof: Chodov (Domažlice District)
Meinetschlag: Malonty
Meisetschlag: Míšňany, now Boletice MTA*
Meistersdorf: Mistrovice
Melchiorshütte:
Melhut: Chodská Lhota
Melm: Jelm, now Horní Planá
Melmitz: Mělnice, p. of Hostouň (Domažlice District)
Melnik: Mělník
Meltsch: Melč
Menian (Mnienan): Měňany
Meretitz: Miřetice u Vintířova, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Merkelsdorf: Merklovice, p. of Teplice nad Metují
Merkelsgrün: Merklín (Karlovy Vary District)
Merklin: Merklín (Plzeň-South District)
Merklowitz: Merklovice, p. of Vamberk
Meronitz: Měrunice
Merotein: Mirotínek, p. of Tvrdkov
Merschlitz (Merzlitz): Mrzlice, p. of Hrobčice
Mertendorf: Merboltice
Merzdorf:
Břevniště, p. of Hamr na Jezeře
Martiněves, p. of Jílové
Martinice v Krkonoších
Martínkovice
Meseritz: Meziříčí, p. of Kadaň
Mesimost: Veselí nad Lužnicí II
Mesletsch: Mezilečí
Mesoles: Mezholezy, p. of Miskovice
Messendorf: Mezina
Meßhals: Mezholezy (former Horšovský Týn District)
Meßholz: Mezholezy (former Domažlice District)
Metschin (Mietschin): Měčín
Mettilowitz: Metylovice
Metzling: Meclov
Michalkowitz: Michálkovice, p. of Ostrava
Michelob (Micholup): Měcholupy (Louny District)
Michelsberg (Michaelsberg): Michalovy Hory, p. of Chodová Planá
Michelsdorf:
Ostrov (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Veliká Ves (Chomutov District)
Michetschlag: Javoří, now Boletice MTA*
Michnitz: Michnice, p. of Rožmitál na Šumavě
Michowitz: Mnichovice (Benešov District)
Michowka: Michovka, p. of Koberovy
Mierowitz: Měrovice nad Hanou
Mies:
Měchov, p. of Otročín
Mechová, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Stříbro
Miesau: Vyšný, now Křišťanov*
Mieschitz: Měšice
Milau: Milov
Milay: Milá, p. of Bečov
Milbes: Milovany, now Libavá MTA*
Mildenau: Luh, now Raspenava
Mildeneichen: Lužec, now Raspenava
Mileschau: Milešov
Miletin: Miletín
Miletitz: Miletice, p. of Nepoměřice
Milikau:
(Millikau): Milíkov (Frýdek-Místek District)
Milíkov, p. of Černá (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Milkov, now Lestkov (Tachov District)*
Milin: Milín
Militschowes: Milíčeves, p. of Slatiny
Milkendorf: Milotice nad Opavou
Millay: Milá, p. of Bečov
Milles: Mlýnec, p. of Přimda
Milleschau: Milešov, p. of Velemín
Millestau: Milhostov, p. of Zádub-Závišín
Milletitz: Miletice, p. of Černuc
Millik: Milence, p. of Dešenice
Millikau: Milíkov, p. of Stříbro
Millonitz (Milonitz): Milonice (Blansko District)
Millotitz (an der Betschwa): Milotice nad Bečvou
Millowitz: Milovice (Břeclav District)
Miloschitz: Milošice, p. of Měcholupy (Louny District)
Miloschowitz: Milošovice, p. of Vlastějovice
Milostowitz: Milostovice, p. of Opava
Milotitz: Milotice
Milowitz: Milovice
Milsau: Milžany, now Kadaň*
Miltigau: Milíkov (Cheb District)
Miltschin: Miličín
Miltschitz: Milčice
Miltschowes: Milčeves, p. of Žatec
Minichschlag: Martínkov
Minichschlag: Mnichovice, now Loučovice
Minkwitz (Minkowitz): Minkovice, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Mireschowitz: Mirošovice, p. of Hrobčice
Miretitz (Mirschetitz): Miřetice (Chrudim District)
Mirikau (Mirschigkau): Mířkov
Mirkowitz: Mirkovice
Miroditz: Mirotice, p. of Bochov
Miroschau:
Mirošov (Jihlava District)
Mirošov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Miröschau: Mirošov (Rokycany District)
Miroschowitz: Mirošovice
Mirotein (Měrotein): Měrotín
Mirotitz: Mirotice
Mirowitz: Mirovice
Mirschikau: Mířkov
Misching: Měšín
Miserau: Mizerov, p. of Karviná
Miskowitz: Myslkovice
Misliboritz (Missliborzitz): Myslibořice
Misloschowitz (Misloczowitz): Mysločovice
Mislowitz: Myslovice
Misslitz: Miroslav (Znojmo District)
Mistek: Místek, p. of Frýdek-Místek
Mistelholz: Borová, p. of Chvalšiny
Mistlholzkollern: Borovští Uhlíři, now Chvalšiny
Mistrzowitz: Mistřovice, p. of Český Těšín
Mitrowitz: Mitrovice, p. of Moravičany
Mitschowitz: Mičovice
Mittel Bludowitz: Prostřední Bludovice, p. of Horní Bludovice
Mitteldorf:
Prostředkovice, p. of Suchá
Prostřední Rokytnice, now Rokytnice v Orlických horách
Mittelgrund: Děčín XV-Prostřední Žleb
Mittelhof: Prostřední Dvůr, p. of Vítkov
Mittelkörnsalz: Prostřední Krušec, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Mittel Langenau: Prostřední Lánov, p. of Lánov
Mittelwald: Hranice VIII-Středolesí
Mitterberg: Račí, p. of Horní Vltavice
Mitterdorf: Miroslav (Znojmo District)
Mitterwiedern: Prostřední Vydří, p. of Dačice
Mitterzwinzen: Prostřední Svince, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Mitzmanns: Micmanice, p. of Strachotice
Mladejow: Mladějov
Mladetzko: Mladecko
Mladotitz: Mladotice
Mlasowitz: Mlázovice
Mlazow: Mlázovy, p. of Kolinec
Mlikowitz: Mlékovice, p. of Toušice
Mlinarowitz: Mlynářovice, p. of Plánice
Mnich: Mnich (Pelhřimov District)
Mnichowitz: Mnichovice
Mnischek: Mníšek pod Brdy
Mochau (Mohau): Mochov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Mochow: Mochov
Modlan: Modlany
Modlenitz: Modlenice, p. of Vimperk
Mödlau: Medlov (Brno-Country District)
Mödlitz: Medlice, now Jakartovice
Modran: Prague-Modřany
Mödritz: Modřice
Modschiedl: Močidlec, p. of Pšov
Mönitz: Měnín
Möritschau: Mořičov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Mösing: Mezí, p. of Manětín
Mohelno: Mohelno
Mogolzen: Bukovec
Mohr: Mory, p. of Podbořany
Mohradorf: Zálužné, p. of Vítkov
Mokowitz: Hřivínov, p. of Verušičky
Mokra: Mokrá, p. of Vesce
Mokrau:
Mokrá, p. of Čichalov
Mokrá, p. of Mokrá-Horákov
Mokrolasetz: Mokré Lazce
Moldau:
Moldava (Teplice District)
Vltava (river)
Moldautein (Moldauthein): Týn nad Vltavou
Moletein: Maletín
Molgau: Málkov, p. of Přimda
Mönchsdorf: Mniší, p. of Kopřivnice
Möndrik: Mendryka, p. of Janov (Svitavy District)
Moraschitz:
Morašice (Chrudim District)
Morašice (Pardubice District)
Morašice (Svitavy District)
Moratitz: Morašice (Znojmo District)
Morawan: Moravany (Pardubice District)
Morawes: Moravěves, p. of Havraň
Morawetsch: Moraveč
Morawetz: Moravec
Morawitschan: Moravičany
Morawitz: Moravice
Morbes: Moravany (Brno-Country District)
Morchenstern (Morchelstern): Smržovka
Moritz (Morzitz): Mořice
Mörkau: Mírkov, p. of Povrly
Morkowitz: Morkovice, p. of Morkovice-Slížany
Morwan: Moravany, p. of Řehlovice
Moschen: Mošnov, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Mosern: Mojžíř, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Mosetstift: Mackova Lhota, now Ktiš
Moskelle: Mostkov, p. of Oskava
Moskowitz: Mackovice
Mosting: Mostice, p. of Zahrádka (Plzeň-North District)
Mostau: Mostov, p. of Odrava
Mosty: Mosty u Jablunkova
Motitschin: Švermov, p. of Kladno
Mottowitz: Matějovice, p. of Dešenice
Motzdorf: Mackov
Moyne: Mojné
Mraditz: Mradice, p. of Postoloprty
Mrakotin: Mrákotín (Chrudim District)
Mritsch: Mříč, p. of Křemže
Mscheno:
Mšené-lázně
Mšeno
Muckenschlag (Mükenschlag): Komáří Paseka, now Přední Výtoň*
Muckenbrunn: Studénka, p. of Štoky
Muglinau: Muglinov, p. of Ostrava
Müglitz: Mohelnice
Mugrau: Mokrá, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Mühlbach: Pomezí nad Ohří
Mühlberg: Lesík, p. of Nejdek
Mühldorf: Mlýnská, now Loučovice*
Mühlendorf: Smilov, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Mühlessen: Milhostov
Mühlfraun: Dyje (Znojmo District)
Mühlgrün: Mlýnek, p. of Nový Kostel
Mühlhausen:
Milevsko
Nelahozeves
Mühlhöfen: Milevo, p. of Kladruby (Tachov District)
Mühlloch: Mílov, now Přimda*
Mühlnöd: Milná, p. of Frymburk
Mühlscheibe: Mlýnice, p. of Nová Ves (Liberec District)
Mukow: Mukov, p. of Hrobčice
Müllerschlag: Mlynářovice, p. of Volary
Müllersgrün: Milešov, now Krásno (Sokolov District)*
Müllestau: Milhostov, p. of Zádub-Závišín
Mülln: Štědrá, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
München: Mnichov, p. of Velké Chvojno
Münchengrätz: Mnichovo Hradiště
Münchhof: Mírová
Münchsberg: Vojnův Městec
Münchsdorf: Mnichov (Domažlice District)
Münitz: Minice, p. of Velemyšleves
Münkendorf: Minkovice, p. of Šimonovice
Mürau: Mírov
Mukarschow: Mukařov, p. of Malá Skála
Mukowa: Buková, p. of Mezholezy (former Horšovský Týn District)
Muncifay (Munzifay): Smečno
Munker: Mukařov, p. of Lovečkovice
Murchova: Mrchojedy
Murk: Mořkov
Muschau: Mušov, now Pasohlávky*
Muslau: Muzlov, now Březová nad Svitavou
Mutenitz: Mutěnice (Strakonice District)
Mutowitz (Mutiowitz): Mutějovice
Muttersdorf: Mutěnín
Mutzgern: Muckov, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Mutzken: Muckov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Mysliw: Myslív
N
Nabsel: Bzí, p. of Železný Brod
Nachles: Náhlov, now Frymburk
Nachod: Náchod
Nadejkow (Nadiegkau): Nadějkov
Nadschow: Hnacov
Nahlau: Náhlov, p. of Ralsko
Nahoretitz: Nahořečice, p. of Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)
Nahoschitz: Nahošice, p. of Blížejov
Nakel: Náklo
Nakersch: Nákří
Nallesgrün: Nadlesí, p. of Loket
Namiescht: Náměšť na Hané
Namiest (an der Oslawa): Náměšť nad Oslavou
Napajedl (Napagedl): Napajedla
Nassaberg: Nasavrky
Nassenbart: Mokrovousy
Nassendorf: Hely, p. of Krásná Lípa
Nassengrub: Mokřiny, p. of Aš
Natscheradetz: Načeradec
Natschung: Načetín, p. of Kalek
Nawarow: Návarov, p. of Zlatá Olešnice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Nawsi: Návsí
Nebahau: Nebahovy
Nebanitz: Nebanice
Nebes: Nedvězí, p. of Rohle
Nebillau: Nebílovy
Nebosedl: Novosedly, p. of Pšov
Nebotein: Hněvotín
Nebuzel: Nebužely
Nechanitz: Nechanice
Nechwalitz:
Nechvalice
Nechvalice, p. of Bystřany
Nedakonitz: Nedakonice
Nedraschitz: Nedražice, p. of Kostelec (Tachov District)
Nedweiss: Nedvězí, p. of Olomouc
Nedwieditz: Nedvědice
Nefke: Hněvkov, p. of Zábřeh
Neid: Závist, p. of Rybník (Domažlice District)
Nekor: Nekoř
Nemaus: Nemojov
Nemcitz:
Němčice (Domažlice District)
Němčice (Strakonice District)
Nemelkau:
Nemilkov, p. of Lišnice
Nemilkov, p. of Velhartice
Nemetschken: Němečky, p. of Ohníč
Nemetzky (Niemetzke): Sněžné (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Nemischl: Nemyšl
Nemschen: Němčí, p. of Malečov
Nemtschitz: Němčice (Domažlice District)
Neosablitz: Nezabylice
Neplachowitz: Neplachovice
Nepodritz: Velké Nepodřice, p. of Dobev
Nepomischl: Nepomyšl
Nepomuk: Capartice, p. of Klenčí pod Čerchovem
Neratowitz: Neratovice
Neretein: Neředín, p. of Olomouc
Neschikau: Nežichov, p. of Toužim
Neschwitz: Děčín XXXIII-Nebočady
Nesdenitz: Nezdenice
Nesnaschow:
Neznášov, p. of Rožnov (Náchod District)
(Nezdaschow): Neznašov, p. of Všemyslice
Nesnitz: Nezdice, p. of Teplá
Nespitz: Nespice, p. of Vacov
Nespoding: Mezipotočí, p. of Kájov
Nesselbach: Větrná, now Malšín
Nesselsdorf: Kopřivnice
Nestersitz: Neštědice, p. of Povrly
Nestomitz: Neštěmice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Netolitz (Nettoliz): Netolice
Netrobitz: Netřebice (Český Krumlov District)
Netschenitz: Nečemice, p. of Tuchořice
Netschetin: Nečtiny
Netschich: Nečichy, p. of Louny
Netschin: Nečín
Nettin: Netín
Networitz: Netvořice
Neubäu: Novosedly, p. of Nemanice
Neubäuhütten: Novosedelské Hutě, p. of Nemanice
Neu Benatek: Benátky nad Jizerou I
Neuberg:
Podhradí (Cheb District)
Tisovka, p. of Ktiš
Neubidschow (Neubydžow): Nový Bydžov
Neu Biela: Nová Bělá, p. of Ostrava
Neubistritz (Neu-Bistritz): Nová Bystřice
Neu Bohmen: Nová Bohyně, p. of Malšovice
Neubrunn: Nová Studnice, p. of Hradečno
Neubürgles: Nový Hrádek
Neu Cerekwe (Neu Zerekwe): Nová Cerekev
Neudek:
Najdek, p. of Lodhéřov
Nejdek
Neu Donawitz: Nové Stanovice, p. of Stanovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Neudorf:
Děčín XX-Nová Ves
Konstantinovy Lázně
Lázně Bělohrad
Moravská Nová Ves
Nová Ves (Český Krumlov District)
Nová Ves (Sokolov District)
Nová Ves, p. of Děkov
Nová Ves, p. of Hora Svatého Šebestiána
Nová Ves, p. of Kocbeře
Nová Ves, p. of Křižovatka
Nová Ves, p. of Litovel
Nová Ves, p. of Ostrava
Nová Ves, p. of Třemešné
Ostrožská Nová Ves
(Neudorf-Alt): Vysoká, p. of Malá Morava
Žárová, p. of Velké Losiny
Neudorf an der Neiße: Nová Ves nad Nisou
Neudorf an der Popelka: Nová Ves nad Popelkou
Neudorf bei Bautsch: Nové Oldřůvky, now Libavá MTA*
Neudorf bei Plan: Trstěnice (Cheb District)
Neudörfel:
Česká Ves, p. of Domašín
Nová Ves, p. of Teplice
Nová Ves, p. of Volfartice
Nová Ves u Pláně, p. of Homole u Panny
Nová Véska, p. of Norberčany
Nová Véska, p. of Staré Město (Bruntál District)
Nová Víska, p. of Bezvěrov
Nová Víska, now Boletice MTA*
Nová Víska, p. of Dolní Poustevna
Nová Víska, p. of Město Albrechtice
Nová Víska, p. of Nová Ves (Liberec District)
Neudörfl:
Nová Víska, p. of Kadaň
Nová Víska, p. of Hájek (Karlovy Vary District)
Nová Víska, p. of Stružná
Nová Víska u Rokle, p. of Rokle
Neu Ehrenberg: Nové Křečany, p. of Staré Křečany
Neuenbrand: Nový Ždár, p. of Aš
Neuenburg an der Elbe: Nymburk
Neu Erbersdorf: Nové Heřminovy
Neuern: Nýrsko
Neufalkenburg: Zámecká, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Neufang: Stříbrné Hory, p. of Horní Město
Neufürstenhütte: Nová Knížecí Huť, now Lesná (Tachov District)*
Neugarten: Zahrádky (Česká Lípa District)
Neugasse: Nová Ulice, p. of Olomouc
Neugebäu: Nový Svět, p. of Borová Lada
Neugedein: Kdyně
Neu Georgswalde: Nový Jiříkov, p. of Jiříkov
Neugeschrei: Nové Zvolání, now Vejprty
Neugrafenwalde: Nové Hraběcí, p. of Šluknov
Neugramatin: Nový Kramolín
Neugrund: Novosedlo, p. of Žandov
Neuhammer (bei Karlsbad): Nové Hamry
Neu Harzdorf: Liberec XVI-Nový Harcov
Neuhaus: Jindřichův Hradec
Neuhäusel: Nové Domky, p. of Loučovice
Neuhäusl:
Hlupenov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Nové Domky, p. of Rozvadov
Neuhäuser:
Nové Chalupy, p. of Nová Pec
Nové Chalupy, now Volary*
Nové Domy, p. of Oloví
Neuhof:
Nové Dvory, p. of Bystřany
Nový Dvůr (Nymburk District)
Nový Dvůr, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Nový Dvůr, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Nový Dvůr, p. of Stěbořice
Neu Hradek (Neuhradek): Nový Hrádek
Neu Hrosenkau (Neu Hrosinkau, Neu Traubendorf): Nový Hrozenkov
Neuhübel: Nová Horka, p. of Studénka
Neuhüblern: Nová Houžna, now Lenora (Prachatice District)
Neuhurkenthal: Nová Hůrka, p. of Prášily
Neuhütten: Nová Huť, now Blovice
Neu Hwiezdlitz: Nové Hvězdlice, p. of Hvězdlice
Neujahrsdorf: Nouzov, p. of Litíč
Neuofen: Nová Pec
Neukaunitz: Nové Kounice, p. of Bochov
Neukirchen: Nový Kostel
Neu Knin: Nový Knín
Neu Kolin: Kolín
Neu Königgrätz: Nový Hradec Králové, p. of Hradec Králové
Neu Kreibitz: Nová Chřibská, p. of Rybniště
Neuland: Ostré, p. of Úštěk
Neulosimthal: Jedlina
Neu Lublitz: Nové Lublice
Neuluh: Nový Luhov, p. of Brniště
Neumark: Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Neumarkt: Úterý
Neumettl (Neumittel): Neumětely
Neu Mitrowitz: Nové Mitrovice
Neu Modlan: Nové Modlany, p. of Krupka
Neu Moletein: Nový Maletín, p. of Maletín
Neumühle: Nemile
Neundorf: Nová Ves (Liberec District)
Neu Oderberg: Nový Bohumín, p. of Bohumín
Neu Ohlisch: Nová Oleška, p. of Huntířov
Neuötting-Vtschelnitz: Nová Včelnice
Neupaka: Nová Paka
Neu Parisau: Nový Pařezov, p. of Pařezov
Neu Paulsdorf: Liberec XIII-Nové Pavlovice
Neupohlen: Nové Spolí, p. of Český Krumlov
Neu Possigkau: Díly
Neu Prennet: Nový Spálenec, p. of Česká Kubice
Neuprerau: Nový Přerov
Neu Raunek: Nový Rounek, now Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Neu Raußnitz (Neu Rausnitz): Rousínov
Neu Reichenau: Nový Rychnov
Neureisch: Nová Říše
Neu Rettendorf: Nové Kocbeře, p. of Kocbeře
Neurode: Nová Pláň
Neu Rognitz: Nový Rokytník, p. of Trutnov
Neurohlau (Neu Rohlau): Nová Role
Neu Rothwasser: Nová Červená Voda, p. of Stará Červená Voda
Neusattel (bei Saaz): Nové Sedlo (Louny District)
Neusattl:
Nové Sedlo (Sokolov District)
(an der Naser): Novosedly nad Nežárkou
Neuschloss: Nové Hrady (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Neu Sedlitz: Nové Sedlice
Neu Serowitz: Nové Syrovice
Neusiedl:
Novosedly (Břeclav District)
Novosedly, p. of Kájov
Neusorge:
Nová Starost, p. of Rynoltice
Starostín, p. of Meziměstí
Neuspitzenberg: Nový Špičák, now Boletice MTA*
Neustadt:
Děčín II-Nové Město
Nové Město, p. of Karviná
Nové Město, p. of Jáchymov
Nové Město, p. of Moldava (Teplice District)
Neustadt an der Tafelfichte: Nové Město pod Smrkem
Neustadt an der Mettau: Nové Město nad Metují
Neustadtl:
Dolní Bělá
Jezvé, p. of Stružnice
Nové Městečko, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Nové Město (Hradec Králové District)
Nové Město na Moravě
Stráž (Tachov District)
Vestřev, now Dolní Olešnice
Neu Steindorf: Nový Hubenov, now Hubenov
Neustift:
Blatiny, p. of Sněžné (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Lhota, p. of Číměř (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Nová Lhota, now Černá v Pošumaví*
Nové Sady, p. of Olomouc
Polečnice, now Polná na Šumavě
Neustraschitz: Nové Strašecí
Neustupow: Neustupov
Neuthal: Nové Údolí, now Stožec*
Neutitschein (Neu Titschein): Nový Jičín
Neu Traubendorf: Nový Hrozenkov
Neu Tschestin: Nový Čestín, p. of Mochtín
Neuturkowitz: Nové Dobrkovice, p. of Český Krumlov
Neu Ullersdorf: Nové Losiny, p. of Jindřichov (Šumperk District)
Neu Vogelseifen: Nová Rudná, p. of Rudná pod Pradědem
Neu Waltersdorf: Nové Valteřice, p. of Moravský Beroun
Neuwelt:
Nový Svět, p. of Harrachov
Nový Svět, p. of Slatina (Nový Jičín District)
Neu Wessely (Neuwesseln): Nové Veselí
Neu Wilmsdorf: Nové Vilémovice, p. of Uhelná
Neuwirthshaus: Nová Hospoda, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Neu Würben: Nové Vrbno, p. of Větřkovice
Neu Zechsdorf: Nové Těchanovice, p. of Vítkov
Neu Zedlitsch: Nové Sedliště, p. of Staré Sedliště
Neu Zerekwe: Nová Cerekev
Neweklau: Neveklov
Nezamislitz: Nezamyslice
Nezdenitz: Nezdenice
Nezditz (Nestitz): Nezdice na Šumavě
Nezwiestitz: Nezvěstice
Nickelsdorf: Mikulovice, p. of Nová Ves v Horách
Nieder Altstadt: Dolní Staré Město, p. of Trutnov
Niederbaumgarten: Dolní Pěna
Nieder Bausow: Dolní Bousov
Nieder Berzdorf:
Dolní Pertoltice, p. of Pertoltice (Liberec District)
Dolní Suchá, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Niederbirkicht: Podbřezí
Nieder Böhmisch Rothwasser: Dolní Čermná
Nieder Bludowitz: Bludovice, p. of Havířov
Niederbuseln: Dolní Bušínov, p. of Zábřeh
Nieder Dattin: Dolní Datyně, p. of Havířov
Nieder Ebersdorf: Dolní Habartice
Niederehrenberg: Rumburk 3-Dolní Křečany
Nieder Einsiedel (Niedereinsiedel): Dolní Poustevna
Nieder Eisenberg: Dolní Ruda, now Ruda nad Moravou
Nieder Erlitz: Dolní Orlice, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Nieder Falkenau: Dolní Falknov, p. of Kytlice
Nieder Forst: Dolní Fořt, p. of Uhelná
Nieder Georgenthal (Niedergeorgenthal): Dolní Jiřetín, p. of Horní Jiřetín*
Niedergrund (Nieder Grund):
Děčín XIV-Dolní Žleb
Dolní Podluží
Dolní Údolí, p. of Zlaté Hory
Nieder Hanichen: Liberec VIII-Dolní Hanychov
Niederhof: Dolní Dvůr
Nieder Kalna: Dolní Kalná
Niederkamnitz: Dolní Kamenice, p. of Česká Kamenice
Nieder Koblitz: Dolní Chobolice, p. of Liběšice (Litoměřice District)
Nieder Kreibitz: Dolní Chřibská, p. of Chřibská
Nieder Krupai (Nieder Gruppei): Dolní Krupá
Nieder Langenau: Dolní Lánov
Nieder Leuten: Dolní Lutyně
Niederleutensdorf: Dolní Litvínov, p. of Litvínov
Nieder Lichtenwalde: Dolní Světlá, p. of Mařenice
Niederliebich: Dolní Libchava, p. of Česká Lípa
Nieder Lindenwiese: Lipová-lázně
Nieder Marklowitz: Dolní Marklovice, p. of Petrovice u Karviné
Nieder Mohrau (Niedermohrau):
Dolní Morava
Dolní Moravice
Nieder Paulowitz: Dolní Povelice, p. of Bohušov
Niederpolitz: Dolní Police, p. of Žandov
Nieder Preschkau: Dolní Prysk, p. of Prysk
Niederreuth: Dolní Paseky, p. of Aš
Niederringelberg: Dolní Výšina, p. of Obora (Tachov District)
Nieder Rochlitz: Dolní Rokytnice, p. of Rokytnice nad Jizerou
Niedersuchau (Nieder Suchau): Dolní Suchá, p. of Havířov
Nieder Tierlitzko: Dolní Těrlicko, p. of Těrlicko
Niederwessig: Dolní Vysoké, p. of Úštěk
Niederwigstein: Podhradí, p. of Vítkov
Nieder Wildgrub: Dolní Václavov, p. of Václavov u Bruntálu
Niedertscherma: Dolní Čermná
Niederulgersdorf: Děčín VIII-Dolní Oldřichov
Niederullersdorf: Dolní Oldřiš, p. of Bulovka
Niederwald: Dolní Les, p. of Vlčice (Jeseník District)
Niederzukau: Dolní Žukov, p. of Český Těšín
Niemes: Mimoň
Niemsching: Němče, p. of Větřní
Niemtschau: Němčany, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Niemtschitz:
Němčice (Blansko District)
Němčice (Kolín District)
Němčice (Kroměříž District)
Němčice (Pardubice District)
Němčice (Prachatice District)
Němčice (Strakonice District)
Nikl: Mikuleč
Niklasberg: Mikulov (Teplice District)
Niklasdorf: Mikulovice (Jeseník District)
Nikles: Raškov, p. of Bohdíkov
Niklowitz:
Mikolajice
Mikulovice (Znojmo District)
Nikolsburg: Mikulov
Nimburg: Nymburk
Nimlau: Nemilany, p. of Olomouc
Nimvorgut: Nuzarov, now Postřekov*
Ninowitz: Jinonice
Nirschlern: Koryta, now Rožmitál na Šumavě*
Nischburg: Nižbor
Nischkau: Nížkov
Nitschenau: Lhotka, p. of Vítkov
Nitzau: Nicov
Niwnitz: Nivnice
Nixdorf: Mikulášovice
Nollendorf: Nakléřov, now Petrovice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Nonnengrün: Hluboká, p. of Milhostov
Nowakowitz: Novákovice, p. of Lomec
Nudelbaum: Modlibohov, p. of Český Dub
Nürnberg: Norberčany
Nürschan (Nyrschan): Nýřany
Nuserau: Nuzerov, p. of Sušice
Nußlau: Nosislav
O
Ober Altstadt: Horní Staré Město, p. of Trutnov
Oberbaumgarten: Horní Pěna
Ober Berschkowitz: Horní Beřkovice
Ober Berzdorf: Liberec XXII-Horní Suchá
Oberberzdorf: Horní Pertoltice, p. of Pertoltice (Liberec District)
Ober Betschwa: Horní Bečva
Ober Birken (Ober Bris): Horní Bříza
Ober Bludowitz: Horní Bludovice
Ober Böhmisch Rothwasser: Horní Čermná
Ober Borry: Horní Bory, p. of Bory (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Ober Brand: Horní Žďár, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Ober Breitenstein: Horní Třebonín, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Ober Dannowitz: Horní Dunajovice
Ober Dattin: Horní Datyně, p. of Vratimov
Ober Domaslowitz: Horní Domaslavice
Oberdorf:
Horní Ves, now Chomutov
Horní Ves, p. of Litvínov
Horní Ves, p. of Trstěnice (Cheb District)
Ober Dubenky (Ober Dubenken): Horní Dubenky
Ober Ebersdorf: Horní Habartice
Ober Eisenberg: Horní Ruda, now Ruda nad Moravou
Ober Einsiedel (Obereinsiedel): Horní Poustevna, p. of Dolní Poustevna
Ober Ellgoth (Oberellgoth): Horní Lhota (Ostrava-City District)
Ober Erlitz: Horní Orlice, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Ober Forst: Horní Fořt, p. of Uhelná
Oberfröschau: Horní Břečkov
Ober Gallitsch: Horní Kaliště, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Obergeorgenthal: Horní Jiřetín
Ober Gerpitz: Brno-Horní Heršpice
Obergoß: Horní Kosov, p. of Jihlava
Ober Gosolup: Horní Kozolupy
Ober Gostitz: Horní Hoštice, p. of Javorník (Jeseník District)
Obergramling: Horní Kramolín, p. of Teplá
Obergrund:
Děčín XI-Horní Žleb
Horní Podluží
Horní Údolí, p. of Zlaté Hory
Ober Kochet: Kochánov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Ober Krupai (Ober Gruppei): Horní Krupá, p. of Ralsko
Oberhäuser: Rohy, now Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Oberhaid (Ober Haid):
Horní Dvořiště
Zbytiny
Ober Hammer: Hoření Hamr, now Velké Hamry
Ober Hanichen: Liberec XIX-Horní Hanychov
Oberheidisch: Horní Hedeč, p. of Králíky
Ober Heinzendorf: Horní Hynčina, p. of Pohledy
Oberhennersdorf: Rumburk 2-Horní Jindřichov
Ober Hermsdorf: Horní Heřmanice, p. of Bernartice (Jeseník District)
Oberhof: Nový Dvůr, p. of Zdíkov
Ober Hohenelbe: Hořejší Vrchlabí, p. of Vrchlabí
Ober Hrachowitz: Dolní Hrachovice
Ober Jeleni (Ober Jeleny): Horní Jelení
Ober-Johnsdorf: Horní Třešňovec
Oberkamnitz: Horní Kamenice, p. of Česká Kamenice
Oberklee: Soběchleby, p. of Blšany
Ober Koblitz: Horní Chobolice, p. of Liběšice (Litoměřice District)
Oberkörnsalz: Hořejší Krušec, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Ober Kozolup: Horní Kozolupy
Ober Kralowitz: Horní Kralovice, now Loket (Benešov District)*
Ober Kreibitz: Horní Chřibská, p. of Chřibská
Ober Langenau: Horní Lánov, p. of Lánov
Ober Langendorf: Horní Dlouhá, now Malšín
Oberlangendorf: Horní Dlouhá Loučka, now Dlouhá Loučka (Olomouc District)
Oberleutensdorf (Oberleitensdorf): Horní Litvínov, p. of Litvínov
Ober Lhotta: Horní Lhota (Zlín District)
Ober Lichtenwalde: Horní Světlá, p. of Mařenice
Oberlichtbuchet: Horní Světlé Hory, now Strážný*
Ober Lindewiese: Horní Lipová, p. of Lipová-lázně
Ober Litsch: Horní Lideč
Ober Lohma (Oberlohma): Horní Lomany, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Oberlosau: Horní Lažany, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Obermarkschlag: Horní Hraničná, now Přední Výtoň*
Ober Maxdorf: Horní Maxov, p. of Lučany nad Nisou
Obermohrau: Horní Morava, p. of Dolní Morava
Obermoldau: Horní Vltavice
Ober Moschtienitz: Horní Moštěnice
Oberndorf: Horní Ves, p. of Třebeň
Ober Neuern: Horní Nýrsko, now Nýrsko
Ober Neugrün: Horní Nivy, p. of Dolní Nivy
Ober Niemtsch: Horní Němčí
Ober Niemtschitz: Horní Němčice
Obernitz: Obrnice
Ober Oggold: Horní Okolí, now Malšín*
Ober Paulowitz: Horní Povelice, p. of Liptaň
Oberplan: Horní Planá
Ober Potschernitz: Prague 20-Horní Počernice
Oberpolitz: Horní Police
Ober Prausnitz: Horní Brusnice
Ober Preschkau: Horní Prysk, p. of Prysk
Oberpriesen: Vysoké Březno, p. of Malé Březno (Most District)
Oberreuth: Horní Paseky, p. of Aš
Oberringelberg: Horní Výšina, p. of Halže
Ober Rosenthal: Liberec VII-Horní Růžodol
Ober Roschlitz: Horní Rokytnice, p. of Rokytnice nad Jizerou
Ober Rotschau (Ober Rotschow): Horní Ročov, now Ročov
Obersablat: Horní Záblatí, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Ober Sandau: Horní Žandov, p. of Dolní Žandov
Oberschaar: Žáry, p. of Město Albrechtice
Oberschlag: Milešice, now Volary
Oberschlagl: Horní Drkolná, now Vyšší Brod*
Oberschneedorf: Horní Snežná, now Volary*
Oberschön: Dolní Dvory, p. of Cheb
Oberschönbach: Horní Luby, p. of Luby (Cheb District)
Oberschönhub: Horní Přísahov, now Vyšší Brod*
Ober Schossenreuth: Horní Částkov, p. of Habartov
Ober Schwarzbrunn: Horní Černá Studnice, p. of Nová Ves nad Nisou
Ober Sekerschan (Ober Sekrzan): Horní Sekyřany, p. of Heřmanova Huť
Obersinetschlag: Horní Příbrání, now Pohorská Ves*
Ober Stankau: Horní Stankov, p. of Hlavňovice
Obersteindörfl: Zbraslav, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Ober Studenetz: Horní Studenec, p. of Ždírec nad Doubravou
Obersuchau (Ober Suchau): Horní Suchá
Oberteschau: Hořejší Těšov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Ober Tierlitzko: Horní Těrlicko, p. of Těrlicko
Obertor: Horní Brána, p. of Český Krumlov
Ober Toschonowitz: Horní Tošanovice
Oberulgersdorf: Děčín XXI-Horní Oldřichov
Ober Uresch: Horní Ureš, now Přední Výtoň*
Obervollmau: Horní Folmava, p. of Česká Kubice
Ober Wernersdorf: Horní Vernéřovice, now Jívka
Oberwessig: Horní Vysoké, p. of Levín
Ober Wigstein: Dubová, now Radkov (Opava District)
Ober Wildgrub: Horní Václavov, p. of Václavov u Bruntálu
Ober Wisternitz: Horní Věstonice
Ober Dreihöfen: Horní Záhoří, p. of Lubenec
Oberzassau: Horní Cazov, now Stožec*
Ober Zerekwe (Ober Cerekwe): Horní Cerekev
Oberzukau: Horní Žukov, p. of Český Těšín
Oberzwinzen: Horní Svince, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Obeschitz: Brno-Sobešice
Obetznitz: Obecnice
Oblas: Oblekovice, p. of Znojmo
Obodersch: Benátky nad Jizerou III
Obristwy: Obříství
Obrowitz: Brno-Zábrdovice
Ochsensthall: Volárna, p. of Roudno
Oder: Odra (river)
Oderberg: Bohumín
Oderfurt: Přívoz, p. of Ostrava
Odersch: Oldřišov
Odolenswasser: Odolena Voda
Odrau: Odry
Oed: Poustka
Oels: Olešnice (Blansko District)
Oels-Döberney: Debrné, p. of Mostek (Trutnov District)
Oemau: Soběnov
Ogfolderhaid: Jablonec, now Boletice MTA*
Öhlhütten:
Lhota u Konice, p. of Brodek u Konice
Lhotka u Litultovic
Ohorn: Javorná, p. of Bražec
Ohrad: Ohrada, p. of Bílovec
Ohren: Javory, p. of Malšovice
Ohrensdorf: Střítež nad Ludinou
Ohrnes: Javoří, p. of Maletín
Okenau: Okounov
Okrzischko (Okrischko, Okrizko): Okříšky
Okrouhlík: Mělník
Okrauhlitz: Okrouhlice
Ölberg (Oelberg): Olivětín, p. of Broumov
Olbersdorf:
Albrechtice (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Albrechtice u Frýdlantu, p. of Frýdlant
Albrechtice u Rýmařova, p. of Břidličná
Město Albrechtice
Olbramowitz: Olbramovice u Votic
Olchowitz:
Oldřichovice (Zlín District)
Oldřichovice, p. of Dešenice
Olhotta (Ollhotta): Lhota, p. of Úštěk
Olleschau: Olšany (Šumperk District)
Olmütz: Olomouc
Olschan: Olšany (Vyškov District)
Olschi (Olschy): Olší (Brno-Country District)
Ölstadtl: Olejovice, now Libavá MTA*
Ömau (Oemau): Soběnov
Ondregow: Ondřejov (Pelhřimov District)
Ondrejow: Ondřejov (Prague-East District)
Ondschikowitz: Ondříkovice, p. of Frýdštejn
Opatowitz (Oppatowitz):
Opatovice nad Labem
Velké Opatovice
Opolau: Úpohlavy
Opotschna: Opočno (Louny District)
Opotschno: Opočno (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Oppa: Opava (river)
Oppahof: Dvořisko, p. of Kravaře
Oppatau: Opatov (Třebíč District)
Oppau: Zábřeh, p. of Dolní Benešov
Oppelitz: Opolenec, p. of Kašperské Hory
Oppolz: Tichá, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Orlau: Orlová
Orlowitz: Orlovice
Orpus: Mezilesí, p. of Kryštofovy Hamry
Oschelin: Ošelín
Oschitz: Osečná
Oskau: Oskava
Oslawan: Oslavany
Ossegg: Osek (Teplice District)
Ossek: Osek nad Bečvou
Oßnitz: Sosnice, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Ossowa Bittischka: Osová Bítýška
Ostrau:
Ostrava
Ostrov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Ostrov, p. of Žďárec
Ostrov u Stříbra, p. of Kostelec (Tachov District)
Ostrosen: Ostružno, p. of Nezdice na Šumavě
Oswitiman: Osvětimany
Otrokowitz: Otrokovice
Otrotschin: Otročín, p. of Stříbro
Ottau: Zátoň, p. of Větřní
Otten: Otín (Jihlava District)
Ottendorf:
Otice
Otovice (Náchod District)
Ottengrün: Otov
Ottenreuth: Otín, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Ottenschlag:
Dluhoště, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Otín, p. of Jindřichův Hradec
Otov, now Přední Výtoň*
Ottetstift: Otice, p. of Polná na Šumavě
Ottnitz: Otnice
Ottowitz: Otovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Oxbrunn: Březovík, p. of Ktiš
P
Pabelsdorf: Pavlíkov, p. of Třemešné
Padloschin: Podlešín, p. of Stebno
Palitz: Palič, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Palkowitz: Palkovice
Palzendorf: Palačov, p. of Starý Jičín
Pamferhütte: Pamferova Huť, now Železná Ruda
Panditz: Bantice
Panzer: Pancíř, p. of Železná Ruda
Pappelsdorf: Topolná
Parchen: Prácheň, p. of Kamenický Šenov
Pardorf: Bavory
Pardubitz: Pardubice
Parfuß: Brno-Bosonohy
Parisau: Pařezov
Parkfried: Bělá, p. of Nová Pec
Parlosa: Brložec, p. of Dobrná
Parnig (Parnik): Parník, p. of Česká Třebová
Parschnitz: Poříčí, p. of Trutnov
Parschowitz: Paršovice
Partschendorf: Bartošovice
Paschtik: Paštiky
Paskau: Paskov
Paslas: Bohuslav, p. of Teplá
Paß: Horní Sedlo, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Passek: Paseka (Olomouc District)
Passeken: Paseka, p. of Borová Lada
Passern: Pasovary, now Světlík*
Paßnau: Veselov, p. of Žlutice
Pastreichs: Hradišťko, p. of Dačice
Patokrey: Patokryje
Pattersdorf: Bartoušov
Patzau: Pacov
Patzin: Pačín, p. of Bezdružice
Paulowitz: Pavlovičky, p. of Olomouc
Paulus: Miletínky, p. of Ktiš
Paulusbrunn: Pavlův Studenec, now Obora (Tachov District)*
Pauska: Poustka, p. of Dobkovice
Pausram: Pouzdřany
Pauten: Poutnov, p. of Teplá
Pawinow: Palvinov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Pawlikow: Pavlíkov
Pawlow: Pavlov (Šumperk District)
Pawlowitz:
Pavlovice, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Pavlovice u Kojetína
Pavlovice u Přerova
Payreschau: Boršov nad Vltavou
Pechbach: Smolná, p. of Rotava
Pechöfen: Smolné Pece
Peichsdorf: Piskořov, p. of Město Albrechtice
Peiperz: Děčín XVI-Přípeř
Pelechow: Pelechov, p. of Železný Brod
Pelkowitz: Pelkovice, p. of Rychnov u Jablonce nad Nisou
Permesgrün: Květnová, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Petzka: Pecka
Pelechen: Pelechy
Penketitz: Beníkovice, now Boletice MTA*
Perletschlag: Perlovice, p. of Prachatice
Perlsberg: Lazy, p. of Lázně Kynžvart
Pern: Beroun, p. of Teplá
Pernartitz: Bernartice, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Pernlesdorf: Mostky, p. of Kaplice
Perutz: Peruc
Perschetitz: Horní Brzotice, now Boletice MTA*
Peterbach: Petrov, now Polná na Šumavě*
Petersburg: Petrohrad
Petersdorf:
Hraničné Petrovice
Petrovice (Bruntál District)
Petrovice, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Petrovice, p. of Skorošice
Vražné
Petersdorf an der Tess: Petrov nad Desnou
Petershofen: Petřkovice, p. of Ostrava
Petersin: Petříkov
Peterswald:
Petříkov, p. of Ostružná
Petrovice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Petřvald (Karviná District)
Petlarn: Žebráky, p. of Hošťka
Petrowitz:
Petrovice (Blansko District)
Petrovice (Příbram District)
Petrovice (Rakovník District)
Petrovice, p. of Malé Svatoňovice
Petrovice, p. of Puklice
Petrovice, p. of Štoky
Petrovice u Sušice
Pustějov
Petrowitz an der Angel: Petrovice nad Úhlavou, p. of Janovice nad Úhlavou
Petrowitz bei Freistadt: Petrovice u Karviné
Petrzkowitz:
Petřkovice, p. of Ostrava
Petřkovice, p. of Starý Jičín
Petschau: Bečov nad Teplou
Petschek (Petschkau): Pečky
Petzer: Pec pod Sněžkou
Petzka: Pecka
Pfaffendorf:
Děčín XXIII-Popovice
Kněžská, p. of Šlapanov
Přísečno, p. of Soběnov
Pfaffengrün: Popovice, p. of Teplá
Pfaffenschlag: Bobovec, now Světlík*
Pfauendorf: Pávov, p. of Jihlava
Pfefferschlag: Libínské Sedlo, p. of Prachatice
Pflanzen: Blansko, p. of Kaplice
Pflanzendorf: Hřivčice, p. of Peruc
Pflaumendörfl: Milonice (Vyškov District)
Pföhlwies: Lužná, p. of Kopřivná
Pfraumberg (Pfrauenberg): Přimda
Pher: Pchery
Philippsberg:
Filipov, p. of Česká Kamenice
Filipov, p. of Jiříkov
Filipova Hora, p. of Tlumačov (Domažlice District)
Filipovice, p. of Bělá pod Pradědem
Filipovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Philippsgrund: Filipka, p. of Oldřichov v Hájích
Philippshütte: Filipova Huť, p. of Modrava
Philippsthal:
Filipová, p. of Loučná nad Desnou
Filipovka, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Pibrans: Příbram
Pickau: Býkov, p. of Býkov-Láryšov
Pichelberg: Boučí, p. of Dolní Nivy
Pichlern: Pihlov, now Horní Planá
Pientschin: Pěnčín (Liberec District)
Piesling: Písečné
Pießnig: Písečná, p. of Česká Lípa
Pihanken: Běhánky, p. of Dubí
Pilgrams (Pilgram): Pelhřimov
Pilkau: Bílka, p. of Bořislav
Pilletitz: Bílovice, now Boletice MTA*
Pilmersreuth: Pelhřimov, p. of Cheb
Pilnikau: Pilníkov
Pilsen: Plzeň
Pilsenschlag: Polžov, now Pohorská Ves*
Pingetschlag: Skalné, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Pinke: Benkov, p. of Uničov
Pintschei: Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Pirk: Bříza, p. of Cheb
Pirkau: Březí, p. of Ctiboř (Tachov District)
Pirken: Březenec, p. of Jirkov
Pirkenhammer: Březová (Karlovy Vary District)
Pirnik: Brníčko, p. of Uničov
Pirnitz: Brtnice
Pirten: Brť, p. of Otročín
Pischel: Pyšel
Pischely: Pyšely
Pischtin: Pištín
Pisek: Písek
Pistau:
Pístov, p. of Chodová Planá
Pístov, p. of Jihlava
Pistowitz: Pístovice, p. of Račice-Pístovice
Pitschkowitz: Býčkovice
Pittarn: Pitárné, p. of Vysoká (Bruntál District)
Pittling: Pytlíkov, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Piwana: Pňovany
Piwin: Pivín
Piwonin: Pivonín, p. of Zábřeh
Piwonitz: Pivonice, p. of Bystřice nad Pernštejnem
Plaben: Plav
Pladen: Blatno (Louny District)
Plahetschlag: Blažejovice, p. of Zbytiny
Plahow: Bláhov, p. of Homole u Panny
Plan:
Planá (České Budějovice District)
Planá (Tachov District)
Plan an der Lainsitz: Planá nad Lužnicí
Planer Brand: Žďár, p. of Chodský Újezd
Planian (Planan): Plaňany
Planitz: Plánice
Plankus: Planská, now Chroboly*
Planles: Plánička, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Plas (Platz): Stráž nad Nežárkou
Plas (Plass): Plazy
Plaß: Plasy
Plaßdorf: Blahuňov, p. of Místo
Plassendorf: Kubička, now Česká Kubice*
Platsch: Plaveč (Znojmo District)
Platten:
Blatná, p. of Frymburk
Blatno (Chomutov District)
Horní Blatná
Plattetschlag: Mladoňov, now Boletice MTA*
Plattorn: Platoř, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Platz: Místo
Platz an der Naser: Stráž nad Nežárkou
Plauschnitz: Ploužnice, p. of Ralsko
Plaw: Plavy
Pleil-Sorgenthal: Černý Potok, p. of Kryštofovy Hamry
Pleschowitz: Plešovice, p. of Zlatá Koruna
Pleßberg: Plešivec (mountain)
Pleßna: Plesná, p. of Ostrava
Plichtitz: Plichtice, p. of Zavlekov
Plöckenstein: Plechý (mountain)
Plöß:
Pláně, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Pleš, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Ploscha: Blažim (Louny District)
Ploschkowitz: Ploskovice
Plotischt: Plotiště nad Labem, p. of Hradec Králové
Plötsch: Plechy, p. of Nový Malín
Plowitz: Blovice
Pluhow (Pluhowy Zdiar): Pluhův Žďár
Plumberg: Květná, p. of Krajková
Plumenau (Plumau): Plumlov
Pobitz: Babice, p. of Teplá
Pobutsch: Pobučí, p. of Jestřebí (Šumperk District)
Pochlowitz: Dolní Pochlovice, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Pochmühl:
Pocheň, p. of Brumovice (Opava District)
Pocheň, p. of Široká Niva
Pöcken: Pěkovice, p. of Teplá
Podersam: Podbořany
Podesdorf: Bohdalovice
Podhorschan:
Podhořany, p. of Nelahozeves
Podhořany u Ronova
Podiebrad: Poděbrady
Podleß: Podlesí (Příbram District)
Podletitz: Podlesice, p. of Veliká Ves (Chomutov District)
Podol:
Bílé Podolí
Podolí, now Svijany
Prague-Podolí
Vápenný Podol
Podoly: Podolí, p. of Prachatice
Podrasnitz: Podražnice
Podseditz: Podsedice
Podwihof: Podvihov, p. of Opava
Podwurst: Podvoří, now Boletice MTA*
Pograth: Podhrad, p. of Cheb
Pohl: Polom (Přerov District)
Pohled (Pochled): Pohleď
Pohlem: Polom, p. of Bochov
Pohlen: Spolí, p. of Přídolí
Pohrlitz: Pohořelice
Pohorsch:
Pohoř, p. of Odry
Pohořany, p. of Dolany (Olomouc District)
Pohorschan: Pohořany, p. of Žitenice
Pohorz: Pohoří, p. of Malečov
Pokatitz: Pokutice, p. of Kadaň
Pokau: Bukov, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Pokratitz: Pokratice, p. of Litoměřice
Polanka an der Oder: Polanka nad Odrou, p. of Ostrava
Polaun: Polubný, p. of Kořenov
Polehraditz (Pollehraditz): Boleradice
Polep (Polepp): Polepy (Litoměřice District)
Polerad:
Polerady (Most District)
Polerady (Prague-East District)
Poliken: Políkno, p. of Toužim
Polin (Pollin): Poleň
Politschka: Polička
Politz an der Mettau: Police nad Metují
Politz an der Elbe: Děčín XXXII-Boletice nad Labem
Polke: Polka, p. of Vápenná
Pollaitz: Police (Šumperk District)
Pollein: Palonín
Pollerskirchen: Úsobí
Polleschowitz (Poleschowitz): Polešovice
Polletitz (Poletitz, Bolletitz): Boletice, p. of Kájov
Polna: Polná
Polnisch Leuten: Lutyně, p. of Orlová
Polnisch Ostrau: Polská Ostrava, now Ostrava
Polschitz (Pollschitz): Dolní Polžice, p. of Bezdružice
Polzen: Ploučnice (river)
Pomeisl: Nepomyšl
Pomitsch: Podmyče
Pömmerle (Pömerle): Povrly
Pomuk: Nepomuk
Ponikla: Poniklá
Popelin: Popelín
Popow: Popov, p. of Štítná nad Vláří-Popov
Popowitz (Poppowitz):
Popovice (Brno-Country District)
Popovice (Uherské Hradiště District)
Poppitz:
Popice
Popice, p. of Jihlava
Popice, p. of Znojmo
Poppowa: Popov, p. of Kostelec (Tachov District)
Poremba: Poruba, p. of Orlová
Porenz: Beranovec, p. of Suchá
Poric (an der Sazawa): Poříčí nad Sázavou
Poritsch: Poříčí, p. of Chyše
Poritschan (Porican): Poříčany
Poritschen (Poritschen/Desfours): Spálené Poříčí
Porschitz (Porzitsch): Poříčí, p. of Boršov nad Vltavou
Porschitz an der Sasau: Poříčí nad Sázavou
Poruba: Poruba, p. of Ostrava
Poschau: Bošov, p. of Vrbice (Karlovy Vary District)
Poschetzau: Božičany
Poschitz: Poseč, p. of Otročín
Poschkau: Boškov, p. of Potštát
Poschlag: Pošlák, now Vyšší Brod*
Pösigl: Bezděkov, now Boletice MTA*
Posluchau: Posluchov, p. of Hlubočky
Posoritz: Pozořice
Possigkau: Postřekov
Pössigkau: Bezděkov, p. of Třemešné
Possitz: Božice
Postelberg: Postoloprty
Postitz: Božtěšice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Postrum: Postřelná, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Postupitz: Postupice
Potfohre (Potfuhre): Potvorov
Potschapl: Počaply, p. of Terezín
Potschatek: Počátky
Potscherad: Počerady, p. of Výškov
Pottenstein: Potštejn
Potzen: Práčov, p. of Přídolí
Powel: Povel, p. of Olomouc
Pozdiechow (Pozdechow, Posdiechow): Pozděchov
Prachatitz: Prachatice
Prachnian: Staré Práchňany, p. of Čechtice
Prag: Praha
Pragerstift: Pražačka, now Boletice MTA*
Prahlitz: Pravlov
Pramles: Branná, now Malšín
Praschno Augesd: Prašný Újezd, p. of Mlečice
Praschma: Pražmo
Praskoles: Praskolesy
Praskowitz: Prackovice nad Labem
Praslawitz: Přáslavice
Prasseditz: Prosetice, p. of Teplice
Praßles: Zbraslav, p. of Štědrá
Pratzen: Prace
Prause: Brusov, p. of Úštěk
Prawonin: Pravonín
Prchalau: Prchalov, p. of Příbor
Predmeritz (an der Elbe): Předměřice nad Labem
Predslaw: Předslav
Predwojowitz: Předvojovice, p. of Čachrov
Preitenhof Plandry
Prelautsch: Přelouč
Premyslowitz (Przemislowitz): Přemyslovice
Prerau: Přerov
Preschen: Břešťany, now Bílina*
Preschkau: Prysk
Presel: Březiny, p. of Malečov
Pressnitz: Přísečnice, now Kryštofovy Hamry*
Prestawlk: Přestavlky (Chrudim District)
Prestein: Přestání, p. of Štědrá
Prestitz: Přeštice
Pribram (Przibram): Příbram
Prichowitz: Příchovice, p. of Kořenov
Priedlanz: Předlánce, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Priesen:
Březno (Chomutov District)
Březno, p. of Postoloprty
Priesern: Přízeř, p. of Rožmberk nad Vltavou
Priesten (Pristen): Přestanov
Priethal: Přídolí
Primislau: Přibyslav
Primiswald: Přemyslov, p. of Loučná nad Desnou
Prisnitz: Přísečná
Priwoz: Přívoz, p. of Ostrava
Probolden: Provodice, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Proboscht: Proboštov, p. of Malečov
Probstau: Proboštov
Prochomuth: Prachomety, p. of Toužim
Pröding: Předín
Prödlas: Brodce, p. of Kadaň
Prödlitz:
Brodek u Prostějova
Předlice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Pröhlig: Přívlaky, p. of Žiželice (Louny District)
Prohn: Braňany
Prohor: Prohoř, p. of Štědrá
Pröles: Přílezy, p. of Útvina
Pröllas: Brody, p. of Krásný Dvůr
Promenhof: Broumov (Tachov District)
Prösau: Březová (Sokolov District)
Prosau: Mrázov, p. of Teplá
Prosanken: Brozánky, p. of Řehlovice
Proschwitz an der Neiße: Proseč nad Nisou, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Prosetsch: Proseč
Prositschka: Prosíčka, p. of Koberovy
Proskowitz: Proskovice, p. of Ostrava
Prosseln: Prosetín, p. of Dobkovice
Prossenitz: Prosenice
Prossmeritz: Prosiměřice
Prossnitz:
Prostějov
(Prosnitz): Vražice, now Boletice MTA*
Prostiowiczek: Prostějovičky
Protiwanow: Protivanov
Protiwin: Protivín
Protowitz: Protivec, p. of Žlutice
Prostibor: Prostiboř
Prstna: Prstná, p. of Petrovice u Karviné
Pruhonitz: Průhonice
Prünles: Studenec, p. of Oloví
Prusinowitz: Prusinovice
Prussinowitz: Ranošov, now Kozlov (Olomouc District)*
Przestawelk (Pschestawilk): Přestavlky (Přerov District)
Przikas (Pschikas): Příkazy
Pschan: Blšany u Loun
Pschelautsch: Přelouč
Pschestitz: Přeštice
Pschislowitz: Březovice
Pschiwosten: Přívozec, p. of Blížejov
Pschoblik: Pšovlky
Pstruschi: Pstruží
Ptin: Ptení
Pudageln: Budákov, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Pudlau: Pudlov, p. of Bohumín
Puklitz: Puklice
Pulgram: Bulhary (Břeclav District)
Pulletschney: Pulečný
Pullitz: Police (Třebíč District)
Pullwitz: Pulovice, p. of Šemnice
Pulpetzen: Půlpecen, p. of Chrastavec
Pumperle: Řasnice, p. of Strážný
Punkendorf: Boňkov, p. of Olšovec
Punnau: Boněnov, p. of Chodová Planá
Pürgles: Hrádek, p. of Krajková
Pürglitz: Křivoklát
Pürkau: Tvrdkov
Purkratitz: Purkratice, p .of Písek
Pürles: Brložec, p. of Štědrá
Pürstein: Perštejn
Pürstling: Březník, now Modrava
Puritschen: Kvasov, now Rožmitál na Šumavě*
Purschau: Pořejov, now Hošťka*
Pusch: Buč, p. of Bezvěrov
Puschwitz: Buškovice, p. of Podbořany
Puskowetz: Pustkovec, p. of Ostrava
Pustimir (Pustomirz): Pustiměř
Putkau: Putkov, p. of Zdíkov
Putschirn: Počerny, p. of Karlovy Vary
Putzeried: Pocinovice
Putzlitz: Puclice
Pyschcz: Píšť (Opava District)
Q
Qualen: Chvalov, p. of Stebno
Qualisch: Chvaleč
Quetusch (Kwietusch): Květuš, p. of Chyšky
Quikau: Kvítkov, p. of Modlany
Quinau: Květnov, p. of Blatno (Chomutov District)
Quintenthal: Vizov, now Žacléř
Quitosching: Květušín, p. of Polná na Šumavě
Quittein: Květín, p. of Mohelnice
Quittendorf: Metylovice
Quitkau: Kvítkov
R
Raabe: Hrabová (Šumperk District)
Raase: Razová
Rabenhütte: Havránka, now Horní Vltavice*
Rabenseifen: Hraběšice
Rabenstein an der Schnella: Rabštejn nad Střelou, p. of Manětín
Rabenau: Hrabenov, p. of Ruda nad Moravou
Rabersdorf: Hrabišín
Rabitz: Hrabice, p. of Vimperk
Rabus: Raveň, p. of Střítež (Český Krumlov District)
Raby (Rabi): Rabí
Rachel: Rokle
Rad: Kluč, p. of Habartov
Radaun: Radouň, p. of Štětí
Radetitz: Radětice (Příbram District)
Radhoscht:
Radhošť (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
(Radegast): Radhošť (mountain)
Radigau: Radechov, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Radikau: Radíkov, p. of Olomouc
Radimowitz:
Radimovice u Tábora
Radimovice u Želče
Radinetschlag: Radčice, p. of Malonty
Rading: Radyně, p. of Toužim
Radischen: Hradiště, p. of Kaplice
Radl: Rádlo
Radmühl: Radomilov, p. of Ruda nad Moravou
Radnitz:
Radnice
Radnice, p. of Pavlov (Šumperk District)
Radobil: Radobýl
Radomischl: Radomyšl
Radonitz: Radonice (Chomutov District)
Radoschowitz: Radošovice (České Budějovice District)
Radostin: Radostín, p. of Sychrov (Liberec District)
Radostitz: Radhostice
Radotin: Radotín, p. of Chyše
Radschau: Račov, p. of Zdíkov
Radschitz: Radčice
Radschowitz: Hradcovice
Radun: Raduň
Radwanitz:
Radvanice, p. of Ostrava
Radvanice, p. of Velhartice
Radzein: Radejčín, p. of Řehlovice
Ragersdorf: Malý Radkov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Raigern: Rajhrad
Rail: Rájec, p. of Přimda
Rainochowitz: Rajnochovice
Raitz: Rájec, p. of Borovnice (Rychnov nad Kněžnou District)
Raitza: Rájec, now Tisá
Rakonitz: Rakovník
Rakschitz: Rakšice, p. of Moravský Krumlov
Rampusch: Rampuše, p. of Liberk
Ramsau: Ramzová, p. of Ostružná
Ranigsdorf: Linhartice
Rankwotz: Rankovice, p. of Teplá
Ranna: Raná (Chrudim District)
Ranzern: Rančířov
Rapitz: Vrapice, p. of Kladno
Rapotitz: Rapotice
Rappetschlag: Rapotice, p. of Malonty
Rascha: Rašov, p. of Klíny
Raschen: Rašovka, p. of Šimonovice
Raschowitz: Rašovice, p. of Úštěk
Rasitz: Razice, p. of Hrobčice
Raspenau: Raspenava
Ratais an der Sasau (Rataj): Rataje nad Sázavou
Rathgebern: Radkov
Ratischkowitz: Ratíškovice
Ratiworz: Ratiboř, p. of Žlutice
Ratkau: Radkov (Opava District)
Ratsch: Hradiště, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Ratschendorf: Liberec XXXII-Radčice
Ratschin: Račín, now Boletice MTA*
Ratschitz (Ratschütz): Račice, p. of Račice-Pístovice
Ratschinowes: Račiněves
Rattai (Ratay): Rataje (Tábor District)
Rattay (Ratais): Rataje (Kroměříž District)
Rattay (Ratais an der Sasau): Rataje nad Sázavou
Rattimau: Vratimov
Ratzau:
Rácov, p. of Batelov
Racov, p. of Staré Sedlo (Tachov District)
Raubowitz: Hroubovice
Rauchowan (Rouchowan, Rochowann): Rouchovany
Raudnei: Roudný, p. of Frýdštejn
Raudnig: Roudníky, p. of Chabařovice
Raudnitz:
Roudnice
Roudnice, p. of Jestřabí v Krkonoších
(an der Elbe): Roudnice nad Labem
Rauhenschlag: Chlupatá Ves, p. of Horní Stropnice
Raunek: Rounek, p. of Vyskytná nad Jihlavou
Rauschenbach im Kaiserwald: Sítiny, p. of Mnichov (Cheb District)
Rauschengrund: Šumná, p. of Litvínov
Rauschka (Rauczka): Růžďka
Rausen: Rusín
Rausenbruck: Strachotice
Rausenstein: Ostrý Kámen, p. of Karle (Svitavy District)
Rausinow: Rousínov, p. of Slabce
Rautenberg: Roudno
Reckerberg: Popelná, p. of Nicov
Redenitz: Radnice, now Hradiště MTA*
Regens: Řehořov, p. of Kamenice (Jihlava District)
Regersdorf: Borek, p. of Zahrádky (Česká Lípa District)
Rehberg:
Liberk
Srní
Reichen: Rychnov, p. of Verneřice
Reichenau:
Rychnov na Moravě
Rychnov u Jablonce nad Nisou
Reichenau an der Knieschna: Rychnov nad Kněžnou
Reichenau an der Maltsch: Rychnov nad Malší, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Reichenberg: Liberec
Reichetschlag: Mýtina, now Hořice na Šumavě
Reichenthal: Hraničky, now Rozvadov*
Reichersdorf: Hradiště, p. of Cheb
Reichstadt: Zákupy
Reichwaldau: Rychvald
Reiditz: Rejdice, p. of Kořenov
Reifmaß: Radvanov, now Vyšší Brod*
Reigelsdorf: Rudíkovy, p. of Třemešná
Reigersdorf:
Rejchartice
Rejchartice, p. of Dvorce (Bruntál District)
Reihwiesen: Rejvíz, p. of Zlaté Hory
Reimlich: Rybí
Reindlitz: Ryjice
Reinowitz: Rýnovice, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Reischdorf: Rusová, p. of Kryštofovy Hamry*
Reisendorf: Trhavice, p. of Norberčany
Reissig: Klest, p. of Cheb
Reitenhau (Reutenhau): Rejhotice, p. of Loučná nad Desnou
Reitendorf: Rapotín
Reiterschlag: Pasečná, now Přední Výtoň
Reith:
Kleštín, now Vyšší Brod*
Loutka, now Boletice MTA*
Svánkov, now Světlík*
Reitschowes: Radíčeves, p. of Žatec
Remeschin: Řemešín, p. of Kralovice
Rennersdorf: Rynartice, p. of Jetřichovice
Rentsch: Řevničov
Repan (Rzepan): Řepany, p. of Lubenec
Repeschin: Řepešín, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Repschein: Řepčín, p. of Olomouc
Repin: Řepín
Repora: Prague-Řeporyje
Reschen: Rešov, p. of Horní Město
Reschwitz: Radošov, now Hradiště MTA
Retaun: Řetouň, p. of Malečov
Retschkowitz (Rzeckowitz): Brno-Řečkovice
Rettendorf: Kocbeře
Rewnitz: Řevnice
Richenburg: Předhradí
Richtarzow: Rychtářov, p. of Vyškov
Richterhäuser: Rychtářov, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Richterhof: Střemily, now Boletice MTA*
Richtersdorf: Rychtářov, p. of Vyškov
Riegerschlag: Lodhéřov
Riegersdorf:
Modrá, p. of Jílové
Modřec, p. of Polička
Riehm: Hůrka, p. of Libá
Riesenberg:
Hrad Osek, p. of Osek (Teplice District)
Podzámčí, p. of Kdyně
Riesengebirge: Krkonoše (mountain range)
Rimau: Římov (České Budějovice District)
Rinaretz: Rynárec
Rindlau: Žlíbek, p. of Kašperské Hory
Rindles: Žlábek, p. of Horní Planá
Ringelberg: Horní Výšina, p. of Halže
Ringelsdorf: Kroužek, p. of Rousínov
Ringelshain: Rynoltice
Ringenhain: Větrov, p. of Frýdlant
Rippau: Řepová, p. of Mohelnice
Rischkau: Hříškov
Ritschan (Rzitschan, Rican): Říčany
Ritschen: Rýdeč, p. of Malečov
Rittersdorf: Rytířov, p. of Verneřice
Rittersgrün: Nová Kyselka, p. of Kyselka
Robesgrün: Radvanov, p. of Josefov (Sokolov District)
Robitsch: Robeč, p. of Úštěk
Rockendorf: Žitná, now Březová (Sokolov District)*
Roche: Rochov, p. of Úštěk
Röchlitz: Liberec VI-Rochlice
Rochlitz an der Iser: Rokytnice nad Jizerou
Rodisfort: Radošov, p. of Kyselka
Rodowitz: Radvanec
Rodwald: Krčín, p. of Nové Město nad Metují
Rogau: Velký Radkov, p. of Rejštejn
Rohatetz: Rohatec
Rohle: Rohle
Rohn: Leptač, p. of Chroboly
Rohr: Nový Drahov, p. of Třebeň
Rohrbach: Hrušovany u Brna
Röhrenberg: Žlíbky, p. of Horní Vltavice*
Röhrenbergerhütte: Samoty, now Horní Vltavice*
Röhrsdorf:
Liščí, p. of Lipová (Děčín District)
Svor
Rohow: Rohov (Opava District)
Roiden: Rojov, now Rožmitál na Šumavě*
Roisching: Rojšín, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Roisko (Roysko): Rajsko, p. of Dlouhá Ves (Klatovy District)
Rojau:
Rájov, p. of Mnichov (Cheb District)
Rájov, p. of Zlatá Koruna
Roketnitz: Rokytnice u Přerova
Rokitnitz in Adlergebirge: Rokytnice v Orlických horách
Rokitzan (Rokytzan): Rokycany
Rolessengrün: Návrší, p. of Tuřany (Cheb District)
Rom: Kladky
Römerstadt: Rýmařov
Rommersreuth: Skalka, p. of Hazlov
Rongstock: Roztoky, p. of Povrly
Ronow an der Doubrawa (Ronau): Ronov nad Doubravou
Ronsperg: Poběžovice
Roppitz: Ropice
Rosawitz: Děčín V-Rozbělesy
Roschitz: Rosice, p. of Cerekvička-Rosice
Roschnow: Rožnov (Náchod District)
Roschowitz: Radošovice (České Budějovice District)
Roschtin: Roštín
Rosenau: Rožnov, p. of Český Rudolec
Rosenau unter dem Radhoscht: Rožnov pod Radhoštěm
Rosenberg: Rožmberk nad Vltavou
Rosendorf: Růžová
Rosenhain: Rožany, p. of Šluknov
Rosenhügel: Růžový Vrch, now Přední Výtoň*
Rosenthal:
Rožmitál, p. of Broumov
Rožmitál, p. of Zlaté Hory
Rožmitál pod Třemšínem
Růžodol, p. of Litvínov
Liberec XI-Růžodol I
Vrchoslav, p. of Krupka
Rosenthal im Böhmerwald: Rožmitál na Šumavě
Rosinkau: Nový Hrozenkov
Rositz: Rosice (Chrudim District)
Roßbach: Hranice (Cheb District)
Roßboden: Rozpoutí, p. of Kaplice
Rossenreuth: Mýtinka, p. of Vojtanov
Rosshaupt: Rozvadov
Rössin: Řešín, p. of Bezdružice
Rossitz: Rosice
Roßmeisl: Horní Rozmyšl, p. of Dolní Nivy
Roßnitz: Rosnice, p. of Karlovy Vary
Rossochatetz: Rozsochatec
Rossrein (Roßrain): Rozhraní
Roßwald: Slezské Rudoltice
Rosternitz: Rostěnice, p. of Rostěnice-Zvonovice
Rosternitz-Swonowitz: Rostěnice-Zvonovice
Rostok:
Roztoky (Prague-West District)
Roztoky (Rakovník District)
Roztoky, p. of Šestajovice (Náchod District)
Roztoky u Jilemnice
Roztoky u Semil
Roteneck: Červená, p. of Letohrad
Rothau: Rotava
Rothaujezd: Červený Újezd, p. of Hrobčice
Rothenbaum: Červené Dřevo, now Chudenín
Rothenburg: Červený Hrádek
Rothengrund: Červený Důl, p. of Uhelná
Rothenhaus: Červený Hrádek, p. of Jirkov
Rothenhof: Červený Dvůr, p. of Chvalšiny
Rothenkreuz: Červený Kříž, p. of Jihlava
Roth Janowitz: Červené Janovice
Rothkosteletz: Červený Kostelec
Roth Lhotta: Červená Lhota
Rothmühl: Radiměř
Rothrecitz (Roth Retschitz): Červená Řečice
Rothsaifen: Červená, p. of Kašperské Hory
Rotkirchen: Líbeznice
Rotschau: Ročov
Rottigl: Rokytná, p. of Moravský Krumlov
Roubovice: Hroubovice
Rowetschin: Rovečné
Rowensko bei Turnau: Rovensko pod Troskami
Rowenz: Rovensko (Šumperk District)
Röwersdorf: Třemešná
Rownatzschow: Rovnáčov, p. of Studenec (Semily District)
Roy: Ráj, p. of Karviná
Rozdalowitz: Rožďalovice
Ruben: Kladenské Rovné, p. of Kájov
Ruckendorf: Hrudkov, p. of Vyšší Brod
Rudelsdorf:
Rudolice, p. of Most
Rudolice v Horách, p. of Hora Svaté Kateřiny
Rudoltice
Rudoltice, p. of Sobotín
Rudelzau: Rudoltovice, now Libavá MTA*
Ruden: Roudné
Rudig: Vroutek
Rudikau: Rudíkov
Ruditzgrün: Rudolec, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Rudolfstadt: Rudolfov
Rudolfsthal: Liberec XXI-Rudolfov
Rückersdorf: Dolní Řasnice
Rumburg: Rumburk
Ruppelsgrün: Ruprechtov, p. of Hroznětín
Ruppersdorf: Liberec XIV-Ruprechtice
Ruprecht: Ruprechtov
Rzeschohlau: Hřešihlavy, p. of Kladruby (Rokycany District)
Rzikowitz (Rikowitz): Říkovice
Rzimau: Římov (Třebíč District)
S
Saap: Zápy
Saar:
Žďár nad Sázavou
Žďár, now Hradiště MTA*
Saara: Žďár, p. of Velké Chvojno
Saatz: Žatec (Jihlava District)
Saaz: Žatec
Sablat: Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Sablath: Záblatí, p. of Bohumín
Sabnitz: Saběnice, p. of Havraň
Sabor (Saborsch): Záboří (České Budějovice District)
Sabortsch: Záborčí, p. of Malá Skála
Sacherles: Kamenná (České Budějovice District)
Sachradka: Zahrádky (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Sachrob: Záhrobí, p. of Bělčice
Sachsenthal: Sasov, p. of Jihlava
Sadowa: Sadová
Sadschitz: Zaječice, p. of Vrskmaň
Sadska: Sadská
Saduba: Zádub, p. of Olbramov
Sadusch: Mělník
Sahaj: Zahájí
Sahor: Záhořice, p. of Žlutice
Sahorkowitz: Záhorkovice, p. of Mojné
Sahorsch:
Záhoří (Semily District)
Záhoří, p. of Žim
Sahorschan:
Zahořany, p. of Kovářov
Zahořany, p. of Králův Dvůr
Sahrad: Zahrádka, p. of Teplá
Saidschitz: Zaječice, p. of Bečov
Saitz: Zaječí
Sajestetz: Zájezdec
Salbnuß: Dolní Sukolom, p. of Uničov
Salzberg: Bílá Skála, p. of Terešov
Salesel (Salesl):
Dolní Zálezly
Horní Zálezly, p. of Malečov
Zálezly, p. of Skapce
Salisfeld: Salisov, p. of Zlaté Hory
Salluschen: Záluží, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Salmdorf: Salmov, p. of Mikulášovice
Salmthal: Pstruží, p. of Merklín (Karlovy Vary District)
Salnau: Želnava
Saluschan: Zalužany
Salzergut: Nový Svět, p. of Olomouc
Salzweg: Solná Lhota, p. of Vimperk
Samrsk: Zámrsk
Sand Lhota: Písková Lhota (Nymburk District)
Sandau:
Dolní Žandov
Píšť (Opava District)
Žandov
Sandhübel: Písečná (Jeseník District)
Sandl: Písečná, p. of Litvínov
Sangerberg (Songerberg): Prameny
Sankt Anna:
Svatá Anna, p. of Horšovský Týn
Svatá Anna, p. of Oslov
Svatá Anna, p. of Vlčeves
Sankt Georgenthal: Jiřetín pod Jedlovou
Sankt Joachimsthal: Jáchymov
Sankt Johann ob Skrejschow: Svatý Jan
Sankt Johann unter dem Felsen: Svatý Jan pod Skalou
Sankt Katharina:
Svatá Kateřina, p. of Chudenín
Svatá Kateřina, p. of Rozvadov
Sankt Katharinaberg: Hora Svaté Kateřiny
Sankt Magdalena: Svatá Maří
Sankt Niklas: Svatý Mikuláš
Sankt Sebastiansberg: Hora Svatého Šebestiána
Sankt Thomas: Svatý Tomáš, now Přední Výtoň
Sarau (Sarrau): Kyselov, now Vyšší Brod
Sasau (Sazau):
Sázava (Benešov District)
Sázava (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Saschau: Zašová
Sasmuk: Zásmuky
Sassadel: Zásada
Satkau: Sádek, p. of Deštnice
Sattel: Sedlo, p. of Útvina
Sattelberg: Sedlo, now Srní
Satteles: Sedlečko, p. of Šemnice
Saubernitz: Zubrnice
Saubsdorf: Supíkovice
Sauersack: Rolava, now Přebuz*
Sawerschitz: Zavržice, p. of Příbram
Sawersdorf: Závišice
Sazau (Sasau):
Sázava (Benešov District)
Sázava (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Sbiroch: Zbirohy, p. of Koberovy
Sbirow: Zbiroh
Sborau: Zborovy
Sborowitz: Zborovice
Sbosch: Zboží, p. of Habry
Sbraslaus: Zbraslav (Brno-Country District)
Sbraslawitz: Zbraslavice
Schaar: Žďár (Rakovník District)
Schaben: Šabina
Schaboglück: Žabokliky, p. of Nové Sedlo (Louny District)
Schabowres: Žabovřesky (České Budějovice District)
Schachersdorf: Šachotín, p. of Šlapanov
Schadlowitz: Žádlovice, p. of Loštice
Schäferei: Ovčárna, p. of Nová Bystřice
Schaffa: Šafov
Schafhütten: Rozcestí, p. of Rozvadov
Schak: Žáky
Schakwitz: Čejkovice (Znojmo District)
Schallan: Žalany
Schamers: Číměř (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Schanda: Žandov, p. of Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Schankau: Čankov, p. of Karlovy Vary
Schanz: Valy (Cheb District)
Schanzendorf: Valy, p. of Krompach
Schärfenberg: Ostrá Hora, p. of Bohušov
Scharoschitz: Žarošice
Schaßlowitz: Častolovice, p. of Česká Lípa
Schattau: Šatov
Schattawa: Zátoň, p. of Lenora (Prachatice District)
Schatzlar: Žacléř
Schaub: Pšov
Schauflern: Šafléřov, now Malšín*
Schdiar (Zdiar):
Žďár (Blansko District)
Žďár (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Žďár (Mladá Boleslav District)
Žďár (Písek District)
Schebetau: Šebetov
Scheer: Žďárek, p. of Chyše
Schehuschitz: Žehušice
Scheibelsdorf (Scheibeldorf): Okrouhlička
Scheiben:
Šejby, p. of Horní Stropnice
Vyšovatka, p. of Buk (Prachatice District)
Scheibenraditsch: Okrouhlé Hradiště, p. of Konstantinovy Lázně
Scheibenreuth: Okrouhlá (Cheb District)
Scheles: Žihle
Schelesen: Želízy
Scheletz: Želeč, p. of Malá Skála
Schelkowitz bei Bilin: Želkovice
Schellenken: Želénky, p. of Zabrušany
Schelletau: Želetava
Schelsnitz: Přelštice, p. of Kájov
Schemeslitz: Všemyslice
Schemmel: Všemily, p. of Jetřichovice
Schenkenhahn: Tesařov, now Kořenov
Schepankowitz: Štěpánkovice
Scheranowitz: Žeranovice
Scherawitz: Žeravice (Hodonín District)
Scherzdorf: Heltínov, p. of Luboměř
Schestau: Žestov, now Hořice na Šumavě
Scheuereck: Stodůlky, now Strážný*
Schewetin: Ševětín
Schichhof (Schichow): Žichov, p. of Měrunice
Schichowitz: Žichovice
Schidowitz:
Židovice (Jičín District)
Židovice (Litoměřice District)
Schiedel: Šidlov, p. of Zákupy
Schiedowitz: Židovice, p. of Libčeves
Schieferhütte: Břidlová, now Šindelová*
Schiefernau: Šibanov, p. of Poběžovice
Schießelitz: Žiželice (Louny District)
Schießnetitz: Žíznětice, p. of Dešenice
Schießnig: Žizníkov, p. of Česká Lípa
Schichlitz: Žichlice, now Modlany*
Schihobetz: Žihobce
Schild: Bystrá, now Vyšší Brod*
Schillerberg: Radvanovice, now Stožec(e)
Schildberg: Štíty
Schillersdorf: Šilheřovice
Schiltern: Štítary
Schima: Žim
Schimern: Všímary, now Malšín
Schimitz: Brno-Židenice
Schimmelsdorf: Pohořílky, p. of Fulnek
Schimsdorf: Šimonovice
Schindelhöf: Šindlovy Dvory, p. of Litvínovice
Schindlau: Šindlov, p. of Borová Lada
Schindlwald: Šindelová
Schinkau: Žinkovy
Schippen: Šípy
Schiretz (Ziretz): Žírec, p. of Zdíkov
Schirmdorf: Semanín
Schirnik: Žernovník, p. of Bezvěrov
Schlackenwerth (Schlakenwerth): Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Schlackern: Slavkovice, now Černá v Pošumaví*
Schlada: Slatina, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Schlag am Rossberg: Čižkrajice pod Chobolkou, now Vyšší Brod*
Schlagl: Šavlova Lhota, now Boletice MTA*
Schlaggenwald: Horní Slavkov
Schlakau: Slavkov (Opava District)
Schlan (Salzberg): Slaný
Schlapanitz (Schlappanitz): Šlapanice
Schlappenz: Šlapanov
Schlatten: Slatina (Nový Jičín District)
Schlausewitz: Služovice
Schleb: Žleby
Schlesien: Slezsko
Schlesisch Kotzendorf: Slezský Kočov, p. of Moravskoslezský Kočov
Schlesisch Ostrau: Slezská Ostrava, p. of Ostrava
Schlesisch Hartau: Slezská Harta, p. of Leskovec nad Moravicí
Schlief: Zliv, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Schlock: Slavkov, p. of Kozlov (Olomouc District)
Schlögelsdorf: Šléglov
Schlösschen: Zámeček
Schlossbösig: Bezděz
Schlösselbach: Kořenný, p. of Strážný
Schluckenau: Šluknov
Schlumnitz: Slubice, p. of Bohdalovice
Schlüsselburg: Lnáře
Schmalzgruben: Nemaničky, p. of Nemanice
Schmeil: Smilov, now Libavá MTA*
Schmidles: Smilov, p. of Toužim
Schmiedeberg: Kovářská
Schmiedhäuser: Kovářov, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Schmieding: Kovářovice, now Boletice MTA*
Schmiedsau: Kovářov, p. of Potštát
Schmiedschlag: Kovářov, p. of Frymburk
Schmolau: Smolov, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Schmole: Zvole (Šumperk District)
Schnauhübel: Sněžná, p. of Krásná Lípa
Schneckendorf: Hlemýždí, p. of Brniště
Schneeberg: Sněžník, p. of Jílové
Schneekoppe: Sněžka (mountain)
Schneppendorf: Sluková, p. of Valkeřice
Schneiderschlag: Krejčovice, now Volary
Schneidetschlag: Veselí, now Boletice MTA*
Schneidmühl: Pila (Karlovy Vary District)
Schnobolin: Slavonín, p. of Olomouc
Schöbersdorf: Šebanov, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Schöbritz: Všebořice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Schobrowitz: Všeborovice, p. of Dalovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Schöllschitz: Želešice
Schömern: Všeměry, p. of Přídolí
Schömersdorf: Všeměřice, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Schömitz: Šemnice
Schönau:
Činov, p. of Doupovské Hradiště
Krásensko
Loučky, p. of Verneřice
Pěkná, p. of Nová Pec
Šanov, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Šenov u Nového Jičína
Sněžná, p. of Kraslice
Šonov
Schönbach: Luby (Cheb District)
Schönbach:
(bei Asch): Krásná (Cheb District)
Meziboří
Zdislava (Liberec District)
Schönberg: Krásná Hora
Schönborn:
Děčín XXIV-Krásný Studenec
Liberec XXXI-Krásná Studánka
Stráž u České Lípy, p. of Stružnice
Studánka, p. of Varnsdorf
Schönbrunn:
Dolní Studénky
Jedlová
Studánka
Svinov, p. of Ostrava
Schönbüchel: Krásný Buk, p. of Krásná Lípa
Schönfeld:
Krásná Pole, now Loučovice*
Krásné Pole, p. of Chřibská
Krásné Pole, p. of Ostrava
Krásno (Sokolov District)
Schönfelden: Osí, now Boletice MTA*
Schönficht: Smrkovec, now Březová (Sokolov District)*
Schönhengst: Hřebeč, p. of Koclířov
Schönhof:
Krásný Dvůr
Šenov
Schönichel: Šunychl, p. of Bohumín
Schönlind: Krásná Lípa, p. of Šindelová
Schönlinde: Krásná Lípa
Schöninger (mountain): Kleť
Schönpriesen: Krásné Březno, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Schönstein: Dolní Životice
Schönthal:
Krásné, p. of Tři Sekery
Krásné Údolí
Schönwald:
Krásný Les (Karlovy Vary District)
Krásný Les (Liberec District)
Krásný Les, p. of Petrovice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Lesná (Tachov District)
Podlesí, now Bartošovice v Orlických horách
Podlesí, p. of Budišov nad Budišovkou
Strážná
Šumná
Šumvald
Schönwehr: Krásný Jez, p. of Bečov nad Teplou
Schönwerth: Krásná, p. of Kraslice
Schönwiese: Krásné Loučky, p. of Krnov
Schoschuwka: Šošůvka
Schossendorf: Radeč, p. of Žandov
Schossenreith: Částkov (Tachov District)
Schößl: Všestudy
Schreckenstein: Střekov, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Schreibendorf: Písařov
Schreiberseifen: Skrbovice, p. of Široká Niva
Schreibersdorf: Hněvošice
Schreinetschlag: Skříněřov, p. of Zbytiny
Schrikowitz: Křepkovice, p. of Teplá
Schrittenz: Střítež (Jihlava District)
Schröbersdorf: Radešov, p. of Rejštejn
Schröffelsdorf: Nová Dědina, p. of Uničov
Schukatschen: Šukačka, now Čachrov
Schumbarg: Šumbark, p. of Havířov
Schumberg: Žumberk
Schumburg: Krásná, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Schumburg an der Desse: Šumburk nad Desnou, p. of Tanvald
Schumitz: Šumice (Uherské Hradište District)
Schüppen: Šípy
Schurz: Žireč, p. of Dvůr Králové nad Labem
Schusitz: Žehušice
Schüttenhofen: Sušice
Schüttenitz: Žitenice
Schüttwa: Šitboř, p. of Poběžovice
Schützendorf: Slavoňov, p. of Lukavice (Šumperk District)
Schutzengel: Anděl Strážce, p. of Frýdštejn
Schwaben: Šváby, p. of Zahrádky (Česká Lípa District)
Schwabenitz: Švábenice
Schwabitz: Svébořice, p. of Ralsko
Schwaden: Svádov, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Schwaderbach: Bublava
Schwadowitz, Klein-Schwadowitz: Malé Svatoňovice
Schwalben: Vlastějov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Schwanenberg: Labutice, p. of Suchdol (Prostějov District)
Schwanenbrückl: Mostek, p. of Rybník (Domažlice District)*
Schwansdorf: Svatoňovice
Schwarzbuda: Černé Budy
Schwarzbach: Černá v Pošumaví
Schwarzenbach:
Černava
Černá, p. of Kraslice
Schwarzenberg: Černá Hora (Blansko District)
Schwarzenthal: Černý Důl
Schwarzhaid: Černá Lada, p. of Borová Lada
Schwarzkirchen: Ostrovačice
Schwarzkosteletz: Kostelec nad Černými lesy
Schwarzpfütze (Schwarze Pfütze): Jítrava, p. of Rynoltice
Schwarzthal: Černé Údolí, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Schwarzwasser:
Černá Voda
Černá Voda, now Orlické Záhoří
Schwaz: Světec
Schweine: Janoslavice, p. of Rohle
Schweinetschlag: Sviňovice, p. of Zbytiny
Schweinitz:
Sviny (Tábor District)
Trhové Sviny
Schweinschädel: Svinišťany, p. of Dolany (Náchod District)
Schweissing: Svojšín
Schwetz: Bedřichův Světec, p. of Bělušice (Most District)
Schwiebgrub: Svíba, now Boletice MTA*
Schwihau: Švihov (Klatovy District)
Schwinau: Svinov, p. of Útvina
Schwillbogen: Svébohov
Schwindschitz: Svinčice, p. of Lužice (Most District)
Schwitz: Světec, p. of Bezvěrov
Sdaslaw: Zdeslav
Sdechowitz: Zdechovice (Pardubice District)
Sdenitz: Zdenice, p. of Nebahovy
Sdeslaw: Zdeslav
Sdounek: Zdounky
Sduchowitz: Zduchovice
Sebastiansberg: Hora Svatého Šebestiána
Sebenbach: Chvoječná, p. of Cheb
Sebranitz:
Sebranice (Blansko District)
Sebranice (Svitavy District)
Sebrowitz: Brno-Žabovřesky
Sebusein: Sebuzín, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Seckerberg: Horky, now Srní*
Sedletz:
Sedlec (Litoměřice District)
Sedlec (Mladá Boleslav District)
Sedlec (Plzeň-North District)
Sedlec (Prague-East District)
Sedlec (Třebíč District)
Sedlec, p. of Kutná Hora
Sedlec, p. of Sedlec-Prčice
Sedlec, p. of Vraclav
Sedlitz:
Sedlice (Strakonice District)
Sedlice, p. of Korozluky
Sedlice, p. of Přídolí
Sedlmin: Sedlmín, now Prachatice*
Sedlnitz: Sedlnice
Sedlowitz: Sedlejovice, p. of Sychrov (Liberec District)
Seeberg: Ostroh, p. of Poustka
Seehaid: Svinná Lada, p. of Borová Lada
Seelau:
Želina, p. of Rokle
Želiv
Seelenz: Ždírec (Jihlava District)
Seelowitz: Židlochovice
Seesitz: Žežice, p. of Chuderov
Seestadtl: Ervěnice, now Most*
Seewiesen: Javorná, p. of Čachrov
Segen Gottes: Zastávka
Sehrlenz: Ždírec (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Sehuschitz: Žehušice
Seibelsdorf: Žipotín, p. of Gruna
Seichenreuth: Táborská, p. of Hazlov
Seidenschwanz: Vrkoslavice, p. of Jablonec nad Nisou
Seifen: Ryžovna, p. of Boží Dar
Seifenbach: Ryžoviště, p. of Harrachov
Seifersdorf: Zátor
Seitendorf:
Hladké Životice
Horní Životice
Životice u Nového Jičína
Selcan (Seltschan): Sedlčany
Selletitz:
Seletice, p. of Postoloprty
Želetice (Znojmo District)
Sellnitz: Želenice (Most District)
Selsen: Želivsko
Seltsch: Želeč, p. of Měcholupy (Louny District)
Selz:
(Selze): Sedlec (České Budějovice District)
Sedlec, p. of Křešice
Prague-Sedlec
Semenkowitz: Seménkovice, p. of Postoloprty
Semeschitz: Semošice, p. of Horšovský Týn
Semil: Semily
Semitz: Semice
Semlowitz: Semněvice
Semtisch: Semtěš, p. of Pšov
Senftenberg: Žamberk
Senftleben: Ženklava
Senomat: Senomaty
Senoschat: Senožaty, p. of Bechyně
Sensemitz: Sezemice, p. of Rtyně nad Bílinou
Serbitz: Srbice (Teplice District)
Serles: Záhoří, p. of Verušičky
Serowitz (Serownitz): Žirovnice
Sestronowitz: Sestroňovice, p. of Frýdštejn
Setsch: Seč
Settenz: Řetenice, p. of Teplice
Setzdorf: Vápenná
Sezemitz (Sesemitz):
Sezemice (Mladá Boleslav District)
Sezemice (Pardubice District)
Sichelbach: Blato, p. of Nová Bystřice
Sicheritz: Čichořice, p. of Chyše
Sichlau: Čichalov
Sichrow: Sychrov (Liberec District)
Siebenhäuser:
Sedm Chalup, p. of Brloh (Český Krumlov District)
Sedmidomí, now Velké Svatoňovice
Sedmidomí, now Zbytiny
Siebenhöfen: Sedm Dvorů, p. of Moravský Beroun
Siebentann: Simtany, p. of Pohled (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Siebitz:
Třebovice, now Boletice MTA*
Třebovice, p. of Ktiš
Siegertsau: Zigartice, now Libavá MTA*
Siehdichfür: Hleďsebe, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Siertsch: Ždírec (Česká Lípa District)
Siertschgrund: Ždírecký Důl, p. of Ždírec (Česká Lípa District)
Silberbach: Stříbrná
Silberberg:
Orlovice, p. of Pocinovice
Stříbrné Hory, p. of Nalžovské Hory
Stříbrné Hutě, now Pohorská Ves*
Silbersgrün: Háj, p. of Jindřichovice (Sokolov District)
Silberskalitz: Stříbrná Skalice
Siluwka: Silůvky
Simmensdorf: Šimanov
Simmersdorf: Smrčná
Sinzendorf: Velká Ves, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Sirb: Srby (Domažlice District)
Sirmitz: Žirovice, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Sirnin: Srnín
Sittmesgrün: Mezirolí, p. of Nová Role
Sittna: Sytno
Sitzgras: Cizkrajov
Skirschina: Skršín
Skocitz: Skočice
Skretschon: Skřečoň, p. of Bohumín
Skrezipp (Skripp): Skřipov
Skridla: Skřidla, p. of Velešín
Skrischow: Skrýšov, p. of Polná
Skrochowitz: Skrochovice, p. of Brumovice (Opava District)
Skuchrow an der Alba: Skuhrov nad Bělou
Skupitz: Skupice, p. of Postoloprty
Skupsch: Skupeč, p. of Pernarec
Skutsch (Skuc): Skuteč
Skworetz: Škvorec
Slabetz: Slabce
Slabisch: Slavošov, p. of Povrly
Slap: Slapy, p. of Frýdštejn
Slatinan: Slatiňany
Slatnik (Zlatnik): Zlatníky, p. of Opava
Slaup: Sloup (Blansko District)
Slawathen: Slavětín, p. of Písečné (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Slawietin:
Slavětín (Louny District)
Slavětín (Olomouc District)
(an der Mettau): Slavětín nad Metují
Slawitsch: Hranice VII-Slavíč
Slawitschin: Slavičín
Slawoschowitz: Slavošovice, p. of Bolešiny
Slibowitz: Slibovice, p. of Běrunice
Sliw: Zliv
Slizan: Slížany, p. of Morkovice-Slížany
Slonin: Zlonín
Slonitz: Zlonice
Sloupnitz: Sloupnice
Sluschowitz: Slušovice
Smerdow: Sázavka
Smerhau: Smrhov, p. of Soběnov
Smerschowitz: Smržovice, p. of Kdyně
Smetschno (Smeczno, Smeczna): Smečno
Smidar: Smidary
Smilau: Smilov, p. of Štoky
Smiler Berg: Smilovy Hory
Smilkau: Smilkov
Smiritz (Smirzitz, Smirschitz): Smiřice
Smolkau: Smolkov, p. of Háj ve Slezsku
Smrdov: Sázavka
Smrschitz: Smržice
Sniehow: Sněhov, p. of Malá Skála
Sobeslau (Sobieslau): Soběslav
Sobiechleb: Soběchleby
Sobiesak: Soběsuky, p. of Chbany
Sobieschitz: Soběšice
Sobietitz:
Sobětice, p. of Klatovy
Sobětice, p. of Žimutice
Sobochleben: Soběchleby, p. of Krupka
Soborten: Sobědruhy, p. of Teplice
Sobrusan: Zabrušany
Socherl: Suchohrdly u Miroslavi
Sodau: Sadov
Söhle: Žilina, p. of Nový Jičín
Sohors: Žár
Sohorz: Žďár, p. of Kaplice
Sokolnitz: Sokolnice
Sollan: Solany, p. of Děčany
Solletin: Saladín, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Solislau: Sulislav
Sollmus: Žalmanov, p. of Stružná
Sollowitz: Salavice, p. of Třešť
Solnitz: Solnice
Sonnberg:
Slunečná, p. of Želnava
Žumberk, p. of Žár
Sonnenberg: Výsluní
Sophienhain: Žofín, p. of Horní Podluží
Sophienthal: Černá Řeka, p. of Klenčí pod Čerchovem
Sorghof: Lučina, now Milíře*
Sörgsdorf: Uhelná
Sosen: Zásada u Kadaně, p. of Kadaň
Soutitz: Soutice
Spachendorf: Leskovec nad Moravicí
Spansdorf: Lipová, p. of Chuderov
Springenberg: Pomezí, p. of Všeruby (Domažlice District)
Sepekau: Sepekov
Speierling: Skviřín, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Spieglitz: Nová Seninka, p. of Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Spiels: Splž, p. of Strážov (Klatovy District)
Spillendorf: Oborná
Spilsow: Splzov, p. of Železný Brod
Spindlermühle (Spindelmühle): Špindlerův Mlýn
Spitinau: Spytihněv (Zlín District)
Spittelgrund: Dolní Sedlo, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Spittengrün: Nivy, p. of Děpoltovice
Spitzberg:
Chýšky, p. of Chyše
Špičák, p. of Železná Ruda
Spitzenberg: Hory, p. of Horní Planá
Spomischl: Spomyšl
Sponau: Spálov
Sporitz: Spořice
Spornhau: Ostružná
Srutsch an der Sasau: Zruč nad Sázavou
Staab: Stod (Plzeň-South District)
Stablowitz: Štáblovice
Stabnitz: Stebnice, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Stachau: Stachy
Stachenwald: Stachovice, p. of Fulnek
Stachl: Stachov, p. of Blšany
Stachlowitz: Štachlovice, now Vidnava
Staditz: Stadice, p. of Řehlovice
Stadl (Stadtl): Stodola, now Františkovy Lázně
Stadlern: Stádla, p. of Prachatice
Stadln (Stadeln): Stodůlky, now Prášily*
Stadthöfen: Štoutov, p. of Čichalov
Städtische Oed: Městská Lhotka, p. of Prachatice
Stadt Liebau: Město Libavá
Stahletz (Stachletz): Stádlec
Stallek: Stálky
Stangendorf: Vendolí
Stankau:
Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Staňkov (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Stankowitz:
Staňkovice (Kutná Hora District)
Staňkovice (Litoměřice District)
Staňkovice (Louny District)
Stannern: Stonařov
Stanow: Stanový, p. of Zlatá Olešnice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Stanowitz: Stanovice, p. of Mariánské Lázně
Stänzelsdorf: Stanislavice, p. of Český Těšín
Staritsch (Starzitz): Staříč
Starkenbach: Jilemnice
Starkstadt: Stárkov
Starlitz: Starý Láz, p. of Nýrsko
Startsch: Stařeč
Starosedl: Starosedly, now Žalany
Starz: Starec, p. of Kdyně
Staudenz: Studenec, p. of Trutnov
Stauding: Studénka
Stechowitz: Štěchovice
Stecken: Štoky
Stekna (Steken): Štěkeň
Stedra: Štědrá
Stein:
Kámen, p. of Kraslice
Skalka, p. of Cheb
Stein im Böhmerwald: Polná na Šumavě
Steinau: Stonava
Stein Aujezd (Stein Augezd): Kamenný Újezd, p. of Nýřany
Steinbach:
Kamenice, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Květoňov, p. of Kaplice
Steindorf: Hubenov
Steine: Kamenná (Šumperk District)
Steingrub: Lomnička, p. of Plesná
Steingrün: Výhledy, p. of Hazlov
Steinhof: Kamenný Dvůr, p. of Kynšperk nad Ohří
Steinhübel: Kamenná Horka, p. of Krásná Lípa
Steinige Höhe: Kamenáč
Steinitz: Ždánice (Hodonín District)
Steinitz: Uherský Ostroh
Steinkirchen: Kamenný Újezd (České Budějovice District)
Steinköpfl: Kamenná Hlava, now Stožec*
Stein Lhota: Kamenná Lhota
Steinmetz: Stavenice
Steinpöhl: Kamenná, p. of Krásná (Cheb District)
Steinschönau (Stein-Schönau): Kamenický Šenov
Steinsdorf:
Kámen (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Kamenec, p. of Jílové
Steinüberfuhr: Kamenný Přívoz
Steken (Stekna, Stiekna): Štěkeň
Stelzengrün: Stará Chodovská, p. of Chodov (Sokolov District)
Stengles: Kamenec, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Stepanitz: Štěpanice, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Stepanowitz: Štěpánovice (České Budějovice District)
Stephanau (Stefanau):
Horní Štěpánov
Štěpánov
Stephansruh: Příchovice, p. of Kořenov
Sterkowitz: Strkovice, p. of Postoloprty
Stern: Hvězda, now Loučovice*
Sternberg:
Český Šternberk
Šternberk
Stetkowitz: Štětkovice
Stettin: Štítina
Stezer (Stößer): Stěžery
Stiahlau: Šťáhlavy
Stiebenreith: Ctiboř (Tachov District)
Stiebnig: Jistebník
Stiebnitz: Zdobnice
Stiebrowitz: Stěbořice
Stiegesdorf: Zdíky, p. of Bujanov
Stieks: Štěkře, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Stienowitz: Štěnovice
Stiepanau: Štěpánov nad Svratkou
Stiepanow: Štěpánov, p. of Lukov (Teplice District)
Stillfried: Víska, p. of Dětřichov (Svitavy District)
Stimmersdorf: Mezná, p. of Hřensko
Stittna: Štítná nad Vláří, p. of Štítná nad Vláří-Popov
Stipoklas: Štipoklasy
Stipp (Stiep): Štípa, p. of Zlín
Stirchlep: Krchleby, p. of Staňkov (Domažlice District)
Stitkau: Štítkov, p. of Svatá Maří
Stöben: Stebno
Stockau: Štokov, p. of Chodský Újezd
Stockau: Pivoň, p. of Mnichov (Domažlice District)
Stöcken: Štoky
Stögenwald: Pestřice, now Horní Planá*
Stokern: Plískov, now Lipno nad Vltavou
Stömnitz: Jistebník, now Rožmitál na Šumavě
Stojanowitz: Stojanovice, p. of Velhartice
Stolzenhain (Stolzenhann): Háj, p. of Loučná pod Klínovcem
Stolzenhan: Pyšná, p. of Vysoká Pec (Chomutov District)
Stoschitz: Stožice
Strachowitz: Strachovice, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Straden: Stradov, p. of Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Strahl: Střelná, p. of Košťany
Strahl Hoschtitz: Střelské Hoštice
Strahof: Strahov, p. of Horní Kozolupy
Straka: Straky, p. of Zabrušany
Strakonitz: Strakonice
Stramberg: Štramberk
Strandorf: Strahovice
Stranik: Straník, p. of Nový Jičín
Strany (Stran): Strání
Straschitz: Strašice
Straschkau: Strážek
Straschkowitz: Strážkovice, p. of Malé Svatoňovice
Straßenau: Benešov, p. of Broumov
Straßnitz: Strážnice
Straupitz: Stroupeč, p. of Žiželice (Louny District)
Straußnitz: Stružnice
Strazowitz (Straschowitz):
Strážovice
Strážovice, p. of Křečovice
Strážovice, p. of Mirotice
Strážovice, p. of Pačejov
Strechow (an der Sasau): Střechov nad Sázavou, p. of Trhový Štěpánov
Stredokluk: Středokluky
Streitseifen: Podlesí, now Potůčky
Strelitz: Střelice, p. of Uničov
Stremplowitz: Štemplovec, p. of Holasovice
Stresmir (Strezmier): Střezimíř
Strewelna: Střevelná, p. of Železný Brod
Strickerhäuser: Mýtiny, p. of Harrachov
Strietesch: Střítež nad Bečvou
Strilek (Strzilek): Střílky
Strisowitz: Střížovice, p. of Chlumec (Ústí nad Labem District)
Striter (Stritesch): Střítež (Pelhřimov District)
Stritschitz: Strýčice
Strobnitz: Horní Stropnice
Strodau: Stradov, p. of Omlenice
Stropnitz: Dolní Stropnice, p. of Římov (České Budějovice District)
Strokele: Strakov
Strunkowitz (an der Flanitz): Strunkovice nad Blanicí
Strups: Srubec
Strupschein: Strupšín, p. of Brníčko
Strutz: Troubsko
Strzebowitz: Třebovice, p. of Ostrava
Stubau: Dubová, p. of Přídolí
Stuben: Hůrka, p. of Horní Planá
Stubenbach: Prášily
Stubendorf: Studnice, now Osoblaha
Stubenseifen: Stříbrnice, p. of Staré Město (Šumperk District)
Studein: Studená (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Studenetz: Studenec (Semily District)
Studinke: Horní Studénky
Studnitz:
Studnice (Chrudim District)
Studnice (Náchod District)
Studnice (Třebíč District)
Studnice (Vyškov District)
Stüblern: Posudov, now Frymburk
Stübling: Žibřidov, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Studene: Studené
Stupna: Stupná, p. of Křemže
Stürbitz: Štrbice, p. of Světec
Subschitz: Zubčice
Subschitzer Mehlhüttel: Zubčická Lhotka, p. of Zubčice
Suchenthal:
Suchdol, p. of Bujanov
Suchdol nad Lužnicí
Suchey:
Suchá, p. of Stebno
Suché, p. of Modlany
Sucholasetz: Suché Lazce, p. of Opava
Sudomierschitz (Sudomieritz):
Sudoměřice
Sudoměřice u Bechyně
Sudoměřice u Tábora
Sukdol: Prague-Suchdol
Sukohrad: Sukorady, p. of Snědovice
Sulotitz: Suletice, p. of Homole u Panny
Suttom: Sutom, p. of Třebenice (Litoměřice District)
Swatkowitz: Svatkovice
Swetla (Swietla ob der Sasau): Světlá nad Sázavou
Swikowetz: Zvíkovec
Swinietitz: Svinětice, p. of Bavorov
Swinna: Svinná, p. of Čachrov
Swiretitz: Zvěřetice, p. of Babice (Prachatice District)
Swittawka: Svitávka (Blansko District)
Swoboda: Svoboda, p. of Štěpánkovice
Swojanow: Svojanov
Swojschitz: Svojšice (Kolín District)
Swolenowes: Zvoleněves
Swonowitz: Zvonovice, p. of Rostěnice-Zvonovice
Swratka: Svratka (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Swudschitz: Svučice, p. of Mišovice
T
Tabor:
Tábor
Tábor, p. of Velké Heraltice
Tacha: Tachov (Česká Lípa District)
Tachau: Tachov
Tachauer Brand: Milíře
Tachauer Schmelzthal: Tachovská Huť, p. of Tři Sekery
Tachlowitz: Tachlovice
Taikowitz: Tavíkovice
Tajanow:
Tajanov, p. of Klatovy
Tajanov, p. of Kolinec
Tannawa: Ždánov
Tannaweg: Jedlová
Tannendorf (Tannendörfel): Jedlová, p. of Jiřetín pod Jedlovou
Tannwald: Tanvald
Taschendorf: Tošovice, p. of Odry
Taschow: Tašov
Taschwitz:
Horní Tašovice, p. of Stružná
Tašovice, p. of Karlovy Vary
Tassau: Tasov (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Tassowitz: Tasovice (Blansko District)
Taßwitz: Tasovice (Znojmo District)
Tattenitz: Tatenice
Tattern: Tatry, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Doubravice: Tauberwitz, p. of Homole u Panny
Taubnitz: Dubnice, p. of Lichnov (Bruntál District)
Taubrath: Doubrava, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Taus: Domažlice
Tauschim: Lázně Toušeň
Tauschkow: Touškov, p. of Mirovice
Taurau: Tourov, p. of Bavorov
Techlowitz: Těchlovice, p. of Stříbro
Teichhausen: Rybničná, p. of Bochov
Teichstatt: Rybniště
Teinitz an der Sasau: Týnec nad Sázavou
Teinitzl (Teinitzel):
Týnec (Klatovy District)
Týnec, p. of Chotěšov (Plzeň-South District)
Tellnitz: Telnice (Ústí nad Labem District)
Telnitz: Telnice (Brno-Country District)
Teltsch:
Teleč, p. of Bochov
Telč
Temnitz:
Těmice (Hodonín District)
Těmice (Pelhřimov District)
Tepl: Teplá
Tepl Stift: Klášter, p. of Teplá
Teplitz-Schönau (Teplitz): Teplice
Tereschau:
Terešov
Terešov, p. of Hlubočany
Teschau: Těšov, p. of Milíkov (Cheb District)
Teschen: Český Těšín
Teschetitz: Těšetice, p. of Bochov
Teschnitz:
Deštnice
(Tieschnitzl): Těšnice, p. of Švihov (Klatovy District)
Teschwitz: Těšovice (Sokolov District)
Teslaven: Zdeslav
Tetschen (Tetschen-Bodenbach): Děčín
Tetschendorf: Tetčiněves, p. of Úštěk
Teutschenrust: Podbořanský Rohozec
Teutschmannsdorf: Skláře, p. of Hořice na Šumavě
Thaya (river): Dyje
Thein:
Týn nad Bečvou
Týn, p. of Lomnice (Sokolov District)
Týnec, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Theresiendorf: Pohorská Ves
Theresienstadt: Terezín
Theresienthal: Terezín, p. of Petrov nad Desnou
Theusing: Toužim
Theußau: Tisová, p. of Březová (Sokolov District)
Thierbach: Suchá, p. of Nejdek
Thiergarten: Obora (Tachov District)
Tholl: Doly, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Thomasdorf:
Domašov, p. of Bělá pod Pradědem
Tomášov, p. of Mikulášovice
Thomigsdorf: Damníkov
Thonbrunn: Studánka, p. of Hranice (Cheb District)
Thönischen: Týniště, p. of Verušičky
Thröm: Třebom
Thurmplandles: Věžovatá Pláně
Thurn: Tuřany (Cheb District)
Thusing: Toužín, p. of Dačice
Tichau: Tichá
Tichlowitz: Těchlovice (Děčín District)
Tichtiöfen: Dětochov, now Polná na Šumavě*
Tiechobuz: Těchobuz
Tiefenbach:
Desná II, p. of Desná (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Hluboký, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Prague-Hloubětín
Tiefenfeld: Hluboká, p. of Kdyně
Tiefengrund: Hlubočec
Tiepersch: Těpeře, p. of Železný Brod
Tierlitzko: Těrlicko
Tieschan (Tischau): Těšany
Tieschetitz: Těšetice (Olomouc District)
Tieschowitz (Teschowitz): Těšovice (Prachatice District)
Tillendorf: Tylov, p. of Lomnice (Bruntál District)
Tilmitschau: Tlumačov (Domažlice District)
Tinischt: Týniště nad Orlicí
Tirna: Trnová, p. of Tisová (Tachov District)
Tirschnitz: Tršnice, p. of Cheb
Tisch: Ktiš
Tischau: Mstišov, p. of Dubí
Tischlern: Skubice, now Bohdalovice*
Tischnowitz: Tišnov
Tischtin: Tištín
Tissa: Tisová (Tachov District)
Tissa bei Bodenbach: Tisá
Tissau: Tisová, p. of Otročín
Tlumatschau: Tlumačov
Tmain: Tmaň
Tobitschau: Tovačov
Tochowitz: Tochovice
Todlau: Datelov, p. of Dešenice
Todnie: Todně, p. of Trhové Sviny
Tollenstein: Rozhled, p. of Jiřetín pod Jedlovou
Töplei (Tepley, Teplai): Teplá, p. of Třebenice (Litoměřice District)
Töpplitz: Teplice
Tomitschan: Domašín
Tonnberg: Hlinov, p. of Horní Stropnice
Tonnetschlag: Rohanov, p. of Chroboly
Töpeles: Teplička (Karlovy Vary District)
Topieletz: Topělec, p. of Čížová
Topkowitz: Dobkovice
Topolan: Topolany, p. of Olomouc
Totschnik: Točník
Tousitz: Toušice
Tracht: Strachotín
Trasenau: Draženov
Traubek: Troubky
Trautenau: Trutnov
Trautenbach: Babí, p. of Trutnov
Traxelmoos: Slatiny
Trebelowitz (Trzebellowitz): Třebelovice
Trebendorf: Třebeň
Trebine: Třebín, p. of Úštěk
Trebitsch: Třebíč
Trebnitz:
Třebenice (Litoměřice District)
Třebnice, p. of Meclov
Třebnice, p. of Sedlčany
Trebusitz: Třebusice
Tremles: Strmilov
Treskonitz (Trzeskonitz): Třeskonice, p. of Tuchořice
Treublitz: Troubelice
Treunitz: Dřenice, p. of Cheb
Trhonin (Terhonin): Trhonín, p. of Svatá Maří
Trhow Kamenitz: Trhová Kamenice
Triebendorf: Třebařov
Triebitz: Třebovice
Trieblitz (Triblitz, Trziblitz): Třebívlice
Triebsch: Třebušín
Triebischl: Třebíška, p. of Výsluní
Triebschitz: Třebusice, now Most*
Triesch: Třešť
Triesenhof: Střížov, p. of Cheb
Trinka: Dřínek, now Hrobčice*
Trinksaifen: Rudné, p. of Vysoká Pec (Karlovy Vary District)
Tritesch: Střítež (Český Krumlov District)
Trnawka: Trnávka (Nový Jičín District)
Trippischen: Trpěšice, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Tritschmersch: Střeziměřice, p. of Horní Stropnice
Trittschein: Třeština
Trnowan:
Trnovany
Trnovany, p. of Žatec
Trojanowitz: Trojanovice
Trojern: Trojany, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Troppau: Opava
Tropplowitz: Opavice, p. of Město Albrechtice
Troschig: Strážky, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Trossau: Dražov, p. of Stanovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Trpist: Trpísty
Trschitz: Tršice
Trübenwasser: Kalná Voda, now Mladé Buky*
Truß: Ústí, p. of Kočov
Trzemoschna: Třemošná
Trziblitz: Třebívlice
Trzynietz (Trzinietz): Třinec
Tschachrau: Čachrov
Tschachwitz: Čachovice, now Březno (Chomutov District)*
Tschaslau: Čáslav
Tschaslawitz: Čáslavice
Tschastolowitz: Častolovice
Tschastrow: Častrov
Tschausch: Souš, p. of Most
Tschebon: Třebouň, p. of Toužim
Tscheche: Děčín XIX-Čechy
Tschechen: Čechyně, p. of Rousínov
Tschechisch-Teschen: Český Těšín
Tschechtitz: Čechtice
Tscheitsch: Čejč
Tschelakowitz: Čelákovice
Tschelechowitz (in der Hanna): Čelechovice na Hané
Tschenkowitz: Čenkovice
Tschentschitz:
Černčice, p. of Petrohrad
Černčice, p. of Žalany
Tscheraditz: Čeradice
Tschernahora: Černá Hora, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Tschernhausen: Černousy
Tschernitz:
Černice, p. of Horní Jiřetín
Černice, p. of Mojné
Tschernoschin (Czernoschin): Černošín
Tschernoschitz: Černošice
Tschernowier: Černovír, p. of Olomouc
Tschernowitz:
Černovice (Blansko District)
Černovice (Chomutov District)
Černovice (Pelhřimov District)
Tschersing: Čeřeniště, p. of Malečov
Tschertin (Certin): Čertyně, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Tschestitz: Čestice (Strakonice District)
Tschiaschel: Čáslav, p. of Verneřice
Tschichtitz: Čichtice, p. of Bavorov
Tschies: Číhaná, p. of Bochov
Tschiest: Čistá u Horek
Tschihana: Číhání, p. of Chyše
Tschihoscht: Číhošť
Tschim: Čím
Tschimelitz: Cimelice
Tschimischel: Třemešek, p. of Oskava
Tschirm: Čermná ve Slezsku
Tschischkowitz:
Čížkovice
Čížkovice 1.díl, p. of Maršovice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Tschisow (Trisau): Třísov, p. of Holubov
Tschitschow: Číčov, p. of Spálené Poříčí
Tschödrich: Štědrákova Lhota, p. of Ruda nad Moravou
Tschöppern: Čepirohy, p. of Most
Tuchorschitz: Tuchořice
Tulleschitz: Tulešice
Tünscht: Týniště, p. of Zubrnice
Tupadl:
Tupadly (Kutná Hora District)
Tupadly (Mělník District)
Tupadly, p. of Klatovy
Tüppelsgrün: Děpoltovice
Turas: Brno-Tuřany
Turban: Borovany, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Turkowitz: Staré Dobrkovice, p. of Kájov
Türmaul: Drmaly, p. of Vysoká Pec (Chomutov District)
Türmitz: Trmice
Turn: Trnovany, p. of Teplice
Türnau: Městečko Trnávka
Turnau: Turnov
Turnitz: Tvrdonice
Tusch: Suš, p. of Bohdalovice
Tuschkau Stadt: Město Touškov
Tuschmitz: Tušimice, p. of Kadaň
Tusset: Stožec
Tussetschlag: Břevniště, now Boletice MTA*
Tutschap (Tuczap):
Tučapy (Tábor District)
Tučapy (Uherské Hradiště District)
Tučapy (Vyškov District)
Tutz: Dubec, p. of Třemešné
Tweras: Svéraz, p. of Bohdalovice
Twrdina: Tvrdín, p. of Hrobčice
Tyrn: Děrné, p. of Fulnek
Tyssa: Tisá
Tzieschkowitz: Těškovice
U
Udritsch: Údrč, p. of Bochov
Überdörfel: Opatovec
Überschar: Přebytek, now Nové Město pod Smrkem
Uhersko: Uhersko
Uhligstal: Uhlíkov, now Želnava*
Uhritz (Uhrzitz): Uhřice (Hodonín District)
Uitwa (Uittwa): Útvina
Ujest: Újezd pod Přimdou, p. of Přimda
Ulbersdorf: Albrechtice, now Horní Jiřetín*
Ullersdorf: Oldřichov, p. of Jeníkov (Teplice District)
Ullersgrün: Oldřiš, p. of Merklín (Karlovy Vary District)
Ullershof: Oldřichov (Tábor District)
Ullersloh: Oldřichov, p. of Nejdek
Ullersreith: Oldřichov, p. of Tachov
Ullitz: Úlice
Ullrichsthal: Nový Oldřichov
Ulmbach: Jilmová, now Hora Svatého Šebestiána*
Ungarisch Brod: Uherský Brod
Ungarisch Hradisch: Uherské Hradiště
Ungarisch Ostra: Uherský Ostroh
Ungarschitz: Uherčice (Znojmo District)
Ungersdorf: Hranice IX-Uhřínov
Unhoscht: Unhošť
Unola (Unolla): Únehle
Unterberg: Střelcův Dvůr, now Omlenice*
Unter Borry: Dolní Bory, p. of Bory (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Unter Brand: Dolní Žďár, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Unter Breitenstein: Dolní Třebonín
Unter-Brezan: Dolní Břežany
Unter Dreihöfen: Dolní Záhoří, p. of Lubenec
Untergramling: Dolní Kramolín, p. of Chodová Planá
Unterhaid (Unter Haid): Dolní Dvořiště
Unter Hammer: Dolení Hamr, now Velké Hamry
Unterheiming (Unterhaiming): Podolí, now Bohdalovice*
Unterhöfen (Unter Höfen): Dolní Dvorce, p. of Kašperské Hory
Unter Hrachowitz: Dolní Hrachovice
Unter Jamny: Dolní Jamné, p. of Bezvěrov
Unterkörnsalz: Dolejší Krušec, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Unter Kralowitz: Dolní Kralovice
Unter Kraupen: Dolní Krupá (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Unterkunreuth: Hraničná, p. of Pomezí nad Ohří
Unterlangendorf: Dolní Dlouhá Loučka, now Dlouhá Loučka (Olomouc District)
Unterlichtbuchet: Dolní Světlé Hory, now Strážný*
Unterlindau: Dolní Lipina, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Unter Lohma (Unterlohma): Dolní Lomany, p. of Františkovy Lázně
Unter Lomitz: Dolní Lomnice, p. of Doupovské Hradiště
Unterlosau: Dolní Lažany, p. of Lipová (Cheb District)
Unter Lukawitz: Dolní Lukavice
Untermarkschlag: Dolní Hraničná, now Přední Výtoň*
Untermaxdorf (Maxdorf): Dolní Maxov, p. of Josefův Důl (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Untermoldau: Dolní Vltavice, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Unter Neuern: Dolní Nýrsko, now Nýrsko
Unter Neugrün: Dolní Nivy
Unter Niemtsch: Dolní Němčí
Unter Niemtschitz: Dolní Němčice, p. of Dačice
Unterplandles: Dolní Pláně, p. of Věžovatá Pláně
Unterpolaun: Dolní Polubný, now Desná (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Unter Potschernitz (Unter Pocernitz): Prague-Dolní Počernice
Unter Rosinka: Dolní Rožínka
Unter Reichenau: Dolní Rychnov
Unterreichenstein: Rejštejn
Unter Sandau: Dolní Žandov
Unterschlagl: Dolní Drkolná, p. of Vyšší Brod
Unterschneedorf: Dolní Sněžná, now Volary*
Unterschön: Dolní Dvory, p. of Cheb
Unterschönbach: Dolní Luby, p. of Luby (Cheb District)
Unterschönhub: Dolní Přísahov, now Vyšší Brod*
Unterschwarzbrunn: Dolní Černá Studnice, p. of Pěnčín (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Unter Sekerschan (Unter Sekrzan): Dolní Sekyřany, p. of Heřmanova Huť
Untersinetschlag: Dolní Příbrání, now Pohorská Ves*
Untersteindlberg: Dolní Ždánidla, now Prášily*
Unterstögenwald: Pestřice, now Horní Planá*
Unter Tannowitz (Unter Dannowitz): Dolní Dunajovice
Unterteschau: Dolejší Těšov, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Unterthemenau (Unter Themenau): Poštorná, p. of Břeclav
Untervollmau: Dolní Folmava, p. of Česká Kubice
Unterwald: Podlesí, p. of Brněnec
Unter Wernersdorf: Dolní Vernéřovice, now Jívka
Unterwielands: České Velenice
Unter Wisternitz: Dolní Věstonice
Unter Wohlau: Dolní Valov, p. of Bražec
Unter Wuldau: Dolní Vltavice, p. of Černá v Pošumaví
Unterzassau: Dolní Cazov, now Strážný*
Unter Zetno (Unter Cetno): Dolní Cetno, p. of Niměřice
Unterzwinzen: Dolní Svince, p. of Dolní Třebonín
Untschin: Unčín
Urbanau: Urbanov
Uretschlag: Meziřící, p. of Malonty
Urhau: Ořechov (Brno-Country District)
Urowitz: Vnarovy, p. of Vimperk
Ursprung: Počátky, p. of Kraslice
Urtschitz: Určice
Urzinau: Uhřínov
Uschau: Úšava, p. of Staré Sedliště
Uttigsdorf: Útěchov (Svitavy District)
Utzin: Očín, p. of Horní Kozolupy
V
Veitsberg: Prague-Žižkov
Vierzighuben: Lány, p. of Svitavy
Vogelsang:
Lhotka, p. of Tisová (Tachov District)
Podlesí, p. of Kašperské Hory
Vogelseifen: Rudná pod Pradědem
Voigtsgrün: Fojtov, p. of Nejdek
Voigtskrosse: Fojtova Kraš, now Velká Kraš
Voitelsbrunn: Sedlec (Břeclav District)
Voitersreuth: Vojtanov
Voitsdorf:
Bohatice
Fojtovice, p. of Heřmanov (Děčín District)
Fojtovice, p. of Krupka
Vorderglöckelberg: Přední Zvonková, now Horní Planá
Vorder Heuraffl: Přední Výtoň
Vorderstift: Bližší Lhota, p. of Horní Planá
Vorder Zinnwald: Přední Cínovec, now Dubí*
Vöttau: Bítov (Znojmo District)
W
Wadetschlag: Svatonina Lhota, now Frymburk
Wadetstift: Hruštice, now Frymburk*
Wagstadt: Bílovec
Waier: Rybník (Domažlice District)
Waißak: Vysoká (Bruntál District)
Wakowitz: Vadkovice, p. of Chbany
Waldau: Valdov, p. of Jablonné v Podještědí
Walddörfel: Víska pod Lesy, p. of Česká Kamenice
Waldecke: Valdek, p. of Staré Křečany
Waldek: Zálesí, p. of Javorník (Jeseník District)
Waldenburg: Bělá, p. of Bělá pod Pradědem
Waldersgrün: Valtířov, now Nový Kramolín*
Waldetschlag: Valtéřov, p. of Benešov nad Černou
Waldheim:
Nemrlov, now Oskava
Zahájí, now Lesná (Tachov District)*
Waldhof: Zborná, p. of Jihlava
Walditz: Valdice
Waldschnitz: Olešnice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Walk: Valcha, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Wallachisch Bistritz: Valašská Bystřice
Wallachisch Klobouk: Valašské Klobouky
Wallachisch Meseritsch: Valašské Meziříčí
Wallern: Volary
Wallhof: Lesná, now Nový Kostel
Wällisch Birken (Wällischbirken): Vlachovo Březí
Wallisgrün (Wallisdorf): Kůzová, p. of Čistá (Rakovník District)
Wallstein: Valštejn, p. of Město Albrechtice
Walschowitz: Hranice VI-Valšovice
Waltersdorf:
Valteřice, p. of Žandov
Vrchy
Žleb, p. of Hanušovice
Waltersgrün: Valtéřov, p. of Kraslice
Waltirsche: Valtířov, p. of Velké Březno
Waltsch: Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)
Wamberg: Vamberk
Wanow: Vaňov, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Wanowitz: Vanovice
Warnsdorf: Varnsdorf
Warta: Stráž nad Ohří
Wartenberg: Sedmihorky, p. of Karlovice (Semily District)
Wartenberg am Rollberg: Stráž pod Ralskem
Warth: Stráž, p. of Sušice
Warwaschau: Varvažov
Waschagrün: Výškov, p. of Chodová Planá
Wasserhäuseln: Vodná, p. of Bečov nad Teplou
Wassersuppen: Nemanice
Wassertrompeten: Ostromeč, p. of Velký Malahov
Watetitz: Vatětice, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Watislaw: Vlastislav
Watkowitz: Vadkovice, p. of Předotice
Watzelsdorf: Václavov, p. of Zábřeh
Watzgenreuth: Vackovec, p. of Milhostov
Watzkenreuth: Vackov, p. of Plesná
Wawrowitz: Vávrovice, p. of Opava
Webeschan: Bžany (Teplice District)
Weckelsdorf: Teplice nad Metují
Weckersdorf: Křinice
Wedlitz: Vědlice, p. of Úštěk
Wegstädtl: Štětí
Weheditz: Bohatice, p. of Karlovy Vary
Weichseln: Vyšný, p. of Český Krumlov
Weiden:
Pastviny
Vrbka
Weiden überm Walde: Vrbno nad Lesy
Weidenau: Vidnava
Weidmesgrün: Vykmanov, p. of Ostrov (Karlovy Vary District)
Weigelsdorf:
Vajglov, p. of Břidličná
Vikantice
Volanov, p. of Trutnov
Weigsdorf: Višňová (Liberec District)
Weikersdorf: Vikýřovice
Weine: Víno, p. of Slezské Rudoltice
Weingarten: Vinařice, p. of Jirkov
Weipert: Vejprty
Weipersdorf: Výprachtice
Weirowa (Weyrowa): Výrov, p. of Blížejov
Weiskirchen (Weiskirch): Hranice (Přerov District)
Weissbach:
Bílý Potok (Liberec District)
Bílý Potok, p. of Javorník (Jeseník District)
Bílý Potok, p. of Vrbno pod Pradědem
Weißenstein: Bílý Kámen
Weißensulz: Bělá nad Radbuzou
Weißkirchen:
Bílý Kostel nad Nisou
Bílý Kostelec, p. of Úštěk
Weißkirchlitz: Novosedlice
Weissöhlhütten: Bílá Lhota
Weißpodol: Bílé Podolí
Weiss Politschan: Bílé Poličany
Weißstätten: Pasohlávky
Weissthurm: Třebíz
Weiß Tremeschna: Bílá Třemešná
Weisswasser: Bělá pod Bezdězem
Weißwasser:
Bílá Voda
Bílá Voda, p. of Červená Voda (Ústí nad Orlicí District)
Weitentrebetisch: Široké Třebčice, p. of Veliká Ves (Chomutov District)
Wekelsdorf: Teplice nad Metují
Welbine:
Lbín, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Lbín, now Hlinná
Welboth: Velvěty, p. of Rtyně nad Bílinou
Welbuditz: Velebudice, p. of Most
Welchau:
Velichov
Velichov, p. of Žatec
Welchow: Velichovky
Welehrad: Velehrad
Weleschin: Velešín
Welhartitz: Velhartice
Welhenitz: Lhenice, p. of Bžany (Teplice District)
Welhotta:
Lhota, p. of Trutnov
(Welhota an der Elbe): Lhotka nad Labem
Welka: Velká nad Veličkou
Welkan: Lkáň
Welken: Hranice III-Velká
Welleborsch: Veleboř, p. of Klopina
Wellemin (Welemin): Velemín
Wellen (Welim): Velim
Welleschitz (Weleschitz): Velešice, p. of Hoštka
Wellnitz: Velenice (Česká Lípa District)
Welmschloss: Velemyšleves
Welperschitz: Erpužice
Weltrus: Veltrusy
Weltschowitz: Vlčovice, p. of Kopřivnice
Welwarn (Welbern): Velvary
Wemschen: Mšeno
Wendrin: Vendryně
Wenzelsdorf:
Děčín XXII-Václavov
Václavovice, p. of Klimkovice
Wenzlowitz: Václavovice
Wenussen: Bdeněves
Werdenberg: Vítovka, p. of Odry
Werenitz: Zvěřenice, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Werhowina: Vrchovina, p. of Sychrov (Liberec District)
Werlsberg: Vršek, p. of Jáchymov
Wermieritz (Wermeritz): Hřiměždice
Wermsdorf: Vernířovice
Wernersdorf: Jívka
Wernersreuth: Vernéřov, p. of Aš
Wernsdorf:
Verneřice, p. of Hrob
Vernéřov, now Klášterec nad Ohří*
Veřovice
Wernstadt: Verneřice
Werth: Luh nad Svatavou, p. of Josefov (Sokolov District)
Weschekun: Vysočany, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Weschen: Věšťany, p. of Modlany
Weselitschko: Veselíčko (Písek District)
Weselitz: Veselice, p. of Velká Jesenice
Weserau: Bezvěrov, p. of Teplá
Weseritz: Bezdružice
Weshor (Weshorsch): Zhoř (Tachov District)
Wesigau: Bezděkov, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Wessele: Veselka, p. of Vimperk
Wesseli: Veselí, p. of Železný Brod
Wesseli an der Lainsitz: Veselí nad Lužnicí
Wesselitschko: Veselíčko (Přerov District)
Wesseln:
Veselí, p. of Pavlov (Šumperk District)
Veselí, p. of Zákupy
Wessely an der March: Veselí nad Moravou
Wessiedel: Veselí, p. of Odry
Wettern: Větřní
Wetterstein: Třtí, p. of Sychrov (Liberec District)
Wetzlers: Veclov, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Wetzmühl: Vícemily, p. of Svatá Maří
Wetzwalde: Václavice, p. of Hrádek nad Nisou
Wichstadtl: Mladkov
Wickwitz: Vojkovice (Karlovy Vary District)
Wieden: Chudějov, now Žár
Wiederbruck: Vydří Most, p. of Kvilda
Wiedergrün: Podlesí, p. of Světlá Hora
Wieles: Běleň, now Malšín
Wiesch: Věž
Wieschka: Vížka, p. of Planá (Tachov District)
Wiese:
Loučky, p. of Zátor
Louka u Litvínova
(an der Igel): Luka nad Jihlavou
Ves, p. of Černousy
Wiesen: Vižňov, p. of Meziměstí
Wiesenberg: Loučná nad Desnou
Wiesengrund: Dobřany
Wiesenthal: Loučné, p. of Jiříkov
Wiesenthal an der Neiße: Lučany nad Nisou
Wieznitz (Wesenz): Věžnice (Jihlava District)
Wigstadtl: Vítkov
Wihen: Výheň, p. of Netřebice (Český Krumlov District)
Wihlaw: Vlhavy, p. of Sedlec (České Budějovice District)
Wihorschau: Běhařov
Wihorschen (Wihoren): Hlásná Lhota, p. of Záblatí (Prachatice District)
Wiklantitz: Vyklantice
Wildenschwert: Ústí nad Orlicí
Wildgrub: Václavov u Bruntálu
Wildschütz:
Vlčice (Jeseník District)
Vlčice (Trutnov District)
Wildstein: Skalná
Wilhelmshöhe: Jizerka, p. of Kořenov
Wilimowitz: Vilémovice (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Wilken: Vlkaň, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Wilkischau: Vlkošov, p. of Bezvěrov
Wilkowitz: Vlkovice
Willenz (Wilenz):
Bílenec, p. of Petrohrad
Vílanec
Willimowitz: Vilémovice (Blansko District)
Willmersdorf: Věřňovice, p. of Dolní Lutyně
Willomitz: Vilémov (Chomutov District)
Wilsdorf: Děčín XII-Vilsnice
Winar: Prague-Vinoř
Winarsch: Vinaře
Winau:
Štiptoň, p. of Nové Hrady (České Budějovice District)
(Winow): Zbinohy
Windig Jenikau: Větrný Jeníkov
Windisch Kamnitz: Srbská Kamenice
Windschau: Onšov (Znojmo District)
Winitz:
Vinice, p. of Vinaře
Výnězda, p. of Omlenice
Winkelsdorf: Kouty nad Desnou, p. of Loučná nad Desnou
Winney: Vinné, p. of Ploskovice
Winterberg: Vimperk
Winteritz: Vintířov, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Wintersgrün: Vintířov
Wirbitz: Vrbice, p. of Bohumín
Wischau: Vyškov
Wischehor (Wyschehor): Vyšehoří
Wischenau: Višňové (Znojmo District)
Wischkowa: Výškov
Wischkowitz:
Výškovice, p. of Bílovec
Výškovice, p. of Ostrava
Výškovice, p. of Vimperk
Wiska: Víska (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Wissek (Wisek): Vísky (Blansko District)
Wisterschan: Bystřany
Wistersitz: Bystřice, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Wistritz: Bystřice, p. of Dubí
Witkowitz:
Vítkovice (Semily District)
Vítkovice, p. of Lubenec
Witoseß (Wittosses): Bitozeves
Wittanau (Witanow): Vítanov
Wittingau:
Třeboň
Vitíněves, p. of Staré Město pod Landštejnem
Wittingreith: Vítkov, p. of Tachov
Wittkowitz: Vítkovice, p. of Ostrava
Wittowitz: Vítovice, p. of Rousínov
Witzemil: Vícemil
Wladar: Vladořice, p. of Žlutice
Wladislau: Vladislav (Třebíč District)
Wlastowitz: Vlaštovičky, p. of Opava
Wlkosch (Wilkosch): Vlkoš (Přerov District)
Wobern: Obrovice, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Wobora: Obora (Louny District)
Wockendorf: Jelení, now Milotice nad Opavou
Wodalnowitz: Odolenovice, p. of Jenišovice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Wodierad: Voděrady, p. of Frýdštejn
Wodlochowitz: Odlochovice, p. of Jankov (Benešov District)
Wodnian: Vodňany
Wodolau (Wodolow): Odolov, p. of Malé Svatoňovice
Wodolitz: Odolice, p. of Bělušice (Most District)
Wodolka: Odolena Voda
Wogau: Vokov, p. of Třebeň
Wohar (Woharz, Woharsch): Ohaře
Wohnischtan (Wochnischtian, Wohnistan): Ohnišťany
Wohnung: Vojnín, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Wohontsch: Ohníč
Wohrasenitz: Ohrazenice (Semily District)
Woisetschlag: Boršíkov, now Vyšší Brod*
Woiten: Vojtín, now Malšín*
Woitzdorf:
Vojtíškov, p. of Malá Morava
Vojtovice, p. of Vlčice (Jeseník District)
Wojnomiestetz: Vojnův Městec
Wojslawitz: Vojslavice
Woken (bei Hirschberg): Okna (Česká Lípa District)
Wolenitz:
Volenice (Příbram District)
Volenice (Strakonice District)
Wolepschitz: Volevčice (Most District)
Woleschna:
Olešná (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Olešná (Pelhřimov District)
Olešná (Písek District)
Olešná (Rakovník District)
Woleschnitz: Zlatá Olešnice (Jablonec nad Nisou District)
Wolfersdorf:
Olbramov
Volfartice
Wolfirz (Wolfers): Volfířov
Wölfling: Vlčí
Wolframitz: Olbramovice (Znojmo District)
Wolframitzkirchen: Olbramkostel
Wolframs: Kostelec (Jihlava District)
Wolfsberg: Vlčí Hora, p. of Krásná Lípa
Wolfschlag: Vojslavy, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Wolfsdorf:
Vlčnov, p. of Starý Jičín
Vlkovice, p. of Fulnek
Wolfsgrub: Vlčí Jámy, p. of Lenora (Prachatice District)
Wolfshäuser (Wolfsgrub): Vlčí Jámy, now Boletice MTA*
Wolfsthal: Vlčí Důl, p. of Česká Lípa
Wolin: Volyně
Wölking: Dolní Bolíkov, p. of Cizkrajov
Wolledorf: Vlachov, p. of Lukavice (Šumperk District)
Wollein: Měřín
Wolleschna: Olešná (Beroun District)
Wolletschlag: Volovice, p. of Prachatice
Wollmersdorf: Olbramice (Ostrava-City District)
Wollschy: Olší (Jihlava District)
Wölmsdorf: Vilémov (Děčín District)
Wolschan: Olšany (Klatovy District)
Wolta: Voletiny, p. of Trutnov
Wonschow (Wonschau): Onšov (Pelhřimov District)
Wonschowitz: Onšovice, p. of Čkyně
Woporschan (Woporan): Opařany
Woraschne: Dvorečná, now Loučovice
Woratschen: Oráčov
Worka: Borek, p. of Pšov
Wörles: Ostrov, p. of Malšín
Worlik: Orlík nad Vltavou
Worhabschen: Vrhaveč, p. of Kostelec (Tachov District)
Worowitz: Borovice, p. of Horšovský Týn
Woschana: Hvožďany, p. of Úněšov
Woschnitz: Boječnice, p. of Bor (Tachov District)
Wosek
Osek (Písek District)
(Wosseli): Osek (Rokycany District)
Oseky, p. of Prachatice
Wosseletz (Woseletz): Oselce
Wostitz: Vlasatice
Wostratschin: Osvračín
Wostromer (Wostromier): Ostroměř
Wostrow:
(Wostrau): Ostrov (Chrudim District)
Ostrov, p. of Prachatice
Wostrowa: Ostrov u Bezdružic
Wotitz: Votice
Wotsch: Boč, p. of Stráž nad Ohří
Wottawa: Otava (river)
Wottin: Otín (Žďár nad Sázavou District)
Wran (Wrana): Vrané nad Vltavou
Wranna (Wrana): Vraný
Wranow:
Břasy
(Wranowey): Vranové 1. díl and Vranové 2.díl, parts of Malá Skála
Wranowa: Vranov (Tachov District)
Wrasch (Wraz): Vráž (Písek District)
Wrat: Vrát, p. of Koberovy
Wratzow (Wrazow): Vracov
Wrbatek: Vrbátky
Wrbka: Vrbka
Wrbno am Walde: Vrbno nad Lesy
Wrcen (Wrtschin): Vrčeň
Wrchhaben: Vrchovany
Wreschin: Vřesina (Opava District)
Wrschowitz: Vršovice (Opava District)
Wrzessin: Vřesina (Ostrava-City District)
Wschechowitz:
Všechovice (Brno-Country District)
Všechovice (Přerov District)
Wschechrom: Všechromy, p. of Strančice
Wschejan: Všejany
Wschelis: Velké Všelisy
Wscherau: Všeruby (Plzeň-North District)
Wschestar (Wsestar):
Všestary (Hradec Králové District)
Všestary (Prague-East District)
Wschetat: Všetaty (Mělník District)
Wschetul: Všetuly, p. of Holešov
Wsetin: Vsetín
Wteln: Vtelno, p. of Most
Wtelno: Mělnické Vtelno
Wudingrün: Vítkov, p. of Sokolov*
Wühr: Vír
Wullachen: Bolechy, now Vyšší Brod
Wünschendorf: Srbská, p. of Horní Řasnice
Würbenthal: Vrbno pod Pradědem
Wurken: Borek, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Wurretschhöfen: Březí, now Bohdalovice*
Wurz: Dvorec, p. of Chyše
Wurzelsdorf: Kořenov
Wurzmes: Vrskmaň
Wusleben: Bohuslav, now Staré Sedliště*
Wüstenmühl: Pustý Mlýn, p. of Brumovice (Opava District)
Wüstpohlom: Pustá Polom
Wüst Seibersdorf: Pusté Žibřidovice, p. of Jindřichov (Šumperk District)
Wustung: Poustka, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Wüstung: Pustiny, p. of Letohrad
Wuttau: Butov, p. of Stříbro
X
Xaverhof: Xaverov
Z
Zaap: Zápy
Zablatz: Záblatí, p. of Bohumín
Zabrzech: Zábřeh, p. of Ostrava
Zabrzeh: Zábřeh, p. of Dolní Benešov
Zahay: Zahájí
Zahne: Saň, p. of Višňová (Liberec District)
Zahortschitz: Zahorčice, p. of Boršov nad Vltavou
Zahradka:
Zahrádka (Plzeň-North District)
Zahrádka (Třebíč District)
Zahrádka, p. of Čachrov
Zahrádka, p. of Mirkovice
Zahroby: Záhrobí, p. of Bělčice
Zaisa: Čížov, p. of Horní Břečkov
Zakolan: Zákolany
Zaltitz: Žaltice, p. of Mirkovice
Zaluzan: Zalužany
Zamlekau: Zavlekov
Zamrsk: Zámrsk
Zartlesdorf: Rybník, p. of Dolní Dvořiště
Zaschau: Zašová
Zasmuk: Zásmuky
Zastawka: Zastávka
Zattig: Sádek, p. of Velké Heraltice
Zauchtel (Zauchtl, Zauchtenthal): Suchdol nad Odrou
Zauditz: Sudice (Opava District)
Zaunfeld: Plotiště nad Labem, p. of Hradec Králové
Zautig: Soutěsky, p. of Malá Veleň
Zautke: Sudkov
Zawada: Závada, p. of Petrovice u Karviné
Zawada bei Beneschau: Závada (Opava District)
Zbeschau: Zbýšov
Zbirow: Zbiroh
Zborow:
Zborov (Šumperk District)
Zborovy
Zbraslau: Zbraslav (Brno-Country District)
Zdaslaw: Zdeslav, p. of Poleň
Zdechowitz: Zdechovice (Pardubice District)
Zdiaretz: Žďárec
Zdiar (Schdiar):
Žďár (Blansko District)
Žďár (Jindřichův Hradec District)
Žďár (Mladá Boleslav District)
Žďár (Písek District)
Zdib: Zdiby
Zdislawitz: Zdislavice
Zdounek: Zdounky
Zebau: Cebiv
Zeberheisch: Dřevohryzy, p. of Toužim
Zebus: Chcebuz, p. of Štětí
Zech: Údolí, p. of Loket
Zechitz: Stránské, p. of Rýmařov
Zechnitz (Zehnitz): Cehnice
Zechowitz: Zdechovice (Hradec Králové District)
Zeschdorf: Těšíkov, p. of Šternberk
Zeidelweid: Brťov u Černé Hory, p. of Brťov-Jeneč
Zeidler: Brtníky, p. of Staré Křečany
Zeisau: Čížov
Zeiske: Tísek
Zeislitz: Cejsice, p. of Vimperk
Zeißermühl: Sezemín, p. of Poběžovice
Zelechowitz: Želechovice nad Dřevnicí
Zenkau: Čenkov, p. of Třešť
Zemschen: Třemešné
Zerawitz: Žeravice (Hodonín District)
Zerutek: Žerůtky (Znojmo District)
Zerwitz (Zerhowitz): Cerhovice
Zetkowitz: Cetkovice
Zetoras: Cetoraz
Zetschin: Čečín, p. of Bělá nad Radbuzou
Zettendorf: Cetnov, p. of Cheb
Zettl: Sedlo, p. of Klíny
Zettlitz:
(Zedtlitz): Sedlec, p. of Karlovy Vary
Sedlec u Radonic, p. of Radonice (Chomutov District)
Zettwing: Cetviny, now Dolní Dvořiště
Zhorz: Zhoř, p. of Vilémov (Havlíčkův Brod District)
Ziaroschitz: Žarošice
Zichlern: Těchlov, now Hořice na Šumavě*
Zichraß: Těchoraz, p. of Vyšší Brod
Zidowitz:
Židovice (Jičín District)
Židovice (Litoměřice District)
Zieberle: Úbočí, p. of Výsluní
Ziebetschlag: Přibyslavov, now Dolní Dvořiště*
Zieditz: Citice
Ziegelhütten: Cihelny, p. of Karlovy Vary
Ziegenschacht: Stráň, p. of Potůčky
Ziering: Čeřín, p. of Rožmitál na Šumavě
Zimrowitz: Žimrovice, p. of Hradec nad Moravicí
Zinnwald: Cínovec, p. of Dubí
Zinolten: Senotín, p. of Nová Bystřice
Zirkowitz: Církvice, p. of Ústí nad Labem
Zirnau: Dříteň
Zirnetschlag: Bělá, p. of Malonty
Zistl: Dobrné, p. of Větřní
Zittolieb (Zitolib): Cítoliby
Ziwotitz: Životice, p. of Havířov
Zlabings: Slavonice
Zleb: Žleby
Znaim: Znojmo
Zoboles: Sovolusky, p. of Bochov
Zobietitz:
Sobětice, p. of Klatovy
Sobětice, p. of Výsluní
Zodl: Sádlno, now Boletice MTA*
Zöptau: Sobotín
Zossen: Sosnová (Opava District)
Zosum: Ždánov, p. of Nezdice na Šumavě
Zowalka: Zouvalka, p. of Prusy-Boškůvky
Zubern: Zubří
Zuckerhandl: Suchohrdly
Zuckmantel (Zuckmantl):
Pozorka, p. of Dubí
Žďárek, p. of Libouchec
Zlaté Hory
Zuderschlag: Cudrovice, now Volary*
Zulb: Slup
Zummern: Souměř, p. of Stráž (Tachov District)
Zürau: Siřem, p. of Blšany
Zutzlawitz: Sudslavice, p. of Vimperk
Zwarmetschlag: Svatomírov, now Vyšší Brod*
Zweiendorf: Svébohy, p. of Horní Stropnice
Zweifelsreuth: Čižebná, p. of Nový Kostel
Zwetbau: Svatobor, p. of Doupovské Hradiště
Zwettnitz: Světice, p. of Bystřany
Zwickau: Zvíkov (Český Krumlov District)
Zwickau in Böhmen: Cvikov
Zwieslau: Světlá, p. of Hartmanice (Klatovy District)
Zwikow: Zvíkov (České Budějovice District)
Zwikowetz (Zwickowitz): Zvíkovec
Zwittau: Svitavy
Zwitte: Svitava (river)
Zwittawka (Zwittales): Svitávka (Blansko District)
Zwittermühl: Háje, now Potůčky*
Zwodau: Svatava (Sokolov District)
Zwoischen: Svojše, p. of Rejštejn
Zwucitz: Svučice, p. of Mišovice
Zwug: Zbůch
References
External links
19th century maps of the Czech Republic, a project of Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem
19th century map of the Czech Republic at Mapy.cz
German diaspora in the Czech Republic
Czech geographic history
Czech
Czech Republic
Czech Republic
Czech Republic history-related lists
Names of places in the Czech Republic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiographer
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Radiographer
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Radiographers, also known as radiologic technologists, diagnostic radiographers and medical radiation technologists are healthcare professionals who specialise in the imaging of human anatomy for the diagnosis and treatment of pathology. Radiographers are infrequently, and almost always erroneously, known as x-ray technicians. In countries that use the title radiologic technologist they are often informally referred to as techs in the clinical environment; this phrase has emerged in popular culture such as television programmes. The term radiographer can also refer to a therapeutic radiographer, also known as a radiation therapist.
Radiographers are allied health professionals who work in both public healthcare and private healthcare and can be physically located in any setting where appropriate diagnostic equipment is located, most frequently in hospitals. The practice varies from country to country and can even vary between hospitals in the same country.
Radiographers are represented by a variety of organizations worldwide, including the International Society of Radiographers and Radiological Technologists which aims to give direction to the profession as a whole through collaboration with national representative bodies.
History
For the first three decades of medical imaging's existence (1897 to the 1930s), there was no standardized differentiation between the roles that we now differentiate as radiologic technologist (a technician in an allied health profession who obtains the images) versus radiologist (a physician who interprets them). By the 1930s and 1940s, as it became increasingly apparent that proper interpretation of the images required not only a physician but also one who was specifically trained and experienced in doing so, the differentiation between the roles was formalized. Simultaneously, it also became increasingly true that just as a radiologic technologist cannot do the radiologist's job, the radiologist also cannot do the radiologic technologist's job, as it requires some knowledge, skills, experience, and certifications that are specific to it.
Radiography's origins and fluoroscopy's origins can both be traced to 8 November 1895, when German physics professor Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the X-ray and noted that, while it could pass through human tissue, it could not pass through bone or metal. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. He received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery.
There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers: Röntgen was investigating cathode rays using a fluorescent screen painted with barium platinocyanide and a Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard to shield its fluorescent glow. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 metre away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow: they were passing through an opaque object to affect the film behind it.
Röntgen discovered X-rays' medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first ever photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said, "I have seen my death."
The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards also became the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.
The United States saw its first medical X-ray obtained using a discharge tube of Ivan Pulyui's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of Dartmouth College tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Pulyui tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Pulyui's inclusion of an oblique "target" of mica, used for holding samples of fluorescent material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896 Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on gelatin photographic plates obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.
X-rays were put to diagnostic use very early; for example, Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton opened a radiographic laboratory in the United Kingdom in 1896, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered. Indeed, Marie Curie pushed for radiography to be used to treat wounded soldiers in World War I. Initially, many kinds of staff conducted radiography in hospitals, including physicists, photographers, physicians, nurses, and engineers. The medical speciality of radiology grew up over many years around the new technology. When new diagnostic tests were developed, it was natural for the radiographers to be trained in and to adopt this new technology. Radiographers now perform fluoroscopy, computed tomography, mammography, ultrasound, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging as well. Although a nonspecialist dictionary might define radiography quite narrowly as "taking X-ray images", this has long been only part of the work of "X-ray Departments", Radiographers, and Radiologists. Initially, radiographs were known as roentgenograms, while Skiagrapher (from the Ancient Greek words for "shadow" and "writer") was used until about 1918 to mean Radiographer.
The history of magnetic resonance imaging includes many researchers who have discovered NMR and described its underlying physics, but it is regarded to be invented by Paul C. Lauterbur in September 1971; he published the theory behind it in March 1973. The factors leading to image contrast (differences in tissue relaxation time values) had been described nearly 20 years earlier by Erik Odeblad (doctor and scientist) and Gunnar Lindström.
In 1950, spin echoes and free induction decay were first detected by Erwin Hahn and in 1952, Herman Carr produced a one-dimensional NMR spectrum as reported in his Harvard PhD thesis. In the Soviet Union, Vladislav Ivanov filed (in 1960) a document with the USSR State Committee for Inventions and Discovery at Leningrad for a Magnetic Resonance Imaging device, although this was not approved until the 1970s.
By 1959, Jay Singer had studied blood flow by NMR relaxation time measurements of blood in living humans. Such measurements were not introduced into common medical practice until the mid-1980s, although a patent for a whole-body NMR machine to measure blood flow in the human body was already filed by Alexander Ganssen in early 1967.
In the 1960s and 1970s the results of a very large amount of work on relaxation, diffusion, and chemical exchange of water in cells and tissues of various types appeared in the scientific literature. In 1967, Ligon reported the measurement of NMR relaxation of water in the arms of living human subjects. In 1968, Jackson and Langham published the first NMR signals from a living animal.
Role in healthcare
A radiographer uses their expertise and knowledge of patient care, physics, human anatomy, physiology, pathology and radiology to assess patients, develop optimum radiological techniques and evaluate the resulting radiographic media.
This branch of healthcare is extremely varied, especially between different countries, and as a result radiographers in one country often have a completely different role to that of radiographers in another. However, the base responsibilities of the radiographer are summarised below:
Autonomy as a professional
Accountability as a professional
Contribute to and participate in continuing professional development
Enforcement of radiation protection (There is a duty of care to patients, colleagues and any lay persons that may be irradiated.)
Justification of radiographic examinations
Patient care
Production of diagnostic media
Safe, efficient and correct use of diagnostic equipment
Supervise students and assistants
On a basic level, radiographers do not generally interpret diagnostic media, rather they evaluate media and make a decision about its diagnostic effectiveness. In order to make this evaluation radiographers must have a comprehensive but not necessarily exhaustive knowledge of pathology and radiographic appearances; it is for this reason that radiographers often do not interpret or diagnose without further training. Notwithstanding, it is now becoming more common that radiographers have an extended and expanded clinical role, this includes a role in initial radiological diagnosis, diagnosis consultation and what subsequent investigations to conduct. It is not uncommon for radiographers to now conduct procedures which would have previously been undertaken by a cardiologist, urologist, radiologist or oncologist autonomously.
Contrary to what could be inferred, radiographers conduct and contribute to investigations which are not necessarily radiological in nature, e.g. sonography and magnetic resonance imaging.
Radiographers often have opportunities to enter military service due to their role in healthcare. As with most other occupations in the medical field many radiographers have rotating shifts that include night duties.
Career pathways
Radiography is a deeply diverse profession with many different modalities and specialities. It is not uncommon for radiographers to be specialised in more than one modality and even have expertise of interventional procedures themselves; however this depends on the country in which they operate. As a result of this the typical career pathway for a radiographer is hard to summarise. Upon qualifying it is common for radiographers to focus solely on plain film radiography before specialising in any one chosen modality. After a number of years in the profession, non-imaging based roles often become open and radiographers may then move into these positions.
Imaging modalities
Generally, imaging modalities are all diagnostic, all have the potential to be used therapeutically in order to deliver an intervention. Modalities (or specialities) include but are not limited to:
1Prefixes such as pediatric, geriatric, trauma are routinely placed used in conjunction with professional titles.
2This list of technologies is not exhaustive.
Non-imaging modalities
Non-imaging modalities vary, and are often undertaken in addition to imaging modalities. They commonly include:
Academia – Education role.
Clinical Management – Clinical managerial role which can be varied; may include managing audits, rotas, department budgets, etc.
Clinical Research – Research role.
Medical Physics – Multidisciplinary role ensuring the correct calibration of and most efficient use of diagnostic equipment.
PACS Management – Managerial role concerned with maintaining and supervising appropriate and correct use of the RIS and PACS systems.
Radiation Protection – A managerial role concerned with monitoring the level of ionising radiation absorbed by anyone who comes into contact with ionising radiation at their site.
Reporting Radiography – A clinical role involved with interpretation of radiographs and various other radiological media for diagnosis.
Education and role variation
Education varies worldwide due to legal limitations on scope of practice.
Belgium
The profession of diagnostic radiographer is called "medical imaging technologist" in Flanders, it is a regulated healthcare profession. A diploma of a specific professional Bachelor is a requirement for registration and recognition.
Since 2 December 2014, everyone who works at a Medical Imaging department, is obliged to be in possession of the recognition and the visa issued by the Ministry of Health (a professional identity card that is considered a license)
To practice a health care profession with a foreign diploma from within the EEA or equivalent in the EEA, it is necessary to request the recognition for the profession from Government of Flanders (Agency of Care and Health).
It is possible to request the recognition if:
The person have a diploma of their healthcare profession and want to practice their profession in Belgium.
The person have obtained their degree in one of the countries of the European Economic Area (EEA) or Switzerland.
Or the person's diploma is equivalent in a country of the EEA and they are a European national.
Germany
In Germany radiographers must complete a 3-year apprenticeship before they qualify as a 'Medizinisch-technischer Radiologieassistent'. Only after qualifying do radiographers in Germany fulfil the requirements to practise as a fully qualified MTRA.
Similar to other countries, they work within the areas of radiography diagnostics (CT scans, magnetic resonance imaging, radiography, digital subtraction angiography), radiation therapy, radiation dosimeters and nuclear medicine.
Ireland
in the Republic of Ireland (ROI) must be registered with CORU before they can practice in the Republic of Ireland. Student radiographers training in the ROI will typically study for 4 years on an approved bachelor's degree program; currently degree programs only exist at University College Dublin.
Applicants must have either an approved qualification, a schedule 3 qualification, an appropriate letter of recommendation/accreditation or another qualification which is deemed 'suitably relevant' by registration board in order to successfully fulfil the vocational education requirements to become a Radiographer in the ROI. Applications for registration with qualifications outside of this are considered on an individual basis; typically this includes most international applicants.
The professional body representing Radiographers in the ROI is the Irish Institute of Radiography and Radiation Therapy (IIRRT).
To practice as a Radiographer or Radiation Therapist in Ireland, one must register with CORU as of 31 October 2015. CORU is Ireland's multi-profession health regulator. Set up under the Health and Social Care Professionals Act 2005, CORU is used to protect the public by promoting high standards of professional conduct, education, training and competence through statutory registration of health and social care professionals. If a radiographer commences clinical practice without registration then they may be prosecuted with a fine or an imprisonment of up to six months.
Malta
Radiography is a regulated profession in Malta and anyone wanting to practice Diagnostic or Therapeutic Radiography would need to obtain state registration in order to be licensed as a Radiographer, obtained from the Council for Professions Complementary to Medicine (CPCM).
In Malta, in order for an individual to become a Radiographer he/she first has to follow a course offered by the University of Malta. The course is BSc (Hons) Radiography and its duration is of four years. On completion of the course, the graduate will have the conditions to be eligible for registration with the council for professions complementary to Medicine
A foreign radiographer can work in Malta should the necessary documentation and competencies have been obtained and presented. Radiographers working on Malta should abide by the rules of the host country and title of radiographer will be used.
An application form has to be filled along with the necessary authenticated copies of several documents. The application form includes the insertion of personal details of the individual along with the description of qualifications and the university which granted the qualifications. The individual has to declare whether he or she is registered with another Health Care Profession Register in Malta.
Below is a list of the documents needed for a professional to register with the council:
Application Form
Original or authenticated copies of the following documents (English versions): a. Birth and marriage (if applicable) certificates.
Identification document such as ID or Passport.
Recent Police Conduct certificate.
Professional Document Diploma/Degree.
Letters of Reference in English.
A detailed transcript of Theoretical and Practical Training and Studies in hours associated with the Profession and in relation with the profession syllabus performed by their Institution being the university/College. This has to be endorsed in the original format by the Head/Registrar of their Institution being the university/College.
A recent (six months) verification certificate of current registration and good standing with the council the person are registered with.
A secure English Language test (SELT) for foreign applicants.
Curriculum Vitae in English.
In cases where the professional qualification acquired was not obtained from an Accredited Institution in Malta, a letter is to be submitted, issued from the Malta Qualifications Recognition Information Centre (MQRIC), certifying that the Institution from where the qualification was obtained is equivalently accredited and indicate the level of qualification in accordance to the Malta Qualifications Framework.
For applicants from the European Economic Area countries, once the application is submitted, it will follow the regulations established on the Directive 2005/36/EC on the recognition of qualifications between member states. In these cases, the professional document and theoretical and practical training are required to be equivalent to the requirements of Malta, i.e. An EQF Level 6 Bachelor's Degree with an equivalent syllabus to that of the University of Malta and their course is no more than one year shorter. Should the radiographer have a substantial difference between their professional qualifications and those required by CPCM, the radiographer has the right to provide further evidence of competence (including professional experience or CPD), otherwise, the CPCM board should offer the applicant the possibility to do an aptitude test or adaptation period (as chosen by the applicant). A Flow chart explaining this procedure for EEA applicants can be found on the government's website.
Nepal
As a developing country, the health care sector in Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal has very limited resources meaning radiological services are rather limited.
Nepal is still struggling to improve and manage conventional radiological examinations. Radiological Services in Nepal commenced in 1923 at Military Hospital by Dr. Rana and Dr Asta Bahadur Shrestha. The first health related training program began in 1933 at the Nepal Rajkiya Ayurved School; the Civil Medical School was later established in 1934. Radiological education in Nepal started in 1923 in a 64 bedded Military Hospital, Tri-ChandraElectro-Medical Institute. The post graduate (MSc) program in physics at TU began in 1965 with only Nuclear Physics specialization. In 1972, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) which is affiliated with TU started the Proficiency Certificate Level (PCL) Radiography course however this has since stopped.
Radiotherapy was first introduced at Maternity Hospital in 1976 utilising radium needle treatment. CT and Nuclear Medicine was introduced in 1988 at Bir Hospital. The Radiotherapy unit with Tele Cobalt-60 machine was established at Bir Hospital in 1991.
Nepal became a member of IAEA in 2008. Since 2008 onwards diploma level radiography courses have been conducted across the country by the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) and other affiliated institutions.
In Nepal there are 125 vocational health training institutes however only 15 are conducting radiological technological education. Bachelor level radiography education is taught in two universities & one college whereas master level radiography course is taught
in one where another university is in pipeline. Until recently, therapeutic radiography courses have not been taught in Nepal;
radiation therapists are predominantly trained abroad.
The Nepal Health Professional Council (NHPC) is the legislative body for registering, accrediting, developing & enforcing quality assurance of Health Professionals, including Radiographers, in Nepal.
The Netherlands
The Quality Register Paramedics
Until 1997, radiographers were required to register the Evidence of Competence at the Chief of Medical Inspections. This was mandatory under the Law on Paramedic professions. After innovate the law of Individual Health Care Professions (BIG), the registration requirements for radiographers were cancelled. A voluntary register has been set up in consultation with the Health Care Inspectorate: the Paramedics Quality Register.
The Paramedics Quality Register comes from the BIG. The purpose of the Paramedics Quality Register is to guarantee the quality of professional practice. Through the registration and re-registration (once in five years) it becomes visible for patients, health insurers etc. that the registered radiographer professional is and remains competent in the field of professional practice. Despite the fact that the quality register is not compulsory according to the law, many hospitals are obliged to do it. The hospitals are obliged to provide good quality care. Health insurers also attach great value to the Paramedics Quality Register because they are also required to provide good care.
Enrollment
Radiographers who are in possession of a valid Certificate of Competence, diploma of certificate and endorse the code of professional conduct of the professional association, can be enroll in the Paramedics historical register.
The official registration of the radiographer satisfies the educational requirements in the General Administrative Order (AMvB) ex. art. 34 BIG and the quality requirements of the professional group. On the basis of which is carried out radiographer is mentioned in the Diplomaregister Paramedici and / or the Quality Register Paramedics. By registration, the radiographer continues to be traced by, for example, the Health Care Inspectorate (IGZ) and the professional associations. Other organizations also intend the Quality Register Paramedics.
Re-enrollment
To be in the Paramedics Quality Register the radiographer need to request re-registration every five years. The first period of five years is determined on the basis of the diploma date. In case of re-registration, the radiographer must meet the requirements for that period. The start date of the period station local quality criteria. The quality criteria are set every five years by the Paramedics Quality Register, paramedical professional associations. To ensure that the requirements for the patient and the client-oriented exercises and expertise-enhancing activities are safeguarded for the quality of the professional practice. The quality criteria are set up in such a way that paramedics can meet the quality requirements with the set range of expertise-enhancing activities.
Nigeria
In Nigeria, these professionals are generally referred to as Radiographers or Medical Radiographers to differentiate them from Industrial Radiographers. Radiographers must complete a 5-year undergraduate BSc and a compulsory one year paid internship program in a hospital after graduation before attaining a full licensing by the Radiographers Registration Board of Nigeria. The board also registers Radiotherapists who have undergone the initial 5-year Radiography program before proceeding to the Radiotherapy training.
Radiographers in Nigeria have been striving to extend their practice to include radiographic interpretation and Ultrasound services. They are also on the verge of adopting an official professional title of "Radr" or "Rr" .
Radiographers in Nigeria normally proceed for a Masters programme and a PhD programme in the profession.
There is a recent rise in the number of radiographers available in the country unlike the situation of shortage between 2000 – 2010.
In a typical Nigerian Teaching Hospital, radiographers do not undertake sonography examinations, this is left for the radiologists, who, in some areas, have gradually improved their relationship with the radiographers in providing services in other radiographic units. The radiologist is also in charge of specific Fluoroscopic cases where the radiographer assists only with positioning and image acquisition.
Allied Health Unions (such as 'JOHESU' and 'NUAHP') that Radiographers are members of (with Nurses, Pharmacists, Physiotherapists, Laboratory Scientists, etc.), have over the years gone on strike actions to force the Nigerian government to improve their allowances/salaries in the government owned hospitals. These strikes (when it is not a response on its own) often trigger a response from the Nigerian Medical Association who will also table some requests for the medical doctors.
Apart from monetary issues, these professional bodies are also in loggerheads over non-doctors requesting to be given top administrative roles in government owned hospitals. Many radiographers, however, do not particularly involve themselves in these movements as working in a private establishment is more lucrative.
Some Radiographers in Nigeria are also keen on setting up a "Department of Radiography" in the government owned hospitals which will not be under the Head of the Radiology Department. Some hospitals however have an understanding between the Radiology head (a Radiologist) and the Chief Radiographer where all radiographers are directly answerable to their Chief, and not the HOD.
Saudi Arabia
(فني اشعة) in Saudi Arabia must successfully undertake a degree level program at a recognised higher-level education institution in Nursing before undertaking further study in radiographic imaging at university for typically 2 to 3 years; this must include a year's experience in a hospital. Upon completion, graduates are qualified X-Ray Technicians and can commence clinical practice.
United Kingdom
The SCoR is the professional body and union for UK radiographers. In the United Kingdom, there is ambiguity in the use of the term as this does not differentiate between Therapeutic Radiographers (also known as Radiotherapists) and . As a result, all of these titles are protected titles within the United Kingdom and can not be used by any persons who has not undertaken formal study and registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). In order to practise Radiography in the United Kingdom candidates must now successfully obtain a pass in a degree level programme from an accredited institution. Degrees are offered by universities across the UK and last for at least 3 years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; and 4 years in Scotland. Student Diagnostic Radiographers spend a significant amount of time working at various hospitals affiliated with their university during their studies to meet the requirement for registration with the HCPC.
They specialise in the acquisition of radiographs of General Practitioner referred (GP) patients, Outpatients, Emergency Department (ED) referred patients and Inpatients. They conduct mobile X-rays on wards and in other departments where patients are too critical to be moved and work as part of the operating team in mainly Orthopaedic and Urology cases, offering surgeons live radiographic imaging. Once qualified, Diagnostic Radiographers are able to acquire X-rays without supervision and work as part of the imaging team. They will have basic head examination qualifications in CT and even basic experience of MRI, Ultrasound and Nuclear Medicine.
Diagnostic Radiographers can specialise in-house or through a university course as a postgraduate in CT, MRI, Ultrasound or Nuclear Medicine with opportunities to gain an MSc or PhD in their field. Diagnostic Radiographers in the UK are also taking on roles that were typically only undertaken by the Radiologist (a medical doctor who specialised in interpreting X-rays), Urologist or Cardiologist in the past. This extended practice includes various interventional procedures not excluding barium enemas, barium meals/swallows, peripheral angioplasties, nerve root injections, central line insertions and many other procedures.
The professional body and workers union for Radiographers in the United Kingdom is the Society and College of Radiographers (SCoR). The union has been heavily involved in extending practice of Radiographers in the United Kingdom and has helped expand the role of the Radiographer greatly.
Expanded practice
Radiographers are now able to write reports and diagnose pathologies and/or conditions seen on differing diagnostic media after completing a HCPC and SCoR accredited university course; completing a course in this modality allows the Radiographer to become a reporting Radiographer in their chosen specialty.
Diagnostic Radiographers are able to become supplementary prescribers which allows them the capacity to prescribe medications in partnership with an independent prescriber (a doctor or a dentist); the supplementary prescriber is to implement an agreed Clinical Management Plan for an individual patient with that patient's agreement. An accredited university course must be undertaken before this role extension is annotated onto a HCPC registrant's record. It is thought that in the future Diagnostic Radiographers in will gain independent prescribing rights, however this is currently limited by their restricted and varied scope of practice. In 2016, the introduction of independent prescribing right was agreed for Therapeutic Radiographers after a consultation by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA)
United States
In the United States, these professionals are known as . Formal training programs in radiography range in length that leads to a certificate, an associate or a bachelor's degree. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT), the primary credentialing organisation for Radiologic Technologists in the United States, requires that candidates for ARRT Certification Exams must have an associate degree at minimum as of January, 2015, effectively ending non-degree granting diploma programs. Accreditation is primarily through The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology (JRCERT), the only agency recognised by the United States Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation to grant accreditation to both traditional and online programs in Radiography, Radiation Therapy, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and Medical Dosimetry. An online page where prospective students can check the accreditation of programs is maintained by JRCERT.
Radiologic Technology students study anatomy, physiology, physics, radiopharmacology, pathology, biology, research, nursing, medical imaging, diagnosis, radiologic instrumentation, emergency medical procedures, medical imaging techniques, patient care, medical ethics and general chemistry. Schooling also includes significant amounts of documented practicum supervised by Registered Technologists in various clinical settings where the classroom theory is translated to practical knowledge and real world experience. The change from Film to Digital imaging has changed training as film quality assurance and quality control is largely obsolete. The role of computer workstations to produce synthetic images for Radiologists has steadily increased the need for computer skills as has electronic medical record software.
After primary training and licensure, continuing education is required to maintain licensure and certification with the ARRT, who sets the accepted national guidelines. The ARRT requires 24 Units of accredited continuing education every two years and the laws and the regulations of most states accept this standard. Continuing formal education or the passing of an advanced practice speciality exam may also be accepted for continuing education credit. The American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT), a professional association for people in Medical Imaging and Therapy, offers members and others continuing education materials in various media that meet the requirements of the ARRT for continuing education. Additional requirements are set forth for technologists who specialise in mammography by the US FDA.
Expanded practice
A new and evolving career for Radiologic Technologists is that of the Registered Radiologist Assistant (RRA) who is an experienced technologist (a type of Physician Assistant) who has completed additional education, training, and has passed exams to function as radiologist extenders. A list of the 9 currently accredited RRA programs is maintained by the ARRT and can be accessed online. Candidates for the RRA certification must possess a bachelor's degree at minimum.
Registered Radiologist Assistant (RRA), a new advanced practice radiographer career path in the United States for experienced technologists. RRAs do not interpret studies in the manner of the reporting radiographer. The role has been accepted by the American College of Radiology (ACR).
Risks
Epidemiological studies indicate that Radiographers employed before 1950 are at increased risk of leukemia and skin cancer, most likely due to the lack of use of radiation monitoring and shielding. The relationship between radiation and cancer was found to correlate with women who were in the menopausal stages of their lives. In today's workplace, radiation exposure is monitored very closely and cancer cases in technologists has been found to have decreased tremendously due to the current prevention methods.
Ionising radiation, used in a variety of imaging procedures, can damage cells. Lead shields are used on the patient and by the Radiographer to reduce exposure by shielding areas that do not need to be imaged from the radiation source. While lead is highly toxic, the shields used in medical imaging are coated to prevent lead exposure and are regularly tested for integrity.
Radiographers who develop x-ray films are exposed to the various chemical hazards such as sulfur dioxide, glutaraldehyde, and acetic acid. These agents can cause asthma and other health issues.
Theoretically, the strong static magnetic fields of MRI scanners can cause physiological changes. After a human neural cell culture was exposed to a static magnetic field for 15 minutes, changes in cell morphology occurred along with some modifications in the physiological functions of those cells. However, these effects have not yet been independently replicated or confirmed, and this particular study was performed in vitro.
Ultrasound imaging can deform cells in the imaging field, if those cells are in a fluid. However, this effect is not sufficient to damage the cells.
As with any allied health professional, exposure to infectious diseases is likely, and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and infection control precautions must be employed to reduce the risk of infection. Those with family health histories reported feeling increased amount of stress due to concern of bringing infectious diseases home.
In 2016, 59% of technologists surveyed reported that being overworked lead to risking medical error and threatening patient safety. Being overworked also led to depersonalization due to the emotional drain it takes on technologists' mental health, also putting patients at risk.
Due to constantly maneuvering heavy patients, technologists are at risk for work related injuries from the strain it puts on their bodies. Most technologists who develop a work related injury, later report having more work related injuries.
References
External links
CORU
Irish Institute of Radiography and Radiation Therapy (IIRRT)
International Society of Radiographers and Radiologic Technologists (ISRRT)
Radiology
Radiography
Allied health professions
Hospital staff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaperon%20%28headgear%29
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Chaperon (headgear)
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A chaperon ( or ; Middle French: chaperon) was a form of hood or, later, highly versatile hat worn in all parts of Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Initially a utilitarian garment, it first grew a long partly decorative tail behind called a liripipe, and then developed into a complex, versatile and expensive headgear after what was originally the vertical opening for the face began to be used as a horizontal opening for the head. It was especially fashionable in mid-15th century Burgundy, before gradually falling out of fashion in the late 15th century and returning to its utilitarian status. It is the most commonly worn male headgear in Early Netherlandish painting, but its complicated construction is often misunderstood.
Humble origins
The chaperon began before 1200 as a hood with a short cape, put on by pulling over the head, or fastening at the front. The hood could be pulled off the head to hang behind, leaving the short cape round the neck and shoulders. The edge of the cape was often trimmed, cut or scalloped for decorative effect. There were wool ones, used in cold weather, and lighter ones for summer. In this form it continued through to the end of the Middle Ages, worn by the lower classes, often by women as well as men, and especially in Northern Europe. The hood was loose at the back, and sometimes ended in a tail that came to a point.
Terms and derivation
Chaperon is a diminutive of chape, which derives, like the English cap, cape and cope, from the Late Latin cappa, which already could mean cap, cape or hood (OED).
The tail of the hood, often quite long, was called the tippit or liripipe in English, and liripipe or cornette in French. The cape element was a patte in French and in English cape, or sometimes cockscomb when fancily cut. Later a round bourrelet (or rondel) could form part of the assemblage. Patte, cornette and bourrelet were the usual terms in the French of the 15th century Burgundian court, and are used here. In Italian the equivalent terms were foggia, becchetto, and mazzocchio.
Chaperon was sometimes used in English, and also German, for both the hood and hat forms (OED). But the word never appears in the Paston Letters, where there are many references to hats, hoods and bonnets for men. As with all aspects of medieval costume, there are many contemporary images of clothing, and many mentions of names for clothing in contemporary documents, but definitively matching the names to the styles in the images is rarely possible. In Italian the word was cappuccio [kap'put:ʃo], or its diminutive cappuccino, from which come the Capuchin friars, whose distinctive white hood and brown robe led to the monkey and the type of coffee being named after them (it also means the cap of a pen in Italian).
Little Red Riding Hood is Le Petit Chaperon rouge in the earliest published version, by Charles Perrault, and French depictions of the story naturally favour the chaperon over the long riding-hood of ones in English.
In French chaperon was also the term in falconry for the hood placed over a hawk's head when held on the hand to stop it wanting to fly away. It is either this or the headgear meaning that later extended figuratively to become chaperon (in UK English, almost always chaperone) meaning a protective escort, especially for a woman.
Wearing variations
About 1300 the chaperon began to be worn by putting the hole intended for the face over the top of the head instead; perhaps in hot weather. This left the cornette tail and the cape or patte, hanging loose from the top of the head. This became fashionable, and chaperons began to be made to be worn in this style. Some authorities only use the term chaperon for this type, calling the earlier forms hoods – which was certainly their usual name in English. This is a categorisation for modern discussions only; there is no dispute over whether chaperon was the contemporary term. See the wearing Colley-Weston-ward of the mandilion for an analogous development in a type of coat.
A padded circular bourrelet (or rondel) evolved, which sat around the head, whilst the cornette became much longer, and gradually more scarf-like in shape, until by the 1430s it was usually straight at the sides and square-ended. Especially in Italy, the cornette was sometimes dispensed with, leaving just an un-flared tubular patte fixed to the bourrelet all round and hanging down to one side of the head. Reed (see refs) calls these sack hats.
By 1400–16, the period of the famous illuminated manuscripts of the Livre de Chasse of Gaston Phoebus (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris Ms Français 616), and the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry chaperons are to be seen worn by many figures. In the famous Calendar scenes of the Trés Riches Heures, they are worn in the original form by the peasants working in the fields, both men and women (February, March and September), and huntsmen (December), and in the new form by some of the courtiers (January and May), who wear coloured and scalloped ones, probably of silk. However, the Duke himself, and the most prominent courtiers, do not wear them. In the Livre de Chasse they are most often worn by the lower huntsmen on foot in the original form, though they and mounted hunters also wear them on top of the head. Figures often have a hood chaperon and a hat as well. Only the original form (trimmed with fur in one case - fol.51V) is worn by the very highest-ranking figures.
By the 1430s most chaperons had become simpler in the treatment of the cloth, and the cornette is long and plain, although the patte may still be elaborately treated with dagging. A perhaps overdressed courtier in a Van der Weyden workshop Exhumation of St Hubert (National Gallery, London NG 783) from this decade still has a very elaborately cut and dagged patte. A figure behind him is wearing his in church, which is unusual (both figures can be paralleled in the Seven Sacraments Altarpiece; see Gallery below).
Evolved chaperon
By the middle of the 15th century the evolved chaperon (worn on top of the head, with bourrelet) had become common wear for males in the upper and middle classes, and were worn in painted portraits, including those of the Dukes of Burgundy. The amount of cloth involved had become considerable, and although chaperons seem to have normally been of a single colour at this period, a silk or damask one would have been a conspicuous sign of affluence. A Florentine chaperon of 1515 is recorded as using sixteen braccia of cloth, over ten yards (9 metres).
Chaperons are nearly always shown in art as plain-coloured at this period, but painting a patterned one would have been a daunting task.
The cornette now stretched nearly to the ground, and the patte had also grown slightly; both were now plain and undecorated by cutting or dagging at the edges. Bourrelets could be very large, or quite modest; some were clearly made round a hollow framework (a drawing survives of an Italian block for making them). The largest bourrelets are worn by very high ranking men around 1445–50. Sometimes they seem to be just a ring (the doughnut analogy is hard to resist) with an open centre, and sometimes the opening seems to be at least partly covered with fixed cloth. Because the bourrelets were usually the same shape all the way round, several different parts of it could be worn facing forward. Probably for this reason, chaperons are rarely seen adorned by badges or jewellery. There were now many ways of wearing, and indeed carrying, this most complex and adaptable of hats:
A) the cornette and patte could be tied together on top of the head, to create a flamboyant turban-like effect, sometimes with a short tail of cornette or patte hanging to the rear.
B) the patte could be looped under the chin and tied or pinned to the bourrelet on the other side of the face, whilst the cornette hung behind or in front, or was tied on top.
C) the patte could be worn to the loose to the rear, with the cornette tied on top, or hanging loose to front or rear.
D) conversely the patte could be tied above, whilst the cornette hung loose to front or rear.
E) the patte could be worn to the rear, loose or tucked into the other clothes at the back of the neck, whilst the cornette was wrapped round over the top of the head and under the chin a couple of times and secured. This was suitable for cold or windy weather, especially when riding.
F) when the chaperon needed to be removed, in warm weather, or in the presence of a person much higher in rank (and, usually, in church) it could be put over the shoulder with the patte and cornette hanging on opposite sides, or round the shoulders. Which came forward and which went back varies considerably, but more often the bourrelet went behind. Possibly the chaperon was secured to the shoulder, as the assemblage often looks rather precarious. Donor figures in religious paintings always wear their chaperons in this way, as they are figuratively in the presence of the saints or the Madonna.
Examples of these styles are shown in the illustrations to the article and in the Gallery section below.
The height of fashion
The only surviving manuscript miniature by Rogier van der Weyden shows Philip the Good wearing a chaperon in style B. Next to him stands Chancellor Nicolas Rolin, using a less exuberant version of style B; only he has sufficient status to wear his chaperon indoors in the Duke's presence. Apart from the Bishop of Tournai, next to Rolin, all the other men are bare-headed, even Philip's young heir, despite the fact that several of them are high-ranking intimates who, like the Duke, wear the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece. But as far as can be seen, all have hats. The man in grey seems to be carrying another sort of hat, but all the other ones visible are chaperons worn in style F, mostly with the cornettes to the front. The young Charles the Bold has his patte wrapped round the back of his neck, and the man on the extreme right has his bourrelet further than usual down his back, with the patte hanging down from it. Most of the chaperons are black, although the man in blue has one in salmon-pink; black was having one of its earliest periods of being the most fashionable colour at the time.
The chaperon never became quite this dominant in Italy or France; nor does it seem to have been worn as often by grand personages, although this is sometimes the case. There is a famous bust of Lorenzo de Medici wearing one, although in this he may be deliberately avoiding ostentatious dress (see gallery section). They are more characteristic of merchants and lawyers in these countries, for example in the images of Jean Fouquet from the mid-century. In England, on the other hand, almost all the non-royal members of the Order of the Garter are shown wearing them in their portraits in "William Bruges' Garter Book" of 1430–1440 (British Library, Stowe MS 594). In the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Portugal they were generally less common, & appeared lower down the social scale. They were apparently never worn by the clergy anywhere.
Political chaperons
Chaperons were used in France and Burgundy to denote, by their colour, allegiance to a political faction. The factions themselves were also sometimes known as chaperons. During the captivity in England of King John II of France in 1356, the participants in a popular uprising in Paris against his son, the future Charles V, wore parti-coloured chaperons of red, for Paris, and blue for Navarre as they supported the claim to the French throne of King Charles the Bad of Navarre. In 1379 the ever-difficult citizens of Ghent rose up against Duke Philip the Bold of Burgundy wearing white chaperons. White was also worn in factional disturbances in Paris in 1413, by opponents of the Armagnacs, during one of King Charles VI's bouts of madness.
The chaperon was one of the items of male clothing that featured in the charges brought against Joan of Arc at her trial in 1431. This was apparently a hat rather than a hood, as she was stated to have taken it off in front of the Dauphin – this was cited as further damning evidence of her assuming male behaviours.
In 15th century Florence, cappucci were associated with republicans, as opposed to courtiers (see gallery). An advisor to the Medici told them in 1516 that they should get as many young men to wear "the courtier's cap" rather than the cappucci. Part of the connotation seems to arise because the chaperon was too complicated to be taken off on meeting one of higher rank (in Florence at any rate); it was merely touched or pushed back on the head slightly.
The cappuccio in Renaissance art
In addition to being featured in many Renaissance portraits by virtue of being the fashion of the day, the Italian cappuccio was of interest because the mazzocchio's shape made it a good subject for the developing art of perspective. The painter Paolo Uccello studied the perspective of the mazzocchio and incorporated it in some of his paintings (e.g. in The Counterattack of Michelotto da Cotignola at the Battle of San Romano).
Apart from portraits, many of the best, and least formal, depictions of the chaperon in art come from paintings of the Nativity and other scenes of the early life of Christ. It is of course always winter, when the chaperon was most likely to be worn. Saint Joseph is especially useful, as it is never part of his depiction to be fashionably dressed, and it is part of his character in the period that he is often shown quite dishevelled (see examples below). The shepherds are the lower-class figures most often shown in a large scale in paintings of the period.
Decline
By about 1480 the chaperon was ceasing to be fashionable, but continued to be worn. The size of the bourrelet was reduced, and the patte undecorated. St Joseph could, by this stage, often be seen with the evolved form. By 1500 the evolved chaperon was definitely outmoded in Northern Europe, but the original hood form still remained a useful headgear for shepherds and peasants. By this time the evolved chaperon had become fixed in some forms of civilian uniforms for lawyers, academics and the members of some knightly orders, such as the Order of the Garter. In these uses it gradually shrank in size and often became permanently attached to the clothing underneath, effectively just as an ornament, in its present form, as a part of academic dress, called an epitoge. In Italy it remained more current, more as a dignified form of headgear for older men, until about the 1520s.
Funerary ornaments on horses
In a later related use of the term, the name passed to certain little shields, or escutcheons, and other funeral devices, placed on the foreheads of horses that drew the hearses to processional funerals. These were called or shafferoons, as they were originally fastened to the chaperonnes, or hoods, worn by those horses with their other coverings of state. (See also Frentera.)
Gallery
References
SD Reed, From Chaperones to Chaplets:Aspects of Men's Headdress 1400–1519, M.S. Thesis, 1992, University of Maryland -NB Headgear Reed categorises as Hoods, Chaperones, & (some) Sack Hats are all covered by this article.
J.O. Hand & M. Wolff, Early Netherlandish Painting, National Gallery of Art, Washington (catalogue) /Cambridge UP,1986,
National Gallery Catalogues: The Fifteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume 1, by Dillian Gordon, London, 2003,
Gabriel Bise, The Hunting Book by Gaston Phoebus, Heritage Books, London,
Edmond Pognon, Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, Liber
M. Vibbert, Headdresses of the 14th and 15th Centuries, The Compleat Anachronist, No. 133, SCA monograph series (August 2006)
Notes
External links
History of the chaperon, with simple diagrams
Chaperon section of 1929 book by Adrien Harmond - in French, with many pictures and reconstructed cutting patterns
CORSAIR database from the Morgan Library - search for chaperon gives 25 results from 2 French manuscripts, 1420–35
Le Livre de Chasse of Gaston Phoebus, c 1400, from Ms Fr 616 from the Biblitheque Nationale, Paris. Feature with many illustrations, texts in French.
Another stylish chaperon by Pisanello, from a medal in the NGA, Washington
The NGA bust of Lorenzo de Medici, after restoration
15th and early 16th Century Headress: A Literature Review -updated (1997) section from SD Reed thesis above
Some related headresses of the 15th Century: theories on construction by Cynthia du Pré Argent
Hats
Dutch clothing
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Hoods (headgear)
Death customs
Horse tack
Medieval European costume
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5399989
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Woods
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Jon Woods
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Jonathan Earl Woods, known as Jon Woods (born August 23, 1977, in Charlotte, North Carolina), is a Republican and a former member of both houses of the Arkansas General Assembly, a record producer, as well as a musician. He is now in federal prison for political corruption, wire and mail fraud, and money laundering.
Background
In 1979, Woods and his family relocated from North Carolina to Blytheville in Mississippi County in eastern Arkansas. He attended Gosnell public schools through the ninth grade, where he played football, basketball, and ran track. He began his involvement in local and state government through the mentorship of Arkansas State Representative Ann Bush, a fellow Republican. Ann and her husband, Allen, part owners of Bush's Baked Beans, recruited Woods to join the Boy Scouts of America, in which he earned the rank of Eagle Scout.
Having grown up in the Arkansas Delta, Jon was heavily influenced by the music scene in nearby Memphis, Tennessee.
In 1993, at the end of Jon's freshman year of high school, his father was offered a job with Allen Canning located in Siloam Springs in Benton County, Arkansas. After relocating to Siloam Springs, Woods attended the John Brown University basketball camp during the summer before his sophomore year at which he met John W. Brown, who became a Special Operative Pararescueman and was killed in action the 2011 Chinook shootdown in Afghanistan.
During Woods' junior year at Siloam Springs High School, he attended Arkansas Boys State. While in high school, Jon played football and basketball, but chose soccer rather than track. Several of the high school soccer team players were musicians, who inspired Woods to pick up the guitar more seriously. He also took private vocal lessons at John Brown University. During this time, fellow basketball and soccer player, musician, and close friend Tim Berry died in a car accident at the age of sixteen. Years later, Tim would be the inspiration for the band name, A Good Fight, named for the verse in II Timothy 4:7. During his high school and college years, Woods lifeguarded at the Siloam Springs municipal pool and Dawn Hill Country Club, where he also taught private swimming lessons. Upon graduation in 1996, Woods attended Northwest Arkansas Community College in Bentonville. He obtained two degrees, an Associate of Arts and an Associate of Science in Business.
He continued his education at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, and served in the Associated Student Government Senate. He was elected chairman of the College Republicans and stayed involved with the Republican committees of Benton and Washington counties. He was a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, Alpha Zeta chapter and was a member of the intramural soccer team for the fraternity. While at the University, Jon completed an internship at the Arkansas Small Business and Technology Development Center, at which he helped small businesses develop through market research and business development. During this time, his non-college activities included taking private drum, guitar and bass lessons. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration with a focus on Marketing Management from the Sam Walton College of Business at UA-Fayetteville in 2002.
After graduation, Woods took a job in commercial banking in Benton and Washington counties. He co-founded the pop rock band A Good Fight, in 2004, and in 2006, at the age of twenty-nine, was elected to the Arkansas House of Representatives and was sworn in on January 8, 2007 as the youngest member of the Arkansas 86th General Assembly.
Music background
Growing up in the Arkansas Delta, Woods and his brother, Dustin, were heavily influenced by the Memphis Music Scene and events held on Mud Island during the 1980s and early 1990s.
In 1993, after the family relocated from the Delta to Siloam Springs, Dustin Woods began to practice the guitar and was named most talented his senior year, 1997, at Siloam Springs High School. Dustin Woods had two bands in high school, and both performed in talent shows in his junior and senior years. Because of Jon Woods' interest in politics and sports, he was not as devoted to music as his brother during his high school years.
In 2004, Jon and Dustin Woods and Sean Marriott formed A Good Fight. After a two-year period with thirty auditions, the Woods' and Merriott agreed to select Eddie Love as lead vocalist in 2006. The band released two albums, The City Could Be Ours By Morning in 2008 and self-titled album A Good Fight in 2010. Both albums had songs featured on several reality shows on MTV and Sony PlayStation's MLB 13: The Show. In a short period of time the band performed at several large venues such as the SXSW Music Festival in Austin, Texas.
While in the legislature in 2009, Woods supported HB1837, Act 497, by J. R. Rogers of Walnut Ridge. This Act designated a portion of Highway 67 in Northeastern Arkansas to be called "Rock 'N' Roll Highway". Some of the legendary musicians who regularly traveled on this stretch of highway during the 1950s and 1960s included Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, Conway Twitty, Fats Domino, and Sonny Burgess. The goal of this legislation was to honor Arkansas' Rock 'N' Roll heritage, and to boost tourism and economic development for the region. Woods also advocated, although unsuccessfully, for moving the Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame from the Pine Bluff Convention Center to the River Market District in Little Rock so that the hall of fame would gain more exposure. The hall of fame houses personal possessions and items of Arkansas musicians and celebrities.
In 2011, Woods produced The Plaid Jackets first album The New Adventures of the Plaid Jackets Vol 1, which featured the international hit "Adam West is Batman". This song is featured on the documentary, Starring Adam West.
Political career
Woods served in the Arkansas House of Representatives from 2007 to 2013 and in the Arkansas Senate from 2013 to 2017. During his legislative career, he sponsored 103 bills that became law, pushed for the establishment of nearly a dozen task forces and commissions, and passed four constitutional amendments.
Restricted by term limits that then allowed only three terms in the state House of Representatives, Woods decided to run for the Arkansas State Senate for District 7, which includes most of Springdale, Tontitown, Goshen, Elkins, Durham and parts of Fayetteville and all of eastern Washington County. In 2012, Woods was elected to the Arkansas State Senate. In 2015, Woods received an award from the American Red Cross for performing life saving CPR on a visitor to the Arkansas State Capitol.
Arkansas House of Representatives 2007-2013
2007-2009 86th General Assembly
During his first term he showed his ability to bring people of differing points of view together by making Arkansas' first Umbilical Cord Blood Bank a reality. This institution harvests primitive stem cells from umbilical cords, helping advance stem cell research without abandoning his pro-life convictions. Along with Senator Johnny Key, Woods was awarded the Invest in Life
award for his work on the project.
2009-2011 87th General Assembly
In his second term during the 87th General Assembly in 2009, he became the chair of the technology committee, an unheard of feat for a second term member from the minority party. He sponsored legislation that helped amend the Arkansas State Constitution granting the citizens of Arkansas the right to hunt, fish, trap, and harvest wildlife. It was referred to the voters in 2010 where it passed with 612,495 votes or 82.78% of the vote with 127,444 or 17.22% voting against.
2011-2013 88th General Assembly
In his third and final term in the Arkansas House of Representatives in the 88th General Assembly in 2011, Woods took on sex offenders, increasing the penalties for sex crimes and expanding notification to the public about sex offenders living in their neighborhoods. He also sponsored legislation to create the Office of Health Information Technology to implement electronic health records in Arkansas and co-sponsored legislation to create a state sales tax holiday weekend for families to buy school supplies.
Arkansas State Senate 2013-2017
2013-2015 89th General Assembly
Woods served on the Senate Insurance and Commerce, Joint Performance Review, Public Retirement & Social Security Programs, and Judiciary committees as well as the Arkansas Legislative Council. Woods sponsored Carter's Law in 2013, creating a comprehensive program of education regarding shaken baby syndrome.
2015-2017 90th General Assembly
In the 90th General Assembly Woods earned the highest civilian recognition from the Arkansas National Guard, and referred his third and fourth ballot measures to the voters.
Political Investigations
Dismissed complaint
In March 2016, Jeff Oland of Farmington, Arkansas filed a complaint with the Arkansas Ethics Commission against then State Senator Jon Woods. Oland accused then State Senator Jon Woods of coordinating mailers from his previous 2012-election campaign with a conservative organization called Conservative Arkansas PAC. Oland's complaint triggered an investigation by the Arkansas Ethics Commission. After more than a dozen interviews and reviewing all the evidence, the Ethics Commission determined that there had been no violations and no laws broken. In May 2016, the Ethics Commission voted 3-0 to dismiss Mr. Oland's complaint against Woods.
Wire fraud, honest services fraud, money laundering
On March 1, 2017, Woods was found guilty of fifteen federal counts for his collusion in a kickback scheme involving Oren Paris, III, the president of Ecclesia College in Springdale, Arkansas, where Woods resides. Others indicted were Randell Shelton, Jr., of Alma in Crawford County, Arkansas, and Micah Neal, a former state representative who pleaded guilty to one act of conspiracy to commit honest services fraud. The trial was controversial due in part to the actions of the lead FBI agent, Robert Cessario, who pleaded guilty in a plea agreement on August 17, 2022, to destroying exculpatory evidence. March 1, 2017, Woods was indicted for his alleged collusion in a kickback scheme involving Oren Paris, III, president of Ecclesia College (a Christian college), and Randell Shelton, Jr. Woods' attorney, Patrick Benca, denied the allegations.
One of the many trial delays was due to the destruction of evidence by FBI agent Robert Cessario. According to his own court testimony, Cessario wiped his undercover computer clean on three separate occasions since the investigation began. He had it wiped once professionally at Ozark Computer Works in Bentonville, AR for $59.50 in cash on Dec. 4, 2017. He then wiped it at least twice more himself. In December, 2017 he was removed from the case and was put under investigation by the Office of Inspector General, according to court documents, and faced criminal prosecution.
FBI computer wipe
Two days of pretrial hearings, January 25 and 26, 2018, laid out in detail the circumstances under which the FBI (Cessario's) computer was used to collect copies of the audio files recorded covertly by former State Representative Micah Neal. Mr. Neal has denied that the government asked him to conduct the undercover audio recordings and testified that the "pen" used as the recording device was his idea. However, the FBI agent improperly wiped his laptop sometime in early 2017, December 4, 2017 and then wiped it again December 7, 2017. The erasing of the files cast doubt on whether a true copy of all the files was ever provided to the defense or if the FBI had in fact requested Micah Neal conduct the recordings. Thirty nine audio recordings were provided to the defense in April, 2017. Gaps in the timeline of the recordings were discovered by the defense, which led them to request that the U.S. Attorney turn over ALL of the audio recordings. This request resulted in the U.S. Attorney finding an additional 79 audio recordings in November 2017. These audios contained recordings of many different people. The words Mr. Neal himself used in these recordings is possibly evidence that he was actually doing the recordings on behalf of the government. Upon cross examination of why FBI agent Robert Cessario wiped his laptop, the agent said it was because the government owned laptop contained his personal medical records and he didn't want those to become public. Defense attorney Patrick Benca pointed out that Robert Cessario plans a medical malpractice suit that will make his medical issues public record anyway and the excuse of wiping the laptop to prevent medical records from being made public doesn't pass the smell test. FBI agent Robert Cessario acknowledged that he does plan on suing his doctor, but said any lawsuit he files is unlikely to get the attention the Woods case has received.
"Do you think what you did was proper?" asked Chad Atwell, attorney for one of Woods' co-defendants. "No. I should not have done that," Cessario replied.
Micah Neal Law Firm Computer Crash
U.S. District Judge Timothy Brooks wondered aloud from the bench Friday, January 26, 2018, why attorneys in the case did not get pristine copies from the computer in the law office of Neal's attorney, Shane Wilkinson of Bentonville, Arkansas.
Assistant U.S. Attorney Kenneth Elser then told Judge Brooks that late Thursday, January 25, 2018, the FBI sent a computer forensics examiner to Shane Wilkinson's office to make copies of specific files. Mr. Elser then submitted a flash drive to the court which he said contained those specific files. However, upon cross-examination (by the defense) of the expert who collected the copies, it was only then revealed that the files were not taken from the law firm's original hard drive that had stored the audio directly from Neal. The expert had been informed by Mr. Wilkinson's paralegal, Karri Layton, that the hard drive crashed on December 27, 2017, and the whole computer had been replaced, which gives the appearance of a coverup between Micah Neal's attorney Shane Wilkinson and the FBI and the Department of Justice.
Defense Attorney Chad Atwell of Fayetteville conducted the cross-examination of FBI computer forensics examiner, Rebecca Passmore. It was during this lengthy cross examination that Ms. Passmore revealed the Dec. 27 crash and that the original hard drive was nowhere to be found. "I am at a loss for words," Atwell said, when asked for comment after the hearing. "Our pristine copy just went up in smoke," said defense attorney Shelly Koehler of Fayetteville.
It was ordered by the court that an investigation be conducted on Feb. 7, 2018, with the help of FBI computer forensics expert, Amy Corrigan, to search for the original hard drive to Wilkinson's law office computer. It was later revealed that attorney Shane Wilkinson had his hard drive replaced at Megabyte in Bentonville, Arkansas and that Megabyte had backed up his hard drive. Once the backup was reviewed an additional audio was recovered that the DOJ and defense had never heard. In all, 39 audios were given to the defense in April 2017, 79 additional audios in November 2017, and one audio was discovered in February 2018 for a total of 119 audio files (140 hours) which were covertly recorded by Micah Neal.
Conviction
Jon Woods of Springdale, Arkansas, was accused of soliciting and accepting kickbacks for the distribution of government funds. He was found guilty of conspiracy to commit mail fraud, twelve counts of wire fraud, and money laundering. Woods was sentenced by Judge Timothy Brooks to 220 months in federal prison and ordered to pay $1.6 million in restitution on September 6, 2018. Brooks ordered Woods to serve less than the Federal sentencing guidelines, which called for a term between 324–405 months.
FBI Agent Pleads Guilty, and Sentenced
On August 17, 2022, Robert Cessario signed a plea agreement stating he was guilty of corrupt destruction of record in an official proceeding.
Robert Cessario was the lead FBI investigator in the Jon Woods case. The jury never knew that Cessario destroyed his official work laptop. All of this information was learned during the pre trial phase, and the defense and prosecution were ordered by Judge Timothy Brooks to not bring it up in any way in the presence of the jury. As stated in his plea agreement, Cessario erased the laptop hard drive so that it could not be used in the Jon Woods trial. Cessario could have received up to 20 years in prison and a $250,000 fine. On January 5, 2023, he was sentenced to 6 months home confinement without a monitor, followed by a three year probation period, and a $25,000 fine.
Appeal to the Eighth Circuit
Following conviction, Woods stated his intent to appeal his conviction to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.
Woods appealed his trial to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, arguing that the district court erred in denying Woods' motion to dismiss based on the destruction of data by the FBI. On October 16, 2020, the Circuit Court affirmed the district court's conviction, finding that the destroyed evidence lacked exculpatory value and that the information was available by other means.
In April 2022, Woods filed a new appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. It was unanimously rejected on August 31, 2022; the panel held that “the purportedly newly discovered evidence buttressed rather than rebutted the case against Woods and was immaterial or previously available”.
Election history
References
External links
Campaign website
1977 births
Living people
21st-century American criminals
21st-century American politicians
American bankers
American fraudsters
American money launderers
Arkansas politicians convicted of crimes
American rock bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Republican Party Arkansas state senators
Republican Party members of the Arkansas House of Representatives
Musicians from Charlotte, North Carolina
Northwest Arkansas Community College alumni
People from Blytheville, Arkansas
People from Siloam Springs, Arkansas
People from Springdale, Arkansas
Arkansas politicians convicted of corruption
Politicians from Charlotte, North Carolina
Siloam Springs High School alumni
University of Arkansas alumni
21st-century American bass guitarists
21st-century American male musicians
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5400167
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyo
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Gyo
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, fully titled in Japan, is a horror seinen manga written and illustrated by Junji Ito, appearing as a serial in the weekly manga magazine Big Comic Spirits from 2001 to 2002. Shogakukan collected the chapters into two bound volumes from February to May 2002. The story revolves around a couple, Tadashi and Kaori, as they fight to survive against a mysterious horde of undead fish with metal legs powered by an odor known as the "death stench". The work also includes a pair of bonus stories, titled The Sad Tale of the Principal Post and The Enigma of Amigara Fault.
Viz Media published an English-language translation of the two volumes in North America from September 2003 to March 2004 and re-released it from October 2007 to January 2008.
An anime adaptation by Ufotable was released on February 15, 2012.
Plot
Story
Gyo opens with a crew of fishermen aboard a trawler dragging up a number of strange-looking fish in the boat's net. Upon trying to inspect the unusual creatures, they discover that the strange fish seem to have legs. The fish then suddenly scuttle away, diving back into the ocean.
Meanwhile, in Okinawa, Tadashi, a young man, and his longtime girlfriend Kaori arrive on the island to enjoy a scuba-diving vacation. Encountering a fish with legs, Kaori, who has a hyper-sensitive sense of smell, becomes irritated by its smell and begs Tadashi to get rid of it. He seals it in a bag, but it manages to escape. The next day, large amounts of marine life with legs invade Okinawa, including a legged great white shark which menaces the protagonists. Tadashi and Kaori manage to return to Tokyo, although Kaori becomes irritated and paranoid, claiming to smell the fish. They both encounter the bagged fish they originally encased and present it to his uncle, Doctor Koyanagi.
Koyanagi reveals that the creature is the result of the Imperial Japanese Army's World War II research into a virus that causes its host to produce a deadly and repulsive stench, in a desperate effort to turn the tide of the war. His father developed a "walking machine", which pumps the virus into a host and causes the host to release the gas which powers the machine's movement; walking machines were built to carry the hosts farther, allowing them to reach and sicken enemy troops. However, during the war, enemy aircraft sunk the ship carrying the prototypes for the walking machines.
A short while later, Tadashi returns to find Koyanagi missing an arm. As he was examining the machine in detail, it used a series of spikes and tubes to latch on to his arm, forcing him to amputate it. The walking machine scuttles into the room, now carrying Koyanagi's arm instead of the fish. Soon, Kaori and Tadashi discover that hordes of marine life with legs are in the process of overrunning Tokyo, having gradually invaded the Kantō region. Infected by the gas, Kaori becomes depressed by being subjected to her illness's symptoms, and attempts to commit suicide. Tadashi takes her to Koyanagi in an effort to save her but falls into a canal where he passes out after being injured by thousands of small walking fish.
Awakening a month later, he discovers that Koyanagi has placed her into a custom-built walking machine. Upon switching the machine on, Koyanagi is mortally wounded by Kaori, who quickly escapes. Wandering through the desolate city streets, Tadashi finds that most of the walking fish have decayed, and that the walking machines are now carrying infected citizens instead. He then encounters a circus, where he learns from the ringmaster that the gas appears to be alive, taking on a soul-like appearance when ignited. Tadashi encounters Kaori and retrieves her from one of the acts at the circus.
As the pair arrive at Koyanagi's lab, Koyanagi's assistant, Ms. Yoshiyama, reveals that the doctor died from his wounds. When she attempts to remove the walking machine from Kaori, Koyanagi appears, now mutated by the infection and attached to a modified walking machine in the form of an airship that allows him to fly. Kaori notices Tadashi and Ms. Yoshiyama together and attempts to attack her. During the uproar, Koyanagi manages to capture Ms. Yoshiyama and fly away while large groups of walking machines attack Kaori, and Tadashi becomes lost in his attempt to save her.
He continues to search for her, when he notices the circus troupe attack Koyanagi's airship, which deploys a set of wings and escapes. Tadashi encounters a group of students from Kyoto University, who explain that they are immune, and that the virus created the walking machines after synthesizing them from shipwrecks. He joins the students in their research to defeat the virus and save humanity. As the group walk together, Tadashi encounters Kaori's burnt remains and remarks that she is free from the smell.
Characters
: A young man who enjoys scuba diving. He has a girlfriend named Kaori and an uncle named Koyanagi. At the end he joins a group of university students, who happen to be immune from the death-stench, to create a vaccine to defeat the disease. In the OVA version, instead of Kaori, Tadashi becomes infected and is attached to a custom made walking machine by Koyanagi. The machine later turns against Koyanagi and kills him before escaping.
: Tadashi's girlfriend. She has an extremely sensitive nose and becomes very jealous when Tadashi is near other women. Due to her overly sensitive nose, she seems to be able to smell the creatures when they are nearby. However, she is later infected, causing her body to swell up and forces the gas with the "death stench" out of her body. Because of this, she began to think she was disgusting, that Tadashi wouldn't love her if she wasn't beautiful. This, along with the horrible stench, made her attempt to commit suicide. Tadashi then immediately carries her to his uncle Koyanagi's lab for aid, however Koyanagi rigs her up to a custom walking machine and ultimately, she becomes like the walking dead creatures, except with a will of her own. As a walking machine, she is eventually destroyed by a horde of other walking machines that deem the custom walker to be a threat to their survival. In the OVA adaptation, Kaori is switched with Tadashi as the main protagonist. She also possesses the unexplained immunity to the infected creatures' poisons instead of Tadashi.
: Tadashi's uncle and an inventor. He discovers it was his father, who died of a heart attack in a factory during a hot summer, was responsible for the creation of the mechanical legs. While dissecting the fish, the legs then clamp onto his arm. He cuts off his arm to prevent the infection from spreading to the rest of his body. He is fascinated by the machine, not caring that he lost an arm to it. He then creates his own version of the walking machine and puts the infected Kaori onto it. He is mortally wounded when he is stabbed by Kaori's walking machine. He then goes to Lab #2 where his father originally died and places himself onto another walking machine that is able to fly. When he notices Tadashi and Ms. Yoshiyama interacting, he attacks them both and captures her. In the OVA version, Koyanagi is shown as an antagonist who went insane and connected an infected Tadashi to the custom Walker.
: Assistant of Doctor Koyanagi, who cares for him and Tadashi. When she was seen with Tadashi by Kaori, Kaori tried to attack her. Ms. Yoshiyama then ran outside where she was captured by the Mechanical Koyanagi. She does not appear in the OVA adaptation.
The Citrous Circus: A circus troupe who establish themselves in Tokyo following the growing death stench pandemic. While most of the troupe and its animals have been infected by the disease, the seemingly immune ringmaster uses the infected and their walking machines to perform acrobatic shows, and appears to have gone insane as a result of learning of the Death Stench's true nature. Shortly after Koyanagi's flying machine is activated, the Citrous Circus attempts to use a cannon to bring down the machine, but to no avail.
The Students: A group of biology students from Kyoto University, who are immune to the Death Stench disease. Introduced at the very end of the story, Tadashi met them after the Citrous Circus attempted to attack Doctor Koyanagi's flying machine. After explaining their immunity, it is revealed by the group that the virus responsible for the Death Stench is constructing walking machines from iron-rich shipwrecks, and that they are researching a vaccine that could be capable of stopping the growing pandemic. Tadashi chooses to join the students following this discovery.
: A freelance videographer, appears only in the OVA adaption, Kaori met him in the airplane to Tokyo. Follows Kaori just to get to the location of doctor Koyanagi to get his research data. Got infected at the end of the anime before sending Kaori away to a group of survivors.
: Friend of Kaori, appears only in the OVA adaption. She is meek and slightly overweight and feels unattractive, appears to be bullied by Erika. Turned into a walker at the end of the anime.
: Friend of Kaori, appears only in the OVA adaption, an outgoing and attractive girl who has no difficulty attracting other men, and appears to be picking on Aki all the time. She gets infected by the walking fish early on. During a fight, Aki bludgeoned her to death with an ashtray, but she appears to be alive again later on.
Bonus stories
Two unrelated stories, and , are included as a pair of bonus stories, placed at the very end after the conclusion of Gyo. Although both are completely different and unrelated stories (both to each other and to Gyo), they were merged as one chapter altogether. The former is the shorter story, merely consisting of four pages, compared to the latter's thirty-one pages.
The Sad Tale of the Principal Post
The story starts with a family celebrating their new home. After noticing that her father is missing, the family's daughter hears him crying out in pain and leads her mother and brother into the basement to look for her father. In horror, the three find the father, who has somehow gotten stuck underneath a huge pillar, one of several that support the house, crushing his body. The mother tries in vain to save her husband but he warns that the pillar that traps him is the principal post of the house; if it is moved, the building will collapse. He tells his family that there is no way he can be saved, and he will sacrifice himself so his family can have their home. That evening the man succumbs to his injuries and dies, and his family places a shrine at the post. Time moves on, but his skeleton remains still trapped underneath the post, along with the mystery of how he got stuck in the first place.
The Enigma of Amigara Fault
A huge earthquake has struck an unnamed prefecture, leaving a fault to be discovered by the people on the Amigara mountain (阿弥 ami is a name element derived from Amida Buddha, and 殻 gara means "husk"). People from all over Japan, including a team of scientists, arrive at the mountain to see the strange sight for themselves.
Two hikers, Owaki and Yoshida, meet while hiking, having the same intention to see the fault. The fault is shrouded in mystery; its face being covered in human-shaped holes. It has captured nationwide interest, and several attempts to examine how far the fault goes have all ended in vain. People discussed the origins of the fault, noting that the holes are definitely not natural and must have been dug from the inside of the mountain, but questioning why the holes were made or who would have the technology to make them.
Owaki notices Yoshida is looking for something, to which she replies she is looking for a hole shaped like herself. Owaki dismisses the idea, stating it to be ridiculous, but another hiker, Nakagaki, overhearing their conversation and siding with Yoshida, claims he has found his own hole. He takes them to his hole, pointing out that it is precisely his size and shape, and that he fits into it exactly. After removing his clothes to his underwear, Nakagaki disappears into the hole before Owaki can stop him. Scientists cannot find any trace of Nakagaki inside the hole, and a rescue squad composed of people small enough to squeeze into the hole has to retreat after barely getting deep.
Later that night, Owaki has a nightmare about Nakagaki trapped inside the hole because it has been deformed by the earthquake. He wakes up to find Yoshida claiming she has found her own hole, located near the foot of the fault. Meanwhile, Nakagaki still has not been found. Another man claims a hole is made for him, and disappears into it in a panic, leading to an outburst in which several other people descend into the mountain, much to the horror of the scientists, who flee the scene. That night, Yoshida feels that the hole is calling her name and luring her into it, and she knows if she goes there, she will be trapped. Owaki tries to calm her down by stuffing her hole with rocks, and stays the night with her.
Owaki has another nightmare. He dreams that he is in the distant past, and, having committed a horrendous crime, is sentenced by a tribe living in the mountain's caves to enter a hole carved in his likeness, forced to keep walking deeper into the mountain's interior in the ever-narrowing tunnel. Owaki enters the hole and after some time moving forward in it, he can feel his neck and limbs being tortuously stretched and distorted, but he remains alive and in agony. He wakes up screaming and finds out that Yoshida has unblocked her hole and disappeared into it. As he sits mournfully in front of Yoshida's hole, he drops his flashlight and discovers his own hole, much to his horror, located near Yoshida's. Mesmerized, he strips off his clothes and enters his hole.
Several months later, the scientists are informed of another fault on the other side of the mountain, revealed during the same earthquake which exposed the first fault, but had gone undiscovered until now. This, too, has holes in it, but they are not human-shaped; instead the shapes are long and distorted. One worker examines one of the holes, and as he shines his flashlight in it, notices that a horrifyingly disfigured being is slowly inching out of the chasm.
Media
Manga
Gyo was written and illustrated by Junji Ito. In his words, the inspiration came from Steven Spielberg's Jaws: "He masterfully captured the essence of fear in the form of a man-eating shark. I thought it would be even greater to capture that fear in a man-eating shark that goes on land as well as sea." The manga, published by Shogakukan, was serialized in the weekly manga magazine Big Comic Spirits from 2001 to 2002. Shogakukan compiled the chapters into two bound volumes and published them from February 2002 to May 2002. In North America, Viz Media published volumes of the series from September 2003 to March 2004. Viz Media later re-released the series with new covers from October 2007 to January 2008.
OVA
An OVA adaptation was produced by Ufotable. It was directed by Takayuki Hirao while character designs were provided by Takuro Takahashi. The OVA was originally planned to be 30 minutes long but had evolved to 75 minutes throughout production. It was originally slated to release on December 14, 2011, but was delayed and released on February 15, 2012.
Terracotta screened the film in London at the Prince Charles Cinema from April 12–15, 2012 as part of their Terracotta Far East Film Festival. Terracotta released the film on DVD September 3, 2012. Both DVD and Blu-ray versions were also released in Australia in March 2013 by Hanabee and DVD-only in North America on July 9, 2013, by Aniplex of America.
Reception
In France, Gyo was nominated at the 37th annual Angoulême International Comics Festival. Katherine Dacey of Mangacritic.com placed the manga at #1 on her Favorite Spooky Manga list.
For the first volume, Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network praised the art and the bizarre relationship that Tadashi and Kaori share. Josephine Fortune of Mania gave it an A, praising the artwork, specifically the detail of the backgrounds. Fortune also praised the pacing of the story although noted that the plot contradicts itself later in the volume. Ken Haley of PopCultureShock gave it a B+ praising the silly moments the manga had and how they resembled that of an action/horror story normally seen in theaters. Michael Aronson of Manga Life gave it an A, echoing similar praise regarding story stating, "Logic holes and an absurd concept be damned, this is still an utterly compelling read that's sure to squeeze at one's stomach a few times." Greg McElhatton of Read About Comics noted Ito's art skill as keeping the story from becoming "silly".
For the second volume, Kimlinger continued to praise the story stating: "This final volume may be one of the most genuinely nauseating books ever to blight a shelf." Fortune gave it a B+ again praising the artwork and pacing of the plot, although noted that the plot had some holes in its logic and that readers who enjoy concrete and definitive endings may not like the ending of the manga. Aronson also noted issues with the plot, however noted, "It's still a gorgeous piece of scar tissue that seems like a polished experiment more than a deeply considered publication."
References
External links
Official website of Gyo anime
2001 manga
2012 anime OVAs
Horror anime and manga
Supernatural anime and manga
Seinen manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90etinja
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Đetinja
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Đetinja (; ) is a river in western Serbia, a long natural but shorter headstream of the Zapadna Morava River.
The Đetinja river valley serves as a route for the Belgrade-Bar railway.
Name
According to the legend which describes how the Đetinja River got its name, the Ottoman Turks in the times when they ruled these lands, once punished the local Užican people by taking their children and brutally throwing them into the river. Thus the river was named Đetinja rijeka, which in Užican dialect means the children's river. Later rijeka (river) was just dropped out of the river name, leaving only Đetinja (meaning children's).
However, the name probably originates from the old name Cetina, which meant "Horse river" and even today, one of the streams which form Đetinja is called Konjska reka (Serbian for Horse river).
Zlatibor section
The Đetinja River, as the Matijaševića reka, originates from the southeastern slopes of the Tara mountain, in western Serbia, near the field of Pusto polje. From the source to its mouth, the river flows in the eastern direction. First, it runs through the small Kremna depression, between the Tara and Zlatibor mountains, following the northern border of Mt. Zlatibor. At Kremna, five streams flow into the one river, forming Đetinja: Matijaševića reka, Konjska reka, Bratešina, Užički potok and Tomića potok.
Užice section
Đetinja Gorge
Đetinja carved a gorge, long and deep. At the village of Vrutci, the river is dammed in 1986, creating an artificial Lake Vrutci. The reservoir was supposed to solve the chronic water problems of the fast-growing town of Užice and its industry (in 1961–91, the city population grew by 266%, from 20,060 to 53,310). From the south, Đetinja receives the right tributary of Sušica, coming from the central parts of Zlatibor, and enters the Užice valley.
The gorge is known for numerous caves, sinkholes and cliffs. There are two large caves in this section. One, Megara, is situated in the gorge and the other is Potpećka cave, downstream from Užice. Several hot springs are also located in the gorge, which is also known for its wildlife, including some of the rare and endemic plant species. Also, it is one of the areas in Serbia with the most abundant number of different butterfly species. Out of 192 recorded butterfly species in Serbia, 110 can be found in the Đetinja Gorge. The river itself is inhabited by the various fish species (European chub, common barbel, gudgeon, common nase), but also by the Eurasian otter. Birds include peregrine falcon, northern goshawk, Eurasian sparrowhawk, short-toed snake eagle and numerous passerine birds. Among the mammals present in the gorge there are wild boar, roe deer and fox. Concerning plants, 24 species found in the area are internationally listed as "important", while 6 are rarities. Wildlife blossomed since the 1970s, when the railway tracks were dismantled.
Remains of the several settlements dating from the periods of the earliest development of the civilization are found in the gorge and around it. There are two major finds. The Staparska Gradina, near the Stapari village, is away from Užice. It was thoroughly explored in the late 1950s when the three levels of human habitation were discovered. The lowest and oldest is dated into the Neolithic. The middle level corresponds to the Vinča-Pločnik culture and the third one belongs to the Bronze Age. The dugouts were discovered in the oldest levels, but also the above-ground dwelling objects from the later periods. The artifacts are exhibited in the National Museum in Užice. The other find is the Rimsko groblje ("Roman cemetery"). It hasn't been explored as much as the Staparska Gradina was, but the remnants of the large, above-ground and regularly shaped stone plates. In 2015 locals build a public drinking fountain at the site. In January 2019 plans were announced for the construction of the replica of the Neolithic settlement at Staparska Gradina. The settlement will include dug outs, stilt houses, artisan workshops, etc., and should be finished by the end of 2019. Deadline was then moved to May 2020. Archaeological park "Stapark" was opened on 30 July 2022.
Undeveloped Staparska Banja ("Stapari Spa") with several thermal springs is also located in the gorge. In 2017 a pedestrian and bicycle path was built which reached the spa. Though two pools were constructed and there are swimmers, the spa is basically a mudflat. Thermal waters, with the temperature of help with the rheumatism and skin diseases. Along the new path, which follows the route of the former railroad, there are additional, old pathways, dating from the Ottoman period. In July 2017 volunteers organized and cleaned those old paths, removed the overgrowth and made of old paths accessible for the pedestrians. The path now starts at the Užice city beach and curves through the natural environment for to Staparska Banja. In September 2017, as the first greenway in Serbia, it received the 2nd prize at the 8th European Greenways Awards.
A ridable miniature railway was organized in 2018. It goes through the gorge, using the revitalized path. The route is long and connects Užice and Staparska Banja. The thermal springs were used in Roman times. A project on revitalizing the spa and its surroundings was drafted in 2018. Since the summer of 2020, the kayaking on the river is allowed. It is organized in the section from the gorge's exit to the dam before Užice.
Užice Fortress
In Užice, Đetinja runs near the remnants of an early mediaeval fortress of Užički Grad located on a steep hill surrounded by deep river canyon-like gorge. The fort originates from the 14th century. The ruins were partially revitalized in the mid-1980s and the next reconstruction, basically a continuation of the 1980s works, ensued in August 2017. For now, the reconstruction of the upper town, middle town and water tower is planned. Part will be conserved and part will be repaired. A possible modernization of the feature, which would include the bridge which would connect the fortress with the Zlatibor road, cable car, museum, hotel, etc., was also considered by the city administration.
When Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi visited the area in 1664, he described the fortress "being on the high cliff, like the town of Tokat", adding that "you can't approach it with a military charge as it is under the peak of the abysmal hill on one side, while on the three sides it is surrounded by the river Đetinja, wavy and loud." He also noted that at the time there were over 100 watermills on the river, and six bridges in the Užice area, three wooden and three made of stone.
In May 2019 it was confirmed that the pedestrian bridge across the Đetinja to the fortress will be built. The fortress itself will be reconstructed and partially rebuilt based on the detailed Austrian plans from 1737. The tower, citadel at the top and the casemate will be completely rebuilt.
In 1628, the Kasapčić Bridge was built in to connect Užice's neighborhood of Megdan with the leather tanning facilities on the right side of the river. It was built by Mehmed-beg Kasapčić, hence the name. With five arches, the long and wide bridge made of dressed tufa, it resembled the famed Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge across the Drina, built half a century before. Poet Cari Çelebi wrote a poem dedicate to Mehmed-beg Kasapčić, and the rhymes were engraved on the table which was placed on the bridge. The bridge was mined and demolished by the retreating occupational German army in 1944. At 2017 and 2021 meetings of the Turkish diplomats in Serbia with the Užice administration, the reconstruction of the bridge was announced. City administration stated that the conceptual design for the bridge, little bit shorter than the demolished one, already exists.
Dams
There is also a small hydroelectrical power plant on the Đetinja in Užice, the oldest one in Serbia and Balkan, second oldest in Europe and third oldest in world after Niagara in United States, designed according to Nikola Tesla's principles, built in 1899 and still being in use, but the large hydroelectrical potential of the river is not being used enough.
City beach
Near the Užice city centre, Đetinja is dammed to create a public swimming area, called City Beach (Gradska plaža). Local administration accepted the proposition of the local Friends of the Children Society in April 1959, and the beach was opened by the mayor Rajko Ječmenica on 7 August 1960. Engineers Miladin Pećinar and Vojimir Bojović designed and constructed the dam, respectively. The lake covers and flooded or replaced old swimming locations along the river: Lekin Vir, Kod Debele Vrbe, Kod Četvrte Stene, Plavi Jadran, Pod Bukom, Žuljin Vir, Jaz, Dragova and Fikarova Plaža.
Popular for decades, by the 2020s the number of visitors dwindled almost completely. In the upstream Užice's neighborhood of Turica wastewater was poured directly into the river, polluting the water, so occasionally the swimming is forbidden. Due to the changed technologies in the upstream hydroelectric power plants, they massively dump cold water into the Đetinja, so the water on the beach remains too cold for swimming. Also, several swimming pools, both indoor and outdoor, were opened in the city.
The Đetinja continues through the highly industrialized Užice's suburb of Sevojno and the villages of Gorjani and Potpeće.
Požega section
The river continues on the northern slopes of the Blagaja mountain and the villages of Uzići, Rupeljevo and Rasna and enters the low Tašti field, located between the Blagaja, Krstac and Crnokosa mountains, west of the town of Požega. In the field, the Đetinja receives from the left its main tributary, the Skrapež River, but less than a kilometer after the confluence, it meets the Golijska Moravica River from the south, creating the Zapadna Morava. Since the proximity of the confluences of Đetinja, Skrapež and Golijska Moravica, some sources consider all three rivers to be direct headstreams of the Zapadna Morava. Following the direction of the course, the Đetinja is a natural headstream of the Zapadna Morava, but since Golijska Moravica is 23 kilometres longer, the latter is usually considered as the main headstream.
The Đetinja's drainage area covers , it belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin. The river is not navigable.
Hydroelectricity
There are two small hydroelectrical power plants on the Đetinja. One is named “Pod Gradom” (“Suburban”) and is the oldest one in Serbia and on the Balkans, second oldest in Europe and third oldest in the world after Niagara in United States and was also designed according to Nikola Tesla's principles. Built only 4 years after Niagara, it was constructed by physicist , a friend of Tesla, and avid advocate of replacement of the gas light with the electric one.
Decision to construct the power plant was adopted on 28 March 1899 by the shareholders of the local Weaving Workshop. The foundation stone was laid in June 1899 by King Alexander I Obrenović. The king used a specially made brass hammer, which is today part of the exhibition. The project was drafted by the engineer Aćim Stevović, while the builder was Josif Granžan, a contractor from Niš. It became operational on Saint Elijah’s Day, 2 August 1900, and is still occasionally in use, using the original Siemens engines from 1900 which were repaired in 2000.
It was an enterprise of a group of Užice's industrialist, which decided to introduce the electricity in order to bust the production and lower the costs. However, the project was quite expensive. Purchase of the equipment, construction of the plant and the city grid cost 215,000 dinars in silver. The equipment was shipped by train from Berlin to Kragujevac, and then by carts through the muddy roads to Užice. The half-automatized plant produces 40 to 60 kW. There was some opposition among the local population, both unfamiliar with and afraid of the electricity. Local stories were saying that the "contraption" is wrongly positioned, that you can't make fire out of the water and how the fire can pass through the wire into the room without setting the house on fire. This changed after the power plant became operational, bringing light to the streets and some of the households, when the inhabitants began to talk about the "light coming out of the river".
The hydro plant is turned into the museum of technics and is placed under the state protection. Reconstruction of the facility began in 2017 and is to be finished in 2018. Aggregates, which are considered to be museum exhibits, will be repaired in a way to keep their authenticity. By October 2018 it was evident that the exterior of the building was changed during the reconstruction and there are plans to add another turbine which will "keep the hydro plant constantly in the system of Elektroprivreda Srbije (EPS)".
However, the reconstruction turned out to be a controversial from several other reasons than changing the appearance of the building. The EPS had no necessary permits, the museum remained closed for visitors, while the main visual feature of the plant, a small overspill waterfall which symbolically marked the end of the gorge, was extinguished. The ministry of construction ordered the EPS on 7 April 2021 to restore things as they were, but as of April 2023 nothing has been done.
The other power plant on Đetinja is “Turica”, operational since 1 January 1929, but the large hydroelectrical potential of the river is not being used enough. It has two turbines obtained from Germany as World War I reparations. It is located upstream from the town's beach and was named after the Užice's neighborhood Turica. It is situated between the Belgrade–Bar railway and the surrounding hills. It has two generators of 200 kW each. During the 2017-2018 reconstruction it was updated and revitalized with the new equipment and the process was automatized: outlets, tunnels, pipelines, generators and crane were all revitalized or replaced. Also, the reservoir was cleaned.
Altogether, there are three artificial lakes on the Đetinja: Velika brana, Mala brana and Vrutci.
Protection
Gorge
In 2016, the process of placing the gorge under the legal protection began. However, the authorities stalled the declaration of the Đetinja Gorge Outstanding Natural Landscape, so the environmentalist groups organized state wide petition in 2021–2022, an announced possible public protests and gatherings if the gorge remains unprotected.
In June 2023, the protection was officially declared by the government. The outstanding natural landscape covers . It includes rich forests of beech, maple and European hop-hornbeam.
One of the major ecological threats is the non-sanitary landfill Godovik near Požega. By 2023 it covered , stretching along the Đetinja bank. With every stronger rain, the garbage is being washed into the river. Gradual removal of the landfill began in the summer of 2023.
Lake Vrutci
In 2018, the government placed the area surrounding the Lake Vrutci and the adjoining river course under protection. Three zones of protection were established, covering some , with an aim to keep the land in the lake's watershed nonpolluted. The protected area spreads over the territories of the villages Vrutci, Bioska and Kremna, in the Town of Užice, and Tripkova and Šljivovica, in the Čajetina Municipality.
As some villages already developed organic husbandry (goats, poultry), the 2021-20218 plan was devised by the local authorities to massively expand organic agriculture in the protected area. In the hilly areas, the emphasis is on fruits: raspberries, strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, and especially the brandy-varieties of plums (crvena ranka, various Čačak varieties). Apples are also included, with development of individual driers and mini distilleries. The production of organic honey is planned, as the melliferous plants are already present in the protected area. Lowlands are selected for the vegetables and grains, including reintroduction of some old varieties: buckwheat, spelt, corn osmak, small white beans, potato mesečar, garlic, onion, cabbage Serbian melez, and medicinal herbs. Husbandry will include Alpine goat, Sjenica's pramenka sheep, pig Moravka and Naked Neck chicken.
See also
Užice
Zlatibor
Požega
References
Sources
Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition (1985); Prosveta;
Jovan Đ. Marković (1990): Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije; Svjetlost-Sarajevo;
External links
Nikola Tesla's monument in front of the Hydroelectrical power plant Vrutci at the river Đetinja
Užice
Rivers of Serbia
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5400426
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports%20in%20Seattle
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Sports in Seattle
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The Seattle metropolitan area is home to several legendary professional and amateur sports teams. This includes eight teams in major leagues, several in minor leagues, and collegiate programs for two National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I universities and one NCAA Division II university.
The city's first professional sports team was the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA)'s Seattle Metropolitans, who became the first American ice hockey team to win the Stanley Cup. Several expansion teams were created for Seattle by various leagues in the 1960s and 1970s, including the Seattle SuperSonics of the National Basketball Association in 1967; the short-lived Seattle Pilots in Major League Baseball, who played one season in 1969; the original Seattle Sounders of the North American Soccer League in 1974; the National Football League's Seattle Seahawks in 1976; and the Seattle Mariners in Major League Baseball in 1977. Several of these teams shared the Kingdome, a multipurpose venue opened in 1976, before purpose-built stadiums were built in the 1990s and 2000s.
Several professional teams in women's leagues were also established in the 21st century, including the Seattle Storm of the WNBA and OL Reign in the National Women's Soccer League. Other franchises established in the 2010s include the Seattle Kraken of the National Hockey League and the Seattle Seawolves of Major League Rugby. In 2023, the city welcomed one of the first six franchises in North America's newly-formed professional cricket (MLC) league with the arrival of the Seattle Orcas.
Major professional teams
At 4.1 million residents in 2023, Greater Seattle is now the 15th-largest metropolitan area (between metro Detroit at 4.4 million and the Twin Cities at 3.7 million) in the United States. Rapid 21st-century population growth in the counties surrounding the City of Seattle (King County; Pierce County, Washington and Snohomish County) and the satellite cities in these counties (Bellevue, WA; Tacoma, WA and Everett, WA) has quickly expanded both the variety and the level of talent in professional sports teams residing in the Puget Sound region.
Professional soccer in Seattle has always involved the Seattle Sounders, whose original team played in the defunct NASL in the 1970s through to its demise in 1983. The name lived on in a second incarnation of the team, which played in the second level of US soccer from 1994 through 2008. In November 2007, Major League Soccer announced that Seattle would host the league's fifteenth franchise to start play in 2009. The team held a vote among its fan base for the team's name between March 27 and 31, 2008 and Seattle Sounders FC was chosen. The current version of the Sounders plays at Lumen Field.
In 1976, the NFL's Seattle Seahawks began play. The Seahawks played at the Kingdome until its implosion in 2000. The Seahawks now play in Lumen Field.
In 1977, following years of legal wrangling over the move of the Seattle Pilots to Milwaukee (to become the Milwaukee Brewers), the MLB awarded Seattle a new baseball franchise, the Seattle Mariners. From 1977 the Mariners played in the Kingdome until mid-season 1999 when the team moved across the street to what is now known as T-Mobile Park, where they continue to play today.
The WNBA's Seattle Storm arrived in Seattle in 2000, and played at KeyArena through the 2018 season. After KeyArena was closed for its reconfiguration as today's Climate Pledge Arena, the Storm split their 2019 home games between Angel of the Winds Arena in Everett and Alaska Airlines Arena on the University of Washington campus. The WNBA's 2020 season, held amidst COVID-19, was completely moved to Bradenton, Florida. When the league returned to home markets in 2021, the Storm played all home games at Angel of the Winds Arena, and returned to Climate Pledge Arena in 2022.
In 2013, Seattle's professional women's soccer team OL Reign, including several members of the World Cup winning US women's national team, opened their first season as Seattle Reign FC in the National Women's Soccer League at Starfire Sports Complex and played at Memorial Stadium in Seattle Center through 2018. Starting in the 2019 NWSL season, the rebranded Reign FC began play on their new home pitch at Tacoma's Cheney Stadium. During the 2019–20 offseason, the parent company of prominent French club Olympique Lyonnais bought a majority stake in Reign FC, and soon rebranded the side yet again as OL Reign. The team returned to Seattle in 2022 and now shares Lumen Field with the Seahawks and Sounders.
In September 2012, the Seattle City Council agreed to move forward towards building a $490 million new arena in the SoDo, Seattle neighborhood. This commitment was intended to help bring the NBA back to Seattle along with the NHL. Instead, five years later, on December 3, 2017, the Council approved the expansion of Key Arena in Seattle Center, under the direction of the Oak View Group. Three days later, on December 6, 2017, the NHL awarded a new franchise opportunity to Seattle.
In 1976, Seattle was awarded a conditional NHL franchise; however, this opportunity did not come to fruition. The new professional hockey team was originally expected to join the league in the 2020-21 season, given an on-time completion of the Arena expansion project. On December 4, 2018, the NHL Board of Governors unanimously approved Seattle's bid to become the 32nd NHL team, being the Seattle Kraken. The Kraken's inaugural season was played in the revamped Key Arena - now Climate Pledge Arena - starting in October 2021. The new Seattle franchise expanded and rebalanced the league to four 8-team divisions, equal to the NFL in size. In just their second regular season, the Seattle Kraken made their first trip to the Stanley Cup Playoffs from the top Wild Card position in the Pacific Division (NHL). Unexpectedly, the Kraken defeated the previous-season's Stanley Cup winning Colorado Avalanche (NHL) in Game 7 of their first-round series, knocking out the defending champs and securing the 32nd franchise's first playoff series victory.
In 2017, the Seattle Seawolves became one of the founding teams of the newly-formed Major League Rugby. The Seawolves won back-to-back titles in the first two seasons of the league's existence, defeating the Glendale Raptors 23–19 in 2018 and San Diego Legion 26–23 in 2019.
Current major professional teams
Championships
As of 2023, the city of Seattle enjoys a total of 21 national & international professional team championships, including one Stanley Cup, one NBA Championship, one Super Bowl, four WNBA championships, four U.S. Open Cups, one MLS Supporters' Shield, two MLS Cups, one CONCACAF Champions League Cup, three NWSL Shields, one The Women's Cup trophy and two MLR Championship Shields. Nineteen of these twenty-one titles were won in the 21st century, over the course of 18 years (2004-2022).
Seattle's first professional sports championship was brought to the city by the Seattle Metropolitans in 1917, when they became the first American team to win the coveted Stanley Cup by beating the Montreal Canadiens three games to one. They returned to the Stanley Cup finals twice more. Their first return, again versus Montreal, was in 1919; that series was cancelled due to an outbreak of influenza with the two teams tied at 2–2–1. The Metropolitans last went to the Stanley Cup finals in 1920, when they lost to the Ottawa Senators.
Led by Lenny Wilkens, the Seattle SuperSonics made it to the NBA Finals in two consecutive years in the late 1970s. In 1978 they lost the championship series to the Washington Bullets in seven games, but rebounded in 1979 to defeat the Bullets by four games to one to win the NBA Championship. The next time the Sonics made it to NBA Finals was in 1996 when they met the Chicago Bulls, to whom they lost the series in six games.
Another national basketball championship trophy arrived in 2004, when the Seattle Storm defeated the Connecticut Sun two games to one to win the WNBA championship. The Seattle Storm won their second WNBA title in 2010, beating the Atlanta Dream in 3 games. Eight years later, the Storm swept the Washington Mystics in 2018 to take their third national championship. The team earned a fourth WNBA title in 2020 in a sweep against the Las Vegas Aces with all games played at a quarantined facility in Florida.
The Seattle Mariners have won the American League West Pennant three times – in 1995, 1997, and, most recently, in 2001, after a record 116-win season. The Mariners, however, have yet to win an American League Championship Series or participate in a World Series Championship. After the then-longest playoff drought in professional American sports (21 years), the Mariners clinched their next trip to the post-season on September 30, 2022 by defeating the Oakland Athletics with a walk-off home run in the ninth inning in front of a sold-out crowd at T-Mobile Park.
Seattle Sounders FC won the U.S. Open Cup in the team's inaugural season of 2009. The Sounders won the U.S. Open Cup again in 2010, becoming the first MLS team to achieve back-to-back U.S. Open Cup Titles. Seattle continued its U.S. Open Cup dominance in the 2011 campaign, becoming the fourth team ever to win the tournament in three consecutive years (the last being the Greek American AA in 1967–69). The Sounders beat the Chicago Fire 2–0 in front of a then record-setting MLS crowd of 35,615 at CenturyLink Field (now Lumen Field) on October 4, 2011. On September 16, 2014, the Sounders captured their fourth U.S. Open Cup title, overcoming the Philadelphia Union – on the Union's home pitch – in extra time by a final score of 3–1. On October 25, 2014, in front of a crowd of 57,673 at CenturyLink Field, the Sounders topped the LA Galaxy by a score of 2–0 to claim their first MLS Supporters' Shield. The Sounders captured their first Western Conference title when they defeated the Colorado Rapids by an aggregate score of 3–1 on November 27, 2016, in Commerce City, Colorado. Then, on December 10, 2016 in front of a crowd of 36,000 at BMO Field, the Sounders won their first MLS Cup against Toronto FC in a penalty shootout by a score of 5–4. The following season - on December 9, 2017 - the Sounders returned to the MLS Cup against Toronto FC (held again at BMO Field). This time, the Sounders lost the Cup to the home team by a score of 0–2. On November 10, 2019, the Sounders played in their third MLS Cup against Toronto FC, winning 3–1 to achieve their second title with a club-record home attendance of 69,274. On May 4, 2022 - in front of a home crowd of 68,751 - the Sounders became the first MLS team to win the 2022 CONCACAF Champions League, defeating Mexican side Pumas UNAM with an aggregate score of 5 goals to 2.
In 2014 – the second regular season of the U.S. National Women's Soccer League – Seattle Reign FC (known as OL Reign after being acquired by the ownership group of Olympique Lyonnais) attained the highest season point total of all nine league teams to receive their first NWSL Shield award. The Reign became the league's first team to repeat this achievement when they defeated the Boston Breakers at Memorial Stadium on August 26, 2015. On October 1, 2022, the OL Reign clinched their third NWSL Shield by defeating the Orlando Pride 3–0.
The Seahawks have won nine NFL division titles, including two in the AFC West and seven in the NFC West. They won the NFC championship in 2006, earning them their first trip to Super Bowl XL, where they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers 21–10. In 2014, the Seahawks defeated the San Francisco 49ers at CenturyLink Field, to clinch their second NFC title and a berth in Super Bowl XLVIII, where they routed the Denver Broncos 43–8 to win their first Lombardi trophy. The following season, the Seahawks overcame a deficit in the NFC championship game with the Green Bay Packers in the final minutes of the fourth quarter to claim their first back-to-back George Halas trophies. In Super Bowl XLIX at the University of Phoenix Stadium (now State Farm Stadium), the Seahawks missed the opportunity to claim their second Super Bowl win in the final seconds of the fourth quarter, falling to the New England Patriots by a score of 28–24.
Other teams
The Seattle Thunderbirds are a Major Junior league ice hockey team that plays at the ShoWare Center. The Thunderbirds arrived in Seattle in 1977 as the Seattle Breakers, before changing to their current name in 1985. They play in the Western Hockey League, one of three components of the Canadian Hockey League, traditionally a major feeder system for the NHL. The Thunderbirds won their first WHL Ed Chynoweth Cup on May 14, 2017, against the Regina Pats by a score of 4 games to 2. Also, they defeated the Winnipeg Ice 4 games to 1 in the finals to win another Ed Chynoweth Cup in 2023.
Originally arriving in 1974, the men's soccer team Seattle Sounders played in Seattle until 1983 when the North American Soccer League collapsed due to overexpansion. The Seattle Sounders were brought back in 1994 and played in the USL First Division at what was then known as Qwest Field. Six years later the men's team was joined by a women's team of the same name (now known as the Seattle Sounder Angels) which plays in a nearby suburb, Tukwila. In 2008, the USL incarnation of the Sounders played its last season, and in 2009 Seattle Sounders FC began playing in MLS, America's top soccer division. The Sounders play league matches at the since-renamed Lumen Field, but use the Starfire Sports Complex in Tukwila for matches in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup (except when they host the final). OL Reign was established in 2013 and compete in the National Women's Soccer League; the team returned to Seattle in 2022 after three seasons at Cheney Stadium in Tacoma and now shares Lumen Field with the Sounders and Seahawks. It was originally named Seattle Reign FC, after a women's basketball team in the former American Basketball League, and played at Starfire and Memorial Stadium. Upon moving to Tacoma in 2019, they changed their name to Reign FC, and after being purchased in 2020 by the parent company of French Ligue 1 power Olympique Lyonnais, rebranded again as OL Reign.
Current teams
Championships
The Seattle Sounders (USL) won the A-League championship in 1995 and 1996 and the US First Division championship in 2005 and 2007.
The Seattle SeaDogs defeated the Houston Hotshots two games to none for the Continental Indoor Soccer League championship in 1997.
The Washington Stealth defeated the Toronto Rock 15–11 at Xfinity Arena - now Angel of the Winds Arena in Everett for the National Lacrosse League Champion's Cup in 2010.
The Seattle Sockeye won the USA Ultimate Club Championships in 2004, 2006, 2007, and 2019. They won the gold medal at the World Ultimate Club Championships (WUCC) in 1997 in Vancouver, British Columbia. They also won the silver medal at the World Ultimate Games (WUGC) in 2008 in Vancouver and at WUCC in 2010 in Prague, Czech Republic.
The Seattle Grizzlies won the USAFL Division 3 Title in 2017 as well as the Division 2 Title in 2008.
The Seattle Thunderbirds were the 2-time WHL champions in the 2016–17 and 2022–23 seasons.
College and high school sports
College sports
The University of Washington, Seattle University, and Seattle Pacific University field teams in a variety of sports, including football, basketball, and rowing. Their teams are known as the Huskies, Redhawks, and Falcons, respectively. The Husky football team has a following that ranks with those of the major professional teams in the city. In 1991, the Huskies shared an NCAA Division I collegiate football championship with the Hurricanes of the University of Miami. In 2005 the Huskies volleyball team won the NCAA title.
A Huskies rowing team represented the United States at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany and defeated the Nazi Germany team to win the gold medal. The story was later chronicled in the 2013 book The Boys in the Boat.
In addition to the Seattle-based teams, the Spokane-based Gonzaga Bulldogs play one men's basketball game each season at Climate Pledge Arena in an event billed as the Battle in Seattle.
High school and youth sports
Rugby is growing in Seattle at the high school and youth level, with several schools adding programs, such as Shorecrest, Roosevelt and Nathan Hale High School.
Former teams
Former major professional teams
The first professional team to play in Seattle was the PCHA Seattle Metropolitans, which played in the Seattle Ice Arena between 1915 and 1924.
In 1967, the NBA's Seattle SuperSonics (more commonly known as the "Sonics") became the first modern-day major professional sports franchise in Seattle. However, in 2008, the Sonics' ownership group moved the team to Oklahoma City.
In 1969, the Major League Baseball Seattle Pilots were established, but only played one year in Seattle before moving to Milwaukee. The Pilots' sole season was immortalized in Jim Bouton's book Ball Four.
Other former teams
Other sports
Swimmer Helene Madison (1913–1970) of Seattle won three gold medals at the 1932 Olympic Games.
The Seattle Dojo, which was founded before 1907, is the oldest judo academy in the United States.
Sporting events
Seattle has been host to a number of important sporting events. It hosted the NFL Pro Bowl in 1977, the Major League Baseball All-Star Game in 1979 and 2001, the NBA All-Star Game in 1974 and 1987, the MLS Cup in 2009 and 2019, the Goodwill Games in 1990 and the NCAA Final Four in 1984, 1989 and 1995. On July 22, 2017 at KeyArena, the Seattle Storm hosted the WNBA All-Star Game for the first time. Seattle will host the 2023 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at T-Mobile Park on July 11, 2023. The NHL Winter Classic is January 1, 2024 and features the Seattle Kraken and Vegas Golden Knights.
In 1998, the Seattle City Council rejected a resolution 8-to-1 that would have allowed Seattle to be considered for the 2012 Summer Olympics.
The Seattle Marathon has taken place annually since 1970.
Seattle has hosted several United States men's national soccer team and United States women's national soccer team events in the past, including men's FIFA World Cup qualifying matches in 1976 and 2013.
Lumen Field has hosted CONCACAF Gold Cup matches in 2005 and 2013. The stadium was also proposed as a 2016 Copa América venue and was considered, along with Husky Stadium, in the failed U.S. bid for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.
2026 FIFA World Cup
Lumen Field is one of eleven U.S. venues which will host matches during the 2026 FIFA World Cup.
See also
Ice hockey in Seattle
History of professional soccer in Seattle
History of the Seattle Mariners
Notes and references
Culture of Seattle
Tourist attractions in Seattle
Seattle Sports
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20High%20School%20League
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Catholic High School League
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The Catholic High School League (CHSL) is a school athletic conference based in Detroit, Michigan, led by director Victor Michaels. Most member schools are also members of the Michigan High School Athletic Association (MHSAA), the governing body for Michigan scholastic sports, except for the five schools from Toledo, which are members of the Ohio High School Athletic Association. Unlike many similar leagues, the CHSL governs secondary, middle, and elementary sports for most of the parochial schools in the Detroit area. Most league schools are Catholic, but there are other religious denominations as well. Every school in the CHSL is a private school. In 2019, the CHSL council voted to rename the AB/ Division I/II championship to the Bishop division championship, and the CD/ Division III/IV championship to the Cardinal Division championship.
Member schools
Sports
At the high school level, the league supports sixteen girls sports and fourteen boys sports.
Girls Sports: basketball, bowling, cheerleading, cross -country, field hockey, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, pom-pon, ski, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track and volleyball.
Boys Sports: baseball, basketball, bowling, cross-country, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, ski, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and wrestling.
Girls CHSL Divisions
Divisional alignments may vary from sport to sport, depending upon the number of schools participating in the sport and the enrollment of those participating schools. Listed below are typical divisional alignments for a common sport, in this case girls basketball (as of April, 2015).
Central Division
Bloomfield Hills Marian
Dearborn Divine Child
Farmington Hills Mercy
Warren Regina
AA Division
Allen Park Cabrini
Ann Arbor Father Gabriel Richard
Macomb Lutheran North
Pontiac Notre Dame Preparatory
Riverview Gabriel Richard
East Division
Clarkston Everest Collegiate
Bloomfield Hills Cranbrook-Kingswood
Madison Heights Bishop Foley Catholic
Marine City Cardinal Mooney Catholic
Royal Oak Shrine Catholic
Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes
Wixom St. Catherine of Siena Academy
West Division
Bloomfield Hills Academy of the Sacred Heart
Detroit Cristo Rey
Macomb Austin Catholic
West Bloomfield Frankel Jewish Academy
Boys CHSL Divisions
Divisional alignments may vary from sport to sport, depending upon the number of schools participating in the sport and the enrollment of those participating schools. Listed below are typical divisional alignments for a common sport, in this case boys basketball (as of April, 2015).
Central Division
Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice
Detroit Catholic Central
University of Detroit Jesuit
Orchard Lake St. Mary's Preparatory
Warren De La Salle Collegiate
AA Division
Ann Arbor Father Gabriel Richard
Dearborn Divine Child
Detroit Loyola
Macomb Lutheran North
Jackson Lumen Christi
Intersectional 1 Division
Allen Park Cabrini
Bloomfield Hills Cranbrook-Kingswood
Madison Heights Bishop Foley Catholic
Royal Oak Shrine Catholic
Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes
Intersectional 2 Division
Clarkston Everest Catholic
Detroit Cristo Rey
Macomb Austin Catholic
Marine City Cardinal Mooney Catholic
Riverview Gabriel Richard
West Bloomfield Frankel Jewish Academy
Former League Members (closed schools)
Footnotes:
Monroe County
Catholic Central High School, Monroe (opened in 1944), and St. Mary Academy, Monroe (opened in 1846), became St. Mary Catholic Central High School in 1986 when the two schools merged.
Washtenaw County
Ann Arbor St. Thomas High School became Father Gabriel Richard High School in 1978.
Wayne County
Detroit Cristo Rey High School occupies the former Detroit Holy Redeemer High School building.
Our Lady of Mercy High School in Detroit moved to Farmington in 1965 and changed its name to Mercy High School that same year.
Redford St. Agatha High School became St. Katharine Drexel High School in 2003.
Redford Bishop Borgess High School closed in 2005 and became Redford Covenant High School which closed in 2009.
Accomplishments
Since its founding in 1926, CHSL member schools have won nearly 300 state titles (through 2015).
Former Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice and Royal Oak Shrine head coach Al Fracassa holds the state record for all-time football coaching wins with 430 while Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes' former head coach Mike Boyd is third at 361 wins (all at one school), and current Detroit Catholic Central head coach Tom Mach is fourth with 348 wins (as of 2014).
Current Warren Regina head coach Diane Laffey is the winningest coach in MHSAA softball history with 1,118 victories through the 2015 season. She also is the third winningest head coach in MHSAA girls basketball with 619 wins as of 2015.
In boys basketball, Orchard Lake St. Mary's is the state's second-winningest all-time program with 1,250 wins (as of 2009).
Bloomfield Hills Cranbrook-Kingswood has the most ever boys ice hockey state championships with seventeen (as of 2015), and the most boys tennis state titles with eighteen (as of 2015). Cranbrook-Kingswood also has sixteen girls tennis state championships, the most ever in that sport in Michigan history (as of 2015).
Detroit St. Martin de Porres holds the record for the most state titles in boys track with fifteen (as of 2015).
Madison Heights Bishop Foley holds the most girls soccer state titles in Michigan history with twelve (as of 2015).
Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes has the most softball state championships in Michigan history with eight (as of 2015).
Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice has won all but one boys lacrosse state championships in Division 1 since the sport started having state championships in 2005.
Notable CHSL Alumni
Names of notable alumni are listed in descending order based on their respective year of high school graduation.
Cassius Winston, Professional Basketball Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 2016
Joshua Gatt, Professional Soccer Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 2010
Allen Robinson, Former NFL Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 2010
Dion Sims, Former NFL Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 2009
Ryan Riess, 2013 World Series of Poker Main Event Champion, Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes, 2008
Greg Pateryn, NHL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 2008
Mike Martin, NFL Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 2008
DJ LeMahieu, MLB Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 2007
Brad Galli, WXYZ-TV Sports Reporter, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 2007
Kalin Lucas, Former NBA Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 2007
T. J. Lang , NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 2005
Connor Barwin, NFL Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 2005
Morgan Trent, Former NFL Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 2003
Geoff Pope, Former NFL Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 2002
Braylon Edwards, Former NFL Player, Harper Woods Bishop Gallagher, 2001
Grant Mason, Former NFL Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 2001
Matt Baker, Retired NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 2001
Alex Shelley, Professional wrestler, Detroit Catholic Central, 2001
Ben Blackwell, writer, drummer, co-founder of Third Man Records, Notre Dame High School (Harper Woods, Michigan), 2000
Klint Kesto, State Representative (Michigan), Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1999
Kristen Bell, Actress, Royal Oak Shrine, 1998
Mark Campbell, Former NFL Player, Madison Heights Bishop Foley, 1994
Doug Brzezinski, Former NFL Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1994
Brooke Elliott, Actress, Riverview Gabriel Richard, 1993
Kerry Zavagnin, Former MLS Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1992
Ron Rice, NFL Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1991
Keegan-Michael Key, Actor and Comedian, Royal Oak Shrine, 1989
Mike Peplowski, Former NBA Player, Warren De La Salle, 1988
Scott Kowalkowski, Former NFL Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 1987
Tom Lewand, former Detroit Lions President, Royal Oak Shrine, 1987
Craig Wolanin, Former NHL Player, Warren De La Salle, 1985
Mike Lodish, Retired NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1985
Bob Kula, Retired NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1985
B. J. Armstrong, Retired NBA Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1985
Gus Johnson, Sportscaster, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1985
Mark Messner, Former NFL Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1984
Pat Shurmur, Former NFL Head Coach, Dearborn Divine Child, 1983
Thaddeus McCotter, Former U.S. Congressman, Detroit Catholic Central, 1983
Meg Mallon, Professional Golfer, Farmington Mercy, 1981
Tom Jankiewicz, Screenwriter, Madison Heights Bishop Foley, 1981
Steve Phillips, Former New York Mets General Manager, Warren De La Salle, 1981
Thomas Sugrue, Historian, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1980
Denis O'Hare, Actor, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1980
Brian Brennan , NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1980
Mike Cox, Former Michigan Attorney General, Detroit Catholic Central, 1980
Andy Dillon, Former Michigan Speaker of the House, Detroit Catholic Central, 1980
Michealene Risley, Writer and Director, Madison Heights Bishop Foley, 1978
Jim Paciorek, Former MLB Player, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 1978
Brian Zahara, Michigan Supreme Court Justice, Dearborn Divine Child, 1977
Bill Sheridan, Former NFL Player, Warren De La Salle, 1977
Chris Hansen , Former NBC Television News Reporter, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1977
Chris Godfrey, Former NFL Player, Warren De La Salle, 1976
Mike Duggan, Mayor of Detroit, Detroit Catholic Central, 1976
Mike Bouchard, Oakland County (Michigan) Sheriff, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1974
Tom LaGarde, Member of 1976 U.S. Olympic basketball team and retired NBA Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1973
Greg Collins , Actor and retired NFL Player, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1971
Frank Tanana, Retired MLB Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1971
Joseph LoDuca, Music Composer, Warren De La Salle, 1970
Bill Simpson, Former NFL Player, Royal Oak Shrine, 1970
Mike Varty, Former NFL Player, Austin Catholic Preparatory, 1970
Gary Danielson, Former NFL Player, Dearborn Divine Child, 1969
Peter Leonard, Author, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1969
David M. Lawson, United States Federal Judge, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1969
Paul Seymour, Former NFL Player, Royal Oak Shrine, 1968
Richard Tarnas, Author, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1968
Lawrence Joseph, Poet, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1966
J. Richard Fredericks, Former U.S. Ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1964
Gerald McGowan, Former U.S. Ambassador to Portugal, Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice, 1964
Bob King, United Auto Workers President, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1964
Jim Seymour, Former NFL Player, Royal Oak Shrine, 1964
James Tocco, internationally-known concert pianist, Austin Catholic Preparatory School, 1961.
William "Bill" Chmielewski, Former ABA Player, Detroit Holy Redeemer, 1960
William B. Fitzgerald, Jr., Majority Leader of the Senate, Michigan Legislature. Austin Catholic Preparatory School, 1960
Michael Moriarty, Actor, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1959
Michael Cavanagh, Michigan Supreme Court Justice, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1958
Dave DeBusschere, player for the Chicago White Sox, Detroit Pistons, and New York Knicks, Austin Catholic Preparatory School, 1958
L. Brooks Patterson, Oakland County, Michigan Executive, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1957
Bruce Maher, Former NFL Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1955
Greg Marx, Former NFL Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1968
J.P. McCarthy, WJR Radio Personality, Warren De La Salle, 1950
Adam Maida, Former Cardinal Archbishop Emeritus of Detroit, Orchard Lake St. Mary's, 1948
Thomas E. Brennan, Former Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court Detroit Catholic Central, 1947
Manuel Moroun, Transportation Magnate, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1945
Elmore Leonard, Former novelist and screenwriter, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1943
John McCabe, Author, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1938
Vince Banonis, Former NFL Player, Detroit Catholic Central, 1938
Andy Farkas, Former NFL Player, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1934
George D. O'Brien, Former U.S. Congressman, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1917
Louis C. Rabaut, Former U.S. Congressman, University of Detroit Jesuit, 1905
Girls' Basketball Championships
Girls' basketball championship facts:
Since CHSL girls basketball championship games began being played in 1974, and through 2016, the Bloomfield Hills Marian Mustangs have won fifteen CHSL championships, the most of any school in league history.
The Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes Lakers are second in league history with seven CHSL championships.
The Livonia Ladywood Blazers, the Farmington Hills Mercy Marlins and the Detroit St. Martin de Porres Eagles are all tied for third with six championships each.
Softball Championships
Softball championship facts:
Since CHSL softball championship games began being played in 1975, and through 2015, the Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes Lakers have won the most softball championships of any school in league history with fourteen.
The Allen Park Cabrini Monarchs have the second most softball championships with eleven, while the Warren Regina Saddlelites follow closely behind with ten championships.
Football Championships
In 1926, Detroit Holy Redeemer and Detroit St. Leo faced each other in the first football game to determine the champion of the Detroit Parochial League (later the CHSL). Holy Redeemer won that game 14-9.
The game has been played every year since 1926 under various names, with Detroit Catholic Central winning twenty-eight football league championship games, the most of any school in league history.
Starting in 1948, the league championship game was called "The Soup Bowl", as the Capuchin Soup kitchen became the benefactor of some of the proceeds from the game.
The Soup Bowl game was always played at University of Detroit Stadium.
After the affiliation with the Capuchins ended in 1967 the game was called the "Charity Bowl" and since 1971 the "Prep Bowl".
The Prep Bowl was played at the Pontiac Silverdome and, since 2002, at Ford Field. The Prep Bowl today also involves the Detroit Catholic Youth Organization (CYO) for Catholic elementary schools as well as games within the high school divisions of the CHSL.
Prep Bowl facts:
Through 2015, the winningest high schools in Prep Bowl history, regardless of divisions, are:
Bloomfield Hills Brother Rice (twenty-three A-B Division, Central-AA Division and Wildcard wins)
Detroit Catholic Central (twenty A-B Division, Central-AA Division and Wildcard wins)
Waterford Our Lady of the Lakes (fourteen C-D Division and Wildcard wins)
For all Prep Bowl high school football game results, click here
Soup Bowl Fact:
St. Mary of Redford won the most Soup Bowl games (7) followed by Grosse Pointe St. Ambrose (5).
Parochial League Football Championship Facts:
From 1926 to 1947, Detroit Catholic Central won the most league football championships (6) followed by Detroit Holy Redeemer (4) and Detroit St. Theresa of Avila (4).
Operation Friendship
In 1947, the Detroit City League boys basketball champion and the Detroit Parochial League boys basketball champion met at Olympia Stadium in Detroit to play for the first time to determine who would wear the crown as the Detroit City Basketball Champions. The game between Detroit Miller High School and Detroit St. Joseph High School drew so much interest it sold out Olympia Stadium, with a capacity of 11,563 and in so doing established a state record for attendance at a high school basketball game.
This was the first of what would, in later years, become known as the Operation Friendship Championship pitting the best of the Detroit Public School League against the Catholic High School League.
At the end of the evening, the Detroit Miller Trojans defeated the Detroit St. Joseph Blue Jays 47-34 to claim the first ever Detroit City Basketball High School Championship.
Since that game, the Detroit Public School League champions and the Detroit Catholic High School League champions have met nearly every year to determine the Detroit City Champions. In later years, the game would become known as the Operation Friendship Championship. The game has been played at University of Detroit's Calihan Hall (formerly Memorial Hall) virtually every year, although Cobo Arena in Detroit has also hosted the basketball classic.
Operation Friendship facts:
The Public School League has won 41 of the 56 Operation Friendship Championship Games played through 2016.
Since 2005, the CHSL has won six Operation Friendship championships, while the PSL has won five.
Detroit Southwestern has won the most Operation Friendship championship games with nine, followed by Detroit Northwestern with five and Detroit Eastern/Detroit King with five. Orchard Lake St. Mary's Prep has won three Operation Friendship championship games, the most among CHSL schools.
Goodfellow Game
The Goodfellow Game was an annual high school football game for the unofficial city of Detroit high school football championship. The game was played between the champions of the Detroit City League (later the Detroit Public School League) and the Detroit Parochial League (later the Catholic High School League). The Goodfellow Game was played every year from 1938 through 1967. The Goodfellow Game was always played at Briggs/Tiger Stadium.
The Goodfellow Game was played in a time before Michigan had a high school state championship playoff. As a result, the Goodfellow Game was considered one of the state's most prestigious high school football games of its time.
Goodfellow Game facts:
The Detroit Parochial League won sixteen Goodfellow Games, the Detroit City League won eleven and there were three ties in the 30 Goodfellow Games played.
The Detroit Denby Tars played in the most Goodfellow Games of any school with nine. The Detroit St. Mary of Redford Rustics played in seven Goodfellow Games, the most among Detroit Parochial League schools.
The Grosse Pointe St. Ambrose Cavaliers and the Detroit Catholic Central Shamrocks won the most Goodfellow Games with five each. The Detroit Denby Tars won four Goodfellow Games, the most among Detroit City League schools.
The Grosse Pointe St. Ambrose Cavaliers had the most Goodfellow Game shutouts with three, while the Detroit Denby Tars had the most tied Goodfellow Games with two.
The University of Detroit High Cubs played in three Goodfellows Games, all representing the Detroit City League, before joining the Detroit Parochial League in 1958.
The Goodfellow Game regularly drew crowds of 40,000 spectators at its peak in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
References
External links
Catholic High School League
Aodonline.org
Michigan high school sports conferences
High school sports conferences and leagues in the United States
Catholic sports organizations
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive%20industry%20in%20Mexico
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Automotive industry in Mexico
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Motorcars first arrived in Mexico City in 1903, and since then several vehicle brands have been especially successful. A number of manufacturers make vehicles in Mexico, and may brands have been and continue to be available.
History
Early years (1903–1960)
In 1903, motorcars first arrived in Mexico City, totaling 136 cars in that year and rising to 800 by 1906. This encouraged then president Porfirio Díaz, to create both the first Mexican highway code (which would allow cars to move at a maximum speed of 10 km/h or 6 mph on crowded or small streets and 40 km/h or 25 mph elsewhere) and, along with this, a tax for car owners which would be abolished in 1911 with Francisco I. Madero's successful campaign against Díaz's presidency at the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution. In 1910, Daimler and Renault both established small facilities for the local assembly of vehicles primarily for the Mexican government at the behest of Porfirio Díaz, but these functioned for little more than a few months before being destroyed in the Mexican Revolution. A short time after the end of the armed struggle, Buick became the first automobile producer to be officially established in Mexico, beginning in 1921. In 1925, Ford Motor Company was established and began manufacturing vehicles in the country, and, as of 2020, remains the longest-running brand in the country. In 1961, Mexico produced its first fully domestic vehicle, a small truck called the Rural Ramírez, produced by the Ramirez truck company.
Decline (1961–1993)
Many car makers were already operational by 1961 when the first decline of the Mexican economy showed up. In the early 1960s, government regulations forced car companies to assemble cars in Mexico, using local as well as imported components. The idea was to develop a national car industry in the country, to promote employment and technological advances. Those companies that would not comply with these regulations left the country; these included Mercedes Benz, FIAT, Citroën, Peugeot and Volvo. The American Big Three (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) remained along with American Motors, Renault, Volkswagen, Datsun and Borgward.
In this same year, due to the announcement of the upcoming 1968 Summer Olympics to be held in Mexico, the Government reissued Diaz's car ownership tax, purportedly to afford the construction of new facilities for such an event; this was named the Tenencia Vehicular (from the verb tener; "to have" in Spanish). However, the tax remained to finance the 1970 FIFA World Cup, also held in Mexico. Ironically, the tax remains today in most states, and it must be paid year after year.
This tax is variable depending on the car's value, number of cylinders, type of transmission, air conditioning and further features, adding up to a payment of up to 10% of the car's total value.
A second tax exists as well when purchasing a new vehicle called Impuesto sobre Automóviles Nuevos or ISAN ("Tax on new cars"), also depending on a vehicle's specifications and cost. Unlike the Tenencia, this tax is paid only once. Federal law requires all listed car prices in media or dealerships to have the standard 16% VAT tax and ISAN included in the listed price.
Since many Mexican drivers default on paying this tax, the Government started taking countermeasures. However, due to this being perceived as uncontrollable, politicians started making proposals to abolish this tax, remarkably Felipe Calderón.
Tenencia has, as of 2011, only been abolished in Querétaro. On 4 March 2011, President Calderón announced Tenencia will be completely abolished by 2012 in all states, but not in the Federal District which comprises most of Mexico City.
Rebirth (1994–2006)
The growth of Mexico's economy during the late '90s stimulated car sales in Mexico and, eventually, most of the retired carmakers re-established themselves in the country. Makers such as Honda and Porsche arrived for the first time during the last years of the 20th Century, and others such as Peugeot and Mercedes-Benz gave Mexico a "second chance", both re-establishing in 1997.
Annual passenger vehicle sales in Mexico reached the one million milestone in 2005. The increasing sales figures encouraged carmakers to offer cars with alternative fuels like the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Volkswagen Jetta TDI. Such cars hadn't been available in Mexico since the first diesel-powered Volkswagen Caribe in the late 70's and early 80's (see paragraphs for each maker: Honda and Volkswagen); still few carmakers have released their diesel-powered versions in the Mexican market due to stricter government emissions laws than those of the European Union Euro IV standard. This results in a petrol only car market in which drivers cannot reap the potential benefits of diesel automobiles. Diesel cars are not suited/permitted for every day driving in Mexico City; brand new diesel vehicles face the "Hoy no Circula" restrictions.
Current market (2007–present)
Mexican studio Mastretta Cars first announced the creation of their MXT through Automóvil Panamericano magazine in May 2007. The vehicle is the first Mexican sports car ever built, and features specifications similar to those of Lotus Elise and Porsche Cayman.
The production of MXT started in January 2011.
In 2010, Mexican bus maker Cimex announced that it was expanding into the passenger vehicle field and was developing a pickup truck called the Conin which would be Mexico's first domestic pickup truck when expected to enter production in 2013.
To date, 42 makers have official representation in the country with nearly 400 different models, making Mexico one of the most varied automotive markets in the world.
The automotive sector accounts for 17.6% of Mexico's manufacturing sector. Mexico is the second largest automobile manufacturing nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, having produced 4 million vehicles in 2017. The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in research and development. The "Big Three" (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s. In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen. In the 2010s, expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014, more than $10 billion in investment was committed in the first few months of the year. Kia Motors in August 2014 announced plans for a $1 billion factory in Nuevo León. At the time, Mercedes-Benz and Nissan were already building a $1.4 billion plant near Aguascalientes, while BMW was planning a $1-billion assembly plant in San Luis Potosí. Additionally, Audi began building a $1.3 billion factory near Puebla in 2013. Of the Mexican car exports to the US, most are carried by rail, and some by sea.
Vehicle use restrictions
In Mexico City the "Hoy no circula" ("Cannot be driven today") program is implemented. Every vehicle has a color sticker depending on the ending number of its plate, as well as a number to determine its pollution rate. Brand new cars "00" and recent models "0" are exempt; "Hoy no circula" only applies to vehicles older than 8 years, which have "1" and "2" designations.
The program works by removing these vehicles from circulation one day during the week, and recently one Saturday per month, depending on their last license plate digit number.
Said limitations occur as follows:
Plates ending with 5 or 6 (yellow) cannot be driven on Mondays and the 1st Saturday of the current month.
Plates ending with 7 or 8 (pink) cannot be driven on Tuesdays and the 2nd Saturday of the current month.
Plates ending with 3 or 4 (red) cannot be driven on Wednesdays and the 3rd Saturday of the current month.
Plates ending with 1 or 2 (green) cannot be driven on Thursdays and the 4th Saturday of the current month.
Plates ending with 9 or 0 (blue) cannot be driven on Fridays and the 5th Saturday (if any) of the current month.
For example, a fictional 1985 Volkswagen Golf with 903-NRX plates won't be allowed to be driven on Wednesdays, 18 September 2010, nor 16 October 2010, etc.
The newer weekends restrictions have received criticism. Only a few months a year have five Saturdays, and so the blue-stickered cars will be removed only four or five weekends a year from circulation, while the rest of the cars will be weekend-banned once every month.
Automotive culture and Mexico's auto show
Since the first "Autoexpo del Automóvil", the automotive culture in Mexico has been growing. The first Mexican auto magazines were published in November 1982 by Motor y Volante magazine, which became famous instantly for its irreverent criticism and professional performance testing of local versions of many cars. After more than 10 years of being the sole specialty magazine, other publishers decided to jump on the bandwagon; in early 1995, 4 Ruedas Magazine, and shortly after, Automóvil Panamericano saw light. Technological advances have resulted in Motor y Volante remaining the sole digital auto magazine (by subscription only) but with an extremely large affiliation due to its 30 years of existence.
The Autoexpo changed denomination in 2004 to the "Salón Internacional del Automovil" to reflect its growth into an international size event. It is in fact an event comparable to the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. In the first two editions of Mexico's Auto Show, brands new to Mexico, like Mazda, were introduced. Jaguar and Volvo did not attend the 2004 or the 2005 editions. Renault would typically attend every two years. However, the 2006 edition of the auto show was considered a failure and a fraud since over 15 carmakers missed the event, including Volkswagen Group, Renault and Peugeot.
After the 2006 edition and for the first time since 1994, SIAM was not hosted the following year. A two-year event is currently hosted.
Successful cars in Mexico
Some cars have been especially successful in Mexico, depending on their cost and viability.
Chevrolet Corsa
The second-generation Opel Corsa (imported from Spain) was first introduced in Mexico in 1994 under the name "Chevrolet Chevy" as a response to the successful Volkswagen Sedan. General Motors used a practical, supermini with an affordable price tag for the Mexican consumer that gave excellent results. From 1996, when the Chevy Popular or Chevy Pop budget trim was introduced, and the Chevy began to be produced in the Ramos Arizpe GM assembly plant, it replaced the Volkswagen Sedan (Beetle) as the top selling car in Mexico. Chevrolet soon launched the also Mexican made Chevy Monza, similar to the 4-door saloon version of the Chevrolet Classic still produced in Argentina, for those who wanted a bigger trunk and more room for the same low price.
The design was not changed until 2000 when it was facelifted in Europe with transparent headlights, newer rear lights and a new interior. A Station Wagon imported from Argentina was also launched, as well as a Brazilian-made pickup variant. With the introduction of the Corsa III, however, the older Corsa was no longer manufactured in European GM plants. This generation Corsa remained in production in Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. In 2004, Mexican designers redesigned the Chevy inside and out and upgraded the 1.6-liter engine to reach 98 bhp. This newer Chevrolet was called C2 as a reference to the Corvette generations. In July 2008, a facelift designed in Detroit was introduced for the new 2009 Chevy, available in 3- and 5-door hatchback, and 4-door sedan bodies.
Nissan Tsuru
The Datsun 160J was a mid-size sedan that sold well but did not meet the sales number benchmark set by its successor.
In 1983 the first Nissan Sentra was launched as a replacement for the 160J under the name "Tsuru", Japanese for crane. While the Tsuru was quickly accepted by Mexicans as a comfortable and affordable car, it did not replace the VW Sedan as the top-selling car in Mexico.
A second-generation Tsuru was launched in late 1987 as a 1988 model with a more square-shaped and larger design. Neither generation, however, managed to become the best-selling car in Mexico.
The third generation Tsuru (the Sentra III) was introduced in November 1991. This Tsuru featured a more rounded 1990s type design scheme. Soon the third generation Tsuru was known for being powerful and comfortable, yet affordable.
With the new Chevrolet Chevy in 1994, however, the Tsuru had a new rival. It didn't take long for it to overtake the Chevy, and, soon after, the Sedan. It reached number 1 in 1998, and it stayed there until 2005, with the Volkswagen Pointer.
The Renault-based Nissan Platina was thought to be its successor, but the incredible sales ranking of the Tsuru kept the Platina as another option. The Platina remained in the top 10 until it was discontinued in 2010, alongside its hatchback counterpart, the Clio.
The Tsuru remains the most popular choice for city (but not for highway due to a lack of stability) taxicab drivers in Mexico (airport and hotel taxis usually drive higher end vehicles, such as Audi), along with the MkIII. It is currently the longest-running car in terms of consecutive years sold in Mexico in the century (18 years), ended only by concerns over crash safety and emissions.
Volkswagen Jetta (Volkswagen Clásico from 2010 to 2015)
The first Jetta was renamed Atlantic for the Mexican market. It sold well, so Volkswagen decided to start manufacturing it in their factory at Puebla, Mexico.
In late 1998, the fourth generation Jetta (called Bora in Europe) reached Mexico. The car showed off a new design, which did not appeal initially to Mexicans. However, good marketing tactics and phrases like "No cambies, evoluciona" (Don't change, evolve) resulted in a quick change of opinion, and for the first time, a mid-sized vehicle made it into Mexico's top 10 sellers list; the Jetta became a hit and ranked as the fourth best-seller. The catch phrase "Todo mundo tiene un Jetta, al menos en la cabeza" (Everyone has a Jetta, at least in their mind) became a reality or so it seems as it is common to see many Jetta's driving nearby on the streets.
The car's success was such that it was not replaced in 2005 by the Jetta V, which adopted the Bora moniker, so the Jetta IV continued to be offered for sale. Both cars achieved even greater success in their later years: Jetta IV placed number one for a month in June 2009, and Bora has stayed among the top five since 2008.
A redesigned Jetta was released in 2009 and advertised with a new slogan: "Porque el corazón no da explicaciones" (Because the heart gives no reasons).
On July 22, 2010, the sixth generation Jetta was released. As of August 2010, Mexico was the only country in the world where fourth, fifth and sixth generation Jetta's were being sold at the same time. Bora left the dealerships in late 2010, but Jetta IV was still being offered afterwards due to its high sales. Incidentally, Volkswagen changed this version's moniker to simply Clásico (Spanish for "classic"). The Volkswagen Clásico sold very well until the 2015 model, which was the year it was discontinued, with the new Indian-built Vento taking its place.
Volkswagen Sedan
The first Volkswagen car sold in Mexico was the 1954 Beetle, called Sedan in this country. The popularity of the Beetle led VW to build their own factory in the state of Puebla, Mexico.
In the early 80s, Mexico and Brazil were the only countries producing the Beetle (Sedan in Mexico, Fusca in Brazil), so many foreign enthusiasts used to import the car and keep it as a collectible.
Brazil stopped producing the Fusca in 1997, and Mexico became the sole producer until 2003.
Volkswagen broadcast a minute-long farewell TV advertisement with people waving goodbye to the Sedan as it made its way through the avenue. On July 30, 2003, the last Beetle came out from the Puebla factory, closing a chapter in automobile history. The 3000th last edition Sedan was given to Pope John Paul II and now resides in the Volkswagen museum in Germany.
Companies with official brands in Mexico
This is a brief history of the car makers in this country.
Audi
Audi operates a car factory at San José Chiapa with a capacity of 150,000 units per year, including the Q5. Some parts are exported to China and India.
Aston Martin
Aston Martin entered the Mexican auto market in 2014 with the opening of their first dealership in Mexico City located in the Polanco neighborhood.
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG
Brands BMW and Mini.
See: BMW Mexico
Chrysler Group, LLC
Brands Chrysler, Dodge and Jeep; and vehicles by Hyundai (until 2014).
Chrysler entered Mexico around 1937. In the 1960s, the company was renamed Automex. Then in the 1970s, their name changed again to Chrysler de México. The latest models are launched just after those in the United States are launched.
Chrysler markets several brands including Dodge, Chrysler, Jeep, Smart, Maybach, and Mitsubishi (in partnership). They sold Hyundai passenger cars, cargo vans, and passenger vans under a "by Dodge" badge. This was because Hyundai had no official representation in Mexico until 2014. Strangely enough, the Dodge Ramcharger 2-door SUV was popular in the Mexican market. Chrysler even developed a version of the Ramcharger based on the 1994 Ram (not offered in the US) due to the popularity of 2-door SUVs in Mexico and the lack of market in the US.
For many years, Dodge vehicles were sometimes rebadged as Chryslers, for example, the Neon.
First Automobile Works
Brands FAW.
The first Chinese car maker in Mexico was introduced in January 2008 through the Elektra convenience stores, owned by Grupo Salinas. Although the F1 is the least expensive automobile in the country, FAW received very poor sales in comparison with popular brands such as GM, Volkswagen and Nissan. While some critics dismissed FAW due to its origin and the main purpose of offering an economy product, others supported it by showing videos recorded during the Euro NCAP tests for the F5. Its latest slogan was "impulsa tus sueños" (impulse your dreams), and it was marketed towards people unable to afford an expensive car. FAW initially planned to construct a factory in Mexico capable of producing over 100,000 vehicles annually; however, after the company saw the poor initial sales, they cancelled the plan. FAW has since left Mexico, but thanks to Great Wall Motors, it still is operating today under its commercial vehicle division.
Fiat S.p.A.
Brands Ferrari, Fiat and Maserati.
Fiat re-entered Mexico in 2004 in collaboration with General Motors, before its commercial rupture. Fiat hadn't achieved much sales success due to having only one model for sale until the beginning of 2006. Upon its introduction, the Punto was a hit for the carmaker.
Ferrari entered the country in 1998 with the F355 Spider. The Enzo Ferrari arrived in early 2004 at the former dealership at Avenida de los Insurgentes (now Alfa Romeo taking its place) in Mexico City with a price of $1,285,000 US dollars. Five units were sold. Furthermore, Ferrari chose Chiapas to test its F430 in 2004 before it came out. Curiously, they are the only carmaker to offer their entire catalogue in Mexico.
Ford Motor Company
Brands Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo.
Ford Motor Company México had excellent sales during the 1950s, '60s and '70s, before being overtaken by General Motors. It used to hold the second place in sales. For several decades, Ford sold various successful Mercury models under a Ford badge, most notoriously the Mercury Zephyr as the Ford Elite II (with a Ford Granada front end), Grand Marquis, Cougar, Topaz (an upmarket Ford Tempo) and Ghia (an upmarket Mercury Topaz).
From 1996, Lincoln dealerships became Lincoln-Mercury dealerships selling both brands.
For a time, the hot hatch Focus ST was the only hatchback Focus available in Mexico. It offers a 2.5i 5-cylinder engine like the European versions—Mexico being the only country in America in which Ford offers this European version (imported from Germany). Family versions were released with two trim levels and a 2.0i petrol engine.
This is not the same as the Focus sold in the United States, which is based on the original 1998–2005 version.
The European Ford Mondeo appeared in 2003, although it was different from the mainland Europe version; being more luxurious, it sold for approximately £20,000 for a 2.0i model.
Their successful Ikon (sedan version of the Fiesta II) remained a favourite for low income families, sharing similar success with the next generation model in 2005, the Fiesta III Sedan. However, it is the Brazilian EcoSport compact SUV which now holds the Ford's best seller title.
The latest Mustang remains a favourite with men in their 20s and 30s, as its previous generations did.
In 2010, the Taurus badge returned to Mexico after a 12-year absence, and was discontinued thereafter.
Ford has two factories in Mexico, producing around 400,000 cars per year at Hermosillo and Cuautitlán, mostly for export to US and Canada.
General Motors Company
Brands Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet and GMC and vehicles by Opel and Holden.
General Motors was the sales leader in Mexico until 2009, when Nissan overtook GM. From the early '60s to the early '90s, Chevrolet was the only brand available, even in the '90s when GM sold Buicks and Oldsmobiles under the Chevrolet brand (e.g. the Buick Century as the Chevrolet Century Limited and the Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera as the Chevrolet Cutlass and Chevrolet Eurosport). GMC models were also previously sold as Chevrolets in Mexico. Chevrolet was one of the first carmakers to establish itself in Mexico. The second formal GM brand to re-enter the market was Cadillac in 1991. Then more brands came throughout the decade. GM now markets several brands like Buick, Chevrolet, Cadillac and GMC.
The first Opel car in Mexico was the Rekord produced in the '60s. The carmaker retired from the country from 1972 until 1994, the year GM introduced the Opel Corsa under the name Chevrolet Chevy. Opel vehicles are currently sold under the Buick brand name in Mexico. The success of the Chevrolet Chevy (C2 redesigned in Mexico) kept GM ranked as the number one seller from 1995 until 2009.
GM introduced the Caprice and Lumina to the Mexican market again in the late 1990s, and turned massive profits off of those vehicles, where the Caprice is a popular taxi and police car. Chevrolet stopped importing the Lumina in 2013, which its slots were filled by the Malibu, Silverado (known in Cheyenne in this market), Camaro, and SS. The Caprice's slot was then filled by the Impala and Malibu in 2017.
GM introduced the previous Daewoo Matiz to Mexico under the name Pontiac Matiz, but shortly after Pontiac's discontinuation, the Matiz was sold under the Chevrolet logo in Europe. With the G3 and Aveo, GM offered the same model in Mexico as the Saturn models in the United States.
The Hummer H1 was available for the Mexican Army through the '90s. With the late 2007 scandal involving former president Vicente Fox (portraying him as the owner of diverse vehicles from unknown funds, notably a Hummer), jokes referring to the Hummer became popular throughout the country.
After the Pontiac brand stopped production of all cars in late 2010 as GM announced, Buick is expected to replace Pontiac in the Mexican market and become GMC's partner brand as most dealerships in Mexico are GMC-Pontiac.
Saab had a reputation similar to Volvo's. Both brands are respected for their safety concept and Swedish design. They left in 2010 due to Spyker buying out the firm, except for Volvo, which returned to the market a few years later after its absence.
The Cadillac Catera became a successful model in Mexico during the '90's. Nowadays the Escalade is the top selling Cadillac.
Honda Motor Company, Ltd.
Brands Acura and Honda.
HCL - Honda Celaya Plant
Hyundai Motor Company
Brands Hyundai and Kia.
Hyundai Motor México entered the Mexican market in 2014 with the Grand i10, Elantra, and the ix35. Soon afterwards, the Sonata joined the lineup. Prior to the introduction of the Hyundai brand for non-commercial vehicles, Hyundai passenger vehicles, light-duty cargo vans, and passenger vans were distributed by Chrysler de México, branded as Dodge.
Isuzu Motors, Ltd.
Isuzu Motors de México started operations in November 2005, thanks to the Economic Partnership Agreement that had been signed by Mexico and Japan. Isuzu is the first Japanese commercial vehicle manufacturer to enter Mexico, and it is a joint venture between Isuzu Motors Limited (51%) and Mitsubishi Corporation (49%). The company started sales with the ELF in 3 different versions: ELF 300 with payload capacity of 3.4 tons, ELF 400 with a 4-ton payload and ELF 450 with a 4.5 ton capacity. Since then the brand has expanded throughout the country, as of 2008 has 27 dealers and will start assembly operations for the model ELF 600 in 2009.
GM Mexico sold an Isuzu pick-up truck as the Chevrolet Luv, imported from Chile (GM Chile). There was a Single Cab and a Crew Cab 4x2 model with a 2.3 cc Petrol engine. It was the first South American compact truck (before the Ford Ranger and Toyota Hilux from Argentina).
Jaguar Land Rover
Brands Jaguar Cars and Land Rover.
The X-Type is the most successful Jaguar in the country with a price of US$40,000. Less than 1000 Jaguars are sold per year however as the company has faced stiff competition from Mercedes Benz and BMW, which have domestic manufacturing facilities in Mexico.
The SUV maker Land Rover is very popular among the middle and high classes in Mexico. The LR3 and the Freelander are the most successful models.
Mazda Motor Corporation
Mazda was introduced in Mexico in November 2005 with the release of the then current Mazda3 and Mazda6 models.
While it was common to spot imported B2000 pick-ups and 626 sedans on the streets, Mazda vehicles were virtually unknown in Mexico. When the Mazda3 was introduced, both hatchback and notchback versions became a success among youngsters.
Throughout 2007 and 2008, Mazda fulfilled most of its clients' requests by presenting the MPV Mazda5, the SUVs CX-7 and CX-9, and the popular roadster, the Miata, rebadged MX-5. Though the Coupe, the RX-8, had been considered, the modifications needed to achieve good performance in the Valley of Mexico led to the idea being dropped. The only RX-8 delivered by Mazda Motor de México to an individual was raffled by Mazda itself in 2008.
The new generation Mazda3 and the CX-7 have kept Mazda among the most successful brands in Mexico; Mazda6 and MX-5 maintain regular sales, while Mazda5 and CX-9 have the weakest.
McLaren Automotive
McLaren Automotive entered the Mexican market in 2015 by opening its first dealership in the capital city Mexico City (Santa Fe). One year later they opened a second dealership in León, Guanajuato to serve León and the rest of the bajio region.
Mercedes-Benz
See: Mercedes-Benz Mexico
PSA Peugeot Citroën
Brands Peugeot, Opel and a vehicle by Citroën.
Peugeot returned to Mexico in 1997 with the 306 Saloon. The 206 has had very good sales despite having the Renault Clio as a tough competitor. Peugeots rank high in sales mostly because of their design.
Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance (Renault S.A., Mitsubishi Motors and Nissan Motor Company, Ltd.)
Brands Nissan, Mitsubishi and Renault, and vehicles by Dacia, Infiniti and Samsung.
Nissan is a well-known carmaker in Mexico and number one in sales thanks largely to its model Tsuru II, based on the 1991–94 Sentra and being facelifted every four years. The Tsuru III's driveline currently uses Renault-sourced parts, which are locally manufactured. This car is especially prized by taxicab companies for being affordable (around $131,000 MXN or $9500 USD), strong, spacious, fast and trustworthy. This has kept it in the number one sales position since the 90s, and that has kept Nissan at the top of the sales rankings in the country. With the Renault-Nissan Alliance, Nissan México designed the Platina, based on the Renault Clio Symbol. The Platina was an option for Mexican families who wanted more space for a smaller price. Nissan Mexicana sold the Dacia Logan (made by Renault Brazil) as the Nissan Aprio.
Nissan also sells one Infiniti model.
First established in 1959, Renault was quite successful in Mexico during the late 70s and early 80s with their R5 (nicknamed "zapatito" or "little shoe") and R12. The French pronunciation of the marque was mis-conceived as "Reh-nol", "Roh-nol" and even "Roh-ñol". Renault's Mexican assembly was carried out by DINA S.A. Renault remained successful until 1986 when it left the country because of financial reasons.
Following in the footsteps of Peugeot, Renault returned to Mexico in late 1999 via the Mexican Auto Show (then Autoexpo) of 1999, where they offered the first generation Mégane Scénic's (or simply Scénic) for test-drives — a model seen for the first time at the Auto Show. This vehicle, known for being the first mid-size MPV, was introduced in 2000 and was received warmly by the Mexican buyers. The small family sedan Mégane followed the next year, along with their best seller Clio's sporty version, the Clio II Renault Sport. Regarding the success of the hot hatch, Renault decided to present for sale in Mexico their Mexican-made Clio II, featuring the 2001 restyling (though the 1998 type original dashboard remained), dark gray rims and a unique 1.6i—mounted on other Renaults in order to resist Mexico's central states' heights. The Nissan factory in Aguascalientes was used for the assembly of the Clio, the Platina (Nissan's Clio sedan version) and, formerly, the previous Scénic. The facelifted Clio was introduced in late 2006 featuring a new front and rear end and new interior design (from the European 2001 version). It was planned for it to remain on sale, as in most countries, until 2010. Ironically, the Clio outlasted this new Clio II's presence on the Mexican market. It is now one of the two remaining French Renault models, since the Mégane II hatch production ended in Spain. Korean Koleos, Safrane, and Fluence, and the Colombian Sandero were expected to replace all French models by 2012.
Mitsubishi entered Mexico in 2003 with the previous Galant and Montero. Mitsubishi has had success with the SUVs Endeavor and Outlander, and, recently with the Lancer.
Subaru
Arrived to Mexico in 2006, through an importer, and by 2017 Subaru arrived officially as a brand to Mexico opening Corporative offices in Mexico City
Suzuki Motor Corporation
Suzuki came to Mexico in 2005 thanks to the free trade agreement between Japan and Mexico in October of that year. The first dealer began by selling two models: Model year 2006 Grand Vitara V6 and the four-door Aerio. The current dealer network consists of 40 agencies spanning the length and breadth of the country. The Grand Vitara is still doing great and inspired Suzuki to import the Swift, which has also been a successful model. As of 2012, Suzuki of México offered a total of five products with many different options: Swift GL MT, GLS MT & GLS AT, SX4 Crossover MT & CVT, SX4 Sedan MT & CVT, Kizashi CVT and Grand Vitara GL AT, Grand Vitara HIMALAYA AT, GLS AT & 4X4 AT.
Toyota Motor Corporation
Toyota officially entered Mexico in July 1959 with the Crown and Land Cruiser and established local assembly of Land Cruisers and large trucks in December 1960. Toyota later withdrew from the Mexican market in 1964, and returned in April 2002 with the Camry and Corolla.
Before its re-entry, the carmaker was already known in the country for the pick-ups and cars imported from the United States. The Tacoma is built in manufacturing plants in Tecate, Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico and San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A. The Corolla and the RAV4 are very successful in Mexico as in the rest of the world.
Volkswagen Group
Brands Audi, Bentley, Lamborghini, SEAT, Porsche and Volkswagen.
Volkswagen is a sales leader in Mexico, just behind Nissan and GM. The commercial success of the Pointer, Jetta and Lupo models have helped Volkswagen's sales. Volkswagen hasn't introduced the ultra-luxury brand Bugatti in Mexico (which may only be bought through specialist car dealers in major cities such as Mexico City with reports of at least 2 Bugatti being imported from the US), however, even though Audi and Bentley are selling well in Mexico, they are not as common as VW due to the fact they are more expensive. Lamborghini de Mexico officially entered the Mexican car market in 2010 with the opening of a dealership in Mexico City.
Audis are very popular amongst Mexican youths and businesspeople. The most successful models are the A4 sedan and the A3 Sportback.
The Spanish carmaker SEAT arrived in Mexico in 2001 with the Ibiza. The brand has been very successful with the strong sellers being the Ibiza and the León (new 1.4 and 1.8 TSi variants have been recently introduced). The Seat Córdoba will be produced starting next year in the Volkswagen assembly plant in Puebla, as the 2.0 Tiptronic variant.
Volkswagen was introduced in Mexico in 1954 with the offering of the popular Beetle. A major investor in the Volkswagen de Mexico dealership was Prince Alfonso of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. The Type 1 was officially called Sedan and commonly called "Vocho" as an abbreviation of Volkswagen.
Volkswagen recently introduced the Jetta TDi with a 1.9 Diesel engine. It is the second diesel-engineered car in Mexico since the Volkswagen Caribe Diesel (1979–1983), which was slow-selling in this country. Unfortunately, the sales of the Jetta TDi (unlike the huge number of sales of the 2.0i edition) have been small, encouraging its end in this country. VW is trying to convince government and environmental authorities of the advantages of using diesel and to encourage the reduction of taxes and other stimuli to increase the sales of the TDi.
VW has factories in Cuautlancingo (in Puebla) and Silao, and uses rail, trucks and the ports of Veracruz and Lázaro Cárdenas for imports and exports.
Porsche is also sold in Mexico although it is supplied directly by Porsche and not through VW due to the fact Porsche was once an independent company before it was bought by VW and VW has not yet merged the two supply chains.
Mainstream carmakers
Notes:
If a car's retiring year reads 2021 and its availability cell is coloured green, it means no more units will be produced nor imported, but the last units are still on sale.
If a car has no retiring year marked but its availability cell is coloured red, it means either that car is in the middle of a restyling, or the maker is waiting for new units to arrive.
No future dates shall be given.
Family, executive and leisure cars are found below in the following Mexican body configurations: microauto (microcar), auto de ciudad (city car), subcompacto (supermini), compacto (small family car), mediano (large family car), lujo (executive car), minivan (MPV by size), SUV (by size), pick-up (by size), van (small LAV), van mediana (light van), and van larga (van). Sport cars are found on the lower part of each table following the same format and including (if any): roadster and Coupe. Convertibles may not be considered sport cars.
Blue link/text indicates a car whose brand and name are/were the same as the original model.
Green link/text indicates a car whose name is/was different from its original market.
Gamboge link/text indicates a car whose brand is/was different from its original market.
Dark red link/text indicates a car whose brand and name are/were different from its original market.
Acura
Alfa Romeo
Current
Giulia
Stelvio
Discontinued
8C Competizione (by special order only)
147
159
GT
Brera
Giulietta (2011-2020)
Audi (1997–present)
Bentley (2008–present)
BMW (1997–present)
1 Series The 120i and 130i are available in 3- and 5-door Hatchback, 125i and 135i are available as Coupe. The 1 series Convertible is scheduled to be introduced next December
3 Series The 325i and 335i are available as Sedan, Coupe and Convertible
5 Series The 525i, 530i, and 550i are available only as Sedan
6 Series The 650i is available as Coupe and Convertible
7 Series The 750i is available in short- and long-wheelbase bodies, while the 760i is available only as a long-wheelbase sedan
M3 Available as Sedan and Coupe
M5 Available as Sedan only
M6 Available as Coupe and Convertible
X3 2.5 and 3.0 variants are available
X5 3.0 and 4.8 variants are available as 5 or 7-seater SUV
X6 3.0i, 4.8i
Z4; 2.0i, 3.0i
Z4 M Coupe
Cadillac (1991–present)
Current
Escalade (2001–present)
XT6 (2019–present)
XT5 (2016–present)
XT4 (2019–present)
Discontinued
BLS
CTS
STS
SRX
XLR
Chevrolet (1923–present)
Captiva
Uplander
Traverse
Tahoe (marketed as Chevrolet Sonora prior to 2006)
Suburban
Tornado (Corsa MkIII Pick-up version)
Colorado
Silverado
Avalanche
Chrysler (1929–present)
PT Cruiser
Cirrus III
300C
Town & Country
Aspen
Dodge (1928–present)
Atos
Attitude
Caliber
Avenger
Journey
Durango
Nitro
Dakota
Ram
H100
Charger; Daytona, SRT-8
Challenger; V6, SRT-8
Viper; SRT-10
Vision
FAW (2008–2010)
Ferrari (1998–present)
Fiat (2005–present)
Panda (2008–present)
500 (2009–present)
Idea; Adventure
Palio; HB, Adventure
Albea (2008–present)
Grande Punto III (2007–present)
Strada
Ducato
Stilo (2007); Schumacher (++)
Ford (1925–present)
Fusion
Ecosport
Escape II
Edge
Explorer
Excursion (2000–2005)
Expedition
Courier
Ranger General Pacheco, Buenos Aires
F-Series; F-150, F-250 (Both models are F-150 Mod 1997–2002) Just Single cab, F-150 4X2 V6 PETROL AND F-250 V8 PETROL 4X2 OR 4X4
Explorer Sport Trac
Lobo
Transit
Fiesta III ST
Focus II ST
Mustang VI; V6, GT, Shelby GT500
Figo
GMC
Canyon
Yukon
Yukon Denali
Sierra
Acadia
Honda (1995–present)
Ridgeline
Civic
Hummer (2006–2010)
H2; SUV, SUT
H3
Hyundai (2014–present)
Grand i10
Grand Starex
Elantra
Sonata
Santa Fe
Tucson
Accent
Creta
Isuzu
Elf
Jaguar
X-Type
XF
XJ
XK
Jeep (1994–present)
Current
Patriot
Compass
Renegade
Wrangler
Grand Cherokee
Gladiator
Discontinued
Liberty
Commander
Kia (2015–present)
Bongo
Forte
Optima
Rio
Sorento
Soul
Sportage
Stinger GT
Sedona
Lamborghini (2010–present)
Land Rover
LR3
LR2
Range Rover
Range Rover Sport
Lincoln (1991–present)
The Navigator is Lincoln's most popular and successful car in Mexico.
MKZ
MKX
MKS
Navigator
Mark LT
Maserati (1998–present)
Quattroporte
GranTurismo
Mastretta (1989–present)
Mazda (2005–present)
Mercedes-Benz (1984–present)
A-Class Hatchback - Juiz de Fora, Brazil
B-Class Sports Tourer/Hatchback - Juiz de Fora, Brazil
C-Class Sedan, Sports Coupe & Wagon - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
CL-Class Coupe - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
CLK-Class Coupe & Cabriolet - Monterrey, Mexico
CLS-Class "4 Door Coupe" - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
CLC-Class luxury compact car - Juiz de Fora, Brazil
E-Class Sedan & Wagon - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
G-Class Cross-country vehicle - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
GL-Class SUV - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
M-Class SUV - Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States
R-Class Sports Tourer - Mexico City, Mexico
S-Class luxury sedan - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
SL-Class Roadster - Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico
SLK-Class Roadster - Mexico City, Mexico
Sprinter Van Mexico City, Mexico , Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico , and Monterrey, Mexico
Mercury (1994–2011)
- MG (2020–present)
5
ZS
HS
MINI (2002–present)
Mitsubishi (2003–present)
Lancer X Just Petrol, 5-speed Manual or CVT, 3 trim levels: DE, ES, GTS.
GTS is only offered with CVT transmission, unlike US versions. Similar to European version
Galant IX
Grandis Just Petrol, 4-speed Automatic
Montero Just Petrol, Automatic, 4wd, Limited Level. (5 doors) Imported from Japan
Montero Sport Just Petrol, Automatic, 4wd. (5 doors) Imported from Thailand
Endeavor
Outlander II
L200 L200 Petrol or Diesel, Just Crew Cab, 4x2 or 4x4
Lancer Evolution IX (++)
Eclipse IV; Coupé, Cabrio, 3.8L V6 only, Automatic only.
L300; Coachvan Only
Nissan (1984–present)
Altima IV CVT only, no Manual offered.
Maxima VII
Quest III
Rogue
X-Trail II CVT only, Petrol Only.
Murano II
Pathfinder III
Titan
Urvan
370Z Manual or Auto, Rear fog light unlike US versions.
GT-R R35
Peugeot (1958–1962; 1997–present)
Partner; Grand Raid
Expert; Tepee
Manager
Pontiac (1994–2010)
Matiz G2 (++)
G3
G5
G6
Torrent
G6; GXP (++)
Solstice; Roadster, GXP
Porsche (1995–present)
Cayenne Tiptronic Only, Petrol only.
Cayenne GTS Tiptronic Only.
Radical
Renault (1963–1986; 2000–present)
Saab
9-3
9-5
SEAT (2001–present)
Altea XL
Freetrack
León Cupra R
Smart (2001–present)
Subaru (2017–present)
Crosstrek Presented as XV
Forester
BRZ
WRX_STI
Suzuki (2005–present)
Toyota (2002–present)
Yaris
Yaris Sedan
Yaris R
Corolla (Available as a 4-door sedan only. The basic Base model, upmarket LE and SE trims come from Mississippi, U.S.A.)
Matrix
Camry Automatic Only.
Highlander
Sequoia
Innova
Avanza
Hiace Just Petrol
Hilux Just Single Cab and Double Cab, 2.7 cc Petrol, 5-speed manual, 4x2 only Imported from Thailand.
Tacoma Just Crew Cab, 4.0 cc Petrol, 5-speed automatic, 4x2 only Made in Mexico.
Tundra
RAV4 Petrol Only, Automatic Only.
Sienna
Land Cruiser
Supra
Volkswagen (1954–present)
Amarok (Imported from Argentina).
Eurovan (T5 Transporter cargo and passenger van w/long wheelbase. Only sold with the 1.9TDi/105 hp engine)
Jetta IV; 2.0i, 1.9TDi
Beetle(Sold as GLS with 2.0 115 hp engine, Sport, Cabriolet and Sport GLX trims with 5 cil. 2.5 lt 170 hp engine. All variants with 5-speed manual and 6-speed tiptronic gearboxes)
Routan
Passat (It is sold with 2.0 TFSi 200 hp, and V6 3.6 280 hp engines with 6-speed Tiptronic gearbox, the latter one is available also as a 4Motion model. Imported from Germany)
Tiguan
Touareg; V6, V8 Petrol, V6 TDI.
Crafter
Jetta GLI; 1.8T
GLI; 2.0 TFSi/DSG
Volvo
Current
XC40
XC60
XC90
S60
S40
Discontinued
C30
S40 AWD 2,5T Only with Automatic Transmission,2,4L FWD Manual.
S80
V50
C70
Vuhl
VUHL 05
Missing makers
Few are the mainstream makers that have not official representation in Mexico but all of their models can be imported through exotic car dealers located mostly in Mexico City, Puebla, Veracruz, Mérida, Monterrey and Guadalajara.
Citroën
Some people have begun to import C4 models to Mexican streets. There is a small unofficial importer in the Interlomas section in Mexico State just bordering Mexico City. The French maker has not made an official announcement or pointed out plans for entering the Mexican market in the near future, and remains one of the few countries in the world (along with the United States and Canada) where Citroën cars are not available.
Lancia
Lancia models were presented at the 2003 Mexican Autoshow, though dealerships have not yet opened in the country. The next generation Delta however and Lancia's opening for new Latin American markets gives a wide possibility the maker will be selling by 2009.
Lexus
After many false rumours in more than one decade, an official entry programmed for the final quarter of 2021, in September 2021, with vehicles of the 2022 model year. The reason for this is to allow Lexus apply a marketing strategy and have time to make necessary adjustments to suspension and motor to all of its vehicles, to offer characteristic comfort of the brand in Mexico. The confirmed models for Mexico are the Lexus LS500h (hybrid), along with the ES, RX, LX, and UX, all of these models will be additionally offered in hybrid versions, as Lexus will find the most "green" lineup in the luxury segment in Mexico to offer all of its models with a hybrid variant. Once the brand arrives to Mexico, five agencies in Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey will be opened, and the agencies will focus on creating a purchase experience to all of their clients. However, the sport F range of cars is not confirmed, but there will be plans to launch it. Finally, in late 2021, a factory plant will begin to operate in Guanajuato, where the Toyota Tacoma is built. In addition, the Lexus brand will be an independent division which will get help from Toyota de Mexico, and additional help from TMNA and Lexus USA (its home market).
Maybach
57
62
Rolls-Royce
The Phantom is the only model available at the moment, it has a cost of $415,000 US dollars. However it is known that several varieties of Rolls-Royces are owned throughout the country, these were individually imported.
Phantom
Saleen
Saleen has no official subsidiary in Mexico, but they are imported through an official representative importer.
S7
Scion
Toyota's youth line has not been introduced to the Mexican market. So far, there are no dates announced, even after the brand's discontinuation in 2016.
Škoda
Volkswagen and certain European car distributors import Skodas, but with the process, this economy line turns out to be more expensive than other higher end cars, making its purchase unattractive.
See also
Manufacturing in Mexico
Latin American economy
Further reading
Bennett, Douglas and Kenneth Evan Sharpe. Transitional Corporations Versus the State: The Political Economy of the Mexican Auto Industry. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1985.
Bennett, Mark. Public Policy and Industrial Development: The Case of the Mexican Auto-Parts Industry. Boulder: Westview Press 1986.
Jenkins, Rhys Owen. Dependent Industrialization in Latin America: The Automotive Industry in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. New York: Praeger 1977.
Moreno Brid, Juan Carlos. Mexico's Motorvehicle Industry in the 1980s. Geneva: International Labor Office 1988.
Shaiken, Harley. Automation and Global Production: Automobile Engine Production in Mexico, the United States, and Canada. LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies 1987.
Fernando "Ferdle" Sanchez. Mexico's secondary advisor over the Motorcar industry in Chilpancingo, Mérida, and Guadalajara. The Los Angeles Council of Elders.
References
Sources
Automóvil Panamericano . Mexican magazine (issues from October 1996 to October 2006). Retrieved August 18, 2006.
4 Ruedas Magazine. Mexican Magazine (issues from October 1996 to September 2006). retrieved August 18, 2006.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%20Roman%20de%20Silence
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Le Roman de Silence
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Le Roman de Silence is an octosyllabic verse Old French roman in the Picard dialect, dated to the first half of the 13th century. It is the only work attributed to Heldris de Cornuälle (Heldris of Cornwall, an Arthurian pseudonym). Due to the text's late discovery and editing in 1927 and 1978, as well as its discussion of nature vs. nurture, transvestitism, sex and gender, and gender roles, the roman has attracted considerable interest both from medievalists and the field of Anglo-American gender studies.
Manuscript
The single manuscript holding the text was found in 1911 in Wollaton Hall in Nottingham, in a crate marked "unimportant documents". The same crate also contained a letter written by Henry VIII. The manuscript is now part of the Wollaton Library Collection (WLC/LM/6), held by the Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham. Silence is one of a collection of 18 stories, including seven romances and ten fabilaux, illustrated with 83 miniatures. The discovery that the manuscript held a previously unknown Old French roman was made in 1927.
Synopsis
The narrative concerns the adventures of Cador, the heir of the Earl of Cornwall, and then of his daughter Silence, who is raised as a boy in order to be eligible to inherit, as the king of England has outlawed the succession of females.
The narrator prefaces the story by condemning the greed and stinginess of the wealthy class. King Evan of England goes to war with King Begon of Norway; to resolve matters they arrange a marriage between Evan and Begon's daughter, Eufeme. Later, two Counts marry twin girls. Both Counts dispute over the twins’ inheritance and settle things by fighting, but end up killing each other. Evan, upset that two men died fighting because of women, proclaims that women can no longer inherit as long as he rules. Evan then goes to Winchester, where he and his men encounter a dragon in the woods. The King announces that if any of them are able to slaughter the dragon, he will give them a county and his pick of any woman in the kingdom. Cador, a knight who is in love with a woman named Eufemie who serves the Queen, successfully faces the dragon. Back home, Cador is welcomed warmly because of his bravery. Eufemie, who also loves Cador, is eager to marry him, but Cador falls ill from the venom and fumes encountered while fighting the dragon. Evan promises Eufemie that he will grant her marriage to any available man in the kingdom if she can cure Cador. Eufemie cures Cador, each of them falling more in love with the other. When they finally admit their feelings for each other, they ask the King to make good on his promises. The King gives his consent, along with 1,000 pounds a year and the territory of Cornwall once Eufemie's father, Count Renald, passes away. Count Renald dies a year after Cador and Eufemie get married. Cador inherits the county of Cornwall, and he and Eufemie conceive a child. If it is a girl, Cador has the idea to lie to everybody and tell them that it is a boy, that way their child will be able to inherit no matter what.
While Eufemie is pregnant, Nature makes the child beautiful in every way possible, putting the "beauty of a thousand" into her. When she is born, the midwife announces to everybody that Eufemie and Cador have a beautiful son, even though it is a girl. The Count decides to name the child Silence after Saint Patience. The child as a boy will be called Silentius, and if his sex is discovered it will be changed to Silentia. The Count calls on a seneschal, who was raised along Eufemie, to keep the child's secret safe. The Seneschal builds a house in the woods where he, the child, and the midwife live in solitude. Silence grows into the best-behaved and smartest boy there ever was but Nature realizes that she has been tricked and wants revenge. When Silence is old enough to understand he is a girl, his father explains the circumstances. Silence agrees to conceal himself from everyone and builds up his endurance through physical activities. Nature appears to Silence at the age of twelve, chastising him for hiding his sex. Silence is almost convinced until Nurture arrives and debates with Nature. Reason appears then, and makes Silence see that he is better off as a man, but his heart remains divided.
Then, two skilled minstrels touring England receive shelter with Silence and the Seneschal; Silence decides to run away with them. The minstrels promise to protect and watch over Silence, but they do not know that Silence is the son of Cador. Cador and Eufemie are so heartbroken and angry when they hear the news that they banish Jongleurs from their lands. The minstrels teach Silence the trade, and he quickly excels and travels with them for four years. In order to further conceal his identity, Silence changes his name to Malduit, meaning badly raised child. Out of jealousy over Silence's talent, the minstrels devise a plan to kill Silence. Warned by a dream, Silence avoids harm by parting ways with the minstrels. After Silence returns to Cador's court, King Evan chooses him as a retainer. Queen Eufeme immediately desires Silence, and attempts to seduce him, but Silence escapes the Queen's grasp. From then on, Eufeme curses Silence and seeks his downfall. Months later, the Queen lures Silence into her bedroom again. Once again rejected by Silence, Eufeme fakes having been raped. Evan sympathizes with the Queen but asks her to pretend nothing happened. In return, he sends Silence to the King of France.
Queen Eufeme writes a letter posing as King Evan asking the King of France to behead Silence. The king wants to honor both his friendship with Evan and Silence, so he summons the Counts of Blois, of Nevers, and of Clermont to discuss Silence's fate. The King of France and his counts feel that Silence cannot be put to death as he has already offered Silence a gesture of peace and goodwill, and the king decides to send a letter to Evan to be sure of what he is requesting. Evan is mortified and covers up what has happened. After a war breaks out in England, Evan decides to bring Silence home to help fight. Eufeme then realizes Silence is still alive, and although she is still angry, hearing about his popularity in France makes her fall in love with him again.
Silence and thirty of his companions travel to England; the king orders his men to attack the count who is holding Chester, and is able to seize it. The count's army flees, and Silence injures the count and delivers him to the king. Queen Eufeme tries to make a pass at Silence, but he rejects her a third time. Eufeme becomes overwhelmed with rage. The Queen tells Evan to order Silence to capture Merlin, who cannot be caught other than by "the trick of a woman," which the king does. Silence catches Merlin and they return to King Evan's court. Merlin presents the King with several brief stories to validate himself as a credible source of information; Merlin then reveals Silence's sex to the king and court. Silence explains her way of living, showing the Queen's accusations of rape to be false. The king orders the execution of Eufeme and her cross-dressed lover, who was pretending to be a nun: both are pulled apart by horses. Evan strips Silence of her male clothing, alters her name to the female form Silentia, and makes her his new Queen.
Themes/motifs
Nature vs Nurture
The debate over Silence between nature and nurture is comparable to present-day debates concerning genes vs. environment. Nature tries to convince Silence into becoming a woman throughout the entire romance because she was born female. Nature plays the underlying role of opposition to Silence's lifestyle because she is trying to become entirely male but we see in the story that gender is tied very closely to biological sex. Nurture, however, is what the entire story is based on: a medieval woman attempting to recreate her image in order to pose as a knight and save her family from harsh inheritance laws. Because she does not dress like a woman or abide by the same gender roles, no one questions her assumed manhood throughout the story. This is because of the importance of appearance and the assumed ubiquity of honesty in this era, which is shattered not only in Silence's revelation, but in the revelation of the Queen's cross-dressing male lover. In the end, despite the story's interesting exploration of gender, Nature emerges victorious, as Silence assumes the female version of her name- Silencia- and becomes the new Queen.
Nurture could possibly be a real person who comes to Silence's aid in fending off the verbal attack of Nature. However, Nurture could also be a figment of Silence's imagination, along with Nature. With this idea they would represent Silence's inner debate about his/her identity and gender. In either case, Nurture states that she "completely dis-natured" Silence through his upbringing (line 2596). Silence was no longer a woman in the eyes of Nurture. He was always taught to be a boy, acted like a boy, and dressed like a boy therefore making him a boy. In this way, gender is determined by outer appearance and upbringing rather than physical attributes. If this was a conversation that Silence imagines in his head, then he believes that his upbringing and childhood made him a man at this time. However, at the end of the novel Nature won the battle for Silence's identity and Silence became a woman in both sex and gender.
Nature and Nurture were portrayed as comical, personified characters who act as part of Silence's conscience. They showed up around the time when Silence was twelve and at odds with her identity. Nature scolded Silence for conducting herself like a man and ruining the special mold that she used for Silence, almost convincing Silence to reveal her true sex. After Nurture arrived, she successfully undid Nature's arguments and, using reason, managed to return Silence to her former way of thinking. After thinking about women's pastimes, Silence saw how much more freedom men had. It would be a waste to throw away his high position just to become a wife in someone's bed( a sentiment which becomes ironic in Silence's returning to womanhood and becoming the wife of the king). Though Nature and Nurture both played a part in how exceptional Silence was, it was Nurture who made him see how much better it was for him to pose as a man. But regardless of Silence's new certainty of gender through the arguments of Nurture, he is never able to fully immerse himself in manhood because of the permanent physical attributes bestowed by Nature, which cannot be undone by Nurture. Society at the time defined gender in regards to aspects of biological sex- genitalia and the ability to reproduce- as well as aspects of behavior- clothing, and daily activities. Though, because the former could not be known to anyone but Silence, they directly affected no one but him.
The theme is common in Old French literature, famously in Chretien de Troyes' Perceval, where the hero's effort to suppress his natural impulse of compassion in favour of what he considers proper courtly behaviour leads to catastrophe.
Nature and Nurture appear as two allegorical characters fighting for the mind and body of Silence. Nurture urges Silence to continue life as a man, addressing him as Silencius, while Nature tells her to pursue her true identity as a woman, addressing her as Scilencia.
Cross dressing and gender roles
Silence embodies absolute physical perfection and engages in outstanding knightly activities that seem impossible for an ordinary human being. This can be considered as a supernatural element in the romance alongside Merlin's existence. Such tropes can be found in most romance or literature pieces, where the protagonist is epitomized as the flawless being that everyone envies and desires.
The underlying code of gender roles requires Silence to be silenced in nature but outspoken in nurture as the underlying rule states that women's opinions should be diminished and men's credited. These fixed gender roles set constraint on what people wish to become. Especially in the case of Silence, her aspiration to inherit lawfully and maintain family duty to her parents left her no choice but to cross-dress as a male for she cannot alter her biological sex. Consequently, she was brought up as a knight in order to have a brighter opportunity and achieve greater accomplishment in life, while demonstrating others that she is indeed a man.
However, Silence has to be subdued in the end as her mixed identity creates considerable hierarchical turmoil to the fixed social order. She broke gender role boundaries temporarily and showed that woman can learn, hunt, and be skillful at knightly activities.
Sound vs. Silence
There is an ambiguity attributed to this text. The ambiguity of the way the text is discovered adds on to what the roman is about: silence. The roman is about silence, and tells the reader that through the writing, which leads it to not being silent.Writing about silence being silent is an oxymoron. In lines 4320-4326 Queen Eufeme writes a letter,”On behalf of Ebain, her lord, she writes the king of France a letter that he should cut off the head of the messenger who carries the letter to him; that he not spare him this for any ,reason since he has caused such shame to the king that he does not want to recount it.” This letter that Queen Eufeme represents a silent accusation ie. the letter. She has found a way to silence Silence without using verbal communication, thus keeping to the silence. This shows levels of silence in the text, while the Queen is verbally silent she is not being completely silent because she is using words and language to communicate something. This instance is also reflected in the power of speech and who holds that power. The feminine speech is silenced as seen when Queen Eufeme is killed for her transgressions, while the masculine speech is praised. This can be seen in line 6663 of the poem ,”No man alive lamented Eufeme.” While the feminine speech is killed the masculine is uplifted. Another instance of silence having levels is in the heroine’s name. Silence as a name contains her entire story, her parents specifically pick a name that can be attributed to either gender to not give away the fact that he is actually a she. Silence as a name feels more like a placeholder in this text. In fact names in this roman hold information back rather than give insight. Queen Eufeme’s own name reflects speech being a positive thing and yet she is punished for speaking, while Silence is being named to hide who she is and ends up having to speak out about her gender.
Merlin's "sardonic laughter" poses a challenge due to its ability to be both gender neutral and lack gender entirely at the same time. As a masculine role can be distinguished from a feminine role by how much or little is spoken, laughter too can be both masculine and feminine. A loud, belly laugh assumes the masculine role as it removes all other voices, and a soft giggle proves feminine as it is quiet and docile. What makes laughter different is that it falls somewhere on the continuum of sound and silence. Merlins laughter is described as just that, laughter. We don't know whether it is loud or soft.
Sex and gender
Gender in the text could be seen as binary. Silence's cross-dressing complicates this binary and creates a confusing identity for her as she struggles to determine how she should behave. After several advances by Queen Eufeme the narrator describes Silence as, "li vallés qui est mescine" (l. 3785), "the boy who is a girl". This demonstrates the narrators preference of the masculine identity of Silence, seeing as male pronouns are repeatedly used throughout the poem. The 'boy who is a girl' implies that her behavior, garb, appearance reveals her gender, while her biological sex falls secondary. A personal statement of preferred gender identity of Silence is never mentioned beyond the discussions with the allegorical characters of Nature and Nurture. Nature holds that the truth is in the body; that Silence's true identity lies in her biological sex. On the other hand, Nurture argues that Silence's brave and manly activities have made him a formidable and respectable knight, thus determining his gender. This view of knighthood and armor (an example of gendered clothing) as exclusively male once again reflects the binary nature of gender. There is the potential to view this story through a transgender lens. At the end of the work, when Silence is revealed to be a girl, nature has to do work reshaping his body to appear more feminine. The fact that this transformation was necessary could suggest that Silence was more than just disguised as a man. This act complicates the ending of the tale as it presents a possibility that gender is not a binary after all and maybe Silence is less content with his final transformation to be female than one may at first think.
Additionally, the rhetoric of the Narrator points to the complications that arise when describing Silence's cross-dressing. In some cases, the Narrator describes her actions as "concealment" or as masking the truth. In others, her behavior is described as changing or altering. These variances in the dynamic of the rhetoric indicate the complexities that even the Narrator faces when discussing Silence's cross-dressing in terms of her gender identity.
Critics discuss the motives and interpretation of the poem with the central question "Is this romance ultimately misogynist or philogynous?" Some argue that the character of Silence frees women from the oppressive traditional gendered social expectations, as others discuss the anti-feminist tones used to define other female characters by their gender stereotypes.
The name "Silence"
Silence was named "Silentia" by her parents and called "Silentius" because of her changed gender. However, she was largely referred to by the gender-neutral name "Silence". In the beginning, Silence was in a way silenced because he could not reveal his true sex as a woman, but he chose his gender to be male. He was only briefly able to speak his opinions as a woman at the end of the story when he claimed that he no longer cared to keep silent any longer. His final monologue was the only time when he was publicly recognized as a woman and able to give his honest opinion. Afterwards, his opinions were no longer stated and he was effectively silenced. Silence was silent in various ways throughout the story.
Instead of being called Silentius, Silence was called by a genderless name as if waiting for the day he would turn back into a woman. It also let Silence maintain a sense of self. During a short period of time, he wanted to be a woman again, but changed his mind. The genderless name helped him lean towards his identity as a female, but also helped him maintain his external identity as a male. The significance of the name and usage of speech by men and women reflected how integral language was to identity and gender.
Another aspect of Silence's name that changes with gender are the pronouns used when talking about her. The use of gender-specific pronouns, helps the reader follow along with which gender Silence is currently portraying. She is born a girl and is referred to with feminine pronouns (she/her/hers). Once her parents decide that she will be raised as a boy, she then starts to be referred to by masculine pronouns (he/him/his). At the end of the story, when Silence's true sex is revealed, the narrator goes back to using feminine pronouns. Some of the pronoun choices may be subject to the opinion of the translator, but for the most part, pronoun choice tends to align with the current gender with which Silence is associating.
Names are significant in this medieval romance as well as the social forces that subordinate women. At the same time, the author altered the structure of medieval society with a character who was woman by nature but through nurture was able to achieve anything that an exceptional man could do.
See also
List of Roman de Silence characters
In modern culture
The Roman de Silence has seen renewed interest in popular fiction. Fabien Clavel’s Les Aventures du chevalier Silence (Paris: Flammarion, Collection “Les Étonnantissimes,” 2019) rewrites the medieval tale for a young adult (middle-school) audience. Alex Myers’s Story of Silence (Glasgow: HarperVoyager, 2020) is a novel that reimagines the romance and gives voice to the eponymous protagonist.
Further reading
Inci Bozkaya/Britta Bußmann/Katharina Philipowski (Ed.): Der Ritter, der ein Mädchen war$dStudien zum "Roman de Silence" von Heldris de Cornouailles, Göttingen : V&R unipress, [2020],
Sarah Roche-Mahdi (Ed.): Silence : a thirteenth-century French romance$ newly edited and translated with introduction and notes by Sarah Roche-Mahdi, East Lansing : Michigan State University, 2007,
Lynne Dahmen: The Roman de Silence and the narrative traditions of the thirteenth century, Ph. D, Indiana University, 2000
Regina Psaki (Transl.): Le roman de Silence$ Heldris de Cornuälle. Translated by Regina Psaki, New York, NY [u.a.] : Garland Publ., 1991,
Lewis Thorpe (Ed.): Le roman de silence$ 13th-century Arthurian verse-romance, Cambridge : Heffer, 1972,
Frederick Augustus Grant: Origins and peregrinations of the Laval-Middleton Manuscript"; In: NOTTINGHAM MEDIEVAL STUDIES 3 (1959), pp. 3–18
Werner Göring: Untersuchung der Sprache des Roman de Silence von Heldris de Cornualle, Jena, Univ., Diss., 1929
William Henry Stevenson: Report on the manuscripts of Lord Middleton, preserved at Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire$h[this report has been prepared and edited ... by W. H. Stevenson]. Historical Manuscripts Commission, London : Stationery Office, 1911
References
Bibliography
Brewer, Derek S. "The Ideal of Feminine Beauty in Medieval Literature, Especially" Harley Lyrics", Chaucer, and Some Elizabethans." The Modern Language Review (1955): 257-69.
Burr, Kristin L. "A Question of Honor: Eufeme's Transgressions in Le Roman De Silence." Medieval Feminist Forum 38.1 (2004): 28-37.
Jurney, Florence Ramond. "Secret Identities: (Un)Masking Gender in Le Roman de Silence by Heldris de Cornouäille and L'enfant de sable by Tahar Ben Jelloun." Dalhousie French Studies 55 (2001): 3-10.
Krueger, Roberta L. "Questions of Gender in Old French Courtly Romance" in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Romance Cambridge, ed. Roberta L. Krueger, 132-49. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Labbie, Erin F. "The Specular Image of the Gender-Neutral Name: Naming Silence in Le Roman de Silence," Arthuriana 7.2 (1997): 63-77.
Psaki, R., ed. Arthuriana. Special Issue on Le Roman de Silence, Dallas, Southern Methodist University, 7.2 (1997).
Psaki, R., ed. Arthuriana. Special Issue : Essays on Le Roman de Silence, Dallas, Southern Methodist University, 12.1 (2002).
Ringer, Loren. "Exchange, Identity and Transvestism in Le Roman de Silence." Dalhousie French Studies 28 (1994): 3-13.
Roche-Mahdi, Sarah, ed. and trans. Silence. A Thirteenth-Century French Romance, East Lansing, MI: Colleagues Press, 1992.
Ryder, Mary Ellen and Linda Marie Zaerr. "A Stylistic Analysis of Le Roman de Silence." Arthuriana 18.1 (2008): 22-40.
Tanner, Heather. "Lords, Wives and Vassals in the Roman de Silence." Journal of Women's History 24.1 (2012): 138-59.
Terrell, Katherine. "Competing Gender Ideologies and the Limitations of Language in Le Roman de Silence." Romance Quarterly 55.1 (2008): 35-48.
Thorpe, L. Le Roman de Silence. A Thirteenth-Century Arthurian Verse-Romance by Heldris de Cornuälle, 1972.
Old French texts
13th-century books
Cross-dressing in literature
Medieval French romances
University of Nottingham
Arthurian literature in French
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisuke%20Namikawa
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Daisuke Namikawa
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is a Japanese actor and singer associated with Stay Luck. He began acting as a child and is sometimes mistaken with Daisuke Hirakawa, as their names only differ by one character when written in kanji. Despite his wide range of roles, he usually plays young heroes, such as Mikage in 07-Ghost, Fay D. Flourite in Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, Jellal Fernandes and his counterpart Mystogan in Fairy Tail, Rokuro "Rock" Okajima in Black Lagoon, Jack The Ripper in Black Clover, Keita Ibuki in Black God, Goemon Ishikawa XIII in later instalments of Lupin the Third, and Yu Narukami in Persona 4. He has also been cast as anti-heroes or antagonists, such as Ulquiorra Cifer in Bleach, Hisoka Morow in Hunter × Hunter (2011), Kei Kurono in Gantz, Eustass Kid in One Piece, Dr. Genus in One Punch Man, Chōsō in Jujutsu Kaisen, Tōru Oikawa in Haikyuu!!, Kishō Arima in Tokyo Ghoul, and Momoshiki Otsutsuki in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
He is the official Japanese dub-over voice artist for American actor Elijah Wood and Canadian actor Hayden Christensen. He has also dubbed over some roles that were performed by other fellow actors such as: Leonardo DiCaprio, Tony Jaa, Edward Furlong, and Kevin Zegers in Japanese. He made his directorial debut for Wonderful World, a live-action film that opened in Japan in early summer of 2010. He also starred in the film itself, alongside Mamoru Miyano, Tomokazu Sugita, Tomokazu Seki, Rikiya Koyama, Yuka Hirata, Toshiyuki Morikawa, Kōichi Yamadera, Showtaro Morikubo and Yūko Kaida.
Personal life
Namikawa married in 2001. On July 19, 2017, Shūkan Bunshun reported that Namikawa had been involved in an on-and-off extramarital affair with a female employee from his previous agency since 2004, whom he met when she had still been a teenager. Namikawa later confirmed the report and apologized.
Filmography
Television animation
1993
Nintama Rantarou as Takamaru Saito
1996
Detective Conan as Shiro Ogata
1997
Kero Kero Chime as Aoi
1998
Yu-Gi-Oh! as Hayama
1999
Arc the Lad as Elk
2000
Saiyuki Reload as Kami-sama
Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters as Ryota Kajiki
2001
The Prince of Tennis as Chotaro Ohtori
Legend of the Condor Hero as Yang Guo
2002
Genma Wars as Jin
Wagamama Fairy: Mirumo de Pon! (Charming edition) as Setsu Yūki
Naruto as Sumaru
2003
Beyblade G-Revolution as Hitoshi Kinomiya
Dokkoider as Suzuo Sakurazaki/Dokkoida
Onegai Twins (Please Twins!) as Maiku Kamishiro
Ikki Tousen (Battle Vixens) as Toutaku Chuuei
Gilgamesh as Tatsuya Madoka; Terumichi Madoka
Maburaho as Mitsuaki Nanba
2004
Superior Defender Gundam Force as Guneagle, Hogaremaru
Hi no Tori (Phoenix) as Masato Yamanobe; Takeru
Kyo Kara Maoh! as Ryan
Melody of Oblivion as Kuron
Gantz: First Stage as Kei Kurono
Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple as Constable Hearst; Chibo
Gantz: Second Stage as Kei Kurono
Beck: Mongolian Chop Squad as Yukio Tanaka
Major as Joe Gibson Jr.
2005
Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle as Fai D. Flourite
Honey and Clover as Rokutarō
Oku-sama wa Joshi Kōsei as Sonoda-sensei
Full Metal Panic!: The Second Raid as Leonard Testarossa
Idaten Jump as Kyoichi Shido
2006
Utawarerumono as Benawi
Ouran High School Host Club as Tetsuya Sendou
.hack//Roots as Iyoten
Ray the Animation as Koichi9
Black Lagoon as Rock
The Story of Saiunkoku as Eigetsu/Yogetsu To
Fushigiboshi no Futagohime Gyu! as Toma
Musashi Gundoh as Musashi Miyamoto
The Third as Iks
Pokémon Diamond & Pearl as Lucian
Bakumatsu Kikansetsu Irohanihoheto as Akizuki Yōjirō
Katekyo Hitman Reborn! as Giotto/Vongola Primo; Future Sawada Tsunayoshi
Tokyo Tribe2 as Kai
Black Lagoon: The Second Barrage as Rock
2007
D.Gray-man as Dodge
Bleach as Ulquiorra Cifer
Sisters of Wellber as Gallahad Eiger
El Cazador de la Bruja as Miguel
Blue Dragon (Anime) as Jiro
Hayate the Combat Butler as Schmidt hen Bach
Wangan Midnight as Koichi Hiramoto
Terra e... (Toward the Terra) as Leo
The Story of Saiunkoku Second Series as Eigetsu/Yogetsu To
Mononoke as Sogen
Shigurui: Death Frenzy as Gennosuke Fujiki
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 as Michael Trinity
MapleStory (anime) as Ariba
My Bride is a Mermaid as Yoshiuo Minamoto
2008
Persona -trinity soul- as Tōma Shikura
Spice and Wolf as Zheren'
Nabari no Ō as Thobari Kumohira Durandal
Blade of the Immortal as Araya Kawakami
The Mōryō's Box as Morihiko Toriguchi
Katekyo Hitman Reborn! as Giotto
Katekyo Hitman Reborn! as TYL! Sawada Tsunayoshi
2009
Hajime No Ippo: New Challenger as Itagaki Manabu
Kurokami: The Animation as Keita Ibuki
Hetalia: Axis Powers as Italy and Romano (South Italy)
Hanasakeru Seishōnen as Rumaty Ihvan di Raginei/Machaty Sheik di Raginei
07 Ghost as Mikage
Kimi ni Todoke as Shōta Kazehaya
Kobato as Ginsei and Fai D. Flourite
Fairy Tail as Siegrain/Jellal, Mystogan
One Piece as Eustass Kid
2010
Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood as Young Hohenheim
Hetalia: World Series as N. and S.Italy (Veneziano and Romano)
Battle Spirits Brave as Barone The Moonlight
Senkou no Night Raid (Night Raid 1931) as Kazura Iha
House of Five Leaves as Masanosuke Akitsu
Sarai-ya Goyou as Masanosuke Akitsu
Mitsudomoe as Gachi Ranger Blue
Sengoku Basara II as Miyamoto Musashi
Doraemon as Johann Marusheru
2011
Kimi ni Todoke 2nd Season as Shota Kazehaya
Level E as Prince
Little Battlers Experience as Kazuya Aoshima
Gyakkyō Burai Kaiji: Hakairoku-hen as Seiya Ichijou
Yondemasu yo, Azazel-san. as Akutabe
Fate/zero as Waver Velvet
Persona 4: The Animation as Yu Narukami, Izanagi (I am thou)
Hunter × Hunter (2011) as Hisoka Morow
2012
Area no Kishi as Oda Ryoma
Aquarion Evol as Schrade
Daily Lives of High School Boys as Motoharu
Little Battlers Experience W as Kazuya Aoshima
From the New World as Squealer
Lupin the Third: The Woman Called Fujiko Mine as Goemon Ishikawa XIII
Magic Kaito Special as Gunter von Goldenberg (Spider)
Persona 4: The Animation as Yu Narukami
Hiiro no Kakera as Yūichi Komura
Fate/Zero 2 as Waver Velvet
Medaka Box as Koki Akune
Zetman as Jin Kanzaki
K (anime) as Isana Yashiro/Adolf K. Weismann
Kamisama Kiss as Dragon King Sukuna
The New Prince of Tennis as Chotaro Ohtori
2013
Valvrave the Liberator as Satomi Renbokoji
Hetalia: The Beautiful World as North and South Italy
Yondemasu yo, Azazel-san Z as Akutabe
Little Battlers Experience Wars as Rikuya Tougou
Devil Survivor 2: The Animation as Jungo Torii
Arata: The Legend as Hiruko
Brothers Conflict as Iori Asashina
Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya as Lord El-Melloi II (Waver Velvet)
Sunday Without God as Hampnie Hambart / Kizuna Astin
Servant x Service as Hasebe's dad
Ace of Diamond as Chris Yuu Takigawa
Gatchaman Crowds as Jou Hibiki
One Piece as Eustass Kid
Hakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East as Osaki Kaname
TRAiN HEROES as Aru
2014
Soredemo Sekai wa Utsukushii as Lani Aristes
Haikyū!! as Tōru Oikawa
Baby Steps as Takuma Egawa
Magical Warfare as Kazuma Ryūsenji
Persona 4: The Golden Animation as Yu Narukami
Shounen Hollywood as President
Space Dandy as Carpaccio
Tokyo Ghoul as Kishou Arima
Garo: Honō no Kokuin as Leon Luis
Yu-Gi-Oh! Arc-V as Leo Akaba
The New Prince of Tennis OVA vs Genius 10 as Chotaro Ohtori
2015
Parasyte as Miki
Baby Steps Season 2 as Takuma Egawa
Garo: Guren no Tsuki as Fujiwarano Yasusuke
Gintama° as Hitotsubashi Nobunobu
Haikyū!! 2 as Tōru Oikawa
Hetalia: World Twinkle as North Italy
Kare Baka as Ponta Ninomiya
K: Return of Kings as Yashiro Isana
My Love Story!! as Hayato Oda
One-Punch Man as Pig God, Doctor Genus
Prison School as Jōji "Joe" Nezu
The Heroic Legend of Arslan as Narsus
Tokyo Ghoul √A as Kishou Arima
Ushio and Tora as Hyou
World Trigger as Kei Tachikawa
2016
Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash as Kikkawa
Twin Star Exorcists as Arima Tsuchimikado
Concrete Revolutio: Choujin Gensou Season 2 as Yoshiaki Satomi
Beyblade Burst as Zenkuro "Zac" Kurogane/Zac the Sunshine
Days as Hisahito Mizuki
ReLIFE as Nobunaga Asaji
Pokémon Sun & Moon as Rotom Pokédex
2017
Fate/Apocrypha as Lord El-Melloi II
The Ancient Magus' Bride as Lindel
Aho Girl as Dog
Tsuredure Children as Shinichi Katori
Hand Shakers as voice of god
Onihei as Tatsuzō
Katsugeki/Touken Ranbu as Oodenta Mitsuyo
Black Clover as Jack the Ripper
2018
Hakata Tonkotsu Ramens as Jirō
Hakyū Hoshin Engi as Chuu Ou
Boruto: Naruto Next Generations as Momoshiki Ōtsutsuki
Hugtto! PreCure as Uchifuji
Touken Ranbu: Hanamaru 2 as Odenta Mitsuyo
Violet Evergarden as Gilbert Bougainvillea
Tokyo Ghoul:re as Kishou Arima
Pop Team Epic as Pipimi
Mr. Tonegawa: Middle Management Blues as Seiya Ichijou
Full Metal Panic! Invisible Victory as Leonard Testarossa
The Thousand Musketeers as Napoleon
2019
W'z as Fumiyuki
Meiji Tokyo Renka as Ogai Mori
Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion as Kirin
Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba as Haganezuka
Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life as Suzuka Takinami
One-Punch Man 2 as Pig God
Star-Myu: High School Star Musical 3 as Touma Shiki
Magical Sempai as Maa-kun
The Ones Within as Ichiya Niki
The Case Files of Lord El-Melloi II: Rail Zeppelin Grace Note as Lord El-Melloi II
Kengan Ashura as Setsuna Kiryū
Ahiru no Sora as Katsumi Takahashi
Black Clover as Kirsch Vermillion
2020
Sorcerous Stabber Orphen as Childman Powderfield
ARP Backstage Pass as Eiji Kanō
Cagaster of an Insect Cage as Griffith
The 8th Son? Are You Kidding Me? as Alfred
Wave, Listen to Me! as Mitsuo Suga
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? III as Dix Perdix
Digimon Adventure: as Yamato "Matt" Ishida
BNA: Brand New Animal as Pinga
The God of High School as Park Mu-Jin
The Gymnastics Samurai as Shōtarō Aragaki
Pocket Monsters as Satoshi's Lucario, Koharu's Pokédex
Yu-Gi-Oh! Sevens as Otes
2021
Ex-Arm as Soushi Shiga
Mushoku Tensei: Jobless Reincarnation as Ruijerd Superdia
Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World as Arch
So I'm a Spider, So What? as Black
World Trigger 2nd Season as Kei Tachikawa
Jujutsu Kaisen as Chōsō (ep. 24)
Hetalia: World Stars as Italy and Romano (South Italy)
Edens Zero as James Holloway
Scarlet Nexus as Kagero Donne
Tokyo Revengers as Ran Haitani
Takt Op. Destiny as Shindler
Lupin the 3rd Part 6 as Goemon Ishikawa XIII
2022
Salaryman's Club as Masahiko Utsugi
Fanfare of Adolescence as Yoshihisa Kuji
Eternal Boys as Tsuyoshi Imagawa
2023
Nier: Automata Ver1.1a as Adam
Tōsōchū: The Great Mission as Satoshi Tsukimura
Rokudo's Bad Girls as Masaru Hinomoto/Colonel
Horimiya: The Missing Pieces as Takeru Sengoku
Fate/strange Fake: Whispers of Dawn as Lord El-Melloi II
I'm in Love with the Villainess as Thane Bauer
A Playthrough of a Certain Dude's VRMMO Life as Taichi Tanaka
MF Ghost as Daigo Ōishi
Tokyo Revengers: Tenjiku Arc as Ran Haitani
The Eminence in Shadow 2nd Season as Gettan
2024
Kimi ni Todoke 3rd Season as Shota Kazehaya
OVAs/ONAs
Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket (1989) as Alfred Izuruha
Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn (2010) as Riddhe Marcenas
Fairy Tail (2011) OVA 2 and 5 as Jellal Fernandes, Mystogan and Siegrain
Tokyo Ghoul: JACK (2015) as Kishou Arima
Final Fantasy XV: Episode Ardyn Prologue (2019) as Somnus Lucis Caelum
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Stone Ocean (2022) as Narciso Anasui, Anakiss
Lupin the 3rd vs. Cat's Eye (2023) as Goemon Ishikawa XIII
Record of Ragnarok II (2023) as Beelzebub
Onmyōji (2023) as Abe no Seimei
Unknown date
Iriya no Sora, UFO no Natsu as Naoyuki Asaba
Kyō, Koi o Hajimemasu as Kyota Tsubaki
Last Order: Final Fantasy VII as Turks (Rod)
Lupin: Blood Seal -Eternal Mermaid- as Goemon Ishikawa
Legend of Toki as Bat
Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny Special Edition as Youlant Kent
Model Suit Gunpla Builders Beginning G as Boris Schauer
Murder Princess as Prince Kaito/The Dark Knight
Onegai Twins (Please Twins!) as Maiku Kamishiro
Sol Bianca as Rim
Someday's Dreamers: Summer Skies as Kouji Kuroda
Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations as Fai D. Flourite
Tsubasa: Spring Thunder as Fai D. Flourite
Yondemasu yo, Azazel-san. as Akutabe
The Prince of Tennis OVA: The National Tournament as Chotaro Ohtori
The New Prince of Tennis OVA as Chotaro Ohtori
Theatrical animation
Fair, then Partly Piggy (1988), Noriyasu Hatakeyama / Spencer Weinberg-Takahama
Zeta Gundam A New Translation: Heirs to the Stars (2005), Katz Kobayashi
Zeta Gundam A New Translation II: Lovers (2005), Katz Kobayashi
Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew (2005), Lucario
The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom (2005), Fai D. Flourite
Legend of Raoh: Chapter of Death in Love (2006), Bat
Zeta Gundam A New Translation III: Love is the Pulse of the Stars (2006), Katz Kobayashi
Legend of Raoh: Chapter of Fierce Fight (2007), Bat
Bleach: Hell Verse (2010), Ulquiorra Cifer
Hetalia: Axis Powers – Paint it, White! (2010), North and South Italy.
The Prince of Tennis: Tennis no Ouji-sama Eikoku-shiki Teikyū-jō Kessen! (2011), Chotaro Ohtori
Bayonetta: Bloody Fate (2013), Luka Redgrave
Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge (2013), Hisoka Morow
Hunter × Hunter: The Last Mission (2013), Hisoka Morow
Lupin the 3rd vs. Detective Conan: The Movie (2013), Goemon Ishikawa
K: Missing Kings (2014), Yashiro Isana
Saint Seiya: Legend of Sanctuary (2014), Aquarius Camus
Boruto: Naruto the Movie (2015), Momoshiki Ōtsutsuki
Crayon Shin-chan: My Moving Story! Cactus Large Attack! (2015), Mariachi
Gekijōban Meiji Tokyo Renka: Yumihari no Serenade (2015), Ōgai Mori
Digimon Adventure tri. (2015), Daigo Nishijima
Maho Girls PreCure! the Movie: The Miraculous Transformation! Cure Mofurun! (2016), Dark Matter and Kumata
Lupin the IIIrd: Goemon Ishikawa's Blood Spray (2017), Goemon Ishikawa
Doraemon the Movie 2017: Great Adventure in the Antarctic Kachi Kochi (2017), Professor Hyakkoi
Avengers Confidential: Black Widow & Punisher – Amadeus Cho
Lupin III: The First (2019), Goemon Ishikawa
A Whisker Away (2020), Tomoya Sakaguchi
Violet Evergarden: The Movie (2020), Gilbert Bougainvillea
Black Clover: Sword of the Wizard King (2023), Jack The Ripper
Gekijōban Collar × Malice Deep Cover (2023), Takeru Sasazuka
Video games
1997
Everybody's Golf as Iceman
1999
Dragon Slayer Jr: Romancia as Prince Fan Freddy
2001
Growlanser III: The Dual Darkness as Slayn; Grey Gilbert
2002
Panzer Dragoon Orta as Mobo
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers as Frodo Baggins (Japanese dub)
Utawarerumono as Benawi
2003
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King as Frodo Baggins (Japanese dub)
2004
Prince of Tennis 2005: Crystal Drive as Chōtarō Ōtori
Prince of Tennis: Rush and Dream as Chōtarō Ōtori
Saiyuki Gunlock as Kami-sama
Sakura Wars: Mysterious Paris as Kojirō Akechi
2005
Beck the Game as Yukio Tanaka
Bleach: Shattered Blade as Ulquiorra Cifer
Gantz: The Game as Kei Kurono
Genji: Dawn of the Samurai as Minamoto Yoshitsune
Kenka Banchou as Yasuo Tanaka
Kino no Tabi II -the Beautiful World- as Sei
Sengoku Basara as Miyamoto Musashi
Prince of Tennis: Gakuensai no Oujisama as Chōtarō Ōtori
2006
.hack//G.U. as Iyoten; Hetero
Baten Kaitos II as Sagi
Bleach: Heat the Soul 3 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Blue Dragon as King Gibral
Genji: Days of the Blade as Minamoto Yoshitsune
Hiiro no Kakera as Komura Yuuichi
Kurohime as Zero
Otometeki Koi Kakumei Love Revo!! as Ayato Kamishiro
Sengoku Basara 2 as Miyamoto Musashi
Suikoden V as Main character A, Euram Barrows, Nick, Ernst
Prince of Tennis: Doki Doki Survival – Sanroku no Mystic as Chōtarō Ōtori
Tsubasa Chronicle Vol. 2 as Fai D. Flourite
Utawarerumono Chiriyuku Mono e no Komoriuta as Benawi
2007
Angel Profile as Mikhail
Another Century's Episode 3 The Final as Barrel Orland; Berckt
Bleach: Blade Battlers 2nd as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bleach: Heat the Soul 4 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Hetalia Academy as Italy
Hiiro no Kakera ~Ano Sora no Shita de~ as Komura Yuuichi
Hisui no Shizuku Hiiro no Kakera 2 as Komura Yuuichi
Kenka Banchou 2 Full Throttle as Akira Kisaragi
Mana Khemia: Alchemists of Al-Revis as The Other Vayne
Odin Sphere as Cornelius
Otomedius as Emon Five
Rezel Cross as Airu
Sengoku Basara 2 Heroes as Miyamoto Musashi
SD Gundam GGeneration Spirits as Katz Kobayashi, Narration
Prince of Tennis: CARD HUNTER as Chōtarō Ōtori
Prince of Tennis: Doki Doki Survival – Umibe no Secret as Chōtarō Ōtori
2008
Bleach: Heat the Soul 5 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bleach: Soul Carnival as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bleach: The 3rd Phantom as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bleach: Versus Crusade as Ulquiorra Cifer
Duel Love as Yuki Jin
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 as Michael Trinity
Persona 4 as Protagonist (Yu Narukami)
Prince of Persia as Prince (Japanese dub)
Soukoku no Kusabi Hiiro no Kakera 3 as Komura Yuuichi
Star Ocean: Second Evolution as Claude C. Kenny
Super Robot Wars Z as Katz Kobayashi
Super Smash Bros. Brawl as Lucario
Way of the Samurai 3 as Protagonist
White Knight Chronicles as Leonard
2009
Bayonetta as Luka Redgrave
Bleach: Heat the Soul 6 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bleach: Soul Carnival2 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Bloody Call as Cain
Dengeki Gakuen RPG: Cross of Venus as Naoyuki Asaba
Enkaku Sōsa: Shinjitsu e no 23 Nichikan as Itsuki Nanashiba
Hiiro no Kakera Shin Tamaihime Denshou as Komura Yuuichi
Kimi ni Todoke ~Sodateru Omoi~ (Shota Kazehaya)
One Piece: Unlimited Cruise Episode 2 as Eustass Kid
Saikin Koi Shiteru? as Rei Kagami
SD Gundam GGeneration Wars as Katz Kobayashi, Michael Trinity
Sengoku Basara: Battle Heroes as Miyamoto Musashi
Tales of Graces as Richard
Prince of Tennis: Doubles no Oujisama – Girls, be gracious! as Chōtarō Ōtori
2010
.hack//Link as lyoten, Adamas
Bleach: Heat the Soul 7 as Ulquiorra Cifer
Call of Duty: Black Ops as Chief Petty Officer Joseph Bowman
CLOCK ZERO ~Shuuen no Ichibyou~ as Takato Kaido/Akira Kaga/King
Estpolis: The Lands Cursed by the Gods as Hydekar
God of War III as Helios
Gundam Assault Survive as Michael Trinity
Mobile Suit Gundam: Extreme Vs. as Riddhe Marcenas
One Piece: Gigant Battle! as Eustass Kid
STORM LOVER as Mao Ikari
Summon Night Granthese: Sword of Ruin and the Knight's Promise as Asnurz
Super Robot Wars Z II as Michael Trinity
Tales of Graces f as Richard
Zangeki no Reginleiv as Frøy
2011
Bleach: Soul Resurrección as Ulquiorra Cifer
Fairy Tail Gekitotsu! Kardia Daiseidou as Mystogan and Jellal Fernandes
Gachitora! The Roughneck Teacher in High School as Sho Ishikawa
Hiiro no Kakera Aizō-ban ~Akane-iro no Tsuioku~ as Komura Yuuichi
Hiiro no Kakera Shin Tamaihime Denshou -Piece of Future- as Komura Yuuichi
Kimi ni Todoke ~Tsutaeru Kimochi~ (Shota Kazehaya)
One Piece: Gigant Battle!2 as Eustass Kid
SD Gundam GGeneration 3D as Michael Trinity, Riddhe Marcenas, Boris Schauer
SD Gundam GGeneration World as Katz Kobayashi, Michael Trinity, Riddhe Marcenas
Sengoku Basara: Chronicle Heroes as Miyamoto Musashi
Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor 2 as Jungo Torii
Starry☆Sky ~after summer~ as Izuru Yarai
STORM LOVER: Summer Love!! as Mio Ikari
Prince of Tennis: Doki Doki Survival – Umi to Yama no Love Passion as Chōtarō Ōtori
TOKYO Yamanote BOYS DARK CHERRY as Jesus Rudou
TOKYO Yamanote BOYS HONEY MILK as Jesus Rudou
TOKYO Yamanote BOYS SUPER MINT as Jesus Rudou
White Knight Chronicles II as Leonard
2012
Armored Core V as RD
Assassin's Creed III as Ratonhnhaké:ton
Fairy Tail: Zeref's Awakening as Mystogan and Jellal Fernandes
Black Panther 2: Yakuza Asura Chapter as Ryusho Kuki
Brothers Conflict: Passion Pink as Iori Asashina
Dragon Age II as Hawke (Japanese dub)
Hunter x Hunter: Wonder Adventure as Hisoka Morow
Persona 4: Arena as Yu Narukami
Persona 4 Golden as Protagonist (Yu Narukami)
Project X Zone as Rikiya Busujima
Resident Evil 6 as Jake Muller
Rune Factory 4 as Vishnal
SD Gundam GGeneration Over World as Katz Kobayashi, Michael Trinity, Riddhe Marcenas, Boris Schauer
Ys: Memories of Celceta as Ozma
2013
Brothers Conflict: Brilliant Blue as Iori Asahina
Dragon's Dogma: Dark Arisen as Julien
God Eater 2 as Julius Visconti
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All-Star Battle as Giorno Giovanna
Koibana Days: Pure Flower Garden as Tsubaki Saotome
Persona 4 Arena Ultimax as Yu Narukami
STORM LOVER 2nd as Mio Ikari
2014
Bayonetta 2 as Luka Redgrave
Etrian Odyssey 2 Untold: The Fafnir Knight as Flavio
Fate/hollow ataraxia as Waver Velvet
Gakuen K -Wonderful School Days- as Yashiro Isana
Hajime no Ippo: The Fighting! as Manabu Itagaki
J-Stars Victory VS as Hisoka Morow
Persona Q: Shadow of the Labyrinth as Protagonist (Yu Narukami)
Phantasy Star Nova as Reven
Super Robot Wars Z III as Katz Kobayashi, Riddhe Marcenas, Shrade Elan
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U as Lucario
2015
Bravely Second: End Layer as Yew Geneolgia
CLOCK ZERO ~Shuuen no Ichibyou~ ExTime as Takato Kaido/Akira Kaga/King
Fate/Grand Order as Zhuge Liang/Lord El-Melloi II, Hōzōin Inshun
God Eater 2: Rage Burst as Julius Visconti
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Eyes of Heaven as Giorno Giovanna
Persona 4: Dancing All Night as Yu Narukami
Reine des Fleurs as Louis
Root Rexx as Kaoru Kanzaki
Sengoku Basara 4 Sumeragi as Miyamoto Musashi
Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor 2 – Record Breaker as Jungo Torii
Tokyo Ghoul: Jail as Kisho Arima
Utawarerumono: The False Faces as Benawi
Vamwolf Cross as Shuichi Aoi
Xenoblade Chronicles X as voice for Custom Male Avatar
2016
Black Rose Valkyrie as Asahi Shiramine
Collar x Malice as Takeru Sasazuka
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Spirit of Justice as Nayuta Sadmadhi
2017
Nier: Automata as Adam
2018
BlazBlue: Cross Tag Battle as Yu Narukami (Persona 4)
Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as Mimikyu, Lucario
2019
Kingdom Hearts III as Eraqus (young)
Final Fantasy XV: Episode Ardyn as Somnus Lucis Caelum
Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice as Sekiro
Saint Seiya Awakening as Capricorn Shura and Lizard Misty
13 Sentinels: Aegis Rim as Ei Sekigahara
2020
Another Eden as Zeviro
2021
Blazblue Alternative: Dark War as Kagura Mutsuki
2022
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle R as Narciso Anasui
Cookie Run: Kingdom as Affogato Cookie
Bayonetta 3 as Luka
2023
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Last Survivor as Narciso Anasui
Tokusatsu
Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger (2004) as Leonian Gyoku Rou (ep. 47, 50)
Mahou Sentai Magiranger (2005) as Absolute God N-Ma (eps. 46 – 49)
Engine Sentai Go-onger (2008) as Engine Speedor
Engine Sentai Go-onger: Boom Boom! Bang Bang! GekijōBang!! (2008) as Engine Speedor
Engine Sentai Go-onger vs. Gekiranger (2009) as Engine Speedor
Samurai Sentai Shinkenger vs. Go-onger: GinmakuBang!! (2010) as Engine Speedor
Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger (2011) as Engine Speedor
Ressha Sentai ToQger Returns: Super ToQ 7gou of Dreams (2015) as Track Maintenance Worker (Actor) /Tank Top Shadow (Voice)
Uchu Sentai Kyuranger (2017) as Cuervo (ep. 24 – 25, 38, 41, 44)
Film
Kami Voice (2011) as Kuon Kobayakawa
Sono Koe no Anata e (2022) as himself
TV dramas
Koe Girl! (2018) as himself
Drama CDs
Amari Sensei no Karei na Seminar
Bleach Beat collection as Ulquiorra Cifer
Castlevania: Nocturne of Recollection as Alexis
Cinderella as Cinderella
DAISUKE! as Wakaba Daisuke
Dot Kareshi as Knight/Yuusha
Hetalia: Axis Powers as Italy; Romano
Itazura na Kiss as Naoki Irie
Kimi to Naisho no... Kyo Kara Kareshi as Takashi Yuuki
Lip on my Prince as Seiya Kitano
Lupin III as Goemon Ishikawa XIII
My Little Monster as Kenji Yamaguchi
Parfait Tic! as Ichi Shinpo
Requiem of the Rose King as Henry VI
Special A as Yahiro Saiga
Tsubasa Character Songs as Fai D. Flourite
Vanquish Brothers as Masamune
Voice Over! Seiyu Academy as Mitchell "Mitch" Zaizen
Dubbing roles
Voice-doubles
Elijah Wood
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring – Frodo Baggins
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers – Frodo Baggins
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King – Frodo Baggins
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind – Patrick
Green Street – Matthew 'Matt' Buckner
Bobby – William Avary
9 – 9
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey – Frodo Baggins
Maniac – Frank Zito
Grand Piano – Tom Selznick
Cooties – Clint Hadson
Over the Garden Wall – Wirt
The Last Witch Hunter – Dolan 37
I Don't Feel at Home in This World Anymore – Tony
Come to Daddy – Norval
Tony Jaa
Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior – Ting
The Bodyguard – Wong Kom
Tom-Yum-Goong – Kham
Ong Bak 2 – Tien
Ong Bak 3 – Tien
Tom Yum Goong 2 – Kham
Furious 7 – Kiet
SPL II: A Time for Consequences – Chatchai
xXx: Return of Xander Cage – Talon
Triple Threat – Payu
Detective Chinatown 3 – Jack Jaa
Hayden Christensen
Life as a House – Sam Monroe
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones – Anakin Skywalker
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith – Anakin Skywalker
Jumper – David Rice
Takers – A.J.
Vanishing on 7th Street – Luke Ryder
Outcast – Jacob
First Kill – William Beeman
Little Italy– Leonard "Leo" Campo
Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker – Anakin Skywalker
Obi-Wan Kenobi – Anakin Skywalker
Justin Timberlake
Black Snake Moan – Ronnie Morgan
The Social Network – Sean Parker
Bad Teacher – Scott Delacorte
Friends with Benefits – Dylan Harper
In Time – William "Will" Salas
Runner Runner – Richie Furst
Palmer – Eddie Palmer
John Cho
Star Trek – Hikaru Sulu
Star Trek Into Darkness – Hikaru Sulu
Star Trek Beyond – Hikaru Sulu
The Exorcist – Andrew "Andy" Kim
Searching – David Kim
The Grudge – Peter Spencer
Ghosted – The Leopard
Leonardo DiCaprio
Romeo + Juliet (2000 TV Asahi edition) – Romeo Montague
Don's Plum – Derek
The Aviator – Howard Hughes
Blood Diamond – Danny Archer
Revolutionary Road – Frank Wheeler
Inception (2012 TV Asahi edition) – Dom Cobb
Nicholas Tse
New Police Story – Frank Cheng Siu-fung
Rob-B-Hood – Nicholas
Beast Stalker – Sergeant Tong Fei
Bodyguards and Assassins – Deng Sidi
The Stool Pigeon – Ghost Jr.
From Vegas to Macau – Cool
Chad Michael Murray
Freaky Friday – Jake
A Cinderella Story – Austin
Survive the Game – Eric
Fortress – Frederick Balzary
Jorge Lendeborg Jr.
Spider-Man: Homecoming (Jason Ionello)
Spider-Man: Far From Home (Jason Ionello)
Live-action films
50/50 – Adam Lerner (Joseph Gordon-Levitt)
Alexander – Alexander the Great (Colin Farrell)
American History X – Danny (Edward Furlong)
Bad Boys (1999 Fuji TV edition) – Joe "Jo-Jo" (Michael Imperioli)
Black Panther: Wakanda Forever – Namor (Tenoch Huerta)
Bootmen – Sean Okden (Adam Garcia)
The Bronze – Lance Tucker (Sebastian Stan)
Bring It On – Cliff Pantone (Jesse Bradford)
Camp Rock – Shane Gray (Joe Jonas)
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore – Diggs (James Marsden)
Coach Carter – Damien (Robert Ri'chard)
Chaos – Shane Dekker (Ryan Phillippe)
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1989 VHS edition) – Jeremy Potts (Adrian Hall)
Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant – Steve "Leopard" Leonard (Josh Hutcherson)
The Cloud – Elmar (Franz Dinda)
Chronicle – Andrew Detmer (Dane DeHaan)
Clash of the Titans (2012 TV Asahi edition) – Perseus (Sam Worthington)
Crash – Officer Hanson (Ryan Phillippe)
Criminal Activities – Zach (Michael Pitt)
Dark Blue World – Karel Vojtisek (Kryštof Hádek)
The Dark Crystal (Blu-Ray edition) – Jen (Stephen Garlick)
Dawn of the Dead – Terry (Kevin Zegers)
The Day After Tomorrow – Sam Hall (Jake Gyllenhaal)
Day of the Dead (2020 Blu-ray edition) – Pvt. Miguel Salazar (Antoné Dileo Jr.)
Defiance – Asael Bielski (Jamie Bell)
Dr. Dolittle 2 – Eric (Lil Zane)
Dragon Blade – Yin Po (Choi Si-won)
dot the i – Kit Winter (Gael García Bernal)
Dude, Where's My Car? – Jesse (Ashton Kutcher)
Escape Room – Ben Miller (Logan Miller)
Escape Room: Tournament of Champions – Ben Miller (Logan Miller)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1988 VHS edition) – Elliot (Henry Thomas)
The Expendables 3 – John Smilee (Kellan Lutz)
F9 – Sean Boswell (Lucas Black)
Father's Day – Scott Andrews (Charlie Hofheimer)
Final Cut – Raphaël (Finnegan Oldfield)
The Forbidden Kingdom – Jason Tripitikas (Michael Angarano)
The Goonies – Mikey (Sean Astin)
Gran Turismo – Matty Davis (Darren Barnet)
Guns & Talks – Hayon (Won Bin)
Hannibal Rising – Hannibal Lecter (Gaspard Ulliel)
Hart's War – Lieutenant Lamar T. Archer (Vicellous Reon Shannon)
He's Just Not That Into You – Alex (Justin Long)
Hot Rod – Kevin Powell (Jorma Taccone)
The Hurricane – Lesra Martin (Vicellous Reon Shannon)
I Am Not a Serial Killer – John Wayne Cleaver (Max Records)
Igby Goes Down – Jason "Igby" Slocumb, Jr. (Kieran Culkin)
I.T. – Ed Porter (James Frecheville)
Jason Bourne (2022 BS Tokyo edition) – Aaron Kalloor (Riz Ahmed)
Jennifer's Body – Nikolai Wolf (Adam Brody)
Knights of the Zodiac – Nero the Phoenix Knight (Diego Tinoco)
The Last Emperor (1989 TV Asahi edition) – Puyi (8 years old) (Tijger Tsou)
Leatherface – Jedidiah Sawyer / Jackson (Sam Strike)
Letters to Juliet – Victor (Gael García Bernal)
The Lookout – Chris Pratt (Joseph Gordon-Levitt)
Love & Other Drugs – Jamie Randall (Jake Gyllenhaal)
Mac and Me – Eric (Jade Calegory)
The Magnificent Seven – Chico (Horst Bucholz)
Man of Tai Chi – Tiger Chen Linhu (Tiger Chen)
The Maze Runner – Gally (Will Poulter)
Midnight Sun – Charles Reed (Patrick Schwarzenegger)
The Mighty Ducks – Charlie Conway (Joshua Jackson)
Mr. & Mrs. Smith – Benjamin "The Tank" Danz (Adam Brody)
The NeverEnding Story – Bastian Balthazar Bux (Barret Oliver)
Nicky Larson et le parfum de Cupidon – Poncho (Tarek Boudali)
No Time to Die – Logan Ash (Billy Magnussen)
North Face (2020 BS Tokyo edition) – Andreas Hinterstoisser (Florian Lukas)
Ordinary People (2010 DVD edition) – Conrad Jarrett (Timothy Hutton)
Our Times – Ouyang Fei-fan (Dino Lee)
Pacific Rim – Chuck Hansen (Robert Kazinsky)
Pandorum – Younger Corporal Gallo (Cam Gigandet)
Pecker – Pecker (Edward Furlong)
The Poseidon Adventure – Acres (Roddy McDowall)
Priest – Hicks (Cam Gigandet)
Prisoners (2016 BS Japan edition) – Alex Jones (Paul Dano)
Resident Evil: Extinction (2010 TV Asahi edition) – Mikey (Christopher Egan)
Resident Evil: The Final Chapter – Doc (Eoin Macken)
The Return – Andrei (Vladimir Garin)
Ride with the Devil – Jake (Tobey Maguire)
Road Trip – Josh Parker (Breckin Meyer)
Rogue – Neil Kelly (Sam Worthington)
Roman Holiday (2022 NTV edition) – Joe Bradley (Gregory Peck)
Salvador – Salvador Puig Antich (Daniel Brühl)
Sanctum – Joshua "Josh" McGuire (Rhys Wakefield)
The Science of Sleep – Stéphane (Gael García Bernal)
The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior – Mathayus (Michael Copon)
The Shining – Danny Torrance (Danny Lloyd)
Silent Hill: Revelation – Vincent Cooper (Kit Harington)
Silent Night – Simon (Matthew Goode)
Sin City – Kevin; Cardinal Patrick Henry Roark; Yellow Bastard (Nick Stahl)
Sky High – Will (Michael Angarano)
Snow Queen – Kai (Jeremy Guilbaut)
Snow White and the Huntsman – William (Sam Claflin)
The Huntsman: Winter's War – King William (Sam Claflin)
Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams – Gary Giggles (Matt O'Leary)
Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over – Gary Giggles (Matt O'Leary)
Stormbreaker – Alex Rider (Alex Pettyfer)
Superfly – Youngblood Priest (Trevor Jackson)
Taking Lives – Young Martin Asher (Paul Dano)
Temptation of Wolves – Jung Tae-sung (Gang Dong-won)
Terminator 2: Judgment Day – John Connor (Edward Furlong)
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2005 NTV edition) – John Connor (Nick Stahl)
Time Bandits (1988 TV Asahi edition) – Kevin (Craig Warnock)
Time Bandits (35th Anniversary edition) – Kevin's father (David Daker)
Tom & Jerry – Cameron (Jordan Bolger)
Transamerica – Toby Wilkins (Kevin Zegers)
The United States of Leland – Leland P. Fitzgerald (Ryan Gosling)
When the Game Stands Tall – Terrance G. "T.K." Kelly (Stephan James)
White Oleander – Paul Trout (Patrick Fugit)
Witness (1987 Fuji TV edition) – Samuel (Lukas Haas)
Wrong Turn – Evan (Kevin Zegers)
X2 – Pyro (Aaron Stanford)
X-Men: The Last Stand – Pyro (Aaron Stanford)
Live action television
And Then There Were None – Philip Lombard (Aidan Turner)
The Brady Bunch – Cousin Oliver (Robbie Rist)
The Blacklist: Redemption – Matias Solomon (Edi Gathegi)
Charmed – Chris Halliwell (Drew Fuller)
Counterpart – Claude Lambert (Guy Burnet)
Debris – Eric King (David Alpay)
D.P. – Private Ahn Joon-ho (Jung Hae-in)
Genius – Young Albert Einstein (Johnny Flynn)
Goosebumps (Let's Get Invisible!) – Max
Gossip Girl – Dan Humphrey (Penn Badgley)
Hannibal – Will Graham (Hugh Dancy)
His Dark Materials – Lee Scoresby (Lin-Manuel Miranda)
It – Henry Bowers (Jarred Blancard)
It Started With a Kiss – Jiang Zhi Shu (Joe Cheng)
Kindaichi Case Files Neo SP 1 – Byron Lee (Chun Wu)
Limitless – Brian Finch (Jake McDorman)
The Lost Symbol – Mal'akh (Beau Knapp)
Merlin – Merlin (Colin Morgan)
Playful Kiss – Baek Seung-jo (Kim Hyun-joong)
Roots – Chicken George (Regé-Jean Page)
Roswell – Michael Guerin (Brendan Fehr)
They Kiss Again – Jiang Zhi Shu (Joe Cheng)
Thunderbirds Are Go – Scott Tracy
Torchwood – Owen Harper (Burn Gorman)
What I Like About You – Henry Gibson (Michael McMillian)
World War Z – Andrew Fassbach (Elyes Gabel)
Animation
The Adventures of Tintin – Tintin
An American Tail – Fievel Mousekewitz
An American Tail: Fievel Goes West – Fievel Mousekewitz
Arthur Christmas – Peter
Coraline – Wybie
DC Super Heroes vs. Eagle Talon – Flash
Dorothy and the Wizard of Oz – Scarecrow
Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole – Kludd
Luca – Ercole Visconti
My Life as a Courgette – Simon
My Little Pony: The Movie – Capper
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (film) – Anakin Skywalker
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series) – Anakin Skywalker
Star Wars Rebels – Anakin Skywalker
Trolls World Tour – Chaz
References
External links
Official agency profile
Daisuke Namikawa at GamePlaza Haruka Voice Acting Database
Daisuke Namikawa at Ryu's Seiyuu Info
1976 births
Living people
Japanese company founders
Japanese male child actors
Japanese male pop singers
Japanese male stage actors
Japanese male video game actors
Japanese male voice actors
Male voice actors from Tokyo
Tokyo International University alumni
20th-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese male singers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadoon%3A%20Marin%20%26%20Melan
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Brigadoon: Marin & Melan
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is a Japanese anime television series animated by Sunrise. It aired on Wowow from July 21, 2000 to February 9, 2001 and a manga adaptation by Nozomi Watase was published by Kadokawa. The story takes place in Japan in 1969 and it is about an orphan girl named Marin Asagi who befriends an alien named Melan Blue.
Brigadoon was directed by Yoshitomo Yonetani and the characters were designed by Takahiro Kimura, both of whom worked on The King of Braves GaoGaiGar and Betterman.
The show's setting in Yayoi, Tokyo was based on neighborhoods in which director Yonetani and art director Takashi Nakamura once lived. Color is a recurring theme in the series as well. Most if not all of the episodes have a color in the title, and nearly everyone in the cast is named after a color in one way or another. Likewise, the rainbow is an important image.
Plot
Marin Asagi is a typical junior high school girl with a loving adoptive family. Her life changes drastically when a mysterious mirage is seen in the sky above the entire Earth. The mirage is actually another world called Brigadoon. Soon, alien creatures called Monomakia descend from the formation in the sky and hunt down Marin, but she is saved by another Monomakia named Melan Blue, a flying, sword-wielding, gun-slinging alien who becomes her protector.
Together, Marin and Melan must save the Earth and deal with family crises, school prejudice and the police, and come to an understanding of Marin's past and Melan's unexplained mission, as well as learn to trust each other.
Characters
Main characters
Marin is the heroine of the series, a 13-year-old girl in the seventh grade. She was abandoned as a baby at the door of a tenement house and adopted by the elderly couple Gen and Moto Asagi. She is far-sighted and wears glasses to see properly. At school she is often picked on by her peers, but she tries not to let it bother her. In general, she is a happy, energetic girl with a wild imagination and strong work ethic, earning her own money by delivering newspapers. Her life turns messy when Brigadoon appears in the sky and Monomakia start to attack her. The kanji of her family name translates to "light blue".
Melan was discovered by Marin in an ampoule that was in Nezu Shrine near her house. Originally from Brigadoon, he is a type of Monomakia known as a Gun-Swordsman. He takes on the mission of protecting Marin for reasons he cannot tell her. He is very tall and humanoid in appearance, wears blue armor, and flies with a set of mechanical wings. For combat, he has a sword on his right arm and a laser gun on his left. He uses rice as fuel and can eat up to fifty bowls in one sitting. While he makes an excellent bodyguard, Melan understands little about human beings, but that begins to change as he spends more time among them and bonds with Marin.
Lolo is a green, cat-like creature from Brigadoon who aids Marin and Melan in their adventures. He appears on Earth shortly before Brigadoon becomes visible in the sky and shows Marin where Melan's ampoule is located. At first he only appears to Marin as a sort of eccentric advisor and even leads her to where the ampoules of other helpful Monomakia are hidden. Later, he is revealed to be the chairman of the Life Improvement Committee of Brigadoon's Central Assembly.
Moe is Marin's classmate and best friend. She has a weak constitution, is noticeably pale, and is very shy and quiet. She comes from a wealthy family and her mother does not like her associating with the less fortunate Marin. Despite this, Moe remains Marin's most loyal friend and does everything she can to help her. Her efforts are not always successful and she is often worse off afterward, but she believes they are worthwhile. The kanji of her given name comes from the word "moegi", meaning "light yellowish green".
Nicknamed "Aloma" by Marin, he is a mysterious young boy who seems to know a lot about the Monomakias and Brigadoon. Good-looking and polite, he is usually eating something whenever he appears. When Marin first meets him, she assumes that he is an observer from the future, and his response suggests that this might be true. He also has a tendency to show up wherever a Monomakia is about to strike and appears to know more than he lets on.
Tenement house
Moto is Marin's adoptive grandmother, an energetic widow aged 68 years. She and her late husband Gen found Marin abandoned on the doorstep of the tenement house and decided to keep her. She is a very strong and independent woman who cares about Marin very much and will do anything to protect her. She is also very wise and gives good advice to people.
Shuta is a 75-year-old inventor who is always building strange machines. When Marin starts getting chased by Monomakia, he creates things that he hopes will keep her safe, but most of them are useless. He is also very curious about both Melan and Brigadoon. The kanji for "ai" in his name means "indigo" in Japanese.
Mike comes from America and is 22 years old. He is Shuta's assistant but his skill with the Japanese language is weak and his dialogue is filled with English words. He secretly has a crush on Jun, though it remains to be seen how she feels about him.
These identical triplets are 45 years old and run a candy shop from the house. They usually talk and act in sync with each other. A running gag of the series is that they will each offer a different refreshment to a guest as a form of competition. The kanji for "momo" in their name means "peach".
Usually called Onando, he is a 35-year-old wood carver who never speaks and communicates entirely through hand gestures and body language. The kanji of his family name comes from the word "nandoiro", meaning "grayish blue".
Tadashi is 48 years old, unemployed and an alcoholic. Constantly drunk, he can often be found lying outside the house with a bottle of sake. His wife Miyuki left him because he drank too much, and if reminded about her he'll start crying. The kanji for "toki" in his name comes from "tokiiro", which is a shade of pink named after the wing color of the Japanese crested ibis.
Jun is the 22-year-old daughter of Tadashi Tokita, who works as a nurse. She is very kind and gentle, but is often exasperated by her father's excessive drinking. She thinks of Marin as a little sister, who in turn looks up to her. However, Jun has a secret love life that soon brings problems for her.
Yayoi Junior High
Chiasa is 23 years old and Marin's homeroom teacher. She is a kind young woman who shows enthusiasm for her work and praises Marin when she does well, but seems unable to prevent her from being bullied. The character for "kuri" in her name means "chestnut color"
Midori is a ninth grade student (about 16) and a juvenile delinquent. She skips classes, carries a wooden sword for fights, and gets arrested often. Despite this, she becomes friends with Marin and often protects her from danger. Her given name means "emerald green".
Isshin is an obnoxious kid who loves to tease Marin. He especially likes lifting her skirt to look at her underwear. His family name literally translates to "thin or diluted ink".
Better known as Tanzen, he is a bit of a bad boy and friends with Isshin. He does not pick on Marin as much, but is still quite rude to her. The "tan" character in his name comes from a word describing a particular shade of vermillion red.
Kabamoto is a large tough-looking boy who hangs out with Isshin and Tanzen but does not pick on Marin at all. Even when she is blamed for the problems caused by Monomakia, he keeps a clear head and does not believe the rumors. The "kaba" character in his name comes from "kabairo", meaning a shade of reddish yellow.
The president of Marin's class, Hanazono can be quite bossy and impatient but is not a truly mean person and usually just ignores Marin. On the rare occasions when they meet outside of school, she can be unexpectedly nice. Her given name means "violet".
The leader of a trio of girls who are especially cruel, she is never called by name in the show. When Monomakia start causing problems and hurting people she is quick to blame Marin for it and threaten her with physical violence. Unlike the rest of the cast, she has no color associated with her name.
This is one of A-ko's sidekicks. She has pigtails and always seems to be laughing at other people's misfortune. The word "ebicha" means "maroon" in Japanese.
This is A-ko's other sidekick. She is chubby and pale and always agrees with everything her companions say. The symbol for "kon" in her name means "navy blue".
Historical figures
Prime Minister Eisaku Sato
Eisaku Sato was the Prime Minister of Japan at the time of the series. When Brigadoon appears and Monomakia attack Tokyo, he realizes that Marin and Melan are the only ones capable of dealing with the problem and gives orders for the police not to interfere with their activities.
President Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon was the President of the United States at the time of the series. He learns about Marin and Melan's involvement with the Brigadoon crisis and goes to Japan to request their help.
Crew of Apollo 11
Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins were astronauts who achieved the first manned space flight to the Moon in the Apollo 11 rocket. In the series, their mission is changed to an expedition to Brigadoon.
Important Monomakia
Known as the strongest of the Gun-Swordsmen, Pyon believes Melan is a traitor and is out to kill him. He follows a moral code similar to bushido. He calls his sword Excalibur, and his gun is a Gatling gun.
Erin is a female Gun-Swordsman who, like Pyon, believes Melan is a traitor and tries to kill him. She is ruthless and aggressive. Her sword is a rapier, and she launches disk weapons which can be used as shields and to reflect her lasers. Her face-guard covers only her nose and mouth.
Kuston is a fourth Gun-Swordsman who was created to replace Melan. Not only is he a newer model, but thanks to the Renegade he has illegal biological alterations. His body can absorb energy attacks and heals from injuries almost instantly. His sword has a clip point, sawtoothed blade and the eyepiece of his face-guard covers his left eye instead of his right.
This is the second Monomakia to become Marin's ally, a transport Monomakia that looks like a large, purple turtle. His ampoule was found by Marin and Moe on a night at the beach. The only word he can say is "kyu". His shell is a transparent bubble that can hold up to two people at once, and he can convert his limbs into legs or flippers to travel on land or underwater. His head can also be ejected from the rest of his body and piloted with remote control.
This is the third Monomakia that becomes Marin's ally. She is a gigantic, beastly female Combat Monomakia with a gold, armor-plated body and a long mane of red hair. Her ampoule was discovered by Marin in an exhibit at the World Expo in Osaka. She is animalistic and speaks only by roaring and growling. She is incredibly strong, able to throw around and tear apart enemies who are much bigger than her. She can also shoot slicing hydraulic jets from her palms and consumes water as fuel.
Brigadoon Central Assembly
Lili is an elderly female with brown fur and has a face on both sides of her head. She is the chairman of the Brigadoon Central Assembly.
Lala is a young female with pink fur. She is the chairman of the Ecological Control Committee and has invented at least two useful Monomakia for long distance observation. She is a friend of Lolo and has a tendency to hit people with pies when they annoy her.
Lulu is a male with blue fur. He is the chairman of the Time and Space Observation Committee and also a friend of Lolo and Lala. He likes to eat and complains about Lala wasting food when she flings pies around.
Lele is a male with gray fur. He is the chairman of the Pasca Executive Committee. He doesn't get along with Lolo or his friends and seems to have a hidden agenda. He also throws pies at people when he gets mad.
Glossary
- Once every 100 years, the worlds of Brigadoon and Earth share a dimensional space bubble. This phenomenon causes a dangerous event called Mutual Collapse.
- Also known as Bionic Machines. The Monomakia are creatures engineered by the inhabitants of Brigadoon, each of which is created for a specific purpose such as combat, assassination, transportation, etc. Some are more organic than others.
- A small container much like a bottle that holds individual Monomakia when they are inactive. Ampoules also serve as life support systems and regenerative units for the Monomakia inside.
- A phenomenon of space-time disturbances caused when Earth and Brigadoon make dimensional contact.
- The primary antagonistic force of the series. A political faction that seeks to disrupt the Pasca Ritual and thus bring about the destruction of both Earth and Brigadoon. The Japanese word for this faction is , which is a mathematical term referring to a variable value.
- A dangerous ritual that should not happen, and is a sort of last resort for saving the worlds and restoring stability. The falling of the Tower of Bronte to Earth alerted Melan that the Day of Pasca was coming near.
- A key element for the Pasca Ritual. Marin is believed to be the Creis, which makes her the target of many a hostile Monomakia.
- A nickname for Earth used by the inhabitants of Brigadoon.
- A third world that exists between Earth and Brigadoon. It can be accessed only when the two worlds are near each other, but it is not affected by Mutual Collapse.
Episode list
出会いは浅葱色 (Blue-Colored Introduction)
紺碧なるモノマキア (Deep Blue Monomakia)
鈍色き雲間から (From Dark Gray Clouds)
虹をもとめて (Searching for the Rainbow)
ソーダ色の空の下 (Under the Soda-Colored Sky)
銀灰の訪人 (The Silver Gray Visitor)
赫赫たる決戦 (The Brilliant Battle)
海が紫紺に染まる時(The Night When the Sea Turns Dark Blue)
ピンク・フライト(Pink Flight)
大怪獣、燦爛!(The Giant Monster's Brilliance)
やぶれた傘、闇の雨(A Broken Umbrella and the Dark Rain)
漆黒からの巣立ち(Fly From the Darkness)
天井暗黒世界(The Dark Celestial World)
千紫万紅の果てに…(Lost In Colors)
極彩サヴマトン・カラー(Gorgeous Submaton Color)
金ぴかの約束(The Golden Promise)
未来色をさがせ!(Find the Color of the Future!)
私は茜に輝いて(Glowing Red)
仄かな破滅を運ぶ船(The Ship That Brings Destruction)
雪あかりの下で(In the Light of Snow)
萌葱色、永遠に…(Eternal Green)
赤錆びた壁を越えて(Breaking Through the Red-Stained Wall)
褐色の化身(The Dark Transformation)
命はかくも透きとおり(Translucent Life)
白きパスカの刻(Time of the White Pasca)
サヨナラは海の碧（まりん・ブルー）(Goodbye, Marine Blue)
Soundtrack
The music for the series was composed by Yoko Ueno and Yuji Yoshino. The soundtrack CDs were released by Japanese label Victor Entertainment on two separate CDs. There was also a Single CD featuring karaoke versions of the opening and closing theme songs. All of the CDs are now out of production.
Original Soundtrack 1
OP Theme : sung by Ikuko
銃剣士 Juukenshi - Gun Swordsman
蒼凰の瓶(アンプル) Souou no Bin (Ampoule) - Bottle of Azure Phoenix
浅葱色(まりん) Asagi Iro (Marin) - Light Blue
駆けるモノ Kakeru Mono - The Runner
絆 Kizuna - Bonds
愉快なコト Yukai na Koto - Funny Things
命の色 Inochi no Iro - Color of Life
生活向上委員長(ロロ) Seikatsu Kojo Iincho (Lolo) - The Chairman of Life Improvement
いつものコト Itsumo no Koto - Routine Things
一騎討ち(モノマキア) Ikki-Uti (Monomakia) - Single Combat
黄金獣(クシャトーン) Oogonju (Kushatohn) - The Golden Beast
不思議な喜び(サヴマトン・カラー) Fushigi na Yorokobi (Submaton Colour) - Strange Joy
楽しいコト Tanoshii Koto - Fun Things
愛しいコト Itoshii Koto - Things to Cherish
ふたり Futari - The Two
不透明 Futoumei - Opaque
紺碧(メラン) Konpeki (Melan) - Deep Blue
天井世界(ブリガドーン) Tenjo Sekai (Brigadoon) - The Ceiling World
心 Kokoro - Heart
ED Theme : sung by KAORI
Original Soundtrack 2
風の碧,海の翠(アカペラ・ヴァージョン) Kaze no ao, umi no midori (A cappella version) - Blue of the Wind, Green of the Sea
茜色の眼鏡(コスモスーヤリヤ) Akane Iro no Megane (Cosmos Yariya) - Glasses of Madder Red
ロロのコト Lolo no Koto - Things About Lolo
平和な気持ち Heiwa na Kimochi - Peaceful Feeling
イキモノ Iki Mono - Living Things
決戦 Kessen - Decisive Battle
うれしい気持ち Ureshii Kimochi - Delightful Feeling
生きていくコト Ikiteiku Koto - To Live On
怯えるモノ Obieru Mono - The Frightened
想い Omoi - Thoughts
風と海 Kaze to Umi - Wind and Sea
虹色の宝物(まりん&萌ヴァージョン)"Niji Iro no Takaramono (Marin & Moe version) - Rainbow Colored Treasure" sung by KAORI and Ayaka Saito
敵 Teki - Enemy
さみしい気持ち Samishii Kimochi - Lonely Feeling
考えるモノ Kangaeru Mono - One Who Thinks
歩いていこう Aite Ikou - Let's Walk Ahead
紫色の亀(ポイクン) Murasaki Iro no Kame (Poikun) - The Purple Turtle
破壊的な色 Hakaiteki na Iro - Destructive Color
運命 Unmei - Fate
掟 Okite - Rule
天駆けるモノ Amatsu Kakeru Mono - One Who Files Across the Sky
断罪執行(スキアー) Danzai Shikkou (Skia) - Execution
少女の色 Otome no Iro - Color of Girl
まりんとメラン Marin to Melan - Marin and Melan
パスカの日 Pasuka no Hi - Day of Pasca
sung by KAORI
Single CD
OP Theme : sung by Ikuko
ED Theme : sung by KAORI
Original Karaoke :
Original Karaoke :
Manga
Unlike many anime titles, the manga for BRIGADOON: marin & μελαν was made to promote the anime. It was created by Nozomi Watase and based on the original concept by Hajime Yatate and Yoshitomo Yonetani. Volume 1 was first published in Japan by Kadokawa Shoten in 2000 followed by Volume 2 in 2001. Both were later translated into English by Tokyopop and printed in 2003. The main characters and the basic plot are essentially the same as in the anime, but the manga is not a completely faithful adaptation and there are some significant differences. It is also much shorter in length, being only two books with five chapters each. The English version uses some terms and names that are different from the ones used in the anime, even though both were translated by the same company.
Volume list
References
External links
Brigadoon: Marin & Melan Official website at Sunrise (archived)
WOWOW archive
Brigadoon: Marin & Melan at TokyoPop (archived)
2000 anime television series debuts
2000 manga
Anime with original screenplays
Bandai Namco franchises
Cultural depictions of Buzz Aldrin
Cultural depictions of Neil Armstrong
Cultural depictions of Michael Collins (astronaut)
Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon
Fiction set in 1969
Hideyuki Kurata
Kadokawa Shoten manga
Shōnen manga
Sunrise (company)
Television shows set in Tokyo
Tokyopop titles
Wowow original programming
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5402846
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLDL%20receptor
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VLDL receptor
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The very-low-density-lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) is a transmembrane lipoprotein receptor of the low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family. VLDLR shows considerable homology with the members of this lineage. Discovered in 1992 by T. Yamamoto, VLDLR is widely distributed throughout the tissues of the body, including the heart, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and the brain, but is absent from the liver. This receptor has an important role in cholesterol uptake, metabolism of apolipoprotein E-containing triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins, and neuronal migration in the developing brain. In humans, VLDLR is encoded by the VLDLR gene. Mutations of this gene may lead to a variety of symptoms and diseases, which include type I lissencephaly, cerebellar hypoplasia, and atherosclerosis.
Protein structure
VLDLR is a member of the low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family, which is entirely composed of type I transmembrane lipoprotein receptors. All members of this family share five highly conserved structural domains: an extracellular N-terminal ligand-binding domain with cysteine-rich repeats (also called ligand-binding repeats), an epidermal growth factor (EGF), an O-linked glycosylation sugar domain, a single transmembrane sequence, and a cytoplasmic domain which contains an NPxY sequence. The NPxY motif functions in signal transduction and the targeting of receptors to coated pits and consists of the sequence Asparagine-Proline-X-Tyrosine, where X can be any amino acid. Mimicking this general structure, VLDLR has eight, 40 amino acid long cysteine-rich repeats in its extracellular N-terminal ligand-binding domain. This is the main difference from the main member of the LDL receptor family, LDLR, which has only seven cysteine-rich repeats which are also 40 amino acids long. Each of these cysteine-rich repeats, in both VLDLR and LDLR, has three disulfide bonds and a coordinated Ca2+ ion. The N-terminus also consists of a glycine residue followed by 27 hydrophobic residues that constitute the signal peptide. Following this region is an EGF repeat, a β-propeller segment that plays a role in the pH-dependent dissociation of the ligand-receptor complex, and two more EGF repeats. The VLDLR O-linked glycosylation domain, next in the sequence, has many threonine and serine residues and totals 46 amino acids. The transmembrane domain, which functions in anchoring the receptors to the membrane, is 22 amino acids long. Final in the sequence is the 54 amino acid cytoplasmic domain, which contains the NPxY motif.
Isoforms
The full-length human VLDLR genome is located on locus 9p24 on chromosome 9. It consists of a 40 kb segment that includes 19 exon-coding sequences, which is one more exon than encoded by LDLR. This extra exon in the VLDLR gene accounts for the extra cysteine-binding repeat not found in LDLR. Together, the exons making up the VLDLR gene encode a protein that is 873 amino acid residues long. VLDLR is known to exist as four different protein isoforms: type I, II, III, and IV. These different isoforms result from variations in alternative splicing. The transcript of type I VLDLR (VLDLR-I) is composed of all 19 exons. VLDLR-II, on the other hand, lacks exon 16, which encodes for the O-glycosylation domain between sugar regions. VLDLR-III lacks exon 4 that encodes the third ligand-binding repeat. Finally, VLDLR-IV transcripts lack both exon 16 and exon 4. It has been shown that 75% of VLDLR transcripts exist as isoform type II in mouse brain models. This shows that most VLDLRs in the brain are not glycosylated, as type II lacks exon 16 which encodes the O-glycosylation domain. Isoform type IV is known to be the second most prominent.
Evolutionary conservation
There is a high level of conservation within the LDL receptor family. In particular, there is 50% overall sequence homology between VLDLR and ApoER2, another lipoprotein receptor of this family. Comparing LDLR and VLDLR, it was found that their primary structures are 55% identical within their ligand-binding regions. The modular structures of these two proteins are almost superimposable, with the only difference being the additional cysteine-rich repeat in VLDLR. This is demonstrated through the alignment of the two receptors according to their linker region; in LDLR, the linker region is located between cysteine-rich repeats four and five of its seven repeats while in VLDLR, the linker region appears to be between repeats five and six of its eight repeats.
VLDLR also shows high homology among various species. VLDLR of humans, mice, rats, and rabbits have been identified as 95% identical. Furthermore, there is approximately 84% conservation with the respective protein in chickens. This level of homology between species is much higher than that found for LDLR. Hence, these gene comparisons suggest that VLDLR and LDLR diverged before the LDLRs did among vertebrates.
Ligand binding
VLDLR binds compounds containing apolipoprotein E (apoE). These ligands attach to the cysteine binding repeats in the N-terminus end. The difference in cysteine-rich repeats between the members of the LDL receptor family lead to the differences in binding affinity. VLDLR, in particular, binds VLDL and intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), but not LDL. This inability to bind LDL is due to VLDLR's incapability to bind apolipoprotein B (apoB), which is present in LDL.
Inhibitors
Receptor-associated protein (RAP) and thrombospondin-1 (THBS1) have been identified as compounds that bind VLDLR. In many cases, these compounds exhibit inhibitory effects. THBS1 binds VLDLR and blocks ligand binding. This plays an important role in the reelin pathway, as THBS1 can block the attachment of reelin, while simultaneously stimulating the transcription factors normally activated by reelin. This binding of THBS1, however, does not induce the subsequent degradation of these transcription factors, as reelin does, and can thus lead to greatly amplified effects. The RAP protein acts similarly by blocking reelin from binding VLDLR. However, in this case phosphorylation of transcription factors, usually performed by reelin, is also blocked.
Tissue distribution and expression
VLDLR is found throughout the body, with particularly high expression in fatty acid tissues due to their high level of triglycerides, VLDLR’s primary ligand. These tissues include those of the heart, skeletal muscle, and adipose layer. In addition, the receptor is found in macrophages, endothelial cells of capillaries, and in the brain, where it has a very different function from that found in the rest of the body. There is a preferred expression for VLDLR type I in the heart, skeletal muscle and brain, as opposed to type II, which is mainly expressed in non-muscular tissues including the cerebrum, cerebellum, kidney, spleen, and aortic endothelial cells. The highest expression of VLDLR is found in the brain. Although VLDLR is found in almost all regions of the brain, its highest expression is restricted to the cortex and cerebellum. Here, the receptor can be found on resting or activated microglia that are associated with senile plaques and cortical neurons, neuroblasts, matrix cells, Cajal-Retzius cells, glioblasts, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and region-specific pyramidal neurons. Despite its major role in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism, VLDLR is not found in the liver. This phenomenon is mainly attributed to the very high levels of LDLR in these areas. In addition, it has been uncovered that this receptor is found, sub-cellularly, in the non-lipid raft sections of cell membranes.
Regulation
Unlike LDLR, VLDLR does not exhibit any feedback mechanism, and hence intracellular lipoproteins are incapable of regulating it. This phenomenon is due to a difference in the sterol regulatory element-1 (SRE-1) of VLDLR. Normal SRE-1 sequences, like those found in LDLR, are characterized by two repeats of the codon CAC separated by two intervening C nucleotides (5’-CACCCCAC-3’). The sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), a transcription factor, targets the CAC repeats of SRE-1 to regulate the protein’s transcription. However, the VLDLR gene is encoded by two SRE-1-like sequences that contain single nucleotide polymorphisms. These polymorphisms disrupt the SREBP-1 binding to the CAC repeats, and hence eliminate the feedback mechanism seen in other proteins.
VLDLR expression is regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ). A 2010 study showed that the prescription drug Pioglitazone, an agonist of PPAR-γ, increases VLDLR mRNA expression and protein levels in experiments using mouse fibroblasts. The Pioglitazone treated mice exhibited a higher conversion rate of plasma triglycerides into epididymal fats. As expected, mice deficient in VLDLR did not show this same response. These results suggest that VLDLR is important in fat accumulation.
Many other hormones and dietary factors also regulate VLDLR expression. Thyroid hormone positively regulates VLDLR expression in skeletal muscles of rats, but not in adipose or heart tissues. In rabbits, VLDLR expression in heart muscle is up-regulated by estrogen and down-regulated by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. In trophoblast-derived cell lines, up-regulated VLDLR expression occurs when cells are incubated with hypolipidemic agents such as insulin and clofibrate. In contrast, 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-bromo-cAMP) down-regulates VLDLR expression. Finally, VLDLR is affected by the presence of apoE and LDLR. The presence of apoE is required for VLDLR expression regulation, while the absence of LDLR alters the sterol-regulatory-element-1-like sequences of VLDLR to make them functional in only heart and skeletal muscle.
Function
Beyond the nervous system
VLDLR is a peripheral lipoprotein receptor that functions in lipoprotein metabolism, cardiac fatty acid metabolism, and fat deposition. In effect, VLDLR will allow cholesterol to reach tissues from the bloodstream, where it may be used in cellular membranes. In addition, it will allow fatty acids to get into cells where they may be used as an energy source. Overall, VLDLR primarily modulates the extra-hepatic metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins.
Lipoprotein uptake
VLDLR only plays a discrete role in lipid metabolism, but is more significant in stressed situations. Mice with double knockouts in VLDLR and LDLR have higher serum triglyceride levels than those with only a knockout in the LDLR gene. In addition, LDLR knockout mice overexpressing VLDLR have decreased serum triglyceride levels. Although fat deposition is close to normal without VLDLR, its role gains importance when LDLR is deficient. Despite this knowledge on its role in lipoprotein uptake, the complete mechanism of lipid metabolism performed by VLDLR is not fully understood.
Endocytosis
VLDLR is known to employ endocytosis, although the exact mechanism of this process is unknown for this protein. Endocytosis is mediated through NPxY sequences known to signal for receptor internalization through clathrin-coated pits. The presence of this sequence in the cytoplasmic tail of VLDLR makes endocytosis possible. In general, lipoprotein receptors undergo a process by which they are endocytosed with their ligand into clathrin-coated pits. From here, they are together transported to early and late endosomes until reaching the lysosome. At this point, hydrolysis occurs and lipoprotein is released into the cytoplasm while the receptors are recycled back to the cell surface. It is not yet confirmed if VLDLR follows this exact mechanism, but one closely related to it is likely.
In the nervous system
In addition to its role throughout the body, VLDLR has a unique role in the brain. It is a key component of the reelin pathway, which functions on one hand side in neuronal migration during the development of the brain, on the other hand in the retention of new memory traces in the hippocampal formation. VLDLR links the reelin protein to an intracellular signaling protein, Dab1, that tells the individual neurons where to go within the anatomy of the brain. Mutations in VLDLR often do not lead to major disorganization as seen in reelin mutations. However, a VLDLR mutation does lead to some disorganization primarily located in the cerebellum, where VLDLR is believed to be most prominent.
Neuronal migration
VLDLR is expressed on migrating neurons to help guide them to their proper location in the brain. This process is part of the reelin pathway, which is responsible for the inside-out formation of the six-layered neocortex. Despite the discovery of this pathway, many of the specifics and molecular mechanisms of this process are still being debated. The presence of two reelin receptors, VLDLR and ApoER2, has made it difficult to distinguish each protein’s specific function. VLDLR is primarily responsible for the correct layering of pyramidal cells into layer 1 of the cerebral cortex. In particular, the absence of VLDLR may lead to ectopic accumulation of pyramidal cells in this region. VLDLR does not affect the migration of early born cells into an organized layer, but since its absence results in the invasion of these neuroblasts into the marginal zone, it is theorized that VLDLR may encode a “stop signal.” This is supported by the fact that VLDLR is primarily expressed in the cortical plate adjacent to reelin-expressing cells, Cajal–Retzius cells, and in the intermediate zone. However, definitive evidence has not yet been found. In general, reelin binds VLDLR and undergoes endocytosis via clathrin-coated vesicles. Meanwhile, an intracellular protein, Dab1, has a PI/PTB domain that interacts with the NPxY sequence found in the cytoplasmic tail of VLDLR. As a result, Dab1 is tyrosine phosphorylated and reelin is degraded. Finally, phosphorylated Dab1 activates an intracellular signaling cascade that directs neuroblasts to their proper location through the alteration of the cytoskeleton. Many of the specifics of this pathway are still being investigated. It is not yet known if Dab1 is phosphorylated as a result of the endocytosis of reelin, or if there is another mechanism at play. In addition to the organization of the neocortex, VLDLR also plays a role in neuronal migration of the hippocampus and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Yet, much information on this process is still unknown.
Associated disorders
Mutations within the VLDLR gene lead to a multitude of disorders of varying severities. These disorders are usually associated with cholesterol homeostasis or a disorganization of neuron ordering in the brain due to disruption of the reelin pathway. The most prominent of these diseases are type I lissencephaly, VLDR-associated cerebellar hypoplasia, and atherosclerosis. In contrast to causing diseases, VLDLR has also been identified as a possible remedy for some disorders. Implementation of VLDLR into the liver may cure familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) in patients who either have defective LDLR or have defective immune systems that attack this protein. Since VLDLR is non-immunogenic it does not initiate an immune response, thus it is able to function normally under defective immune systems. In addition, being that apoE, a major ligand of VLDLR, is a leading genetic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, VLDLR may play a role in modulating the risk of this disorder which is explained by the fact that a decrease in reelin signaling in the fascia dentata is supposed to initiate Alzheimer's disease. VLDLR has also been shown to reduce the chances of premature heart disease and stroke because VLDLR clears out lipoprotein A (Lp(a)), a major inherited risk factor for these diseases.
Type 1 lissencephaly
Type I lissencephaly, or agyria-pachygyria, is a rare developmental disorder characterized by the absence of gyri and sulci in the brain. These severe malformations are a result of aberrant neuronal migration. In classical type I lissencephaly, neuronal migration begins but is unable to continue to completion. This process is likely disrupted by alterations to several genes, including the VLDLR, DCX, ARX, TUBA1A, RELN and LIS1. The severity of type I lissencephaly therefore varies with the mutation type. A homozygous deletion affecting the VLDLR gene results in a low degree of cortical thickening and absence of a cell-sparse zone. The cell-sparse zone describes the region between the outer and inner cortical layers of arrested neurons. In addition, type 1 lissencephaly is closely associated with cerebellar hypoplasia.
VLDLR-associated cerebellar hypoplasia
Disequilibrium syndrome (DES) was first described in the 1970s as a non-progressive, neurological disorder. In a 2005 study, DES was renamed as VLDLR-associated cerebellar hypoplasia (VLDLRCH) after its cause was linked to a disruption in the VLDLR gene. At least six mutations affecting the homozygous recessive allele of the VLDLR gene have been identified and found to cause VLDLRCH. Several of these mutations have been localized to specific exons encoding the gene. One such mutation is a cytosine to thymine transition at base pair 1342 in exon 10 that causes a substitution at Arg448 for a termination signal. Likewise, there is evidence of a cytosine to thymine transition at base pair number 769 in exon 5 that causes a substitution at Arg257 for a termination signal. A third known mutation is caused by a homozygous 1-base pair deletion in exon 17 that causes a frameshift and premature termination in the O-linked sugar domain. All such alterations to the VLDLR gene prevent the production of VLDLR and are therefore termed loss-of-function mutations. The recognized symptoms of VLDLRCH are moderate-to-severe intellectual disability, seizures, dysarthria, strabismus and delayed locomotion. In some cases, children with VLDLRCH learn to walk very late in development after the age of six years, or never learn to walk independently. The frequency of this disorder is unknown because early diagnosis of VLDLRCH is difficult using imaging techniques. It is associated with parental consanguinity and found in secluded communities such as the Hutterites and inbred families from Iran and Turkey.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is marked by an excessive accumulation of cholesterol by macrophages, leading to their transformation into foam cells. This accumulation of cholesterol is caused by dysregulation of cholesterol influx and efflux. Since macrophages do not have the ability to limit the influx of cholesterol, the balance is completely dependent on efflux pathways. VLDLR is expressed by macrophages, and functions in the uptake of native lipoproteins. Uniquely, VLDLR does not respond to cholesterol loading, likely due to its lack of feedback mechanisms. The inability to control its uptake of native lipoproteins makes VLDLR a pro-atherogenic factor. This characteristic is supported by results from a 2005 study, in which reintroduction of VLDLR into VLDLR knockout mice led to greatly increased atherosclerotic lesion development.
See also
LDL receptor
Very low-density lipoprotein
References
Further reading
External links
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on VLDLR-Associated Cerebellar Hypoplasia or Dysequilibrium Syndrome-VLDLR
Low-density lipoprotein receptor gene family
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A. A. Raiba
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Abdul Aziz "A. A." Raiba (20 July 1922 – 15 April 2016) was an Indian painter. Educated at the Sir J. J. School of Art in Bombay (1942–46), Raiba started painting professionally in the early 1950s. He won several medals from the Bombay Art Society: Bronze and silver medals, 1947–51; and the gold medal in 1956. His paintings are in collections in the Cairo Museum, Egypt, in the Nagpur Museum and in the National Gallery of Modern Art in Delhi. His work has been shown in over 20 exhibitions. He painted several large murals for clients such as Air India and Ashok Hotel.
His work is characterised by bold shapes, strong outlines and simple use of sophisticated color. His landscapes often use a deliberately naive perspective.
Early life
Temkar Street, off Kamathipura, in Bombay Central, is a street that is inhabited predominantly by Konkani Muslims, coming from the coastal regions of Maharashtra, who speak a dialect of Marathi. Their family names are similar to those of their Hindu neighbours. Abdul Aziz Raiba, was born into one such family on this street in 1922. His father was a tailor and he came from a family of meagre means. Education from an early age for him was dependent on the availability of scholarships. He began his education at a Gujarati medium school, though Marathi was his first language. Later he secured a scholarship to study at the progressive and prestigious Anjuman-I-Islam school. Here he excelled in Urdu, and was asked by his teachers to become a writer. Raiba began writing couplets and soon took to translating the works of Allama Iqbal to English. He learnt Arabic calligraphy, and a Hindu teacher seeing this ability, realised he could draw well. Asking Raiba what he was doing, Raiba was unable to answer, not knowing what it was called. The teacher told him that he had a talent of great use, and introduced him to the artist Dandavatimath. Dandavatimath, along with artist Rao and Prof Badigar, had established a school called Nutan Kala Mandir, or the Modern Art Temple, at the Blavatsky Lodge of the Theosophical Society at French Bridge, Opera House in Bombay.
Schooling
Raiba studied at the school for a foundation course, learning basic techniques essential for admission to the Sir JJ School of Art. The school's location at the Theosophical Society, had an interchange of dialogue between Art and the principles of Theosophy. Theosophy advocates seeking enlightenment through the search of truth, essential and common to all religions to solve unanswered questions of mankind. It requires faith in a common brotherhood and respect for men of all creeds and races. Echoing this, Raiba many years later in his invitation-catalogue for an exhibition of his works in 1984 said, "To comprehend the meaning of Art, I have ceaselessly tried to understand what life is – its circuitous course and ultimate goal. I go through a labyrinth of desire and fear, and I must keep on. The only alternative to ceaseless action is Death, which alone can drop a curtain on the medley of deeds and also what remains undone".
Raiba was introduced to Charles Gerard, then dean of Sir JJ School of Art, who urged him to pursue mural painting and work with oils. Raiba greatly admired the works of his professor J. M. Ahivasi, who belonged to the revivalist school of Indian miniature painting. Raiba, though, believed that the technique of oil painting presented many more possibilities than the use of tempera. He however retained certain elements of visual play from his early training in the Indian traditions. Seeking to establish a distinct style, Raiba rejected western norms of landscape painting. In his works the use of light is akin to that of miniature paintings. He blurred out the horizon and instead illuminated intended subjects, giving them a three-dimensional sculpted quality. Therefore, like miniature paintings various perspectives lie in the same plane. In his portraits of village folk, he placed the woman in the same plane as the hamlet which surround her, but rendered in a perspective where she diminishes the other details such as the hamlet. Some of Raiba's later works illustrated the poems of Mirza Ghalib.
Early work
Raiba studied at the Sir JJ School of Art, from 1942 to 1946. After graduating with a diploma, Charles Gerard appointed him as a fellow to assist other students. Though there were protestations to his appointment, as he lacked fluency in spoken English, Gerard asked him to continue. Later that year he was contemplating moving to Paris, like most of his contemporaries. Raiba approached Walter Laghammer, the Austrian art director of the Times of India, for advice. Langhammer knowing his meagre means advised him instead to go live in Kashmir. Raiba took up residence in the Naginbagh area of Srinagar and often travelled to the city's various Mughal gardens such as the Nishatbagh to sketch. He would then travel on foot into the mountains, surviving on milk given to him by the nomadic pastoral tribe – the Gurjars. An earlier unfinished work from Kashmir, that depicts the change in seasons, illustrates time, and probably has its references from the time he spent dwelling with the Gurjars. Apart from landscapes, his works from this period capture the pointed slanting wooden roofs of the Mosques in winter, or portraits of Kashmiri women rendered similarly, white sharp fine and pointed lines. Having lived in Kashmir for a duration of five years, after a romance gone sour, Raiba returned to Bombay.
Upon his return, he married his cousin. His father was opposed to the marriage, as he believed his son lacked character by choosing to be an artist. He soon began to search for a job to sustain himself. During this time he chanced upon MF Hussain, who introduced him to the legendary film maker K. Asif, who employed him as an Art Director in his film studio. The glamour and trappings of Cinema did not suit Raiba and he soon quit. Hussain then found him a job at the furniture store Roop Bharati, at Lamignton road run by a Gujarati lady called Sushilaben. Here he
designed furniture along with artists Ara and Hussain during which the Progressive Artist Group invited him to join their collective, to which he declined as he found the functioning of the group least progressive. He sustained himself on commissions of murals, winning notable projects such as those for Air India and the Ashoka Hotel in New Delhi.
Raiba lived in a 100 square feet tenement with his mother, his wife and three children. This space served too as the studio. Canvas in those was not easy to come by and was usually imported. During his time in Kashmir stretched cloth on a board served as his canvas. Jute when stretched tight is extremely taught, but the fibres from the strains of jute often shed. Being from a plant that grows in standing water, with humid conditions, the fibre resists decay by humidity and is apt for tropical temperatures. It is readily available and cheap. Using jute for its availability and cost, Raiba soon devised a method of priming the stretched jute, using techniques learnt during his training to be a muralist at school. He would prepare the surface of his jute canvas by creating a white sticky solution of white clay paste, fevicol (gum adhesive), water and ground bricks. The gum adhesive would act as the binder and bring in the colour. The prepared canvas had a taught smooth surface that was dull white in colour. The process is time-consuming as the jute strings absorb the solution easily but the pores between them take time to fill. It takes 15 layers of application before the stretched jute can be used as a canvas. Raiba, is distinct in his use of jute, he changes the surface of the material to resemble a canvas and does not use it in its natural form. While painting there is a deep absorption of the paint into the surface, leaving a rough texture on the surface, altering the shades of the paint. Even after years of having been painted these canvases do not develop cracks or have any fungal damage in comparison to the common canvas. The placement of subjects within his paintings borrow from the murals, narrating multiple stories, histories through intricate images that often go unnoticed but remain essential.
Having a deep interest in Islamic literature and Urdu Poetry, Raiba was a scholar at heart. His works were not merely beautiful landscapes that emerged from live drawings. They were imaginary, based on a studied research of History. Though Raiba often travelled to places he would then treat as subjects for his canvas. Right after Kashmir, Raiba travelled to the temples of South India, disguising himself as a Kashmiri Pandit as entry into temples for Muslims was prohibited. Having never had the means to travel outside India, he constantly travelled the sub-continent in search of a subject with Goa being the most recent. A large oveure of his work is based on recreated scenes of old Bombay and the erstwhile Portuguese colonies that neighboured the city such as Bassein (Vasai). Raiba along with just a few other modernists was a native of Bombay. His family were from the Konkan – coastal Maharashtra, part of which was once ruled by the Portuguese. His community – the Konkani Muslims were ancient seafarers who held a distinct but integrated identity along with the Jews and Christians in a predominantly Hindu Konkan. Raiba always celebrated the fact that his surname had a Hindu origin and his mother was of Hindu lineage. In years before 1980, Raiba began research for the most important exhibition he claims to have executed. At the Petit Library in Bombay, he referenced illustrative manuscripts of the British and the Portuguese from the 18th century that depicted old etchings and maps of Bombay, he searched for details from the Gazette of India, a compilation of minute details by the British of their possessions, and personal travelogues and biographies of those who had passed through the city. This served as an archive of information based on which he recreated an imagined nostalgia of the city from the 18th century for an exhibition of paintings at Jehangir Art Gallery, perhaps as an ode to his origins. Soon after, Raiba's studio on Temkar street was lost as the building collapsed due to disrepair, and the family had to move to the distant suburbs, ironically in the environs of Vasai (Bassein)
Style
Always using Charcoal to sketch, Raiba's use of the line was subject specific, changing over the years, dependent on what he chose to study and illustrate. In his earlier works, he depicts Christ, female nudes, and the erotic with sharp linear, angular shapes, falling short of being defined as cubist. In his landscapes and portraits of rural folk, a much later series, Raiba's lines began to curve vivaciously finding echoes with the styles of the Mexican Muralists. Perhaps his concurrent training at the JJ in techniques of both the Western and the Indian schools of painting at the eve of Indian Independence compounded by a scholarly reclusive nature gave birth to a style and technique that bore few distinguishable similarities with the works of other artists.
The invites to his exhibitions were self designed, experimenting often with font, paper textures and improvising the design of the catalogue into shapes that were innovative in their fold. Raiba, had a lifelong experimentation with Calligraphy which he often took to with passion, conjuring bird shapes out of Urdu couplets. His experimentation with
technique and medium was a continuous process. In 1980, Raiba, while visiting the JJ School of Architecture for the admission of his elder son, encountered hobby classes at the school's fine art faculty. He enrolled himself into the printmaking department then headed by YC Shukla and Vasant Parab for evening classes in printmaking. Here he learnt how to prepare the plate, draw onto it and print etchings. After creating a few plates, he was soon bored of the medium and instead began to carve out flat shapes of animals and designs to create three-dimensional works, from the copper plates given to him. His tryst with printmaking ended after he lost interest in the medium and due to the prohibitive cost of plates, which at the time were imported. Having recently concluded his show 'Old Bombay', often visiting coastal Koliwadas (fishing villages) to observe the old Portuguese Forts and embankments, Raiba etched three mullets together playing with the possibilities, to capture the graphic quality of their scales. His recent experimentations though have been with glass, composing a singular image three-dimensionally by placing differently drawn layers of glass together.
When AA Raiba was 86, reflecting back on his practice he said, that decades have passed but his work remained unfinished. " Itni Umar gayi, Kam khatam nahi hua"(In Urdu – " So many years have passed, I am old, yet my practice remains unfinished.") – AA Raiba
Awards
1947 Silver Medal, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1947 Bronze Medal, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1947 Awarded The Late Rao Bahadur S.V. Rajadhyaksha Memorial Prize, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1951 Silver Medal, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1952 Awarded Sheth Vullabhdas Cursondas Nath's Prize, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1953 Highly Commended, Annual Exhb., Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1953 Awarded The Late Shri Kavasji Jalbhoy Stt Memorial, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1954 Awarded The Bombay Fine Art Offset and Litho Works Prize, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1956 Gold Medal, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1962 Awarded as one among the ten best exhibits of the year, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi.
Exhibition history
1953 Bombay Artist Creations, Zurich. 1954 Biennale of Rome. 1955 Solo exhb., AIFACS, New Delhi. 1956 Solo exhb., Graham Studio, Bombay. 1957 Exhb. of Indian Contemporary paintings, Milan. 1959 Solo exhb., Jehangir Art Gallery, Bombay. 1961 Exhb. at UAE. 1961 Exhb. at USSR, Paris and Rio de Janeiro. 1964 Solo exhb., Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1965 Exhb. at South East Africa and Nairobi. 1967 Solo exhb. on Bara-Masa, Shirom Art Gallery, Bombay. 1967 Solo exhb. on catastrophe, Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1968 Solo exhb., Attic Art Gallery, Bombay. 1969 Mirza Ghalib Centenary Show, Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1969 Solo exhb., Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1970 10 Hrs to 20 Hrs, Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. Solo exhb., Gallery Oasis, Bombay. 1972 Solo exhb. on kaleidoscopic paintings, Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1973 Solo exhb. of Neo Miniature Paintings, Taj Art Gallery, Bombay. 1975 Bombay of the 18th Century, Taj Art Gallery and Gallery Chemould, Bombay. His paintings are worth upwards of three lakh rupees.
A Solo Exhibition of the artist AA Raiba after twelve years,
curated by the Clark House Initiative for Gallery Art & Soul.
AA Raiba had hung three large unfinished works from his Kashmir Series of the 1950s on the walls of his studio. These unfinished panoramas of Kashmir's wintry landscapes, towns and temples, include a large primed canvas of coarse coatings on jute whose embedded designs and relief, reveal a plethora of stages to fathom from the artist's process and technique. Strong and weathered, the paintings have come out of his studio after sixty years. They will dramatically take up the space of the present exhibition, calling attention to the materials he used: jute or old sarees, treated with invented mixtures, that primed, sized, gave texture, and unfading colour to his paintings. A box of school notebooks form a part his studio. Raiba had pasted into school exercise books hundreds of his drawings, jottings and cuttings, folds of papers which open up to larger grids of space, from which he drew his world of references. He has labelled them according to his obsessions. A slideshow archiving every drawing in these sketchbooks runs on a small screen beside the old books that are too fragile to be handled. Also from his studio, are printmaking copper-plates, which he had once cut up into calligraphic stencils, to make a three-dimensional sculptural work. He made many of his own pigments, a bright lemon-peel yellow from mango leaves fed to cows, as the ancient Indian miniaturists had done for many centuries. These impoverished materials of his art, have valor.
His experiments with material may have to do with growing up in his father's small tailor's shop in Temkar Street in Bombay, with small strips of waste cloth lying heaped on the floor of the shop, amidst which he was allowed to play. A polyglot, Raiba, learned Urdu as a child at school, soon composing couplets, and then translating the poetry of Allama Iqbal into English. He graduated from Sir JJ School of art in 1946, and was active alongside the Progressive Artists Group, especially friendly with Hussain and Ara, working at jobs they found between them – at the storied furniture shop and cinema studios that are a part of the art history of this period. He left for Kashmir on the suggestion of Walter Langhammer, the Times of India art director, returning to Bombay after five years.
Raiba has resisted exhibiting for a long time, uncertain of the presentation of his work. Exhibitions for him developed out of long periods of research – the making of his solo exhibitions was scholarly, writing exquisite, clear and wit-edged prose, to fit within his self-designed catalogues and invitations. With age, he felt he had lost the ability to orchestrate a similar show. Therefore, intrigued by a proposal to recreate his studio, and studio practices, and to have an involved dialogue with the works from the perspective of their making, he agreed to present his work again to an audience.
References
The personal archive of AA Raiba and interviews with the author Sumesh Sharma Clark House Initiative=
External links
Raiba painting on Artnet website
Raiba paintings at Delhi Art Gallery
1922 births
2016 deaths
20th-century Indian painters
Indian male painters
Konkani Muslims
Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art alumni
Indian portrait painters
Artists from Mumbai
Painters from Maharashtra
20th-century Indian male artists
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Japanese cruiser Yakumo
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was an armored cruiser (Sōkō jun'yōkan) built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the late 1890s. As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself, the ship was built in Germany. She participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, and was lightly damaged during the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima. Yakumo saw no combat during World War I and began the first of many training cruises in 1917, although she was not officially reclassified as a training ship until 1931. Her last training cruise was in 1939, but the ship continued to conduct training in home waters throughout the Pacific War. Yakumo became a repatriation transport after the war and was broken up in 1946–47.
Background and design
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino-Japanese War, and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships, all of which had to be ordered from overseas shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself. Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy. Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships, and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships, believing that the recent introduction of tougher Krupp cemented armor would allow them to stand in the line of battle. The revised plan is commonly known as the "Six-Six Fleet". The first four ships were built by Armstrong Whitworth in the United Kingdom, but the last two ships were built in Germany and France. To ensure ammunition compatibility, the IJN required their builders to use the same British guns as the other four ships. In general, the IJN provided only a sketch design and specifications that each builder had to comply with; otherwise each builder was free to build the ships as they saw fit. Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes, Yakumo and her half-sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline.
Description
The ship was long overall and between perpendiculars. She had a beam of and had an average draft of . Yakumo displaced at normal load and at deep load. The ship had a metacentric height of . She had a double bottom and her hull was subdivided into 247 watertight compartments. Her crew consisted of 670 officers and enlisted men.
Yakumo had two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller shaft. Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of . The ship had a designed speed of and reached during her sea trials from . She carried up to of coal and could steam for at a speed of .
Armament
The main armament for all of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers was four Armstrong Whitworth-built 45-caliber eight-inch guns in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. The electrically operated turrets were capable of 130° rotation left and right, and the guns could be elevated to +30° and depressed to −5°. The turret accommodated 65 shells, but could only be reloaded through doors in the turret floor and the ship's deck that allowed the electric winch in the turret to hoist shells up from the shell room deep in the hull. The ship carried a total of 320 eight-inch shells. The guns were manually loaded and had a rate of fire about 1.2 rounds per minute. The 203-millimeter gun fired armor-piercing (AP) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of to a range of .
The secondary armament consisted of a dozen Elswick Ordnance Company "Pattern Z" quick-firing (QF), 40-caliber, 6-inch guns. Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks, and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields. Their AP shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of . The guns were provided with 150 rounds each. Yakumo was also equipped with a dozen 40-caliber QF 12-pounder 12-cwt guns and eight QF 2.5-pounder Yamauchi guns as close-range defense against torpedo boats. The former gun fired , projectiles at a muzzle velocity of .
Yakumo was equipped with five torpedo tubes, one above water in the bow and four submerged tubes, two on each broadside. The Type 30 torpedo had a warhead and three range/speed settings: at , at or at .
Armor
All of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences, one of which was that the four later ships all used Krupp cemented armor. The waterline belt ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from amidships to at the bow and stern. It had a height of , of which was normally underwater. The upper strake of belt armor was thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck. It extended from the forward to the rear barbette. Yakumo had only a single transverse 127 mm armored bulkhead that closed off the forward end of the central armored citadel.
The barbettes, gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 152 millimeters thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by of armor. The deck was thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was in thickness.
Construction and career
Yakumo, named from a stanza of the waka poem by Susanoo in the Japanese mythology, was ordered on 1 September 1897 and laid down a year later by AG Vulcan Stettin in Stettin, Germany. The ship was launched on 8 July 1899 and completed on 20 June 1900. She departed Stettin two days later and arrived in Yokosuka, Japan, on 30 August.
Russo-Japanese War
At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, Yakumo was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904, when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was, anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened, but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six-inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships, which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although many ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered some 150, while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged. Yakumo was not hit during the engagement, although she did hit the protected cruiser one time with an eight-inch shell.
In early March, Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok. While scouting for Russian ships in the area, the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect. Upon their return to Japan a few days later, the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur. Yakumo was then transferred to Rear Admiral Dewa Shigetō's 3rd Division. On 23 June, the ship was Dewa's flagship when the Pacific Squadron sortied in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok, but the new squadron commander, Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft, ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese battleline shortly before sunset, as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle.
Battle of the Yellow Sea
On the morning of 10 August 1904, Dewa's cruisers were over south of Tōgō's 1st Division when the Russians sortied from Port Arthur in another attempt to reach Vladivostok. In the early stages of the battle, Dewa attempted to engage the Russian cruisers trailing the battleships in accordance with Tōgō's standing orders, but was rebuffed by fire from the battleships. As Dewa closed with the Russians later in the afternoon in another attempt to attack the Russian cruisers, a shell struck Yakumo amidships at 15:40, killing 12 and wounding 11. The range at this time exceeded , beyond the range of any gun in his squadron, so Dewa ordered his ships to disengage. By 17:45, Yakumo had maneuvered to about from the damaged Russian battleship Poltava and opened fire. Yakumo continued to close until the Russian squadron was thrown into confusion by the death of Vitgeft around 18:40.
The 3rd Division then followed Tōgō's ships as they circled the Russian ships while they sorted themselves out, now firing at the Russian cruisers with little effect, until Tōgō ordered Dewa to attack the Russian destroyers at about 19:44. Dewa cancelled that last order and turned south around 20:00 in pursuit of several Russian cruisers that were fleeing to the south, in an attempt to intercept them before they reached the isolated flotillas of destroyers and torpedo boats. The Russian ships were engaged by other Japanese cruisers before they could reach the small ships, and Dewa broke off the pursuit around 20:25 as light was fading. He continued south-eastwards overnight and spotted one cruiser and two destroyers, but was unable to catch any of them. On 14 August, Yakumo and the 3rd Division was ordered to Qingdao to confirm that the Germans had indeed interned the battleship and three destroyers that had taken shelter there after the battle. After their return, they were reassigned to the blockade of Port Arthur.
In mid-September, Yakumo was transferred back to Kamimura's 2nd Division, which was defending the Strait of Tsushima, although she began a refit at the end of the month. The ship returned to Dewa on 15 November and he transferred his flag back to her. On 13 December, the ship attempted to rescue survivors of the after she had struck a mine, but found no one still living. Yakumo was sent to Sasebo Naval Arsenal for another refit five days later. On 1 February 1905, the ship was ordered to join Rear Admiral Shimamura Hayao's 2nd Division blockading Vladivostok, although this only lasted for a few weeks as she was ordered to Kure Naval Arsenal for a final refit in mid-February before the anticipated battle with the Russian ships sent from the Baltic Fleet.
Battle of Tsushima
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May, having sailed from the Baltic Sea, Yakumo was assigned to Kamimura's 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet. The Russians were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning, but visibility was limited and radio reception poor. The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11:30. Kamimura closed to about a range of 8000 meters before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō's battleships. Yakumo was fourth of six when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14:10 and, like most of the ships in the division, engaged the battleship which was forced to fall out of formation at 14:50 and sank 20 minutes later. By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and the battleship suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15:35 at a range of about . All of Kamimura's ships engaged her for five minutes or so, with Yakumo and the armored cruiser also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect.
After 17:30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers, leaving Tōgō's battleships to their own devices. He abandoned his chase around 18:03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō. His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18:30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8000–9000 meters. Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians, and they ceased fire by 19:30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20:08 as night was falling. The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10:30, staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply. Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships, as he could neither return fire nor close the range.
In the meantime, the coast defense ship had fallen well behind Nebogatov's ships and was spotted by the protected cruiser early in the morning, but the Japanese were more intent on locating the main body of the Russian fleet than attacking a single isolated ship. Admiral Ushakov was then spotted at 14:10, well after Nebogatov's surrender, by Shimamura who received permission to pursue her with his flagship, the armored cruiser , and Yakumo. They caught up with the Russian ship at 17:00 and demanded her surrender. Admiral Ushakov attempted to close the range to bring the Japanese cruisers within range of her guns, but they were fast enough to keep the range open and the Russian ship never hit either one. After about half an hour, Admiral Ushakov was listing heavily enough that her guns could not elevate enough to bear, and her commander ordered his crew to abandon ship and the scuttling charges detonated. The ship sank in three minutes and 12 officers and 327 crewmen were rescued by the Japanese. Between them, Yakumo and Iwate fired 89 eight- and 278 six-inch shells during the engagement. Over the course of the entire battle, Yakumo was struck by a single twelve-inch shell and six others, of which three or four were six inches in size. They inflicted only minor damage.
On 14 June, Yakumo was assigned as the flagship of Vice Admiral Kataoka Shichirō, commander of the 3rd Fleet, as part of the operation to capture the island of Sakhalin in July.
World War I
In November 1914, Yakumo was deployed to Singapore preparatory to searching for the German commerce raider , but the ship was sunk before the mission began. Yakumo served as the flagship of Destroyer Squadron (Suiraisentai) 2 from 13 December 1915 to 1 December 1916 and then of Suiraisentai 1 from 1 to 12 December. In February 1917, the ship began patrolling the South Pacific and Indian Oceans, searching for German commerce raiders. She began the first of her many training cruises on 5 April when she departed for North America and Hawaii, before arriving back in Japan on 17 August. In October 1918, Kichisaburō Nomura was appointed captain of Yakumo for two months, only one of which he spent on board the vessel, as a political appointment to qualify Nomura for flag rank.
Interwar years
On 1 September 1921, Yakumo was re-designated as a 1st class coast-defense ship and used primarily for training duties in long-distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy. In this capacity, she participated in 13 more voyages in the 1920s and 1930s to Europe, North and South America, and the South Pacific, including a circumnavigation of the globe from August 1921 to April 1922, in company with the armored cruiser . Two of the naval cadets that participated in this cruise were Princes Kuni Asaakira and Kachō Hirotada.
In 1924, four of Yakumos 12-pounder guns were removed, as were all of her QF 2.5-pounder guns, and a single 8 cm/40 3rd Year Type anti-aircraft gun was added. In addition three of her torpedo tubes were removed. Three years later, her boilers were replaced by six Yarrow boilers, formerly from the battleship , which reduced her power to and maximum speed to . These boilers used a mix of coal and fuel oil, and the ship now carried a total of of coal and of oil.
During a visit to Qingdao in 1932, Yakumo and Izumo had to land marines on 13 January to quell a riot by Japanese residents there. The following year, the ship was reclassified as a training ship. On 6 November 1936, between the islands of Saipan and Truk, an accidental explosion in her front magazine killed four crewmen and flooded her front food locker. Repairs were made underway and Yakumo arrived home two weeks later. A month after her return, in December 1936, Captain Matome Ugaki assumed command of Yakumo until he took command of the battleship the next year. Her last training cruise ended on 20 November 1939.
World War II
After the start of the Pacific War, Yakumo was reclassified as a 1st class cruiser on 1 July 1942, and her eight-inch guns were replaced by four Type 89 dual-purpose guns in two twin mounts. In addition her light anti-aircraft armament was augmented. However, Yakumo remained within the confines of the Seto Inland Sea throughout the war as she was assigned to training duties, and was not used in any combat operations. She was stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1945. Yakumo began service as a repatriation transport on 7 December. Her mission was to return troops and civilians to the home islands from Japan's former overseas possessions, primarily from Taiwan and mainland China. She completed her last voyage in June 1946, repatriating a total of 9,010 people. Yakumo arrived at the Maizuru shipyard of Hitachi Shipbuilding & Engineering on 20 July 1946 to begin demolition that lasted until 1 April 1947.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Daiji Katagiri, , Kōjinsha (Japan), June 1988,
Masahide Asai, , Tōkyō Suikōsha (fringe organization of the Ministry of the Navy), December 1928
External links
Yakumo on Nihon Kaigun
Cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Ships built in Stettin
1899 ships
Russo-Japanese War cruisers of Japan
World War I cruisers of Japan
Coastal defence ships
World War II cruisers of Japan
Ships with Belleville boilers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhunt%20for%20Osama%20bin%20Laden
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Manhunt for Osama bin Laden
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Osama bin Laden, the founder and former leader of al-Qaeda, went into hiding following the start of the War in Afghanistan in order to avoid capture by the United States and/or its allies for his role in the September 11, 2001 attacks, and having been on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list since 1999. After evading capture at the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, his whereabouts became unclear, and various rumours about his health, continued role in al-Qaeda, and location were circulated. Bin Laden also released several video and audio recordings during this time.
In the decade following his disappearance, there were many attempts made by the United States government to locate bin Laden. In December 2009, U.S. Army General Stanley McChrystal said that bin Laden would need to be "captured or killed" in order for the U.S. to "finally defeat al-Qaeda."
American intelligence officials discovered the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden by tracking one of his couriers. Information was collected from Guantánamo Bay detainees, who gave intelligence officers the courier's pseudonym as Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti. In 2009, U.S. officials discovered that al-Kuwaiti lived in Abbottābad, Pakistan. CIA paramilitary operatives located al-Kuwaiti in August 2010 and followed him back to the Abbottabad compound, which led them to speculate it was bin Laden's location.
On May 1, 2011, United States Navy SEALs of the Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) carried out an assault on the compound on orders from U.S. President Barack Obama. During a 40-minute raid, bin Laden was killed by one bullet above the left eye and another to the chest. The SEALs overpowered the compound's remaining residents, killing several, and extracted bin Laden's body (which was subsequently buried at sea) as well as computer hard drives, documents, and other material.
Bin Laden's whereabouts mid 2000s
New information of bin Laden's location had been emerging since his death and the arrest of his wives. On the day of the 9/11 attacks, bin Laden was at the Khaldan terrorist training camp near Khost, which he left during the night with several Al Qaeda and Taliban operatives after sending his wives and children away across the Durand Line into Pakistan to hide out. Bin Laden arrived the following morning in Khandahar and lived in a Taliban-controlled safe house from September 12 to October 6, 2001. Shortly after the US-led war in Afghanistan began, bin Laden traveled from Kandahar to Kabul where he lived in another Taliban safe house until November 12 when he was believed to have traveled to Jalalabad where he spent at least five days in another safe house. From Jalalabad, he traveled to the Tora Bora region in the White Mountains where he hid out from November 17 to December 12. He is believed to have crossed the border into Pakistan sometime in January 2002 and spent time in various Al Qaeda safehouses in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan between January and April 2002.
According to one of his wives, bin Laden was reunited with his family for the first time after the 9/11 attacks in the second half of 2002 in Peshawar, the capital city of the Tribal Areas, where they lived for five months in another safe house. After this, in September 2002, bin Laden took his family into the rural mountain areas of northwest Pakistan (and very notably, not in the tribal belt where main US attention was focused). First they stayed in the Shangla district in the Swat valley, where they stayed in two safe houses for eight to nine months. In May 2003, bin Laden and his family moved to Haripur, a small town close to Islamabad, where they stayed in a rented house for two years. In June 2005, bin Laden and his family moved to Abbottabad.
Location and death of Osama bin Laden
Tracking
American intelligence officials discovered the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden by tracking one of his couriers. Information was collected from Guantánamo Bay detainees, who gave intelligence officers the courier's pseudonym as Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, and said that he was a protégé of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. In 2007, U.S. officials discovered the courier's real name and, in 2009, that he lived in Abbottabad, Pakistan. CIA paramilitary operatives located al-Kuwaiti in August 2010 and followed him back to the Abbottabad compound, which led them to speculate it was bin Laden's location.
Using satellite photos and intelligence reports, the CIA inferred the identities of the inhabitants of the compound. In September 2010, the CIA concluded that the compound was "custom built to hide someone of significance" and that bin Laden's residence there was very likely. Officials surmised that he was living there with his youngest wife.
Identification attempt
To identify the occupants of the compound, the CIA worked with doctor Shakil Afridi to organize a fake vaccination program. Nurses gained entry to the residence to vaccinate the children and extract DNA, which could be compared to a sample from his sister, who died in Boston in 2010. It is unclear if the DNA samples were ever obtained.
Location
Built between 2003 and 2005, the three-story mansion was located in a compound about 4 km (2.5 mi.) northeast of the center of Abbottabad. While the compound was assessed by US officials at a value of US$1 million, local real-estate agents assess the property value at US$250,000. On a lot about eight times the size of nearby houses, it was surrounded by concrete walls topped with barbed wire. There were two security gates and the third-floor balcony had a privacy wall. There was no Internet or telephone service coming into the compound.
Its residents burned their trash, unlike their neighbors, who simply set it out for collection. The compound is located at , southwest of the closest point of the sprawling Pakistan Military Academy.
President Obama met with his national security advisors on March 14, 2011, in the first of five security meetings over six weeks. On April 29, at 8:20 a.m., Obama convened with National Security Advisor Thomas Donilon, Deputy National Security Advisor for Homeland Security and Counterterrorism John O. Brennan, and other security advisors in the Diplomatic Room, where he authorized a raid of the Abbottabad compound. The government of Pakistan was not informed of this decision.
Death of Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Laden was killed after being shot in the head and chest, during Operation Neptune Spear, with Geronimo as the code word for bin Laden's capture or death. The operation was a 40-minute raid by members of the United States special operations forces and Navy SEALs on his safe house in Bilal Town, Abbottabad, Pakistan. It took place on May 2, 2011, around 01:00 Pakistan Standard Time (May 1, 20:00 UTC). U.S. forces then took his body to a military base in Afghanistan for identification before burying it at sea.
Following his death new details of where he lived were learned from interrogations of his widows and surviving associates.
According to the Associated Press reports based on interrogations, it was determined that he had lived in five different safehouses in Pakistan. His penultimate home was located in Haripur. It was a relatively upscale house in a neighborhood that contained other upscale homes but also bordered Afghan refugee huts. He lived there for eleven months while the Abbottabad compound was being built.
Pakistan's alleged role
Critics have accused Pakistan's military and security establishment of protecting bin Laden. Most believe bin Laden lived at the compound for at least six years before his death there.
On March 29, 2012, Pakistani newspaper Dawn acquired a report produced by Pakistani security officials, based on interrogation of his three surviving wives, that detailed his movements while living underground in Pakistan.
Declan Walsh, writing in the New York Times, reported on speculation that Pakistan was planning to charge bin Laden's wives and adult daughters with immigration offenses, rather than simply deporting them, so they would be in prison and unable to offer details of Pakistani cooperation with bin Laden to neighboring country India and its intelligence agency RAW, as it would be politically embarrassing for Pakistan.
Rumors and speculation about his whereabouts: 2001–2011
Bin Laden's location and state of health were a continuing topic of speculation since his disappearance from Tora Bora. It has become clear that most of these rumors and speculation were not based on fact. First, rumors surfaced that bin Laden was killed or fatally injured during U.S. bombardments, most notably near Tora Bora, or that he died of natural causes. According to Gary Berntsen, in his 2005 book, Jawbreaker, a number of al-Qaeda detainees later confirmed that bin Laden had escaped Tora Bora into Pakistan via an eastern route through snow-covered mountains in the area of Parachinar, Pakistan. The media reported that bin Laden suffered from a kidney disorder requiring him to have access to advanced medical facilities, possibly kidney dialysis. Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaeda's second-in-command and a close bin Laden associate, is a physician and may have provided medical care to bin Laden.
Between 2002 and 2011, the most common suggestion from U.S. national security officials and others was that "their best intelligence suggested that bin Laden was living along the mountainous, ungoverned border of Pakistan and Afghanistan," such as in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (an area that includes Waziristan) or volatile regions in North-West Frontier Province (now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), where an ongoing insurgency has taken place. Several experts and former officials expressed surprise when bin Laden was instead revealed to have been hiding in the urban city of Abbottabad. Less common suggestions were that bin Laden had died (either by illness or military attack), or that he was alive and living in countries other than Pakistan, such as Afghanistan or Iran.
2001
Dr Amer Aziz, a Pakistani surgeon who had been traveling to Afghanistan since 1989, to treat wounded mujahideen, acknowledged he examined Osama bin Laden at a temporary clinic he set up at the University of Jalalabad, Nangarhar in November 2001. Aziz refuted the rumors that bin Laden was suffering from kidney disease, or any other chronic conditions.
2004
January 23: Hassan Ghul, a courier of bin Laden is arrested by the Peshmerga in Iraqi Kurdistan after trying to cross the Iranian border.
February 27: Iranian news agency IRNA reported that bin Laden had been caught some time earlier in Pakistan. The news was spread by Asheq Hossein, director of the state-sponsored radio station, who mentioned two sources. The first source was a reporter of the Pakistani newspaper "The Nation," Shamim Shahed, who denied ever telling this to Hossein. The second source was "someone closely related to intelligence agencies and Afghan tribal elders." Both the Pentagon and a spokesperson of the Pakistani armed forces have denied the capture of bin Laden. Similar rumours have appeared from time to time since the start of U.S. military operations in Afghanistan but none have been confirmed.
October 21: John Lehman, a member of the 9/11 Commission, reported that Osama bin Laden was indeed alive, and that the Pentagon knew exactly where he was. According to Lehman, bin Laden was living in South Waziristan in the Baluchistan Mountains of the Baluchistan region, surviving from donations from outside countries such as the United Arab Emirates and high-ranking ministers inside Saudi Arabia. "There is an American presence in the area, but we can't just send in troops," Lehman said. "If we did, we could have another Vietnam, and the United States cannot afford that right now."
2005
June: Taliban commander Mullah Akhtar Mohammad Osmani tells Pakistani GEO News that bin Laden and Mullah Mohammed Omar are both alive. He does not reveal anything about bin Laden's location, stating "All I can tell you is that Osama bin Laden is alive and well."
September 25: Pakistani ISI counterterrorism chief "Ali," whose true identity has not been publicly revealed, tells CBS News' 60 Minutes that he believes that bin Laden is hiding in Afghanistan with a small group of supporters, possibly with as few as 10 men.
October 4: The 2005 Kashmir earthquake strikes the northeastern Pakistani area of Pakistan-administered Kashmir. In November, Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid tells television news that "I heard today that he may have died in the earthquake that they had in Pakistan."
December 11: A letter to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, dated December 11 and signed "Atiyah" (thought to be Atiyah Abd al-Rahman) is later intercepted and publicly reported in The Washington Post the following year. The letter indicates that bin Laden and the al-Qaeda leadership were based in the Waziristan region of Pakistan at the time. In the letter, translated by the United States military's Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, "Atiyah" instructs Zarqawi to "send messengers from your end to Waziristan so that they meet with the brothers of the leadership ... I am now on a visit to them and I am writing you this letter as I am with them..." Al-Rahman also indicates that bin Laden and al-Qaeda are "weak" and "have many of their own problems." The letter has been deemed authentic by military and counterterrorism officials.
2006
January 9: Neoconservative commentator Michael Ledeen writes in a column in National Review that "according to Iranians I trust," bin Laden died of kidney failure in mid-December 2005 and was buried in Iran. Ledeen claimed that bin Laden has "spent most of his time since the destruction of al-Qaeda in Afghanistan" in Iran and wrote that "The Iranians who reported this note that this year's message in conjunction with the Muslim Hajj came from his number two, Ayman al-Zawahiri, for the first time."
May 24: Alexis Debat of ABC News reported on rumors that bin Laden was sighted in the Ghor Province of Afghanistan. The report, on ABC News's blog, was later removed due to doubts about the credibility of Debat's reporting.
September 21: The French newspaper L'Est Républicain publishes an article by Laid Sammari which cited a September 21 French foreign intelligence document as reporting that Saudi officials received confirmation that bin Laden died August 23 of typhoid fever in Pakistan. U.S. intelligence officials stated that the reporting was unsubstantiated and that the U.S. had received no confirmation of that report. French President Jacques Chirac stated that the report was "in no way confirmed." Members of the bin Laden family also said they heard nothing to confirm the report.
2007
June: Speaking to al Jazeera, Taliban leader Mullah Bakht Mohammed stated that "Sheikh Osama bin Laden is alive and active. He's carrying out his duties. The latest proof that he is alive is that he sent me a letter of condolences after the martyrdom of my brother. He advised me to follow my brother's path." Mohammed's brother Dadullah had led military operations for the Taliban until his death in May 2007. Mohammed stated that "Sheikh Osama prefers not to be seen or meet anyone because if he makes himself available to the media maybe he will be facing danger."
September 7: Former counter-terrorism official Richard A. Clarke speculated that bin Laden's "phony looking beard" in a recent videotaped message may mean his original beard has been shaved to help him blend into different Muslim communities. Clarke stated to ABC News that beards would stand out in southeast Asia, the Philippines, or Indonesia, and noted that "No one's thought he was there, but that is an environment where most Muslim men normally don't have beards."
2008
July 12: Pakistani Interior Minister Rehman Malik, speaking in opposition to drone attacks in Pakistan, claimed to the British Sunday Times that "If Osama was in Pakistan we would know, with all the thousands of troops we have sent into the tribal areas in recent months. If he and all these four or five top people were in our area they would have been caught, the way we are searching." Malik claimed that drone strikes in Pakistan were a waste of time, stating that "according to our information Osama is in Afghanistan, probably Kunar."
November: CIA Director Michael Hayden, in a speech to the Atlantic Council, states that bin Laden is probably hiding in the tribal area of northwest Pakistan and that his capture remains a top U.S. priority. Hayden states that bin Laden is "putting a lot of energy into his own survival, a lot of energy into his own security. In fact, he appears to be largely isolated from the day-to-day operations of the organization he nominally heads."
2009
February 17: A research team led by Thomas W. Gillespie and John A. Agnew of UCLA publish a report in which they use satellite-aided geographical analysis to pinpoint three compounds in Parachinar, Pakistan as likely hideouts of bin Laden.
March: The New York Daily News reported that the hunt for bin Laden had centered in the Chitral District of Pakistan, including the Kalam Valley.
November 29: News report states bin Laden is living in Pakistan and Gordon Brown urges Pakistan to do more to break Al-Qaeda and find Osama bin Laden.
December 4: BBC reports of informant having knowledge of bin Laden in Ghazni, south east Afghanistan in early 2009. Ghazni is a Taliban stronghold and many areas do not permit coalition forces. The detainee was involved in kidnappings and fundraising operations for Taliban operations in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Former CIA analyst Bruce Riedel is quoted as saying "The entire Western intelligence community, CIA and FBI, have been looking for Osama bin Laden for the last seven years and haven't come upon a source of information like this."
2010
Nasser al-Bahri, a bodyguard for bin Laden in the late 1990s, writes a book, published in French as Dans l'ombre de Ben Laden (In the Shadow of Bin Laden), with French journalist Georges Malbrunot of the newspaper Le Figaro. According to al-Bahri, bin Laden is hiding in the regions in Afghanistan or along the border with Pakistan. Malbrunot stated in an interview with Mark Colvin of PM that bin Laden is likely "protected by tribes which are very loyal to him. These tribes, bin Laden has known them for the last 20 years. He help them financially and materially in the '80s and these tribes also, I think it's an important factor, are more loyal to the religion than to the typical tribal character, which mean that it's not very easy to bribe them." Malbrunot noted that "He's protected by perhaps, he kept three or four people around him from al Qaeda, and he can move with the protection of the tribal leaders and tribal connections in this region along the Pakistan, the Waziristan."
Feathered Cocaine, a documentary by Icelandic filmmakers Om Marino Arnarson and Thorkell S. Hardarson dealing with the global falcon trade and featuring falconer Alan Parrot, claims that bin Laden, an avid falcon hunter, "has been taking part in the sport relatively freely" in Tehran in Iran since 2003.
June 7: The Israeli-based intelligence news service DEBKAfile reports that bin Laden and top lieutenants have been living in the remote mountainous town of Sabzevar in northeastern Iran for the past five years, and that Turkish intelligence officials were aware of it.
June 27: CIA Director Leon Panetta, speaking on ABC News' This Week, stated that the last time the CIA had "precise information" on bin Laden was "the early 2000s." Panetta states that "He is, as is obvious, in very deep hiding. He's in an area of the tribal areas of Pakistan, that is very difficult. The terrain is probably the most difficult in the world...All I can tell you is it's in the tribal areas...we know that he's located in that vicinity." Panetta states that "If we keep that pressure on, we think ultimately we can flush out bin Laden and Zawahiri and get after them."
October 18: A senior NATO official tells CNN about claims that bin Laden is alive and well, living comfortably in a house in the north-west of Pakistan and being protected by local people and elements of Pakistani intelligence. Stating that "nobody in al Qaeda is living in a cave", the official stated the bin Laden was likely to have moved around in recent years in areas from the mountainous Chitral region in the far northwest, near the Chinese border, to the Kurram Valley bordering Tora Bora in Afghanistan. The official stated that Zawahiri is believed to be hiding close to bin Laden in houses in northwest Pakistan, but are not together. Another U.S. official stated that bin Laden and Zawahiri are "somewhere in the tribal areas of Pakistan near the Afghanistan border," but that their exact locations are unknown: "If we knew where he was – in a house, an apartment, a villa or an underground cave or bunker – we would have gotten him; we can't rule out he may be in a cave one day and a house in a city on another."
October 28: An audio recording of bin Laden threatening France over their involvement in Afghanistan is pronounced genuine by the French Foreign Ministry.
2011
May 1: American President Barack Obama addressed the nation at 11:35 pm EST that Osama bin Laden had been killed in Abbottabad in a U.S. operation. The compound was located at . Osama bin Laden's body was taken to the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson, where it was buried at sea somewhere in the North Arabian Sea, approximately .
In media
Zero Dark Thirty, a 2012 American film dramatizing the manhunt
Manhunt: The Ten-Year Search for Bin Laden From 9/11 to Abbottabad, a 2012 book by Peter Bergen
Manhunt: The Search for Bin Laden, a 2013 documentary film based on the 2012 book
See also
Saad bin Laden
References
External links
Complete 911 Timeline Cooperative Research History Commons
Context of 'Late August 1998: Bin Laden Stops Using His Satellite Phone, Reason Unclear' Cooperative Research History Commons
Bin Laden Trail 'Stone Cold' The Washington Post September 10, 2006
After a Decade at War With West, Al-Qaeda Still Impervious to Spies The Washington Post March 20, 2008
Terrorism Experts Predict Long Hunt for bin Laden VOA April 9, 2008
Where is Osama bin Laden? An analysis – Deep Background msnbc.com June 13, 2008
How Terrorist Organizations Work Like Clubs The Washington Post August 4, 2008
How Osama bin Laden Slipped from our Grasp: The Definitive Account by Peter Bergen, The New Republic, December 22, 2009
Abbottabad District
Al-Qaeda
Osama bin Laden
Bin Laden, Osama
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Kuban%20Krasnodar
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FC Kuban Krasnodar
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FC Kuban () was a Russian professional football club based in Krasnodar, which now only plays on a regional level. The team began playing in the Russian Premier League in 2011, having for won the Russian First Division a year prior. By then, it was one of the oldest professional football clubs in the country, with its foundation being linked to the Soviet NKVD as Dynamo Krasnodar. It changed its name at a time of political change in the USSR.
Club members and fans were called "Kubantsy" () (because of its location) or "yellow-greens" (the club colours). The team was also known as the "Cossacks" by fans. Other nicknames associated with the club colours were "The Canaries" (analogous to the similar colours of the French FC Nantes and the English Norwich City F.C.) and "The Toads" (primarily by opponents and the Kuban Ultras).
On 17 May 2018 it was announced that FC Kuban had dissolved because of bankruptcy. It was resurrected by fans and former footballers on a local level a few months later and the team played its first official match in the Krasnodar Krai Regional League. The club is not officially linked to the new PFC Kuban Krasnodar, which is often seen to be the successor to the club on a professional level.
Chronology of club names
Dynamo (1928–53)
Neftyanik (1954–57)
Kuban (1958–60)
Spartak (1960–62)
Kuban (1963–2018)
History
Origins
Football first appeared in Kuban during the early 20th century, when a number of sports clubs were created in Ekaterinodar. The first matches were intra-club, and football competed with other sports; however, interest gradually grew and friendly matches were played between clubs in different cities. The first intercity football match was played in Ekaterinodar on 6 August (or 9 August) 1912 when the Achilles club (or an Ekaterinodar city team with Achilles players) defeated Novorossiysk Olympia 5–0. Since 1913, when the first city championship was played, matches between city teams (Achilles, Sport and Victoria) have become common.
Founding
According to the club, its history began in 1928 with the organization in Krasnodar of Dynamo NKVD. According to some reports the team was founded a year earlier, but documentary evidence of that club does not exist. The team came into existence in 1928, according to documents in the archives.
Dynamo: 1928–1953
Before there was a national championship, Dynamo played friendly matches with the best teams in Russia, Ukraine and the Caucasus. In addition to these matches, tournaments were played in the city (including the Lottery Friendship Cup, played by sports clubs and teams from the Krasnodar military garrison).
In 1931 Dynamo moved into its own stadium, in the center of Krasnodar, which is now the city's oldest existing sports facility. That year, the club received the Sportspeople of the Northern Caucasus award.
In 1935, Dynamo (the only Krasnodar team) played in the intercity USSR Championship. In the group stage in Pyatigorsk, the team played three games in five days. On 26 June, they played to a 2–2 draw with Yerevan, and on 28 June Dynamo won 1–0 over Makhachkala. On 30 June the club lost to Pyatigorsk 1–2, finishing third in the group.
In 1948 the club played in the RSFSR championship, beginning with preliminary games in the North Caucasus (against teams from Stavropol, Rostov-on-Don, Grozny, Stalingrad, Nalchik, Makhachkala and the Krasnodar Lightning. Dynamo was undefeated in the zone tournament. The playoffs began on 3 October at the Dynamo stadium, where the hosts reached the finals undefeated. On 17 October 1948 Dynamo beat Molotov 4–0 in the final and became, for the first time in their history, RSFSR champions (winning a number of prizes).
Neftyanik: 1954–1957
In 1953 Dynamo changed its name to Neftyanik, representing Krasnodar in the Class B Soviet League the following year. The team played well in the first round of the 1953 championship but faltered in the second, eventually finishing 10th.
In the 1955 season, Neftyanik finished in fifth place and was promoted to Class A of the Soviet Top League. The following year, the club finished fourth. In the 1957 season Neftyanik again finished fourth.
Kuban: 1958–1960
In 1958 the team again changed its name, this time to Kuban. It was in the top echelon for most of the 1958–59 season despite the loss of eight players (the team's core) to the army, where most represented FC SKVO. In the 1959–60 season, Kuban finished in fifth place.
Spartak: 1960–1962
When the team moved to Spartak during the second half of the 1960 season, they finished third. The following year they finished eighth, which was blamed by fans on poor coaching.
After the first round of the 1962 championship, Spartak was in sixth place. Between rounds, a new manager (Vladimir Gorokhov, a Master of Sport in the USSR) was brought in. In the second round Spartak, unhampered by injuries, won their zonal tournament.
The final round involved the five best clubs in Krasnodar Krai. Spartak played four matches, winning three. They defeated Voronezh Trud (1–0), Army Novosibirsk (2–0) and Yaroslavl Shinnik (2–0), drawing (2–2) with Sverdlovsk Uralmash in the third match. As RSFSR zone champion, Spartak won the right to play in the Soviet Top League; however, because of a league reorganization they were not permitted to play.
Kuban: 1963–1979
In 1963, after the club changed its name back to Kuban, they played unevenly and finished 10th in the Group 2 of Class A. After two poor seasons in 1964 and 1965 (where they finished 15th and 25th, respectively) three good seasons followed in 1966, 1967 and 1969. However, despite finishing third each season the team did not win promotion. In 1970 Kuban were relegated to the Soviet Second League, and its ownership changed the following year.
In 1973 Kuban finished third in the final tournament, earning a return to the First League and winning their third RSFSR zone championship. The club struggled in the First League for two seasons until they were relegated again to the Second League in 1976. Kuban returned to the First League in 1977. After a good start in 1978 (immediately after their promotion), Kuban eventually finished in sixth place.
The 1979 season was one of the most successful ones in recent club history. Kuban finished second, earning the right to play in the following year's Top League. Unlike 1962, there was no reorganization of the Soviet League and Kuban was promoted.
1980–1991
In 1980 Kuban played for the first time in the Soviet Top League. Before the season, Kuban Stadium was renovated with an increase in capacity. Their first home game was a scoreless tie on 7 April with Lokomotiv Moscow, and on 12 April Kuban scored their first Top League goals against Dynamo Tbilisi (2–2). At the end of the season Kuban won the "Together with the team" prize for home-field attendance. In 1981 the team finished in 13th place, the club's greatest achievement to date.
Although the 1982 season began well, with the club in sixth place, at the end of the season they were relegated from the Soviet Top League. In 1983 Kuban played unevenly, defeating the leading clubs but losing points to lesser teams. They finished the season in eighth place.
Kuban finished fourth in 1984; in September, they were in the hunt for a top-two finish (and promotion to the Soviet Top League before losing their final game. The next two seasons were poor, with the team (in 18th place) narrowly avoiding relegation from the First League in 1985 and relegated in 1986 with a 20th-place finish.
In 1987, Kuban was promoted back to the First League. In November the team won its fourth RSFSR championship, a record for a non-capital-city club. During the next four seasons (1988, 1989, 1990 and 1991), Kuban finished 19th three consecutive times and second-last (21st place) in its final USSR First League season.
1992–1999
In 1992, because of the disintegration of the USSR and the collapse of the Soviet leagues, Kuban played in the new Top Division league; however, they were overmatched and were relegated to the First Division. The 1993 season saw a new head coach: international Master of Sports Leonid Nazarenko. Until mid-May, Kuban was among the group leaders before finishing the season in 15th place.
Although the team was expected to return to the Top Division in 1994 (standing in second place early in the season), Kuban finished in sixth place. In 1995 Kuban won promotion to the Top Division with a strong finish, including a 3–0 victory over Anzhi in the last home match to claim second place in the First Division western zone.
After its return to Top Division in 1996 Kuban played unevenly. Although in mid-season the team was near the leaders, they lost many points at home and finished 10th overall. The following year was less successful; Kuban finished 16th, allowing it to remain in the Top Division.
In 1998, Kuban was in financial difficulty and on the verge of collapse. After its relegation to the Russian Professional Football League, the only player remaining was the team's third goalkeeper. Ivan Panenko, general director of OAO Rosneft-Krasnodarneftegaz, became the new president of the club and over the next two years laid the foundation for the future team.
Kuban's revival began in 1999, with the appointment of head coach Soferbi Yeshugov and the recruiting of local players. The club had a successful season, winning the Southern Zone championship.
21st century
In 2000, Kuban amassed a 14-match winning streak and moved into first place. Despite a coaching change (to Irhin Alexandr), the club finished first in the Second Division southern zone and won two matches on aggregate against an evolving FC Saransk Lighting. Kuban won at home (1–0), and the second match was a scoreless draw. At the end of the year, the club prepared to compete in the First Division.
In early 2001, Kuban's management was assumed by the Krasnodar Krai government. The club's new president was governor Aleksander Tkachyov, who recruited Oleg Dolmatov as head coach to win promotion to the Russian Premier League. Although the club began the season well under Dolmatov, Kuban finished third and failed to win promotion.
The 2002 season saw conflicts between the coach and several players during the off-season. After a coaching change, the team rallied to finish fourth.
Despite the initial absence of a head coach in 2003, Kuban was in first place after the season's first half. The second half of the season began with a series of defeats which led to another coaching change. Kuban then won 11 consecutive matches (a record at the time for the First Division), finishing second and winning promotion to the Russian Premier League.
Poor coaching contributed to an unsuccessful 2004 season. Kuban finished 15th, and were again demoted. The season's only bright spot was a 2–1 home victory over eventual league champions Lokomotiv Moscow.
In 2005 Kuban was managed for the first time by a foreign coach, Jozef Chovanec from the Czech Republic. Although the season began well, with the team in first place at the end of the first half, Kuban lost several games early in the second half and finished fifth. The team refused to travel to Nalchik (under attack at the time by militants), and forfeited the match there. Kuban finished with the best defensive record in the league, conceding a club-record 25 goals in 42 matches.
Pavel Yakovenko was Kuban's coach in 2006. In first place until the last round, a 0–2 defeat against Khimki dropped the club to second place but they won promotion to the Russian Premier League.
The 2007 season began badly; the team did not win any games, and Yakovenko was replaced by Leonid Nazarenko. When Kuban did not improve, Nazarenko resigned as coach (ostensibly for family reasons) but remained with the club. Soferbi Yeshugov had a brief tenure as coach before Nazarenko again stepped in. In 15th place, Kuban finished next to last and was demoted to the First Division but the reserve club finished third place in their tournament. On 8 December, supporters rallied near the stadium in response to rumours of the club's fiscal collapse.
In 2008, Kuban celebrated their 80th anniversary. During the off-season, Aleksandr Tarkhanov was appointed head coach. After two rounds of poor play, Tarkhanov resigned (ostensibly for health reasons) and was replaced by Sergey Pavlov. The team finished second (behind FC Rostov), winning promotion to the Russian Premier League. Their stay was short-lived, however, since the club was relegated again to First Division after a 15th-place finish the following year (losing 3–0 at home to two-time champions Rubin Kazan) and the sacking of head coach Sergei Ovchinnikov. Kuban returned to the Premier League after defeating Zhemchuzhina 1–0 at Sochi on 17 October 2010 and a goalless draw with Nizhny Novgorod on 24 October.
Kuban began the 2011 Premier League season with a 2–0 defeat at home to Rubin Kazan. Improving, the club qualified for the playoffs after finishing sixth and were guaranteed a position in the Premier League the following season. Kuban faltered during the playoffs, and the club finished eighth. During the off-season, Dan Petrescu moved to Dynamo Moscow.
In the 2012 Premier League season, Kuban began with a 2–1 away loss to Anzhi Makhachkala. Despite the replacement of Yuri Krasnozhan by Belarusian coach Leonid Kuchuk, the club remained in the top half of the league and set a home attendance record with 313,997 spectators in 15 matches. Kuban defeated Anzhi 1–0 on 26 May 2013 with a lone goal from Bulgarian forward Ivelin Popov, finishing fifth (the club's best Premier League finish). With this showing the club qualified for the first time for the UEFA Europe League, and at the end of the season Kuban had the highest home-game attendance in the league.
On 30 May 2018, the Russian Football National League announced that Kuban failed in the appeal to obtain the FNL license for the 2018–19 season.
On 8 February 2018, Oleg Mkrtchan, a businessman who was the owner of Kuban from 2013 to 2016, was arrested on charges of fraud.
On 24 July 2020, Russian Football Union approved the change of name by a different club that was founded in 2018 as FC Urozhay Krasnodar to FC Kuban, with the condition that the new club is not the legal successor to previous FC Kuban and cannot claim their sporting history.
Nikola Nikezić incident
Nikola Nikezić, a striker from Montenegro, was part of Kuban in 2010 and was under contract with the club until November 2011. In early 2011 the club, wishing to replace him, tried to persuade him to repudiate the contract. When Nikezić refused, he was beaten at the club office by two armed assailants with alleged ties to the Russian Mafia. After an assault estimated at 20 minutes by Nikezić, he signed a contract-dissolution agreement. The forward filed a complaint with FIFA president Sepp Blatter days after the incident, providing photos of injuries he sustained during the beating. FIFPro (the International Federation of Professional Footballers), with the assistance of the Russian Football Union, forced the club to pay Nikezić €180,000 in compensation.
Honours
Domestic competitions
RSFSR Championship: 4
Winners: 1948, 1962, 1973, 1987
Russian First Division:
Winners: 2010
Runners-up: 2003, 2006, 2008
Russian Cup:
Runners-up: 2014–15
League results
Soviet Union
Russia
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Top scorer (league)
!Head coach
|-
|align=center|1992
|align=center|1st
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|18
|align=center|30
|align=center|4
|align=center|9
|align=center|17
|align=center|24
|align=center|53
|align=center|17
|align=center|—
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Lemish – 5
|align=left| Marushkin I. V.Kaleshin
|-
|align=center|1993
|align=center|2nd, "West"
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|15
|align=center|42
|align=center|15
|align=center|8
|align=center|19
|align=center|62
|align=center|84
|align=center|38
|align=center|R64
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Gomleshko – 19
|align=left| Nazarenko
|-
|align=center|1994
|align=center rowspan="2"|3rd, "West"
|align=center|6
|align=center|40
|align=center|23
|align=center|6
|align=center|11
|align=center|83
|align=center|44
|align=center|52
|align=center|R256
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Gerasimenko – 16
|align=left| Nazarenko
|-
|align=center|1995
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|2
|align=center|42
|align=center|27
|align=center|6
|align=center|9
|align=center|107
|align=center|61
|align=center|87
|align=center|R128
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Gerasimenko – 30
|align=left| F. Novikov Brazhnikov
|-
|align=center|1996
|align=center rowspan="3"|2nd
|align=center|10
|align=center|42
|align=center|15
|align=center|14
|align=center|13
|align=center|65
|align=center|60
|align=center|59
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Shushlyakov – 15
|align=left| Brazhnikov
|-
|align=center|1997
|align=center|16
|align=center|42
|align=center|16
|align=center|9
|align=center|17
|align=center|63
|align=center|66
|align=center|57
|align=center|R512
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Shushlyakov – 15
|align=left| Brazhnikov
|-
|align=center|1998
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|20
|align=center|42
|align=center|10
|align=center|13
|align=center|19
|align=center|42
|align=center|68
|align=center|43
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Suanov – 6
|align=left| Sinau
|-
|align=center|1999
|align=center rowspan="2"|3rd, "South"
|align=center|1
|align=center|36
|align=center|29
|align=center|4
|align=center|3
|align=center|80
|align=center|13
|align=center|91
|align=center|R128
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Gabiskiria – 18
|align=left| Yeshugov
|-
|align=center|2000
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|1
|align=center|38
|align=center|32
|align=center|3
|align=center|3
|align=center|95
|align=center|13
|align=center|99
|align=center|R128
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Tsatskin – 14
|align=left| Yeshugov Shcherbachenko
|-
|align=center|2001
|align=center rowspan="3"|2nd
|align=center|3
|align=center|34
|align=center|16
|align=center|12
|align=center|6
|align=center|56
|align=center|29
|align=center|60
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Teryokhin – 15
|align=left| Dolmatov
|-
|align=center|2002
|align=center|4
|align=center|34
|align=center|15
|align=center|9
|align=center|10
|align=center|44
|align=center|30
|align=center|54
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Yermak – 5 Kiselyov – 5
|align=left| Dolmatov Komarov
|-
|align=center|2003
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|2
|align=center|42
|align=center|27
|align=center|5
|align=center|10
|align=center|75
|align=center|38
|align=center|86
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Biang – 13
|align=left| Lagoida Yuzhanin
|-
|align=center|2004
|align=center|1st
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|15
|align=center|30
|align=center|6
|align=center|10
|align=center|14
|align=center|26
|align=center|42
|align=center|28
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Kantonistov – 8
|align=left| Yuzhanin Yeshugov Nazarenko
|-
|align=center|2005
|align=center rowspan="2"|2nd
|align=center|5
|align=center|42
|align=center|23
|align=center|12
|align=center|7
|align=center|55
|align=center|25
|align=center|81
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Kantonistov – 11
|align=left| Chovanec
|-
|align=center|2006
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|2
|align=center|42
|align=center|30
|align=center|7
|align=center|5
|align=center|92
|align=center|25
|align=center|97
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Zebelyan – 23
|align=left| Yakovenko
|-
|align=center|2007
|align=center|1st
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|15
|align=center|30
|align=center|7
|align=center|11
|align=center|12
|align=center|27
|align=center|38
|align=center|32
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| O.Ivanov – 4 Kuzmichyov – 4 Laizāns – 4
|align=left| Yeshugov
|-
|align=center|2008
|align=center|2nd
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|2
|align=center|42
|align=center|27
|align=center|6
|align=center|9
|align=center|84
|align=center|36
|align=center|87
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Zubko – 18
|align=left| Protasov
|-
|align=center|2009
|align=center|1st
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|15
|align=center|30
|align=center|6
|align=center|10
|align=center|14
|align=center|23
|align=center|51
|align=center|28
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Traoré – 8
|align=left| Ovchinnikov Galstyan
|-
|align=center|2010
|align=center|2nd
|align=center bgcolor="lightgreen"|1
|align=center|38
|align=center|24
|align=center|8
|align=center|6
|align=center|51
|align=center|20
|align=center|80
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Davydov – 10
|align=left| Petrescu
|-
|align=center|2011–12
|align=center|1st
|align=center| 8
|align=center|44
|align=center|15
|align=center|16
|align=center|13
|align=center|50
|align=center|45
|align=center|61
|align=center|R32
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Traoré – 18
|align=left| Petrescu
|-
|align=center|2012–13
|align=center|1st
|align=center| 5
|align=center|30
|align=center|14
|align=center|9
|align=center|7
|align=center|48
|align=center|28
|align=center|51
|align=center|QF
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Popov – 9 Özbiliz – 9
|align=left| Krasnozhan Kuchuk
|-
|align=center|2013–14
|align=center|1st
|align=center| 8
|align=center|30
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center|12
|align=center|40
|align=center|42
|align=center|38
|align=center|R16
|align=center colspan=2|EL GS
|align=left| Baldé – 7
|align=left| Osinkin Munteanu Goncharenko
|-
|align=center|2014–15
|align=center|1st
|align=center| 10
|align=center|30
|align=center|8
|align=center|12
|align=center|10
|align=center|32
|align=center|36
|align=center|36
|align=center bgcolor="silver"|Runners-up
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Baldé – 5
|align=left| Goncharenko Kuchuk Sosnitskiy
|-
|align=center|2015–16
|align=center|1st
|align=center bgcolor="pink"|14
|align=center|30
|align=center|5
|align=center|11
|align=center|14
|align=center|34
|align=center|44
|align=center|26
|align=center|Quarterfinal
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Melgarejo – 8
|align=left| Khokhlov Tashuyev Papikyan (caretacker) Osinkin
|-
|align=center|2016–17
|align=center rowspan="2"|2nd
|align=center|7
|align=center|38
|align=center|14
|align=center|13
|align=center|11
|align=center|44
|align=center|37
|align=center|55
|align=center|R64
|align=center colspan=2|—
|align=left| Gogniyev – 10
|align=left| Yuzhanin
|}
European record
Kuban-2
Kuban's reserve squad FC Kuban-2 Krasnodar entered the third-tier Russian Professional Football League for the 2016–17 season.
Managers
Andrei Ageyev (1928–42)
Ivan Sanzharov (1944–47)
Andrei Ageyev (1948)
Lev Zabutov (1949–55)
Aleksandr Zagretsky (1955–56)
Nikolai Rasskazov (1956–59)
Yuri Khodotov (1960)
Boris Smyslov (1961)
Stanislav Shmerlin (1961–62)
Vladimir Gorokhov (1962–63)
Mikhail Antonevich (1964)
Nikolai Rasskazov (1964)
Aleksei Kostylev (1964–65)
Valeri Bekhtenev (1966–67)
Stanislav Shmerlin (1968)
Nikolai Rasskazov (1969–70)
Petr Scherbatenko (1971)
Stanislav Shmerlin (1972–73)
Vladimir Budagov (1973)
Gennadi Matveyev (1974)
Ruslan Dzasokhov (1975)
Viktor Gureyev (1976)
Viktor Korolkov (1977–79)
Vladimir Mikhaylov (1980)
Vladimir Belousov (1981–82)
Yuri Semin (1982)
Aleksandr Kochetkov (1983–85)
Yuri Kolinko (1986)
Khamza Bagapov (1987–88)
Igor V. Kaleshin (1988)
Georgi Bezbogin (1989–90)
Vladimir Brazhnikov (1990–91)
Yuri Marushkin (1991–92)
Igor V. Kaleshin (1992)
Leonid Nazarenko (1993–94)
Fyodor Novikov (1995)
Vladimir Brazhnikov (1995–97)
Valeri Sinau (1998)
Adolf Poskotin (1998)
Soferbiy Yeshugov (1999–00)
Fyodor Shcherbachenko (interim) (2000)
Oleg Dolmatov (2001–02)
Vyacheslav Komarov (2002)
Vladimir Lagoida (2003)
Nikolai Yuzhanin (2003–04)
Soferbiy Yeshugov (2004)
Leonid Nazarenko (interim) (2004)
Jozef Chovanec (Jan 1, 2005 – Dec 31, 2005)
Pavlo Yakovenko (Jan 1, 2006 – Aug 1, 2007)
Leonid Nazarenko (interim) (Aug 1, 2007 – Aug 20, 2007)
Soferbiy Yeshugov (Aug 20, 2007 – Nov 11, 2007)
Alexander Tarkhanov (Jan 1, 2008 – April 3, 2008)
Sergei Pavlov (April 3, 2008 – Aug 1, 2008)
Poghos Galstyan (interim) (2008)
Oleg Protasov (Oct 1, 2008 – Nov 20, 2008)
Sergei Ovchinnikov (Jan 1, 2009 – Aug 8, 2009)
Poghos Galstyan (Aug 10, 2009 – Dec 28, 2009)
Dan Petrescu (Dec 28, 2009 – Aug 14, 2012)
Yuri Krasnozhan (Aug 16, 2012 – Jan 8, 2013)
Leonid Kuchuk (Jan 9, 2013 – June 30, 2013)
Igor Osinkin (July 1, 2013 – July 31, 2013)
Dorinel Munteanu (July 31, 2013 – Oct 12, 2013)
Viktor Goncharenko (Oct 12, 2013–2014)
Leonid Kuchuk (2014–2015)
Andrei Sosnitskiy (2015)
Dmitri Khokhlov (2015)
Sergei Tashuyev (2015–2016)
Dan Petrescu (2016–)
References
External links
Greenmile.ru – fans website
Incomplete results website
Defunct football clubs in Krasnodar
Association football clubs established in 1928
Association football clubs disestablished in 2018
Fan-owned football clubs in Russia
Soviet Top League clubs
Police association football clubs in Russia
1928 establishments in Russia
2018 disestablishments in Russia
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5404557
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20battleship%20Rostislav
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Russian battleship Rostislav
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Rostislav was a pre-dreadnought battleship built by the Nikolaev Admiralty Shipyard in the 1890s for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy. She was conceived as a small, inexpensive coastal defence ship, but the Navy abandoned the concept in favor of a compact, seagoing battleship with a displacement of . Poor design and construction practices increased her actual displacement by more than . Rostislav became the world's first capital ship to burn fuel oil, rather than coal. Her combat ability was compromised by the use of main guns instead of the de facto Russian standard of .
Her hull was launched in September 1896, but non-delivery of the ship's main guns delayed her maiden voyage until 1899 and her completion until 1900. In May 1899 Rostislav became the first ship of the Imperial Navy to be commanded by a member of the House of Romanov, Captain Alexander Mikhailovich. From 1903 to 1912 the ship was the flagship of the second-in-command of the Black Sea Fleet. During the 1905 Russian Revolution her crew was on the verge of mutiny, but ultimately remained loyal to the regime, and actively suppressed the mutiny of the cruiser Ochakov.
Rostislav was actively engaged in World War I until the collapse of the Black Sea Fleet in the beginning of 1918. She was the first Russian ship to fire on enemy targets on land during World War I, the first to be hit by a German airstrike, and the first to destroy a submarine, albeit a Russian one. In April 1918 the fleeing Bolsheviks abandoned Rostislav in Sevastopol. A year later the British occupation forces disabled her engines. The White forces used the ship as a towed floating battery, then scuttled her in the Kerch Strait in November 1920.
Design and description
Similar in size to earlier coastal defence ships but seaworthy for operations in the Black Sea, Rostislav was conceived in 1892 as a cheap and compact platform for 12-inch guns. Admiral Nikolay Chikhachov, Chief of the Ministry of the Navy, envisioned a squadron of such ships, each displacing , that would fit into his total desired displacement target of . Chief designer of the Nikolaev Shipyard, Sergey Ratnik, evaluated Chikhachov's request for proposals, and advised against the idea in general. The Naval Technical Committee (NTC) concurred: any meaningful combination of firepower, armor, speed and stability required at least . The NTC discarded Ratnik's advice to build an improved copy of the battleship of , but did not present a definite alternative. The NTC declined to discuss tactical matters, leaving the choice of armament to Chikhachov.
Chikhachov instructed Andrey Toropov of the Nikolaev Shipyard to draft two proposals, one armed with 10-inch and the other with 12-inch guns. Toropov estimated that the ship should have displaced at least 8,880 tons. Chikhachov admitted the fact and presented the two options to the NTC. The admiral himself and the active fleet commanders voted for the 12-inch caliber, which had already become a worldwide battleship standard, but the NTC strongly advised against it. The Navy brass spent April and May 1893 in lengthy debates. They agreed to increase displacement to 8,880 tons and were leaning toward accepting 12-inch guns when General Admiral Grand Duke Alexey resolved the discussion in favor of the smaller caliber.
Rostislav had the same hull as Sissoi Veliky, protected with the newly developed Harvey armor. She was also the first Russian battleship to use electric power instead of older hydraulic systems to train her guns.
General characteristics
Rostislav was long at the waterline and long overall. She had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced , over more than her designed displacement of . This weight gain increased her draft by about , submerging most, if not all, of her waterline armored belt.
Propulsion
Rostislav had two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, identical to those of Sissoi Veliky, that had a total designed output of . Eight cylindrical fire-tube boilers provided steam to the engines, each of which drove one propeller. Half of the boilers were coal-fired and the other half were oil-fired, making Rostislav the first capital ship in the world to use fuel oil. This was done in order to substitute cheap oil from Baku for expensive imported coal. On sea trials, the power plant produced a total of and a top speed of . She carried a maximum of of fuel oil and coal at full load that provided a range of at a speed of .
Armament
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 45-caliber Model 1891 guns mounted in French-style, center-pivot twin gun turrets fore and aft. Each turret had an arc of fire of 240°. These guns had a maximum elevation of +15° and could depress to −5°. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of . At an elevation of +6° the guns had a range . All eight of the 45-caliber, Canet Pattern 1891 guns were mounted in twin-gun turrets on the main deck. Each turret was positioned at a corner of the superstructure and had an arc of fire of 110°. They fired shells that weighed with a muzzle velocity of . They had a maximum range of when fired at an elevation of +20°.
The anti-torpedo boat armament consisted of twelve Hotchkiss guns. Eight of these were mounted in the superstructure and the locations of the remaining four are unclear. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of . The ship also mounted sixteen Hotchkiss guns, eight of which were carried in the fighting top. The locations of the other eight are unknown. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of .
Rostislav carried six torpedo tubes. The bow and stern tubes and the aft pair of broadside tubes were above water. The forward broadside tubes were underwater. The ship carried 50 mines to be used to protect her anchorage.
Protection
The maximum thickness of the Rostislavs waterline belt was , tapering to abreast the magazines. It covered of the ship's length and was high. While the exact height of the belt above the designed waterline is unknown, much of it, if not all, would have been below the waterline as the ship's draft was over deeper than designed. The belt terminated forward in a transverse bulkhead and aft in a bulkhead. The upper belt was 5 inches thick, high and covered of the ship's side. The sides of the main gun turrets were 10 inches thick and they had roofs. The sides of the 6-inch turrets were 6 inches thick as were the sides of the conning tower. The armor deck was flat and located at the upper edge of the main belt. It was thick. Below the waterline, forward and aft of the armored citadel, were decks.
Construction
Work on Rostislav commenced on January 30, 1894. The ship was officially christened May 20, 1894; in line with Russian tradition, the formal laying down ceremony was delayed until May 19, 1895. The contract for oil-firing boilers and engines was awarded to Baltic Works. The armor was rolled in the United States by Bethlehem Steel within the framework of an earlier contract for s. Bethlehem Steel faced the scrutiny of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs for charging the Russians an unusually low "introductory" price of $250 to $300 per ton, compared to $600 to $660 paid by the United States Navy. Senator Benjamin Tillman publicly accused Bethlehem and Carnegie of price fixing and robbing the American taxpayer.
Rostislavs hull was launched on September 2, 1896. Lack of proper cranes in Nikolaev made the installation of its engines exceedingly difficult, to the point that the navy even considered towing the hull to Sevastopol for completion. The Nikolaev engineers eventually resolved the problem and the ship was ready to sail in July 1897. Rostislav conducted her speed trials on October 21, 1898, still missing her main guns. Her power plant performed flawlessly, but its weight exceeded the design target by more than .
Non-delivery of the new 10-inch Model 1897 guns, made by the Obukhov Factory in Saint Petersburg for Rostislav, s and s, delayed the completion of the ship by two years. One of these guns, earmarked for Admiral Ushakov, exploded at the proving ground and the whole batch was subjected to exhaustive tests and, when possible, repairs. Guns Number 16 through Number 19 passed the tests and were delivered to Sevastopol in July and August 1899. Rostislav was able to sail to her first gunnery trial on April 12, 1900. On the second day of shooting practice the recoil mechanisms of her forward turret failed and more defects were discovered back at the base. Rostislav spent the rest of the spring having her gun mounts repaired, but the problem persisted and the Navy "solved" it by prohibiting them from being used. The gun mounts were rebuilt along the pattern of those used by the armored cruiser in 1901 and 1902, and Rostislav successfully passed the gunnery tests in June 1902. The ship's electrical turret controls, with their 332 contact pairs, required tedious maintenance and proved too complex for most of the enlisted men.
Service
On May 1, 1899, Captain Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich assumed command of Rostislav, becoming the first Romanov since Peter I to command a combat ship. Another Romanov, Grand Duke Kirill, spent a few uneventful months on board Rostislav in 1900. Alexander's guests, parties and diplomatic visits to Istanbul regularly interfered with the crew's duties, but he personally managed the repairs and alterations of the ship's equipment. Shipyards and contractors treated Rostislav as a priority customer. Alexander, based on his experience with Sissoi Veliky, persuaded the NTC to reinforce Rostislavs rudder frame and supervised installation of a backup control post deep under the conning tower. In 1903 Alexander was promoted to rear admiral and returned to his ship as a squadron commander. Rostislav served as the junior flagship of the Black Sea Fleet until September 1912.
The 1900 season revealed grave problems with Rostislavs boilers. Black smoke from burning oil was more conspicuous than coal smoke. Uneven distribution of heat inside the boilers caused severe local overheating, buckling of fireboxes and sudden backdrafts. For three and a half months the boilers failed one by one, starting with small auxiliary power units and ending with the main boilers. Oil delivered by the Rothschild-controlled Russian Standard Oil was not at fault; similar problems were experienced by oil-fired ships of the Baltic Fleet.
Repairs and alterations of the power plant continued until 1904, when the continuing boiler failures compelled the Navy to dispense with oil fuel and convert Rostislav to coal in 1904 and 1905. Each round of repairs and alterations added more weight to the already overweight ship, and by 1907 the ship's belt armor was completely below the waterline.
The Tsentralka, the group plotting a mutiny of the Black Sea Fleet, decided on June 25, 1905, that the mutiny should start on Potemkin rather than Rostislav. On June 27, 1905, the day of the battleship Potemkin mutiny, Rostislav was sailing under the ensign of Vice Admiral Alexander Krieger. Nicholas II ordered Krieger and his superior, fleet commander Grigory Chukhnin, to destroy the rebels by force, but the admirals refrained from shooting. They let the rebels flee to Odessa and later to Romania. Krieger's own crew was on the verge of open mutiny. On July 2, 1905, a military council held on board Rostislav decided to moor the ships in Odessa, disconnect the engines from the propellers and let the enlisted men walk ashore at will. By the time of the Ochakov mutiny in November 1905, fleet morale had improved and Krieger did not hesitate to fire two 10-inch and fourteen 6-inch shells against the rebels.
Exercises and casualties
After the Battle of Tsushima the Imperial Navy concentrated on improving their gunnery skills and fire-control practices. In 1908 Alexei Krylov and Yevgeny Berkalov led Rostislav on an unprecedented long-range gunnery shoot: Rostislav fired 330 ten-inch shells at a distance of in a few days. The experiment proved that the older ballistic tables used by the Navy were inaccurate. Berkalov compiled the data from the 1908 exercise into the new tables adopted by the Navy. Another of Krylov's initiatives, rapid counter-flooding, was standardized in 1909.
Two plans for modernizing the ship were put forward before World War I. In 1907 the Naval General Staff proposed a major reconstruction aimed at reducing her draft and raising her armor belt higher out of the water. Her above-water torpedo tubes, torpedo nets, auxiliary boilers and 47-millimeter guns would have been removed, her superstructure cut down and her rigging reduced to a single pole mast. These changes would have reduced her displacement by , but the plan was rejected due to a shortage of money. Her above-water torpedo tubes, however, were removed about this time. In 1912 the staff of the Black Sea Fleet proposed to replace all of her 47 mm guns with four guns and to remove the auxiliary boilers and the submerged torpedo tubes to offset the additional weight. The Naval General Staff did not think that this was worth the cost and rejected the plan. Even though these plans did not come to fruition, other alterations were made to Rostislav before the war. A dozen of her 37 mm guns were removed in 1906, and she was fitted with rangefinders, probably made by Barr and Stroud, in 1907 and 1908.
In 1909 and 1910, Rostislav and the rest of the Black Sea Fleet prepared for joint operations with submarines. She was scheduled for an installation of the first Russian underwater acoustic communication system, but the installation was interrupted and her hardware was installed on the battleship (the former Potemkin) instead. During an anti-submarine exercise on the night of June 11, 1909, Rostislav accidentally rammed and sank the submarine Kambala. Twenty men of Kambala and two rescue divers died. The accident was blamed on reckless maneuvering by the submarine, and Rostislavs captain was cleared of any negligence or wrongdoing.
Diplomatic incidents
Before the outbreak of World War I Rostislav was involved in two minor international incidents. On August 11, 1911, and Panteleimon, two of the Black Sea Fleet battleships paying a state visit to Romania, ran aground on a shoal just off the port of Constanța. Rostislavs officers had detected the hazard and steered her to safety, but did not alert the other ships. The international embarrassment that followed led to the resignation of fleet commander Admiral Ivan Bostrem. During the First Balkan War Rostislav sailed into the Sea of Marmara to protect the Russian Embassy in Istanbul from a mob. Rostislav accidentally fired a live shell into the Turkish defenses. No one was injured during the incident, and the captain defused the situation with a personal apology to the Ottoman government.
World War I
Rostislav spent the winter of 1913–14 refitting, and in April 1914 she returned to the active fleet with newly overhauled machinery, new rangefinders and new gun sights. The ship made on her post-refit trials.
On November 4, 1914, the Black Sea Fleet sailed out on its first combat operation of the war: the bombardment of Zonguldak. The operation was conceived as a retaliation against the Turkish-German attack on Sevastopol. Rostislav, captained by Kazimierz Porębski, was the "designated gunboat" while other Russian battleships formed a defensive screen around her. On November 6 she fired 251 shells at the port of Zonguldak, reducing it to rubble. On November 18 the ship faced Goeben during the Battle of Cape Sarych, but the German ship broke contact before Rostislav, trailing behind the Russian formation, even spotted her. Rostislav had other encounters with Goeben in 1915 and 1916, but did not engage her directly. In 1915 the ship received four 75 mm anti-aircraft guns.
After the commissioning of the dreadnoughts, the old battleships were split into independent combat groups. Rostislav became the flagship of the Batumi Group tasked with supporting the ground operations of the Caucasus Army. Their first joint action began February 5, 1916, near Arhavi. On the first day alone the ship fired 400 shells against the Turks. On March 4 Rostislav and the gunboats Kubanetz and Donetz supported the amphibious landing at Atina. Three days later she supported the landing of marines that ended in the capture of Rize. At the end of March Rostislav and Panteleimon forced the Turks to evacuate Trabzon.
In the summer of 1916 the Navy seriously considered an all-out amphibious assault on the Bosphorus. Fleet commander Andrei Eberhardt anticipated a high risk of naval mine and torpedo hits in the coastal waters and suggested equipping all pre-dreadnought battleships with anti-torpedo bulges. had her bulges fitted in Nikolaev in July 1916, and Rostislav was next in line, but the work was cancelled in August, and she was transferred to the Romanian coast as flagship of the Constanța Group. Constanța temporarily became an important logistical hub for the Russian troops heading to the Romanian Front, and the base for minelayers, submarines and destroyers harassing the enemy in the Bosphorus area. The Germans responded with air raids; their first aerial success against a Russian naval target was scored against Rostislav. The bomb hit the edge of the aft 10-inch turret and injured sixteen sailors. The turret itself remained fully operational. The collapse of the Romanian Front in October 1916 forced the Navy to evacuate Constanța. Rostislav returned to Sevastopol for a much-needed overhaul.
Revolution
The February Revolution of 1917 did not demoralize the Black Sea Fleet as quickly as the Baltic Fleet. Captain Fyodor Stark, a former destroyer commander, maintained Rostislav in combat-ready condition until the end of the year. The battleship sailed out for her last voyage to Batumi in September and October. Stark managed to contain the radical politics, anti-German sentiment and Ukrainization of the crew, but nevertheless raised the flag of Ukraine on his return to Sevastopol on October 25. From this moment desertion and "volunteering" into the Red Guards intensified, and by December 21 the crew was reduced to 460 enlisted men and 28 officers. In January 1918 the fleet disintegrated completely: the officers fled from the enraged enlisted men, then the enlisted men abandoned the ships and fled from the advancing German Army. On April 29, 1918, the Bolsheviks managed to extricate two battleships and sixteen destroyers from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk, but Rostislav and the rest of the fleet remained in Sevastopol.
The German occupation of Crimea from May to November 1918 did not affect the abandoned ship. The Anglo-French forces that replaced the Germans stayed in Sevastopol until April 1919. Before leaving, the British wrecked Rostislavs engines on April 25 to prevent the ship from being any use to the advancing Soviets. The White forces of Baron Wrangel used the disabled ship as a floating battery in the Sea of Azov. The ship, manned by a ragtag volunteer crew, was stationed in the shallow waters of the Kerch Strait to harass the Reds in Taman and prevent a landing in the Crimea. After the defeat of Wrangel's land forces, the crew scuttled Rostislav in the Kerch Strait to prevent the Red forces from breaking through to the Black Sea.
When Rostislav sank in the shallows her superstructure remained above water. In 1930, the EPRON (a Soviet salvage unit) retrieved the ship's guns and partially dismantled the hull. According to diver Alexander Yolkin, the remains of the hull are still lying in the strait, around from the Ukrainian coast, and gradually sinking into the silt.
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
Shirokorad, A. B. (1997, in Russian). Korabelnaya artilleriya Rossiyskogo flota 1867–1922. (Корабельная артиллерия Российского флота. 1867–1922). Morskaya Kollekciya, No. 2 (14), 1997, pp. 1–42.
1896 ships
Battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy
World War I battleships of Russia
Shipwrecks in the Black Sea
Shipwrecks of Russia
Scuttled vessels
Maritime incidents in 1920
Potemkin mutiny
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5405088
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20London%20derby
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West London derby
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The West London derby is the name given to a football derby played between any two of Brentford, Chelsea, Fulham and Queens Park Rangers, all of whom are situated within West London.
This particular derby is less prominent than other such derbies in English football, owing to the teams frequently being in separate divisions. Chelsea did not face Fulham between 1986 and 2001, and have played Brentford only seven times since 1950. QPR did not face Brentford between 1966 and 2001, and did not play Chelsea between 1996 and 2008. The derby's most common match, Chelsea vs Fulham, has taken place 82 times. By contrast, the North London derby has been contested almost 200 times, and the Merseyside derby over 230 times. The 2011–12 season campaign was the first instance of three of the west London clubs competing in the top flight in the same season: Chelsea, Queens Park Rangers and Fulham. This happened for a second time in the 2022–23 season, with Brentford, Chelsea and Fulham appearing in the top flight.
According to the 2012 Football Rivalries Survey, Fulham regard Chelsea as their main rivals, QPR as their secondary rivals and then Brentford third. QPR fans identified Chelsea as their main rivals, Fulham second, Cardiff City third, Brentford and Stoke City joint fourth. Brentford fans chose Fulham as their main rivals, QPR as their secondary rivals and Chelsea as their third. Chelsea fans did not list any of the West London sides, instead selecting Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United.
Summary
Brentford vs Chelsea derby
There is very little rivalry between Brentford and Chelsea, mainly due to the fact that they have been in different divisions for over 60 years. The only time that the two clubs ever shared a division was in the old First Division between 1935 and 1947, but despite the fact that both clubs are local to each other, it was never seen as a big rivalry to either side, as Chelsea had been in the Football League for a longer period of time than Brentford and had stronger rivalries with the likes of West Ham United, Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur, whereas Brentford's main rivals are Fulham and QPR. Also Brentford developed a bigger sporting rivalry with Arsenal during the 1930s as both clubs vied for the title of being London's number one club.
The only bad feeling between the clubs was soon after Chelsea's foundation and admission into the Football League in 1905, the other West London clubs, including Brentford, lost many supporters and potential supporters to the only professional Football League club in the area. Other than that, Brentford and Chelsea have always had fairly good relations, even amongst supporters. In fact, during the 1970s many Chelsea fans would come down to Griffin Park if their club were playing away. Chelsea reserves played their games at Griffin Park, and occasionally a pre season friendly is staged between the two clubs.
Brentford and Chelsea met for the first time since 1950 on 27 January 2013 in an FA Cup fourth round tie at Griffin Park which ended in a 2–2 draw. Chelsea won the replay on 17 February 2013 at Stamford Bridge 4–0.
With Brentford gaining promotion to the Premier League for the 2021–22 season, the first time in 74 years, and Fulham's relegation the previous season, this was the only West London derby in the Premier League for the season. The first game was hosted at The Bees' new Brentford Community Stadium on 16 October 2021, which Chelsea won 1–0. Brentford won the return fixture at Stamford Bridge 4–1, with goals including a brace from Vitaly Janelt and Christian Eriksen's first goal for Brentford.
Their latest meeting was on 28 October 2023 when Brentford won 2–0 at Stamford Bridge in a Premier League match. Brentford finished the 2022–23 season above Chelsea in the league table for the first time since 1939, with a ninth place finish compared to Chelsea's 12th.
Brentford vs Fulham derby
Fulham and Brentford have competed at the same level for a few periods in their history with the rivalry being fiercest during Fulham's descent to the lower leagues in the 1980s and early 90's. The two teams frequently competed between the 1920s and the 1950s in the Football League's various divisions. These games always drew bumper crowds and often caused tension on the pitch and the terraces. However, Fulham's fortunes on the pitch changed and they went on to play in the upper leagues for several decades until the two sides were to meet regularly again from 1980 onwards, a time when the rivalry was most heated. Fulham later went on to win the London Derby cup.
The two clubs spent a majority of seasons in the same division until the 1997–98 Division Two campaign, which ended with Brentford suffering relegation to Division Three. Despite Brentford's promotion straight back to Division Two as Division Three champions in the 1998–99 season, Fulham were crowned Division Two champions and ascended to the Premier League as Division One champions in 2001.
The 2014–15 Football League Championship season brought Brentford and Fulham together in the same division for the first time since 1998, following Brentford's promotion from League One and Fulham's relegation from the Premier League.
Prior to meeting in the league, the two sides were drawn together in the League Cup second round on 26 August 2014, with Fulham winning 1–0 at Griffin Park. It was the clubs' first meeting in any competitive fixture since a 2–0 league victory to Fulham on 11 April 1998.
In March 2023 the rivalry was said by the BBC to be "growing".
Brentford vs QPR derby
As with Fulham, Brentford and QPR played each other frequently in local cup competitions and leagues from the foundation of both clubs. In 1920, the Football League absorbed many clubs from the Southern Football League, including Brentford and QPR, who competed in the old Third Division (South) regularly in the 1920s, until Brentford's rise up the leagues in the 1930s. After the Second World War, they spent practically every season in the same division for the next 20 years. At the time, the fixture was each side's biggest game of the season and always attracted a big crowd. However, in 1966, despite an opening day 6–1 thrashing of their local rivals, Brentford were ultimately relegated whilst QPR were promoted and went on to enjoy many seasons in the upper leagues.
However, the bad feeling between the clubs runs deeper than just locality. In 1967, QPR attempted a takeover of Brentford, which would have resulted in QPR moving into Griffin Park and Brentford F.C. ceasing to exist. The story infamously broke in the London press but Brentford supporters rallied to save their club. Since then, relations between the clubs have been frosty. The rivalry resumed in 2001 and continued for several seasons until Rangers were promoted. During this time, the rivalry was intensified by Brentford player Martin Rowlands leaving to join QPR. He then went on to kiss his badge on several occasions in front of the Brentford support when the two sides met in 2003 at Loftus Road.
The most recent meeting between Brentford and Queens Park Rangers was in 2021, with QPR winning 2–1 at Loftus Road on 17 February 2021.
Chelsea vs Fulham derby
In contrast to many rivalries in English football, such as the North London derby and the Merseyside derby, Chelsea and Fulham have spent much of their existence in separate divisions – between 1968 and 2001, the two were in the same division only five times – and have rarely been rivals for the major honours or played in many high-profile matches. This has greatly limited the scope for it to develop and actually served to weaken it.
In 1904, businessman Gus Mears approached the Fulham chairman Henry Norris about moving the club from their Craven Cottage home to the nearby Stamford Bridge Athletics Ground on the Fulham Road, which he had recently acquired. Norris declined following a dispute over the rent; as a result, Mears formed his own club to occupy the ground, Chelsea. Fulham thus had an indirect role in Chelsea's foundation. It also ensured that, despite Chelsea's name, there were two clubs in the Fulham Borough. The geographical proximity of the teams is the basis for the rivalry, rather than religious or political reasons, as with other derbies.
The first competitive match between the sides took place on 3 December 1910 in the Second Division, with a crowd of 35,000 at Craven Cottage watching Fulham win 1–0. The peak of the rivalry was arguably during the inter-war years and just after, when matches between the sides were always among the most popular (and most highly attended) on the fixture calendar. While both clubs were largely unsuccessful until the 1960s, they have since drifted apart and the significance of matches between them has correspondingly declined. Chelsea enjoyed successful spells during the 1960s and 1970s, and again from the mid-1990s to the present day, while Fulham spent much of that period in the lower divisions of the Football League. As a caveat to that, when Chelsea and Fulham did meet in league games in the 1970s and 1980s, the attendances were always among the highest for the season, with the lack of regular matches often making the derby more eagerly anticipated.
The reduced number of encounters saw Chelsea fans develop rivalries with other teams, notably Leeds United, other London clubs such as Tottenham Hotspur and Arsenal. Fulham also formed rivalries with other teams from London like Brentford and QPR. All these reduced the prominence of the West London Derby. That is less true for Fulham fans, with the fact that their nearest neighbours have been more successful ensuring that matches against Chelsea retain a David vs Goliath factor. Fulham returned to the top division in 2001, putting the clubs in the same division for the first time since 1983–84.
On 19 March 2006, Fulham beat Chelsea 1–0 for the first time in 27 years with a goal from Luis Boa Morte. The match was marred by controversy and crowd trouble and has arguably rekindled the derby somewhat. Chelsea gained revenge for this defeat on 23 September with a 2–0 win at Craven Cottage, in which Frank Lampard struck twice. Thankfully, there was little trouble before and after the game, due to appeals for calm from managers and players of both clubs and a much higher than normal police presence, to deter fans from entering the pitch after the game. Two of the last games to be played at Stamford Bridge have both been close contests. On 30 December 2006, they played out a 2–2 draw, with Carlos Bocanegra getting a late equaliser for Fulham (earlier in the match Moritz Volz had scored the 15,000th goal in Premier League history. On 29 September 2007, they settled for a 0–0 draw. This draw was Avram Grant's first West London derby in charge of Chelsea and the same for Lawrie Sanchez of Fulham. During the 2008–09 season, Chelsea defeated Fulham 3–1 under Guus Hiddink, with goals from Nicolas Anelka, Florent Malouda and Didier Drogba, with Anelka's goal coming after just 51 seconds. In the 2009–10 season, Chelsea defeated Fulham at Craven Cottage with a 2–0 win, thanks to goals from Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka. The win was Carlo Ancelotti's first London derby. In the 2011–12 season, both teams drew their home and away fixtures. In the 2012–13 season, both sides played out a 0–0 draw at Stamford Bridge, Chelsea won the reverse fixture 3–0 away at Craven Cottage. Chelsea won the home clash 2–0 with goals from Oscar and Mikel John Obi on 21 September 2013. On 1 March 2013, Chelsea won 3–1 at Craven Cottage with André Schürrle netting a hat-trick for Chelsea. Fulham finished in 19th place at the end of the 2013–14 Premier League season and were relegated to the Football League Championship for the 2014–15 season, meaning that the two sides would sit in different divisions again after 13 years in the same division.
Their latest result was on 2 October 2023 when Fulham lost to Chelsea 0–2 at Craven Cottage in a Premier League match.
Chelsea vs QPR derby
Despite QPR being members of the Football League since 1920, the two sides did not meet in a competitive match until 1968–69, when Rangers made their debut in the First Division. Overall, Chelsea do not consider QPR rivals due to the size difference of the two clubs. Their first match took place on 14 September 1968; Chelsea won 4–0. Since then, the sides have met a further 45 times, making it the most common West London derby since the 1960s. The clubs developed a rivalry in the 1960s and 1970s when both were playing top-flight football and competing to be among London's top sides, with Chelsea winning the FA Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and League Cup, and Rangers winning the League Cup and finishing as league runners-up by a single point.
Many QPR fans' favourite game against Chelsea was a 6–0 victory on Easter Monday in 1986. Chelsea were second in the league table at the time, and the result all but ended their title challenge. During this period, the clubs were relatively evenly matched, although Chelsea were always considered the bigger club, with both occasionally dropping into the Second Division in the late 1970s and early 1980s, so they met in almost every season. The teams met in a competitive match for the first time since 1996, when drawn to face each other in the FA Cup 3rd Round on 5 January 2008. Chelsea won 1–0 thanks to a first-half own goal by Lee Camp.
In recent times, Chelsea have become one of the dominant forces in the English game, whereas QPR were in the second tier of English football for many years. The links between the two clubs have been maintained through numerous on-loan players; two of Chelsea's best youth team players joined QPR on loan for the 2006–07 season. These players were Jimmy Smith and Michael Mancienne. Mancienne renewed his loan for the 2007–08 season.
QPR and Chelsea have competed in two pre-season friendlies since the turn of the century. The most recent was in 2003 when Chelsea thrashed a QPR Legends XI 7–0. On 28 July 2001, QPR stunned the £50 million Chelsea line-up by beating them 3–1. Jesper Grønkjær gave Chelsea a first-half lead, but QPR got an equaliser from Leroy Griffiths and then took lead from a long range effort by Karl Connolly. QPR confirmed the win when Gavin Peacock, also a former Chelsea player, scored late on.
Mirroring Chelsea's purchase by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich, QPR have received investment from Flavio Briatore, Bernie Ecclestone and Lakshmi Mittal. The fact that the Mittal family, who own a 20% stake in the club, are reputed to be five times as rich as Abramovich has seen QPR fans dub themselves the world's richest club.
On 30 August 2009, Chelsea were drawn against QPR in the third round of the 2009–10 Football League Cup, which saw Chelsea win the game 1–0 thanks to a goal from Salomon Kalou.
On 23 October 2011, Chelsea lost 1–0 to a newly promoted QPR in the first Premier League match between the sides since 1996. In a feisty encounter players clashed on several occasions, with nine Chelsea players and two QPR booked, with Chelsea's José Bosingwa and Didier Drogba being sent off. Heiðar Helguson scored the only goal of the match through a penalty. Chelsea manager André Villas-Boas was later charged by the FA for criticizing the performance of the referee Chris Foy, as he believed many of the big decisions made were incorrect. Chelsea were fined £20,000 by the FA for not controlling their players, who picked up a record number of bookings in a single match in the Premier League era, and their manager was fined £12,000 for his comments on the referee in addition to being cautioned for future conduct. In the aftermath of the match, a video was posted on YouTube showing Chelsea and England captain John Terry allegedly racially abusing Anton Ferdinand, for which he has been charged with a racially aggravated public order offence. Chelsea then drew QPR again in the FA Cup, winning 1–0 at Loftus Road thanks to a Juan Mata penalty.
On 29 April 2012, Chelsea exacted revenge on QPR in the reverse league fixture with a ruthless 6–1 victory, with four goals being scored in a nightmare opening 25 minutes for Rangers. Fernando Torres became the first player in over 20 years to score a hat-trick in this West London Derby. It was QPR, however, who had the last laugh. After holding Chelsea to a 0–0 draw at Loftus Road on 15 September 2012, they went on to beat Chelsea 1–0 in the reverse fixture on 2 January 2013 at Stamford Bridge, with the goal coming from former Chelsea player Shaun Wright-Phillips, ending a 30-year wait for a win at the Bridge for Rangers. QPR finished the 2012–13 Premier League season in last place, however, and were relegated to the Championship. They were promoted to the Premier League again for the 2014–15 season after winning the 2014 Football League Championship play-off final 1–0 against Derby County at Wembley Stadium on 24 May 2014. On 12 April 2015, Chelsea beat QPR 0–1 with Cesc Fàbregas scoring the goal in the 88th minute. This sent Chelsea seven points clear at the top of the table ahead of Arsenal. QPR remained in the relegation zone, two points away from safety.
Fulham vs QPR derby
The origins of a rivalry between Fulham and QPR date back before Chelsea were formed. In 1892 the two teams met at Kensal Rise to play in the West London Cup Final. QPR were 3–2 victors and won their first piece of silverware. For the next few seasons QPR continued to win the cup, whilst Fulham won The West London League. In recent times, however, QPR and Fulham derbies are not common as both teams have been in different divisions for all but two seasons since the Premier League first started in 1992. As two very similar clubs in size, history and fan base, derbies, are at times, fiercer and more competitive than those against Chelsea, sometimes leading to cases of crowd trouble such as a riot between the two sets of fans in 1999.
From 2002 until 2004, QPR and Fulham were closer than they had ever been when the two clubs shared Loftus Road while Craven Cottage was being redeveloped. This added extra spice to a derby had they drawn each other in the cup, especially had QPR been the away team at their own ground.
The matches during the 2000–01 season both ended up being 2–0 to Fulham. The game at Loftus Road saw Richard Langley and Clarke Carlisle – two of QPR's best players – seriously injured in the game and both were out for 18 months with cruciate ligament injuries; this was vital for QPR's descent into the third tier for the first time in 34 years.
QPR were promoted to the Premier League for the 2011–12 season, meaning the derby would take place for the first time in over ten years and in the Premier League for the first time. The first match finished in a 6–0 victory for Fulham, with Andy Johnson bagging a hat-trick.
The return fixture between the two sides is sure to ignite the rivalry as QPR have recently come under the managerial guidance of Mark Hughes, who was the manager of Fulham the previous season and left under controversial circumstances, citing the clubs' lack of ambition and stature as his reasons. With a last-minute controversial switch by Bobby Zamora to the Hoops, at the end of the January transfer window, Fulham's first return to their former temporary ground was a spicy affair. Samba Diakité was sent off in the first half, and Zamora's replacement, Pavel Pogrebnyak scored the only goal of the game, meaning Fulham had done the double over QPR in the league. The following season, Rangers were on a dismal run of form without a win in seventeen games and looking certain for relegation. When the two side met on 15 December 2012 at Loftus Road, it was Adel Taarabt who took the Hoops to their first win of the season over their bitter rivals in a strong 2–1 victory. Fulham won the reverse fixture 3–2 when the two sides met on 1 April 2013 at Craven Cottage. In 2015–16, the clubs met once more in the Championship, and Fulham convincingly won both fixtures, in both cases being 3–0 up before half-time.
In the 2019–20 season, the two teams played the same division again since Fulham were relegated after finishing 19th in the Premier League. However, at the end of the season, Fulham were promoted back to the Premier League after finishing 4th in the table and winning the EFL Championship play-off final.
Their latest meeting was a 2–0 victory for Fulham at Loftus Road on 2 April 2022 in a Championship match.
Results
Aggregated results
Brentford vs Chelsea
Last two results
Brentford vs Fulham
Last two results
Brentford vs QPR
Last two results
Chelsea vs Fulham
Last two results
Chelsea vs QPR
Last two results
Fulham vs QPR
Last two results
Notable matches
QPR 3–2 Fulham (1892) – The West London Cup Final at Kensal Rise saw League winners Fulham take on the emerging QPR. Fulham were favourites, but QPR were not to be underestimated. They were just beginning to establish themselves as one of West London's top sides. Fulham had firmly established themselves as the best team in the area, because they had won the West London League for two years running. Fulham raced into a 2–0 lead and held it at half-time. QPR somehow managed to pull it back and won their first piece of silverware. This is seen as the first famous derby.
Brentford 6–1 QPR (21 August 1965) – Brentford stormed to an opening day win at Griffin Park, but fortunes for both clubs changed shortly after. It was the last meeting between the two sides at Griffin Park for 35 years in a season which resulted in the relegation of Brentford. In early 1967, QPR attempted and failed to take over Brentford and Griffin Park, which would have resulted in the closure of Brentford FC.
QPR 2–4 Chelsea (21 February 1970) – In 1970, Chelsea and QPR were drawn to face each other in the FA Cup quarter-finals. Chelsea's Alan Hudson described it as a "fantastic draw", owing to the rivalry between the two clubs. QPR fielded two former Chelsea players, Terry Venables and Barry Bridges, as well as their star striker, Rodney Marsh. In an entertaining match, despite the poor pitch, Chelsea were 2–0 up within eight minutes thanks to Peter Osgood and David Webb, before a twice-taken Venables penalty put Rangers back in contention. Osgood scored twice more to complete his hat-trick and put the result beyond doubt before Bridges grabbed a late consolation. Chelsea went on to win the cup that season.
QPR 6–0 Chelsea (31 March 1986) – Chelsea had been title challengers for most of the season, but went into the match having lost 4–0 to West Ham United two days previously; this result all but ended their title challenge. Rangers striker Gary Bannister grabbed a hat-trick and fellow striker John Byrne scored twice to secure their biggest win over Chelsea. Towards the end of the game Chelsea's David Speedie was sent off for punching.
Brentford 4–0 Fulham (26 April 1992) – In a Sunday morning fixture, Brentford secured promotion to the second tier of English football for the first time since 1954. Brentford raced into a four-goal lead by half time, including two goals in a minute.
Chelsea 1–0 Fulham (14 April 2002) – The most important match between the clubs in recent years, an FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park. Newly promoted Fulham went into the match as underdogs, and were trying to reach their first final since 1975. By contrast, Chelsea were aiming for their third final in six seasons. John Terry scored the only goal with a deflected shot just before half-time.
QPR 1–0 Brentford (11 November 2003) – A match steeped in controversy as throughout the game ex-Bee Martin Rowlands goaded the Brentford fans and at full-time, instead of celebrating with the home fans, he and several other QPR players walked over to the away end and goaded the Brentford fans.
Fulham 1–0 Chelsea (19 March 2006) – Fulham secured their first win over Chelsea since 1979 with a goal from Luís Boa Morte in a heated and controversial match. Champions-elect Chelsea had a Didier Drogba goal disallowed for a handball and William Gallas sent off, with the latter incident sparking a mass brawl. After the final whistle, both sets of fans invaded the pitch, which led to some clashes and arrests.
Fulham 6–0 QPR (2 October 2011) – The first competitive match between the two teams in a decade, and the first in the top flight. An Andy Johnson hat-trick, goals from Clint Dempsey and Bobby Zamora, and a Danny Murphy penalty annihilated Rangers. Adel Taarabt, who had been replaced at half-time, was seen waiting for a bus in Fulham Palace Road during the second half.
QPR 1–0 Chelsea (23 October 2011) – QPR secured a first victory over Chelsea since 1995, courtesy of an early Heiðar Helguson penalty. Chelsea were down to nine men inside 40 minutes after José Bosingwa and Didier Drogba were both sent off, for denying a goalscoring opportunity and a reckless tackle respectively. Chelsea's captain John Terry was accused of racially abusing the QPR defender Anton Ferdinand during the match, for which he win stood trial in July 2012, being found not guilty. As a result of these allegations, Terry was stripped of the England captaincy by the FA. England's manager Fabio Capello resigned in protest against Terry's sacking.
Chelsea 6–1 QPR (29 April 2012) – Chelsea avenged their previous 1–0 league defeat to QPR, with Fernando Torres scoring his first hat-trick for the club.
Chelsea 0–1 QPR (2 January 2013) – QPR secured their first win at Stamford Bridge since March 1979 thanks to a 78th-minute winner from Shaun Wright-Phillips. Chelsea went into the game in fourth place after a four-match winning run, while QPR where bottom with just 10 points from 20 games, eight points from safety and without an away win in the league since November 2011.
Brentford 2–2 Chelsea (27 January 2013) – In the first game between Chelsea and Brentford since 1950, Brentford shocked Chelsea in an FA Cup tie at Griffin Park, twice going ahead through goals from Marcello Trotta and Harry Forrester. Oscar, however, first levelled before Fernando Torres secured a replay at Stamford Bridge with an equaliser seven minutes from time. Chelsea won the replay 4–0.
Brentford 0–1 Fulham (26 August 2014) – In the first game between Fulham and Brentford since 1998, Fulham's under-pressure manager Felix Magath secured a win in the League Cup. The only goal of the game came from Ross McCormack.
Fulham 0–2 Brentford (20 June 2020) – In the first Championship game after the break in the season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Brentford scored two late goals to move within a point of Fulham, starting a long winning run. The two teams finished level on points and battled for promotion at Wembley.
Brentford 1–2 Fulham (aet) (4 August 2020) – An empty Wembley Stadium hosted the Championship Play-Off Final. Fulham won promotion to the Premier League for the 2020-21 season. All the goals came from extra time: first two from Fulham, both from Joe Bryan, before Brentford scored a consolation through Henrik Dalsgaard.
Chelsea 1–4 Brentford (2 April 2022) – In the third match between the clubs in the 2021−22 season, with the previous two being Chelsea victories, Brentford pulled off a shocking victory at Stamford Bridge. After an uneventful first half, Chelsea's centre-back Antonio Rüdiger opened the scoring with a stunning strike from distance. Brentford responded with four unanswered goals by Vitaly Janelt (2), Christian Eriksen and Yoane Wissa. It was Brentford’s first win against Chelsea since 1939.
Fulham 3–2 Brentford (20 August 2022) – Fulham met Brentford in the top flight of English football for the first time. Fulham's Bobby Decordova-Reid scoring after just 44 seconds and they doubled their lead after 20 minutes through a Joao Palhinha header from a corner. Brentford pegged Fulham back with a Christian Norgaard volley from a corner two minutes before half time. after having two goals disallowed, Ivan Toney equalised for Brentford after 71 minutes, but Aleksandar Mitrovic scored a 90th minute winner with a header at the back post. This was Fulham's first win in a top flight London derby for 25 matches, since they beat West Ham United at Craven Cottage in 2014.
Fulham 2–1 Chelsea (12 January 2023) – This was the first time that Fulham had beaten Chelsea since 2006. Former Chelsea player Willian opened the scoring in the 25th minute, before Kalidou Koulibaly scored an equaliser at the start of the second half. In the 73rd minute Carlos Vinícius scored the winner for the home side.
Crossing the divide
A list of players who have played for or managed at least two out of Brentford, Chelsea, Fulham and QPR.
Brentford and QPR
Martin Allen – played for QPR, managed Brentford.
Herbert Ashford – first Brentford, then QPR. Born in Fulham.
Yoann Barbet – first Brentford, then QPR.
Jake Bidwell – first Brentford, then QPR.
Marcus Bean – first QPR, then Brentford.
James Bellingham – first QPR, then Brentford.
Graham Benstead – first QPR, then Brentford.
Stan Bowles - first QPR, then Brentford.
George Bristow – first Brentford, then QPR.
Nikki Bull – first QPR, then Brentford.
Steve Burke – loaned to Brentford.
Jackie Burns – first QPR, then Brentford.
Tommy Cain – first QPR, then Brentford.
DJ Campbell – first Brentford, then QPR.
Tommy Cheetham – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Gary Cooper – loaned to Brentford.
Willie Cross – first QPR, then Brentford.
John Docherty – first Brentford, then QPR.
Fred Durrant – first Brentford, then QPR.
Jack Durston – first QPR, then Brentford.
Lloyd Evans – first QPR, then Brentford.
Dave Ewing – first Brentford, then QPR.
Les Ferdinand – loaned to Brentford.
Mark Fleming – first QPR, then Brentford.
George Francis – first for Brentford, then QPR and back to Brentford.
Allan Glover – first QPR, loaned to Brentford by West Bromwich Albion, then signed permanently two years later.
Patsy Hendren – first for QPR, then two spells with Brentford.
Ian Holloway – first Brentford, then QPR. Later managed QPR.
Mark Hill – first QPR, then Brentford.
Bill Keech – first QPR, then Brentford.
Jim Langley – first Brentford, then QPR.
Mark Lazarus – two spells at QPR, on to Brentford and back to QPR.
Billy McAdams – first Brentford, then QPR.
Andrew McCulloch – first for QPR, then Brentford.
Tom McGovern – first Brentford, then QPR.
George McLeod – first Brentford, then QPR.
Thomas McKenzie – first Brentford, then QPR.
Archie Mitchell – first QPR, then Brentford.
Sam Morris – first QPR, then Brentford.
Denny Mundee – first QPR, then Brentford.
Richard Pacquette – first QPR, then Brentford.
John Pearson – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Edward Price – first Brentford, then QPR.
Bill Pointon – first QPR, then Brentford.
Keith Pritchett – first QPR, then Brentford.
Martin Rowlands – first Brentford, then QPR, later QPR captain.
Harry Salt – first QPR, then Brentford.
Kenny Sansom – first QPR, then Brentford.
Thomas Shufflebotham – first Brentford, then QPR.
Barry Silkman – first Brentford, then QPR.
Henry Simons – first Brentford, then QPR.
Andy Sinton – first Brentford, then QPR.
Steve Slade – loaned to Brentford.
George Smith – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Ian Stewart – first for QPR, then loaned to Brentford from Portsmouth.
George Stewart – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Nigel Smith – first for QPR, then Brentford.
Sidney Sugden – first QPR, then Brentford.
Gordon Sweetzer – first QPR, then two spells with Brentford.
Steven Tom – first QPR, then Brentford.
Jim Towers – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Rowan Vine – loaned to Brentford from Portsmouth, then signed permanently for QPR. Loaned to Brentford by QPR.
Mark Warburton – first managed Brentford, then managed QPR.
Billy Yenson – first QPR, then Brentford.
Bert Young – first for Brentford, then QPR.
Brentford and Fulham
Ralph Allen – first Fulham, then Brentford.
George Bertram – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Paul Brooker – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Wayne Brown – loaned to Brentford.
David Button – first Brentford, then Fulham
Dave Carlton – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Roger Cross – first Brentford, then QPR and back to Brentford.
Danny Cullip – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Bill Dodgin, Jr. – played for and managed Fulham, then managed Brentford.
Maurice Edelston – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Harry Fletcher – first Fulham, then Brentford.
John Fraser – first for Fulham, then Brentford.
Darren Freeman – first for Fulham, then Brentford.
Tom Garnish – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Leonard Geard – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Ellis Green – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Tom Garnish – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Kelly Haag – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Jimmy Hill – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Gus Hurdle – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Terry Hurlock – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Francis Joseph – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Junior Lewis – first a schoolboy at Brentford, then Fulham and back to Brentford.
Archie Macaulay – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Tony Mahoney – first Fulham, then Brentford.
John McCourt – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Robert Milsom – loaned to Brentford.
Frank Morrad – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Abe Morris – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Bernard Newcombe – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Fred Nidd – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Trevor Porter – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Darren Pratley – loaned to Brentford twice.
Johnny Price – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Paul Priddy – first Fulham, then three spells with Brentford.
Dennis Rampling – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Bertie Rosier – first Brentford, then Fulham.
John Richardson – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Joe Ryalls – first Fulham, then Brentford.
John Salako – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Steve Scrivens – loaned to Brentford.
Paul Shrubb – first Fulham, then Brentford.
John South – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Les Strong – loaned to Brentford.
Jeff Taylor – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Bob Thomas – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Marcello Trotta – loaned to Brentford twice.
Ernie Watkins – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Paul Watson – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Tom Wilson – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Alexander Wood – first Brentford, then Fulham.
Viv Woodward – first Fulham, then Brentford.
Brentford and Chelsea
Joe Allon – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
George Anderson – first Brentford, then Chelsea.
Micky Block – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Johnny Brooks – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Neil Clement – loaned to Brentford.
Jack Cock – first Brentford, then Chelsea.
Nick Colgan – loaned to Brentford.
Alan Dickens – loaned to Brentford.
Micky Droy – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Lee Frost – loaned to Brentford and signed permanently two years later.
Bill Garner – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Gareth Hall – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Ron Harris – first Chelsea, then Brentford. Was also assistant manager at Brentford.
Stewart Houston – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Iori Jenkins – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Gary Johnson – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Keith Jones – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Roger Joseph – first Brentford, then Chelsea.
Joe Keenan – loaned to Brentford.
Joel Kitamirike – loaned to Brentford.
Keith Lawrence – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Tommy Lawton – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Colin Lee – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Bill Livingstone – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Michael Maskell – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Josh McEachran – first Chelsea, then Brentford
Andy Myers – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Alan Nelmes – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Eric Parsons – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Johnny Paton – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Adrian Pettigrew – loaned to Brentford.
Philip Priest – loaned to Brentford.
Graham Rix – loaned to Brentford by Arsenal, signed permanently for Chelsea.
George Saville – loaned to Brentford.
Mel Scott – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Fred Taylor – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Sid Tickridge – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Sam Tillen – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Brian Turner – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Graham Wilkins – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Stephen Wilkins – first Chelsea, then Brentford.
Brentford, Chelsea and Fulham
Jimmy Bowie – first Chelsea, then Fulham, then Brentford and later returned to Fulham.
Peter Buchanan – first Chelsea, then Fulham, then Brentford.
Ron Greenwood – first Brentford, then Chelsea, then Fulham.
Barry Lloyd – first Chelsea, then Fulham, then Brentford.
Gerry Peyton – first Fulham, then played for Brentford and Chelsea on loan from Everton. Signed permanently for Brentford after leaving Everton.
Steve Sidwell – first Brentford, then Chelsea, then Fulham.
Billy Sperrin – guested for Fulham and Chelsea during the Second World War, then signed permanently for Brentford in 1949.
Chelsea, Fulham and QPR
Roy Bentley – won the league title as a striker with Chelsea in 1955 and moved on to Fulham a year later, where he was converted into a defender. Upon leaving Fulham, Bentley spent two years with QPR.
Bobby Campbell – managed Fulham between 1976 and 1980, and later Chelsea between 1988 and 1991. Also coached QPR in the 1980s.
Paul Parker – started his career at Fulham before being sold to QPR (where we went on to start for England in the 1990 World Cup) also played four games for Chelsea in 1997.
Dave Sexton – having been a coach at Fulham during the 1960s, Sexton managed Chelsea and QPR during the 1970s. He won the FA Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup in successive seasons with Chelsea and took Rangers to within a point of the league title; as such he is regarded by both clubs as one of their greatest ever managers.
Clive Walker – winger who played for all three West London clubs.
Ray Wilkins – started his playing career at Chelsea, and later played for and managed QPR as well as managing Fulham. He also had a stint as assistant manager to Gianluca Vialli at Chelsea. He again became the assistant manager under Luiz Felipe Scolari after the departure of Steve Clarke. He continued to perform the role under Guus Hiddink and Carlo Ancelotti until his contract was terminated without notice on 11 November 2010. He also had a stint as assistant head coach to René Meulensteen at Fulham, but was sacked after less than two months in the role along with Meulensteen and Alan Curbishley.
Chelsea and QPR
Clive Allen – first QPR, then Chelsea.
José Bosingwa – played for Chelsea then moved to QPR.
Barry Bridges – Chelsea to QPR via Birmingham City.
Gary Chivers – Chelsea to QPR via Swansea City.
Jake Clarke-Salter – Chelsea to QPR.
Tommy Docherty – managed Chelsea in the 1960s. Two spells as QPR manager.
Rhys Evans – loaned from Chelsea to QPR.
Mark Falco – on loan to Chelsea and later had a spell with QPR.
Mike Fillery – from Chelsea to QPR.
Paul Furlong – from Chelsea to QPR.
Allan Harris – from Chelsea to QPR.
John Hollins – played and managed both clubs.
Tommy Langley – from Chelsea to QPR.
Michael Mancienne – spent two loan spells at QPR.
Gavin Peacock – played for Chelsea in the 1990s, either side of spells at QPR.
Loïc Rémy – signed by QPR in January 2013, bought by Chelsea in August 2014.
Ben Sahar – came to QPR on loan from Chelsea.
Scott Sinclair – came on loan to QPR from Chelsea.
Jimmy Smith – came on loan to QPR from Chelsea.
Nigel Spackman – Chelsea then QPR via Liverpool.
John Spencer – Chelsea to QPR.
William Steer – first QPR, then Chelsea.
Terry Venables – player at Chelsea then transferred to QPR via Tottenham Hotspur in 1969. Managed QPR in the 1980s.
Ian Watson – moved from Chelsea to QPR in the mid-1960s.
David Webb – from Chelsea to QPR. Managed Chelsea in 1993.
Roy Wegerle – from Chelsea to QPR via loan to Swindon Town and permanent move to Luton Town.
Steve Wicks – from Chelsea to QPR via Derby County. Later returned to QPR after a spell at Crystal Palace.
Shaun Wright-Phillips – from Chelsea to QPR via Manchester City.
Chelsea and Fulham
Dave Beasant – after leaving Chelsea in 1992, Beasant played for a further 10 clubs before ending up as a reserve goalkeeper/coach at Fulham in 2003. He retired from his playing capacity a year later without actually playing a game, and is still employed by the club as a coach.
Wayne Bridge – was on loan at Fulham from Chelsea during the second half of the 2005–06 season.
Gordon Davies – first at Fulham, then Chelsea.
John Dempsey – first at Fulham, then Chelsea.
Slaviša Jokanović - first at Chelsea, then managed Fulham
Damien Duff – first at Chelsea, Newcastle (see article Tyne–Wear derby), then Fulham (formerly with Blackburn Rovers)
Bjarne Goldbæk – first at Chelsea, then Fulham.
Eiður Guðjohnsen – first at Chelsea, then Fulham.
Jon Harley – first at Chelsea, then Fulham.
Gaël Kakuta – was on loan at Fulham from Chelsea during the second half of the 2010–11 season.
Ray Lewington – first at Chelsea, then Fulham.
Ruben Loftus-Cheek – played for Chelsea since 2014, was on loan at Fulham during 2020–21 season.
Scott Parker - first at Chelsea, then Fulham. Former Fulham manager.
Ian Pearce – first at Chelsea, then Fulham, via Blackburn Rovers and West Ham.
Lucas Piazón – was on loan at Fulham from Chelsea during the 2016–17 and 2017–18 seasons.
Robert Savage – first at Fulham, then Chelsea. Not to be confused with modern-day player Robbie Savage.
André Schürrle – first at Chelsea, then Fulham on loan.
Mark Schwarzer – first at Fulham, then Chelsea.
Jimmy Sharp – two spells with Fulham, then Chelsea, then back to Fulham.
Alexey Smertin – signed with Fulham in early 2007, having played for (among other Premiership clubs) Chelsea.
Willian – first at Chelsea, then Fulham.
Fulham and QPR
Dean Coney – Fulham and QPR striker. Part of the deal that took Paul Parker to QPR.
Lee Cook – QPR winger transferred to Fulham 2007/8 season.
Joe Fidler – First Fulham, then QPR.
Rodney Marsh – Started off at Fulham, before becoming a QPR legend and then moved to Manchester City before coming back to play for the maverick Fulham side, and England. Returned to Fulham for a brief loan spell in 1976.
Stefan Johansen – loaned to QPR from Fulham in 2020–21.
Andrew Johnson – Fulham to QPR in 2012.
Stephen Kelly – played for QPR in 2003. Joined Fulham in 2009.
Thomas Leigh – First Fulham, then QPR.
Heiðar Helguson – Fulham and QPR striker.
Mark Hughes – Managed Fulham in the 2010/11 season before leaving due to a desire to win trophies. Signed as QPR manager the following season in January.
Paul Parker – Played over 100 games for both clubs.
Zesh Rehman – Moved from Fulham to QPR in 2006.
Tony Sealy – Small but quick striker. Top scorer as QPR won promotion in 1982/83. Later moved to Fulham.
Matt Smith – First Fulham, then QPR
Ernie Symes – First Fulham, then QPR.
Adel Taarabt – Loaned from QPR to Fulham in 2013
Bobby Zamora – Played for Fulham until signing for QPR on a January transfer in 2012.
Fulham, QPR and Brentford
Dave Metchick – first Fulham, then QPR, then Brentford.
David Nelson – Fulham, Brentford, QPR.
Tony Parks – First Brentford, loaned to QPR and then signed for Fulham
Calum Willock – Loaned from Fulham to QPR, later signed for Brentford in 2006.
See also
London derbies
South London derby
North London derby
East London derby
Local derby
Sports rivalry
Local derbies in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
Soccerbase
www.footballderbies.com
QPR Report
Brentford F.C.
Chelsea F.C.
Fulham F.C.
Queens Park Rangers F.C.
London derbies
Football derbies in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Man%27s%20War
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Old Man's War
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Old Man's War is a military science fiction novel by American writer John Scalzi, published in 2005. His debut novel was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2006.
Old Man's War is the first novel in Scalzi's Old Man's War series. A sequel, The Ghost Brigades, was published in 2006, followed by two other books, The Last Colony (2007) and Zoe's Tale (2008). Another book in the series, The Human Division, was published as a serial and then collected in a novel (2013). The next book in the series, The End of All Things, was published in June 2015 as four novellas.
It was optioned by Paramount Pictures in 2011.
Plot
Introduction
Old Man's War is about a soldier named John Perry and his exploits in the Colonial Defense Forces (CDF). The first-person narrative follows Perry's military career from CDF recruit to the rank of captain. It is set in a universe heavily populated with life forms, in which the spacegoing species compete for the scarce planets that are suitable for sustaining life. As a result, Perry must learn to fight a wide variety of aliens. The characters in Old Man's War have enhanced DNA and nanotechnology, giving them advantages in strength, speed, endurance, and situational awareness.
Synopsis
John Perry, a 75-year-old retired advertising writer, joins the Colonial Defense Forces who protect human interplanetary colonists. Volunteers sign letters of intent and provide DNA samples at age 65, which John and his now deceased wife Kathy had done ten years prior to the beginning of the story. After visiting his wife's grave to say goodbye (as volunteers can never return to Earth), Perry takes a space elevator to the CDF ship Henry Hudson, where he meets Thomas, Jessie, Harry, Alan, Susan and Maggie, fellow retiree volunteers. They dub themselves the "Old Farts".
Following a series of sometimes unusual psychological and physical tests, Perry's mind is transferred to a new body based on his genetic material. His new body is a younger version of himself, but genetically engineered with enhanced musculature, green skin, and yellow cat-like eyes. He now possesses enormous strength and dexterity, nanobot-enhanced artificial blood, enhanced eyesight and other senses, and most critically, a BrainPal—a neural interface that, among other capabilities, allows Perry to communicate with other members of the CDF via thought.
After a week of frivolity and libertinism in their new bodies, Perry and the other recruits land on Beta Pyxis III for basic training, during which the CDF's heritage in the United States armed forces is made clear when the recruits are taught the Rifleman's Creed. Perry's drill instructor, Master Sergeant Ruiz, adopts a tough and disdainful persona towards recruits, but discovers Perry is the creator of an advertising slogan Ruiz adopted as a personal mantra ("Sometimes you just gotta hit the road"). As a dubious gesture of respect, Perry is given the job of platoon leader during the weeks of training before he is shipped out to the CDF ship Modesto. His first engagement is with the Consu, a fierce, incredibly intelligent and religiously zealous alien species. Perry improvises a tactic which enables the CDF to win this first battle. This is soon followed by a number of battles with, among others, the bear-like Whaidians and the tiny Covandu. By the end of this last engagement Perry begins to suffer psychological distress over killing the Liliputian Covandu and accepts that he has transformed both physically and mentally.
Now a veteran, Perry participates in the Battle for Coral. The planet contains coral reefs valuable to the attacking Rraey, as well as a human colony (the Rraey also have a taste for human flesh). The CDF plans to rapidly counterattack with a small force before the Rraey establish their coral strip mining operations, but the Rraey are somehow able to predict the appearance of a space ship's skip drive (a feat that should not be possible) and use this knowledge to ambush and destroy CDF ships as they arrive in the Coral system. Perry's quick thinking allows him and his fellow soldiers on a transport shuttle to escape the wreckage of the Modesto and make for the planet's surface, but they are shot down. Everyone but Perry is killed in the crash; Perry is grievously wounded. Perry is left for dead by a Rraey search party (who find CDF soldiers inedible), and he is rescued by members of the mysterious "Ghost Brigades", the Special Forces units of the CDF. Perry thinks he has died when he sees a younger green version of his dead wife Kathy, who in reality is Jane Sagan, the leader of the Ghost Brigades rescue team.
After being repaired, Perry encounters Sagan, who turns out to have been grown based on Kathy Perry's DNA sample, as legally allowed by her letter of intent to join the CDF. Unlike John, Jane has no memories of Kathy's life, as she is only six years old, but after learning about Kathy, Jane seeks to learn more from John about being a "realborn" person and what kind of life one can have outside the CDF.
Sagan manipulates her chain of command to promote John to an advisory role (as a lieutenant) to gather information from the Consu during a ritualistic meeting to obtain information. Perry discovers that the Rraey had received the skip-drive detection tachyon technology from the Consu, which was used to set up the ambush at Coral. Perry also manipulates his chain of command to have the last two of his friends from the "Old Farts" transferred out of combat duty to military research. Sagan and Perry then participate in a Special Forces operation in an attempt to capture or destroy the borrowed Consu technology in advance of a major attack to recapture Coral from the Rraey. Perry is instrumental in the successful outcome of the battle by capturing the technical manual for the Consu detection system (which was destroyed in the fighting), and saving Sagan's life after she is severely wounded. However, he never sees her again after delivering her to a shuttle which returns her to the secretive Ghost Brigades.
At the conclusion of the book, Perry is promoted to captain following his deeds at Coral and, despite the separation, holds hope of reuniting with Sagan when their terms of service conclude.
Technology
Skip Drive
Old Man's War introduces a new form of FTL interstellar travel called a Skip Drive. The Skip Drive takes an object like a spaceship, punches a hole in space, and places the object at its destination in a new, essentially identical universe. There are limits on the skip drive due to the characters not knowing all there is to know about how it works. The limitations are as follows:
The object skipping must not be near a major gravity well.
The object skipping cannot skip out too far.
The Colonial Union and other governments use devices called skip drones to communicate. These skip drones are essentially computers equipped with skip drives. A ship or satellite will launch one of these devices away from local gravity wells and skip to its target locale and upload its information to the local people.
More advanced races, notably the Consu, have a more complex understanding of skip drives and can even detect ships skipping into a system.
BrainPal
The BrainPal is a neural implant that allows members of the Colonial Defense Forces (CDF) to send and receive data, including speech, battle plans and much more. CDF soldiers use their BrainPals to communicate with each other, translate alien languages, watch classic cartoons, and read old books.
A BrainPal allows a CDF soldier to operate colonial technology by thought alone. A CDF rifle can only be used by someone with a BrainPal.
To the members of the Ghost Brigades the BrainPal does much more: it provides a synthetic consciousness that allows the newborn soldiers to function until their own identities develop. This gives people who meet Special Forces the impression that they know everything. When presented with a situation that is unfamiliar to the newborn soldier, the BrainPal loads the relevant and important information directly into the mind at an amazing rate.
MP-35
The MP-35, also known as "empee", is the main infantry weapon used by the Colonial Defense Force (CDF).
The weapon features self-assembling and self-repairing capabilities, the ability to interface with BrainPal, and ammunition composed of nano-robotic bullets able to transform immediately into any type of projectile desired, including bullets, incendiaries, explosives, and beams. These features make it superior to conventional weapon types, as it solves the problem of excessive weight associated with carrying multiple weapons, weapon jamming, and enemy use. The weapon proved to be very versatile and adaptable in the battlefield, as shown in Perry's first battle against the Consu where he took full advantage of the weapon's adaptability and used BrainPal to program a sequence of fire that exploited the enemies' weakness to win the battle.
Beanstalk
The Beanstalk is a space elevator, built by the CDF, connecting Earth and the CDF space station. The space elevator, officially built to transport colonists and CDF recruits to space, displayed the CDF's power and technological prowess. To Earth's inhabitants, the space elevator defied physics and was extremely impractical. Henry hypothesized that the entire concept of the Beanstalk was taken from another alien species. In real life, John Scalzi notes that the feasibility and practical application of a space elevator is speculative.
Modified bodies and consciousness transfer
In the early days of human colonization, it became clear that human soldiers were not cut out for fighting the endless hordes of alien aggressors. The spirit was willing, but the flesh was found wanting. Humans were not strong enough, tough enough or fast enough to compete with the countless xeno breeds that desired the eradication of the human race. Humanity was saved by two technologies: the ability to grow an engineered human body to maturity in a few months and the ability to transfer a consciousness from an old body to the new one (provided that the brains are identical).
This tech is the foundation of the Colonial Defense Force, allowing them to recruit senior citizens from Earth and transfer their minds to new super-soldier bodies.
The most noticeable features of the engineered bodies include chlorophyll enhanced dermis for energy absorption, the above-mentioned brainpal, and yellow eyes that appear like a cat's eyes for enhanced vision.
Nanotechnology
The Colonial Defense Forces use nanotechnology in almost every aspect of their military operations. Combat armor is made from interlinked nanobots, medical nanobots perform surgeries and help to regrow limbs, and the very blood of the CDF soldier has been replaced by a nanotech solution called "smartblood" that does everything that blood can do, only better (such as holding one's breath for over six minutes), and a few things that blood can't do (like explode on command). The primary infantry weapon, the MP-35 or "empee", assembles its ammunition on demand from a block of raw materials (with six types of ammo: rifle, shot, grenade, missile, flamethrower and microwave beam), and can use its ammunition block for self-repair.
Alien species
Consu
The Consu are a fierce, technologically advanced, and strongly religious alien race. They believe in helping deserving races reach "Ungkat", a state of perfection for a whole race.
The Consu are the most advanced alien race presented in the Old Man's War. Their home system is surrounded by a Dyson sphere, which harnesses all the energy output of its local sun's companion star, a dwarf star, to make it impenetrable to the weapons and technology of every other known species. The Consu possess technology so advanced that even the CDF is unable to reverse-engineer or even fully understand it, such as tachyon detectors. Despite being the most technologically advanced out of all the alien races presented in the novel, in any conflict the Consu will scale their weapons technology to that of their opponent in order to keep the battle fair. Unlike other alien species, the Consu do not fight for territory, but for religious motives, believing that any aliens killed by Consu warriors are thereby guaranteed another place in the cycle of creation. The Consu rarely meet with outsiders and any individual that does is inevitably a criminal or other undesirable. Following the meeting, the meeting dome is imploded and shot into a black hole so that it can't defile any other Consu.
Covandu
The Covandu are a liliputian species, the tallest only measuring an inch, but otherwise very similar to humans. Their aggression in colonizing planets is similar to humans' as well, sometimes causing conflict. One human colony was taken over by Covandu when it was abandoned due to a virus (which did not affect the Covandu). After developing a vaccine, humans returned to take it back by force.
They are gifted in the arts, specifically poetry and drama.
Rraey
The Rraey are a species described in Old Man's War as being considerably less advanced than the CDF. They consider humans as a part of a "balanced breakfast" and are even known to have celebrity chefs showing how to best butcher a human. They became a serious problem for the CDF after acquiring technology from the Consu to predict the trajectory of a vessel's skip drives, a feat that was previously considered impossible. The only physical description of them is a mention that they have a head and limbs and "muscular bird-like legs".
They developed a craving for humans, going as far as creating many dishes for different parts of the body. They are a few decades behind the CDF in terms of technology and weaponry, but nonetheless, still considered a threat to the CDF. The skip drive detection device given to them by the Consu enabled them to wipe out an entire fleet of CDF ships without any casualties to their own.
Whaidian
The Whaidians are an alien species that have an appearance similar to that of a "cross between black bear and a large flying squirrel." Their home consists of small planets that are linked together. They are artistically gifted and are nearly as technologically advanced as the CDF. For this reason they are targeted by the CDF and their spaceport is completely destroyed by a fleet of CDF ships. The highest form of Whaidian art is a collective chant which is recited by small groups all the way up to entire cities.
Themes
Old Man's War sits in the military science fiction genre but themes of the ethics of life extension, friendship, marriage, the significance of mortality, what makes one human, and individual identity are present within the novel. Aging plays its biggest role near the beginning of the novel with the CDF being able to find a way to reverse the effects of aging. The themes of marriage and friendship are explored in the characterization of John Perry through his continued love of his dead wife and his later meetings with Jane. When it comes to identity and humanity John Perry is the focus of attention and his characteristics by the end of the novel determine whether or not the reader believes John Perry is still human.
Scalzi states that he was influenced by Robert Heinlein's Starship Troopers and modeled his book's format after Heinlein’s novels. He wanted to make the story as sympathetic as possible to the reader in which one can understand events such as being in a war.
Scalzi took what he learned about Heinlein and produced four lessons on how to create a novel centered on characters. These lessons are that a story should only exist for its characters, make room in the characters for the reader, make the characters talk like people, and make the characters act like people. His novel's themes were based on the four lessons in which to make a character as connectable as possible while still keeping his theme of space military.
Sequels
The Ghost Brigades, the sequel to Old Man's War.
The Last Colony, the third book in the series.
Zoe's Tale, the fourth book in the series.
The Human Division, the fifth book in the series.
The End of All Things, the sixth book in the series.
The Sagan Diary, a novella taking place between The Ghost Brigades and The Last Colony. The audio version available from the author's website.
After the Coup, a short story featuring Harry Wilson.
Questions for a Soldier, a short story featuring John Perry.
Adaptations
Netflix announced plans in 2017 to make a film based in the universe of Old Man's War. Previous failed attempts to release adaptations of Old Man's War include a film project by Paramount Pictures and a TV adaptation by Syfy.
Appearances in other works
A character can be seen reading the book in an episode of the science fiction television series Stargate Universe, as a shout-out to Scalzi in his role as creative consultant on the show.
Critical reception
Old Man's War was well received both domestically and globally. Old Man's War was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2006 but lost to the novel Spin, written by Robert Charles Wilson. Old Man's War was ranked #1 on a Tor.com reader poll as the best science fiction and fantasy novel of 2000–2010. In 2012 it was voted #1 on the Locus online reader poll for best science fiction novel of the 21st century, and in 2011, Old Man's War was listed 74th on the NPR.com reader poll of the Top 100 science fiction and fantasy books/series for 2011.
References
External links
Editorial Reviews at Amazon
"Old Man's War Cover Art History at Upcoming4.me"
2005 American novels
2005 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Tor Books books
Military science fiction novels
2005 debut novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era or Komnenian army was a force established by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos during the late 11th/early 12th century. It was further developed during the 12th century by his successors John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos. From necessity, following extensive territorial loss and a near disastrous defeat by the Normans of southern Italy at Dyrrachion in 1081, Alexios constructed a new army from the ground up. This new army was significantly different from previous forms of the Byzantine army, especially in the methods used for the recruitment and maintenance of soldiers. The army was characterised by an increased reliance on the military capabilities of the immediate imperial household, the relatives of the ruling dynasty and the provincial Byzantine aristocracy. Another distinctive element of the new army was an expansion of the employment of foreign mercenary troops and their organisation into more permanent units. However, continuity in equipment, unit organisation, tactics and strategy from earlier times is evident. The Komnenian army was instrumental in creating the territorial integrity and stability that allowed the Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire. It was deployed in the Balkans, Italy, Hungary, Russia, Anatolia, Syria, the Holy Land and Egypt.
Introduction
At the beginning of the Komnenian period in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent in its history. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire's prospects had looked grim. The state lay defenceless before internal and external threats, as the Byzantine army had been reduced to a shadow of its former self. During the 11th century, decades of peace and neglect had reduced the old thematic forces, and the military and political anarchy following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 had destroyed the professional Imperial Tagmata, the core of the Byzantine army. At Manzikert, units tracing their lineage for centuries back to the Roman Empire were wiped out, and the subsequent loss of Anatolia deprived the Empire of its main recruiting ground. In the Balkans, at the same time, the Empire was exposed to invasions by the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, the expansionist activities of the principality of Dioclea (Duklja) and by Pecheneg (Patzinak) raids across the Danube.
The death knell of the traditional Byzantine army was at the Battle of Dyrrachion in 1081, where Alexios I was very heavily defeated by the Normans of southern Italy. The nadir of the Byzantine army as a professional fighting force was reached in 1091, when Alexios managed to field only 500 soldiers from the Empire's regular soldiery. These formed the nucleus of the army, with the addition of the armed retainers of Alexios' relatives and the nobles enrolled in the army, plus the substantial aid of a large force of allied Cumans, which won the Battle of Levounion against the Pechenegs. Yet, through a combination of improved finances, skill, determination, and years of campaigning, Alexios, John, and Manuel Komnenos managed to restore the power of the Byzantine Empire, constructing a new army in the process. These developments should not, however, at least in their earlier phases, be seen as a planned exercise in military restructuring. In particular, Alexios I was often reduced to reacting to events rather than controlling them; the changes he made to the Byzantine army were largely done out of immediate necessity and were pragmatic in nature.
The new force had a core of units which were both professional and disciplined. It contained guards units such as the Varangians, the vestiaritai, the vardariotai and also the archontopouloi (the latter recruited by Alexios from the sons of dead Byzantine officers), foreign mercenary regiments, and also units of professional soldiers recruited from the provinces. These provincial troops included kataphraktoi cavalry from Macedonia, Thessaly and Thrace, plus various other provincial forces. Alongside troops raised and paid for directly by the state the Komnenian army included the armed followers of members of the wider imperial family, its extensive connections, and the provincial aristocracy (dynatoi). In this can be seen the beginnings of the feudalisation of the Byzantine military.
The Komnenian period, despite almost constant warfare, is notable for the lack of military treatise writing, which seems to have petered out during the 11th century. So, unlike in earlier periods, there are no detailed descriptions of Byzantine tactics and military equipment. Information on military matters in the Komnenian era must be gleaned from passing comments in contemporary historical and biographical literature, court panegyrics and from pictorial evidence.
Size
There are no surviving reliable and detailed records to allow the accurate estimation of the overall size of the Byzantine army in this period; it is notable that John Birkenmeier, the author of the definitive study of the Komnenian army, made no attempt to do so. He merely noted that while Alexios I had difficulty raising sufficient troops to repel the Italo-Normans, John II could field armies as large as those of the Kingdom of Hungary and Manuel I assembled an army capable of defeating the large crusading force of Conrad III.
Other historians have, however, made attempts to estimate overall army size. During the reign of Alexios I, the field army may have numbered around 20,000 men. By 1143, the entire Byzantine army has been estimated to have numbered about 50,000 men and continued to remain about this size until the end of Manuel's reign. The total number of mobile professional and mercenary forces that the emperor could assemble was about 25,000 soldiers while the static garrisons and militias spread around the empire made up the remainder. During this period, the European provinces in the Balkans were able to provide more than 6,000 cavalry in total while the Eastern provinces of Anatolia provided about the same number. This amounted to more than 12,000 cavalry for the entire Empire, not including those from allied contingents.
Modern historians have estimated the size of Komnenian armies on campaign at about 15,000 to 20,000 men, but field armies with less than 10,000 men were quite common. In 1176 Manuel I managed to gather approximately 30,000-35,000 men, of which 25,000 were Byzantines and the rest were allied contingents from Hungary, Serbia, and Antioch, though this was for an exceptional campaign. His military resources stretched to putting another, smaller, army in the field simultaneously. After the death of Manuel I, the Byzantine army seems to have declined in numbers. In 1186, Isaac II assembled 250 knights and 500 infantry from the Latin population of Constantinople, an equivalent number of Georgian and Turkish mercenaries, and about 1,000 Byzantine soldiers. This force of possibly 2,500 managed to defeat Alexios Branas' rebellion. The rebel army which could not have numbered much more than 3,000-4,000 men had been the field force sent against the Bulgarians. Another force of about 3,000-4,000 was stationed at the city of Serres. Expeditionary forces remained around the same size for the rest of Angeloi period. In 1187 Isaac II campaigned with 2,000 cavalry in Bulgaria. Manuel Kamytzes' army that ambushed Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1189 was about 3,000 strong; it consisted of his own force of 2,000 cavalry and the garrison at Philippopolis.
Supporting the army
The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era was recruited and maintained by disparate means, ranging from regular payment from the state treasury, through tax-farming, reliance on the familial obligations of aristocrats, who fielded their armed retainers, to forcible impressment, especially of defeated enemies.
Taxation and pay
The financial state of the Empire improved throughout the Komnenian period; while Alexios I in the early part of his reign was reduced to producing coin from church gold and silver plate, his successors were able to spend very great sums on the army. One of the strengths of the Byzantine emperor was his ability to raise ready cash. After a period of financial instability, Alexios reformed the currency in 1092–1094, by introducing the high purity hyperpyron gold coin. At the same time he created new senior financial officials in the bureaucracy and reformed the taxation system. Though Alexios I was sometimes forced by circumstances into extemporising finances, the ideal of using state resources from regular taxation to support the military was still adhered to. Despite a number of instances of the ad hoc hiring of bands of foreign troops and over-reliance on his kinsmen and other magnates to fill out the ranks of his armies, regular recruitment based on salaries, annual payments and bounties remained the preferred method of supporting soldiers.
Prior to the Komnenian period records of payment rates for troops are extant and show a great variation in the amounts paid to individuals, based on rank, troop type and perceived military worth, and the prestige of the unit that the soldier belonged to. There is almost no evidence of rates of pay for Komnenian soldiery, however, the same principles undoubtedly still operated, and a Frankish knightly heavy cavalryman was most probably paid considerably more than a Turkish horse archer.
Pronoia
The granting of pronoia (from eis pronoian - 'to administer'), beginning in the reign of Alexios I, was to become a notable element in the military infrastructure towards the end of the Komnenian period, though it became even more important subsequently. The pronoia was essentially the grant of rights to receive revenue from a particular area of land, a form of tax farming, and it was held in return for military obligations. Pronoia holders, whether native or of foreign origin, lived locally in their holding and collected their income at source, eliminating the cost of an unnecessary level of bureaucracy, also the pronoia ensured an income for the soldier whether or not he was on active campaign or garrison duty. The pronoiar also had a direct interest in keeping his 'fief' productive and in defending the locality in which it was situated. The local people who worked the land under a pronoiar also rendered labour services, making the system semi-feudal, though the pronoia was not strictly hereditary. It is very probable that, like the landowning magnates, pronoiars had armed retinues and that the military service that this class provided was not limited to the pronoiar himself. Though Manuel I extended the provision of pronoia, payment of troops by cash remained the norm.
Structure
Command hierarchy and unit composition
Under the emperor, the commander-in-chief of the army was the megas domestikos (Grand Domestic). His second-in-command was the prōtostratōr. The commander of the navy was the megas doux (Grand Duke), who was also the military commander for Crete, the Aegean Islands and the southern parts of mainland Greece. A commander entrusted with an independent field force or one of the major divisions of a large expeditionary army was termed a stratēgos (general). Individual provinces and the defensive forces they contained were governed by a doux (duke) or katepanō (though this title was sometimes bestowed on the senior administrator below the doux), who was a military officer with civil authority; under the doux a fortified settlement or a fortress was commanded by an officer with the title kastrophylax (castle-warden). Lesser commanders, with the exception of some archaic titles, were known by the size of the unit they commanded, for example a tagmatarchēs commanded a tagma (regiment). The commander of the Varangians had a unique title, akolouthos (acolyte), indicative of his close personal attendance on the emperor.
During the Komnenian period the earlier names for the basic units of the Byzantine cavalry, bandon and moira, gradually disappear to be replaced by the allagion (), believed to have been between 300 and 500 men strong. The allagion, commanded by an allagatōr, was probably divided into subunits of 100, 50 and 10 men. On campaign the allagia could be grouped together (usually in threes) into larger bodies called taxeis, syntaxeis, lochoi or tagmata. The infantry unit was the taxiarchia, a unit type first recorded under Nikephoros II Phokas; it was theoretically 1,000 men strong, and was commanded by a taxiarchēs.
Guards units and the Imperial household
Many of the earlier guard units did not survive the reign of Alexios I; the scholai, Immortals (athanatoi), and exkoubitoi are not mentioned in the reigns of his immediate successors. The notable exceptions to this process being the Varangians and vestiaritai, and probably the archontopouloi. The hetaireia (literally "companions"), commanded by the megas hetaireiarchēs, is still mentioned, though it was always more a collection of individual units under an administrative title than a single regiment. In this period, the Varangian Guard consisted of Englishmen, Russians, and Scandinavians, totalling 5,000 men. Immediately after the Battle of Dyrrachion, Alexios I recruited 2,000 men to form the tagma of the archontopouloi. The Vardariots, a cavalry unit initially recruited from the Christianized Magyars of the Vardar valley, were a later addition to the guard and were probably raised by John II. They were commanded by an officer with the rank of primmikērios. Of increasing importance during the family-centric Komnenian period were the men known as oikeioi (, "those of the household"); when mobilized for war the oikeioi were the equivalent of the household knights of western kings and would have served as kataphraktoi. These household troops would have included the emperor's personal retinue, his relatives and close associates, also accompanied by their immediate retinues, and the young aristocrats attached to the court; plus they probably also included the vestiaritai guards. The oikeioi would have been equipped with the finest arms and armour and mounted on the highest quality war-horses available. Although not an entirely formal regiment the "household" (oikos) would have been a formidable fighting force, however, it would have been available only when the emperor took the field in person. Officers of the vestiaritai were given the lofty court title of sebastos and two of their number, Andronikos Lampardas and Alexios Petraliphas, were prominent generals. Under Alexios I, and probably subsequently, the imperial oikos also served as a sort of "staff college" for training promising young officers. Alexios took 300 young officers into his household, whom he trained personally. In the campaign against Bohemond I of Antioch in 1107–1108 the best of these officers commanded the blockading forces keeping the Norman army pent up on the Albanian coast. The victorious outcome of this campaign probably resulted, in part, from the increased discipline the Byzantine forces showed due to the quality of their commanders.
Native regiments
In the course of the 11th century the units of part-time soldier-farmers belonging to the themata (military provinces) were largely replaced by smaller, full-time, provincial tagmata (regiments). The political and military anarchy of the later 11th century meant that it was solely the provincial tagmata of the southern Balkans which survived. These regiments, whose soldiers could be characterized as "native mercenaries," became an integral part of the central army and many field armies of the Komnenian period, the tagmata of Macedonia, Thrace and Thessaly being particularly notable. Though raised in particular provinces, these cavalry regiments had long ceased to have any local defence role. As regions were reconquered and brought under greater control provincial forces were re-established, though initially they often only served to provide local garrisons. In the reign of Manuel I the historian Niketas Choniates mentions a division of a field army composed of "the eastern and western tagmata." This wording implies that regular regiments were once again being raised in Anatolia. Military settlers, often derived from defeated foes, also supplied soldiers; one such group of settlers, defeated Pechenegs, was settled in the Moglena district and provided a unit to the army; another was composed of Serbs who were settled around Nicomedia in Anatolia. Towards the end of the period pronoia revenue grants, from the income generated by parcels of land, allowed the provinces to be used to raise heavy cavalrymen with less immediate drain on the state treasury. Most references to the organisation of soldiers that occur in the period concern cavalry. The origins and organisation of the native infantry of the Byzantine army of this period are obscure. It is known that there was an official register of soldiers serving as infantry, but their geographical origins and unit names are not recorded. Though rarely mentioned, the infantry were at least as numerous as the cavalry and were vital for prosecuting sieges.
Foreign regiments and allied contingents
The central army (basilika allagia or taxeis), in addition to the guards units and the native regiments raised from particular provinces, comprised a number of tagmata of foreign soldiers. These included the latinikon, a heavy cavalry formation of Western European 'knights', and members of families of western origin who had been in Byzantine employ for generations. Early in the period, during the reign of Alexios I, the westerners in the central army were referred to as ton Frangikon tagmaton, "the Frankish regiment". It has been suggested that to regard these knights as mercenaries is somewhat mistaken and that they were essentially regular soldiers paid directly from the state treasury, but having foreign origins or ancestry. Another unit was the tourkopouloi ("sons of Turks"), which, as its name implies, was composed of Byzantinised Turks and mercenaries recruited from the Seljuk Sultanate. A third was the skythikon recruited from the Turkic Pechenegs, Cumans and Uzes of the Pontic Steppes.
In order to increase the size of his army, Alexios I even recruited 3,000 Paulicians from Philippopolis and formed them into the "Tagma of the Manichaeans", while 7,000 Turks were also hired. Foreign mercenaries and the soldiers provided by imperial vassals (such as the Serbs and Antiochenes), serving under their own leaders, were another feature of the Byzantine army of the time. These troops would usually be placed under a Byzantine general as part of his command, to be brigaded with other troops of a similar fighting capability, or combined to create field forces of mixed type. However, if the foreign contingent were particularly large and its leader a powerful and prominent figure then it might remain separate; Baldwin of Antioch commanded a major division, composed of Westerners (Antiochenes, Hungarians and other 'Latins'), of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Myriokephalon. The Byzantines usually took care to mix ethnic groups within the formations making up a field army in order to minimize the risk of all the soldiers of a particular nationality changing sides or decamping to the rear during battle. During the early part of the 12th century, the Serbs were required to send 300 cavalry whenever the Byzantine emperor was campaigning in Anatolia. This number was increased after Manuel I defeated the Serb rebellion in 1150 to 2,000 Serbs for European campaigns and 500 Serbs for Anatolian campaigns. Towards the end of the Komnenian period Alan soldiers, undoubtedly cavalry, became an important element in Byzantine armies. It is notable that there was no major incident of mutiny or treachery involving foreign troops between 1081 and 1185.
Armed followers of the aristocracy
Though fief-holding as such did not exist in the Byzantine state, the concept of lordship pervaded society, with not only the provincial magnates but also state functionaries having authority over private citizens. The semi-feudal forces raised by the dynatoi or provincial magnates were a useful addition to the Byzantine army, and during the middle years of the reign of Alexios I probably made up the greater proportion of many field armies. Some leading provincial families became very powerful; for example, the Gabras family of Trebizond achieved virtual independence of central authority at times during the 12th century. The wealthy and influential members of the regional aristocracy could raise substantial numbers of troops from their retainers, relatives and tenants (called oikeoi anthropoi - "household men"). Their quality, however, would tend to be inferior to the professional troops of the basilika allagia. In the Strategikon of Kekaumenos of c. 1078, there is mention of the armed retinue of a magnate, they are described as "the freemen who will have to mount horses together with you and go into battle".
The 'personal guards' of aristocrats who were also generals in the Byzantine army are also notable in this period. These guards would have resembled smaller versions of the imperial oikos. The sebastokrator Isaac, brother of John II, even maintained his own unit of vestiaritai guards. There is a record of Isaac Komnenos transferring ownership of two villages to a monastery. Alongside the land transfer, control of the local soldiery also passed to the monastery. This suggests that these soldiers were effectively members of a class of petty, "personal pronoiars". A class that was not dependent on state-owned land for income, but upon the estates of a leading landowner, evidently the landowner could be either secular or ecclesiastical. The guard of the megas domestikos John Axouch was large enough to put down an outbreak of rioting between Byzantine troops and allied Venetians during the siege of Corfu in 1149.
Equipment: Arms and Armour
The arms and armour of the Byzantine forces in the late 11th and 12th centuries were generally more sophisticated and varied than those found in contemporary Western Europe. Byzantium was open to military influences from the Muslim world and the Eurasian steppe, the latter being especially productive of military equipment innovation. The effectiveness of Byzantine armour would not be exceeded in Western Europe before the 14th century.
Arms
Close combat troops, infantry and cavalry, made use of a spear, of varying length, usually referred to as a kontarion. Specialist infantry called menavlatoi used a heavy-shafted weapon called the menavlion the precise nature of which is uncertain; they are mentioned in the earlier Sylloge Tacticorum but may still have been extant. Swords were of two types: the spathion which was straight and double edged and differed only in details of the hilt from the typical ‘sword of war’ found in Western Europe, and the paramērion which appears to have been a form of single-edged, perhaps slightly curved, sabre. Most Byzantine soldiers would have worn swords as secondary weapons, usually suspended from a baldric rather than a waist belt. Heavy cavalry are described (in slightly earlier writings) as being doubly equipped with both the spathion and paramērion. Some missile-armed skirmish infantry used a relatively light axe (tzikourion) as a secondary weapon, whilst the Varangians were known as the “Axe-bearing Guard” because of their use of the double-handed Danish axe. The rhomphaia, a visually distinctive edged weapon, was carried by guardsmen in close attendance on the emperor. It was carried on the shoulder, but the primary sources are inconsistent as to whether it was single- or double-edged. Heavy cavalry made use of maces. Byzantine maces were given a variety of names including: mantzoukion, apelatikion and siderorabdion, suggesting that the weapons themselves were of varied construction.
Missile weapons included a javelin, riptarion, used by light infantry, and powerful composite bows used by both infantry and cavalry. The earlier Byzantine bow was of Hunnic origin, but by the Komnenian period bows of Turkish form were in widespread use. Such bows could be used to fire short bolts (myai, "flies") with the use of an ‘arrow guide’ called the sōlēnarion. Slings and staff-slings are also mentioned on occasion.
Shields
Shields, skoutaria, were usually of the long “kite” shape, though round shields are still shown in pictorial sources. Whatever their overall shape, all shields were strongly convex. A large pavise-like infantry shield may also have been used.
Body armour
The Byzantines made great use of ‘soft armour’ of quilted, padded textile construction identical to the “jack” or aketon found later in the Latin West. Such a garment, called the kavadion, usually reaching to just above the knees with elbow or full-length sleeves, was often the sole body protection for lighter troops, both infantry and cavalry. Alternatively the kavadion could provide the base garment (like an arming doublet) worn under metallic armour by more heavily protected troops. Another form of padded armour, the epilōrikion, could be worn over a metal cuirass.
The repertoire of metal body armour included mail (lōrikion alysidōton), scale (lōrikion folidōton) and lamellar (klivanion). Both mail and scale armours were similar to equivalent armours found in Western Europe, a pull-on “shirt” reaching to the mid-thigh or knee with elbow length sleeves. The lamellar klivanion was a rather different type of garment. Byzantine lamellar, from pictorial evidence, possessed some unique features. It was made up of round-topped metal lamellae riveted, edge to edge, to horizontal leather backing bands; these bands were then laced together, overlapping vertically, by laces passing through holes in the lamellae. Modern reconstructions have shown this armour to be remarkably resistant to piercing and cutting weapons. Because of the expense of its manufacture, in particular the lamellae surrounding the arm and neck apertures had to be individually shaped, this form of armour was probably largely confined to heavy cavalry and elite units.
Because lamellar armour was inherently less flexible than other types of protection the klivanion was restricted to a cuirass covering the torso only. It did not have integral sleeves and reached only to the hips; it covered much the same body area as a bronze ‘muscle cuirass’ of antiquity. The klivanion was usually worn with other armour elements which extended the area of the body given protection. The klivanion could be worn over a mail shirt, as shown on some contemporary icons depicting military saints. More commonly the klivanion is depicted being worn with tubular upper arm defences of a splinted construction often with small pauldrons or ‘cops’ to protect the shoulders. In illustrated manuscripts, such as the Madrid Skylitzes, these defences are shown decorated with gold leaf in an identical manner to the klivanion thus indicating that they are also constructed of metal. Less often depicted are rerebraces made of “inverted lamellar."
A garment often shown worn with the klivanion was the kremasmata. This was a skirt, perhaps quilted or of pleated fabric, usually reinforced with metal splints similar to those found in the arm defences. Although the splinted construction is that most often shown in pictorial sources, there are indications that the kremasmata could also be constructed of mail, scale or inverted lamellar over a textile base. This garment protected the hips and thighs of the wearer.
Defences for the forearm are mentioned in earlier treatises, under the name cheiropsella or manikellia, but are not very evident in pictorial representations of the Komnenian period. Most images show knee-high boots (krepides, hypodemata) as the only form of defence for the lower leg though a few images of military saints show tubular greaves (with no detailing indicative of a composite construction). These would presumably be termed podopsella or chalkotouba. Greaves of a splint construction also occur, very sporadically, in illustrated manuscripts and church murals. A single illustration, in the Psalter of Theodore of Caesarea dating to 1066, shows mail chausses being worn (with boots) by a Byzantine soldier.
Helmets
Icons of soldier-saints, often showing very detailed illustrations of body armour, usually depict their subjects bare-headed for devotional reasons and therefore give no information on helmets and other head protection. Illustrations in manuscripts tend to be relatively small and give a limited amount of detail. However, some description of the helmets in use by the Byzantines can be given. The so-called ‘Caucasian’ type of helmet in use in the Pontic Steppe area and the Slavic areas of Eastern Europe is also indicated in Byzantium. This was a tall, pointed spangenhelm where the segments of the composite skull were riveted directly to one another and not to a frame. Illustrations also indicate conical helmets, and the related type with a forward deflected apex (the Phrygian cap style), of a single-piece skull construction, often with an added brow-band. Helmets with a more rounded shape are also illustrated, being of a composite construction and perhaps derived from the earlier 'ridge helmet' dating back to Late Roman times.
Few archaeological specimens of helmets attributable to Byzantine manufacture have been discovered to date, though it is probable that some of the helmets found in pagan graves in the Ukrainian steppe are of ultimately Byzantine origin. A rare find of a helmet in Yasenovo in Bulgaria, dating to the 10th century, may represent an example of a distinctively Byzantine style. This rounded helmet is horizontally divided: with a brow-band constructed for the attachment of a face-covering camail, above this is a deep lower skull section surmounted by an upper skull-piece raised from a single plate. The upper part of the helmet has a riveted iron crosspiece reinforcement. A high-quality Byzantine helmet, decorated in gilt brass inlay, was found in Vatra Moldovitei in Rumania. This helmet, dating to the late 12th century, is similar to the Yasenovo helmet in having a deep lower skull section with a separate upper skull. However, this helmet is considerably taller and of a conical 'pear shape', indeed it bears some similarity in outline to the later bascinet helmets of Western Europe. The helmet has a decorative finial, and a riveted brow-reinforce (possibly originally the base-plate of a nasal). A second helmet found in the same place is very like the Russian helmet illustrated here, having an almost identical combined brow-piece and nasal, this helmet has a single-piece conical skull, which is fluted vertically, and has overall gilding. It has been characterised as a Russo-Byzantine helmet, indicative of the close cultural connection between Kievan Russia and Byzantium. A remarkably tall Byzantine helmet, of the elegant 'Phrygian cap' shape and dating to the late 12th century, was found at Pernik in Bulgaria. It has a single-piece skull with a separate brow-band and had a nasal (now missing) which was riveted to the skull.
In the course of the 12th century the brimmed ‘chapel de fer’ helmet begins to be depicted and is, perhaps, a Byzantine development.
Most Byzantine helmets are shown being worn with armour for the neck. Somewhat less frequently the defences also cover the throat and there are indications that full facial protection was occasionally afforded. The most often illustrated example of such armour is a sectioned skirt depending from the back and sides of the helmet; this may have been of quilted construction, leather strips or of metal splint reinforced fabric. Other depictions of helmets, especially the ‘Caucasian’ type, are shown with a mail aventail or camail attached to the brow-band (which is confirmed by actual examples from the Balkans, Romania, Russia and elsewhere).
Face protection is mentioned at least three times in the literature of the Komnenian period, and probably indicates face-covering mail, leaving only the eyes visible. This would accord with accounts of such protection in earlier military writings, which describe double-layered mail covering the face, and later illustrations. Such a complete camail could be raised off the face by hooking up the mail to studs on the brow of the helmet. However, the remains of metal ‘face-mask’ anthropomorphic visors were discovered at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople in association with a coin of Manuel I Komnenos. Such masks were found on some ancient Roman helmets and on contemporary helmets found in grave sites associated with Kipchak Turks from the Pontic Steppe. The existence of these masks could indicate that the references to face-protection in Byzantine literature describe the use of this type of solid visor.
Horse armour
There are no Byzantine pictorial sources depicting horse armour dating from the Komnenian period. The only description of horse armour in the Byzantine writing of this time is by Choniates and is a description of the front ranks of the cavalry of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Sirmium. However, earlier military treatises, such as that of Nikephoros Ouranos, mention horse armour being used and a later, 14th century, Byzantine book illustration shows horse armour. It is therefore very likely that horse armour continued to be used by the Byzantines through the Komnenian era; though its use was probably limited to the very wealthiest of the provincial kataphraktoi, aristocrats serving in the army, members of some guards units and the imperial household. The construction of horse armour was probably somewhat varied; including bardings composed of metal or rawhide lamellae, or soft armour of quilted or felted textile. The historian John Birkenmeier has stated: "The Byzantines, like their Hungarian opponents, relied on mailed lancers astride armored horses for their first charge."
Equipment: Artillery
The Komnenian army had a formidable artillery arm which was particularly feared by its eastern enemies. Stone-firing and bolt-firing machines were used both for attacking enemy fortresses and fortified cities and for the defence of their Byzantine equivalents. In contemporary accounts the most conspicuous engines of war were stone-throwing trebuchets, often termed helepolis (city-takers); both the man-powered and the more powerful and accurate counterweight trebuchets were known to the Byzantines. The development of the trebuchet, the largest of which could batter down contemporary defensive walls, was attributed to the Byzantines by some western writers. Additionally, the Byzantines also used long range, anti-personnel, bolt firing machines such as the 'great crossbow,' which was often mounted on a mobile chassis, and the 'skein-bow' or 'espringal' which was a torsion device using twisted skeins of silk or sinew to power two bow-arms. The artillerists of the Byzantine army were accorded high status, being described as "illustrious men." The emperor John II and the generals Stephanos and Andronikos Kontostephanos, both leading commanders with the rank of megas doux, are recorded personally operating siege engines.
Troop types
The Byzantine Empire was a highly developed society with a long military history and could recruit soldiers from various peoples, both within and beyond its borders; as a result of these factors a wide variety of troop types were to be found in its army.
Infantry
With the notable exception of the Varangians, the Byzantine infantry of the Komnenian period are poorly described in the sources. The emperors and aristocracy, who form the primary subjects of contemporary historians, were associated with the high-status heavy cavalry and as a result the infantry received little mention.
Varangians
The Varangian Guard were the elite of the infantry. In the field they operated as heavy infantry, well armoured and protected by long shields, armed with spears and their distinctive two-handed Danish axes. Unlike other Byzantine heavy infantry their battlefield employment appears to have been essentially offensive in character. In both of the battles in which they are recorded as playing a prominent role they are described as making aggressive attacks. At Dyrrhachion they defeated a Norman cavalry charge but then their counterattack was pushed too far and, finding themselves unsupported, they were broken. At Beroia the Varangians were more successful, with John II commanding them personally, they assaulted the Pecheneg wagon fort and cut their way into it, achieving a very complete victory. It is likely, given their elite status and their constant attendance on the emperor, that the Varangians were mounted on the march though they usually fought on foot. It has been estimated that throughout Alexios I's reign, some 4,000–5,000 Varangians in total joined the Byzantine army. Before he set out to relieve Dyrrhachion in 1081, the emperor left 300 Varangians to guard Constantinople. After the defeat, Alexios left 500 Varangians to garrison Kastoria in an unsuccessful attempt to halt the Norman advance. At Dyrrhachion there were 1,400 Varangians while at Beroia, only 480–540 were present. This suggests that emperors usually only brought around 500 Varangians for personal protection on campaigns, unless they needed a particularly strong force of infantry. A garrison of Varangians was also stationed in the city of Paphos in Cyprus during the Komnenian period, until the island's conquest by King Richard I.
Native heavy infantry
Heavy infantry are almost invisible in the contemporary sources. In the Macedonian period a heavy infantryman was described as a skoutatos (shieldbearer) or hoplites. These terms are not mentioned in 12th-century sources; Choniates used the terms kontophoros and lonchephoros (spearbearer/spearman). Choniates' usage was, however, literary and may not accurately represent contemporary technical terminology. Byzantine heavy infantry were armed with a long spear (kontos or kontarion) but it is possible that a minority may have been armed with the menavlion polearm. They carried large shields, and were given as much armour as was available. Those in the front rank, at least, might be expected to have metal armour, perhaps even a klivanion. The role of such infantrymen, drawn up in serried ranks, was largely defensive. They constituted a bulwark which could resist enemy heavy cavalry charges, and formed a movable battlefield base from which the cavalry and other more mobile troops could mount attacks, and behind which they could rally.
Peltasts
The type of infantryman called a peltast (peltastēs) is far more heavily referenced in contemporary sources than the “spearman”. Although the peltasts of Antiquity were light skirmish infantry armed with javelins, it would be unsafe to assume that the troops given this name in the Komnenian period were identical in function; indeed, Byzantine peltasts were sometimes described as “assault troops”. Komnenian peltasts appear to have been relatively lightly equipped soldiers capable of great battlefield mobility, who could skirmish but who were equally capable of close combat. Their arms may have included a shorter version of the kontarion spear than that employed by the heavy infantry. At Dyrrachion, for example, a large force of peltasts achieved the feat of driving off Norman cavalry. Peltasts were sometimes employed in a mutually supportive association with heavy cavalry.
Light infantry
The true skirmish infantry, usually entirely unarmoured, of the Byzantine army were the psiloi. This term included foot archers, javelineers and slingers, though archers were sometimes differentiated from the others in descriptions. The psiloi were clearly regarded as being quite separate from the peltasts. Such troops usually carried a small buckler for protection and would have had an auxiliary weapon, a sword or light axe, for use in a close combat situation. These missile troops could be deployed in open battle behind the protective ranks of the heavy infantry, or thrown forward to skirmish. The light troops were especially effective when deployed in ambush, as at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir in 1177.
Cavalry
The earlier Byzantine heavy cavalryman, who combined the use of a bow with a lance for close combat, seems to have disappeared before the Komnenian age. The typical heavy cavalryman of the Komnenian army was a dedicated lancer, though armoured horse-archers continued to be employed.
Heavy cavalry
The heavy cavalry were the social and military elite of the whole army and were considered to be the pre-eminent battle winners. The charge of the lancers, and the subsequent melee, was often the decisive event in battle. The lance-armed heavy cavalry of the Komnenian army were of two origins, firstly ‘Latin knights', and secondly native kataphraktoi.
Latin knights
Latin heavy cavalry was recruited from the warriors and knights of Italy, France, The Low Countries, Germany and the Crusader States. The Byzantines considered the French to be more formidable mounted warriors than the Germans. Some Latin cavalrymen formed part of the regular soldiery of the empire and were supported by pay from the imperial treasury, or by pronoia grants, and were organised into formal regiments. Regular Latin 'knightly' heavy cavalry were part of the guard, with individual Latins or those of Western descent to be found in the imperial household, others were grouped into a formation later known as the latinikon. Alternatively, bands of mercenary knights were often hired for the duration of a particular campaign. The charge of the western knight was held in considerable awe by the Byzantines; Anna Komnene stated that "A mounted Kelt [an archaism for a Norman or Frank] is irresistible; he would bore his way through the walls of Babylon." The Latins’ equipment and tactics were identical to those of their regions of origin; though the appearance and equipment of such troops must have become progressively more Byzantine the longer they were in the emperor's employ. Some Latin soldiers, for example the Norman Roger son of Dagobert, became thoroughly integrated into Byzantine society. The descendants of such men, including the general Alexios Petraliphas and the naval commander Constantine Frangopoulos (“son-of-a-Frank”), often remained in military employ. The son of the Norman knight Roger son of Dagobert, John Rogerios Dalassenos, married a daughter of John II, was made caesar and even made an unsuccessful bid for the imperial throne.
Kataphraktoi
The native kataphraktoi were to be found in the imperial oikos, some imperial guards units and the personal guards of generals, but the largest numbers were found within the provincial tagmata. The level of military effectiveness, especially the quality of the armour and mount, of the individual provincial kataphraktos probably varied considerably, as both John II and Manuel I are recorded as employing formations of “picked lancers” who were taken from their parent units and combined. This approach may have been adopted in order to re-create the concentration of very effective heavy cavalry represented by the Imperial Tagmata of former times. The kataphraktoi were the most heavily armoured type of Byzantine soldier and a wealthy kataphraktos could be very well armoured indeed. The Alexiad relates that when the emperor Alexios was simultaneously thrust at from both flanks by lance-wielding Norman knights, his armour was so effective that he suffered no serious injury.
In the reign of Alexios I, the Byzantine kataphraktoi proved to be unable to withstand the charge of Norman knights, and Alexios, in his later campaigns, was forced to use stratagems which were aimed at avoiding the exposure of his heavy cavalry to such a charge. Contemporary Byzantine armour was probably more effective than that of Western Europe therefore reasons other than a deficit in armour protection must be sought for the poor performance of the Byzantine cavalry. It is probable that the Byzantine heavy cavalry traditionally made charges at relatively slow speed, certainly the deep wedge formations described in Nikephoros II Phokas’ day would have been impossible to deploy at anything faster than a round trot. In the course of the late 11th century the Normans, and other Westerners, evolved a disciplined charge at high speed which developed great impetus, and it is this which outclassed the Byzantines. The role of the couched lance technique, and the connected development of the high-cantled war saddle, in this process is obscure but may have had considerable influence.
There is evidence of a relative lack of quality warhorses in the Byzantine cavalry. The Byzantines may have suffered considerable disruption to access to Cappadocia and Northern Syria, traditional sources of good quality cavalry mounts, in the wake of the fall of Anatolia to the Turks. However, by the reign of Manuel I the Byzantine kataphraktos was the equal of his Western counterpart. Although Manuel was credited by the historian Kinnamos with introducing Latin 'knightly' equipment and techniques to his native cavalry, it is likely that the process was far more gradual and began in the reign of Alexios. Manuel's enthusiastic adoption of the western pastime of jousting probably had beneficial effects on the proficiency of his heavy cavalry. The kataphraktos was famed for his use of a fearsome iron mace in melee combat.
Koursores
A category of cavalryman termed a koursōr (pl. koursores) is documented in Byzantine military literature from the sixth century onwards. The term is a transliteration of the Latin cursor with the meaning 'raider' (from cursus: course, line of advance, raid, running, speed, zeal - in Medieval Latin a term for a raider or brigand was cursarius, which was the origin of 'corsair'). According to one theory, it is posited as the etymological root of the term hussar, used for a later cavalry type. The koursōr had a defined tactical role but may or may not have been an officially defined cavalry type. Koursores were mobile close-combat cavalry and may be considered as being drawn from the more lightly equipped kataphraktoi. The koursores were primarily intended to engage enemy cavalry and were usually placed on the flanks of the main battle line. Those on the left wing, termed defensores, were placed to defend that flank from enemy cavalry attack, whilst the cavalry placed on the right wing, termed prokoursatores, were intended to attack the enemy's flank. Cavalry on detached duty, such as scouting or screening the main army, were also called prokoursatores. It is thought that this type of cavalry were armed identically to the heavy kataphraktoi but were armoured more lightly, and were mounted on lighter, swifter horses. Being relatively lightly equipped they were more suited to the pursuit of fleeing enemies than the heavyweight kataphraktoi.<ref>Dawson, Timothy: Byzantine Cavalryman, Oxford (2009), pp. 34–36, 53, 54</ref> In the Komnenian period, the more heavily equipped of the kataphraktoi were often segregated to create formations of "picked lancers," presumably the remainder, being more lightly equipped, provided the koursores. A type of cavalry, differentiated from both horse archers and those with the heaviest armour, is referred to by Kinnamos in 1147 as forming a sub-section of a Byzantine army array; they are described as "those who rode swift horses," indicating that they were koursores, though the term itself is not employed.
Light cavalry
The light cavalry of the Komnenian army consisted of horse-archers. There were two distinct forms of horse-archer: the lightly equipped skirmisher and the heavier, often armoured, bow-armed cavalryman who shot from disciplined ranks. The native Byzantine horse-archer was of the latter type. They shot arrows by command from, often static, ranks and offered a mobile concentration of missile fire on the battlefield. The native horse-archer had declined in numbers and importance by the Komnenian period, being largely replaced by soldiers of foreign origins. However, in 1191 Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus is recorded firing arrows at Richard I of England from horseback during the latter's conquest of Cyprus. This suggests that mounted archery remained a martial skill practised within the upper reaches of Byzantine aristocracy.
Turks from the Seljuk and Danishmend realms of central and eastern Anatolia, and those Byzantinised Turks and Magyars settled within the Empire, such as the Vardariots, supplied the bulk of the heavy horse-archers of the Komnenian army. Towards the end of the period Alans were also supplying this type of cavalry. Such horse archers were often highly disciplined. The Byzantine horse-archers (termed doryphoroi – indicating guard status) at Sozopolis in 1120 performed a feigned flight manoeuvre, always demanding the greatest self-confidence and discipline, which led to the taking of the city from the Turks. Given that they were usually armoured, even if it was comparatively light armour, this type of horse-archer also had the capability to fight with melee weapons in close combat.
Skirmish horse-archers, usually unarmoured, were supplied by the Turkic Pechenegs, Cumans and Uzes of the steppes. These troops were ideal scouts and were adept at harassment tactics. They usually attacked as a swarm and were very difficult for a more heavily equipped enemy to bring into close combat. Light horse-archers were also effective as a screening force, preventing an enemy discerning the dispositions of other troops (for example at the Battle of Sirmium).
Development
Alexios I inherited an army which had been painstakingly reconstituted through the administrative efforts of the able eunuch Nikephoritzes. This army, though small due to the loss of territory and revenue, was in its nature similar to that of earlier Byzantine armies back as far as Nikephoros Phokas and beyond; indeed some units could trace their history back to the Late Roman army. This rather traditional Byzantine army was destroyed by the Italo-Normans at Dyrrachion in 1081. In the aftermath of this disaster Alexios laid the foundations of a new military structure. He raised troops entirely by ad hoc means: raising the regiment of the archontopouloi from the sons of dead soldiers and even pressing heretic Paulicians from Philippopolis into the ranks. The only Anatolian troops that are mentioned as part of the army of Alexios are the Chomatenes. Most important is the prominent place in this new army of Alexios' extended family and their many connections, each aristocrat bringing to the field his armed retinue and retainers. Before campaigning against the Pechenegs in 1090 he is recorded as summoning "his kinsmen by birth or marriage and all the nobles enrolled in the army." From pure necessity an army based on a model derived ultimately from Classical Antiquity was transformed, like the empire as a whole, into a type of family business. At this point the army could be characterised as being a feudal host with a substantial mercenary element.
Later in his reign, when the empire had recovered territory and its economic condition had improved, the increased monetary revenue available allowed Alexios to impose a greater regularity on the army, with a higher proportion of troops raised directly by the state; however, the extended imperial family continued to play a very prominent role. Alexios, it is recorded, personally educated an elite corps of young, aspiring commanders. The best of them were then given commands in the army. In this manner Alexios improved both the quality of his field officers and the level of loyalty they had to him. This was the army that his successors inherited and further modified.
Under John II, a Macedonian division was is described, and new native Byzantine troops were recruited from the provinces. As Byzantine Anatolia began to prosper under John and Manuel, more soldiers were raised from the Asiatic provinces of Thrakesion, Mylasa and Melanoudion, Paphlagonia and even Seleucia (in the south-east). Soldiers were also drawn from defeated peoples, who were forcibly recruited into the army; examples include the Pechenegs (horse archers) and Serbs, who were transplanted as military settlers to the regions around Moglena and Nicomedia respectively. Native troops were organised into regular units and stationed in both the Asian and European provinces. Later Komnenian armies were also often reinforced by allied contingents from Antioch, Serbia and Hungary, yet even so they generally consisted of about two-thirds Byzantine troops to one-third foreigners. Units of archers, infantry and cavalry were grouped together so as to provide combined arms support to each other. Field armies were divided into a vanguard, main body and rearguard. The vanguard and rearguard could operate independently of the main body, where the emperor would be. This suggests that subordinate commanders were able to take tactical initiatives, and that the officer class was well trained and trusted by the emperor. John fought fewer pitched battles than either his father or son. His military strategy revolved around sieges and the taking and holding of fortified settlements, in order to construct defensible frontiers. John personally conducted approximately twenty five sieges during his reign.
The emperor Manuel I was heavily influenced by Westerners (both of his empresses were Franks) and at the beginning of his reign he is reported to have re-equipped and retrained his native Byzantine heavy cavalry along Western lines. It is inferred that Manuel introduced the couched lance technique, the close order charge at speed and increased the use of heavier armour. Manuel personally took part in knightly tournaments in the Western fashion; his considerable prowess impressed Western observers. Manuel organised his army in the Myriokephalon campaign as a number of 'divisions' each of which could act as small independent army. It has been argued that it was this organisation which allowed the greater part of his army to survive the ambush inflicted on it by the Seljuk Turks. Indeed, it was a stock of Byzantine writing to contrast the order of the Byzantine battle array with the disorder of barbarian military dispositions. Manuel is credited with greatly expanding the pronoia system. In the reign of Alexios I pronoia grants were limited to members of the imperial family and their close connections; Manuel extended the system to include men of considerably more lowly social origins and foreigners. Both classes of new pronoiar infuriated the historian Choniates, who characterised them as: tailors, bricklayers and "semi-barbarian runts".
Permanent military camps were established in the Balkans and in Anatolia, they are first mentioned during the reign of Alexios I (Kypsella and Lopadion), but as Lopadion is recorded as being newly fortified in the reign of John II it is the latter who seems to have fully realised the advantages of this type of permanent camp. The main Anatolian camp was at Lopadion on the Rhyndakos River near the Sea of Marmara, the European equivalent was at Kypsella in Thrace, others were at Sofia (Serdica) and at Pelagonia, west of Thessalonica. Manuel I rebuilt Dorylaion on the Anatolian plateau to serve the same function for his Myriokephalon campaign of 1175–76. These great military camps seem to have been an innovation of the Komnenian emperors, possibly as a more highly developed form of the earlier aplekta (military stations established along major communication routes), and may have played an important role in the improvement in the effectiveness of the Byzantine forces seen in the period. The camps were used for the training of troops and for the preparation of armies for the rigours of campaign; they also functioned as supply depots, transit stations for the movement of troops and concentration points for field armies. It has also been suggested that the regions around these military bases were the most likely areas for pronoia grants to be located.
Legacy
The Komnenian Byzantine army was a resilient and effective force but it was over-reliant on the leadership of an able emperor. After the death of Manuel I in 1180 able leadership was wanting. First there was Alexios II, a child-emperor with a divided regency, then a tyrant, Andronikos I, who attempted to break the power of the aristocracy who provided the leadership of the army, and finally the incompetents of the Angeloi dynasty. Weak leadership allowed the Komnenian system of rule through the extended imperial family to break down. The regionally based interests of the powerful aristocracy were increasingly expressed in armed rebellion and secession; mutual distrust between the aristocracy and the bureaucrats of the capital was endemic and both these factors led to a disrupted and fatally weakened Empire.Birkemmeier, p. 235
When Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Byzantine successor states established at Epirus, Trebizond and especially Nicaea based their military systems on the Komnenian army. The success of the Empire of Nicaea in particular in reconquering former Byzantine territories (including Constantinople) after 1204, may be seen as evidence of the strengths of the Komnenian army model. Though there is some reason to restrict the term Komnenian army solely to the period of the rule of the Komnenian emperors, the real break with this system came after the recovery of Constantinople in 1261, when the Byzantine army became sufficiently distinct from its earlier form to deserve a separate identity as the Palaiologan army. The Byzantine Empire enjoyed an economic and cultural renaissance during the 12th century and the Komnenian army played a crucial part in providing the political and territorial stability which allowed this cultural flowering.
Timeline
1081 – Alexios I led an army of 20–25,000 men to attack the invading Normans, but was heavily defeated at the Battle of Dyrrhachion.Birkenmeier, p. 62
1083 – Leading his rebuilt army of 15,000 men (including 7,000 Seljuk Turks), the emperor decisively defeated the Norman army at the Battle of Larissa.
1091 – A massive invasion by the Pechenegs was defeated at the Battle of Levounion by an army of Byzantines with the assistance of 5,000 Vlach mercenaries, 500 Flemish knights, and supposedly 40,000 Cumans.
1092–1097 – John Doukas, the megas doux, led campaigns on both land and sea and was responsible for the re-establishment of firm Byzantine control over the Aegean, the islands of Crete and Cyprus and the western parts of Anatolia.
1107–1108 - The Italo-Normans under Bohemond invaded the western Balkans. Alexios' response was cautious, he relied on defending mountain passes in order to keep the Norman army pent up on the Albanian coast, where they were besieging Dyrrhachion. Using delaying tactics and not offering battle, while his navy cut all communications with Italy, Alexios starved and harassed the Normans into capitulation. Bohemond was forced to become a vassal of the emperor for his principality of Antioch, but was unable or unwilling to put this agreement into effect.
1116 - the Battle of Philomelion consisted of series of clashes over a number of days between a Byzantine expeditionary army under Alexios I and the forces of the Sultanate of Rûm under Sultan Malik Shah; the Byzantine victory ensured a peace treaty advantageous to the Empire.
1119 - The Seljuks had pushed into the southwest of Anatolia cutting the land route to the Byzantine city of Attalia and the region of Cilicia. John II responded with a campaign which recaptured Laodicea and Sozopolis, restoring Byzantine control of the region and communications with Attalia.
1122 – At the Battle of Beroia, realizing the Imperial army was making little headway, John II personally led 500 Varangians forward to smash through the Pecheneg defensive wagon fort. As an independent people the Pechenegs disappear from historical records following this defeat.
1128 - An army led by John II inflicted a significant defeat on the Hungarians at the Battle of Haram on the River Danube.
1135 – After successfully capturing Kastamon, John II marched on to Gangra which capitulated and was garrisoned with 2,000 men.
1137-1138 - John II recovered control of Cilicia, enforced the vassalage of the crusader Principality of Antioch and campaigned against the Muslims of Northern Syria. The city of Shaizar was besieged and bombarded with 18 large mangonels (traction trebuchets).
1140 - John II besieged but failed to take the city of Neocaesarea. The Byzantines were defeated by the conditions rather than by the Turks: the weather was very bad, large numbers of the army's horses died, and provisions became scarce.
1147 - At the Battle of Constantinople a Byzantine army defeated part of the crusading army of Conrad III of Germany outside the walls of the city. Conrad was forced to come to terms and have his army rapidly shipped across the Bosphoros to Anatolia.
1148 - Before setting out to recapture Corfu, Manuel I diverted his army to the Danube after learning of a Cuman raid. Leaving the bulk of the army south of the river, the emperor personally crossed the Danube with 500 cavalry and defeated the Cuman raiding party.
1149 – Manuel I commanded 20–30,000 men at the siege of Corfu supported by a fleet of 50 galleys along with numerous small pirate galleys, horse transports, merchantmen, and light pirate skiffs.
1155–56 – The generals Michael Palaiologos and John Doukas were sent with 10 ships to invade Apulia. A number of towns, including Bari, and most of coastal Apulia were captured, however, the expedition ultimately failed, despite the reinforcements sent by the emperor because the Byzantine fleet of 14 ships was vastly outnumbered by the Norman fleet. The Byzantine army never numbered more than a few thousand and consisted of Cuman, Alan, and Georgian mercenaries.Haldon (1999), p. 126
1158 – At the head of a large army, Manuel I marched against Thoros II of Armenia. The emperor left the main body of the army at Attaleia while he led 500 cavalry to Seleukeia and from there entered the Cilician plain as part of a surprise attack.
1165 – The Kingdom of Hungary was invaded by a Byzantine army and the city of Zeugminon was placed under siege. The commanding general, and future emperor, Andronikos I Komnenos personally adjusted the 4 helepoleis (counterweight trebuchets) that were used to bombard the city.
1166 – Two Byzantine armies were dispatched in a vast pincer movement to ravage the Hungarian province of Transylvania. One army crossed the Walachian Plain and entered Hungary through the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), whilst the other army made a wide circuit to the south-western Russian principality of Galicia and, with Galician aid, crossed the Carpathian Mountains.
1167 – With an army of 15,000 men, general Andronikos Kontostephanos scored a decisive victory over the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium.
1169 – A Byzantine fleet of about 150 galleys, 10-12 large transports and 60 horse transports under megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos was sent to invade Egypt. The combined Byzantine-Crusader army successfully captured the cities of Tounion and Tinnis before besieging Damietta. The Byzantine army launched several assaults and were about to capture the city when King Amalric made peace and withdrew. The Byzantine fleet withdrew after a siege of over 50 days and sailed away in some haste, leaving only 6 triremes for Kontostephanos. With an escort, the general decided to march via Jerusalem back to Constantinople.
1175 – The Emperor dispatched Alexius Petraliphas with 6,000 men to capture Gangra and Ancyra, however the expedition failed due to heavy resistance from the Turks.
1176 – In his last attempt to capture Iconium, Manuel I led a large army of 25–40,000 men which was supported by 3,000 wagons carrying supplies and siege engines.Haldon (2000), p. 1980. The campaign ultimately ended in failure after suffering defeat at the Battle of Myriokephalon.
1177 – Andronikos Kontostephanos led a fleet of 150 ships in another attempt to conquer Egypt, the force returned home after landing at Acre. The refusal of Count Philip of Flanders to co-operate with the Byzantine force led to the abandonment of the campaign. A large raiding force of Seljuk Turks was destroyed by a Byzantine army commanded by John Komnenos Vatatzes in an ambush in Western Anatolia (Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir).
1185 - Following the sack of the city of Thessalonica by the Siculo-Normans of the Kingdom of Sicily, the Norman army was routed at the Battle of Demetritzes by a Byzantine army led by Alexios Branas. Thessalonica was re-occupied by the Byzantines soon after the battle.
1187 – After a successful campaign against the Bulgarians and Vlachs, General Alexios Branas rebelled. Conrad of Montferrat assembled 250 knights and 500 infantry from the Latin population of Constantinople to join Emperor Isaac II Angelos's army of 1,000 men. Together they defeated and killed the rebel commander outside the city walls. Later in the year, the Emperor returned to Bulgaria with 2,000 men (possibly cavalry) to quell the rebellion.
1189 – On the orders of Emperor Isaac II, the protostrator Manuel Kamytzes (with 2,000 cavalry) attempted to ambush part of Frederick Barbarossa's army near Philippopolis but was defeated.
1198–1203 – Successive revolts by semi-autonomous magnates and provincial governors. Those of Dobromir Chrysos, Ivanko and John Sypridonakes in Macedonia and Thrace are suppressed, those of Leo Chamaretos and Leo Sgouros in Greece succeed in establishing their authority.
1204 – When the Fourth Crusade reached Constantinople, the city was defended by a garrison of 10,000 men including the Imperial Guard of 5,000 Varangians.
Notes
Bibliography
Primary sources
Choniates, Niketas (1984) O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates, trans. by H. Magoulias, Wayne State University Press, Detroit
Kinammos, Ioannes (John Cinnamus) (1976), Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, trans. Charles M. Brand. Columbia University Press, New York
Komnene (Comnena) Anna (1969) The Alexiad of Anna Comnena, trans. by Edgar Robert Ashton Sewter. Penguin Classics, London
Secondary sources
Bartusis, Mark C. (1997). The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. .
Brand, Charles M. (1989) The Turkish Element in Byzantium, Eleventh-Twelfth Centuries, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Cambridge MA, Vol. 43, pp. 1–25.
D'Amato, Raffaele (2010) The Varangian Guard 988-1453, Osprey, Oxford
Grotowski, Piotr (2010) Arms and Armour of the Warrior Saints: Tradition and Innovation in Byzantine Iconography (843–1261), Brill, Leiden
Mitchell, Russell (2008) Light Cavalry, Heavy Cavalry, Horse Archers, Oh My! What Abstract Definitions Don’t Tell Us About 1205 Adrianople, in: Journal of Medieval Military History, Volume VI: Rogers, Clifford J., DeVries, Kelly and France, John (ed.s), Boydell & Brewer, Boydell Press, Woodbridge ISSN 1477-545X
Nishimura, David (1988) Crossbows, Arrow–guides, and the "Solenarion", Byzantion, Vol. 58, No. 2 (1988), pp. 422–435, Peeters Publishers, Leuven
Ostrogorsky, G. (1971) Observations on the Aristocracy in Byzantium, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 25 (1971), pp. 1–32, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Cambridge MA
Ostrogorsky, G. (1980) History of the Byzantine State'', Basil Blackwell, Oxford,
External links
Reconstructions of Byzantine armour and weapons
Byzantine army
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Komnenos dynasty
Second Crusade
Byzantine–Seljuk wars
Military reforms
Fourth Crusade
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild%20Wars%20Nightfall
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Guild Wars Nightfall
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Guild Wars Nightfall is a fantasy action role-playing game and the third stand-alone campaign in the Guild Wars series developed by ArenaNet, a subsidiary of NCSOFT corporation. Nightfall was released worldwide on October 27, 2006, having been in development alongside Guild Wars Factions since November 2005.
Nightfall takes place in the continent of Elona in the Guild Wars universe. It follows the player's character as they join the Order of the Sunspears and uncover the desire of Warmarshal Varesh to return a long forgotten god to the world through an event called Nightfall. The players, assisted by their hero allies, fight through civil war, ignorant Vabbi princes and Varesh's demon allies as they attempt to prevent the coming of Nightfall.
Gameplay
Nightfall is a continuation of the Guild Wars franchise and so follows the same gameplay principles. Guild Wars in previous releases attempted a marriage of Player versus Environment (or "PvE") and Player versus Player (or "PvP") gameplay, starting out with PvP being the logical endgame for the Prophecies campaign, and PvP optionally interspersed throughout Factions play. Nightfall moves away from this as the storyline is more PvE focused than previous campaigns.
Professions
A player with Guild Wars Nightfall may create a character from one of the six core professions from Prophecies or one of the Nightfall-specific professions:
The Dervish, described as a "holy warrior", wields a scythe and uses many different enchantments to support themselves and damage their enemies. They have the ability to temporarily transform into the likeness, or "form", of the Five Gods. They have higher base HP than any other profession.
The Paragon wields a spear and acts as a battle commander. Heavily armored, they are a support character capable of helping teammates through the use of "shouts" and chants, which affect all nearby allies.
The Assassin and Ritualist can only be created through the Guild Wars Factions campaign. If a person owns both campaigns, Assassin and Ritualists can travel to participate in Guild Wars Nightfall; but they cannot be created in Guild Wars Nightfall.
Heroes
In previous campaigns players could use NPC Henchmen with predetermined sets of skills to assist them with their questing. New henchmen available through Nightfall and Guild Wars: Eye of the North are called Heroes. Heroes are customizable in that the player can select skills, armor upgrades and weapons for them. The player also has a degree of control over the actions of the heroes: the player can set map waypoints for them, controlling the type of AI they use and directing the skills they use. Heroes are unlocked through play and can be taken into PvE areas. A new PvP arena was available specifically for players to fight each other with their Heroes but has since been removed. Heroes can be acquired by all characters (Tyrian, Canthan, Elonan) and used in battle if the player has a Nightfall or Eye of the North account. Additionally, each other campaign has a hero available to add to Nightfall (an assassin for Factions, and a necromancer for Prophecies).
PvE gameplay
As with the other Guild Wars campaigns, the maximum level for all characters is twenty. Nightfall strikes a middle ground with the other Guild Wars campaigns with the amount of time spent leveling; faster than Prophecies, where much of the game is spent achieving level 20, but slower than Factions where level 20 is very quickly achieved.
New PvE-only skills have been introduced available by gaining ranks in titles. The "Sunspear Rebirth Signet" is available by reaching a certain rank in the Sunspear Rank track, and each profession has been given a special Sunspear skill that increases in power as the player's Sunspear Rank increases. "Lightbringer's Gaze" and "Lightbringer's Signet" are available upon reaching level 2 and level 3 in the Lightbringer track, respectively (these skills also power up as the player's Lightbringer Rank increases). Also, wearing the skill title "Lightbringer" increases damage done to certain creatures in the PvE environment. Gaining higher ranks in the Sunspear and Lightbringer titles also awards players with hero skill points, which can be used to unlock new skills for themselves and their heroes to use; while buying skills with regular skill points (earned by levelling up and completing missions) can still be used to gain new skills, this method only allows you to unlock skills from the player's chosen professions; using hero skill points allows you to unlock skills from any profession.
Further benefits of title tracks have also been integrated into the game since; for example, the player's ranks in the Lucky/Unlucky (gained by playing various in-game gambling activities) and Treasure Hunter (gained by attaining "rare" items from chests) title tracks aid the player's chances of lockpicks not breaking when opening chests and reducing the chances of an item being destroyed when salvaging upgrade components (such as runes, which increase attributes).
PvE has been expanded when compared to the previous chapters; some parts of the game draw parallels to single player RPGs such as Knights of the Old Republic or Baldur's Gate. For example, the player has to undertake a certain Nightfall mission alone, without the use of Heroes, henchmen, or other players. The mission requires very little combat and actually consists of a series of mini-games. Another example is a mini-mission that involves the player acting as a lawyer in a court case, where choosing the right line of argument will alter the outcome of the trial. The ability for the player to choose a course of action brings the game closer to its offline counterparts as opposed to the linear mission structure in other Action RPGs, as well as Guild Wars Prophecies and Factions.
The addition of Heroes has also made the game similar to single player RPGs, as most Heroes have their own side quests the player can complete if they choose. Depending on which Hero you bring on quests, they make different comments on the current situation, whether remarking about ease of enemies during battle or random comments while standing around. Heroes also allow more freedom when playing as a single player with only computer controlled party members since they can be given more commands than ordinary henchmen and their skills can be tailored to specific situations. The addition of commands and customization makes many challenges that would have required other human players without Heroes possible. The hero system has also led to many Guild Wars players highly recommending Nightfall as a good starter campaign for newcomers to the game, as it encourages more strategic thinking and also makes playing PvE more straightforward (as especially in the earlier stages of the game, heroes may be of a higher level than henchmen and offer a better degree of survivability). This advice is not always sound since Heroes need to be equipped (which can be very costly) and their skills need to be unlocked (except for their starter skills).
Mission structure has also changed somewhat. Like in Factions, bonus rewards are dependent on the performance during the mission, not just one side quest; however, the bonus could depend on something like killing certain creatures or preventing others from dying. For all but the last two missions, a certain hero must be in the party before the mission can begin. There are three pairs of missions where either one or the other must be completed before the plot progresses. Two of these pairs are selected depending on which hero was added to the party early on, while the third mission split offers a choice to the player. All the missions can be completed at the appropriate place in the plot, either depending on other players or by waiting until the plot has been completed (at which point players may gain all the heroes that they had previously chosen not to take).
PvP gameplay
Prior to the release of Nightfall, ArenaNet announced the PvP Editions of the campaigns they have released. This made Nightfall the first campaign where players could have access to the skills and PvP parts of the campaign without having to play or pay for the PvE parts of the game. A player interested in PvP gains access to the core PvP content, 300 new skills for the Nightfall campaign, new guild halls and a new type of Arena.
Nightfall introduced an all new type of PvP Arena called Hero Battles. In this Arena, a player chooses three of their heroes to join them in combat against another player and three of their heroes. Each player chose the skills each of their heroes use, and micromanage how they used those skills in the Arena. Players also used way point flags and micromanaged hero targeting to order heroes to capture/defend specific points or attack specific targets. These hero battles created a new international tournament for solo players; previously, the only formal tournament was in the form of Guild vs Guild matches, which requires teams of eight players. However, Hero Battles were removed from the game following controversy regarding a quest in which the player had to win Hero Battles to gain a reward; players were assigned either Red or Blue in the battle, and when this game became a part of a quest the "Red Resign rule" was implemented. This rule had the Red player resign from the battle, giving the Blue player an automatic win in order for the reward to be easily gained. ArenaNet observed this occurring and, after warning players they would be banned for fixing match results, removed the Arena from play.
Plot
The player's character is recruited as a junior officer in Elona's independent guardian force, the Order of the Sunspears - they are led by their Spearmarshal, Kormir. The player quickly earns respect and rank in the Sunspears dealing with unusual occurrences around Istan, where the headquarters of the Sunspears is located.
The strange deaths of a dig team excavating a long abandoned city, information about an event called Nightfall and its ties to the return of a forgotten fallen god, Abaddon, start to cause concern for the Sunspears. Evidence builds that a delegation from the nation of Kourna, which is conveniently visiting the Sunspears, are behind these unusual happenings. When the Kournan General, Kahyet, attempts to strike a deal with the corsairs harassing Istan, the Sunspears intervene. Kahyet is killed, plunging cautious relations with Kourna into strife. During a hearing with the elder council, Kormir - who had temporarily left in order to seek allies in Cantha and Tyria - returns, citing that similar occurrences have happened elsewhere.
Realizing the danger in the activities of Warmarshal Varesh Ossa (the current Kournan leader), Kormir convinces the Istan council to cease diplomatic talks and instead start civil war to prevent Varesh from bringing about Nightfall. Rallying the troops the Sunspears sail from Istan to Gandara, the largest fortress in Kourna and Varesh's seat of power, to confront Varesh and bring her to justice. Upon breaking through their heavy defenses, Varesh plays her trump card, summoning the demons of Abaddon which rout the Sunspear troops. Kormir is left for dead as the remaining Sunspears flee through Kourna province.
The character establishes a hidden base of operations in Kourna, rescuing Sunspear prisoners including the now-blind Kormir from the Kournan forces, freeing the region's local centaur tribe, and preventing one of Abaddon's demons from corrupting Kourna's water supply. However these are only stalling tactics as through Varesh's rites Nightfall continues to come closer. With the help of agents from a mysterious Elonian organization called the Order of Whispers, the Sunspears travel to Vabbi to convince the three Princes of the region that Varesh represents a threat to all of Elona. The task proves difficult, as they all believe her intruding forces will protect them from both the Sunspears and other natural threats to Vabbi.
They are ultimately convinced of Varesh's treachery as her forces destroy a nearby temple. Although the princes use the power of Djinn in conjunction with help from the Order of Whispers to protect their people, she has already summoned Abaddon's demons, the Margonites, to fight alongside her own military. The Sunspear's best efforts seem to simply stall the inevitable, as the signs of Abaddon's coming begin to appear throughout Elona. After a Chaos Rift appears and sucks Kormir into the Realm of Torment, a part of the Underworld where only the most wicked souls go, the Sunspears decide they must pursue Varesh into The Desolation to stop her from completing the rites to return Abaddon to the world.
To pursue Varesh to the northern part of The Desolation, where Abaddon's link to the world is the strongest, the players release the undead lord Palawa Joko, a tyrant who at one point waged war against Elona. He reveals to the Sunspears that the only way to traverse the sulfurous wastes is to tame the Junundu - giant desert wurms, one of the few creatures in Elona that can survive the toxic atmosphere. Unlikely an ally as he is, it is he who aids the Sunspears in crossing The Desolation.
The heroes eventually reach Varesh, who is just about to open a rift to the Realm of Torment, and kill her. Unfortunately, it is too late, as the boundaries between both worlds are weak enough to be breached. The only option is to head into the Realm of Torment itself, find Kormir and face the God of Secrets face-to-face. The players cut off the Margonite source of power, the River of Souls, and discover that Abaddon is seeking aid from Dhuum, the god of death before the current god Grenth overthrew him, and Menzies, half-brother to the god Balthazar. They also discover that two of Abaddon's main generals are none other than the Undead Lich and Shiro Tagachi, the primary antagonists from the previous campaigns.
Battling through Titans and Shiro'ken, the players reach the Temple of the Six Gods, a part of the world taken to the Realm of Torment when Abaddon was imprisoned by the five other gods. Before the heroes can ask for the help of the Gods to defeat Abaddon, they must defeat Abaddon's generals, Shiro and the Lich who defend the Temple. After defeating them, Kormir and the players request assistance. Avatars of the Gods appear to say they will not help but to take their blessing "already within the heart of each human". The Sunspears must face and defeat Abaddon alone.
In the final battle, Abaddon is breaking free from the bindings holding him to the Realm of Torment. The Sunspears renew his bindings long enough to inflict enough damage to defeat him. When defeated Abaddon's power grows out of control and his Realm of Torment threatens to merge with Elona causing Nightfall without him. Thinking quickly, Spearmarshal Kormir sacrifices herself by running into the mouth of Abaddon, hoping to control or stop his energies. Kormir is successful and takes the dying God of Secrets' power and is reborn as the Goddess of Truth. Kormir then sets about undoing the damage done to the world by her predecessor. The player may return to the Chantry of Secrets, base of operations for the Order of Whispers and enter the Domain of Anguish.
Release
Pre-release Bonus Pack is similar to the pre-order packs from the previous campaigns, and was available from September 15, 2006. It includes a game trial key, an additional character slot, weapons for the new professions and a CD containing bonus materials.
The Bonus Edition, only purchasable online, has a hard silver case with the title of the game on it. It contains the game, an access key, a manual, and an Exclusive Behind the Scenes DVD. It was only released in Canada.
The standard edition contains the full game, which was released October 27, 2006. It contains three game CDs, a book of game lore, a manual, and a miniature map of Elona. New players will get four character slots while players adding Nightfall to an existing account will get two additional character slots. In Europe, the standard edition was also released on a single DVD-ROM.
The Collector's Edition has the same content as the standard edition but is also known to include a behind-the-scenes DVD, unique Dervish and Paragon in-game emotes, a Varesh Ossa Minipet (Miniature NPC that follows the player), an art book, skill pins, a Varesh Ossa mini-standee, a map of Elona, a code to unlock extra in-game music and the Nightfall soundtrack CD. It also gives you a "Nightfall Buddy Key" to give to one of your friends. The Nightfall Buddy Key allows your friend to play Nightfall for 14 days or 10 hours (whichever ends first) without purchase.
The Edition/PvP Pack edition unlocks all of the skills and professions which come with Nightfall for use in PvP. It does not allow the player to access the Nightfall PvE content and the player must unlock weapon upgrades and Heroes. The PvP edition is only available for purchase online.
Reception
Guild Wars Nightfall was well received. While the reviews were favorable, it has been rated less favourably by reviewers when compared to other Guild Wars campaigns, Factions and the original, Prophecies. It received a score of 84.20% on GameRankings and 84/100 on Metacritic.
As the third game in the Guild Wars series, reviewers expected more from the game, for instance, GameSpot noted "the underlying game hasn't changed much and is starting to show signs of aging." Despite this, Guild Wars Nightfall was widely recommended as the best game in the series for new players to start in., and some extend this to say it is the strongest offering in the Guild Wars series.
Heroes were viewed by many as a significant gameplay modification introduced by Nightfall. Heroes were commended for allowing the player more flexibility and choice in the game, but were also felt to be a mixed blessing because, unlike henchmen, heroes require micro-management, and often take slots in the party which might normally be filled by human players. Many commented that it seemed that the game was now more solo player focused than previous installments, Eurogamer suggested heroes bring "Guild Wars closer to the party-based RPGs of old ... instead of the solo-but-with-people RPG that it had initially delivered."
There were few Nightfall specific complaints. Several critics noted that existing characters from previous campaigns had to grind for Sunspear points to advance the storyline. This grinding for non-Elonian characters has since been removed. Others noted that for Elona-made characters the story starts slowly, only really starting once the point where existing characters may join the story has passed.
Some reviewers mentioned issues with the Guild Wars games in general. Several noted that while some modifications have been made to the interfaces, that other interfaces in the game were still lacking, for instance Yahoo! opined, "the chat and player-info features are rudimentary, and you only meet other players when you're in a town." It was also felt that Guild Wars is becoming an increasingly complex game due to the vast number of skill interactions.
Awards
Guild Wars Nightfall has received several game awards. MMORPG.com awarded Nightfall RPG of 2006. 1UP.com awarded Nightfall the best Online/Multiplayer Game of 2006. The editors of PC Gamer US presented Nightfall with their 2006 "Best MMO" and "Best Value" awards.
References
External links
The official Guild Wars website
The official Guild Wars Wiki
2006 video games
Action role-playing video games
Nightfall
NCSoft games
Video games scored by Jeremy Soule
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus%20%28computer%20science%29
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Consensus (computer science)
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A fundamental problem in distributed computing and multi-agent systems is to achieve overall system reliability in the presence of a number of faulty processes. This often requires coordinating processes to reach consensus, or agree on some data value that is needed during computation. Example applications of consensus include agreeing on what transactions to commit to a database in which order, state machine replication, and atomic broadcasts. Real-world applications often requiring consensus include cloud computing, clock synchronization, PageRank, opinion formation, smart power grids, state estimation, control of UAVs (and multiple robots/agents in general), load balancing, blockchain, and others.
Problem description
The consensus problem requires agreement among a number of processes (or agents) for a single data value. Some of the processes (agents) may fail or be unreliable in other ways, so consensus protocols must be fault tolerant or resilient. The processes must somehow put forth their candidate values, communicate with one another, and agree on a single consensus value.
The consensus problem is a fundamental problem in control of multi-agent systems. One approach to generating consensus is for all processes (agents) to agree on a majority value. In this context, a majority requires at least one more than half of available votes (where each process is given a vote). However, one or more faulty processes may skew the resultant outcome such that consensus may not be reached or reached incorrectly.
Protocols that solve consensus problems are designed to deal with limited numbers of faulty processes. These protocols must satisfy a number of requirements to be useful. For instance, a trivial protocol could have all processes output binary value 1. This is not useful and thus the requirement is modified such that the output must somehow depend on the input. That is, the output value of a consensus protocol must be the input value of some process. Another requirement is that a process may decide upon an output value only once and this decision is irrevocable. A process is called correct in an execution if it does not experience a failure. A consensus protocol tolerating halting failures must satisfy the following properties.
Termination Eventually, every correct process decides some value.
Integrity If all the correct processes proposed the same value , then any correct process must decide .
Agreement Every correct process must agree on the same value.
Variations on the definition of integrity may be appropriate, according to the application. For example, a weaker type of integrity would be for the decision value to equal a value that some correct process proposed – not necessarily all of them. There is also a condition known as validity in the literature which refers to the property that a message sent by a process must be delivered.
A protocol that can correctly guarantee consensus amongst n processes of which at most t fail is said to be t-resilient.
In evaluating the performance of consensus protocols two factors of interest are running time and message complexity. Running time is given in Big O notation in the number of rounds of message exchange as a function of some input parameters (typically the number of processes and/or the size of the input domain). Message complexity refers to the amount of message traffic that is generated by the protocol. Other factors may include memory usage and the size of messages.
Models of computation
Varying models of computation may define a "consensus problem". Some models may deal with fully connected graphs, while others may deal with rings and trees. In some models message authentication is allowed, whereas in others processes are completely anonymous. Shared memory models in which processes communicate by accessing objects in shared memory are also an important area of research.
Communication channels with direct or transferable authentication
In most models of communication protocol participants communicate through authenticated channels. This means that messages are not anonymous, and receivers know the source of every message they receive.
Some models assume a stronger, transferable form of authentication, where each message is signed by the sender, so that a receiver knows not just the immediate source of every message, but the participant that initially created the message.
This stronger type of authentication is achieved by digital signatures, and when this stronger form of authentication is available, protocols can tolerate a larger number of faults.
The two different authentication models are often called oral communication and written communication models. In an oral communication model, the immediate source of information is known, whereas in stronger, written communication models, every step along the receiver learns not just the immediate source of the message, but the communication history of the message.
Inputs and outputs of consensus
In the most traditional single-value consensus protocols such as Paxos, cooperating nodes agree on a single value such as an integer, which may be of variable size so as to encode useful metadata such as a transaction committed to a database.
A special case of the single-value consensus problem, called binary consensus, restricts the input, and hence the output domain, to a single binary digit {0,1}. While not highly useful by themselves, binary consensus protocols are often useful as building blocks in more general consensus protocols, especially for asynchronous consensus.
In multi-valued consensus protocols such as Multi-Paxos and Raft, the goal is to agree on not just a single value but a series of values over time, forming a progressively-growing history. While multi-valued consensus may be achieved naively by running multiple iterations of a single-valued consensus protocol in succession, many optimizations and other considerations such as reconfiguration support can make multi-valued consensus protocols more efficient in practice.
Crash and Byzantine failures
There are two types of failures a process may undergo, a crash failure or a Byzantine failure. A crash failure occurs when a process abruptly stops and does not resume. Byzantine failures are failures in which absolutely no conditions are imposed. For example, they may occur as a result of the malicious actions of an adversary. A process that experiences a Byzantine failure may send contradictory or conflicting data to other processes, or it may sleep and then resume activity after a lengthy delay. Of the two types of failures, Byzantine failures are far more disruptive.
Thus, a consensus protocol tolerating Byzantine failures must be resilient to every possible error that can occur.
A stronger version of consensus tolerating Byzantine failures is given by strengthening the Integrity constraint:
IntegrityIf a correct process decides , then must have been proposed by some correct process.
Asynchronous and synchronous systems
The consensus problem may be considered in the case of asynchronous or synchronous systems. While real world communications are often inherently asynchronous, it is more practical and often easier to model synchronous systems, given that asynchronous systems naturally involve more issues than synchronous ones.
In synchronous systems, it is assumed that all communications proceed in rounds. In one round, a process may send all the messages it requires, while receiving all messages from other processes. In this manner, no message from one round may influence any messages sent within the same round.
The FLP impossibility result for asynchronous deterministic consensus
In a fully asynchronous message-passing distributed system, in which at least one process may have a crash failure, it has been proven in the famous 1985 FLP impossibility result by Fischer, Lynch and Paterson that a deterministic algorithm for achieving consensus is impossible. This impossibility result derives from worst-case scheduling scenarios, which are unlikely to occur in practice except in adversarial situations such as an intelligent denial-of-service attacker in the network. In most normal situations, process scheduling has a degree of natural randomness.
In an asynchronous model, some forms of failures can be handled by a synchronous consensus protocol. For instance, the loss of a communication link may be modeled as a process which has suffered a Byzantine failure.
Randomized consensus algorithms can circumvent the FLP impossibility result by achieving both safety and liveness with overwhelming probability, even under worst-case scheduling scenarios such as an intelligent denial-of-service attacker in the network.
Permissioned versus permissionless consensus
Consensus algorithms traditionally assume that the set of participating nodes is fixed and given at the outset: that is, that some prior (manual or automatic) configuration process has permissioned a particular known group of participants who can authenticate each other as members of the group. In the absence of such a well-defined, closed group with authenticated members, a Sybil attack against an open consensus group can defeat even a Byzantine consensus algorithm, simply by creating enough virtual participants to overwhelm the fault tolerance threshold.
A permissionless consensus protocol, in contrast, allows anyone in the network to join dynamically and participate without prior permission, but instead imposes a different form of artificial cost or barrier to entry to mitigate the Sybil attack threat. Bitcoin introduced the first permissionless consensus protocol using proof of work and a difficulty adjustment function, in which participants compete to solve cryptographic hash puzzles, and probabilistically earn the right to commit blocks and earn associated rewards in proportion to their invested computational effort. Motivated in part by the high energy cost of this approach, subsequent permissionless consensus protocols have proposed or adopted other alternative participation rules for Sybil attack protection, such as proof of stake, proof of space, and proof of authority.
Equivalency of agreement problems
Three agreement problems of interest are as follows.
Terminating Reliable Broadcast
A collection of processes, numbered from to communicate by sending messages to one another. Process must transmit a value to all processes such that:
if process is correct, then every correct process receives
for any two correct processes, each process receives the same value.
It is also known as The General's Problem.
Consensus
Formal requirements for a consensus protocol may include:
Agreement: All correct processes must agree on the same value.
Weak validity: For each correct process, its output must be the input of some correct process.
Strong validity: If all correct processes receive the same input value, then they must all output that value.
Termination: All processes must eventually decide on an output value
Weak Interactive Consistency
For n processes in a partially synchronous system (the system alternates between good and bad periods of synchrony), each process chooses a private value. The processes communicate with each other by rounds to determine a public value and generate a
consensus vector with the following requirements:
if a correct process sends , then all correct processes receive either or nothing (integrity property)
all messages sent in a round by a correct process are received in the same round by all correct processes (consistency property).
It can be shown that variations of these problems are equivalent in that the solution for a problem in one type of model may be the solution for another problem in another type of model. For example, a solution to the Weak Byzantine General problem in a synchronous authenticated message passing model leads to a solution for Weak Interactive Consistency. An interactive consistency algorithm can solve the consensus problem by having each process choose the majority value in its consensus vector as its consensus value.
Solvability results for some agreement problems
There is a t-resilient anonymous synchronous protocol which solves the Byzantine Generals problem, if and the Weak Byzantine Generals case where is the number of failures and is the number of processes.
For systems with processors, of which are Byzantine, it has been shown that there exists no algorithm that solves the consensus problem for in the oral-messages model. The proof is constructed by first showing the impossibility for the three-node case and using this result to argue about partitions of processors. In the written-messages model there are protocols that can tolerate .
In a fully asynchronous system there is no consensus solution that can tolerate one or more crash failures even when only requiring the non triviality property. This result is sometimes called the FLP impossibility proof named after the authors Michael J. Fischer, Nancy Lynch, and Mike Paterson who were awarded a Dijkstra Prize for this significant work. The FLP result has been mechanically verified to hold even under fairness assumptions. However, FLP does not state that consensus can never be reached: merely that under the model's assumptions, no algorithm can always reach consensus in bounded time. In practice it is highly unlikely to occur.
Some consensus protocols
The Paxos consensus algorithm by Leslie Lamport, and variants of it such as Raft, are used pervasively in widely deployed distributed and cloud computing systems. These algorithms are typically synchronous, dependent on an elected leader to make progress, and tolerate only crashes and not Byzantine failures.
An example of a polynomial time binary consensus protocol that tolerates Byzantine failures is the Phase King algorithm by Garay and Berman. The algorithm solves consensus in a synchronous message passing model with n processes and up to f failures, provided n > 4f.
In the phase king algorithm, there are f + 1 phases, with 2 rounds per phase.
Each process keeps track of its preferred output (initially equal to the process's own input value). In the first round of each phase each process broadcasts its own preferred value to all other processes. It then receives the values from all processes and determines which value is the majority value and its count. In the second round of the phase, the process whose id matches the current phase number is designated the king of the phase. The king broadcasts the majority value it observed in the first round and serves as a tie breaker. Each process then updates its preferred value as follows. If the count of the majority value the process observed in the first round is greater than n/2 + f, the process changes its preference to that majority value; otherwise it uses the phase king's value. At the end of f + 1 phases the processes output their preferred values.
Google has implemented a distributed lock service library called Chubby. Chubby maintains lock information in small files which are stored in a replicated database to achieve high availability in the face of failures. The database is implemented on top of a fault-tolerant log layer which is based on the Paxos consensus algorithm. In this scheme, Chubby clients communicate with the Paxos master in order to access/update the replicated log; i.e., read/write to the files.
Many peer-to-peer online Real-time strategy games use a modified Lockstep protocol as a consensus protocol in order to manage game state between players in a game. Each game action results in a game state delta broadcast to all other players in the game along with a hash of the total game state. Each player validates the change by applying the delta to their own game state and comparing the game state hashes. If the hashes do not agree then a vote is cast, and those players whose game state is in the minority are disconnected and removed from the game (known as a desync.)
Another well-known approach is called MSR-type algorithms which have been used widely from computer science to control theory.
Permissionless consensus protocols
Bitcoin uses proof of work, a difficulty adjustment function and a reorganization function to achieve permissionless consensus in its open peer-to-peer network. To extend Bitcoin's blockchain or distributed ledger, miners attempt to solve a cryptographic puzzle, where probability of finding a solution is proportional to the computational effort expended in hashes per second. The node that first solves such a puzzle has their proposed version of the next block of transactions added to the ledger and eventually accepted by all other nodes. As any node in the network can attempt to solve the proof-of-work problem, a Sybil attack is infeasible in principle unless the attacker has over 50% of the computational resources of the network.
Other cryptocurrencies (e.g. Ethereum, NEO, STRATIS, ...) use proof of stake, in which nodes compete to append blocks and earn associated rewards in proportion to stake, or existing cryptocurrency allocated and locked or staked for some time period. One advantage of a 'proof of stake' over a 'proof of work' system, is the high energy consumption demanded by the latter. As an example, Bitcoin mining (2018) is estimated to consume non-renewable energy sources at an amount similar to the entire nations of Czech Republic or Jordan, while the total energy consumption of Ethereum, the largest proof of stake network, is just under that of 205 average US households.
Some cryptocurrencies, such as Ripple, use a system of validating nodes to validate the ledger.
This system used by Ripple, called Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm (RPCA), works in rounds:
Step 1: every server compiles a list of valid candidate transactions;
Step 2: each server amalgamates all candidates coming from its Unique Nodes List (UNL) and votes on their veracity;
Step 3: transactions passing the minimum threshold are passed to the next round;
Step 4: the final round requires 80% agreement.
Other participation rules used in permissionless consensus protocols to impose barriers to entry and resist sybil attacks include proof of authority, proof of space, proof of burn, or proof of elapsed time.
Contrasting with the above permissionless participation rules, all of which reward participants in proportion to amount of investment in some action or resource, proof of personhood protocols aim to give each real human participant exactly one unit of voting power in permissionless consensus, regardless of economic investment. Proposed approaches to achieving one-per-person distribution of consensus power for proof of personhood include physical pseudonym parties, social networks, pseudonymized government-issued identities, and biometrics.
Consensus number
To solve the consensus problem in a shared-memory system, concurrent objects must be introduced. A concurrent object, or shared object, is a data structure which helps concurrent processes communicate to reach an agreement. Traditional implementations using critical sections face the risk of crashing if some process dies inside the critical section or sleeps for an intolerably long time. Researchers defined wait-freedom as the guarantee that the algorithm completes in a finite number of steps.
The consensus number of a concurrent object is defined to be the maximum number of processes in the system which can reach consensus by the given object in a wait-free implementation. Objects with a consensus number of can implement any object with a consensus number of or lower, but cannot implement any objects with a higher consensus number. The consensus numbers form what is called Herlihy's hierarchy of synchronization objects.
According to the hierarchy, read/write registers cannot solve consensus even in a 2-process system. Data structures like stacks and queues can only solve consensus between two processes. However, some concurrent objects are universal (notated in the table with ), which means they can solve consensus among any number of processes and they can simulate any other objects through an operation sequence.
See also
Uniform consensus
Quantum Byzantine agreement
Byzantine fault tolerance
References
Further reading
Bashir, Imran. "Blockchain Consensus." Blockchain Consensus - An Introduction to Classical, Blockchain, and Quantum Consensus Protocols. Apress, Berkeley, CA, 2022.
Distributed computing problems
Fault-tolerant computer systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Black
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Norman Black
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Norman Augustus Black (born November 12, 1957) is an American former professional basketball player who played in the CBA, NBA, and PBA. He's the former head coach for the Meralco Bolts.
He has since settled in the Philippines. He is also a former head coach of the San Miguel Beermen, Mobiline Phone Pals, Pop Cola 800s, Sta. Lucia Realtors and Talk 'N Text Tropang Texters. He has also coached the Ateneo Blue Eagles in the UAAP. During his playing career, his moniker was Mr. 100%.
Career
High school, college, NBA and CBA career
Black played high school basketball for the Cardinal Gibbons School in Baltimore where he graduated in 1975. He then played for Saint Joseph's College in Pennsylvania from 1975 to 1979, averaging 17 points per game in his playing career. Black later played in Continental Basketball Association from 1979 to 1982 for the Lancaster Red Roses and the Philadelphia Kings. He also played for the Detroit Pistons in the National Basketball Association, but played only three games in the 1980–81 season, averaging 2.7 points per game.
PBA career
In 1981, Black was playing in the Detroit Pistons' summer basketball league when he was offered a job on the other side of the world. "Jimmy Mariano, who was coach of Great Taste at the time, asked me if I wanted to come over and play in the Philippines," he said. The lure of guaranteed money, something the Pistons could not offer then, helped change his life in a way he could never have imagined. However, by the time he returned Mariano's call, Big Lew Massey had taken the job. But it did not take long before another Philippine Basketball Association club came calling. Tefilin's General Manager Frank Harn offered the same contract as Mariano and he immediately took the offer.
In 1981, he made his PBA debut for Tefilin. In 14 games, he averaged an outstanding 51 point per game, but failed to lead his team to a championship. He returned to the Philippines in 1982, playing 66 games for San Miguel Beer and averaged close to 43 points per contest. With him, locals Yoyong Martirez, Manny Paner, Marte Saldaña, and head coach Tommy Manotoc, San Miguel won the 1982 Invitational tournament against guest South Korea. In 1983, he played for Great Taste Coffee and averaged 38 points in 49 games played. Always considered an intelligent as well as a hard-working player, he became the recipient of the very first "Mr. 100% Award" in that season. Sportscaster Pinggoy Pengson dubbed him "That Old Black Magic" after a song from the 1950s.
Two years later, he returned to play for Magnolia Quench Plus, norming 43.5 points per game, while scoring his career best 76 points. After Magnolia (later San Miguel Beer), left the league for a while, he played for rookie squad Alaska, after former Magnolia players were put in the new franchise. After a short while, he returned to San Miguel as their playing coach in some import-laden conferences while acting as a full-time coach in the All-Filipino Conferences. In 1989, he played and coached the Beermen to a rare Grand Slam, the third in PBA history. In 1990, he played his last complete season as a player before finally focusing his duties as head coach in 1991.
Coaching career
San Miguel
"It was former ambassador Danding Cojuangco who asked me to become a head coach in 1985," Black relates, "I had no desire to be a coach back then." He went on to say that the former ambassador probably heard something in Black's voice while he was doing some analysis for the TV broadcast of the PBA that made Cojuangco believe he would be suited for coaching.
His coaching career started around 1985 and 1986, as a playing coach. But by 1987, he became San Miguel's full-time coach until 1996, when he left the Beermen. He won nine championships as head coach of San Miguel including a Grandslam in 1989 making San Miguel the winningest team in the PBA, coaching some of the best players in PBA history such as superstars Samboy Lim, Allan Caidic, Hector Calma, Ramon Fernandez, Ricky Brown, Ato Agustin and role players Alvin Teng, Yves Dignadice, Art dela Cruz, Franz Pumaren, Elmer Reyes, Jeffrey Graves, Pido Jarencio, Bobby Jose, Romy Lopez, Josel Angeles, Ricky Cui, Kevin Ramas, Bong Ravena, and Dong Polistico. In 1994, he was named head coach of the Philippine Team in the Hiroshima Asian Games, after the Beermen won the All-Filipino Cup. However, the country went home without a medal in basketball, after placing fourth. In 1996, with San Miguel needing an import, he played as a temporary import for the Beermen and scored 15 points.
Mobiline, Sta. Lucia
After almost a decade with San Miguel, he became the head coach of the young Mobiline Phone Pals in 1997. But after the Commissioner's Cup, he became the coach of the struggling Pop Cola squad. He led the 800's to two third-place finishes with Vergel Meneses, Bonel Balingit, and Kenneth Duremdes on the team. he also suited up for Pop Cola, probably his last PBA game, in a third place game against Shell. He scored 10 points, including a three-pointer, that gave the 800s its second consecutive third-place run. In 1999, Pop Cola struggled all through, including a terrible 0–8 finish in the Governor's Cup. he left Pop Cola after the season before being hired as Sta. Lucia Realtors head coach.
In 2000, he led Sta. Lucia to its first finals appearance, losing to San Miguel in five games of the Commissioner's Cup. However, a year later, he coached the Realtors to its first championship, defeating the Beermen in the season ending Governor's Cup. After the 2002 season, he resigned as head coach of the Realtors with longtime assistant, and friend Alfrancis Chua elevated as the new coach of the team.
TV commentator
During his coaching days, Black was even hired by PBA TV broadcasters as a guest analyst of selected games. After leaving Sta. Lucia in 2003, he was hired by new TV network National Broadcasting Network as their analyst for PBA games. He normally was paired with Mico Halili and did quite well as a commentator, often mixing a Tagalog word to his English analysis.
After NBN was dropped as TV broadcaster, he was absorbed by new TV network Associated Broadcasting Company. He normally pairs with Mico Halili, Ed Picson, and Paolo Trillo. During the 2005–2006 and the 2006–2007 season, he was seen every Sunday on the halftime segment "Black's Board" where he dished out the week's highlights around the league and Philippine basketball as well.
He also did several shoots about basketball basics in a segment called Burlington Basketball 101 for ABC's pregame show known as PBA Gamebol. Outside of commentary, he is known as an endorser for Burlington, a known sock product.
Ateneo Blue Eagles head coach
In 2004, Black was hired by the Ateneo Blue Eagles as its team consultant. But after a disappointing 2004 season, in which the Blue Eagles finished third under Sandy Arespacochaga, school officials hired him as the Blue Eagles' new head coach for the 2005 campaign, the 35th coach in its history.
He led the Blue Eagles to a 10–4 win–loss record in his first season, but they were eliminated by the De La Salle Green Archers, who had a twice to beat advantage against them.
In the 69th season, he led the Blue Eagles to a 10–2 win–loss slate, the best record in the elimination round. After defeating the Adamson Falcons in the Final Four, Ateneo battled the UST Growling Tigers in a grueling three-game series. Black designed a play in their Game 1 victory. The play was a long inbound pass by Macky Escalona who found a wide-open Kramer underneath the basket for the victory. However, despite the historic Game 1 victory, they were unable to win the championship. They lost to the Tigers in Game 2 by a large margin, and then in Game 3 in overtime.
In 2007, during the UAAP's 70th season, in spite of a lack of talent, he led the Eagles to a 9–5 standing. However, the Blue Eagles still lost in crucial games; they were unable to secure the No. 2 Seed due to their loss to the NU Bulldogs, and lost to the returning De La Salle Green Archers in a battle for the No. 2 seed, which would have given them a twice to beat advantage had they won. Instead, they settled for the No. 3 seed, and were able to eliminate the defending champions UST Growling Tigers. The Blue Eagles then forced a do-or-die game against La Salle in the semifinals but lost.
Later that year, he coached the Blue Eagles to winning the 2007 Collegiate Champions League national basketball title, where they defeated the University of the Visayas Green Lancers.
In 2008, which was season 71 of the UAAP, he led the Blue Eagles to a 13–1 elimination round record, and won the championship over the defending champions La Salle by sweeping the series with Ateneo winning, 69–61 in Game 1, and, 62–51 in Game 2. This was Ateneo's first UAAP title since winning it in 2002 . Months later, he coached the Blue Eagles to another championship in the annual Philippine University Games, defeating the EAC Generals.
In 2009, he coached the Blue Eagles to three titles. In UAAP Season 72, the Blue Eagles won their second straight UAAP Men's Basketball Championship, won against the UE Red Warriors, and again with a 13–1 win loss record. This was followed by back-to-back titles in the University Games, this time won against St. Francis of Assisi College. The third title was the Blue Eagles' second national championship under his tutelage in the 2009 Philippine Collegiate Championship, the successor to the Collegiate Champions League, where they defeated the FEU Tamaraws
In 2010, he won his first three-peat as a coach for Ateneo Blue Eagles for UAAP Season 73, duplicating the Grand Slam feat when he was a coach for San Miguel Beermen in 1989. he led the Blue Eagles to a 10–4 win–loss record in the eliminations (good for solo 2nd place and the last twice-to-beat advantage), a victory over the Adamson Falcons in the semifinals, and a sweep of the FEU Tamaraws in the finals, with a 72–49 blowout victory in Game 1 and a 65–62 title-clinching victory in Game 2 (in which the Eagles were threatened throughout the game). Later that year, he coached the Blue Eagles to winning the 2010 Philippine Collegiate Championship title, this time against the Adamson Falcons, earning his team their third national championship under his tutelage.
In 2011, he once again steered the Ateneo Blue Eagles to a rare Four-peat as head coach for UAAP Season 74, joining the UST Growling Tigers and the De La Salle Green Archers as the only schools to win four basketball titles in a row since the Final Four started in 1994. Under his tutelage, the Blue Eagles finished the eliminations with a 13–1 win–loss record. They faced the UST Growling Tigers in the Final Four, with Ateneo winning, 69–66. Later on in the Finals, it was a rematch against their previous year's opponent, the FEU Tamaraws. Once again, his Ateneo Blue Eagles swept the series, with Ateneo winning, 82–64 in Game 1, and, 82–69 in Game 2.
In 2012, months before the opening of the 75th season of the UAAP he announced that he would be leaving the Ateneo Blue Eagles right after UAAP Season 75 to go to the pros and to takeover the coaching duties of the Talk 'N Text Tropang Texters from Coach Chot Reyes, who would be leaving the team to coach the Smart Gilas II. At the end of the UAAP season, the Blue Eagles won another championship, their fifth in a row this time in a rematch against their 2006 Finals opponent the UST Growling Tigers by sweeping the series with a score of 83–78 in Game 1, and 65–62 in Game 2. With this achievement, he became only the second coach in the history of the UAAP to win five straight UAAP championship after Baby Dalupan who have won seven straight championships (Season 28–34) with the UE Red Warriors.
Back to coaching in the PBA
Talk 'N Text Tropang Texters (2012–2014)
After winning five straight titles for Ateneo, Black returned to coaching in the PBA, with the star-studded Talk 'N Text Tropang Texters. While coaching the Texters, he became the latest member of the 500-win coaching club. He also guided the Texters to their third-straight All-Filipino crown for the 2012–13 PBA season.
Meralco Bolts (2014–2023)
In 2014, the teams under MVP group reshuffles its coaching staff. Black was assigned to be the coach for the Meralco Bolts, while Jong Uichico replaced him as head coach for Talk 'N Text. In his first conference with the Bolts in 2014–15 Philippine Cup, his team clinched the top six in the eliminations with a 6–5 win–loss record. They entered the quarterfinals as the sixth seed with twice-to-beat advantage over Purefoods and dethroned the defending champions in the process. Few days after, the Bolts lost to Alaska in the knockout round.
On the 2016 Governors' Cup Finals, Black returned to the championship series once again and led Meralco to their first finals appearance to face the Barangay Ginebra San Miguel led by another of the winningest coaches, Tim Cone, but lost to Barangay Ginebra in Game 6. The next Governors' Cup, he led the Bolts to its best finish in the eliminations with a 9 – 2 win – loss record for the 1st seed and a twice-to-beat advantage in the quarterfinals. Meralco then defeated the Blackwater Elite in two games and the Star Hotshots in the semifinals for three straight games and booked a finals rematch against Ginebra. However, the Bolts still lost the series in seven games.
Professional playing career statistics
|-
| align="left" | 1979–80
| align="left" | Lancaster Red Roses
| CBA
| 17 || 27.7 || .568 || .000 || .734 || 9.9 || 1.7 || .9 || .5 || 22.5
|-
| align="left" | 1980
| align="left" | Detroit Pistons
| NBA
| 3 || 9.3 || .300 || .000 || .286 || .7 || .7 || .3 || .0 || 2.7
|-
| align="left" | 1980–81
| align="left" | Philadelphia Kings
| CBA
| 34 || 41.1 || .512 || .000 || .723 || 8.4 || 2.4 || 1.4 || .6 || 26.1
|-
| align="left" | 1981
| align="left" | Telfilin Polyesters
| PBA
| 14 || 46.0 || .577 || .000 || .709 || 24.6 || 3.1 || .3 || 2.2 || 51.8
|-
| align="left" | 1981–82
| align="left" | Lancaster Lightning
| CBA
| 29 || 36.8 || .483 || .000 || .606 || 7.8 || 1.9 || 1.2 || .6 || 20.4
|-
| align="left" | 1982
| align="left" | San Miguel Beer
| PBA
| 66 || 46.1 || .539 || .500 || .657 || 19.4 || 3.4 || .2 || 1.7 || 42.7
|-
| align="left" | 1983
| align="left" | Great Taste Coffee
| PBA
| 49 || 45.7 || .573 || .000 || .689 || 18.6 || 6.5 || .4 || 1.0 || 38.1
|-
| align="left" | 1985
| align="left" | Magnolia
| PBA
| 44 || 47.8 || .531 || .191 || .719 || 17.6 || 4.2 || .2 || 1.8 || 43.6
|-
| align="left" | 1986
| align="left" | Alaska Milk
| PBA
| 14 || 43.9 || .582 || .000 || .735 || 19.5 || 4.0 || .3 || 1.5 || 41.2
|-
| align="left" | 1987
| align="left" | Magnolia Ice Cream
| PBA
| 24 || 47.9 || .557 || .000 || .620 || 20.7 || 4.4 || .4 || 2.1 || 42.6
|-
| align="left" | 1988
| align="left" | San Miguel
| PBA
| 48 || 47.7 || .568 || .200 || .702 || 17.1 || 3.1 || .2 || 2.6 || 35.7
|-
| align="left" | 1990
| align="left" | San Miguel
| PBA
| 21 || 47.9 || .548 || .000 || .683 || 20.0 || 3.8 || .2 || 2.9 || 32.7
|-
|-class=sortbottom
| align="center" colspan=2 | Career
| All Leagues
| 363 || 44.2 || .547 || .178 || .685 || 16.5 || 3.7 || .5 || 1.6 || 36.3
Coaching record
Collegiate record
Personal life
Black is married to Benjie Davila. His son Aaron is also a basketball player with his team, the Meralco Bolts.
References
External links
Norman Black's PBA Coaching Highlights
1957 births
Living people
African-American basketball coaches
African-American basketball players
Alaska Aces (PBA) players
American expatriate basketball people in the Philippines
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
American television sports announcers
Basketball coaches from Maryland
Basketball players from Baltimore
Detroit Pistons players
Lancaster Red Roses (CBA) players
Philadelphia Kings players
Philippine Basketball Association All-Stars
Philippine Basketball Association broadcasters
San Miguel Beermen coaches
Philippine Basketball Association imports
Philippines men's national basketball team coaches
Player-coaches
Power forwards (basketball)
Saint Joseph's Hawks men's basketball players
San Miguel Beermen players
Shooting guards
Small forwards
Sports commentators
Undrafted National Basketball Association players
Pop Cola Panthers players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople
TNT Tropang Giga coaches
Pop Cola Panthers coaches
Sta. Lucia Realtors coaches
Ateneo Blue Eagles men's basketball coaches
Meralco Bolts coaches
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5406518
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwan%20Roberts
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Iwan Roberts
|
Iwan Wyn Roberts (born 26 June 1968) is a Welsh former professional footballer who played as a forward from 1986 to 2005 for a number of clubs and the Wales national team. His footballing career started at Watford as a trainee before signing his first professional contract with the club in 1986. He moved to Huddersfield Town in 1990 where he remained for three seasons before transferring to Leicester City. Roberts signed for Wolverhampton Wanderers after three further seasons, but stayed for a single campaign before transferring to Norwich City, where he spent seven years. He played international football for Wales and amassed fifteen caps between 1989 and 2001, without scoring.
Roberts made 647 league appearances during his career, almost half of which were for Norwich, where he overcame a weak start to become a fan favourite. At his peak, he scored 61 goals in three seasons, and finished with two goals in his final game as Norwich achieved promotion to the Premiership. He was elected to the Norwich City F.C. Hall of Fame in 2002, while still at the club. His professional career ended with spells at Gillingham and on loan to Cambridge United.
Since retiring as a player, Roberts, who speaks fluent Welsh, has worked as a commentator for Sky Sports, BBC Radio Cymru and BBC Cymru Wales. His book, All I Want for Christmas ..., a reference to his gap-toothed appearance, prompted both controversy and praise when it was published in 2004.
Early life
Iwan Wyn Roberts was born in Bangor, Gwynedd, on 26 June 1968. He grew up in Barmouth, on the west coast of Wales, as a Liverpool fan.
Roberts says that most football fans would know him ("if you know me at all") as "that gap-toothed ginger lunk". He started losing his front tooth when he was just 10: his best friend's heel chipping half of his tooth off, the result of an incident playing football. Some years later, a dentist removed the stump when an abscess developed. He lost his second front tooth as the result of an elbow to the mouth from Darran Rowbotham when he was 18, playing for Watford in a pre-season friendly.
Roberts credits his school PE teacher, Iolo Owen, as a great influence in his career, introducing him into men's football aged 15: "He picked me for the school team and got me into the local men's team, Harlech Town... as he was the manager... it toughened me up and made me a lot stronger." Critical to Roberts' thinking when he joined Watford was that coach Tom Walley was, like himself, Welsh-speaking, as was professional Malcolm Allen, against whom Roberts had played in the local Welsh leagues. He was also influenced by Graham Taylor's record of giving youth players opportunities. Roberts joined Watford as a trainee, signing his first professional contract in July 1986, shortly after his 18th birthday.
Club career
Watford
Roberts made his first-team debut during the 1985–86 season and scored his first goal in professional football on 16 September 1986; it was the only goal in a 1–0 win against Manchester United at Vicarage Road. Having made only one full first team appearance for Watford prior to the match, Roberts came on as a second-half substitute to score the winning goal from a narrow angle. Watford ended the season in ninth position, and despite having three years of his contract remaining, Taylor left the club to join Aston Villa. Roberts broke through in the following season, making 31 appearances in all competitions and scoring three goals, but Watford finished 19th in the table and were relegated to the Second Division. The 1988–89 season saw him make 32 appearances in total, scoring six goals, with Watford finishing fourth, but failing to progress past the 1989 Football League play-offs. Roberts' chances were restricted the following season, when he made just nine league appearances, scoring twice.
He scored nine goals in 63 league matches in total for Watford, but felt that he was failing to get enough opportunities and moved to Division Three club Huddersfield Town prior to the start of the 1990–91 season, for £275,000. One of his contemporaries at Watford was future Norwich City manager, Glenn Roeder. Roberts remembers Roeder as "an absolute gentleman ... I can't speak highly enough of him. He helped me a great deal with his experience and any problems that the young lads had they knew he would help them with."
Huddersfield Town
Roberts credits a lot of his success as a striker to the interaction he had with Huddersfield's then first-team coach, Peter Withe: "Peter was exceptional in the air and he taught me so much on how to use my physicality properly and how to move defenders about especially in the penalty box which would enable me a bit more time and space in the box." The club then signed Frank Stapleton, who helped the young Roberts develop "awareness in the opposition's penalty box" and how to "steal goals" to increase his goal tally, getting a final touch to 'help' a goalbound ball cross the line.
The 1991–92 season brought Roberts a club post-war record 34 goals in a season, 24 of which were in the league, making him joint top-scorer in the division. His efforts helped the club to finish third and qualify for the play-offs. There they lost to Peterborough United where Roberts failed to score in either leg. Overall, whilst playing for Huddersfield he scored 50 goals in 142 games. In November 1993 he was signed by the Second Division club Leicester City for £300,000. Neil Warnock, Huddersfield's manager, needed to sell players and Leicester manager Brian Little took an interest.
Leicester City
Roberts made his debut for Leicester in a Midlands derby against Wolverhampton Wanderers. At half time, Leicester were two goals behind and he expected manager Brian Little, "the nicest man" he ever played for to rant in the dressing room, but instead he quietly told the players he was going to make two substitutions. In the second half, Roberts scored two goals to secure a draw. After retiring, Roberts said he still regretted not completing a hat-trick in the match, a feat he did achieve in April 1994, in a 28-minute spell against local rivals Derby County. As recently as 2017, this achievement is still recalled in a chant by Leicester City fans. Roberts broke some ribs a few weeks later and returned to the first-team squad just in time for the 1993–94 play-off final, which Leicester won 2–1 against Derby.
In the 1994–95 Premiership, Leicester struggled and were relegated, but Roberts was the club's top scorer with 11 goals in all competitions. He scored another 19 goals the following season, as Leicester reached the play-offs again. In the semi-final, Leicester drew 0-0 with Stoke City in the first leg at home and won 1-0 in the second leg from a Garry Parker goal, to qualify for the final. What followed was one of the only two incidents that "bugged" Roberts during his playing career: while celebrating the win, he suddenly realised he was in danger due to a pitch invasion by Stoke supporters. He managed to escape, but some of his team-mates, including Neil Lennon and Muzzy Izzet were less fortunate, and had to be protected by police. Although it was reported that Roberts had recovered from injury, he was not selected for the squad for the play-off final against Crystal Palace. Leicester won the match which secured them promotion to the Premiership. With the side promoted again, Leicester decided to sell Roberts to Wolves. In all, Roberts scored 41 goals in 100 league games for Leicester.
Wolverhampton Wanderers
His goals and performances for Leicester persuaded Wolves to sign Roberts for £1.3m in the summer of 1996. He spent only one season at Molineux in which he scored 12 goals in 33 games, including one hat-trick for the club in a match against their local rivals West Bromwich Albion in the Black Country derby. Wolves ended the season in third place but lost 4–3 on aggregate to Crystal Palace in the play-offs, with Roberts failing to score in either leg.
In the summer off-season of 1997, Roberts returned from holiday and came into the club for the first day of pre-season training where manager Mark McGhee called him into his office. There McGhee said that he had been told that in order to bring in new players, he had to sell first, and that Roberts was the only player for whom an offer had been made – by Norwich City. Roberts did not want to leave the club, but accepted that if the manager did not want him there, he needed to go.
Norwich City
In July 1997, Norwich City manager Mike Walker paid £850,000 to Wolves to secure the services of Roberts. His time at the club (nicknamed the Canaries) did not begin happily, however. Following his debut in August 1997 against his former club Wolves, he struggled throughout the 1997–98 season and scored just seven goals; "there were certainly those in the stands who were questioning whether he was worth the near £1,000,000 splashed out on him". There were crowd chants about him being a "waste of money" and Roberts remembers that someone wrote to the Eastern Daily Press and described him as "the worst ever to wear a Norwich shirt", adding the reflection that "it was the bleakest period of all my years as a pro." Roberts had scored just four goals heading into the end of the season; however, his fitness slowly began to improve and "three goals in the final two home games of the season left in good heart for the next campaign". Walker was sacked at the end of the season, and Roberts blames himself for this happening – a result of his lack of goals.
Walker was replaced during the summer by Bruce Rioch. During pre-season training, Roberts weighed in at 15 stone 3 pounds (97 kg), with a body fat ratio of 16–17%, when his "fighting weight" should have been "just under 14 stone with around 13 per cent body fat." The turnaround was, according to Roberts, due to some clever psychology by Rioch:
"Bruce was very clever: he didn't issue me with an ultimatum, he didn't rant and rave or threaten me. He just said, "Tom Walley would be proud of you". Tom was my youth team manager at Watford and absolutely hated people being out of shape ... It was a gentle hint, but I realised ... I had to sort it out myself."
Roberts threw himself into weight training and soon reached a target weight of 13 stone 10 pounds. It paid off: that season, Roberts scored 23 goals. He was partnered by what the Eastern Daily Press described as the "flourishing talent" of Craig Bellamy who scored 19 goals. Norwich finished in the top half of the table and the Canaries fans voted Roberts player of the season. In the 1999–2000 season he was again top scorer (19 goals in 49 games) and retained the player of the season award. He just missed out on becoming the first player in the club's history to win the award three years in a row when Andy Marshall finished narrowly ahead of him in the voting for the 2000–01 season.
During that 1999–2000 campaign there was speculation about Roberts's future as his contract was due to expire in the summer of 2000. Roberts had an agent, former team-mate and close friend David Speedie, who advised him to turn down Norwich's offer and sign for Nottingham Forest or Huddersfield Town. Ultimately, "he couldn't produce anything on paper that told me I'd be signing... so I could have got injured in training, never played again and not got a penny." As a result, the two men fell out and Roberts did not use the services of an agent again, representing himself in contract negotiations. Shortly after he signed a contract extension in January of that season, Bruce Rioch left the club and was succeeded by Bryan Hamilton. Roberts helped Hamilton make a good start when he scored both goals in a 2–0 win at Portman Road against City's East Anglian derby rivals Ipswich Town on 19 March 2000.
Although Roberts was personally enjoying the most productive spell of his career, his first four years at Carrow Road had seen the club struggle. They had barely threatened to qualify for the end of season play-offs, ending the 2000–01 campaign in 15th place, six points above the relegation zone. The 2001–02 season, with new manager Nigel Worthington in his first full season in charge, saw the team fare better and they reached the Division One play-off final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. Roberts missed much of the second half of the season because of injury, but came off the substitute's bench in the final to give Norwich the lead in the first minute of extra-time with a header. Norwich lost the match in a penalty shoot-out after Birmingham City had equalised. Roberts took – and scored – the first penalty of the shoot-out but misses by Phil Mulryne and Daryl Sutch meant Birmingham won 4–2 and were promoted to the Premiership.
During the 2002–03 season, Roberts captained the Norwich team. That season, in a match against Sheffield Wednesday at Carrow Road, Roberts scored twice to move into third place on the list of Norwich City's all-time leading goalscorers, overtaking Robert Fleck in the process. The Canaries faded after a good start to the season, finishing in eighth place and failing to qualify for the play-offs. Roberts scored just 7 goals in 47 games. The 2003–04 season would be his last at Carrow Road and although he was no longer an regular starter for the first team he played an important part in one of the club's best-ever seasons. The team won the title and were promoted to the Premiership. Roberts scored some important goals, including the winning strike in a top-of-the-table match against Sheffield United. Roberts revealed in his autobiography that in February of that season he had a cancer scare and had to have a malignant melanoma removed from his arm.
A few days before the club's last home match of the 2003–04 season, Worthington announced that Roberts would not be offered a new contract when his deal expired that summer. Worthington felt that, following promotion to the Premiership, the club had to look to the future and that Roberts was now surplus to requirements. Although he had made 41 league appearances that season, he started just 13 games. With the championship already won, Worthington restored Roberts to the starting line-up for the last game of the season at Gresty Road against Crewe Alexandra and made him captain for the day. Roberts scored twice as City won 3–1; he described the occasion and the goal: "I'd never scored on the final day of a season before, it was my final game in a Norwich shirt, which was a very sad occasion, Nigel Worthington made me captain for the day and I'll be forever thankful for that, and I managed to cap it all off by getting two goals. One of them was a left footed volley into the top corner and I haven't got too many of those in my career!" Overall, Roberts scored 96 goals in 306 games for Norwich.
Gillingham and Cambridge United
After being released by Norwich, he received a number of offers to play for other clubs, including from Swiss side FC Basel, but eventually signed a two-year contract with Gillingham of the Championship, where he would be player/coach. His debut was against Ipswich, Norwich's local rivals, and was booked after less than five seconds. The move to Gillingham did not prove a good one for him and he had a number of disagreements with the club, particularly with Stan Ternent after he succeeded Andy Hessenthaler as manager. In December 2004 Roberts had himself served as joint caretaker manager, along with Darren Hare and Paul Smith, after the sudden departure of both Hessenthaler and initial caretaker John Gorman. In March 2005 he joined Cambridge United on loan until the end of the season to play under the management of former Norwich team-mate, Rob Newman. He scored his 200th league goal on his debut, but Cambridge were relegated from League Two. In August 2005, Roberts retired from playing after reaching an agreement with Gillingham to pay the final year of his contract.
International career
While a Watford player, Roberts was called up for Wales for the first time, an April 1989 friendly game against Israel. He made his debut for the Welsh national team on 11 October 1989, when he took to the field in a 2–1 defeat to the Netherlands in a World Cup qualifier at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham. With both Ian Rush and Mark Hughes suspended, Roberts started the game alongside Malcolm Allen. He had to wait more than two years for his next international appearance, when his domestic form for Huddersfield saw him leading scorer in Division Two. Roberts played in a 1–1 friendly against Austria in April 1992. He earned two more caps that year at the Kirin Cup in Japan, suffering a 1–0 loss against Argentina and receiving a red card in a 1–0 victory over the host nation for a foul on Masami Ihara. Roberts made three appearances for the senior Wales team in 1994, including two qualification matches for UEFA Euro 1996 against Albania and Moldova. He was not selected for Wales again until 2000 when he made three appearances in friendlies, all losses against Finland, Brazil and Portugal.
Roberts made four more appearances for his country in the qualification stages for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in 2000 and 2001. He won a total of 15 caps for his country over a 12-year period, including a single appearance and one goal for the Wales B team, but failed to score for the senior team. Roberts is phlegmatic that he made only 17 appearances ("most as substitute") for Wales, as he "had to compete against the likes of Mark Hughes, Ian Rush, Dean Saunders, so there were some world-class strikers before me and I was just happy to get in the squad." He regards the fact that he did not score for Wales as the greatest regret of his career.
Style of play
Standing at , Roberts was known for scoring a high proportion of his goals with headers. He had a strong partnership with Craig Bellamy, beginning when Bellamy broke into the Norwich first team in 1997, aged 18. They also featured together for Wales, although Roberts never managed to score in 15 appearances for the national side. Roberts said "I absolutely loved playing up-front with [Bellamy]... we hit it off straight away, probably more so than anyone else I ever played with. It was like telepathy between us." He described the relationship as "the classic big man, little man" and noted that in their first season together for Norwich, Roberts scored 24 goals and Bellamy 17.
All I Want for Christmas ...
In 2004, Roberts published an account of his last season at Norwich, entitled All I want for Christmas .... The title of the book was a joke based on Roberts' missing front teeth, a reference to the song "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth". The book proved controversial, because it included an admission of a deliberate stamp on Wolves defender Kevin Muscat, an incident that had taken place in 2000:
"As I got up I 'lost my balance' and trod on his back. Fourteen stone through eight studs, you do the maths. He was in agony, but the ref didn't see it so I got away with it. Of course, I pulled him up and said 'Sorry mate, sorry mate', but he knew." Roberts stated in the book that the stamp was a payback for a serious injury that Muscat had inflicted on Craig Bellamy while Bellamy and Roberts were playing together for Norwich, and that Muscat held no grudges over it.
Because of the coverage in the book, the Football Association retrospectively investigated the incident and Roberts, then playing at Gillingham, was banned for three matches and fined £2,500 for the offence. Roberts commented that this "left 'a bitter taste' – especially after England captain David Beckham escaped without a punishment for his deliberate foul in the World Cup qualifier against Wales." The Football Association said there was "insufficient evidence" to charge Beckham with bringing the game into disrepute. This was "despite his admission in The Daily Telegraph and subsequent apology." At the time, Roberts told The Daily Telegraph, "I do not want players to get suspensions and fines, but there must be consistency, regardless of who the player is." The book was praised by critics. The Daily Telegraph called it "a rollicking good read. If it doesn't make you at least smile, then it's time to seek counselling."
Post-playing career
Roberts has the UEFA A Licence for football coaching and, speaking in 2007, had not ruled out getting into management. He told the Eastern Daily Press, "I've done my qualifications. It's just getting a club to give me a chance and taking it." When Norwich sacked Nigel Worthington, Roberts applied for the manager's job. "I tried to go for it ... knowing I wasn't going to get it but I'd never really been for an interview and I thought if I did it would stand me in good stead. But I never got a response from the club and that really disappointed me. A week after Peter Grant got the job I got a letter through the post saying 'We won't be considering you this time'. And I thought 'I've known that for the past seven days'."
Media work
Roberts works in the media. He is bilingual, speaking fluent Welsh, and provides Welsh-language commentary for Sky Sports and BBC Radio Cymru. He also works for BBC Cymru Wales. He writes regularly for the local press in Norfolk, commenting on Norwich City and also contributes to the weekly podcast Elis James Feast of Football with comedian Elis James and fellow Welsh former international player Danny Gabbidon.
Personal life
Roberts was married in 2016, and has three children; a son and twin daughters.
In January 2020, it was reported that Roberts had volunteered for dementia research. It followed research, published by the University of Glasgow in 2019. He has "taken a series of simple memory, attention and spatial-awareness tests and he will repeat them every six months", and will ask former Norwich City colleagues to do the same. As early as in his 2004 autobiography, Roberts had attributed signs of memory loss to heading a football: "I haven't got the best memory... and I think that comes from heading a football so often, especially in the early days when balls were that bit heavier... it must have taken its toll."
Legacy
In 2002, Roberts was made an inaugural member of the Norwich City F.C. Hall of Fame. In 2007, Roberts came third in a vote run by the Norwich Evening News to determine which Norwich legend would be inaugurated into the Professional Footballers' Association Centenary Hall of Fame.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Norwich City
First Division: 2003–04
Individual
PFA Team of the Year: 1991–92 Third Division
References
Bibliography
External links
1968 births
Living people
Footballers from Bangor, Gwynedd
Welsh men's footballers
Wales men's international footballers
Men's association football forwards
Watford F.C. players
Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. players
Gillingham F.C. players
Cambridge United F.C. players
English Football League players
Premier League players
Gillingham F.C. managers
Welsh football managers
People educated at Llanidloes High School
People from Barmouth
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5406531
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20B%C3%A4r
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Heinrich Bär
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Oscar-Heinrich "Pritzl" Bär (; 25 May 1913 – 28 April 1957) was a German Luftwaffe flying ace who served throughout World War II in Europe. Bär flew more than one thousand combat missions, and fought in the Western, Eastern and Mediterranean theatres. On 18 occasions he survived being shot down, and according to records in the German Federal Archives, he claimed to have shot down 228 enemy aircraft and was credited with 208 aerial victories, 16 of which were in a Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter. Sources credit him with 220 – 96 on Eastern Theatre and 124 on Western Theatre – up to 222 aerial victories may also be possible.
Bär, a native of Saxony, joined the Reichswehr in 1934 and transferred to the Luftwaffe in 1935. Serving first as a mechanic, then as a pilot on transport aircraft, he was informally trained as a fighter pilot. He claimed his first aerial victory in September 1939 on the French border. By the end of the Battle of Britain, his tally of victories had increased to 17. Transferred to the Eastern Front to participate in Operation Barbarossa, he quickly accumulated further victories, a feat that earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords for 90 aerial victories in February 1942.
During the remainder of World War II, Bär was credited with 130 other aerial victories, an achievement which would normally have earned him the coveted Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. After World War II, Bär continued his career as an aviator. He was killed in a flying accident on 28 April 1957 near Braunschweig.
Early life
Bär was born on 25 May 1913 in Sommerfeld near Leipzig in the Kingdom of Saxony, a federated state of the German Empire. His parents were farmers, and in 1916, his father was killed in action on the Western Front of World War I. Bär attended the Volksschule, a combined primary and lower secondary school, in Sommerfeld. Initially, he planned on taking over the family farm in Engelsdorf and following graduation attended the agriculture school in Wurzen. Aged 15, he became a glider pilot, joining the glider club on the "Schwarzer Berg" (Black Mountain) at Taucha. Bär then wanted to become a forester, for everything associated with wildlife and forests interested him. His first sight of a Junkers transport aircraft changed his mind and convinced him that he should become an aviator. As a teenager, he had ambitions to become an airline pilot with Deutsche Luft Hansa. He acquired the nickname Pritzl because of his affection for Pritzl candy bars.
The Great Depression prevented Bär from gaining a civil pilot license; three separate licenses were required by airlines. In 1934, he joined the Reichswehr and was assigned to the 3. Kompanie of Kraftfahrabteilung 4 (3rd Company of the 4th Motor Vehicle Battalion) as a mechanic. He served in this position until the following year, when he was transferred to a combat wing of the Luftwaffe. A few months later, he was accepted for pilot training, receiving his transport aircraft pilot's training. From 1 November 1937 to 31 March 1938, Bär attended the flight school at Oldenburg and was then transferred to the flight school at Hildesheim. He was transferred again, attending the flight school at Ludwigslust where he attained his Luftwaffe Advanced Pilot's Certificate (Erweiterter Luftwaffen-Flugzeugführerschein), also known as 'C'-Certificate, confirming proficiency on multi-engine aircraft, on 16 May 1938. Bär then attended the blind flying school Blindflugschule 2 (BFS 2—2nd blind flying school) at Neuburg an der Donau from 7 July to 14 August 1938. He was transferred to I./Jagdgeschwader 135, the core of the future Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51), on 1 September 1938, usually flying the Junkers Ju 86. The Squadron Leader (Staffelkapitän) Douglas Pitcairn noticed Bär's flying talents and tried to convince Bär to become a fighter pilot. Initially Bär refused, but after he illegally conducted some aerobatics in the Ju 86 leading to an engine failure, he reluctantly accepted and became a fighter pilot.
World War II
Stationed on the border with France, Bär achieved his first victory—a Curtiss P-36 Hawk—on 25 September 1939 during the Phoney War air skirmishes with the Armée de l'Air (French Air Force). This earned him the Iron Cross 2nd Class () on 29 September 1939 which was presented to him by Hugo Sperrle. During the Battle of France, he was credited with two more aerial victories before adding a further 10 during the Battle of Britain and was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class () on 6 July 1940. During this time, he had several emergency landings in badly damaged aircraft and was shot down over the English Channel on 2 September 1940 by a Spitfire. Bär was summoned to appear before Hermann Göring and report on this battle. When Göring asked him what he was thinking about while in the water, Bär immediately replied, "Your speech, Herr Reichsmarschall, in which you said that England is no longer an island!", alluding to an address that Göring had made before the German fighter pilots. Incidents like this are testimony to his often blatant disregard for higher authority. His outspokenness frequently landed him in trouble with Göring. In early 1941, he was credited with an additional four aerial victories against the Royal Air Force (RAF), bringing his total to 17.
Eastern Front
In June 1941, JG 51 was transferred east to take part in Operation Barbarossa with 1. Staffel. On the morning of 22 June, Bär and his wingman Oberfeldwebel Heinrich Höfemeier were escorting a damaged Heinkel He 111 over German lines when they made contact with 18 Tupolev SB bombers from the 39 SBAP (Skorostnoy Bombardirovohchnyy Aviatsionny Polk—high speed bomber aviation regiment) and 10 SAD (Smeshannaya Aviatsionnaya Diviziya—composite aviation regiment). The German pilots attacked; Höfemeier claimed four, Bär two—though the former was wounded in the arm. The Germans noted the vulnerability of the Soviet aircraft which lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and had a propensity to burst into flames. More JG 51 Bf 109s appeared and claimed six more. None of the 18 bombers returned home. Bär had achieved his 19th and 20th victories.
JG 51 at the time was part of Fliegerkorps II, operating in the central sector of the Eastern Front. Bär claimed five aerial victories on 30 June 1941, bringing his total to 22. On that day JG 51 was credited with 113 aerial victories in total, among them their 1,000th aerial victory—the first unit to reach this figure—and Oberst Werner Mölders, with 82 aerial victories, surpassed Manfred von Richthofen in number of victories. The Geschwader recorded 24 separate engagements in a 14-hour period and lost five Bf 109s. Bär's opponents included Ilyushin DB-3 bombers from the 42nd and 52nd DBA (Dal'me-Bombardirovochnaya Aviatsiya—long range aviation bomber regiment). Five Tupolev TB-3s from the 3rd TBAP were also claimed.
Within two weeks of combat against the Soviet Air Force, Bär's tally rose to 27, which earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () on 2 July, followed by his promotion to Oberleutnant on 1 August 1941. On 5 July, Bär or Mölders may also have shot down the Soviet fighter ace Podpolkovnik (Lieutenant Colonel) Stepan Suprun from the 401 IAP (Istrebitel'nyy Aviatsionyy Polk—fighter aviation regiment) and holder of the Hero of the Soviet Union.
Squadron leader
On 20 July 1941, Bär was transferred to IV. Gruppe of JG 51 where he was appointed Staffelkapitän of 12. Staffel. He succeeded Hauptmann Karl-Gottfried Nordmann who had been placed in command of IV. Gruppe. Bär accounted for a Petlyakov Pe-2 on 23 July. Three were lost from the 411 BAP (Bombardirovochnyy Aviatsionyy Polk—bomber aviation regiment) operating under the OSNAZ (Osoboye Naznachenie—Special purpose-unit or task force). German pilots submitted three claims. On 9 August a SB bomber was claimed from a formation of eight belonging to the 57 BAP's 3rd Eskadrilya—five Soviet aircraft were shot down. Bär had achieved his 55th victory.
On 14 August, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () for achieving 60 victories, and on 30 August he became an "ace-in-a-day" by shooting down six Soviet aircraft. On 31 August, Bär was shot down by an Ilyushin Il-2 some behind Soviet lines, near Novgorod-Seversky. He suffered injuries to his back and feet while bailing out. Bär evaded Soviet patrols which rushed to the crash site. Bär remained in hiding through to the following night. He turned his leather jacket inside-out and discarded his flying boots to present himself as a Russian peasant. Vanity prevented him from throwing away the Knight's Cross and Oak Leaves and he hid the items. Bär eventually made it to German lines but aggravated his injuries and spent two months in hospital. During his convalescence, 12. Staffel was temporarily led by Leutnant Bernd Gallowitsch.
Bär was promoted to Hauptmann in late 1941 and appointed Squadron Leader of 12./JG 51 in early 1942. By late 1941, after Mölders (115), Lützow (100), Galland (96) and Gollob (85), Bär's 80 placed him among the leading pilots of the war. His longtime wingman at the time was Heinrich Hoffmann. From January he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) of IV Gruppe. At this time, JG 51 was only the second of two fighter groups that continued to operate the Bf 109E in winter 1941. He received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords () on 16 February as his tally rose to 90. This achievement was mentioned in the daily Wehrmachtbericht propaganda bulletin on 12 February 1942, his first of three references during the course of the war. Three months later he was referenced again.
On 11 May, Bär was transferred from IV./JG 51 on the Moscow front to take command of I. Gruppe of Gordon Gollob's Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77) flying wing. Bär replaced Herbert Ihlefeld who had been transferred. JG 77 was tasked with supporting the hard fighting in the Crimean Campaign over the Kerch Strait on the Crimean Peninsula. Led by the flying aces (Experten) Gollob and Bär, JG 77 took over the air space above Kerch-Taman as Gollob and Bär shot down two and three LaGG-3s respectively, raising Bär's victory total to 93. Mutual animosity between the two men, Gollob, a disciplinarian pro-Nazi, and Bär, an anti-authoritarian, ensured an intense rivalry. On 19 May 1942, Bär claimed five further aerial victories—including a Polikarpov R-5 in the morning and four Polikarpov I-16s in one afternoon mission: his victory total now stood at 103. He was the 9th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. That same day, Inspector of Fighters (General der Jagdflieger) Adolf Galland arrived to inspect Bär's I./JG 77 and JG 77 surpassed 2,000 victories. This flying achievement earned Bär a second mention in the daily Wehrmachtbericht on 20 May 1942.
Mediterranean theater
In June 1942, JG 77 was moved to the Mediterranean theater and took part in the air battles over Malta before relocating to Tunisia and participating in the North African campaign. On 13 October 1942 he accounted for three Spitfire fighters from 185 and 1345 Squadron near the Sicilian coast. I./JG 77 soon transferred to North Africa and took part in the Tunisian Campaign.
On 1 January 1943 Bär submitted one of two claims against 12 Curtiss P-40 Warhawks of 3 Squadron RAAF. Flying Officer Ritchie and Sergeant Roediger were lost but Bär did not receive credit. Bär claimed two B-25 Mitchell bombers and three P-40s on 14 January which do not appear to have been credited. Two claims for P-40s destroyed on 18 January were also not granted.
On 25 January 1943, Bär claimed two Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk/Warhawk fighters, taking his total to 149 aerial victories. The Allied units involved were 112 Sqn RAF, 450 Sqn RAAF, 65th FS, USAAF and 66th FS, USAAF. (A South African bomber squadron, 21 Squadron SAAF, was also reportedly involved.) The Germans claimed 10 P-40s. 450 and 112 Squadrons lost one each while the 65th Squadron lost three and the 66th two. After Bär achieved his 149th aerial victory, General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim submitted him for the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. Reich Marshal Hermann Göring ignored this request, denying Bär the "Diamonds". The reason for this remains uncertain, but it is believed that Göring disliked Bär for his insubordinate character and strong Upper Saxon dialect, which Göring was known to detest. On 27 January 1943, Bär surpassed the 150 aerial victory mark. Bär's opponents were probably USAAF P-40s and P-39 Airacobras from the 33rd and 81st Fighter Group.
On 4 February Bär led I. Gruppe into action against Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers from the 97th and 301st Bomb Group and their Lockheed P-38 Lightning escorts from the 1st Fighter Group. Bär claimed one B-17. On 15 February Bär claimed two USAAF Spitfires. The American pilots were possibly Lieutenant Joe Reed and H. E Huntingdon from the 31st Fighter Group. After an uncredited claim on 24 February over a P-40 Bär accounted for five on two days later. German fighter units claimed 13 against an actual 14 (possible 15) and several more damaged. Seven of the British pilots were unhurt. The following day he was credited with another P-40 in combat with 11 pilots from 4 Squadron SAAF. Records suggest he may have claimed three but was only credited with one.
Bär and his I. Gruppe of JG 77 operated from Fatnassa, Tunisia, in early March 1943. On 1 or 2 March, Bär claimed a Spitfire shot down. Then in the evening met Galland, who was making a surprise visit to I./JG 77. Galland was greeted by Major Joachim Müncheberg, who introduced Bär to Galland. Thus began a comradeship which outlasted World War II. On 6 March 92 Squadron Spitfires provided cover for 1 SAAF Squadron. They were supported by 601. Bär spotted their approach and climbed then dived onto the British. Bär accounted for two Spitfires—Flight Sergeant Tilston, from 601, was forced to bail out and Flying Officer Mahon from the South African unit was killed.
Over North Africa and the Mediterranean theater, Bär had increased his tally to 179, but, fighting a losing battle against ever-increasing Allied air superiority, Bär lost his fighting spirit, and suffered severe mental and physical exhaustion. After several arguments with Hermann Göring and JG 77's new commander, Colonel Johannes Steinhoff, in mid-1943 Bär was transferred to France "for cowardice before the enemy" and demoted to squadron leader. He took over command of an operational training unit, Jagdgruppe Süd.
Defense of the Reich
His combat skills were hard to overlook and hence Bär was transferred to II./Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1) on 21 January 1944 as an ordinary pilot. He was assigned to 6./JG 1. Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1) Wing Commander (Geschwaderkommodore) Colonel Walter Oesau welcomed him with a reminder that he had promised Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) Göring that Bär would not be given any command responsibilities. Although Bär accepted this with humor, he later commented to others that in the air he was the "Kommodore of his own crate".
On 15 March 1944, Bär, now a Major and rehabilitated from the demotion, was given command of II./Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1). This was after the death of Hauptmann Hermann Segatz on 8 March 1944. JG 1 was tasked with Reichsverteidigung (Defense of the Reich) and equipped with the Focke Wulf 190 A-7 fighter. Morale of the group soared following his appointment. He was considered the unofficial leader of the group and the best officer in the entire Geschwader. On 11 April 1944, Bär achieved his 199th aerial victory over a B-17 near Fallersleben. His 200th aerial victory, a Consolidated B-24 Liberator, was claimed on 22 April accompanied by his regular wingman Warrant Officer (Oberfeldwebel) Leo Schuhmacher, who would be awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 March 1945 as a fighter pilot in II./JG 1. Bär had just landed at Störmede airfield from a II./JG 1 intercept when a smoking United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-24 of the 458th Bombardment Group passed overhead. Bär and his wingman quickly got into their aircraft and intercepted the B-24. The bomber's gunners had already bailed out of the aircraft, making it an easy aerial victory. Bär returned to Störmede airfield to the congratulations of his men. This double century victory earned Bär his third and final reference in the Wehrmachtbericht on 24 April 1944. After Oesau's death on 11 May 1944, Bär was made acting Wing Commander of JG 1. In June, he was appointed Wing Commander of Jagdgeschwader 3 (JG 3) following the death of Friedrich-Karl Müller. By the end of 1944, Bär's score had risen to 203.
Bär claimed his 204th and 205th victories against two Hawker Typhoons on 1 January 1945 during Operation Bodenplatte, a Luftwaffe mass attack against Allied airfields in the Benelux area. One of Bär's 'aerial kills' may not have been airborne. Historian Norman Franks states both aircraft, from No. 438 Squadron RAF, were taxiing when hit. Flight Lieutenant Pete Wilson was wounded and later died from his injuries after Bär's strafing attack. The second Typhoon did get airborne. Its pilot, Flight Officer Ross Keller, was killed. This version of events is contradicted by a witness, Pilot Officer 'Bill' Harle, who thought both aircraft were airborne.
Combat in the Me 262
On 14 February, Bär was transferred to command the jet fighter training unit III. Gruppe of Ergänzungs-Jagdgeschwader 2 (EJG 2). In March, the unit was equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter and sent into battle. Bär shot down 13 Allied aircraft, many of them heavy bombers like the B-17 and the B-24. EJG 2 abandoned Lechfeld Airfield for the airfield was under constant attack and was now threatened by the United States Army.
On 23 April, Bär transferred to the elite Jet Experten unit Jagdverband 44 (JV 44), led by Adolf Galland. The following day Bär briefed JV 44 pilots in Galland's absence. The air defences had detected an incoming American formation and Bär instructed the jet pilots on the appropriate tactical approach to take when the interception was made. Klaus Neumann, Walter Krupinski and Günther Lützow flew on the mission. Lutzöw was posted missing in action and remains missing to date.
On 26 April, he assumed command of the unit after Galland was wounded. Bär possibly flew his first operational sortie with JV 44 on 27 April 1945. Flying the Me 262 A-1/U5, a six MK 108 cannon prototype, he was accompanied by Major Wilhelm Herget and the non-commissioned officer NCO (Unteroffizier) Franz Köster when the trio engaged American fighters over Munich-Riem Airfield; Bär claimed one aerial victory. While not flying operationally, Bär spent most of his time giving hasty instruction to the new pilots still being assigned to JV 44. With JV 44, he achieved his final four aerial victories (3 P-47s and 1 Mosquito) on 28 April, bringing his total to 220. All told, he had achieved 16 victories in the Me 262, making him the second most successful Jet Expert of the war, which he finished as a Lieutenant Colonel (Oberstleutnant).
During the final days of the Second World War in Europe, Lieutenant General (Generalleutnant) Adolf Galland attempted to surrender JV 44 to American forces from his hospital bed. At the same time, Air General (General der Flieger) Karl Koller had ordered JV 44 to relocate to Prague and continue fighting. Bär, as a Galland loyalist, attempted to ignore the order. Bär was further pressured to relocate JV 44 when Major General (Generalmajor) Dietrich Peltz, commander of IX. Fliegerkorps, and Colonel Hajo Herrmann, commander of 9. Flieger-Division (J), unexpectedly emerged at the control room in Maxglan on 2 May 1945. A heated and violent dispute erupted between Bär, Peltz and Herrmann, witnessed by Walter Krupinski. He later recalled that Bär responded with "Yes, sir, but we are under the command of Generalleutnant Galland, and I will only follow orders of Generalleutnant Galland!"—a final act of disobedience that Krupinski believed could have led to Bär being shot for insubordination.
In the early morning hours of 4 May 1945, Bär gathered the pilots of JV 44 for a final briefing. Bär ordered the remaining Me 262 destroyed before going into captivity and interrogation by US intelligence officers of the 1st Tactical Air Force's Air Prisoner of War Interrogation Unit, based at Heidelberg.
After the war
Bär did not return to his home in Sommerfeld after World War II. He settled in Braunschweig, where he continued his career in aviation, including a lead position for motor-powered flight with the Deutscher Aero Club. He also worked as a consultant and test pilot in the field of sport aviation, testing aircraft before they went on the market. On 28 April 1957, while conducting a routine flight-check in a light aircraft, a LF-1 Zaunkönig, Bär put the aircraft into a flat spin, the final manoeuvre in the test process. The aircraft spun down to ; unable to regain control, Bär was killed in the resulting crash at Braunschweig-Waggum.
In fringe culture
The National-Zeitung, a far-right German newspaper, featured a portrayal of Bär in its series "Great German Soldiers: Immortal Heroes" in May 2000. The National-Zeitung glorified Bär's "reliability" and "bravado" and claimed that he was a "daredevil in the best sense". In Jagdgeschwader 51, the newspaper continued, he quickly gained fame and honour through daring actions; after his total of 18 kills, he had been "immediately back in action" with barely treated wounds. In the series, only soldiers loyal to the Nazi regime were honoured, in part through the use of linguistic formulas originally employed by the Wehrmacht and Nazi propaganda.
According to political scientist , the series fits "the idea of men focused on the deed and shaping the course of history in the interest of the 'national' or 'völkisch' community", an idea which is to be found on the far right. At the same time, Virchow argues, the characterizations point to a concept of masculinity whose very one-sided characteristics could be described by qualities such as "hardness", "sacrificial will", "heroism in the face of death", "bravery", "resilience", "dash" or "stamina".
Summary of career
Bär, call sign "Bussard 1", flew more than 1,000 combat missions. His 220 confirmed aerial victories place him eighth on the overall list of aces. His claim of 124 aerial victories over Western-flown aircraft is second only to Hans-Joachim Marseille's total of 158; almost all of the latter's victories occurred in Africa. He achieved four victories during the Battle of France, 13 during the Battle of Britain, and 61 over Libya and Tunisia. On the Eastern Front he had claimed 96 aerial victories. At least 75 of his victories had been claimed against British- and American-flown aircraft over Europe, 16 of these while flying the Me 262 jet fighter. Also among these 75 aerial victories are 21 US heavy bombers and one Mosquito. Bär crash-landed or bailed out 18 times and was wounded three times in combat.
Aerial victory claims
According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Bär was credited with 221 aerial victories. Obermaier also lists him with 221 aerial victories. The highest figure is given by Aders and Held who list Bär with 222 aerial victory claims. According to Spick, as well as by Morgan and Weal, Bär was credited with 220 aerial victories. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces – Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 208 aerial victory claims, plus 20 further unconfirmed claims. This figure includes 95 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and 113 on the Western Front, including 14 four-engined bombers and 15 victories with the Me 262 jet fighter.
Awards
German Cross in Gold on 27 May 1942 as Hauptmann in the I./JG 77
Combined Pilots-Observation Badge
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe on 8 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur
Iron Cross (1939)
2nd Class (29 September 1939)
1st Class (6 July 1940)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight's Cross on 2 July 1941 as pilot and Leutnant in the 1./JG 51
31st Oak Leaves on 14 August 1941 as Leutnant and pilot in the 1./JG 51
7th Swords on 16 February 1942 as Hauptmann and Staffelkapitän of the 1./JG 51
Three named references in the Wehrmachtbericht (12 February 1942, 20 May 1942, 24 April 1944)
Three times Bär was recommended for the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. All three commendations were denied by Hermann Göring. Bär shot down a further 130 enemy aircraft after he had received the Swords.
Dates of rank
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
1913 births
1957 deaths
Deaths in West Germany
German test pilots
German World War II flying aces
People from Lubsko
Military personnel from the Province of Brandenburg
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Reichswehr personnel
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1957
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weinstadt
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Weinstadt
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Weinstadt (meaning "Wine City") is a town in the Rems-Murr district, in the state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located in the Rems Valley approximately 15 km east of Stuttgart. Its population in 2012 was 25,998.
The town is composed of five districts or Stadtteile which were formerly independent towns and villages. They are Beutelsbach, Endersbach, Großheppach, Strümpfelbach, and Schnait. The five towns were combined to form the city of Weinstadt in 1975. Today, the city is the 6th largest in Rems-Murr-Kreis.
As the name implies, Weinstadt is best known for its vineyards and production of wine. The Remstalkellerei (Rems Valley Winery), in the Beutelsbach neighborhood of Weinstadt, is a cooperative owned by the local growers and is the tenth-largest winery in Germany.
From 1958 through 1976, Stanford University in California, United States, maintained an "overseas campus" for Stanford undergraduates in Beutelsbach. The hilltop campus is now the Landgut Burg hotel and conference center.
Geography
Geographical location
The city limits of Weinstadt span the river Rems, which flows through the Rems Valley (Remstal) into the Neckar Basin. The Rems flows into the Neckar at Remseck am Neckar. The Stadtteil Großheppach lies to the north of the Rems, while the other Stadtteile lie to the south. At the southern part of the city, the vineyards climb the slopes at the edge of Schurwald. All Stadtteile have vineyards; that is the source for the name "Weinstadt."
Neighboring cities and municipalities
The following cities and municipalities border Weinstadt (listed clockwise from west): Kernen im Remstal; Waiblingen; Korb, an exclave of Waiblingen; Remshalden; and Winterbach (all in Rems-Murr-Kreis); and Baltmannsweiler and Aichwald (in Landkreis Esslingen).
Composition of the Stadtteile
Weinstadt is composed of the following Stadtteile (residents as of March 31, 2010, noted in parentheses):
Beutelsbach (8,464)
Endersbach (7,351)
Großheppach (4,485)
Schnait (3,254)
Strümpfelbach (2,411)
The borders of each Stadtteil follow exactly the pre-1975 town or village borders.
In addition to these Stadtteile, there are also some named residential areas, which, in some cases, do not have official boundaries.
The farmstead Schönbühl, the estate Burg, and the settlement Benzach belong to Beutelsbach.
The abandoned village Wintzen belongs to Endersbach.
The Weiler Gundelsbach and the estate Wolfshof belong to Großheppach.
The municipal area Baach and the estate Saffrichhof, as well as the abandoned village Mühlhöflein, belong to Schnait.
Kleinheppach, which is adjacent to Großheppach, is part of the municipality of Korb.
Development and land use planning
Weinstadt forms a local commercial center for 50,000 residents within the sub-metropolitan area of Waiblingen/Fellbach and the Stuttgart metropolitan area.
History
Weinstadt came into existence as part of a district reform on January 1, 1975, in which the then-independent towns of Beutelsbach, Endersbach, Großheppach, and Schnait were combined.
Strümpfelbach had previously been annexed by Endersbach on January 1, 1973. Because of this earlier structure, there are now five town centers within Weinstadt. The town centers of Endersbach and Beutelsbach give the impression of independent cities.
The newly created municipality of Weinstadt had more than 20,000 residents when it was founded. Even so, it wasn't until 1978 that the administration applied for so-called Große Kreisstadt status. The state government approved the application with an effective date of January 1, 1979.
The original towns were old Württemberg settlements which have a long history.
Prior to uniting to form the city of Weinstadt in 1975, all five then-towns were added to the newly created Rems-Murr district as part of a district reform in 1973.
Beutelsbach
Endersbach
Endersbach was first identified as Andrespach in 1278 and probably joined Württemberg as part of Schorndorf. Unlike Beutelsbach, Endersbach belonged from 1762 until 1765 and then again from 1807 to the Oberamt Waiblingen (an administrative district within Württemberg), which in 1938 became the Waiblingen district.
Großheppach
Schnait
Schnait was originally identified as Snait. The town likely joined Württemberg along with Beutelsbach, although other feudal lords had rights to the town until 1605. It belonged – like Beutelsbach – to Amt/Oberamt Schorndorf (an administrative district within Württemberg). After the dissolution of Oberamt Schorndorf in 1938, Schnait joined the Waiblingen district.
Strümpfelbach
Strümpfelbach was first identified as Striumphilbach in 1265 and likely became part of Württemberg in the 13th century. The town belonged to the Amt/Oberamt Schorndorf (an administrative district within Württemberg) and then from 1762 until 1765 and then again from 1807 to the Oberamt Waiblingen (an administrative district within Württemberg), which in 1938 became the Waiblingen district.
Religions
As a result of belonging to the Grafschaft and later Duchy of Württemberg, the Reformation was brought to all five of the now-Stadtteile of Weinstadt. For centuries the towns were almost exclusively Protestant. The five evangelical parishes belonged, in accordance with the town governance, to the respective ecclesiastical districts of the Oberamts of Waiblingen and Schorndorf under the auspices of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg. Endersbach, Großheppach and Strümpfelbach belong to the ecclesiastical district of Waiblingen, while Beutelsbach and Schnait belong to the ecclesiastical district of Schorndorf.
Because of the influx of Catholics from Bavaria during the building of the railroad and especially after the Second World War, Catholic ecclesiastical districts and churches took root in what is now Weinstadt. In 1956 the Church of St. Anna was built in Beutelsbach, and the Church of Saint Andrew was built in Endersbach. In 1971 Schnait received its own Church of the Holy Cross, the members of which belong to the Beutelsbach parish. Shortly thereafter in 1974, Großheppach also received its own Catholic church—the Church of Saint Stephen. The congregation of the Church of Saint Stephen, as well as the Catholic Church members from Strümpfelbach, belong to the parish of Endersbach. All of the Weinstadt Catholic churches belong to the Deanery of Waiblingen of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart. In addition, the New Apostolic Church and the Jehovah's Witnesses are also represented.
Population growth
The values below are either the results of the census (¹) or the official published statistics for the respective city office (only primary residence).
¹ Census Results
Politics
City council
Since the most recent local election in Baden-Württemberg in 2014, the city council of Weinstadt has had 26 members. Voter participation in that election was 52.42%. The results of the election were as follows:
The mayor is the head of the town council.
1Free Voters Weinstadt e.V. (Free Voters Weinstadt),
2Grüne Offene Liste Weinstadt (Green Open List Weinstadt)
Mayor
The mayor is the immediate head of the government of Weinstadt. When the city was recognized as a Große Kreisstadt on January 1, 1979, the mayor's title was changed from Bürgermeister to Oberbürgermeister. The mayor is elected directly by the eligible voters for an 8-year term and is the head of the city council. The mayor also has a deputy, whose title is Erster Bürgermeister or "first mayor."
Mayors:
1975–2000: Jürgen Hofer (FDP)
2000–2016: Jürgen Oswald (CDU)
2016–present: Michael Scharmann
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Weinstadt displays: "Unter goldenem Schildhaupt, darin eine liegende schwarze Hirschstange, in Schwarz eine goldene Traube" ("a golden banner, across which a deer antler lies, and on black a golden bunch of grapes.") The city flag is yellow and black. Both the coat of arms and the flag were awarded to Weinstadt on May 3, 1976, by the Landratsamt of Rems-Murr county.
The grape bunch symbolizes wine growing, for which the city was named. The Württemberg deer antler references the lengthy inclusion of the former villages and towns of Weinstadt within Württemberg.
Sister cities
Weinstadt has maintained a partnership with the French city Parthenay since 1980 and with the Polish city Międzychód since 1990. City friendships also exist with the cities Abrantes (Portugal), Arnedo (Spain), Casale Monferrato (Italy) and Tipperary (Ireland).
Culture and interesting sites
Cultural events occur predominantly in the various halls in the city limits: Halle Beutelsbach, Jahnhalle Endersbach, Prinz-Eugen-Halle Großheppach, Schnaiter Halle, and Strümpfelbacher Halle. There is additionally the Alte Kelter in Strümpfelbach, which can also be used for events.
In the vineyard hills of Strümpfelbach there is a sculpture walk. Twenty-nine bronze and stone sculptures from three generations of artists line the path through the vineyards of Strümpfelbach: bronze works by Professor Fritz Nuss and his son Professor Karl Ulrich Nuss as well as stone sculptures by Christoph Traub, the grandson of Professor Fritz Nuss.
The stone works by Schnait hobby sculptor and wine grower Ludwig Heeß can be observed along another sculpture walk in the vineyards, the Skulpturen- und Weinlehrweg Schnait (sculpture and wine discovery trail). Among these works are the Weinpresse (wine press), Traubenwagen (grape cart), Gölte, Ablässe, Weintisch (wine table), Wengerterfrau (wine grower woman), and Traubenzuber (tub of grapes).
A plaque in the Endersbach cemetery memorializes the baptist conscientious objector Alfred Herbst, who was killed in 1943 in Brandenburg-Görden.
The viewpoint Karlstein looks out from the vineyard hills between Endersbach and Strümpfelbach.
Museums
The local history museum in Beutelsbach (Heimatmuseum Beutelsbach) in the former town hall houses the peasant revolt exhibit and the East German Heimatstube (home-town room).
Both Endersbach and Strümpfelbach have their own local history museum. The museum in Endersbach contains oil paintings and pastel drawings by the painter Karl Wilhelm Bauerle (aka Carl Bowerley) (1831–1912), who was born in Endersbach.
The Nuss-Museum in Strümpfelbach as well as the sculpture walk in Strümpfelbach, which wanders among the vineyard hills.
The Silcher Museum of the Swabian Choir Association in Schnait, housed in the birthplace of the composer Friedrich Silcher, presents his life and works.
Architecture
The most significant structure and symbol of the city is the Stiftskirche (collegiate church) in Beutelsbach, the former burial location of the House of Württemberg. The current church was constructed in 1522, although there had previously been a church on that site.
The Endersbach parish church is a late-Gothic former fortified church. The nave was built in 1468, the choir and sacristy in 1491, and the tower in 1769. In 1730 the nave was redecorated in Baroque style.
The church in Schnait is more recent. It was initially built in 1748 as a so-called Emporensaal (gallery hall).
The parish church in Strümpfelbach is a late-Gothic choir-tower structure, which was expanded in 1784.
In Großheppach, the Schloss Großheppach (Großheppach Castle) from 1592 is particularly worth seeing. Since around 1900 it has belonged to the family von Gaisberg, and by 1749 it belonged to a maternal-line ancestor of this family. Today, it's one of the few privately owned castles in Baden-Württemberg. The Schloss Schnait (Schnait Castle) in Schnait is a favorite day-trip destination for those interested in half-timbered houses.
Regular events
A yearly spring market and harvest market take place in Beutelsbach, and Beutelsbach also hosts a Weindorf (wine village festival), which takes place around May 1, and draws visitors from near and far. In Endersbach, there is a Fensterblümlesmarkt (window flower market) on the second Wednesday in May, a wine festival and merchant's market in September, and a Christmas market in December. In Schnait there's a Martinimarkt (St. Martin's Market) each year, and in Großheppach there is a Festival of 100 Wines at the Häckermühle in September. The yearly 3-day Kelterfest takes place in Strümpfelbach. The Nacht der Keller (Night of the Cellars) is especially noteworthy. At that event, the various wine producers present their wine in vaulted cellars throughout Weinstadt.
Additionally, the Bacchus Festival, which the Stadtteil take turns organizing, takes place every two to three years. In May and June, wine tastings take place in the vineyards of Großheppach (on Mother's day weekend) and in Endersbach.
Also known in the region are the Beutelsbach Kirbe (harvest festival) and Schnait Kirbe, which take place in October and August respectively.
Economy and infrastructure
The economy of the then-cities that now make up Weinstadt was primarily based on wine production. With 489 hectares of vineyard (as of 2011), Weinstadt has the fourth-largest area of any wine-producing community in Württemberg. Today, some medium-sized businesses have also been established in Weinstadt. In addition, many employees commute to the nearby cities, particularly Waiblingen and Stuttgart.
Transit
The Bundesstraße 29 Stuttgart–Schwäbisch Gmünd–Aalen crosses the city.
Weinstadt is located on the Remsbahn Stuttgart–Aalen (–Nürnberg). The Stuttgart S-Bahn line S2 also follows this stretch of track (Schorndorf–Stuttgart–Stuttgart Airport–Filderstadt). The following stations lie within the city limits of Weinstadt: Stetten-Beinstein, Endersbach and Beutelsbach. Multiple bus lines provide service within the city limits. All lines can be used based on a unified price structure under the authority of the Stuttgart Transit Association (Verkehrsverbund Stuttgart or VVS).
Media
The daily newspaper Waiblinger Kreiszeitung covers Weinstadt. Each household receives the weekly Weinstadt Woche (Weinstadt Week), the official communication organ of the city, at no cost. Furthermore, the weekly Blättle (in some cases s’Blättle), which reports on the church, club, and other events from the previous week, is also delivered free of charge.
Weinstadt has been the headquarters of the online community Kwick since 2001.
Public facilities
Weinstadt has two notary publics, both located in Beutelsbach.
Education
In Weinstadt there is a Gymnasium (Remstal-Gymnasium), a Realschule (Reinhold-Nägele-Realschule), a Werkrealschule (Erich Kästner-Schule) and a Special Education School (Vollmarschule), which are all located in the Bildungszentrum Weinstadt (Weinstadt Educational Center) between Endersbach and Beutelsbach.
In addition, each Stadtteil has its own elementary school, of which the schools in Endersbach (Silcherschule) and Großheppach (Friedrich-Schiller-Schule) carry special names.
Two private schools—the Fachschule für Sozialpädagogik and the Fachschule für Altenpflege of the Großheppacher Schwesternschaft round out the educational offerings in Weinstadt. The Volkshochschule Unteres Remstal e.V. (Community College of Lower Rems Valley) has its secondary office in the Haus Wabe in Weinstadt.
Clubs
With around 1700 members, the SV Weinstadt (Sport Club Weinstadt) is, along with the VfL Endersbach, one of the two largest sport clubs. It was founded in 1897 as the TSV Beutelsbach and was renamed SV Weinstadt in 2001. SV Weinstadt activities include: handball, track and field, swimming, Taekwondo, table tennis, gymnastics, and volleyball, among others.
VfL Endersbach was founded in 1908 and also has approximately 1700 members. As a multiple-department club it has a broad offering. Departments include: gymnastics, handball, track and field, swimming, skiing, basketball, heart sport, and disabled sport. For all children and youths, the VfL youth department puts on various additional activities.
There are three football clubs in Weinstadt: the SC Weinstadt, the TSV Großheppach, and the TSV Strümpfelbach. The first two of these came into existence when the FV Weinstadt split in 2005.
In 1997 the Handballspielgemeinschaft Weinstadt (HSG Weinstadt) was formed from the handball departments of the VfL Endersbach and the TSV Großheppach. In 2011, it combined with the handball department of the SV Weinstadt to form the Spielgemeinschaft Weinstadt Handball (SG Weinstadt). With five active men, two active women, and for the most part doubly populated youth teams of all age groups, the SG Weinstadt Handball is one of the largest handball clubs in Rems-Murr county.
The BG Endersbach is a basketball club with a home in the VfL Endersbach.
The Tennisclub Weinstadt Endersbach e.V., founded on December 7, 1967, is the oldest tennis club in Weinstadt.
Notable people
Honorary citizens
The city of Weinstadt and/or the earlier townships have bestowed the right of honorary citizenship on the following people (in addition to others):
1949: Karl and Oskar Birkel, owners and managers of the 1909-1998 Endersbach-based Schwabennudelwerke B. Birkel Söhne (Endersbach)
1950: Christian Graze, owner of the Graze Bienenzuchtgerätefabrik, which has been based in Endersbach since 1872 (Endersbach)
1972: Sophie Weishaar, senior teacher and chronicler (Strümpfelbach)
1972: Karl-Christian Birkel, owner and manager of the Schwabennudelwerke B. Birkel Söhne (Endersbach)
1974: Hermann Plessing, Mayor of Beutelsbach (Beutelsbach)
1977: Prof. Fritz Nuss, Skulptor from Strümpfelbach
1983: Walter Eberhardt, Mayor of Strümpfelbach
2007: Jürgen Hofer, Mayor of Weinstadt from 1975 to 2000
Karl Baisch, owner and manager of the Fabrik für Arzt- und Zahnarztpraxenmobiliar (factory for medicinal and dental furnishings) and primary donor for the construction of the indoor swimming pool in Beutelsbach
Karl Dippon, wine grower and politician
Sons and daughters of the city
Peter Gais, Gaispeter from Beutelsbach, led 1514 the peasant revolt of the Poor Conrad against the Duke of Württemberg
Georg Daniel Auberlen (1728–1784), schoolmaster, musician, and composer
Philipp Friedrich Silcher (1789–1860), song composer
Karl Wilhelm Bauerle (English: Carl Bowerley) (1831–1912), painter, from 1869 at the court of Queen Victoria
Karl Dippon (1901–1981), wine grower and politician, member of the state parliament
Heinrich von Idler (1802–1878), Württemberg Oberamtmann, member of the state parliament
Mathias Richling (born 1953), cabaret artist
Juan Amador (born 1968), cook
People who lived and worked in Weinstadt
Johann Jakob Thill (1747–1772), poet esteemed by Friedrich Hölderlin
Karl-Georg Pfleiderer (1899–1957), lived in Landgut Burg near Beutelsbach
Gotthilf Fischer (1928–2020), choral conductor, lived in Weinstadt
Jürgen Rohwer (1924–2015), naval historian, lived in Weinstadt
Literature
Sophie Weishaar: Strümpfelbach im Remstal 1265–1965. 1966, Verlag Eugen Hauchler, Leinfelden and Biberach an der Riß.
Walter, Heinz E. (Hrsg.): Das Ortsbuch von Endersbach 1278–1978. 1978, Ortsbücher-Verlag, Burg Liebenstein.
Ulrich Stolte: Dichter im amusischen Württemberg. Ein neues Autograph von Friedrich Hölderlins Idol Johann Jakob Thill. In: Stuttgarter Arbeiten zur Germanistik, Nr. 423. Stuttgart: Hans-Dieter Heinz, Akademischer Verlag 2004 [2005], S. 95–110. (.)
Wolf Eiermann: Das unbekannte Oeuvre des deutsch-englischen Malers Carl Bauerle (1831–1912). In: Schwäbische Heimat 57 (2006), Issue 1 (Januar-März), S. 13–17.
References
External links
Bürger-GIS, geographic information system of the city
Rems-Murr-Kreis
Württemberg
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