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5323703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower%20chafer	Flower chafer	Flower chafers are a group of scarab beetles comprising the subfamily Cetoniinae. Many species are diurnal and visit flowers for pollen and nectar, or to browse on the petals. Some species also feed on fruit. The group is also called fruit and flower chafers, flower beetles and flower scarabs. There are around 4,000 species, many of them still undescribed. Ten tribes are presently recognized: Cetoniini, Cremastocheilini, Diplognathini, Goliathini, Gymnetini, Phaedimini, Schizorhinini, Stenotarsiini, Taenioderini, and Xiphoscelidini. The former tribes Trichiini and Valgini were elevated in rank to subfamily. The tribe Gymnetini is the biggest of the American tribes, and Goliathini contains the largest species, and is mainly found in the rainforest regions of Africa. Description Adult flower chafers are usually brightly coloured beetles, often metallic, and somewhat flattened in shape. The insertions of the antennae are visible from above, while the mandibles and labrum are hidden by the clypeus. The elytra lack a narrow membranous margin and are truncate to expose the pygidium. The abdominal spiracles are diverging so that several lie on the abdominal sternites with at least one exposed. The fore coxae are conical and produced ventrally, while the mid coxae are transverse or only slightly oblique. The mesothoracic epimera is visible from above. The tarsi are each equipped with a pair of simple (not forked) tarsal claws of subequal size. A feature possessed by adults of many flower chafers, especially Cetoniini, is lateral emargination of the elytra. Larvae are stout-bodied and very hairy with short legs. The head is partly covered by the prothorax. Each antenna has the apical segment as wide as the penultimate segment. The galea and lacinia are used to form a mala. The anal cleft is transverse. The mandible has a ventral stridulating area. The labrum is symmetrical with a deeply pigmented notch on each side of the midline. Biology Adult cetoniines are herbivorous, being found on flowers (from which they consume nectar and pollen), tree sap and rotting fruit. Larvae generally live and feed in decaying plant matter (including decaying wood) or soil. In captivity, cetoniine larvae will feed on soft fruit. Many species in the tribe Cremastocheilini are known to be predaceous, feeding on hymenopteran larvae or soft-bodied nymphs of Auchenorrhyncha. Spilophorus spp. have been noted feeding on the nesting material and excrement of South African passerine birds, while Spilophorus maculatus has been recorded feeding on Oxyrhachis sp. nymphs and Hoplostomus fuligineus is known to feed on the brood of honey bees in South Africa and the pupae of the wasp Belonogaster petiolata. Campsiura javanica feeds on the larvae of Ropalidia montana in southern India. Cremastocheilus stathamae feeds on ants of the genus Myrmecocystus. In terms of movement, adults are considered some of the best flyers among beetles. They can hover above and land on flowers or fruit. When threatened by predators, they escape by either performing a rush take off or by falling toward the ground and then flying before impact. Many cetoniines fly with their elytra closed, as their hindwings can unfold and slide out under the elytra during flight (thanks to the emargination of the elytra). Larvae of some taxa can crawl on their backs using their tergal folds, which are covered in strong bristles. Others crawl on their legs. Systematics and taxonomy The following list contains the genera, subtribes, and tribes of subfamily Cetoniinae, according to Catalogue of Life and Scarabaeidae of the World (2023). Subfamily Cetoniinae Leach, 1815 Tribe Cetoniini Leach, 1815 Subtribe Cetoniina Leach, 1815 Aethiessa Burmeister, 1842 Anatona Burmeister, 1842 Anelaphinis Kolbe, 1892 Aphelinis Antoine, 1987 Atrichelaphinis Kraatz, 1898 Atrichiana Distant, 1911 Badizoblax Thomson, 1877 Centrantyx Fairmaire, 1884 Cetonia Fabricius, 1775 Chewia Legrand, 2004 Chiloloba Burmeister, 1842 Cosmesthes Kraatz, 1880 Cosmiophaena Kraatz, 1898 Dischista Burmeister, 1842 Dolichostethus Kolbe, 1892 Elaphinis Burmeister, 1842 Enoplotarsus Lucas, 1859 Erlangeria Preiss, 1902 Gametis Burmeister, 1842 Gametoides Antoine, 2005 Glycosia Schoch, 1896 Glycyphana Burmeister, 1842 Gymnophana Arrow, 1910 Hemiprotaetia Mikšić, 1963 Heterocnemis Albers, 1852 Heterotephraea Antoine, 2002 Lorkovitschia Mikšić, 1968 Marmylida Thomson, 1880 Mireia Ruter, 1953 Niphobleta Kraatz, 1880 Pachnoda Burmeister, 1842 Pachnodoides Alexis & Delpont, 2002 Pachytephraea De Palma & Malec, 2020 Paleopragma Thomson, 1880 Paranelaphinis Antoine, 1988 Paraprotaetia Moser, 1907 Pararhabdotis Kraatz, 1899 Parastraella Antoine, 2005 Paraxeloma Holm, 1988 Parelaphinis Marais & Holm, 1989 Phaneresthes Kraatz, 1894 Phonotaenia Kraatz, 1880 Phoxomeloides Schoch, 1898 Podopholis Moser, 1915 Podopogonus Moser, 1917 Pogonopus Arrow, 1910 Polystalactica Kraatz, 1882 Protaetia Burmeister, 1842 Protaetiomorpha Mikšić, 1968 Pseudotephraea Kraatz, 1882 Reineria Mikšić, 1968 Rhabdotis Burmeister, 1842 Rhabdotops Krikken, 1981 Rhyxiphloea Burmeister, 1842 Ruteraetia Krikken, 1980 Simorrhina Kraatz, 1886 Somalibia Lansberge, 1882 Stalagmosoma Burmeister, 1842 Systellorrhina Kraatz, 1895 Tephraea Burmeister, 1842 Thyreogonia Reitter, 1898 Trichocephala Moser, 1916 Tropinota Mulsant, 1842 Walsternoplus Allsopp, Jákl & Rey, 2023 Xeloma Kraatz, 1881 Subtribe Euphoriina Horn, 1880 Chlorixanthe Bates, 1889 Euphoria Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Leucocelina Kraatz, 1882 Acrothyrea Kraatz, 1882 Alleucosma Schenkling, 1921 Amaurina Kolbe, 1895 Analleucosma Antoine, 1989 Cyrtothyrea Kolbe, 1895 Discopeltis Burmeister, 1842 Grammopyga Kolbe, 1895 Heteralleucosma Antoine, 1989 Homothyrea Kolbe, 1895 Leucocelis Burmeister, 1842 Lonchothyrea Kolbe, 1895 Mausoleopsis Lansberge, 1882 Mecaspidiellus Antoine, 1997 Molynoptera Kraatz, 1897 Molynopteroides Antoine, 1989 Oxythyrea Mulsant, 1842 Paleira Reiche, 1871 Paralleucosma Antoine, 1989 Phoxomela Schaum, 1844 Pseudalleucosma Antoine, 1989 Pseudooxythyrea Baraud, 1985 Tribe Cremastocheilini Burmeister & Schaum, 1841 Subtribe Aspilina Krikken, 1984 Aspilochilus Rojkoff, 2013 Aspilus Westwood, 1874 Protochilus Krikken, 1976 Subtribe Coenochilina Burmeister, 1842 Arielina Rossi, 1958 Astoxenus Péringuey, 1907 Basilewskynia Schein, 1957 Coenochilus Schaum, 1841 Subtribe Cremastocheilina Burmeister & Schaum, 1841 Centrochilus Krikken, 1976 Clinterocera Motschulsky, 1857 Cremastocheilus Knoch, 1801 Cyclidiellus Krikken, 1976 Cyclidinus Westwood, 1874 Cyclidius MacLeay, 1838 Genuchinus Westwood, 1874 Lissomelas Bates, 1889 Paracyclidius Howden, 1971 Platysodes Westwood, 1874 Psilocnemis Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Cymophorina Krikken, 1984 Cymophorus Kirby, 1827 Myrmecochilus Wasmann, 1900 Rhagopteryx Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Genuchina Krikken, 1984 Genuchus Kirby, 1825 Meurguesia Ruter, 1969 Problerhinus Deyrolle, 1864 Subtribe Goliathopsidina Krikken, 1984 Goliathopsis Janson, 1881 Subtribe Heterogeniina Krikken, 1984 Heterogenius Moser, 1911 Pseudastoxenus Bourgoin, 1921 Subtribe Lissogeniina Krikken, 1984 Chthonobius Burmeister, 1847 Lissogenius Schaum, 1844 Subtribe Macromina Burmeister & Schaum, 1842 Brachymacroma Kraatz, 1896 Campsiura Hope, 1831 Macromina Westwood, 1874 Pseudopilinurgus Moser, 1918 Subtribe Nyassinina Krikken, 1984 Nyassinus Westwood, 1879 Subtribe Oplostomina Krikken, 1984 Anatonochilus Péringuey, 1907 Oplostomus MacLeay, 1838 Placodidus Péringuey, 1900 Scaptobius Schaum, 1841 Subtribe Pilinurgina Krikken, 1984 Callynomes Mohnike, 1873 Centrognathus Guérin-Méneville, 1840 Parapilinurgus Arrow, 1910 Periphanesthes Kraatz, 1880 Pilinurgus Burmeister, 1842 Priska Jákl, 2018 Subtribe Spilophorina Krikken, 1984 Spilophorus Westwood, 1848 Subtribe Telochilina Krikken, 1984 Telochilus Krikken, 1975 Subtribe Trichoplina Krikken, 1984 Lecanoderus Kolbe, 1907 Trichoplus Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Trogodina Krikken, 1984 Pseudoscaptobius Krikken, 1976 Trogodes Boheman, 1857 Tribe Diplognathini Burmeister, 1842 Anoplocheilus MacLeay, 1838 Anthracophora Burmeister, 1842 Anthracophorides Moser, 1918 Apocnosoides Antoine, 2001 Charadronota Burmeister, 1842 Conradtia Kolbe, 1892 Diphrontis Gerstaecker, 1882 Diplognatha Gory & Percheron, 1833 Eriulis Burmeister, 1842 Hadrodiplognatha Kraatz, 1898 Heteropseudinca Valck Lucassen, 1933 Lamellothyrea Krikken, 1980 Metallopseudinca Valck Lucassen, 1933 Niphetophora Kraatz, 1883 Nselenius (Holm & Perissinotto, 2004) Odontorrhina Burmeister, 1842 Parapoecilophila Hauser, 1904 Phonopleurus Moser, 1919 Pilinopyga Kraatz, 1888 Porphyronota Burmeister, 1842 Pseudinca Kraatz, 1880 Stethopseudinca Valck Lucassen, 1933 Tetragonorrhina Kraatz, 1896 Trichostetha Burmeister, 1842 Triplognatha Krikken, 1987 Trymodera Gerstaecker, 1867 Uloptera Burmeister, 1842 Tribe Goliathini Latreille, 1829 Subtribe Dicronocephalina Krikken, 1984 Dicronocephalus Hope, 1831 Subtribe Goliathina Latreille, 1829 Fornasinius Bertoloni, 1852 Goliathus Lamarck, 1801 Hegemus Thomson, 1881 Hypselogenia Burmeister, 1840 Subtribe Ichnestomina Burmeister, 1842 Gariep Péringuey, 1907 Ichnestoma Gory & Percheron, 1833 Karooida Perissinotto, 2020 Mzansica Perissinotto, 2020 Subtribe Rhomborhinina Westwood, 1842 Anagnathocera Arrow, 1922 Anisorrhina Westwood, 1842 Asthenorhella Westwood, 1874 Asthenorhina Westwood, 1843 Bietia Fairmaire, 1898 Bothrorrhina Burmeister, 1842 Caelorrhina Hope, 1841 Cheirolasia Westwood, 1842 Chloresthia Fairmaire, 1905 Chlorocala Kirby, 1828 Chondrorrhina Kraatz, 1880 Compsocephalus White, 1845 Cosmiomorpha Saunders, 1852 Cyphonocephalus Westwood, 1842 Desfontainesia Alexis & Delpont, 1999 Dicellachilus Waterhouse, 1905 Dicheros Gory & Percheron, 1833 Dicronorhina Hope, 1837 Diphyllomorpha Hope, 1843 Dymusia Burmeister, 1842 Euchloropus Arrow, 1907 Eudicella White, 1839 Eutelesmus Waterhouse, 1880 Gnathocera Kirby, 1825 Gnorimimelus Kraatz, 1880 Hemiheterorrhina Mikšić, 1974 Herculaisia Seilliere, 1910 Heterorhina Westwood, 1842 Ingrisma Fairmaire, 1893 Ischnoscelis Burmeister, 1842 Jumnos Saunders, 1839 Lansbergia Ritsema, 1888 Lophorrhina Westwood, 1842 Lophorrhinides Perissinotto, Clennell & Beinhundner, 2019 Mawenzhena Alexis & Delpont, 2001 Mecynorhina Hope, 1837 Moseriana Ruter, 1965 Mystroceros Burmeister, 1842 Narycius Dupont, 1835 Neomystroceros Alexis & Delpont, 1998 Neophaedimus Lucas, 1870 Neoscelis Schoch, 1897 Pedinorrhina Kraatz, 1880 Petrovitzia Mikšić, 1965 Platynocephalus Westwood, 1854 Priscorrhina Krikken, 1984 Pseudodiceros Mikšić, 1974 Pseudotorynorrhina Mikšić, 1967 Ptychodesthes Kraatz, 1883 Raceloma Thomson, 1877 Rhamphorrhina Klug, 1855 Rhinarion Ruter, 1965 Rhomborhina Hope, 1837 Scythropesthes Kraatz, 1880 Smicorhina Westwood, 1847 Spelaiorrhina Lansberge, 1886 Stephanorrhina Burmeister, 1842 Taurhina Burmeister, 1842 Tmesorrhina Westwood, 1841 Torynorrhina Arrow, 1907 Trichoneptunides Legrand, 2001 Trigonophorinus Pouillaude, 1913 Trigonophorus Hope, 1831 Tribe Gymnetini Kirby, 1827 Subtribe Blaesiina Schoch, 1895 Blaesia Burmeister, 1842 Halffterinetis Morón & Nogueira, 2007 Subtribe Gymnetina Kirby, 1827 Allorrhina Burmeister, 1842 Amazula Kraatz, 1882 Amithao Thomson, 1878 Argyripa Thomson, 1878 Astroscara Schürhoff, 1937 Badelina Thomson, 1880 Balsameda Thomson, 1880 Chiriquibia Bates, 1889 Clinteria Burmeister, 1842 Clinteroides Schoch, 1898 Cotinis Burmeister, 1842 - (Green June Beetles) Desicasta Thomson, 1878 Guatemalica Neervoort Van De Poll, 1886 Gymnephoria Ratcliffe, 2019 Gymnetina Casey, 1915 Gymnetis MacLeay, 1819 Hadrosticta Kraatz, 1892 Heterocotinis Martinez, 1948 Hologymnetis Martinez, 1949 Hoplopyga Thomson, 1880 Hoplopygothrix Schürhoff, 1933 Howdenypa Arnaud, 1993 Jansonia Schürhoff, 1937 Macrocranius Schürhoff, 1935 Madiana Ratcliffe & Romé, 2019 Marmarina Kirby, 1827 Neocorvicoana Ratcliffe & Mico, 2001 Pseudoclinteria Kraatz, 1882 Stethodesma Bainbridge, 1840 Tiarocera Burmeister, 1842 Tribe Phaedimini Schoch, 1894 Hemiphaedimus Mikšić, 1972 Phaedimus Waterhouse, 1841 Philistina MacLeay, 1838 Theodosia Thomson, 1880 Tribe Schizorhinini Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Lomapterina Burmeister, 1842 Agestrata Eschscholtz, 1829 Ischiopsopha Gestro, 1874 Lomaptera Gory & Percheron, 1833 Macronota Hoffmannsegg, 1817 Megaphonia Schürhoff, 1933 Morokia Janson, 1905 Mycterophallus Neervoort Van De Poll, 1886 Subtribe Schizorhinina Burmeister, 1842 Anacamptorrhina Blanchard, 1842 Aphanesthes Kraatz, 1880 Aurum Hutchinson & Moeseneder, 2019 Axillonia Krikken, 2018 Bisallardiana Antoine, 2003 Chalcopharis Heller, 1902 Chlorobapta Kraatz, 1880 Chondropyga Kraatz, 1880 Clithria Burmeister, 1842 Diaphonia Newman, 1840 Dichrosoma Kraatz, 1885 Digenethle Thomson, 1877 Dilochrosis Thomson, 1878 Eupoecila Burmeister, 1842 Grandaustralis Hutchinson & Moeseneder, 2013 Hemichnoodes Kraatz, 1880 Hemipharis Burmeister, 1842 Kerowagia Delpont, 1996 Lenosoma MacLeay, 1863 Lyraphora Kraatz, 1880 Macrotina Strand, 1934 Metallesthes Kraatz, 1880 Microdilochrosis Jákl, 2009 Microlomaptera Kraatz, 1885 Micropoecila Kraatz, 1880 Navigator Moeseneder & Hutchinson, 2016 Neoclithria Neervoort Van De Poll, 1886 Neorrhina Thomson, 1878 Octocollis Moeseneder & Hutchinson, 2012 Panglaphyra Kraatz, 1880 Peotoxus Krikken, 1983 Poecilopharis Kraatz, 1880 Pseudoclithria Neervoort Van De Poll, 1886 Rigoutorum Hutchinson & Moeseneder, 2022 Schizorhina Kirby, 1825 Schochidia Berg, 1898 Stenopisthes Moser, 1913 Storeyus Hasenpusch & Moeseneder, 2010 Tafaia Valck Lucassens, 1939 Tapinoschema Thomson, 1880 Territonia Krikken, 2018 Trichaulax Kraatz, 1880 Tribe Stenotarsiini Kraatz, 1880 Subtribe Anochiliina Krikken, 1984 Anochilia Burmeister, 1842 Epistalagma Fairmaire, 1880 Subtribe Chromoptiliina Krikken, 1984 Chromoptilia Westwood, 1842 Descarpentriesia Ruter, 1964 Subtribe Coptomiina Schenkling, 1921 Bricoptis Burmeister, 1842 Coptomia Burmeister, 1842 Coptomiopsis Pouillaude, 1919 Eccoptomia Kraatz, 1880 Euchilia Burmeister, 1842 Euryomia Burmeister, 1842 Heterocranus Bourgoin, 1919 Hiberasta Fairmaire, 1901 Hyphelithia Kraatz, 1880 Liostraca Burmeister, 1842 Micreuchilia Pouillaude, 1917 Micropeltus Blanchard, 1842 Pareuchilia Kraatz, 1880 Pygora Burmeister, 1842 Pyrrhopoda Kraatz, 1880 Vieuella Ruter, 1964 Subtribe Doryscelina Schenkling, 1921 Doryscelis Burmeister, 1842 Epixanthis Burmeister, 1842 Hemiaspidius Krikken, 1982 Pararhynchocephala Paulian, 1991 Parepixanthis Kraatz, 1893 Pseudepixanthis Kraatz, 1880 Rhynchocephala Fairmaire, 1883 Subtribe Euchroeina Paulian & Descarpentries, 1982 Euchroea Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Heterophanina Schoch, 1894 Heterophana Burmeister, 1842 Oxypelta Pouillaude, 1920 Pogoniotarsus Kraatz, 1880 Pogonotarsus Burmeister, 1842 Zebinus Fairmaire, 1894 Subtribe Heterosomatina Krikken, 1984 Heterosoma Schaum, 1844 Plochilia Fairmaire, 1896 Subtribe Pantoliina Krikken, 1984 Bonoraella Ruter, 1978 Celidota Burmeister, 1842 Cyriodera Burmeister, 1842 Dirrhina Burmeister, 1842 Hemilia Kraatz, 1880 Lucassenia Olsoufieff, 1940 Melanchroea Kraatz, 1900 Moriaphila Kraatz, 1880 Pantolia Burmeister, 1842 Tetraodorhina Blanchard, 1842 Subtribe Parachiliina Krikken, 1984 Parachilia Burmeister, 1842 Subtribe Stenotarsiina Kraatz, 1880 Callipechis Burmeister, 1842 Ischnotarsia Kraatz, 1880 Rhadinotaenia Kraatz, 1900 Stenotarsia Burmeister, 1842 Vadonidella Ruter, 1973 Tribe Taenioderini Mikšić, 1976 Subtribe Chalcotheina Mikšić, 1976 Anocoela Moser, 1914 Chalcothea Burmeister, 1842 Chalcotheomima Mikšić, 1970 Clerota Burmeister, 1842 Glyptothea Bates, 1889 Glyptotheomima Mikšić, 1976 Hemichalcothea Mikšić, 1970 Microchalcothea Moser, 1910 Paraplectrone Mikšić, 1985 Penthima Kraatz, 1892 Plectrone Wallace, 1867 Pseudochalcothea Ritsema, 1882 Pseudochalcotheomima Mikšić, 1985 Subtribe Taenioderina Mikšić, 1976 Bacchusia Mikšić, 1976 Bombodes Westwood, 1848 Carneluttia Mikšić, 1976 Coilodera Hope, 1831 Costinota Schürhoff, 1933 Eumacronota Mikšić, 1976 Euremina Westwood, 1867 Euselates Thomson, 1880 Gnorimidia Lansberge, 1887 Ixorida Thomson, 1880 Macronotops Krikken, 1977 Meroloba Thomson, 1880 Pleuronota Kraatz, 1892 Stenonota Fairmaire, 1889 Taeniodera Burmeister, 1842 Xenoloba Bates, 1889 Tribe Xiphoscelidini Krikken, 1984 Aporecolpa Lansberge, 1886 Callophylla Moser, 1916 Heteroclita Burmeister, 1842 Ischnostomiella Krikken, 1978 Meridioclita Krikken, 1982 Myodermidius Bourgoin, 1920 Neoclita Perissinotto, 2017 Oroclita Krikken, 1982 Plochiliana Ruter, 1978 Protoclita Krikken, 1978 Rhinocoeta Burmeister, 1842 Scheinia Ruter, 1957 Xiphoscelis Burmeister, 1842 Xiphosceloides Holm, 1992 References Evans, Arthur W. Generic Guide to New World Scarabs Orozco, Jesus. American Cetoniinae Sakai, K. & S. Nagai, 1998. The cetoniine Beetles of the World. Tokyo: Mushi-Sha. 421p Excellent illustrations of most species. White, Richard E. (1998). Beetles : A Field Guide to the Beetles of North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. . External links Gallery of flower beetles Illustrated key to South Asian chafers Punctate Flower Chafer Factfile WZCZ Gallery Kaferlatein African Cetoniinae website. Literature page. flickr tagged images. Flower beetles of Israel by Oz Rittner Scarabaeidae Polyphaga subfamilies
5323724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stampede%20Pass	Stampede Pass	Stampede Pass (elevation ) is a mountain pass in the northwest United States, through the Cascade Range in Washington. Southeast of Seattle and east of Tacoma, its importance to transportation lies almost entirely with railroading, as no paved roads cross it. It is approximately south-southeast of Snoqualmie Pass, the gap for and south of Keechelus Lake. The pass, and the tunnel to the south which takes advantage of it, the Stampede Tunnel (), just below played a significant role in the history of the Northern Pacific Railway. The tunnel opened for service in May 1888, and is currently operated by the NP's successor, BNSF Railway. After over a decade of dormancy in the late 20th century, the Stampede Pass Line and Tunnel were reopened in 1997 by BNSF, which uses the route as one of two direct Northern Transcon main lines through the Cascades, between Spokane and the Seattle metropolitan area. Discovery of the pass Northern Pacific Railroad had been notified by the federal government that their lack of a direct route from Yakima to the Puget Sound was considered violation of their charter. Faced with losing millions of acres in their land grant, they began earnestly exploring a route over the cascades. The first known discovery of the pass was made by Virgil Bogue, a civil engineer for the Northern Pacific. (Bogue went on to become chief engineer of the Union Pacific Railroad and later the Western Pacific Railroad.) Below is Bogue's report, written in January 1881, from the collection of Robert A. Robey, the Northern Pacific's roadmaster at Auburn, Washington, in charge of the line across Stampede Pass throughout the 1960s. "About January 1, 1881, I received instructions from Colonel Isaac W. Smith to explore Tacoma Pass, which had been discovered by J.T. Sheets in the Autumn previous, and the range to the north of that pass to some point, which would cover all possible passes, that might lead out of the Green River, Washington in that direction. In the Autumn previous, four cabins had been built by a party under Colonel Smith's direction in suitable localities, between Thorpe's Prairie, subsequently known as Supply Camp, and a point four or five miles west of Tacoma Pass. A party of three or four men, well supplied with provisions, had been left at Thorpe's Prairie during the winter, with instructions to be ready for any orders they might receive. When we left Tacoma, therefore, to begin the exploration, orders were sent to these men to cross the range, and build a fifth cabin as far down Green River as practicable, and to try to meet the party exploring from the West. "We left Tacoma without any delay and went to McClintock's situated on the divide between White River and Green River (near Enumclaw, Washington). From McClintock's we were obliged to cut a trail through the brush and fallen logs. Our first camp at McClintock's was January 17, 1881. We worked steadily at the trail, moving camp frequently, and camped on Green River at a point 500 to 1,000 feet east of the present second crossing of that stream on January 26, 1881. "Our camp on Green River was Camp No. 5. "We continued our work on the trail, arriving and camping at Camp No. 7 on February 8, 1881, on Green River at the mouth of a stream which we subsequently called Canoe Creek, because we tried to make a canoe there and failed. The snow on our arrival, was about two feet deep and crusted over. We found that the pack trains could go no farther, and that it was quite impracticable to cut out a trail. We concluded therefore, to take to the sleds with which we had been provided, packing on men's backs, in steep places where the sleds could not be used. The party was supplied with snow shoes; but it was not always practicable to use them. "With pack-trains bringing supplies to the shed at Canoe Creek, and sleds, etc., beyond, the party kept on, arriving at Camp No. 10 on February 19. At this place we were obliged to remain four days, owing to a rain storm which flooded all the streams in the river to such an extent that they were practically impassable. the morning of February 24 we got under way again, and shortly after leaving camp, saw a large eagle soaring above our heads, and from this circumstance named the camp we had left 'Eagle Gorge.' "On March 2, we reached Camp No. 13 on Green River, not far about the mouthy of what was subsequently known as Smay Creek, (near Maywood) [Smay Creek forms the western boundary of what in 1911 became Elmer G. Morgan's Nagrom]. the labor and exposure of the party since leaving Canoe Creek as well as before had somewhat discouraged some of the men, and I determined to push on from this point with a small party of three or four, without any outfit but provisions for a few days, with the hope of finding the cabin, which the party at Thorpe's Prairie had been instructed to build as above described. "Giving the men who remained behind orders to spend their time in getting provisions up to their camp from Canoe Creek, until they should hear from me, I started on my trip on the morning of March 3, my companions being Joe Wilson, Indian Peter and Indian Charley. "Our first camp, which I called Camp No. 14, continuing the camp numbers brought from below, was on a hill not far above Green River Hot Springs. Our next camp, No. 15, was on a gravel bar in what we afterward called Sunday Creek, because we did a great deal of work near Lester along that creek on the Sabbath. On the night following February 5 our Camp No. 16 was at the foot of the ridge in the angle formed by Camp Creek and Sunday Creek (near Borup). We had, therefore, passed entirely by the cabin, which we afterward found located on Green River about one mile above the mouth of Sunday Creek. Our course having been on the north bank of Green River, we had naturally followed Sunday Creek, not having seen any other large stream[s], owing to the heavy growth of timber. "The day of our arrival at Camp No. 16, we found that our Indian companions were not of much use, and were consuming the provisions, so we sent them back to the main body of men with instructions to get more provisions and follow in our foot-steps. We remained at Camp No. 16 until the morning of February 9, exploring the streams and ridges in that locality, hoping to find some trace of the cabin, or of the men who were to meet us. While we were camped there, Joe Wilson started back toward the main camp and met the Indians who were bringing more provisions. "He sent the Indians back, and brought what provisions they had himself, so that we left Camp No. 16 on the morning of February 9 feeling pretty well. We had then concluded that the cabin we were looking for was on some other branch of Green River, and we proceeded down Sunday Creek, looking as well as we could for the mouth of some other large stream. This we found without much difficulty, and shortly afterward we came upon signs and blazed upon trees, that indicated the presence of white men. When we finally found the cabin, the men were not in but had evidently left it several days before. We shortly found their trail, and followed it across the mountain. arriving at Tacoma Pass in a snow storm, March 9, at 5:45 pm, the Aneroid Barometer, which I carried marking an elevation of 3,760 feet. We continued across the Pass, arriving at what was known as Cabin No. 3 on Cabin Creek, near the mouth of Coal Creek, after dark. The following day we went to Thorpe's Prairie, where we found our friends. From that point I sent a messenger back across the mountains, who went over our trail in four days to Tacoma. "To get well rested, we remained at Thorpe's Prairie from March 10 until the morning of March 14. We then left for Tacoma Pass. During the 14th, 15th, and 16th, we explored Cabin Creek, Tacoma Pass, and the pass immediately north of it, called Sheet's Pass. "On the morning of March 16, we left Cabin No. 3, where we had been camped for our explorations in the vicinity of Tacoma Pass, to go along the range toward the north. We traveled on snow shoes, the men packing such provisions as we had. The snow was from seven to 30 or more feet deep. We followed up the main stream of Cabin Creek climbing to a point about 600 feet east of the range on the evening of the 16th, where we camped until morning. In the morning we climbed to the summit and followed the ridge to a high butte, which is south of, and overlooks Camp Creek and the headwaters of Sunday Creek. here one of the men stumbled and fell down a steep slope, plunging in the snow. "As his snow shoe was the cause of the fall, we named the mountain Snow Shoe Butte. That night we camped lower down on the ridge between the butte and Stampede Pass. "The next day we tried to find the pass, which had clearly seen from the butte. The course of the range for a long distance was southeasterly, apparently tending in the direction of Yakima River. This deceived us as to our course, and we went back upon it several times, hoping to find a ridge leading to the north, which we presumed would be in the main divide. this search finally proving useless we camped on the night of March 18, at nearly the same place we had on the night of the 17th. The weather on the 18th was cold and the mountain tops covered with a cold fog, which was sometimes a snow storm. "On the morning of the 19th we broke camp at about 8:30 am. The weather was fine, not a cloud in the sky. We had finally concluded that we must stick to the ridge we were on, and we pushed forward, and had such good luck that at 10:10 A.M. we arrived at the pass, the Aneroid barometer marking the elevation of 3,495 feet. Andy Drury, one of the men, remarked as we looked down upon the slopes of Sunday Creek and Green River, that it was the prettiest pass in the mountains. We remained only a few moments, and then continued our way north, discovering in the course of that and the succeeding day, three other passes. From the most northerly pass, which we found to be on the last pass leading out from the north toward any tributary of Green River, we explored a stream leading into Lake Kitchelos (now Kechelus). We arrived at Lake Kitchelos at 5:15 P.M. on March 21 and the next day at Cabin No. 1, which still stands near the mouth of Cabin Creek. The following day took us to Thorpe's Prairie. "By this time, more provisions had commenced to arrive from Ellensburg, for use in making surveys. As we were then familiar with the country, these provisions were sent through to Tacoma Pass as fast as they arrived, on sleds and on men's backs. We accumulated enough provisions there to commence the surveys on April 1. The party of men, which I had left on Green River near Smay Creek having then arrived the surveys were commenced, and were prosecuted during the season with a large force, several lines being run from Tacoma Pass and from Stampede Pass. "All passes to the north of Stampede Pass were also examined, and sufficient instrumental surveys made to determine their character, with the result that Stampede Pass was finally selected as the most available one in the range. Besides myself, the following named men were in the party which explored the range from Tacoma Pass, north and which discovered Stampede Pass: James Gregg, Andy Drury and Matthew Champion. Gregg was the cook." Naming of the pass Bogue wrote the Washington State Historical Society's William Pierce Bonney about the naming of the pass in 1916. "I had a trail cutting party camped near Stampede Lake this party was controlled by a foreman who I thought did not accomplish much work. When the other party which had been cutting the trail from canoe Creek up Green River to my camp near the mouth of Sunday Creek finished its work, I sent its foreman to the camp occupied by the former mentioned party then at Stampede Lake, with a letter authorizing him to take charge. A large number of the former mentioned party then stampeded. There was quite a large fir tree at this Stampede Lake camp, which had a large blaze out on it by the men remaining and with little piece of charcoal from the campfire they printed on the blaze the words 'Stampede Camp.'" Bonney, who worked for the Northern Pacific on Stampede Pass, added, "When the men quit work about the middle of the afternoon, the day of the stampede, they repaired to camp where they were busy waiting for supper; when the foreman came and announced to the cook that the food in his charge belonged to the railroad company was furnished to feed men that were working for the company, that these men had severed their connection with the company, hence were not entitled to be fed; then was when the real stampede began." (W.P. Bonney, Secretary, Washington State Historical Society, to 29th Annual Farmers Picnic, Enumclaw, 8-6-21. Bonney worked on Stampede 1881-2.) When discovered some weeks earlier, it had been named Garfield Pass, in honor of recently inaugurated President Garfield, but Stampede Pass became the name generally used. The summit switchback The Northern Pacific completed Stampede Tunnel under Stampede Pass in 1888 (see section below). In the meantime, however, the NP decided not to wait for completion, and built a switchback across the summit of the pass. According to A Brief History of the Northern Railway, a switchback with 5.6 percent grade was studied by Chief Engineer Anderson as early as 1884. The line was surveyed in spring of 1886. There were three switchbacks on each side of the Cascades, and a great double horseshoe at the summit. Construction of the switchback was plagued by snowfall, and a cut through snow deep was required at the summit. The switchback included a mile of solid log cribbing, of snowsheds, and 31 trestles. When the ground thawed in the spring of 1887, it shifted and settled the newly laid track, requiring more work. The Northern Pacific spent $15,000 () on laborers' protection during the switchback's construction. To operate the line the Northern Pacific ordered the two largest steam locomotives in the world (at that time). Despite their size, the steep grades meant one locomotive was stationed at each end of their five-car trains. Trains took an hour and fifteen minutes to traverse the switchback, a brakeman riding the rooftops every two cars. The first experimental train over the switchback was on June 6, 1887. The first scheduled passenger train over the switchback arrived in Tacoma at 7:15 pm on July 3, 1887. Even after the completion of the tunnel, the switchback was reopened for brief periods in the 1890s as maintenance was carried out below. Stampede Tunnel First tunnel location made by James T. Kingsbury, Assistant Engineer, August 1882. Other tunnel lines were run by the following named engineers, but all had practically the same initial point at the west end: John A. Hulburt, John Quincy Barlow, and F.C. Tucker. Final location made by William H. Kennedy. J.Q. Jamieson was Assistant Engineer in charge from the commencement of work until October 23, 1887, when he was succeeded by Edwin Harrison McHenry (later chief engineer of the Northern Pacific), who continued in charge until the completion of the tunnel, snowsheds and sidetracks at both ends of the tunnel. F.M. Haines was transitman on the west end and Andrew Gibson on the east end during the entire time the tunnel was under construction. N.B. Tunder was the contractor's Superintendent on the west end and Captain Sidney J. Bennet, a brother of the contractor, was superintendent on the east end. The Contract for driving the tunnel was awarded to Nelson Bennett January 21, 1886. Work commenced on east heading with hand drills on February 13, 1886. Air drills were introduced June 18, 1886. Average daily progress with hand drills—3.52 lineal feet. Average daily progress with air drills—5.8 lineal feet. Work commenced on the west heading with hand drills on April 1, 1886. Air drills were introduced September 1, 1886. Average daily progress with hand drills—4 lineal feet. Average daily progress with air drills—6.9. Headings met May 3, 1888. Tunnels met May 11, 1888. The tunnel opened for traffic on May 27, 1888 Masonry lining began on June 16, 1889, and was completed on November 16, 1895. Costs 9,844.1 lineal feet of tunnel at $78 per lineal foot--$767,839.80. 31,081 cubic yards of extra excavation at $4.50 per cubic yard--$138,864.50. 3,008,638 feet B.M. in lining at $35 per M.--$105,302.33. $1,013,006.63 total. Masonry lining total cost per lineal foot--$54.08. Cement used: . Bricks used: 9,816,620, most from Tacoma. Fatalities Seventeen killed and seventeen injured west. Eleven killed and twenty-two injured east. One killed by construction train. One brickmason foreman was killed by falling rock, two laborers were killed by a work train, and one laborer was electrocuted. The Stampede Pass railroad tunnel is arched in the center; that is, daylight is not detectable at either end of the tunnel when looking through to the other end; unlike both the first (2.6 mile, 1900) and second (7.8 mile, 1929) Cascade Tunnels of the Great Northern Railway at Stevens Pass, which were "boresighted" and ran in a straight line and at a constant downward angle from northeast to southwest. Steam engines ascending in either direction within the confines of the Stampede Tunnel was the cause of many train crews and passengers being nearly choked to death by the buildup of exhaust gasses within the tunnel; this led to a forced-air ventilation equipment being added at the west end of the tunnel at a later date. The grade is 2.2 percent on the east side from the town of Easton and 2.2 percent on the west side from the town of Lester. Andrew Gibson, born and educated in Scotland, began work for the NP on main line construction in Oregon, about west of Portland, as a clerk for Mr. O. Phil, Assistant Engineer, about July 1, 1883, and continued in the same position until the party was disbanded, about the end of October. Was leveler for Colin Mcintosh, assistant engineer on Kalama Inclines during January 1884. Went to work as a "bush hook dude" with William H. Kennedy on Cascade Division Surveys on April 27, 1884, starting at South Prairie and working east. Promoted to rodman about the beginning of June and to leveler about the middle of August, when the location of the from South Prairie to Eagle Gorge was completed. Gibson went on to work for engineers William T. Chalk, John Quincy Barlow, J.Q. Jamieson, and Herbert S. Huson, literally all over the Stampede Pass line. Gibson ran the level and took topography for the switch back, worked on the final location of the tunnel line, crossings of the Yakima River in the Yakima Canyon. Finally, he was made an assistant engineer himself, overseeing the lining of the tunnel as well as filling the numerous temporary trestles built in the haste to finish the line on time. It is primarily through his diligent work that detailed first hand accounts of the work are available. Gibson went on to oversee the NP's building on the Palouse, the giant west end tie plant at Paradise, Montana, finally becoming the Chief Engineer in charge of maintenance of way in Saint Paul. He started out very modestly, clearing brush from what would become the Main Street of the Northwest. Double tracking A major revision of the line between Lester and Stampede Tunnel was undertaken between 1912 and 1915. This included a new roundhouse at Lester, double tracking the line from Lester to the west portal of Tunnel 4, a small tunnel just a mile west of Stampede Tunnel, and replacing the former loop through Weston with a large steel viaduct. At the same time, the route from Martin, at the east portal of Stampede Tunnel, was double-tracked down to Easton. In August 1984, the Burlington Northern mothballed the line as redundant. Between 1995 and 1996, BN and its successor BNSF Railway, rehabilitated the line as a response to increasing traffic pressures in the Pacific Northwest. , BNSF and government agencies in Washington state are committed to enlarging Stampede Tunnel to accommodate larger intermodal freight cars; the current height of is insufficient for double-stacked intermodal cars. Recreational access The Mountaineers have a ski area just southeast of the eastern portal of the Stampede Pass tunnel. Built in 1928, Meany Lodge with 3 rope tows, is open to all during winter weekends from early January to early March. It hosts a PSIA certified winter sports school and is one of the oldest ski areas in the nation. The Palouse to Cascades State Park Trail is about halfway between Stampede Pass and I-90. In 1939, the Northern Pacific opened a ski area on the eastern portal of the Stampede Tunnel called Martin Ski Dome. The resort was to compete with the Milwaukee Ski Bowl a few miles north at Hyak. The Martin Ski Dome closed in 1942 with the start of World War II and then was sold in 1946, after the end of the war, to the University of Washington students association. It re-opened as Husky Chalet and had two rope tows. The only public access to the pass is from the east; access from the west is not open to the public, since this is a part of the Green River watershed which is managed (and partly owned by) Tacoma Water to ensure the city's water supply is pure and fresh. See also Easton, Washington Lester, Washington Roslyn, Washington Cascade Tunnel – Great Northern Snoqualmie Tunnel – Milwaukee Road Martin, Washington Meany Lodge External links Meany Lodge – official website References Rail mountain passes of the United States Mountain passes of Washington (state) Mountain passes of the Cascades Landforms of Kittitas County, Washington Transportation in King County, Washington Landforms of King County, Washington Northern Pacific Railway Railroad tunnels in Washington (state) BNSF Railway tunnels Transportation in Kittitas County, Washington
5324396	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Riot	Richard Riot	The Richard Riot was a riot on March 17, 1955 (Saint Patrick's Day), in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The riot was named after Maurice Richard, the star ice hockey player for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League (NHL). Following a violent altercation on March 13 in which Richard hit a linesman, NHL president Clarence Campbell suspended him for the remainder of the 1954–55 NHL season, including the playoffs. Montreal fans protested that the suspension was too severe; the team's largely Francophone fan base claimed the length of the suspension was motivated by Richard's French Canadian ethnicity. Outside of Montreal, however, the suspension was seen as justified and, if anything, too short. On March 17, Campbell appeared at the Montreal Forum for the Canadiens' first game after Richard's suspension. His presence provoked a riot at the Forum that spilled into the streets. The riot caused an estimated $100,000 in property damage, thirty-seven injuries, and 100 arrests. Tensions eased after Richard made a personal plea accepting his punishment and promising to return the following year to help the team win the Stanley Cup. The incident likely cost Richard the 1954–55 scoring title (a feat Richard never achieved in his NHL career), played a role in the off-season departure of longtime Canadiens head coach Dick Irvin, and was a precursor to the Quiet Revolution. Background Maurice Richard was the star player for the Montreal Canadiens, and it was common for opponents to provoke him during games. Teams reportedly sent players onto the ice to purposefully annoy him by yelling ethnic slurs, hooking, slashing, and holding him as much as possible. Throughout his career, Richard was fined and suspended several times for retaliatory assaults on players and officials, including a $250 fine for slapping a linesman in the face less than three months before the March 13, 1955 incident. Richard was considered the embodiment of French-Canadians and was a hero during a time when many perceived themselves as second-class citizens. He was revered when he fought the "damn English" during games. In his book, The Rocket: A Cultural History of Maurice Richard, Benoît Melançon compares Richard to Major League Baseball's Jackie Robinson by stating that both players represented the possibility for their minority groups to succeed in North America. During the 1950s, Quebec's industries and natural resources were controlled primarily by English Canadians or Americans. French-speaking Quebecers were the lowest-paid ethnic group in Quebec, which resulted in a sense that control rested with the Anglophone minority. Because of this and other factors, there had been growing discontent in the years before the riot. In early 1954, Richard's teammate, Bernie Geoffrion, was suspended in a move seen as anti-Francophone. Following the suspension, Richard, who had a weekly column in the Samedi-Dimanche newspaper, called President Campbell a "dictator" in print. The League in turn forced Richard to retract his statement and discontinue his column. In his 1976 biography of Richard, Jean-Marie Pellerin wrote that his humiliation was shared by all Francophone Quebecers, who were sent running once more by the "English boot". This was reflected in a Montreal newspaper's editorial cartoon (pictured), which portrayed Richard as an unruly schoolboy made to write lines by Campbell, shown as the teacher; the cartoon had a deeper meaning as an example of the societal hierarchy that existed between English and French Canadians. Incident On March 13, 1955, an on-ice episode sparked one of the worst incidents of hockey-related violence in history. On that date in Boston, Richard was part of a violent confrontation in a game between the Canadiens and their rival Boston Bruins. The Bruins' Hal Laycoe, who had previously played defence for the Canadiens, high-sticked Richard in the head during a Montreal power play. Richard required five stitches to close a cut that resulted from the high-stick. Referee Frank Udvari signaled a delayed penalty, but allowed play to continue because the Canadiens had possession of the puck. When the play ended, Richard skated up to Laycoe, who had dropped his stick and gloves in anticipation of a fight, and struck him in the face and shoulders with his stick. The linesmen attempted to restrain Richard, who repeatedly broke away from them to continue his attack on Laycoe, eventually breaking a stick over his opponent's body before linesman Cliff Thompson corralled him. Richard broke loose again and punched Thompson twice in the face, knocking him unconscious. Richard then left the ice with the Canadiens' trainer. According to Montreal Herald writer Vince Lunny, Richard's face resembled a "smashed tomato." Richard was given a match penalty and an automatic $100 fine, and Laycoe a five-minute major penalty plus a ten-minute misconduct for the high stick. Boston police attempted to arrest Richard in the dressing room after the game ended, but were turned back by Canadiens players who barred the door, preventing any arrest. Bruins management finally persuaded the officers to leave with a promise that the NHL would handle the issue. Richard was never arrested for the incident. He was instead sent to the hospital by team doctors after complaining of headaches and stomach pains. The Laycoe incident was Richard's second altercation with an official that season, after having slapped a linesman in the face in Toronto the previous December, for which he was fined $250. Upon hearing the referee's report, league president Clarence Campbell ordered all parties to appear at a March 16 hearing at his office in Montreal. Hearing The game's on-ice officials, Richard, Laycoe, Montreal assistant general manager Ken Reardon, Boston general manager Lynn Patrick, Montreal coach Dick Irvin, and NHL referee-in-chief Carl Voss attended the March 16 hearing. In his defence, Richard contended that he was dazed and thought Thompson was one of Boston's players. He did not deny punching or attacking Laycoe. After the hearing, Campbell issued a 1200-word statement to the press: …I have no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that the attack on Laycoe was not only deliberate but persisted in the face of all authority and that the referee acted with proper judgment in awarding a match penalty. I am also satisfied that Richard did not strike linesman Thompson as a result of a mistake or accident as suggested … Assistance can also be obtained from an incident that occurred less than three months ago in which the pattern of conduct of Richard was almost identical, including his constant resort to the recovery of his stick to pursue his opponent, as well as flouting the authority of and striking officials. On the previous occasion he was fortunate that teammates and officials were more effective in preventing him from doing injury to anyone and the penalty was more lenient in consequence. At the time he was warned there must be no further incident … The time for probation or leniency is past. Whether this type of conduct is the product of temperamental instability or willful defiance of the authority in the games does not matter. It is a type of conduct which cannot be tolerated by any player—star or otherwise. Richard will be suspended from all games both league and playoff for the balance of the current season. The suspension—the longest that Campbell ever issued during his thirty-one-year tenure as league president—was considered by many in Montreal to be unjust and unduly severe. Within minutes of the judgment's dispensation, the NHL head office (then in Montreal) was deluged with hundreds of calls from enraged fans, many of whom made death threats against Campbell. However, the general feeling around the league was that the punishment could have been more severe. Detroit Red Wings general manager Jack Adams said that Campbell "could do no less" and "I thought he would be suspended until January 1 of next season." Red Wings forward Ted Lindsay, whom the league had disciplined earlier the same season for an incident in Toronto in which he attacked a Maple Leafs fan who had been threatening teammate Gordie Howe, expressed the stronger opinion that Richard was lucky not to get a life suspension: "In baseball, football or almost anything else that much would be almost automatic. I say they should have suspended him for life." Bruins president Walter A. Brown agreed with Adams, saying "That's the least they could do"; Bruins player Fleming Mackell said, "If they had thrown the book at Richard in when he cut Bill Ezinicki and Vic Lynn, it might have stopped him and made him an even greater hockey player because of it." Interest was high in the hockey world; the Detroit Free Press reported its switchboard was swamped with calls. Riot Public outrage from Montreal poured in about what residents felt was excessive punishment. Many Québécois regarded the suspension as the English majority further attempting to subjugate the French minority and an attempt to humiliate French Canadians by "excessively punishing their favorite player". Campbell, who received death threats, stated that he would not back down and announced his intention to attend the Canadiens' next home game against the Red Wings on March 17, despite advice that he not do so. Hundreds of demonstrators gathered in the Montreal Forum lobby two hours before the game. Attempts to "crash the gate" by these fans without tickets were denied by police. They then began to gather at Cabot Square across from the Forum. The crowd of demonstrators grew to 6,000. Some carried signs that denounced Campbell, and others had signs reading, among other things, "Vive Richard" (Long live Richard), "No Richard, no Cup", and "Our national sport destroyed". The crowd, originally described as "jovial", turned "surly" after police intervened at the ticket gate. After the mood turned foul, some members of the crowd began smashing windows and throwing ice chunks at passing streetcars. The game against Detroit was a battle for first place, but the suspension unsettled the Canadiens. Goaltender Jacques Plante later recalled that the game seemed secondary, and players and officials were "casting worried glances at the sullen crowd". Likewise, Dick Irvin said later, "The people didn't care if we got licked 100–1 that night." Midway through the first period, with Montreal already down 2–0, Campbell arrived with three secretaries from his office (one of whom he would later marry). The 15,000 spectators immediately started booing Campbell. Some fans began pelting him and his group with eggs, vegetables, and various debris for six straight minutes. At the end of the first period, Detroit had taken a 4–1 lead, and the barrage began again. Despite police and ushers' attempts to keep fans away from Campbell, one fan, pretending to be a friend of Campbell's, managed to elude security. As he approached, the fan extended his hand as if to shake Campbell's. When Campbell reached out to shake his hand, the fan slapped him. As Campbell reeled from the attack, the fan reached back and delivered a punch. Police dragged the attacker away while he attempted to kick the NHL president. Shortly after the fan attack, a tear gas bomb was set off inside the Forum, not far from Campbell's seat. Montreal Fire Chief Armand Pare mandated that the game be suspended for "the protection of the fans", and the Forum was evacuated. Following the evacuation, Campbell took refuge in the Forum clinic, where he met with Canadiens general manager Frank Selke. The two wrote a note to Adams declaring the Red Wings the winner of the game due to the Forum's ordered closure. The departing crowd joined the demonstrators, and a riot ensued outside the Forum. Rioters were heard chanting "À bas Campbell" (Down with Campbell) and "Vive Richard" while they smashed windows, attacked bystanders, ignited newsstands, and overturned cars. More than fifty stores within a fifteen-block radius of the Forum were looted and vandalized. Twelve police officers and twenty-five civilians were injured. The riot continued well into the night, eventually ending at three A.M., and it left Montreal's Saint Catherine Street in shambles. Police estimated between forty-one and 100 individuals were arrested. Damage was estimated to be $100,000 ($ in dollars) to the neighborhood and the Forum itself. One jewelry store alone estimated its losses at $7,000 ($ in dollars). Adams blamed Montreal officials after the game: "If they hadn't pampered Maurice Richard, built him up as a hero until he felt he was bigger than hockey itself, this wouldn't have happened." The incident was national news in Canada. Reporters lined up to see both Campbell and Richard on March 18. Richard was reluctant to make a statement, fearing it could start another riot, but he eventually gave the following statement, both in French and English, over television to a national audience: Because I always try so hard to win and had my troubles in Boston, I was suspended. At playoff time it hurts not be in the game with the boys. However, I want to do what is good for the people of Montreal and the team. So that no further harm will be done, I would like to ask everyone to get behind the team and to help the boys win from the New York Rangers and Detroit. I will take my punishment and come back next year to help the club and the younger players to win the Cup. Campbell was unapologetic. He said that he considered it his duty as president to attend the game. Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau was livid at Campbell for attending, and he laid the blame for the riot on Campbell. A Montreal city councilor wanted Campbell arrested for inciting the riot. Years later, Canadiens player Jean Béliveau stated that, although he disagreed with Campbell's decision to attend the game, as well as feeling Campbell might have been using his appearance to make a statement, he concluded that Campbell may have felt that if he did not attend he could appear to be hiding. He also noted that Campbell's absence might not have made much of a difference. Aftermath The suspension came when Richard was leading the NHL in scoring and the Canadiens were battling Detroit for first place. Richard's suspension also cost him the 1954–55 scoring title, the closest he ever came to winning it. When Richard's teammate Bernie Geoffrion surpassed Richard in scoring by one point on the last day of the regular season, the Canadiens' fans booed him. The points from the forfeiture provided Detroit with the margin it needed to win first place overall and be guaranteed home-ice advantage throughout the Stanley Cup playoffs. That season, the Canadiens lost the 1955 Stanley Cup Finals to Detroit in seven games, with the home team winning all seven games of a final for the first time. Montreal won the next five consecutive Stanley Cups, a record that still stands. Richard retired in 1960 after the Canadiens' fifth consecutive Stanley Cup. The episode was a prelude to the off-season departure of coach Dick Irvin. Selke felt Irvin had riled Richard, thereby contributing to his "periodic eruptions". Selke offered Irvin a job for life with the Canadiens, as long as it was in a non-coaching capacity. Irvin refused Selke's offer and moved on to coach the Chicago Black Hawks, where he had begun his coaching career in . He was replaced by former Canadiens player Toe Blake. Irvin coached only one more season before succumbing to bone cancer. Historical interpretation The Richard Riot has taken on a significance greater than a mere sports riot in the decades since it happened. The sight of French Quebecers rioting over the perceived slight to a Quebec cultural icon like Richard led many commentators to believe it was a significant factor in Quebec's Quiet Revolution of the 1960s. Furthermore, the cause of the riot has been suggested not to be as a result of the severity of the suspension; what mattered was that the anglophone president of an anglophone league had suspended a Quebec player. French Canadians saw themselves as inherently disadvantaged within Canada and North America as a whole. Richard was seen as a hero by French Canadians, and almost a sort of a "revenge" against the anglophone establishment. The riot was a clear sign of rising ethnic tensions in Quebec. In an article published four days after the riot, journalist André Laurendeau was the first to suggest the riot was a sign of growing nationalism in Quebec. Entitled "On a tué mon frère Richard" (My brother Richard has been killed), Laurendeau suggested the riot "betrayed what lay behind the apparent indifference and long-held passiveness of French Canadians". On the other hand, Benoît Melançon argues that the riot has become part of the "Rocket Richard myth" and has taken on an importance that, in retrospect, is far greater than it actually had when it happened. He asserts, "Had there been no Riot, it is doubtful there would ever have been a Maurice Richard myth." The riot ended up taking on greater significance as time passed, but not for the reasons many nonacademic commentators believe. Richard was in danger of being forgotten in the years immediately after his retirement, so he promoted himself, and his nascent myth, excessively: There were Maurice Richard skates and jackets, but there were also Rocket ashtrays, Rocket transistor radios, and Rocket Richard Condensed Tomato Soup. Moreover, these products changed throughout history. "The principal impact of the trade in Richard … has been the transformation of Maurice Richard into a product, then into a label, and ultimately into a myth." He concludes by suggesting that the riot is now something it was not: "The riot has become the key event in turning Richard from a mere hockey player to a symbol of political resistance (even if Richard himself was publicly apolitical and, according to this book, definitely not for an independent Quebec) … According to this popular narrative, for the first time the people of Quebec stood up for themselves; especially English Canada delights in anachronistically announcing that this was the beginning of the 1960s Quiet Revolution." Perhaps the best way to explain how the interpretation of the riot changed is by looking at the change in the public perceptions of its antagonist: "It was necessary to overlook some of [Richard's] character traits and to rewrite several episodes of his career" in order to elevate him into a mythical figure. See also Bruins–Canadiens rivalry The Rocket (Maurice Richard) (film) 1954–55 Montreal Canadiens season References Bibliography External links Video footage of the brawl, and the riot, inside and outside the Forum 1954–55 Montreal Canadiens season 1954–55 NHL season 1954–55 in Canadian ice hockey 1955 riots History of the Montreal Canadiens Riots and civil disorder in Canada Sports riots Violence in ice hockey 1954 1954 1950s in Montreal 1955 in Quebec March 1955 sports events in Canada
5324607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism%20in%20Southeast%20Asia	Buddhism in Southeast Asia	Buddhism in Southeast Asia includes a variety of traditions of Buddhism including two main traditions: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Theravāda Buddhism. Historically, Mahāyāna Buddhism had a prominent position in this region, but in modern times most countries follow the Theravāda tradition. Southeast Asian countries with a Theravāda Buddhist majority are Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar, all mainland countries. Vietnam continues to have a Mahāyān majority due to Chinese influence. Indonesia was Mahāyāna Buddhist since the time of the Sailendra and Srivijaya empires, but Mahāyāna Buddhism in Indonesia is now largely practiced by the Chinese diaspora, as in Singapore and Malaysia. Mahāyāna Buddhism is the predominant religion of Chinese communities in Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia. History Early traditions and origins Buddhism reached Southeast Asia both directly over sea from India and indirectly from Central Asia and China in a process that spanned most of the first millennium CE. In the third century B.C., there was disagreement among Ceylonese monks about the differences in practices between some councils of Bhikkhu monks and Vajjian Monks. The Bhikkhu monks affirmed Theravada traditions and rejected some of the practices of the Vajjian monks. It is thought that this sparked the split between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism was formed and developed by Ceylon Bhikkhus during a period spanning from the third century B.C. to fifth century A.D. Ceylonese influence, however, did not reach Southeast Asia until the eleventh century A.D. Theravada Buddhism developed in Southern India and then traveled through Sri Lanka, Burma, and into Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Beyond. In the twelfth century, Mahayana Buddhism developed in Northern India and traveled through Tibet, China and into Vietnam, Indonesia and beyond. Buddhism is thought to have entered Southeast Asia from trade with India, China and Sri Lanka during the 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries. One of the earliest accounts of Buddhism in Southeast Asia was of a Theravada Buddhist mission sent by the Indian emperor Ashoka to modern-day Burma in 250 BCE. The mission was received by the Mon kingdom and many people were converted to Buddhism. Via this early encounter with Buddhism, as well as others due to the continuous regional trade between Southeast Asia, China and South Asia, Buddhism spread throughout Southeast Asia. After the initial arrival in modern-day Burma, Buddhism spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia and into the islands of modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia. There are two primary forms of Buddhism found in Southeast Asia, Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada Buddhism spread from India to Sri Lanka then into the region as outlined above, and primarily took hold in the modern states of Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and southern Vietnam. Mahayana Buddhism is thought to have spread from both China and India during the first and second century into Southeast Asia. Mahayana took root primarily in maritime Southeast Asia, although there was also a strong influence in Vietnam, in part due to their connection with China. Srivijaya, Java and the Khmer Empire During the 5th to 13th centuries, The Southeast Asian empires were influenced directly from India, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna tradition. The Srivijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art expressed the rich Mahāyāna pantheon of . Srivijaya, a maritime empire centred at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Yijing also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in Palembang. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, before being destabilised by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century. Between 8th to 11th century, Medang Mataram kingdom flourished in Central Java ruled by Sailendra dynasty, which also the ruling family of Srivijaya. The reign of King Panangkaran (r. 760—780) saw the rise of Buddhist Mahayana influence in central Java, as the Sailendran kings became the ardent patron of Buddhism. Numerous Buddhist temples and monuments were erected in the region. Notable example includes Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Plaosan, and the grand stone mandala Borobudur, completed during the reign of Samaratungga (r. 819–838) in early 9th century. The period marked the apogee of Buddhist civilization in Indonesia. From the 9th to the 13th centuries, the Mahāyāna Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the Southeast Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighbouring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers. Early spread of Theravada Buddhism There are many factors that contributed to the early spread of Theravada Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia. The main three ways in which the religion was transported into the region is through systems of trade, marriage, and missionary work. Buddhism has always been a missionary religion and Theravada Buddhism was able to spread due to the work and travel of missionaries. The Mon people are an ethnic group from Burma (Myanmar) that contributed to the success of Theravada Buddhism within Indochina. Buddhism was likely introduced to the Mon people during the rule of Ashoka Maurya, the third emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty (268-232 BCE) in India. Ashoka ruled his kingdom in accordance with Buddhist law and throughout his reign he dispatched court ambassadors and missionaries to bring the teachings of the Buddha to the east and Macedonia, as well to parts of Southeast Asia. India had trading routes that ran through Cambodia, allowing for the spread of these ideologies to easily occur. The Mons are one of the earliest ethnic groups from Southeast Asia and as the region shifted and grew, new inhabitants to Burma adopted the Mon people's culture, script, and religion. The middle of the 11th century saw a decline of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. From the 11th to 13th century the Khmer Empire dominated the Southeast Asian peninsula. Hinduism was the primary religion of the Khmer Empire, with a smaller portion of people also adhering to Mahayana Buddhism. During the Khmer Rule, Theravada Buddhism was only found in parts of Malaysia, northwest Thailand, and lower Burma. Theravada Buddhism experienced a revival under the rule of Anawrahta Minsaw (1014–1077 AD). Anawrahta was the ruler of the Pagan Empire in Burma and is considered to be the founder of the modern Burmese nation. Anawrahta embraced and revived the Mon people's form of Theravada Buddhism through his building of schools and monasteries that taught and supported Theravada ideologies. The success of Theravada Buddhism in Burma under the rule of Anawrahta allowed for the later revival and growth of Buddhism in neighboring Southeast Asian countries, such as Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. The influences of the Mon people as well as the Pagan Empire are still felt today throughout the region. Currently, the Southeast Asian countries with the highest amounts of practicing Theravada Buddhists are Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. Political power and resistance Buddhism has long been characterized by some scholars as an other-worldly religion, that is not rooted in economic and political activity. That is in part due to the influence of German sociologist, Max Weber, who was a prominent scholar of religion that has had a significant impact on the way Southeast Asian Buddhism is studied. Many contemporary scholars of Buddhism in Southeast Buddhism are starting to move away from the Weberian school of thought and identifying the role Buddhism has played in economic, political and every-day life in the region. Buddhism has also played a role in the consolidation of power and political resistance to throughout history, dating back to as early as the 10th and 11th century. Buddhist resistance has been a part of many significant historical moments, from the resistance to colonization and colonial powers, the creation of nation-states and the consolidation of political power within kingdoms and states. Some of the earliest accounts of religious conflict that trace back to the 11th century took place in modern-day Burma. There was tension between Buddhist kings looking to create a more uniform religion and different sects of Buddhist worship. In particular, there was resistance from the cult of Nat worship, a religious practice that predates Buddhism in Burma. Buddhist kings of the time attempted to unify the different sects of Buddhism by the elimination of heretical movements. This was done so in order to maintain their power over their people and in an effort to purify the faith. During the Nguyen dynasty of Vietnam in the 19th and 20th century, there was a strain between Confucian rulers and practitioners of Buddhism monks during the early unification of the empire. The rulers had a fear of potential rebellions emerging from monastic sites in the countryside and heavily criticized the spiritual practices of Buddhist sects, including a belief in invulnerability based on merit. After an attempt to de-legitimize Buddhist faith in the eyes of Vietnamese people through this criticism of their practices, they declared a war on Buddhism to squash any resistance to the consolidation of their empire During the late 19th century and early 20th century, there were Buddhist resistance movements in the kingdom of Siam. These resistance movements were led by holy men or phu mi bun who had great power due to a high accumulation of merit. Some of these men claimed to have powers of invulnerability to enemy bullets and shared their powers through bathing others in holy water. An early phu mi bun rebellion was led by a former Buddhist monk, Phaya Phap, who resisted increased taxes in the province of Chiang Mai and proclaimed he would be the new, ideal Buddhist king of the region. These movements were not associated with mainstream Buddhism of the time, but many of the leaders had been ordained monks and utilized some Buddhist symbolism and philosophies. Buddhist resistance also played a role in anti-colonialism movements. During the British colonization of Burma in the 19th century, there was intense Buddhist militarization and resistance against the colonial occupiers in an effort to restore the ideal Buddhist monarchy. There have also been more recent Buddhist resistance movements in Southeast Asia. After the communist takeover of Laos in 1975, some Buddhist monks feared that Buddhism was threatened by the Pathet Lao government. Many monks fled from Laos to Thailand and helped fund resistance movements from across the border. Monks who stayed in Laos supported resistance fighters with food and medical supplies. Another act of Buddhist resistance took place in Saigon in 1963 when a Mahayana Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, self-immolated in the middle of a busy intersection. This self-immolation was an act of protest of the regime of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, a member of the Catholic minority who ruthlessly persecuted and suppressed the Buddhist community. Theravada traditions Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia is rooted in Ceylonese Buddhism that traveled from Sri Lanka to Burma and later to lower Thailand. The Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha are the three fundamental aspects of Theravāda Buddhist thought. The Buddha is the teacher of gods and men. The Dhamma consists of the teachings of the Buddha. It is the Noble Path made through the words and deeds of the Buddha that is to be followed. The path leads the follower from the Realm of Desire, to the Realm of Form, the Formless Realm with the ultimate destination being Nibbāna. The Sangha (gathering) refers to the two types of followers of the Buddha: laity and monastic. The monastic members strictly adhere to the Buddhist monastic discipline, known as the Vinaya. Theravadin Bhikkhu lead a very disciplined life modeled after the Buddha, going from Pabbajjā or novice ordination (sāmaṇera) to Upasampada or higher ordination (Bhikkhu). Mahāyāna traditions Mahāyāna Buddhism in SE Asia is rooted in Buddhist traditions that traveled from Northern India through Tibet and China and eventually made their way to Vietnam, Indonesia and other parts of southeast Asia. Mahāyāna Buddhism consists of a large variety of different sūtras. A defining feature of Mahāyāna Buddhism is its inclusiveness of a wide range of doctrines. The Mahāyāna tradition includes the doctrine of the three bodies of the Buddha (trikāya). The first is the body of transformation (nirmānakāya), the second is the body of bliss/enjoyment (sambhogakāya), and the third is the body of law/essence (dharmakāya). Each body makes sense of a different function of the Buddha. Another common theme in the Mahāyāna tradition of Buddhism, is the path of the . Stories are told about prior lives of the Buddha as a . These stories teach the qualities that are desirable to a good Mahāyāna Buddhist. are selfless as they care not only for their own salvation, liberation, and happiness, but also for the salvation, liberation, and happiness of others. A will make it almost all of the way to Nirvana, but go back in order to help others go farther. Buddhism by country Currently, there are approximately 190–205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the second largest religion in the region, after Islam. Approximately 35 to 38% of the global Buddhist population resides in Southeast Asia. The following is a list of Southeast Asian countries from most to least adherents of Buddhism as a percent of the population. Thailand has the largest number of Buddhists with approximately 95% of its population of 67 million adhering to Buddhism, placing it at around 63.75 million. Myanmar has around 48 million Buddhists, with 89% of its 54 million citizens practicing Theravada Buddhism. Around 1% of the population, mainly the Chinese, practice Mahayana Buddhism alongside Taoism, but are strongly influenced by Theravada Buddhism. Vietnam may have a large number of Buddhists, but the Communist government under-reports the religious adherence of its citizens. It has around 44 million Buddhists, around half its population. The majority of Vietnamese people practice Mahayana Buddhism due to the large amount of Chinese influence. Cambodia has 97.9% of its total population adheres to Theravada Buddhism, placing its Buddhist population at around 14 million which mark as one of the world's highest Buddhist nations by percentage. By the end of 2017, there are 4,872 Buddhist temples (Wat) accommodating 69,199 Buddhist monks that play the important role to maintain the existence of Buddhism and preserve Buddhist culture in Cambodia. Malaysia has about 20% of its citizens, mainly ethnic Chinese, with significant numbers of ethnic Thais, Khmers, Sinhalese and migrant workers, practising Buddhism. The Chinese mainly practice Mahayana Buddhism, but due to the efforts of Sinhalese monks as well as historical links with Thailand, Theravada also enjoys a significant following. Communist Laos has around 5 million Buddhists, who form roughly 70% of its population. Indonesia has around 4.75 million Buddhists (2% of its population), mainly amongst its Chinese population. Most Indonesian Buddhists adhere to Theravada Buddhism, mainly of the Thai tradition. Singapore have around 2 million Buddhists, forming around 33% of their populations respectively. Singapore has the most vibrant Buddhist scene with all three major traditions having large followings. Mahayana Buddhism has the largest presence amongst the Chinese, while many immigrants from countries such as Myanmar, Thailand and Sri Lanka practice Theravada Buddhism. Philippines is 2% of the total population. Brunei, which has the smallest population in Southeast Asia, has around 13% of its citizens and a significant migrant worker population adhering to Buddhism, at around 65,000. See also Agga Maha Pandita Supreme Patriarch of Thailand Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia Sangha Supreme Council State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee List of Sāsana Azani recipients Shinbyu & Awgatha Vipassanā & Vipassana movement Wat & Thai temple art and architecture Burmese pagoda & Pagoda festival Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism Buddhism in Asia Buddhism in East Asia Buddhism by country Index of Buddhism-related articles References Footnotes General references Ancient History Encyclopedia. 2014. "Buddhism". Retrieved 9 October 2016. Baird, Ian G. 2012. "Lao Buddhist Monks' Involvement in Political and Military Resistance to the Lao People's Democratic Republic Government since 1975". The Journal of Asian Studies. 71 (3): 655–677. Buswell, R. 2004. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York: Macmillan Reference, USA. Ileto, R. 1993. "Religion and Anti-Colonial Movements". The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 197–248. Reat, N. 1994. Buddhism: A History. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press. Tarling, N., & Cambridge University Press. 1992. The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. Kitiarsa, Pattana. 2009. "Beyond the Weberian Trails: An Essay on the Anthropology of Southeast Asian Buddhism". Religion Compass3(2): 200–224. Keyes, Charles. 2014. Finding Their Voice: Northeastern Villagers and the Thai State. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books "The burning monk, 1963". rarehistoricalphotos.com. Retrieved 12 October 2016. External links Buddhanet: Buddhism in Southeast Asia Theravada Mahayana Buddhism
5325457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereo%20Realist	Stereo Realist	The Stereo Realist is a stereo camera that was manufactured by the David White Company from 1947 to 1971. It was the most popular 35 mm stereo camera ever manufactured and started the era of popular stereo photography of the mid 20th century. History Seton Rochwite was a camera hobbyist who began designing and building his own stereo cameras in 1929. In 1938, he began working on a version suitable for commercial manufacture. The first prototype was ready in 1940. He brought it to the David White Company of Milwaukee who, interested in the design, hired him in 1943. The company began advertising the "Stereo Realist" in photography magazines in 1945, although it was not produced until late 1947. The David White Company had great success marketing the Stereo Realist system to the public. In addition to the stereo cameras there were special slide viewers, projectors, film cutters, slide mounting aids, cases, and other accessories available. They also offered a stereo slide mounting service. Several camera models were offered over the years, some with premium lenses and features. The basic camera design was shared among all of them. The Stereo Realist system proved so popular that Revere, Bell and Howell, Three Dimension Company (TDC) and Kodak marketed their own cameras using the same format. Some of the competitors' offerings had features that the Realist lacked or were easier to use, and most were less expensive, but none were as popular. The Kodak Stereo Camera in particular, which was both less expensive and easier to use, might have outsold the Realist, had it been released prior to the end of 1954. By the mid-1950s, the public's fascination with stereo imaging was fading, and by 1960 the Stereo Realist was the only stereo camera of the 1950s era that was still manufactured. Realist production limped on at much-reduced numbers throughout the 1960s and finally ceased in 1971. The David White Company, which in the 1950s changed its name to "Realist Inc.", changed it back in 1990. Design and engineering The Realist uses standard 135 film. The unusual proportions of the slides (the image was 5 sprockets wide) became the standard for 3-D slides, and is known as "5P" or "Realist Format". It marked a significant milestone in stereoscopy. The arrangement of images on the film (on cameras where film advances left to right 1R-blank-2R-1L-3R-2L-4R...) seemed arbitrary but allowed for a simple film advance mechanism with little film wastage. A special accessory was available that used the otherwise blank frame near the start of the roll to identify the roll, though the procedure for using it was rather elaborate. Because camera lenses invert the image and flip it left to right, orienting the film strip so that the image's "up" is up, and its "left" is to the left, the left-eye image of the stereo pair is to the viewer's right (see the included photograph). Note that in the Realist 45 the film cartridge is loaded on the right side of the camera, causing the images to be upside-down relative to the numbers. The standard Realist and Kodak Stereo Camera have the cartridge on the left side, so the images have the same orientation as the numbers. The routine for taking a photograph with a Stereo Realist is elaborate, compared to a modern camera. One must lift the lens cover, focus, manually set the aperture and shutter speed, cock the shutter and then take the picture. The wind release button must be depressed briefly while beginning to wind the film to the next frame. The film winding is then completed so that the camera is ready to shoot another pair of images. Later-model cameras featured a double exposure button, which could be pulled out to make a double exposure but could otherwise be left alone, as well as a depth-of-field scale on the focusing knob. Many also had red marks on f/6.3, 1/50 and on 20 feet. This was called "The Three R's in Outdoor Stereo Photography" and is based on the then-standard ASA 10 color slide film. Earlier cameras lacked these features but they could be added. The double exposure button would have to be installed by the factory, but the depth-of-field scale and red marks could be added by a dealer or even the camera's owner. Thus, older model Realists are sometimes found with red marks or depth-of-field scales, but without double exposure buttons. A characteristic of "Stereo Realist" type cameras is that the lenses are at a fixed separation, known as "fixed stereo base", which was slightly more than the average distance between the human eyes. The stereo base was ideal for subjects that were 7 to 20 feet from the camera, which worked well for most pictures but was somewhat lacking for more distant scenic shots. Accessories were available to effectively lengthen the stereo base for scenic shots and reduce it for macro shots, but these were seldom used. Accessories and mounting services Because the Realist effectively created a new format of slide, its users needed a new line of accessories and services. The David White company obliged by producing a whole system which included everything needed to take, mount, view, and store stereo slides. Among the available accessories was a complete mounting kit which included a sorting tray, film cutter, tweezers, three different types of aluminum masks, cardboard folders, a mounting jig, and mounting glass. Mounting glass could be secured with mounting tape, binder frames, or with plastic "Permamounts". Permamounts were considered premium mounts, with a label on one side and a neat viewing window on the other. They were considered suitable for projection because the rigid plastic construction was stiff enough for automatic magazines but no plastic covered the image area so there was no interference with polarization. The operator of the projector did need to be careful not to leave the same slide in the projector for too long, because the heat would eventually start to warp the mount. Viewing accessories included several types of slide viewers, the Realist stereo projector, and polarized glasses. There were various types of slide storage cases available, some of which could accommodate the viewer as well. Most of these accessories were also made by other companies, which sometimes improved upon the Realist offerings. The stereo projectors made by TDC (Three Dimension Company), for example, were far more popular than the Realist stereo projector. Some users preferred cardboard slip-in mounts made by third parties because of their ease of use, even though they were generally considered to be of lower quality and were not suitable for projection. The Brumberger binder frames and mounting glass were very popular among users of stereo projectors. All of these can be found on eBay in used or occasionally NOS condition and some of them (or their modern equivalents) are still manufactured. The Realist stereo mounting service used several different types of mounts during its run. The earliest mounts used a type of aluminized cardboard mask inside a cardboard foldover. This tended to warp with exposure to humidity, changing the alignment of the film chips. In older slide collections, the film chips may have slipped to the point that the slide is unviewable without readjustment, and one film chip may have even fallen out. Later slides from this service were usually in "precision mounts" which contained an aluminum mask inside the same style of cardboard foldover. The precision mounts may or may not have the words "precision mount" printed on the outside. Kodak also had a stereo slide mounting service. Whereas the mounts used in the Realist service appear to have been designed for hand-mounting, the Kodak mounts look like they were made exclusively for high-volume machine mounting. The Kodak mounts are all-cardboard and have the appearance of being a single piece of cardboard. Purists did not recommend them for projection because the stereo window was not very precise and the mount was not stiff enough for the automatic feeding mechanism of some deluxe stereo projectors. Other models Aside from the standard f/3.5 Realist (a.k.a. ST-41, model 1041) there were several other models. Realist 2.8 (a.k.a. ST-42, model 1042) This model featured four-element f/2.8 lenses rather than the three-element f/3.5 lenses used by the standard Realist. Most users under normal use will not notice the difference, though the f/3.5 lenses have slightly better contrast. The f/3.5 lenses all show vignetting at smaller apertures whereas the f/2.8 lenses do not. The f/2.8 lenses also work better with supplementary lenses. More recently, the f/2.8 Realists have been favored for 7P widening, because their lenses adequately cover the wider frame whereas the f/3.5 lenses cannot. Realist Custom (model 1050) The Realist Custom features higher-quality f/2.8 "rare earth" lenses. It also has a higher-quality brushed satin chrome finish and larger knobs. The Custom used thicker coarse-grain kangaroo leather rather than the standard goat leather used on other models. The rangefinder has detents that make audible clicks as the camera is focused. The exposure counter counts down rather than up, with red marks at stereo exposure numbers 16 (for 20 exposure rolls) and 29 (for 36 exposure rolls). The Custom model has an engraved name plate reading "Realist Custom". The Custom had other refinements. Only the finest parts were used for Customs and the "rare earth" lenses were more precisely matched than on other cameras. Realist 45 (model 1045) The Realist 45 is a stripped-down version of the German-made Iloca Stereo Rapid, without the rangefinder and self-timer. It was marketed by Realist Inc. in the U.S., apparently as an economical, easy-to-use camera to compete with the Kodak Stereo Camera. Though the design is clearly different, the Realist 45 has several features in common with the Kodak Stereo Camera. It features an automatically cocked shutter. There is built-in double exposure prevention with manual override. There is also a film type indicator on top. The Realist 45 also differs from the Kodak Stereo Camera in several ways: the Realist 45 film transport features a swing-out lever that allows rapid winding, a handy feature for those wishing to take a lot of shots quickly. Unlike the Kodak, the Realist 45 has a top-mounted focusing knob that moves the film plane in a fashion similar to the standard Realist. There is a depth-of-field scale built into the knob going up to f/16. The top-mounted exposure counter counts up rather than down, like the Kodak counter. Aperture settings are on a ring mounted on the left lens, ranging from f/3.5 to f/16 with all whole f-stops marked. The shutter speed is set by a ring mounted on the right lens and includes B, 1/25, 1/50, 1/100 and 1/200. The bottom of the camera contains the rewind knob release lever, the rewind release button and the rewind knob, which also opens the back. Printing on the bottom includes loading instructions, daylight exposure table, flash exposure table, (both based on ASA 10 film) and suggestions for common focus settings. The Realist 45 also features the then-standard hot shoe (referred to as an accessory clip). This was more versatile when it was released because it allowed using most contemporary flash accessories, and in recent years it has been much easier to find an adapter for modern electronic flash units than it was for the Kodak. Unlike the Standard Realist, the Realist 45 is not constantly available on eBay, but does come up on a fairly regular basis and usually sells for $100–$200 in good clean condition. Olden Realist In 1970, The Olden Camera and Lens Company in New York City acquired about 500 f/2.8 (model 1042) Realists which were sold under the Olden name for about six years. These were similar in appearance to regular model 1042 cameras, but had a sticker on the name plate with the Olden company name. Because they were made out of left-over parts, including parts intended for Custom Realists, they had a variable combination of features from both Model 1042 and Model 1050 cameras. Because of this, some have been sold by third parties on the used camera market as Realist Customs (model 1050) though they had only some of the features that distinguish Customs from regular model 1042 Realists. The Olden Realist cameras sold from 1970 to around 1976 were some of the last new Stereo Realists sold. Macro Realist (model 1060) The Macro Realist a.k.a. model 1060 had the same body as the regular Stereo Realist but was a completely different camera. The Macro Realist was designed to stereograph subjects that are 4 to 5 ½ inches away. It was invented by Clarence G. Henning. Unlike the regular Realist, it had fixed focus and fixed aperture. Technical requirements of macro work related to the interocular distance of 15 mm dictated that the subject be a certain distance from the camera, so a pair of "arms" located in front of the lens showed where the subject needed to be. The camera was held by a hand grip with a built-in shutter button and lighting was through an electronic flash unit sold with the camera. The one missing feature that would have made it a truly convenient point-and-shoot was a motorized film advance, a rare feature indeed for cameras of that era. There was a single shutter for both lenses, thus insuring perfect synchronization, an important consideration when stereographing live insects. Shutter speeds available ranged from "B" and "T" up to 1/125, though the shutter speed made little difference when using the electronic flash. Realist Inc. also produced an accessory lens kit, model 1525, that allowed varying the distance further from the subject (-3) or much closer (+3, +6 and +10). Each lens came with a custom set of arms showing the range of focus. The interocular remained fixed at 15 mm, so the magnification given by the +10 lens resulted in excessive parallax, and many people found the pictures produced by it difficult to view. Likewise, the depth in pictures taken with the -3 lens was somewhat subtle. The Macro Realist was manufactured for about one year, ending production in 1972. Existing stock sold slowly, however, and it was still available from Realist Inc. until 1976. It is estimated that only about 350 units were made. The Macro Realist rarely appears on eBay, and when it does the asking price is in the $6000 range. Post 1971 As mentioned earlier, both Macro Realists and Olden Realists were still available as new cameras as late as 1976. Other Realists may have been sold by dealers as New Old Stock after 1971 as well. The end of Realist production did not spell the end of their use, or market support. Indeed, many avid Realist users were not even born when Realist ceased production in 1971. Mounting services In the book Amazing 3D it is suggested that Kodak abandoned its mounting service in 1955 and then resumed it after the demise of the Realist. In many stereo slide collections there are Kodak-mounted slides with handwritten dates from 1956 to 1957, as well as Kodak mounts with embossed dates from 1958 to 1971 and later. This suggests that it was actually the Realist slide mounting service that ended in 1955, as no Realist-mounted slides after that date seem to exist. Kodak maintained its stereo slide mounting service into the late 1980s. There are still some companies which can process and mount stereo slides, mostly through mail order. After the David White Company got out of the stereo photography business, a company called Sigma continued to make Realist-style aluminum masks without Realist branding until the supply of semi-rigid aluminum dried up. These were sold by companies such as Reel 3D Enterprises well into the 1980s. Other slide mounting options are still available. For example, the cardboard Spicer Mounts. Supplies are generally available from stereo photography clubs, eBay or mail order companies. Realist photographers today usually mount the slides themselves. They have the film commercially developed and returned as an uncut strip. Slide film The Stereo Realist was designed to use slide film. Although it is possible to use print film in it, it has never been easy to find labs that could properly print 5P format prints. Users who do not do their own film processing but which have their own 35mm film scanner and a computer with photo editing software such as Photoshop or GIMP can have their negatives returned uncut (lab dependent) and can prepare the images for printing on standard size photo paper themselves. Slide film is no longer as commonly available as it once was. Slide film remained popular for general non-stereo uses through the 1980s, and as late as 2005 at least one type of slide film was available at most places that sold print film. By the end of 2006 the picture had changed and slide film became difficult to find. For general consumers, slides were replaced with technologies such as video camcorders and photo CDs (bundled with a set of prints). Film itself, both slide and print, was made scarce by digital photography. Slide film remains available as a professional and enthusiast product, and is available from camera stores and through mail order. Most vintage stereo slides were taken on Kodachrome slide film. Kodachrome was popular with stereo photographers because it had better color reproduction compared to other transparency films available at the time (such as Anscochrome) and low grain (especially in the Kodachrome 10 ASA film, which was standard in the early 1950s, and later 25 ASA film). Collectors of vintage slides appreciate the fact that it has also held up much better than other color films. Stereo slides viewed in hand-held slide viewers reveal a lot of detail, making grain more noticeable. However, by 2009 Kodak ceased production of Kodachrome, and the last laboratory stopped developing it at the end of 2010. Other slide films are still available and can be used. Primarily Ektachrome, Velvia, and Provia still being available in the 2020s. Digital stereo photography Digital photography is changing the stereo photography market. Stereo photographers have always been keen experimenters, and many are now using two digital cameras and projecting stereo using data projectors and polarizing lenses. With the recent popularity of 3D movies, 3D televisions and 3D computer gaming, there has been a renewed interest in stereo photography. Consumer stereo digital cameras are starting to appear on the market (such as the Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1 and its successor, the W3), but have yet to become as well known as the Stereo Realist in its day, though the Fuji W3 has already outsold the Stereo Realist, and is expected to outsell all the 1950s stereo cameras combined by September 2011. Use and availability There are still dedicated Stereo Realist camera users, and active stereo photography clubs around the world. Trademark RadioShack's hi-fi brand "Realistic" was originally "Realist" at its 1954 launch, but was renamed due to the camera maker's prior claim on the trademark. The "Stereo Realist" trademark is currently registered to John J. Zelenka and is currently in use as a 3D production and services company located in New York. Published works with the Stereo Realist Leo Villa, mechanic for Sir Malcolm and Donald Campbell's record-breaking Bluebirds, was given a Stereo Realist by Campbell in 1955. Many of his photographs with it have recently been published in book form as polychromatic anaglyphs (i.e., single composite photographs viewed through colored viewing glasses). Harold Lloyd took thousands of stereo slides with his Realist and wrote the introduction to the Stereo Realist Manual published by Morgan and Lester. He also took several of the stereo pictures used in that book. Many of his pictures of Hollywood celebrities were published in the book 3D Hollywood and in Hollywood Nudes in 3-D!. Notes References External links StereoRealist.com: Owner of the Stereo Realist Trademark and Logo The Stereoscopic Society Stereo cameras Products introduced in 1947
5325477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Oklahoma%20State%20University%20people	List of Oklahoma State University people	There are more than 250,000 living Oklahoma State University alumni worldwide. Oklahoma State alumni include billionaire T. Boone Pickens, country music recording artist Garth Brooks, computer pioneer Dr. H. Edward Roberts, astronaut Wally Funk and South Korea Prime Minister Nam Duck-woo. Faculty and staff who are not alumni have also distinguished themselves and are included in this list. Alumni Academia * Some OSU alumni who have distinguished themselves in academia are included under other headings. * George S. Benson, missionary, college administrator, conservative political activist and segregationist Anita Hill, Government, Brandeis University Ramchandran Jaikumar, Daewoo Professor of Business Administration at the Harvard Business School Linda Livingstone, President of Baylor University Sidney A. McPhee, President of Middle Tennessee State University Gene R. Nichol, former President of The College of William and Mary J. Tinsley Oden, pioneer in the field of computational mechanics, one of the most highly cited researchers in the world David Noel Ramírez Padilla, Rector, Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education John R. Rice, mathematician and computer scientist; founder of ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software; Professor at Purdue University Steven A. Scott, ninth president of Pittsburg State University. Arts, letters media and entertainment Keith Anderson, country music singer, songwriter John Ashley, producer (The A-Team, Walker, Texas Ranger); associate producer (Apocalypse Now: Redux) Tomur Atagok, Turkish artist Hoyt Axton, noted rock and folk singer-songwriter and actor K. K. Barrett, production designer Jason Boland, country music singer, songwriter Garth Brooks, singer, songwriter and actor (the best-selling solo album artist in the United States and one of the best-selling artists of all time worldwide) June Burn, pioneering magazine writer and author Gary Busey, actor Jaime Cardriche, actor (Malcolm & Eddie) Ally Carter, born Sarah Fogleman, NY Times and USA Today bestselling author Sarah Coburn, operatic soprano; daughter of senator Tom Coburn, also an OSU alumni Jay Daniel, television producer Burr DeBenning, film, television and stage actor Ty England, country music singer Dave Garrett, New Orleans Saints and Dallas Cowboys radio broadcaster Doug Gottlieb, ESPN analyst and syndicated sports talk radio host Chester Gould, creator of the Dick Tracy comic strip Aaron Gwyn, American short story author and literary critic Regina Holliday, artist, medical rights advocate Helen Holmes, journalist, historian, and Women's Army Corps officer Brandon Jenkins, singer-songwriter from Tulsa, Oklahoma; sang in the choir; taught himself guitar Siddika Kabir, Bangladeshi cooking show host and cookbook author Trey Kennedy, comedian, actor, singer Joe King, country music singer-songwriter, and former NFL player, wrote and recorded Down In Stillwater Oklahoma Ted Leitner, San Diego Padres radio broadcaster Rex Linn, actor (best known as Frank Tripp in the television series CSI: Miami) James Marsden, actor and model (attained global stardom with X-Men film series) A. Frank Martin, musician, educator, and founding member of Kappa Kappa Psi Sharron Miller, television producer, director, writer (first woman ever to win the coveted Directors Guild of America Award) Pamela Morsi, USA Today bestselling author Kinga Philipps, actor, television host Steve Ripley, country-rock artist and guitarist Lise Simms, television actress and designer Larry Thompson, humor columnist, author Watermelon Slim, born Bill Homans, blues artist Emily Wickersham, NCIS, Sopranos, actress Business Minnie Lou Bradley, Class of 1953, first woman to graduate from OSU with a degree in animal husbandry; matriarch of Bradley 3 Ranch in Childress County, Texas Gordon Eubanks, CEO and President of Symantec Corporation, makers of Norton AntiVirus John D. Groendyke, CEO of Groendyke Transport Clark Hallren, managing director of Clear Scope Partners, financial and strategic advisor for those in the media and entertainment industry; former managing director of the Entertainment Industries Group of JPMorgan Securities, Inc. Paul Miller, former President of the Associated Press; former chairman and CEO of Gannett Company (publisher of many newspapers including USA Today, Arizona Republic and the Indianapolis Star) Neal Patterson, CEO of Cerner Corporation T. Boone Pickens, corporate tycoon; has donated over $235 million to OSU, including the renovation of the football stadium William A. Scroggs, insurance agent; founder of Kappa Kappa Psi M. B. "Bud" Seretean, former CEO of Coronet Industries, former general manager of the Atlanta Hawks Sanjiv Sidhu, founder of software giants i2 Technologies, the disruptive first mover in supply-chain-management software, and o9 Solutions Charles Watson, Chairman, founder and CEO of energy giant Dynegy Corp.; owner of the Houston Aeros professional hockey team Jerry Winchester, President and CEO of Boots & Coots International Well Control Inc.; CEO of Chesapeake Oilfield Services Public affairs Yussur A.F. Abrar, Governor of the Central Bank of Somalia Joe Allbaugh, former FEMA director (February 2001 to March 2003) Adnan Badran, former Prime Minister of Jordan (also see academia section) Henry Bellmon, former US Senator (R-OK) and first Republican Governor of Oklahoma Francis Cherry, former Governor of Arkansas Tom Coburn, US Senator (R-OK) John W. Doucette, Brig. General, US Air Force Nam Duck-woo, former Prime Minister of South Korea Mary Fallin, former Governor of Oklahoma Walter E. Fountain, United States Army Brigadier General, Assistant Adjutant General of the Oklahoma Army National Guard, acting Deputy Director of the Army National Guard John Paul Hammerschmidt, former US Congressman, Arkansas Ali Hamsa, former Chief Secretary to the Government of Malaysia Alan J. Hawkins, Anglican bishop and COO of the Anglican Church in North America Joel Hefley, US House, 5th District of Colorado Anita Hill, American lawyer, professor and commentator Hossein Kazempour Ardebili, Iranian diplomat and OPEC representative Roger A. Lalich, U.S. National Guard general Frank Lucas, US House, 3rd District of Oklahoma Sidney Marks, Major General United States Army, All-American wrestler Clem McSpadden, US House, Oklahoma Markwayne Mullin, US Senator; former Congressman, Oklahoma Don Nickles, former US Senator William B. Oden, American Methodist Bishop Abdisalam Omer, former Governor of the Central Bank of Somalia Robert Dale Price, US House, Texas Panhandle Jim Reese, former member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives and commissioner of the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture Virgil A. Richard, Brig. General, US Army William Royer, former US Congressman, California Ray L. Smith, Major General, retired United States Marine Corps; inductee of the Oklahoma Military Hall of Fame Kevin Stitt, Current Governor of Oklahoma Steven W. Taylor, Oklahoma Supreme Court Justice Richard A. Waterfield, late State Representative from Canadian, Texas Wes Watkins, former US House Representative, Oklahoma Robert A. Whitney, Acting Surgeon General of the United States Science, technology and engineering Walter Clore, pioneer in Washington State wine growing; the "father of Washington wine" Wally Funk First female FAA and NTSB inspector; one of the Mercury 13; oldest woman in space as of July 2021 Katherine O. Musgrave (1920–2015), Professor Emerita of food and nutrition, University of Maine William Pogue, Ret. Colonel, USAF, NASA astronaut, pilot of Skylab 4 John R. Rice, mathematician and computer scientist; founder of ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software; Professor at Purdue University Dr. H. Edward Roberts, engineer and inventor of the personal computer Stuart Roosa, NASA astronaut, Apollo 14 Donald Sechrest (1956), golf course designer Robert A. Whitney, Acting Surgeon General of the United States For more Oklahoma State University graduates of distinction in the sciences, see the "Academia" section. Sports Jerry Adair, former MLB player and coach Adnan Al-Kaissie, former pro wrestler and manager Tony Allen, former NBA basketball player, New Orleans Pelicans Dan Bailey, current NFL football player, Free Agent Harold Bailey, NFL and CFL player Scott Baker, former MLB pitcher, Minnesota Twins Tatum Bell, former NFL football player Bo Bowling, Montreal Alouettes player Jordan Brailford, NFL outside linebacker, Washington Redskins Jack Brisco, former pro wrestler, two-time former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jerry Brisco, former pro wrestler Markel Brown (born 1992), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Rod Brown, All-American football player Dez Bryant, former NFL wide receiver for the Dallas Cowboys Jeromy Burnitz, former MLB baseball player Keith Burns, former NFL football player, Denver Broncos Michael Cobbins (born 1992), basketball player for Maccabi Haifa of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Carrie-Lynn Cohen (born 1967), Canadian tennis player Kelly Cook, former NFL football player, Green Bay Packers Daniel Cormier, Olympic wrestler, NCAA runner-up, mixed martial artist, current UFC Light Heavyweight & Heavyweight Champion Randy Couture, three-time All-American wrestler; Former UFC Heavyweight and Light Heavyweight Champion, and UFC Hall of Fame member Mason Cox, current Australian rules football player with Collingwood of the Australian Football League Kendall Cross, three-time All-American wrestler and won the NCAA National Championship in 1989, gold medalist in wrestling at 57 kg in 1996 Pete Darcey, former NBA basketball player Gary Darnell, former college football coach Alex Dieringer, three-time NCAA Champion wrestler Marcus Dove, basketball player Shane Drury, rodeo bull-rider who died prematurely from cancer Danny Edwards, PGA Tour golfer David Edwards, PGA Tour golfer John Farrell, manager of 2013 World Series champion Boston Red Sox Josh Fields, former MLB baseball player, Royals Rickie Fowler, professional golfer Don Frye, wrestled during OSU NCAA Championship in 1989, former mixed martial artist in Pride Fighting Championships and the UFC Edward C. Gallagher, champion sprinter and football player, former wrestling coach; winningest coach in NCAA wrestling history, Olympic wrestling coach, National Wrestling Hall of Fame charter member Reuben Gant, former NFL football player, Buffalo Bills Walt Garrison, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, Dallas Cowboys Vickie Gates, IFBB professional bodybuilder Jason Gildon, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, Pittsburgh Steelers Chad Glasgow, former defensive coordinator for the Texas Tech Red Raiders football team Derrel Gofourth, former NFL football player, Green Bay Packers Joey Graham, former NBA basketball player, Toronto Raptors Mike Gundy, current head coach of Oklahoma State University football Brent Guy, college football coach Charlie Harper, former NFL football player, New York Giants Bob Harris, former NBA player Labron Harris, first golf coach at Oklahoma State University Don Haskins, former NCAA men's basketball coach, University of Texas at El Paso, subject of the movie Glory Road Mark Hayes, PGA Tour, Senior PGA Tour golfer Randy Heckenkemper, golf course architect Johny Hendricks, retired professional mixed martial artist; former UFC Welterweight Champion; two-time NCAA Wrestling Champion (2005, 2006) Anthony Hickey (born 1992), basketball player for Hapoel Haifa in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Rusty Hilger, former NFL football player, Detroit Lions Morgan Hoffmann, professional golfer Mike Holder, former men's golf coach and current athletic director Joe Horlen, former MLB All-Star pitcher Viktor Hovland, current PGA Tour golfer and FedEx Cup Champion Charles Howell III, current PGA Tour golfer Dick Hutton, former pro wrestler, former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Henry Iba, NCAA and Olympic champion basketball coach, National Basketball Hall of Fame member Moe Iba, former University of Nebraska basketball coach Pete Incaviglia, former MLB baseball player, Baseball America and Collegiate Baseball newspaper College Baseball Player of the Century Ed Jeffers, former professional football player Charlie Johnson, current NFL player, Super Bowl Champion 2006 Indianapolis Colts John Juanda, professional poker player, winner of 5 World Series of Poker bracelets Howard N. "Sonny" Keys, NFL football player, Philadelphia Eagles 1960 World Champions (precursor to Super Bowl); coach of Cleveland Browns Joe King, former NFL player, current country music singer-songwriter, Cincinnati Bengals, Cleveland Browns, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Las Vegas Raiders Jon Kolb (offensive tackle) 4 time Super Bowl Champion, NFL Hall of Fame Bob Kurland, basketball, two-time NCAA Champion, two-time Olympic Champion, Hall of Fame Jacob Lacey, current NFL football player, Indianapolis Colts Muhammed Lawal, MMA fighter Sonny Liles, football player John Little, former NFL football player, New York Jets Edward Loar, professional golfer John Lucas, current NBA basketball player, Houston Rockets Hunter Mahan, PGA Tour golfer Dexter Manley, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, Washington Redskins Desmond Mason, former NBA basketball player, Oklahoma City Thunder Caroline Masson, professional golfer Aaron McConnell, football player Leroy McGuirk, former pro wrestler and promoter; three-time NWA World Light Heavyweight Champion R. W. McQuarters, former NFL football player, New York Giants Bud Millikan, basketball coach of University of Maryland Steve Mocco, 2005 NCAA Division I Champion at Heavyweight; 2008 Olympic team member; current professional MMA fighter Kenny Monday, 3-time Olympic wrestler – 1988 welterweight gold medalist and 1992 welterweight silver medalist; 2x NCAA champion Vernand Morency, current NFL football player, Green Bay Packers Mark Muñoz, retired professional mixed martial artist, UFC middleweight, two-time wrestling All-American, NCAA Champion in 2001 Ray Murphy, Jr., former wrestler; developer of handicapped-assisting technologies; recipient of Medal of Courage from the National Wrestling Hall of Fame Le'Bryan Nash (born 1992), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Alexander Norén, professional golfer Houston Nutt, current NCAA football head coach, University of Mississippi Leslie O'Neal, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, San Diego Chargers Bill Owen, former NFL football player, New York Giants Frank Parker, former NFL football player, Cleveland Browns Juqua Parker, former NFL football player, Philadelphia Eagles Jim Parmer, former NFL football player, Philadelphia Eagles Doyle Parrack, former NBA basketball player, and NCAA coach Danny Perez, former MLB outfielder, Milwaukee Brewers Kevin Peterson, American football player Lenzy Pipkins, American football player Dean Prater, former NFL football player, Buffalo Bills Bryant Reeves, former NBA basketball player, Vancouver Grizzlies Allie Reynolds, MLB pitcher Shane Roller, three-time All-American wrestler; retired MMA fighter Jake Rosholt, 3X NCAA champion wrestler, retired MMA fighter Jared Rosholt, former NCAA All-American wrestler; professional mixed martial artist with the PFL Rusty Ryal, current MLB infielder, Arizona Diamondbacks James David "Buddy" Ryan, former NFL defensive coordinator (see: 46 Defense/Chicago Bears) and Head Coach Barry Sanders, Heisman Trophy winner, former NFL football player, Detroit Lions; Hall of Famer Luke Scott, current MLB outfielder, Baltimore Orioles Dave Schultz (attended), 3x NCAA Champion, Olympic and world champion wrestler Bill Self, current NCAA basketball head coach, University of Kansas; former head coach Oral Roberts University, University of Tulsa, University of Illinois Jerry Sherk, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, Cleveland Browns Jerry Slack, golf course architect Marcus Smart, current NBA player for the Boston Celtics, 6th overall draft pick in 2014 Antonio Smith, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, Houston Texans John Smith, current head coach of Oklahoma State University wrestling, 2X NCAA champion, 4X World and 2X Olympic gold medal winner, National Wrestling Hall of Fame member Pat Smith, first four-time NCAA D1 Champion wrestler John Starks, former Oklahoma State basketball player, former New York Knicks guard Eddie Sutton, former men's basketball head coach at several schools, among them Oklahoma State Scott Sutton, former head coach of Oral Roberts University basketball Sean Sutton, former head coach of Oklahoma State University basketball Lane Taylor, current NFL player, Green Bay Packers Mickey Tettleton, former MLB baseball player Doug Tewell, PGA Tour, Senior PGA Tour golfer Thurman Thomas, former NFL football player, Buffalo Bills; Hall of Famer Leonard Thompson, former NFL football player, Detroit Lions Jim Turner, NFL player Orville Tuttle, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, New York Giants Bob Tway, current PGA Tour golfer Peter Uihlein, professional golfer Robert (Bo) Van Pelt, professional golfer Robin Ventura, former MLB baseball player Scott Verplank, current PGA Tour golfer Donnie Walton, current MLB infielder, Seattle Mariners Gary Ward, former baseball coach John Ward, former NFL football player, Minnesota Vikings John Washington, former NFL football player, New York Giants Lindy Waters III, former Oklahoma State basketball player, current Oklahoma City Thunder guard Brian Watts, former PGA TOUR player John Ray Webster, checkers champion Brandon Weeden, current NFL football player, Dallas Cowboys Reggie White, former NFL player Darrell Williams (born 1989), basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Premier League Darrent Williams, former NFL football player, Denver Broncos (d. 2007) Jamal Williams, former Pro Bowl NFL football player, San Diego Chargers Kevin Williams, current Pro Bowl NFL football player, Minnesota Vikings Casey Wittenberg, current PGA Tour Golfer Duane Wood, former AFL All-Star football player, Kansas City Chiefs Rashaun Woods, former NFL football player, San Francisco 49ers Kenyatta Wright, former NFL football player, New York Jets Toby Wynn (2001), head women's basketball coach for Emporia State University Faculty and administration Presidents past and present Notable former and current faculty Girish Saran Agarwal, physicist Ai, poet; member of OSU English faculty until her death Hilton Briggs, President of South Dakota State University Elliott D. Canonge, linguist specializing in Native American cultures Robert P. Celarier, leading botanist and agrostologist Alfred Corn, poet Angie Debo, leading historian of Oklahoma and Native Americans; curator of maps for Oklahoma A&M library, 1947–1955; left her papers to OSU Library J. Frank Dobie, author; folklorist; taught English at OSU; most remembered for his service at the University of Texas at Austin Brian Evenson, academic and writer of both literary fiction and popular fiction Wolt Fabrycky, industrial engineering scholar Bryan P. Glass, mammalogist Elbert Glover, public health expert Edward Goljan, medical educator Toni Graham, American fiction writer Jack Harlan, agronomist Riffat Hassan, Pakistani-American religious scholar notable for her studies of Islamic feminism Helen Holmes, journalist, historian, and Women's Army Corps officer William Jaco, mathematician; discovered the JSJ decomposition George Judge, economist Subhash Kak, computer scientist and public intellectual Sheldon Katz, mathematician and string theorist (now at the University of Illinois) Nicholas A. Kotov, noted chemical engineering professor (now professor at University of Michigan) Edmon Low, pioneering university librarian Bohumil Makovsky, director of bands; "the Guiding Spirit of Kappa Kappa Psi" Robert W. MacVicar, former President of Oregon State University J. Tinsley Oden, pioneering scholar of engineering (now at University of Texas) Aimee Parkison, short story writer and novelist Christine Salmon, American architect Mike Sowell, journalist and sportswriter Robert Sternberg, one of the twenty most-cited psychologists of the 20th century N.V.V.J. Swamy, mathematical physicist Paul J. Tikalsky, American civil engineer Elsayed Elsayed Wagih, inventor of the zymoblot Joseph W. Westphal, political scientist, educator, and former United States Under Secretary of the Army Former and current athletic staff Larry Coker, former coach of University of Miami Butch Davis, former coach of University of Miami and Cleveland Browns Rickie Fowler, current player in the PGA Edward C. Gallagher, former wrestling and track and field coach, physical education professor and athletic director Leonard Hamilton, current coach of Florida State Seminoles basketball Henry Iba, former basketball coach and athletic director Jimmy Johnson, current Fox sports analyst; former coach of Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins; spokesman for Extenze Les Miles, current head football coach of LSU Doyle Parrack, won national basketball championship under Henry Iba in 1945; assistant coach under Iba; head women's basketball coach, 1978–80 Oail Andrew "Bum" Phillips, NFL Head Coach of Houston Oilers; assistant coach under Jim Stanley Eddie Sutton, former basketball coach (also alumnus) Dave Wannstedt, current coach of Pittsburgh Panthers; former coach of Chicago Bears and Miami Dolphins See also List of Oklahoma State University Olympians References External links Oklahoma State University Alumni Association Oklahoma State University people Oklahoma State University
5325492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwleusen	Nieuwleusen	Nieuwleusen (Low Saxon: Ni'jlusen) is a town in the Dutch province of Overijssel with 9300 inhabitants as of 2021. In the 2001 municipal reform, most of the former municipality of Nieuwleusen was incorporated into the municipality of Dalfsen. Some parts of the former municipality, including the Lichtmis area, was added to the neighbouring municipality of Zwolle. Situation The provincial road N377 (the 'Den Hulst') runs along the town, going from Hasselt in the west to Coevorden in the east. To the north are the hamlet of Punthorst and the Staatsbos state woodland in the municipality of Staphorst. South of Nieuwleusen is Dalfsen, a slightly bigger town from which the municipality takes its name. To the west, provincial road N377 and highway A28 meet at De Lichtmis, the location of a former military bulwark which provided access to the north of the country. Nieuwleusen is situated between the Vecht and Reest rivers to the south and north respectively, and is counted as part of the historical region of Salland, or latterly the (Overijssels) Vechtdal (Vecht Valley - a usage in tourism). The town has a northern and an older southern half (today called Nieuwleusen-Noord and Nieuwleusen-Zuid, respectively) separated by sports fields and facilities. The northern part has the Old and New Hulsterplas, two connected recreational bodies of water created between the nineteen-sixties and -eighties. The southern part has the Kerkenhoek area with the Grote Kerk (Great Church) from 1830, first built in 1660; the former town hall; and the small Palthebos wood, once the possession of the Palthe family of clergy and landowners. Rural cores and former hamlets that form part of Nieuwleusen include Den Hulst to the north, De Meele to the northwest and the Ruitenveen to the southwest. New housing has been under construction for years. Construction is underway in various locations, notably to the west (the 'Westerbouwlanden'). Accessibility Public transportation to and from Nieuwleusen include bus routes 301 between Zwolle and Coevorden, 649 (a school bus) between Zwolle and Dedemsvaart and 217, all operated by Syntus Overijssel. Roads leading into Nieuwleusen include the N377 (from Hasselt), N758 (from Zwolle) and N757 (from Dalfsen). History Nieuwleusen came into existence in the first half of the seventeenth century. At the time, most of the area between Leusen, a village on the Vecht, and the Reest on the border with the province of Drenthe consisted of inaccessible peat moors. The entire area of the Vechtdal, from Hasselt to Coevorden, is indicated as 't Veen (the Peat Moor) on a map by Abraham Goos from the early seventeenth century. The area where Nieuwleusen now lies is called the Ommer moer (Moor of Ommen) on the same map. The Luessener Compagnie On 8 January 1631, the Luessener Compagnie was established by inhabitants of Zwolle and Kampen to cultivate the area north of Leusen, which belonged to the Marke van Leusen (the local association of land owners). It was mainly pioneers from Leusen who made the land arable. The first farms of the new settlement stood along the Pad (Path), today the Oosterveen road. Hence, Nieuwleusen got its early name of Oosterveen, as seen on the earliest area maps. Once the settlement got its name of Nieuwleusen (New Leusen), the original Leusen got to be called Oudleusen or Old Leusen (Low Saxon: Oldlusen). It is believed that leusen in these names means lo-essen, approximately 'wooded fields' - which would have been descriptive of the (Old) Leusen area and carried over into the name of Nieuwleusen. Between 1640 and 1646, the nobleman Zweer van Haersolte built the havezathe (country house typical of Overijssel) Oosterveen here. It was demolished in 1862; a scale model is on view at the town's historical museum (see below). In 1655, a house for a schoolteacher was built on the Oosterveen. The baptismal register of Nieuwleusen was kept from 1659. The first Reformed ministers were called from Zwolle, Dalfsen and Ommen. The first minister was Reverend Van Bercum, who arrived in 1663. The Dedemsvaart In 1809, Nieuwleusen-born nobleman and politician Baron Willem Jan van Dedem started construction of the Dedemsvaart canal through northern Overijssel, meant to facilitate the transportation of peat, which was being dug on a large scale in this part of the Netherlands. The canal would eventually stretch from the Zwarte Water in Hasselt to the Vecht at Gramsbergen, cutting horizontally through the north of the province. In 1811, the canal went as far as Balkbrug (past Nieuwleusen). Just north of Nieuwleusen, as at other points where there were locks and bridges, the Dedemsvaart stimulated settlement alongside the canal. It encouraged the growth of the hamlet of Den Hulst (known locally as Nulst), first mentioned in the early eighteenth century. From Den Hulst, the Ommerdiek road (now the main road Burg. J.P. Backxlaan) led down to Nieuwleusen. Den Hulst would evolve into the northern part of Nieuwleusen. A track for a tram engine was laid alongside the Dedemsvaart in 1885; the tram engine was run by the Dedemsvaartsche Stoomtramweg Maatschappij until cars and bus services made it obsolete. The canal having lost its economic importance by the mid-twentieth century, parts of it were drained, including (in 1969) the part that ran through Den Hulst. At the height of De Meele to the west, the Dedemsvaart still exists, as it does in other parts of the province. Provincial road N377 was constructed on the site of the canal and alongside the preserved parts. The municipality of Nieuwleusen At the start of the eighteenth century, Nieuwleusen formed a single municipality with the hamlet of Avereest. On 1 July 1818, the municipal budgets were separated and Nieuwleusen became an independent municipality. However, it was in a 'personal union' with Avereest until 1833, sharing a mayor. Nieuwleusen had no municipal coat of arms until 1899. Like many municipalities, it applied for one in that year on the occasion of the construction of a new meeting hall for the Provincial States of Overijssel. The coat of arms was designed on the basis of those of Dalfsen (because the Marke van Leusen had been part of the legal district of Dalfsen) and the then municipality of Zwollekerspel (because part of Zwollekerspel had been incorporated into the municipality of Nieuwleusen). The crossed scythes in the lower part of the coat of arms symbolise agriculture. In 1954, Nieuwleusen applied for and was granted a crown atop its coat of arms. The municipality existed until 31 December 2000. The former municipal coat of arms is now the official 'town coat of arms'. De Rollecate In 1913, the first state college for female teachers of husbandry and housekeeping, called De Rollecate, was opened in Den Hulst. Baron Van Dedem had made his country estate of the same name available to this end. The house De Rollecate, where the courses were taught, had been built around 1654–1655 in Vollenhove, and dismantled in 1821 by Van Dedem to be rebuilt on the bank of his Dedemsvaart canal. The college was run by Ms Theda Mansholt and later by Ms Greta Smit. Rural women, prospective teachers, were trained in housekeeping, farming and market gardening. In 1930, the college moved to Deventer and the house was demolished. Union A bicycle factory called Union was set up in Den Hulst in 1904. The factory, which went on to produce famous Dutch bicycles throughout the twentieth century, was an important factor of employment in Nieuwleusen. In 1979, the old Union building was lost in a fire, the cause of which was never established. The factory was in persistent financial and managerial trouble in the last decades of its existence. Union was bankrupted in 2001, was placed in receivership with Larcom from Ommen and was sold in 2005 to Dutch Bicycle Group from Schiedam. Some production remains in Nieuwleusen. Various companies are now housed in the former factory building. Industry Notwithstanding Union's demise, Nieuwleusen remains industrially active because of the town's favourable location close to Zwolle. There are growing industrial zones (De Meele, De Evenboer, De Rollecate, De Grift). Shops are concentrated in the northern and southern village cores, both cores organizing their own cultural and commercial activities. Both in the north and in the south, shops are concentrated around the Backxlaan. A new square lined by combined shopping and residential units was created alongside the Backxlaan in the south in 2007. A small market is held every Saturday and moves between the north and the south every half year. Culture In 1982, Nieuwleusen celebrated its 350th anniversary, and the Historische Vereniging Ni'jluusn van vrogger (Historical Association Nieuwleusen of Old) was founded. This association opened the Palthehof Museum of local history in 1998, which features permanent and temporary exhibitions about aspects of the town's past. The Grammofoonmuseum (Gramophone Museum) has gramophones on display from early models to more recent ones. The Christian marching band De Broederband was founded in 1925, and there is a Christian male choir, the Hazeuzangers. The last surviving of six windmills in Nieuwleusen, Massier's mill from 1861, is located on Westeinde road. Having fallen into disrepair, it was restored to milling capacity in 2007-08 and opened for public activities. Nieuwleusen has a number of primary schools as well as a school for secondary education. The town is twinned with St Albans, England, and Hörstel, Germany. Sports Nieuwleusen has a cluster of outdoor and indoor sports facilities which separate the northern and southern halves of the town. It includes football pitches, tennis courts, korfball pitches, a skating rink and an outdoor swimming pool. There are many sports clubs, including two football clubs (USV Nieuwleusen and SV Nieuwleusen), an association for shooting sports and a motorcycle club. According to the Dalfsen council, Nieuwleusen has the highest percentage of motorcycle owners in the Netherlands. Language The dialect of Nieuwleusen is a variety of Low Saxon. Several dialect maps represent Nieuwleusen as being partly or wholly within the Zuud-Drèents dialectal area. The town lying in Overijssel rather than in the bordering province of Drenthe, however, its dialect (traditionally called simply Ni'jlusens or plat) is often seen as Sallaans rather than Drents. The dialect singer Aalt Westerman from Nieuwleusen, for instance, is billed as 'the troubadour of the Sallaans language'. The dialect researcher Harrie Scholtmeijer has recently classed the Nieuwleusen dialect as neither Drèents nor Sallaans, but 'North Overijssels'. His categorisation, however, demarcates the main dialect groups within the province of Overijssel and does not examine dialectal continuity across provincial borders. Scholtmeijer supports the view that the Nieuwleusen dialect does not share Sallaans features such as an umlaut in diminutives, or short or drawn-out vowels in certain words that have long vowels in North Overijssels (as in Southwest-South Drèents). The late dialect researcher Hendrik Entjes, who spent the latter part of his life living in Nieuwleusen, has suggested that there is, or used to be, no single Nieuwleusen dialect and that features from both Drèents and Sallaans are found: "[Nieuwleusen] has an old part, in the south, and a new part which came into existence when the Dedemsvaart was dug. The new part used to be called De Hulst. There were old farms on sandy plateaus which rose above the peat. But De Hulst never developed into a proper peat colony. Now, in the past I have made RND [Dutch Dialect Atlases] recordings. One in Nieuwleusen and one in De Hulst. But now that I compare the two, I notice that my informants in De Hulst were from those older farms. When, by contrast, I go to the people who are descended from those peat workers, from the time when the Dedemsvaart was dug, there is a clear difference in dialect. Here they express this by saying: the north and the south do speak a bit differently. But what they mean is: the descendants of the old inhabitants speak a bit differently from the descendants of those who came later. [...] The old Vecht river area, for instance, says etten [to eat], but in the peat colonies one finds eten. I think this comes from Drente. And I am trying to find traces of that colonial language. One might then say that there is a peat colony dialect in Overijssel." In accordance with a countrywide trend, the use of the dialect is dwindling in favour of Standard Dutch, and where it continues to be used it is increasingly influenced by the standard language. The dialect is used marginally in publications, for instance in the magazine of the Historical Association Ni'jluusn van vrogger. Some of its vocabulary and expressions have been mapped (for instance, see Schoemaker-Ytsma in the Bibliography). Language sample Zo kwamp Klaos dan met zien negotie bij een gezin waor ak de name niet van numen wille. De vrouw begun der over: "Klaos, wat ek eheurd. Heb ie onlangs bij Griete eslaopen? Wat muk dor nou van denken?" Klaos had zien antwoord niet klaor. Wat mus hij daor nou op zeggen? Mar hij kreeg hulpe. Er ging een schip deur de Dedemsvaort en het mag dan wel toevallig wezen, mar opiens zei Klaos tegen de vrouwe: "Dreit oe ies umme en leest ies wat op det schip stiet". Het mense kreeg een kleur tot achter de oren, want zij lezen de woorden: "ZIET OP U ZELVEN". Standard Dutch translation: Zo kwam Klaas dan met zijn handelswaar bij een gezin waar ik de naam niet van wil noemen. De vrouw begon erover: "Klaas, wat heb ik gehoord. Heb jij onlangs bij Greet geslapen? Wat moet ik daar nou van denken?" Klaas had zijn antwoord niet gereed. Wat moest hij daar nou op zeggen? Maar hij kreeg hulp. Er ging een schip door de Dedemsvaart en het mag dan wel toevallig zijn, maar ineens zei Klaas tegen de vrouw: "Draai je eens om en lees eens wat er op dat schip staat". Het mens kreeg een kleur tot achter de oren, want zij las de woorden: "ZIET OP U ZELVEN". English translation: Klaos, then, took his merchandise to a family I wish to remain unnamed. The wife broached the subject: "Klaos, what have they told me. Did you sleep with Griete the other day? What am I supposed to make of that?" Klaos did not have a ready answer. What to say to this? But he got unexpected assistance. A ship passed through the Dedemsvaart, and it may be a big coincidence, but Klaos suddenly told the woman: "Turn around and have a look at what it says on that ship". The woman turned crimson, for she read the words: "LOOK UPON THYSELF". From 'Olde Kloas' by Berend van Duren, in Gees Bartels-Martens (1997), Een rondje Nieuwleusen. Een bescheiden rondgang door de literatuur en geschiedenis van Nieuwleusen, Kampen: IJsselacademie People of note This list includes notable people who live(d) in Nieuwleusen. Anita Berry (born Greetje Garritse), singer, scored a hit with the song Middellandse Zee Benjamin Boers (1871–1952), communist preacher Sander Borgers (1917–1985), World War II war criminal Willem Jan van Dedem (1776–1851), sponsor of the Dedemsvaart canal Johan van Dorsten (born 1926), novelist Ali C. Drost-Brouwer (born 1942), novelist Hendrik Entjes (1919–2006), professor of Low Saxon language and literature Manon Flier (born 1984), volleyball player in the national team H. van der Galiën-De Boer (1907–1988), novelist Korie Homan (born 1986), wheelchair tennis player Piet Kalteren (born 1939), poet Joost Marsman (born 1974), singer in the pop band I.O.S. (formerly Is Ook Schitterend) Jan Arend Palthe (1727–1803), preacher and landowner Tjako van Schie (born 1961), pianist and composer Hendrik Sterken Rzn (born 1915), poet and local historian Prof. Dr. Eric Sudhölter (born 1954), professor at the Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen Prof. Dr. Jan Waterink (1890–1966), preacher and professor of pedagogy and psychology at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Aalt Westerman (born 1951), dialect singer Wilhelmus Nicolaas Wolterink (1833-18..), preacher and writer Pieter Zandvliet (born 1969), artist Bibliography This list contains books about Nieuwleusen. Bartels-Martens, Gees (1997), Een rondje Nieuwleusen: Een bescheiden rondgang door de literatuur en geschiedenis van Nieuwleusen, Kampen: IJsselacademie Brouwer, Hanneke (1975), De gemeente Nieuwleusen; een morfologische studie, Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Hengeveld-van Berkum, G., G. Kreule-Kok & J.W. de Weerd (samenstelling) (1992), Boerderijen toen, en nu..., Nieuwleusen: Ni'jluusn van vrogger Hille, H. & Th. Postma (1986), Afgescheidenen in een Overijssels dorp; anderhalve eeuw gereformeerden in Nieuwleusen Koman, Ruben A. (2006), Dalfser Muggen: Volksverhalen uit een Overijsselse gemeente. Mondelinge overlevering, volksgeloof en vertelcultuur in Dalfsen, Hoonhorst, Lemelerveld, Nieuwleusen, Oudleusen e.o., Bedum: Profiel Uitgeverij (in collaboration with IJsselacademie, Kampen) Meijerink, H.J. & E.H. Mulder (1971), Nieuwleusen in oude ansichten, Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek Meijerink, H.J. (1974), Kent u ze nog... de Nieuwleusenaren, Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek Middag, Henk (1988), Deelgebiedsbeschrijving van de gemeente Nieuwleusen, Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Pereboom, Freek & Marian Pereboom (1982), Nieuwleusen in de kaart gekeken, Kampen: IJsselacademie Schoemaker-Ytsma, A.C.M. (2006), "Zo zegge wi'j det" van A tot Z! Woorden en gezegdes in het dialect van Nieuwleusen, Nieuwleusen: The Readshop J. Hilbrink Steege, J. ter (1982), De kerke tot Oosterveen; Geschiedenis van de Hervormde gemeente Nieuwleusen, Dedemsvaart: In de Roos Steege, J. ter & A.C. ter Steege-Boeren (1982), Nieuwleusen in oude ansichten deel 2, Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek Steege, J. ter & A.C. ter Steege-Boeren (1985), Kent u ze nog... de Nieuwleusenaren deel 2, Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek Sterken Rzn, H. (1976), Ni'j luusen mien dörpien, Nieuwleusen: private publication Varwijk, G.H. (Ed.) (1998), De Dedemsvaart, zijn stad, streek en dorpen, Dedemsvaart: Boekhandel Rooseboom Visscher, Wim (2005), Heeren van de Ligtmis: Geschiedenis van de Leusener Compagnie, het begin van Nieuwleusen en het Oosterveen, Gouda: H&K Uitgevers Weerd, Jakob de (Ed.) (2007), Fotoboek Nieuwleusen, Nieuwleusen: Ni'jluusn van vrogger References External links Website of the municipality of Dalsen Website with the news of Nieuwleusen Museum Palthehof History of the Union bicycle factory Website of Con Brio, the Accordion Orchestra of Nieuwleusen Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 2001 Populated places in Overijssel Former municipalities of Overijssel Dalfsen
5325658	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Give%20Me%20Love%20%28Give%20Me%20Peace%20on%20Earth%29	Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)	"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" is a song by English musician George Harrison, released as the opening track of his 1973 album Living in the Material World. It was also issued as the album's lead single, in May that year, and became Harrison's second US number 1, after "My Sweet Lord". In doing so, the song pushed Paul McCartney and Wings' "My Love" from the top of the Billboard Hot 100, marking the only occasion that two former Beatles have held the top two chart positions in America. The single also reached the top ten in Britain, Canada, Australia, and Holland. "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" is one of its author's most popular songs, among fans and music critics, and features a series of much-praised slide-guitar solos from Harrison. The recording signalled a deliberate departure from his earlier post-Beatles work, in the scaling down of the big sound synonymous with All Things Must Pass and his other co-productions with Phil Spector over 1970–71. Aside from Harrison, the musicians on the track are Nicky Hopkins, Jim Keltner, Klaus Voormann and Gary Wright. In his lyrics, Harrison sings of his desire to be free of karma and the constant cycle of rebirth; he later described the song as "a prayer and personal statement between me, the Lord, and whoever likes it". Harrison performed "Give Me Love" at every concert during his rare tours as a solo artist, and a live version was included on his 1992 album Live in Japan. The original studio recording appears on the compilation albums The Best of George Harrison (1976) and Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison (2009). At the Concert for George tribute to Harrison, in November 2002, Jeff Lynne performed "Give Me Love" with Andy Fairweather-Low and Marc Mann playing the twin slide-guitar parts. Marisa Monte, Dave Davies, Elliott Smith, Ron Sexsmith, Sting, James Taylor, Elton John, and Grace Vanderwaal are among the other artists who have covered the song. Background and inspiration As with most of the songs on his Living in the Material World album, George Harrison wrote "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" over 1971–72. During this period, he dedicated himself to assisting refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War, by staging two all-star benefit concerts in New York and preparing a live album and concert film for release. In addition, much of his time was spent occupied with the business and legal problems afflicting the humanitarian aid project. Author Andrew Grant Jackson writes that Harrison's frustration with this last issue resulted in a sombre quality pervading much of Material World, yet he "pushed his disillusionment aside for the lead single ['Give Me Love']". The same period coincided with the height of Harrison's devotion to Hindu spirituality. As with his religious-themed 1970–71 hit, "My Sweet Lord", and his subsequent singles "What Is Life" and "Bangla Desh", Harrison wrote "Give Me Love" very quickly. Author Alan Clayson describes it as having "flowed from George with an ease as devoid of ante-start agonies as a Yoko Ono 'think piece'". In his autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison recalls of the writing process: Sometimes you open your mouth and you don't know what you are going to say, and whatever comes out is the starting point. If that happens and you are lucky, it can usually be turned into a song. This song is a prayer and personal statement between me, the Lord, and whoever likes it. Composition "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" continues the precedent that Harrison set on "My Sweet Lord", through its fusion of the Hindu bhajan (or devotional song) with Western gospel tradition. Author Simon Leng comments that the song repeats another of its composer's hit formulas, by using a three-syllable lyrical hook as its title, like "My Sweet Lord", "What Is Life" and "Bangla Desh". The song's time signature is 4/4 throughout, and the musical key is F major. As on Harrison's recording, this requires the placing of a capo on the guitar's third fret, to transpose the chords from D up to the correct key. The intro features strummed acoustic guitar, similar in style to the opening of Bob Dylan's "Mr. Tambourine Man". The song builds gradually from its understated introduction, with the rhythm section only fully arriving after the first bridge segment. Harrison biographer Gary Tillery describes the musical mood as "bouncy yet soothing". In his lyrics, Harrison expresses his vision for life in the physical world. Following the opening instrumental passage, the song begins with a chorus in which he first pleads for a life devoid of the karmic burden of reincarnation (rebirth): "Give me love, give me love, give me peace on earth / Give me light, give me life, keep me free from birth." These lyrics bear a simple, universal message, one that, in the context of the time, related as much to the communal "peace and love" idealism of the 1960s as it did Harrison's personal spiritual quest. Harrison also asks for divine assistance to "cope with this heavy load", while his stated attempt to "touch and reach you with heart and soul" recalls the same plea for a direct relationship with his deity that he expresses in "My Sweet Lord". These two lines, which complete the chorus, imply a deficiency or unfulfilment on the singer's part. According to author Ian Inglis, they serve as "an acknowledgment of the trials and tribulations he was facing in a more earthly setting" in the aftermath to the Concert for Bangladesh. During the two bridge sections, Harrison incorporates the sacred term "Om" within his extended phrase "Oh ... my Lord". Author Joshua Greene describes this as an example of a theme found in several songs on Material World, whereby Harrison "distilled" spiritual concepts into phrases "so elegant they resembled Vedic sutras: short codes that contain volumes of meaning". The use of the word "Om" was a further comment from Harrison on the universality of faith, after his switching in "My Sweet Lord" from "hallelujah" refrains to the Hare Krishna mantra. Referring to the second half of the bridges in "Give Me Love", Inglis views the drawn-out "Please …" as "highly symbolic", given the "unresolved conflict" that appears to be at the heart of the composition. Recording Harrison's commitment to overseeing the release of the Concert for Bangladesh documentary film prevented him from being able to start on the follow-up to his All Things Must Pass triple album until midway through 1972. Another delay was caused by producer Phil Spector's unreliability, as Harrison waited for him to turn up for the start of the sessions. Author Bruce Spizer writes that "the eccentric producer's erratic attendance caused George to realize the project would never get done if he kept waiting for Spector", and by October that year, Harrison had decided to produce the album alone. As for the majority of Living in the Material World, Harrison recorded the basic track for "Give Me Love" in the autumn of 1972 with the assistance of former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald. The recording location was either FPSHOT, Harrison's new home studio at Friar Park in Henley-on-Thames, or Apple Studio in London. In a departure from Harrison's co-productions with Spector, where a large line-up of musicians had been standard, "Give Me Love" featured a pared-down arrangement and more subtle instrumentation. Another contrast was Harrison's adoption of a production style that partly recalls George Martin's work with the Beatles. On "Give Me Love", Inglis notes the same "supple and clear [acoustic] guitar-playing that distinguished 'Here Comes the Sun'" in 1969, while the less grand production, relative to All Things Must Pass, allowed greater expression for Harrison as a slide guitarist. Harrison carried out overdubs on the backing track, including twin slide-guitar parts, during the first two months of 1973. Aside from Harrison's guitar work, the most prominent instrument on the recording is Nicky Hopkins' piano, double-tracked and played in his usual melodic style. The rhythm section consisted of bassist Klaus Voormann and drummer Jim Keltner. The organ player on the song was American musician Gary Wright, whose 1971 album Footprint was one of many musical projects in which Harrison was involved between All Things Must Pass and Material World. Peter Lavezzoli, author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, comments on how quickly Harrison's "unique approach" to slide-guitar playing had matured since 1970, to incorporate sitar, veena and other Hindustani musical stylings, and rates the mid-song solo on "Give Me Love" as "one of his most intricate and melodic". Release "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" was Harrison's first single in close to two years, after "Bangla Desh" in July 1971. As with Living in the Material World, however, its release was delayed to allow for other items on Apple Records' release schedule during the first half of 1973: the Beatles' compilations 1962–1966 and 1967–1970, and Paul McCartney and Wings' second album, Red Rose Speedway. In the years since All Things Must Pass, according to author Robert Rodriguez, the public bickering between John Lennon and McCartney and their "subpar" music had done much to diminish the "cachet of being an ex-Beatle". In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever, Nicholas Schaffner wrote that, because of the altruism inherent in the Bangladesh project compared to the twin "fiascos" of McCartney's Wild Life album and the Lennon–Ono collaboration Some Time in New York City, "[a] receptive audience was guaranteed" for Harrison's new songs. Backed by "Miss O'Dell", "Give Me Love" was issued on 7 May 1973 in America (as Apple R 5988) and 25 May in Britain (Apple 1862). Three weeks later, the song appeared as the opening track on Living in the Material World. As with all the songs on the album bar the 1971-copyright "Sue Me, Sue You Blues" and "Try Some, Buy Some", Harrison assigned his publishing royalties for "Give Me Love" to his newly launched Material World Charitable Foundation. Apple's US distributor, Capitol Records, mastered the single to run at a faster speed than the album track, in order to make the song sound brighter on the radio. Unusually for an Apple release by a former Beatle, the single was packaged in a plain sleeve in the main markets of Britain and the United States. A variety of picture sleeves were available in European countries, including a design incorporating Harrison's signature and a red Om symbol, both of which were aspects of Tom Wilkes's artwork for the Material World album. US chart feat The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 at the end of June, for one week, and peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart. Repeating the feat of January 1971, when "My Sweet Lord" and All Things Must Pass sat atop the Billboard charts simultaneously, "Give Me Love" hit number 1 part-way through Material Worlds five-week stay at the top of the albums listings. "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" replaced Wings' "My Love" at number 1 on the Hot 100 singles chart, and in turn was replaced by "Will It Go Round in Circles", by Harrison's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston. For the week ending 30 June that year, the Harrison, McCartney and Preston songs were ranked numbers 1, 2 and 3, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100, marking the first time since 25 April 1964 that the Beatles occupied the top two positions on that chart. Schaffner described this period as "reminiscent of the golden age of Beatlemania", due to the amount of Beatles-related product dominating the charts in America. As of October 2013, the week of 30 June 1973 remained the only time that two former members of the Beatles held the first and second positions on a US singles chart. Reissue "Give Me Love" later appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison, as one of just six selections from the artist's solo career. The song was also included on 2009's Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison. In Martin Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, released ten years after Harrison's death, the song plays over footage of the Friar Park grounds and of Harrison making music in the house with Keltner and Voormann. During the segment, Voormann discusses Harrison's practice of preparing the studio with incense to create a suitable environment, adding: "He really made it into a real tranquil, nice surrounding – everybody felt just great." Reception Contemporary reviews "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" became one of Harrison's most popular songs, both from his years with the Beatles and from his subsequent solo career. On release, McCartney described it as "very nice", adding: "The guitar solo is ace and I like the time changes." Billboard magazine's reviewer wrote: "Harrison's voice and sweet, country tinged guitar work within a rippling but controlled rhythm base, lends itself to this plea for human understanding. His sincere sound engulfs the listener and brings [them] into the story." In Rolling Stone, Stephen Holden lauded the song for its "strong, short-phrased melody whose lyrics are sheer exhortation", and said that the single was "every bit as good as 'My Sweet Lord'". Record World called it "an outstanding message song that will please fans around the world." In Britain, where the national economy was heading into recession after the boom years of the 1960s, lines such as "help me cope with this heavy load", according to Alan Clayson, "touched a raw nerve or two". In the NME, Tony Tyler derided Harrison for "lay[ing] the entire Krishna-the-Goat trip on us", while Michael Watts of Melody Maker suggested that "Living in the Material World" might have been a better choice for the album's lead single. Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Tyler and Roy Carr said that "Give Me Love" bore "more than a distant resemblance" to Dylan's "I Want You", but praised the track for its "excellent and highly idiosyncratic slide-guitar playing". Retrospective reviews and legacy Reviewing the song for AllMusic, Lindsay Planer highlights Harrison's guitar contribution to this "serene rocker" and likewise acknowledges Hopkins' "warm and soulful keyboard runs and fills". Zeth Lundy of PopMatters describes "Give Me Love" as "effervescent" and "a #1 single that remains one of Harrison's most iconic and well-loved". In his liner notes to the Let It Roll compilation, music historian Warren Zanes views "Give Me Love" as "perhaps the best example" of how Harrison's "post-Beatles songwriting blurs the line between music and prayer without ever sacrificing the pure melodic force for which he was known". Mojo contributor John Harris cites "Give Me Love" as evidence of Material Worlds standing as "something of a Hindu concept album … a pleasing fusion of Eastern religion, gospel, and the ghost of 'For You Blue'". Hugh Fielder of Classic Rock admires Harrison's "painstaking craftsmanship" and "sublime playing" on this and other Material World tracks and describes it as "one of Harrison's finest songs". Writing for Uncut, David Cavanagh considers the album to be a "utopian follow-up" to All Things Must Pass, on which "Give Me Love" "encapsulates the deal: simple message of hope, with gorgeous slide guitar … and fantastic rhythm section". Among Harrison and Beatles biographers, Robert Rodriguez recognises Harrison's achievement in "cloak[ing] philosophical concerns in a thoroughly commercial package", which included his "impossibly compelling slide work". Simon Leng finds more superlatives for the song's guitar lines, describing them as "almost too euphonious to be true". Leng continues: "Living in the Material World could hardly have reveled in a stronger opening song ... A gorgeous ballad, awash with marvelously expressive guitar statements, 'Give Me Love' retains the emotional power of All Things Must Pass in a compelling three minutes." Writing in Still the Greatest: The Essential Solo Beatles Songs, Andrew Grant Jackson considers that with "Give Me Love", Harrison "captured the essence of what he had set out to do with the [Bangladesh] concerts – and what the Beatles had tried to do in their more idealistic moments". Describing it as Harrison's "finest plea to God", with a vocal that "perfectly suits the yearning" implicit in the lyrics, Jackson adds: "'Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)' stands alongside 'All You Need Is Love,' 'Let It Be,' and 'Imagine' as the purest expression of the Aquarian Age dream." In his Harrison obituary for The Guardian in December 2001, former Melody Maker critic Chris Welch concluded with a reference to the track, saying that the ex-Beatle's "feelings and needs were best expressed in one of his simplest songs – 'Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)'". In the Concert for George documentary film (2003), Eric Clapton names "Give Me Love" as one of his favourite Harrison compositions, along with "Isn't It a Pity". AOL Radio listeners voted the track fifth in a 2010 poll to find Harrison's best post-Beatles songs, while Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed it fourth on a similar list that he compiled. Guitar World editor Damian Fanelli includes the track among his choice of Harrison's ten best post-Beatles "Guitar Moments", praising the mid-song solo as "simply one of the most intricate and melodic things the former Beatle ever played on slide". David Fricke includes "Give Me Love" in his list of "25 essential Harrison performances" for Rolling Stone magazine, and describes it as "a soft, intimate hymn, a small-combo reaction to the Wagnerian spectacle of All Things Must Pass". Performance Harrison performed "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" throughout both his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton, and during his 1992 benefit show for the Natural Law Party. The latter took place at London's Royal Albert Hall on 6 April that year and was Harrison's only full concert as a solo artist in Britain. At his press conference in Los Angeles before the 1974 tour, Harrison said he would be playing "Give Me Love" with a "slightly different" arrangement, adding that, as with "My Sweet Lord", "It should be much more loose." The song usually appeared midway through the shows and featured Billy Preston's synthesizer and a flute solo from Tom Scott instead of the familiar slide-guitar breaks. Although widely bootlegged, no version of the song from this tour has been released officially. Live in Japan version The Japanese tour in December 1991 was Harrison's only other tour as a solo artist. His 1992 album Live in Japan contains a version of "Give Me Love" from this tour, recorded at Tokyo Dome on 15 December 1991. Harrison again delegated the solos to a fellow musician: in this case Andy Fairweather-Low reproduced the slide-guitar parts from the original studio recording. Ian Inglis notes the "impressive interplay", particularly towards the end of the song, between Harrison and his backup singers, Tessa Niles and Katie Kissoon. This live version of "Give Me Love", along with the accompanying concert footage, was subsequently included in the Living in the Material World reissue in September 2006, as part of a deluxe CD/DVD package. The performance also appears on the DVD included in the eight-disc Apple Years 1968–75 box set, released in September 2014. Cover versions Lindsay Planer writes that two covers of the song "worth noting" are a version by Bob Koenig, issued on his Prose & Icons album in 1996, and one by Brazilian singer Marisa Monte from the same year. Monte's version appeared on her album Barulhinho Bom, later released in English-speaking countries as A Great Noise. In 1998, "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" was one of five Harrison songs that composers Steve Wood and Daniel May adapted for their soundtrack to the documentary film Everest; part of the piece "The Journey Begins" incorporates "Give Me Love". Artists other than Harrison who have performed the song live include Elliott Smith and, in April 2002, Sting, James Taylor and Elton John. These three musicians played "Give Me Love" as part of a tribute to Harrison during the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. In what Planer describes as a "stirring reading", Jeff Lynne performed the song at the Concert for George on 29 November 2002, held at the Royal Albert Hall exactly a year after Harrison's death. Lynne was supported by a band comprising Harrison's friends and musical associates, including Eric Clapton, Andy Fairweather-Low, Marc Mann, Jim Keltner, Dhani Harrison, Niles and Kissoon. Dave Davies of the Kinks contributed a version of "Give Me Love" to the multi-artist compilation Songs from the Material World: A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003. In a statement released in advance of the compilation, Davies explained that he was normally reluctant to perform other artists' songs yet had made "an exception" with "Give Me Love", in order to honour Harrison "as a great musical talent but primarily as an advanced soul who was unafraid to share his spiritual vision and journey with us". Davies subsequently issued the recording on his 2006 album Kinked. In 2010, Broadway actress Sherie Rene Scott featured "Give Me Love" in her autobiographical musical Everyday Rapture as the show's final number. Canadian singer Ron Sexsmith has included the song in his live performances; a version by him appeared on Harrison Covered, a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine. In January 2017, the Avett Brothers performed "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" live on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. In 2020 Disney+ released the movie Stargirl. During the closing credits Grace Vanderwaal sings her version of "Give Me Love". It also appears in the soundtrack. Personnel According to Simon Leng: George Harrison – vocals, acoustic guitars, slide guitars, backing vocals Nicky Hopkins – pianos Gary Wright – organ Klaus Voormann – bass Jim Keltner – drums Chart performance Weekly charts Year-end charts Notes References Sources Dale C. Allison Jr., The Love There That's Sleeping: The Art and Spirituality of George Harrison, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ). Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ). Nathan Brackett & Christian Hoard (eds), The New Rolling Stone Album Guide (4th edn), Fireside/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2004; ). Roy Carr & Tony Tyler, The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Trewin Copplestone Publishing (London, 1978; ). Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ). Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ). Peter Doggett, "George Harrison: The Apple Years", Record Collector, April 2001, pp. 34–40. The Editors of Rolling Stone, Harrison, Rolling Stone Press/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2002; ). Michael Frontani, "The Solo Years", in Kenneth Womack (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK, 2009; ), pp. 153–82. George Harrison: Living in the Material World DVD (Village Roadshow, 2011; directed by Martin Scorsese; produced by Olivia Harrison, Nigel Sinclair & Martin Scorsese). Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ). George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ). Elliot J. Huntley, Mystical One: George Harrison – After the Break-up of the Beatles, Guernica Editions (Toronto, ON, 2006; ). Ian Inglis, The Words and Music of George Harrison, Praeger (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010; ). Andrew Grant Jackson, Still the Greatest: The Essential Solo Beatles Songs, Scarecrow Press (Lanham, MD, 2012; ). Peter Lavezzoli, The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ). Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ). Ian MacDonald, Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties, Pimlico (London, 1998; ). Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ). Chris O'Dell (with Katherine Ketcham), Miss O'Dell: My Hard Days and Long Nights with The Beatles, The Stones, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, and the Women They Loved, Touchstone (New York, NY, 2009; ). Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ). Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ). Mat Snow, The Beatles Solo: The Illustrated Chronicles of John, Paul, George, and Ringo After The Beatles (Volume 3: George), Race Point Publishing (New York, NY, 2013; ). Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ). Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ). External links 1973 singles 1973 songs George Harrison songs Apple Records singles Songs written by George Harrison Song recordings produced by George Harrison Music published by Harrisongs Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Cashbox number-one singles Indian mythology in music Gospel songs British folk rock songs
5325875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20University%20of%20Timi%C8%99oara	West University of Timișoara	The West University of Timișoara (; abbreviated UVT) is a public higher education institution located in Timișoara. Classified by the Ministry of National Education as a university of education and scientific research, UVT is one of the nine members of the Universitaria Consortium (the group of Romanian elite universities). Also, the West University is a component institution of the National Research–Development–Innovation System in its capacity as an accredited higher education institution. The university was founded by the Decree-Law no. 660 issued on 30 December 1944, which stipulates that a university must be created in western Romania. Its first faculties either were dissolved or became independent institutions. These independent higher education institutions became a sole university at the end of September 1962. In 1968 the institution became an independent university. A difficult period followed, especially for the humanities and the exact sciences. Fields of study such as music, fine arts, history, geography, natural sciences and chemistry have all but disappeared, while philology has greatly restricted its activity. As a result, many of the faculties were transferred to other institutions. 1989, the year of the Romanian Revolution, was a turning point in the evolution of the university. It led to the present-day conditions. An essential mentality change took place in the perception of the academic institution, in accordance with the democratic institutions in Western Europe. A substantial institutional reform was carried out, beginning with the redefining of the university's mission by establishing its objectives. The West University of Timișsoara comprises 11 faculties with the respective departments, as well as a teacher training department. The faculties that operate within UVT offer nationally accredited study programs at bachelor's, master's and doctoral level in the following fields: Arts and Design; Chemistry, Biology, Geography; Economics and Business Administration; Law; Letters, History and Theology; Mathematics and Computer Science; Music and Theater; Physical Education and Sports; Physics; Political Sciences, Philosophy and Communication Sciences; Sociology and Psychology. History 30 December 1944: Decree-Law no. 660 The establishment of the West University of Timișoara was a complex and long process. It was done in stages, in an internal and international political, social and economic context marked by World War II and the territorial resettlements caused by the loss of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertsa region (in the north), as well as Southern Dobruja (in the south). 1940 brings major changes in the academic life of Timișoara. After the Second Vienna Award, which saw Northern Transylvania ceded to Hungary, the faculties of Agronomy, Theology and Sciences from Cluj relocated to Timișoara. Notable for the establishment of the future West University are the insistent and mobilizing approaches of the politician and culture man who, through his humanistic and cultural policy ideas, exerted a strong influence in the Romanian society in Banat, between 1920 and 1945. Although the Faculty of Sciences returned after 1945 in Cluj, a good part of the academics from Cluj remained in Timișoara, such as , , , Emilian Arghiriade, , , , , Alexandru Cișmaș, Constantin Sălceanu and others, who were at the forefront of those who campaigned for the establishment of the West University, as the fourth university of the country. The West University was formally established by Decree-Law no. 660 of 30 December 1944, promulgated by King Michael I. This act provided for the newly established institute to operate starting with the academic year 1944/1945 with the following specializations: Law, Letters and Philosophy, Sciences, Human Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacy and Theology. The transposition of the Decree into reality has provoked contradictory discussions and tensions caused by vainglory and rivalry both locally and regionally; six of the seven faculties of the future West University were claimed by other cities (Arad, Lugoj, Caransebeș), there was the intention of some local ethnic groups to impose a bilingual organization of university education, which endangered the creation and operation of a university with a unitary organizational structure in Timișoara. The dissensions within the Ephoria of the West University, the increasingly hostile actions of the communist authorities, imposed by the Soviet occupiers, led to the annulment, in essence, of the provisions of the Royal Decree for the establishment of the country's fourth university. In 1945, the government of Petru Groza decreed that the West University would first be a Faculty of Medicine. Obstacles have multiplied. Local and government funding sources were insufficient and, in addition, their management was blamed. Sever Bocu is fired from Ephoria's leadership, which will eventually be dissolved. 1948–1962: Pedagogical Institute In the following years, under the pressure of the process of Sovietization of Romania, through the forced transposition of the Soviet economic and cultural models in the USSR, the reorganization of higher education took place. Based on the Decree no. 175 of 3 August 1948 and the Decision no. 263327 of 25 October 1948 regarding the organization of the Romanian higher education, in Timișoara the three-year Pedagogical Institute with the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics was established, having the mission to prepare teachers for grades VIII–XI. The courses of the Pedagogical Institute began on 19 January 1949, in a modest space, with 82 students. In the academic year 1952/1953, the duration of studies at the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics was set at four years. An evening section also starts operating within the Pedagogical Institute. The academic year 1956/1957 marks a new and important stage in the development of the Institute. The Faculty of Philology was inaugurated, with a duration of studies of five years, distance learning was introduced at the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, and from the following year, the duration of studies at this faculty becomes five years. A new group of young teachers with great potential arrives in Timisoara, submitting a memorandum to the ministry, requesting its transformation into a university, the separation of departments into distinct faculties and the elaboration by graduates of a diploma thesis. In 1957, the director of the Institute became rector, and the new institution was configured as an educational and cultural center worthy of consideration. 1962–1994: University of Timișoara By the Decision of the Council of Ministers no. 999 of 27 September 1962, the memorandum submitted in 1956, which establishes the new organization status and the name of the University of Timișoara, is accepted. In the same year, the works start at the new university building, on Vasile Pârvan Boulevard, under the coordination of the architect . His project was awarded by the State Committee for Construction, Architecture and Systematization (CSCAS) in 1964 and by the Union of Architects in Romania (UAR) in 1967. In 1967/1968, the newly established Faculty of Economics was added, then the faculties of the three-year Pedagogical Institute. After a period of hybrid operation with specializations with study cycles of three, four and five years (1962–1967), the integration into a unitary university structure is completed. In 1970 there were 12 faculties, with 20 specializations. During the years 1962–1989, the evolution of the university was conditioned, under the strict control of the activities in the Romanian education, of the educational act and of professional training, by ministerial orders and decisions marked ideologically. The inconsistency of the program, with its alleged orientation towards modernization, has led to uncertainty and instability in university structures and activities. Faculties, sections, specializations, departments, disciplines were established and abolished, most often without any good motivation. By 1989, in the University of Timișoara there were only three profiles. The humanist profile, inextricably linked to the concept imagined by the interwar intellectuals, as fundamental to the West University, had become almost non-existent. After the 1989 Revolution, the reorganization of the university and the democratization of education have raised issues of great importance to the new leadership of the faculties and the university. Tensions, turmoil and efforts to change also took place at the University of Timișoara. From the first days following the abolition of the totalitarian regime, the teachers dismissed the last leadership established by the Communist Party and replaced the rector appointed in October 1989. The philologist thus became the first rector of the university in the post-communist period. The academic year 1990/1991 opens in a modified framework, with new specializations and faculties: Fine Arts and Design, Physical Education and Sports, Chemistry, Geography, Biology, Psychology and Sociology, Law, Music and Theater Arts, the duration of schooling being established at five years. 1994–present: West University of Timișoara On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the West University by Decree-Law no. 600/1944, the Ministry of Education, at the request of the teachers, decides that the name of the institution should be the West University of Timișoara. At the end of the 1995/1996 academic year, the West University of Timișoara had eight faculties, a Department for Teaching Staff Development, 40 long-term specializations, a short-term specialization (three years, Information Technology), 12 master's and in-depth studies specializations, a program of European Higher Education. The 2000s were one of the most dynamic periods in the history of the university, characterized by a very large number of students, constant concerns for improving infrastructure, by building new buildings. The youngest of the university's faculties, the Faculty of Political Sciences, Philosophy and Communication Sciences, was founded in 2004. Since 2012 UVT is a member of the strongest university consortium in Romania, the Universitaria Consortium, a joint project of five of the most prestigious universities in the country (University of Bucharest, Babeș-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași and the Academy of Economic Studies of Bucharest). Administration The UVT Board of Directors ensures, under the leadership of the UVT Rector, the operative management of the university and implements the decisions of the UVT Senate. The Board of Directors consists of the rector, vice-rectors, deans, the general administrative director and a student representative, appointed by OSUT. The position of rector of the university has been held since 2012 by , former dean of the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. Faculties Students As of 2018, 14,804 students are enrolled in the West University. Between 2008 and 2018, the total number of students decreased by more than 9,000, from almost 24,000 to less than 15,000. Among the causes that led to this decrease are the poor performance of high school students in the baccalaurate exam and the cut in the number of paid places. 2% of students are foreigners. In 2017, 236 foreign students were enrolled in the West University, most of them from Israel, Tunisia, Iraq, Syria, Algeria and Italy. Also, in 2017, 496 Romanian students from abroad were enrolled, most of them from Serbia and Moldova. Student organizations The Organization of Students of the West University of Timișoara (OSUT) is the only union-student organization established at the level of the West University of Timișoara, founded on 27 March 1990, which makes it the most representative organization of the university. It deals with student representation, providing basic services for them and organizing projects. OSUT is a full member of the National Alliance of Student Organizations in Romania (ANOSR) and often active in the European Students' Union (ESU). Other organizations that operate within the university are: Association internationale des étudiants en sciences économiques et commerciales (AIESEC) Association for Romanians Abroad Inițiativa Exact Science Students' Association from the University of Timișoara (ASSEUT) Timișoara Psychology and Sociology Students Association (ASPST) European Law Students' Association (ELSA) Erasmus Student Network (ESN) Timișoara Geography Students Association (GEOTIM) Bessarabian Students' Organization from Timișoara (OSB) Young Accountants Association (YAA) Affiliations and international relations The Department of International Relations (DRI) is responsible for the UVT activities aimed at fulfilling the strategic internationalization objectives of the university. Within DRI operate the Erasmus+ Office, whose main task is to develop and implement mobility programs and international cooperation projects at UVT under Erasmus+ and EEA Financial Mechanism and the International Cooperation and Foreign Students Office, which provides institutional and informational support to international students and foreign teachers who wish to study and teach at UVT. The West University of Timișoara is a member of the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, the European University Association and the International Association of Universities, among others. UVT is also part of the Magna Charta Observatory, a nonprofit organization founded by the University of Bologna and the European University Association. UVT has entered into collaboration agreements with 198 universities in 51 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America. Infrastructure The West University of Timișoara has seven buildings: the main building of UVT, with an area of 26,319.1 m2: 10 lecture halls and 46 rooms (of which 27 laboratories); added to this are the rooms of the building of the Faculty of Physics (a separate building attached to the main building) with a lecture hall, two classrooms and 25 laboratories; the building of the Faculty of Law, with an area of 3,006 m2: four lecture halls, 15 lecture and seminar rooms and a conference room; the building of the Faculty of Arts and Design, with an area of 6,175 m2: four lecture and seminar rooms and eight laboratories (studios); the building of the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, with an area of 7,652 m2: a lecture hall, 36 lecture and seminar rooms and six laboratories; the building of the Faculty of Chemistry, Biology, Geography, with an area of 4,255 m2: five lecture and seminar rooms and eight laboratories; the building of the Faculty of Sociology and Psychology, with an area of 180 m2: two lecture and seminar rooms; the building of the Department of Biology and Chemistry, with an area of 725 m2: six laboratories where courses are also held. Within the main building is the Aula Magna where national and international large-scale events can take place. The West University of Timișoara also has a computer center located within the Faculty of Physics. Campus UVT students are accommodated in the C3, C12, C13, C15, C16, C17 and G4 dormitories in Complexul Studențesc and in the Camelia, Drept and Renașterii dormitories spread in different locations in the city. As of 2018, UVT has a capacity of 3,005 accommodation places (out of the 13,000 in the whole complex). However, UVT can only cover 60% of applications. Sports facilities The West University has two sports halls: one on Vasile Pârvan Boulevard and another on Oituz Street. The first consists of a gym of 151.19 m2 and a sports hall of 538.56 m2. The second was inaugurated in 2015 and covers 1,700 m2. It has locker rooms for athletes and referees, fitness equipment, a doctor's office and 150 seats in the stands. In the Oituz area, UVT representatives intend to arrange several outdoor sports fields, as well as a swimming pool. Also, in Vasile Pârvan Boulevard there is a handball field, with an area of 600 m², also used for minifootball and a basketball court with bitumen surface. Eugen Todoran Central University Library The library was established by Decree-Law no. 660 of 30 December 1944, issued by King Michael I and named after the Romanian philologist , who, as rector of the university, supported its transformation into an academic library. At first, the library's bookstock consisted mainly of mathematics and physics books and magazines. After the Faculty of Philology was founded in 1956, the library of the Pedagogical Institute acquired an encyclopedic profile and was continuously enriched. Since 1962, with the transformation of the Pedagogical Institute into a university, the Central Library of the University of Timișoara has developed rapidly. Since 1975, it has been entitled to a legal deposit. Since 1992, by Order of the Minister of Education no. 6237 of 14 September, the Library of the University of Timișoara became the Central University Library, an institution of national interest, with legal personality, similar to those in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca and Iași. The library operates in a central headquarters, at 4A Vasile Pârvan Boulevard, which consists of two buildings: A – the old building and B – the new building. Branch libraries are organized in the headquarters of some faculties of the West University. As of 2019, the library's bookstock consists of over 1.1 million volumes, and access to them is based on a reader's card issued by the library. In addition, UVT has its own publishing house and printing house. Founded in 2001, the publishing house covers many fields of study and research: anthropology, ethnology, philology, philosophy, physics, mathematics, psychology, sociology, cultural studies, communication sciences, education sciences, economics, politics, theology, translation studies, etc. It is recognized by the National Council for Scientific Research in Higher Education (CNCSIS). Planetarium The planetarium was inaugurated on 1 January 1964, a first in Romania at that time. The construction of this planetarium, as well as the construction of the astronomical observatory (now property of the Romanian Academy), were possible due to the efforts of astronomer and seismologist , the first rector of the University of Timișoara. Open to public since November 2022, it is also used by university students, especially those taking astronomy and astrophysics courses at the Faculty of Physics. The original planetarium projector is a Zeiss ZKP-1. Art galleries The Mansarda Gallery is located in the attic of the Faculty of Arts and Design. The gallery is spacious and adapted for exhibition activities, conferences, round tables, etc. Rankings According to QS World University Rankings, West University of Timișoara ranks 94th among the best universities in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. According to Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, UVT ranks 1334th in the world and 5th in the country. In Round University Ranking, which measures the performance of universities based on 20 performance indicators grouped into four categories – teaching (40%), research (40%), international diversity (10%) and financial sustainability (10%) and six areas of studies – humanities, life sciences, natural sciences, technical sciences, social sciences and medical sciences, UVT ranks 626th in the world and 2nd in the country. In the UI GreenMetric World University Rankings, the only ranking in the world that measures the commitment of each participating university in the development of a green infrastructure, UVT ranks 791th globally and 10th nationally. In the Report no. 44/2011 regarding the external evaluation of the academic quality, the Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS) marked UVT as "highly trusting". A summary of the presence of UVT in national and international rankings is given in the following table: Notable alumni Simona Amânar (b. 1979), gymnast Titu Andreescu (b. 1956), mathematician László Borbély (b. 1954), environment minister (2009–2012) Emaa (b. 1992), singer and songwriter Ovidiu Ganț (b. 1966), MEP (2007) Radu Pavel Gheo (b. 1969), prose writer, essayist and playwright Sorin Grindeanu (b. 1973), prime minister (2017) Beatrice Huștiu (b. 1956), figure skater Laura Codruța Kövesi (b. 1973), European Chief Prosecutor (2019–present) Cristian Moisescu (1946–2016), mayor of Arad (1992–1996) Dan Motreanu (b. 1970), agriculture minister (2006–2007) Herta Müller (b. 1953), novelist, poet, essayist and Nobel laureate in literature (2009) Mona Muscă (b. 1949), culture minister (2004–2005) Dan Negru (b. 1971), TV presenter and host Maria Olaru (b. 1982), gymnast Paul Radu (b. 1975), investigative journalist and founder of RISE Project Andreea Răducan (b. 1983), gymnast Daciana Sârbu (b. 1977), MEP (2007–2019) George Scripcaru (b. 1966), mayor of Brașov (2004–2020) Nicolae Ștefănuță (b. 1982), MEP (2019–present) Aura Twarowska (b. 1967), mezzo-soprano Dan Vîlceanu (b. 1979), finance minister (2021) Chester Williams (1970–2019), rugby player Ernest Wichner (b. 1952), writer and translator References West University of Timișoara Universities and colleges established in 1962 1962 establishments in Romania
5326401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen%20Republic%20of%20Ichkeria	Chechen Republic of Ichkeria	The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (; ; ; abbreviated as "ChRI" or "CRI"), known simply as Ichkeria, and also known as Chechnya, was a de facto state that controlled most of the former Checheno-Ingush ASSR. The First Chechen War of 1994–1996 resulted in the victory of the separatist forces. After achieving de facto independence from Russia in 1996, kidnappings and violence between gangs plagued the region, which the government was unable to control. In November 1997, Chechnya was proclaimed an Islamic republic. The Second Chechen War began in August 1999, with Ichkeria falling and subsequently being forcibly subsumed back under the control of the Russian central government in 2000. An insurgency followed soon thereafter, officially ending in April 2009 after several years of conflict. Since the 2000s, several entities have claimed to be an exile government of Ichkeria. In October 2022, the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada voted to recognize the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. Etymology The name (Ičkérija) comes from the river Iskark in South-Eastern Chechnya. The term was mentioned first as "Iskeria" in a Russian document by Colonel Pollo from 1836. The illesh, or epic legends, tell of conflicts between the Chechens and the Kumyk and Kabardin princes. The Chechens apparently overthrew both their own overlords and the foreign ones, using the widespread nature of the guns among the populace to their advantage. As Jaimoukha puts it, "based on the trinity of democracy, liberty and equality", feudalism was abolished and the "tukkhum-teip" legal system was put into place, with the laws of adat introduced. The "tukkhum-teip" system (see Nakh peoples) functioned somewhat similar to that of a Western democracy, except that there was little importance of a centralized judicial branch (instead local courts held precedence), and that teips (roughly, clans) functioned like provinces, with representatives being elected by teip as well as by region. History Declaration of independence In November 1990, Dzhokhar Dudayev was elected head of the Executive Committee of the unofficial opposition Chechen National Congress (NCChP), which advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the Soviet Union. On 8 June 1991, at the initiative of Dzhokhar Dudayev, a part of the delegates of the First Chechen National Congress gathered in Grozny, which proclaimed itself the All-National Congress of the Chechen People (OKChN). Following this, was proclaimed the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho). A month later, the self-proclaimed republic was declared an independent state. The Soviet coup d'état attempt on 19 August 1991 became the spark for the so-called Chechen Revolution. On 21 August, the OKChN called for the overthrow of the Supreme Soviet of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. On 6 September 1991, OKChN squads seized the local KGB headquarters, and took over the building of the Supreme Soviet. The OKChN declared itself the only legitimate authority in the region. On 27 October 1991, Dudayev was elected president of the Chechen Republic. Dudayev, in his new position as president, issued a unilateral declaration of independence on 1 November 1991. Initially, his stated objective was for Checheno-Ingushetia to become a union republic within Russia. Dudayev released 640 inmates from Grozny prison, many of whom became his personal body guards. Among the prisoners was Ruslan Labazanov, who was serving a sentence for armed robbery and murder in Grozny and later headed a pro-Dudayev militia. As crowds of armed separatists gathered in Grozny, Russian President Boris Yeltsin sought to declare a state of emergency in the region, but his efforts were thwarted by the Russian parliament. An early attempt by Russian authorities to confront the pro-independence forces in November 1991 ended after just three days. According to an article originally published by a Kremlin-backed publication, Komsomolskaya Pravda, and reprinted in early 1992 by The Guardian, Dudayev allegedly signed a decree outlawing the extradition of criminals to any country which did not recognize Chechnya. After being informed that the Russian government would not recognize Chechnya's independence, he declared that he would not recognize Russia. Grozny became an organized crime haven, as the government proved unable or unwilling to curb criminal activities. Dudayev's government created the constitution of the Chechen Republic, which was introduced in March 1992. In the same month, armed clashes occurred between pro and anti-Dudayev factions, leading Dudayev to declare a state of emergency. Chechnya and Ingushetia separated on 4 June 1992. Relationship between Dudayev and the parliament deteriorated, and in June 1992 he dissolved the parliament, establishing direct presidential rule. In late October 1992, federal forces were dispatched to end the Ossetian-Ingush conflict. As Russian troops sealed the border between Chechnya and Ingushetia to prevent arms shipments, Dudayev threatened to take action unless the Russians withdrew. Russian and Chechen forces mutually agreed to a withdrawal, and the incident ended peacefully. Clashes between supporters and opponents of Dudayev occurred in April 1993. The President fired Interior Minister Sharpudin Larsanov after he refused to disperse the protesters. The opposition planned a no-confidence referendum against Dudayev for 5 June 1993. The government deployed army and riot police to prevent the vote from taking place, leading to bloodshed. After staging another coup attempt in December 1993, the opposition organized a Provisional Council as a potential alternative government for Chechnya, calling on Moscow for assistance. On 14 January 1994, by Dudayev's decree, the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho) was renamed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. First war The general feeling of lawlessness in Chechnya increased during the first seven months in 1994, when four hijacking accidents occurred, involving people trying to flee the country. In May 1994, Labazanov changed sides, establishing the anti-Dudayev Niyso Movement. In July 1994, 41 passengers aboard a bus near Mineralniye Vody were held by kidnappers demanding $15 million and helicopters. After this incident, the Russian government started to openly support opposition forces in Chechnya. In August 1994, Umar Avturkhanov, leader of the pro-Russian Provisional Council, launched an attack against pro-Dudayev forces. Dudayev ordered the mobilization of the Chechen military, threatening a jihad against Russia as a response to Russian support for his political opponents. In November 1994, Avturkhanov's forces attempted to storm the city of Grozny, but they were defeated by Dudayev's forces. Dudayev declared his intention to turn Chechnya into an Islamic state, stating that the recognition of sharia was a way to fight Russian aggression. He also vowed to punish the captured Chechen rebels under Islamic law, and threatened to execute Russian prisoners. The First Chechen War began in December 1994, when Russian troops were sent to Chechnya to fight the separatist forces. During the Battle of Grozny (1994–95), the city's population dropped from 400,000 to 140,000. Most of the civilians stranded in the city were elderly ethnic Russians, as many Chechens had support networks of relatives living in villages who took them in. Former Minister of the Chemical and Oil Refining Industry of the USSR Salambek Khadzhiyev was appointed leader of the officially recognized Chechen government in November 1994. The conflict ended after the Russian defeat in the Battle of Grozny of August 1996. Interwar period (1996–1999) According to Russian sources, after the Russian withdrawal, crime became rampant, with kidnappings and murders multiplying as rival rebel factions fought for territory. In December 1996, six Red Cross workers were killed, resulting in most foreign aid workers leaving the country. Parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power Aslan Maskhadov. The elections were deemed free and fair, but no government recognized Chechnya's independence, except for the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. According to a 1997 Moscow Times article, ethnic Russian refugees were prevented from returning to vote by threats and intimidation, and Chechen authorities refused to set up polling booths outside the republic. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing Moscow to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed in Russia's war against Chechen independence from Moscow. In May 1997, the Russia–Chechen Peace Treaty was signed by Maskhadov and Yeltsin. Russia continued to transfer funds for schools and hospitals in Chechnya and paid pensions to its residents. Some of this money was stolen by the Chechen authorities and divided between the warlords. Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) have been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. The economy was destroyed. Two Russian brigades were stationed in Chechnya and did not leave. Maskhadov made efforts to rebuild the country and its devastated capital Grozny by trading oil in countries such as the United Kingdom. Chechnya had been badly damaged by Russia's war against the newly formed republic's independence, and the economy was in shambles. According to Russian sources, Aslan Maskhadov tried to concentrate power in his hands to establish authority, but had trouble creating an effective state or a functioning economy. Maskhadov requested $260 billion in war reparations from Russia to rebuild infrastructure destroyed in heavy Russian fighting, an amount equivalent to 60% of the Russian GDP. The war ravages and lack of economic opportunities left numbers of armed former guerrillas with no occupation. Machine guns and grenades were sold openly and legally in Grozny's central bazaar. The years of independence had some political violence as well. On 10 December 1998, Mansur Tagirov, Chechnya's top prosecutor, disappeared while returning to Grozny. On 21 June, the Chechen security chief and a guerrilla commander fatally shot each other in an argument. The internal violence in Chechnya peaked on 16 July 1998, when fighting broke out between Maskhadov's National Guard force led by Sulim Yamadayev (who joined pro-Moscow forces in the second war) and militants in the town of Gudermes; over 50 people were reported killed and the state of emergency was declared in Chechnya. Maskhadov proved unable to guarantee the security of the oil pipeline running across Chechnya from the Caspian Sea, and illegal oil tapping and acts of sabotage deprived his regime of crucial revenues and agitated his allies in Moscow. In 1998 and 1999, Maskhadov survived several assassination attempts, which he blamed on foreign intelligence services. Russian sources maintain that the attacks were likely to originate from within Chechnya, despite the Kremlin's difficult negotiations with Maskhadov and difference of opinion regarding the Chechen conflict. In December 1998, the Supreme Islamic court of Chechnya suspended the Chechen Parliament, asserting that it did not conform to the standards of sharia. After Vakha Arsanov, the Chechen Vice-President, defected to the opposition, Maskhadov abolished his post, leading to a power struggle. In February 1999 President Maskhadov removed legislative powers from the parliament and convened an Islamic State Council. At the same time several prominent former warlords established the Mehk-Shura, a rival Islamic government. The Shura advocated the creation of an Islamic confederation in the North Caucasus, including the Chechen, Dagestani and Ingush peoples. Second war and insurgency period On 9 August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, declaring it an independent state and calling for a jihad until "all unbelievers had been driven out". This event prompted Russian intervention, and the beginning of the Second Chechen War. As more people escaped the war zones of Chechnya, President Maskhadov threatened to impose Sharia punishment on all civil servants who moved their families out of the republic. This time, however, the Russian invasion met much less resistance as during the First Chechen War. The infighting among the rival factions within Chechnya as well as the rise of radical jihadists convinced several former separatist leaders and their militias to switch sides. Aided by these defectors, the Russians took the minor cities and countryside around Grozny in the period from October to December 1999, encircling Grozny. After a hard-fought battle, Grozny fell in February 2000; much of the city was destroyed. Some of the Ichkerian government subsequently moved into exile, including in Poland and the United Kingdom. As on 23 January 2000, a diplomatic representation of Ichkeria was based in Kabul during the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Other remnants of the government and the armed forces retreated into Chechnya's south which was dominated by mountains and not yet under Russian control. From these bases, they waged a guerrilla campaign, even as Russia cemented its control by establishing a loyal administration in the region. In June 2000, Kremlin appointee Akhmed Kadyrov became the new controversial head of the official administration of Chechnya. Kadyrov, who has been criticised as the object of a cult of personality, was not democratically elected by either Russian or Chechen constituents. The separatists continued to fight, but were gradually whittled down. On 31 October 2007, the separatist news agency Chechenpress reported that Dokka Umarov had announced the Caucasus Emirate and declared himself its Emir. He integrated the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as Vilayat Nokhchicho. This change of status was rejected by some Chechen politicians and military leaders who continue to support the existence of the republic. Since November 2007, Akhmed Zakayev was proclaimed to be the Prime Minister of Ichkeria's government-in-exile. However, the influence of Zakayev's government was described as "marginal" by political scientist Mark Galeotti who argued that the Caucasus Emirate proved more influential both among the militants as well as within the Chechen diaspora. From 2007 until 2017, the remaining insurgency in the North Caucasus was mainly waged by Islamist factions, most importantly the Caucasus Emirate. In course of several years; however, the Caucasus Emirate gradually declined and had mostly ceased to exist by 2015. Other Chechen groups continued to operate in Ukraine where they fought against Russia in the war in Donbas. The early pro-Ukrainian Chechen volunteer units included the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion. Russo-Ukrainian War The Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion fought on the side of Ukraine since its formation during the War in Donbas in 2014. In 2022, Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine. Anti-Kadyrov Chechens like the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion continued to fight in this conflict. In May 2022, Ichkeria's government-in-exile leader Akhmed Zakayev travelled to Kyiv and met with Ukrainian officials for "confidential" talks. Later, the creation of the "Separate Special Purpose Battalion of the Chechen Republic's Armed Forces" was announced by Zakayev; this unit officially styled itself as the continuation of Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. A fourth separatist unit, called "Khamzat Gelayev Joint Task Detachment" was also founded. As the Russo-Ukrainian War continued to escalate, the pro-Ukrainian Chechen separatists increasingly framed the war as a chance to restore the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. On October 15 2022, the Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially resurrected in Ukraine by the Government of Ichkeria in exile. On 18 October 2022, Ukraine's parliament recognized the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as a temporarily occupied state. At this point, Islamist separatists belonging to Ajnad al-Kavkaz had also moved to Ukraine to fight Russia there. In November, the Ichkerian exile government recognized the Holodomor as a genocide against the Ukrainian people. Military Dudayev spent the years from 1991 to 1994 preparing for war, mobilizing men aged 15–55 and seizing Russian weapons depots. The Chechen National Guard counted 10,000 troops in December 1994, rising to 40,000 soldiers by early 1996. Major weapons systems were seized from the Russian military in 1992, and on the eve of the First Chechen War, they included 23 air defense guns, 108 APC/tanks, 24 artillery pieces, 5 MiG-17/15, 2 Mi-8 helicopters, 24 multiple rocket launchers, 17 surface-to-air missile launchers, 94 L-29 trainer aircraft, 52 L-39 trainer aircraft, 6 An-22 transport aircraft, 5 Tu-134 transport aircraft. Politics Since the Declaration of Independence in 1991, there has been an ongoing battle between secessionist officials and federally appointed officials. Both claim authority over the same territory. In late 2007, the President of Ichkeria, Dokka Umarov, declared that he had renamed the republic to Noxçiyc̈ó and converted it into a province of the much larger Caucasus Emirate, with himself as Emir. This change was rejected by some members of the former Chechen government-in-exile. The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially a secular state, with its constitution stating, "The Chechen Republic is a secular state. No religion may be established as a state or compulsory religion." Despite this, the criminal code of Chechnya legally established Sharia courts and included Islamic hudud punishments of decapitation, stoning and other punishments for crimes such as alcohol drinking, sodomy, and apostasy from Islam. Foreign relations Ichkeria was a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. Former president of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, deposed in a military coup of 1991 and a leading participant in the Georgian Civil War, recognized the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in 1993. Diplomatic relations with Ichkeria were also established by the partially recognized Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under the Taliban government on 16 January 2000. This recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in December 2001. However, despite Taliban recognition, there were no friendly relations between the Taliban and Ichkeria—Maskhadov rejected their recognition, stating that the Taliban were illegitimate. In June 2000, the Russian government claimed that Maskhadov had met with Osama bin Laden, and that the Taliban supported the Chechens with arms and troops. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, the Bush administration called on Maskhadov to cut all links with the Taliban. After the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul (2021) the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was restored. It is unknown if the Taliban still recognizes the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Ichkeria also received limited support from certain political factions in Poland, the Baltic countries and Ukrainian nationalists. Estonia once voted to recognize, but the act never was consummated due to pressure from both Russia and pro-Russian elements within the European Union. Dudayev also had contacts with Islamist movements and guerrillas in the United Arab Emirates, Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Verkhovna Rada passed a resolution in October recognizing the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. Human rights First Chechen War The human rights situation in Chechnya during the hostility phases had long been a concern among several human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who, after several years of investigation and gathering evidence, referred to the situation as disturbing. Throughout the span of the first Chechen war, Russian forces have been accused by Human Rights organizations of starting a brutal war with total disregard for humanitarian law, causing tens of thousands of unnecessary civilian casualties among the Chechen population. The main strategy in the Russian war effort had been to use heavy artillery and air strikes leading to numerous indiscriminate attacks on civilians. This has led to Western and Chechen sources calling the Russian strategy deliberate terror bombing on parts of Russia. According to Human Rights Watch, the campaign was "unparalleled in the area since World War II for its scope and destructiveness, followed by months of indiscriminate and targeted fire against civilians". Russian forces attacked civilians many times throughout the war. One of the most notable war crimes committed by the Russian army during the First Chechen War is the Samashki massacre, in which it is estimated that up to 300 civilians died during the attack. Russian forces conducted an operation of zachistka, house-by-house searches throughout the entire village. Federal soldiers deliberately and arbitrarily attacked civilians and civilian dwellings in Samashki by shooting residents and burning houses with flame-throwers. They wantonly opened fire or threw grenades into basements where residents, mostly women, elderly persons, and children, had been hiding. Russian troops intentionally burned many bodies, either by throwing the bodies into burning houses or by setting them on fire. A Chechen surgeon, Khassan Baiev, treated wounded in Samashki immediately after the operation and described the scene in his book: Dozens of charred corpses of women and children lay in the courtyard of the mosque, which had been destroyed. The first thing my eye fell on was the burned body of a baby, lying in the fetal position... A wild-eyed woman emerged from a burned-out house holding a dead baby. Trucks with bodies piled in the back rolled through the streets on the way to the cemetery. While treating the wounded, I heard stories of young men – gagged and trussed up – dragged with chains behind personnel carriers. I heard of Russian aviators who threw Chechen prisoners, screaming, out of their helicopters. There were rapes, but it was hard to know how many because women were too ashamed to report them. One girl was raped in front of her father. I heard of one case in which the mercenary grabbed a newborn baby, threw it among each other like a ball, then shot it dead in the air. Leaving the village for the hospital in Grozny, I passed a Russian armored personnel carrier with the word SAMASHKI written on its side in bold, black letters. I looked in my rearview mirror and to my horror saw a human skull mounted on the front of the vehicle. The bones were white; someone must have boiled the skull to remove the flesh. Chechen forces have admitted to the execution of captured Russian pilots throughout the First Chechen War, and of at least eight Russian detainees. In probably the most notorious violation of humanitarian law committed by Chechen Forces, a Chechen unit led by Shamil Basayev captured a hospital and held it as hostage in the Russian city of Budyonnovsk. At least seven hostages were killed by the captors, and the rest were denied water, food, and medicine. According to official figures, 129 civilians were killed during the siege, most by the numerous attempts of the Russian army to retake the hospital. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights had this to report on the incident: Although the conduct of Chechen fighters has scarcely been documented in non-governmental reports, information indicates that they indiscriminately fired on, and killed, civilians. For example, on 14 June 1995, Chechen commandos took some 2,000 people hostage in the town of Budennovsk in the Stavropol region and barricaded themselves in the town's hospital. The hostage-takers were allegedly shot to death in the hospital by four civilian men. In this incident, over 100 hostages were reportedly killed when Federal forces attempted to take over the hospital. Interwar period Kidnappings, robberies, and killings of fellow Chechens and outsiders weakened the possibilities of outside investment and Maskhadov's efforts to gain international recognition of its independence effort. Kidnappings became common in Chechnya, procuring over $200 million during the three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, but victims were rarely killed. In a Los Angeles Times interview with a Russian woman, she states that kidnappers would at times mutilate their captives and send video recordings to their families, to encourage the payment of ransoms. According to her, there was a slave market in Minutka Square, downtown Grozny. Some of the kidnapped were supposedly sold into indentured servitude to Chechen families. They were openly called slaves and had to endure starvation, beating, and often maiming according to Russian sources. In 1998, 176 people had been kidnapped, and 90 of them had been released during the same year according to official accounts. There were several public executions of criminals. After the First Chechen War, the country won de facto independence from Russia, and Islamic courts were established. In September 1996, a Sharia-based criminal code was adopted, which included provisions for banning alcohol and punishing adultery with death by stoning. Sharia was supposed to apply to Muslims only, but in fact, it was also applied to ethnic Russians who violated Sharia provisions. In one of the first rulings under Sharia law, in January 1997 an Islamic court ordered the payment of blood money to the family of a man who was killed in a traffic accident. In November 1997, the Islamic dress code was imposed on all female students and civil servants in the country. In December 1997, the Supreme Sharia Court banned New Year celebrations, considering them "an act of apostasy and falsity". Conceding to an armed and vocal minority movement in the opposition led by Movladi Udugov, in February 1999, Maskhadov declared The Islamic Republic of Ichkeria, and the Sharia system of justice was introduced. Maskhadov hoped that this would discredit the opposition, putting stability before his own ideological affinities. However, according to former Foreign Minister Ilyas Akhmadov, the public primarily supported Maskhadov, his Independence Party, and their secularism. This was exemplified by the much greater numbers in political rallies supporting the government than those supporting the Islamist opposition. Akhmadov notes that the parliament, which was dominated by Maskhadov's own Independence Party, issued a public statement that President Maskhadov did not have the constitutional authority to proclaim sharia law, and also condemning the opposition for "undermining the foundations of the state". In 1998, four western engineers working for Granger Telecom were abducted and beheaded after a failed rescue attempt. Gennady Shpigun, the Interior Ministry liaison to Chechen officials, was kidnapped in March 1999 as he was leaving Grozny Airport; his remains were found in Chechnya in March 2000. President Maskhadov started a major campaign against hostage-takers, and on 25 October 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official, was killed in a remote controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Other anti-kidnapping officials blamed the attack on Bargishev's recent success in securing the release of several hostages, including 24 Russian soldiers and an English couple. Maskhadov blamed the rash of abductions in Chechnya on unidentified "outside forces" and their Chechen henchmen, allegedly those who joined Pro-Moscow forces during the second war. According to the Chechen government at least part of the kidnappings were orchestrated by the Federal Security Service, which was behind the kidnappings and financed them. Second Chechen War The Second Chechen War saw a new wave of war crimes and violation of International humanitarian law. Both sides have been criticised by international organizations of violating the Geneva Conventions. Russian forces have since the beginning of the conflict indiscriminately and disproportionately bombed and shelled civilian objects, resulting in heavy civilian casualties. In October 1999, powerful ballistic missiles were fired on the Grozny central market, resulting in hundreds of casualties. Russian forces have throughout the campaign ignored to follow their Geneva convention obligations, and has taken little responsibility of protecting the civilian population. Russian media reports state that Russian soldiers were sometimes sold into slavery by their commanders. According to Amnesty International, Chechen civilians have been purposely targeted by Russian forces, in apparent disregard of humanitarian law. The situation has been described by Amnesty International as a Russian campaign to punish an entire ethnic group, on the pretext of "fighting crime and terrorism". In one such occasion, banned Thermobaric weapons were fired on the village of Katyr-Yurt, in what is known as the bombing of Katyr-Yurt. Hundreds of civilians died as a result of the Russian bombardment and the following sweep after. Thermobaric weapons have been used by the Russian army on several occasions according to Human Rights Watch. In what is regarded as one of gravest war crimes in the war, Russian federal forces went on a village-sweep (zachistka), summarily executing dozens of people and committing crimes in what is known as the Novye Aldi massacre. During the Second Chechen War, Chechen and Chechen-led militants have on several occasions used terrorism against civilian targets. In one such occasion, three suicide bombers ran a truck filled with explosives into the Grozny governmental headquarters, resulting in at least 35 deaths. Chechen fighters have shown little regard for the safety of the civilian population, often placing their military positions in densely populated areas and refusing to leave civilian areas. Two large-scale hostage-takings have been documented, the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege, resulting in the deaths of multiple civilians. In the Moscow stand-off, FSB Spetsnaz forces stormed the building on the third day using an unknown incapacitating chemical agent that proved to be lethal without sufficient medical care, resulting in the deaths of 133 out of 916 hostages. In Beslan, some 20 hostages had been executed by their captors before the assault, and the ill-prepared assault itself resulted in 294 more casualties. A report by Human Rights Watch states that without minimizing the abuses committed by Chechen fighters, the main reason for civilian suffering in the Second Chechen War came as a result of the abuses committed by the Russian forces on the civilian population. Minorities Ethnic Russians made up 29% of the Chechen population before the war, and they generally opposed independence. Due to the mounting anti-Russian sentiment following the declaration of independence and the fear of an upcoming war, by 1994 over 200,000 ethnic Russians decided to leave the independence-striving republic. Ethnic Russians left behind faced constant harassment and violence. The separatist government acknowledged the violence but did nothing to address it, blaming it on Russian provocateurs. Russians became a soft target for criminals, as they knew the Chechen police would not intervene in their defence. The start of the First Chechen War in 1994 and the first bombing of Grozny created a second wave of ethnic Russian refugees. By the end of the conflict in 1996, the Russian community had nearly vanished. International recognition No states currently recognize the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Former recognition Other notes See also Russia–Chechnya Peace Treaty Ukrainian recognition of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria History of Chechnya Notes References Works cited External links Official website of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, archived June 2000 Chechen nationalism History of Chechnya Post-Soviet states Separatism in Russia States and territories established in 1991 States and territories disestablished in 2000 1991 establishments in Russia 2000 disestablishments in Russia Former countries in Europe Former republics Former unrecognized countries Governments in exile Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization Islamic republics
5326405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-bulb%20engine	Hot-bulb engine	The hot-bulb engine is a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignites by coming in contact with a red-hot metal surface inside a bulb, followed by the introduction of air (oxygen) compressed into the hot-bulb chamber by the rising piston. There is some ignition when the fuel is introduced, but it quickly uses up the available oxygen in the bulb. Vigorous ignition takes place only when sufficient oxygen is supplied to the hot-bulb chamber on the compression stroke of the engine. Most hot-bulb engines were produced as one or two-cylinder, low-speed two-stroke crankcase scavenged units. History Four-stroke Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine The concept of this engine was established by Herbert Akroyd Stuart, an English inventor. The first prototypes were built in 1886 and production started in 1891 by Richard Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, Lincolnshire, England under the title Hornsby Akroyd Patent Oil Engine under licence. Two-stroke hot-bulb engines Some years later, Akroyd-Stuart's design was further developed in the United States by the German emigrants Mietz and Weiss, who combined the hot-bulb engine with the two-stroke scavenging principle, developed by Joseph Day to provide nearly twice the power, as compared to a four-stroke engine of the same size. Similar engines, for agricultural and marine use, were built by J. V. Svensons Motorfabrik, Bolinders, Lysekils Mekaniska Verkstad, AB Pythagoras and many other factories in Sweden. Comparison to a diesel engine Akroyd-Stuart's engine was the first internal combustion engine to use a pressurised fuel injection system and also the first using a separate vapourising combustion chamber. It is the forerunner of all hot-bulb engines, which is considered the predecessor to diesel engines with antechamber injection. The Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine and other hot-bulb engines are different from Rudolf Diesel's design, where ignition occurs through the heat of compression alone: An akroyd engine will have a compression ratio between 3:1 and 5:1, whereas a typical diesel engine will have a much higher compression ratio usually between 15:1 and 20:1, making it more efficient. Also, in an akroyd engine the fuel is injected during the early intake stroke (at 140° BTDC) and not at the peak of compression (at 15° BTDC) as in a diesel engine. Operation and working cycle The hot-bulb engine shares its basic layout with nearly all other internal combustion engines, in that it has a piston, inside a cylinder, connected to a flywheel by a connecting rod and crankshaft. Akroyd-Stuart's original engine operated on the four-stroke cycle (induction, compression, power and exhaust), and Hornsby continued to build engines to this design, as did several other British manufacturers such as Blackstone and Crossley. Manufacturers in Europe, Scandinavia and in the United States built engines working on the two-stroke cycle with crankcase scavenging. The latter type formed the majority of hot-bulb engine production. The flow of gases through the engine is controlled by valves in four-stroke engines, and by the piston covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall in two-strokes. In the hot bulb engine, combustion takes place in a separated combustion chamber, the "vaporizer" (also called the "hot bulb"), usually mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel is sprayed. It is connected to the cylinder by a narrow passage and is heated by combustion gases while running; an external flame, such as a blow torch or slow-burning wick, is used for starting; on later models, electric heating or pyrotechnics were sometimes used. Another method was the inclusion of a spark plug and vibrator-coil ignition; the engine would be started on petrol (gasoline) and switched over to oil after warming to running temperature. The pre-heating time depends on the engine design, the type of heating used and the ambient temperature, but for most engines in a temperate climate generally ranges from 2 to 5 minutes to as much as half an hour if operating in extreme cold or the engine is especially large. The engine is then turned over, usually by hand, but sometimes by compressed air or an electric motor. Once the engine is running, the heat of compression and ignition maintains the hot bulb at the necessary temperature, and the blow-lamp or other heat source can be removed. Thereafter, the engine requires no external heat and requires only a supply of air, fuel oil and lubricating oil to run. However, under low power the bulb could cool off too much, and a throttle can cut down the cold fresh air supply. Also, as the engine's load is increased, so does the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advance; to counteract pre-ignition, water is dripped into the air intake. Equally, if the load on the engine is low, combustion temperatures may not be sufficient to maintain the temperature of the hot bulb. Many hot-bulb engines cannot be run off-load without auxiliary heating for this reason. The fact that the engine can be left unattended for long periods while running made hot-bulb engines a popular choice for applications requiring a steady power output, such as farm tractors, generators, pumps and canal boat propulsion. Four-stroke engines Air is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve as the piston descends (the induction stroke). During the same stroke, fuel is sprayed into the vaporizer by a mechanical (jerk-type) fuel pump through a nozzle. The injected fuel vapourises on contact with the hot interior of the vaporizer but the heat is not sufficient to cause ignition. The air in the cylinder is then forced through the opening into the vaporizer as the piston rises (the compression stroke), where it is lightly compressed (a ratio of around 3:1) - this is not sufficient to cause significant temperature rise of the air charge, which is mostly caused by the air being heated by contact with the internal surfaces of the hot bulb (red hot due to external heating applied before starting or due to the maintained heat of combustion as the engine runs). The compression stroke mostly serves to create a turbulent movement of air from the cylinder into the vaporizer, which mixes with the pre-vaporized fuel oil. This mixing, and the increase in oxygen content as the air is lightly compressed into the vaporizer, causes the fuel oil vapour to spontaneously ignite. The combustion of the fuel charge is completed in the hot bulb, but creates an expanding charge of exhaust gases and superheated air. The resulting pressure drives the piston down (the power stroke). The piston's action is converted to a rotary motion by the crankshaft-flywheel assembly, to which equipment can be attached for work to be performed. The flywheel stores momentum, some of which is used to turn the engine when power is not being produced. The piston rises, expelling exhaust gases through the exhaust valve (the exhaust stroke). The cycle then starts again. Two-stroke engines The basic action of fuel injection and combustion is common to all hot-bulb engines, whether four- or two-stroke. The cycle starts with the piston at the bottom of its stroke. As it rises, it draws air into the crankcase through the inlet port. At the same time fuel is sprayed into the vaporiser. The charge of air on top of the piston is driven into the vaporiser, where it mixes with the atomised fuel and combustion takes place. The piston is driven down the cylinder. As it descends, the piston first uncovers the exhaust port. The pressurised exhaust gases flow out of the cylinder. A fraction after the exhaust port is uncovered, the descending piston uncovers the transfer port. The piston is now pressurising the air in the crankcase, which is forced through the transfer port and into the space above the piston. Part of the incoming air charge is lost out of the still-open exhaust port to ensure all the exhaust gases are cleared from the cylinder, a process known as "scavenging". The piston then reaches the bottom of its stroke and begins to rise again, drawing a fresh charge of air into the crankcase and completing the cycle. Induction and compression are carried out on the upward stroke, while power and exhaust occur on the downward stroke. A supply of lubricating oil must be fed to the crankcase to supply the crankshaft bearings. Since the crankcase is also used to supply air to the engine, the engine's lubricating oil is carried into the cylinder with the air charge, burnt during combustion and carried out of the exhaust. The oil carried from the crankcase to the cylinder is used to lubricate the piston. This means that a two-stroke hot-bulb engine will gradually burn its supply of lubricating oil, a design known as a "total-loss" lubricating system. There were also designs that employed a scavenge pump or similar to remove oil from the crankcase and return it to the lubricating-oil reservoir. Lanz hot-bulb tractors and their many imitators had this feature. This reduced oil consumption considerably. In addition, if excess crankcase oil is present on start up, there is a danger of the engine starting and accelerating uncontrollably to well past the speed limits of the rotating and reciprocating components. This can result in destruction of the engine. There is normally a bung or stopcock that allows draining of the crankcase before starting. The lack of valves and the doubled-up working cycle also means that a two-stroke hot-bulb engine can run equally well in both directions. A common starting technique for smaller two-stroke engines is to turn the engine over against the normal direction of rotation. The piston will "bounce" off the compression phase with sufficient force to spin the engine the correct way and start it. This bi-directional running was an advantage in marine applications, as the engine could, like the steam engine, drive a vessel forward or in reverse without the need for a gearbox. The direction could be reversed either by stopping the engine and starting it again in the other direction, or, with sufficient skill and timing on the part of the operator, slowing the engine until it carried just enough momentum to bounce against its own compression and run the other way. Because fuel injection takes place before compression and because combustion is not directly linked to a specific point in the engine's rotation (as with injection/combustion in a diesel engine or ignition/combustion in a spark-ignition engine), it is also possible to set the fueling on a two-stroke hot-bulb engine so that combustion occurs just before the piston reaches top dead centre, causing the engine to reverse direction of rotation until the piston next approaches TDC, when combustion takes place and rotation reverses again - the engine can run indefinitely in this way without ever completing a full rotation of the crankshaft. The hot-bulb engine is unique amongst internal combustion engines in being able to run at 'zero revolutions per minute'. This was also an attractive characteristic of the engine for marine use, since it could be left 'running' without generating meaningful thrust, avoiding the need to shut the engine down and later carry out the lengthy starting procedure. The bi-directional abilities of the engine were an undesirable quality in hot-bulb-powered tractors equipped with gearboxes. At very low engine speeds the engine could reverse itself almost without any change in sound or running quality and without the driver noticing until the tractor drove in the opposite direction to that intended. Lanz Bulldog tractors featured a dial, mechanically driven by the engine, that showed a spinning arrow. The arrow pointed in the direction of normal engine rotation; if the dial spun the other way, the engine had reversed itself. Advantages At the time the hot-bulb engine was invented, its great attractions were its efficiency, simplicity, and ease of operation in comparison to the steam engine, which was then the dominant source of power in industry. Condenserless steam engines achieved an average thermal efficiency (the fraction of generated heat that is actually turned into useful work) of around 6%. Hot-bulb engines could easily achieve 12% thermal efficiency. From the 1910s to the 1950s, hot-bulb engines were more economical to manufacture with their low-pressure crude-fuel injection and had a lower compression ratio than Diesel's compression-ignition engines. The hot-bulb engine is much simpler to construct and operate than the steam engine. Boilers require at least one person to add water and fuel as needed and to monitor pressure to prevent overpressure and a resulting explosion. If fitted with automatic lubrication systems and a governor to control engine speed, a hot-bulb engine could be left running unattended for hours at a time. Another attraction was their safety. A steam engine, with its exposed fire and hot boiler, steam pipes and working cylinder could not be used in flammable conditions, such as munitions factories or fuel refineries. Hot-bulb engines also produced cleaner exhaust fumes. A big danger with the steam engine was that if the boiler pressure grew too high and the safety valve failed, a highly dangerous explosion could occur, although this was a relatively rare occurrence by the time the hot-bulb engine was invented. A more common problem was that if the water level in the boiler of a steam engine dropped too low, the lead plug in the crown of the furnace would melt, extinguishing the fire. If a hot-bulb engine ran out of fuel, it would simply stop and could be immediately restarted with more fuel. The water cooling was usually closed-circuit, so no water loss would occur unless there was a leak. If the cooling water ran low, the engine would seize through overheating — a major problem, but it carried no danger of explosion. Compared with steam, petrol (Otto-cycle), and compression-ignition (Diesel-cycle) engines, hot-bulb engines are simpler, and therefore have fewer potential problems. There is no electrical system as found on a petrol engine, and no external boiler and steam system as on a steam engine. Another big attraction with the hot-bulb engine was its ability to run on a wide range of fuels. Even poorly combustible fuels could be used, since a combination of vaporiser and compression ignition meant that such fuels could be made to burn. The usual fuel was fuel oil, similar to modern-day diesel fuel, but natural gas, kerosene, crude oil, vegetable oil or creosote could also be used. This made the hot-bulb engine very cheap to run, since it could be run on readily available fuels. Some operators even ran engines on used engine oil, thus providing almost free power. Recently, this multi-fuel ability has led to an interest in using hot-bulb engines in developing nations, where they can be run on locally produced biofuel. Due to the lengthy pre-heating time, hot-bulb engines usually started easily, even in extremely cold conditions. This made them popular choices in cold regions, such as Canada and Scandinavia, where steam engines were not viable and early petrol and diesel engines could not be relied upon to operate. However, it also makes them unsuitable for short time running use, especially in an automobile. Uses The reliability of the hot bulb engine, their ability to run on many fuels and the fact that they can be left running for hours or days at a time made them extremely popular with agricultural, forestry and marine users, where they were used for pumping and for powering milling, sawing and threshing machinery. Hot bulb engines were also used on road rollers and tractors. J. V. Svenssons Motorfabrik, i Augustendal in Stockholm Sweden used hot bulb engines in their Typ 1 motor plough, produced from 1912 to 1925. Munktells Mekaniska Verkstads AB, in Eskilstuna, Sweden, produced agricultural tractors with hot bulb engines from 1913 onwards. Heinrich Lanz AG, in Mannheim, Germany, started to use hot bulb engines in 1921, in the Lanz HL tractor. Other well known tractor manufacturers that used bulb engines were Bubba, Gambino, Landini and Orsi in Italy, HSCS in Hungary, SFV in France, and Ursus in Poland (who produced the Ursus C-45, a direct copy of the 1934 Lanz Bulldog D 9506, after World War II). At the start of the 20th century there were several hundred European manufacturers of hot bulb engines for marine use. In Sweden alone there were over 70 manufacturers, of which Bolinder is the best known; in the 1920s they had about 80% of the world market. The Norwegian Sabb was a very popular hot bulb engine for small fishing boats, and many of them are still in working order. In America, Standard, Weber, Reid, Stickney, Oil City, and Fairbanks Morse built hot bulb engines. A limitation of the design of the engine was that it could only run over quite a narrow (and low) speed band, typically 50 to 300 rpm. This made the hot bulb engine difficult to adapt to automotive uses, other than vehicles such as tractors, where speed was not a major requirement. This limitation was of little consequence for stationary applications, where the hot bulb engine was very popular. Owing to the lengthy pre-heating time, hot bulb engines only found favour with users who needed to run engines for long periods of time, where the pre-heating process only represented a small percentage of the overall running period. This included marine use — especially in fishing boats — and pumping or drainage duties. The hot bulb engine was invented at the same time that dynamos and electric light systems were perfected, and electricity generation was one of the hot bulb engine's main uses. The engine could achieve higher R.P.M. than a standard reciprocating steam engine, although high-speed steam engines were developed during the 1890s, and its low fuel and maintenance requirements, including the ability to be operated and maintained by only one person, made it ideal for small-scale power generation. Generator sets driven by hot bulb engines were installed in numerous large houses in Europe, especially in rural areas, as well as in factories, theatres, lighthouses, radio stations and many other locations where a centralised electrical grid was not available. Usually, the dynamo or alternator would be driven off the engine's flywheel by a flat belt, to allow the necessary "gearing up" — making the generator turn at a faster speed than the engine. Companies such as Armstrong Whitworth and Boulton Paul manufactured and supplied complete generating sets, both the engine and generator, from the 1900s to the late 1920s, when the formation of national grid systems throughout the world and the replacement of the hot bulb engine by the diesel engine caused a drop in demand. The engines were also used in areas where the fire of a steam engine would be an unacceptable fire risk. Akroyd-Stuart developed the world's first locomotive powered by a hot bulb oil engine, the "Lachesis", for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, where the use of locomotives had previously been impossible due to the risk. Hot bulb engines proved very popular for industrial engines in the early 20th century, but lacked the power to be used in anything larger. Replacement From around 1910, the diesel engine was improved dramatically, with more power being available at greater efficiencies than the hot bulb engine could manage. Diesel engines can achieve over 50% efficiency if designed with maximum economy in mind, and they offered greater power for a given engine size due to the more efficient combustion method. They had no hot bulb, relying purely on compression-ignition, and offered greater ease of use, as they required no pre-heating. The hot bulb engine was limited in its scope in terms of speed and overall power-to-size ratio. To make a hot bulb engine capable of powering a ship or locomotive, it would have been prohibitively large and heavy. The hot bulb engines used in Landini tractors were as much as 20 litres in capacity for relatively low power outputs. The main limit of the hot bulb engine's power and speed was its method of combustion. In a diesel engine combustion is controlled by injecting fuel into compressed air; since no combustion can take place until fuel is injected, the timing and duration of combustion can be tightly controlled. In the hot bulb engine fuel was injected into the cylinder before compression began, and combustion would start as the air charge met the vaporised fuel in the hot bulb during the compression stroke. This meant that combustion was difficult to control to any degree of precision. Parts of the fuel charge throughout the hot bulb would ignite at different times, often before the piston had completed the compression stroke. This is identical to preignition in a conventional spark-ignition engine and leads to uneven forces and high thermal and physical stresses on the engine's internal parts, especially the piston. In the hot bulb engine this problem could only be overcome by keeping the overall engine speeds low, the fuel quantity injected in each cycle small and the engine's components very heavily built. This resulted in a very durable engine, which was also large and heavy while producing a relatively low power output. Ideas such as water injection (to reduce preignition) and the "hot tube" engine (which allowed the volume of the vaporiser to be altered with engine speed, thus changing the overall compression ratio) added complexity and cost and still could not provide power-to-weight ratios in the same league as the rapidly developing diesel engine. To create even combustion throughout the multiple hot bulbs in multi-cylinder engines is difficult. The hot bulb engine's low compression ratio in comparison to diesel engines limited its efficiency, power output and speed. Most hot bulb engines could run at a maximum speed of around 100 rpm, while by the 1930s high-speed diesel engines capable of 2,000 rpm were being built. Also, due to the design of hot bulbs and the limitations of current technology in regard to the injector system, most hot bulb engines were single-speed engines, running at a fixed speed, or in a very narrow speed range. Diesel engines can be designed to operate over a much wider speed range, making them more versatile. This made these medium-sized diesels a very popular choice for use in generator sets, replacing the hot bulb engine as the engine of choice for small-scale power generation. The development of small-capacity, high-speed diesel engines in the 1930s and 1940s, led to hot bulb engines falling dramatically out of favour. The last large-scale manufacturer of hot bulb engines stopped producing them in the 1950s and they are now virtually extinct in commercial use, except in very remote areas of the developing world. An exception to this is marine use; hot bulb engines were widely fitted to inland barges and narrowboats in Europe. The United Kingdom's first two self-powered "motor" narrowboats—Cadbury's Bournville I and Bournville II in 1911—were powered by 15 horsepower Bolinder single-cylinder hot bulb engines, and this type became common between the 1920s and the 1950s. With hot bulb engines being generally long-lived and ideally suited to such a use, it is not uncommon to find vessels still fitted with their original hot bulb engines today. Although there is a common misconception that model glow plug engines are a variation of the hot bulb engine, this is not the case. Model glow engines are catalytic ignition engines. They take advantage of a reaction between platinum in the glow plug coil and methyl alcohol vapour whereby at certain temperatures and pressures platinum will glow in contact with the vapour. Hot bulb pseudo-diesel development 1890s–1910 The hot bulb engine is often confused with the diesel engine, and it is true that the two engines are very similar. A hot bulb engine features a prominent hot bulb vaporiser; a diesel engine does not. Other significant differences are: The hot bulb engine mostly reuses the heat retained in the vaporiser to ignite the fuel, achieving about 12% efficiency. The diesel engine uses only compression to ignite the fuel. It operates at pressures many times higher than the hot bulb engine, resulting in over 50% efficiency with large diesels. The hot bulb engine requires preheating of the hot bulb, often with a torch, for about 15 minutes before starting. There is also a crucial difference in the timing of the fuel injection process: In the hot bulb engine, before 1910 fuel was injected earlier into the vaporiser (during the intake stroke). This causes the start of combustion to be out of synchronization with the crank angle, meaning that the engine would only run smoothly at one low-speed or load. If the engine's load increased, so would the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advance, causing pre-ignition. To counteract pre-ignition, water would be dripped into the air intake, providing some flexibility. In the diesel engine, fuel is injected into the cylinder, with an adjusted timing relative to the engine speed and load, shortly before the top dead center of the compression stroke is reached. There is another, detailed difference in the method of fuel injection: The hot bulb engine uses a medium-pressure pump to deliver fuel to the cylinder, through a simple nozzle. In the original diesel engine, fuel was sprayed into the cylinder by high pressure compressed air, through an injector. The camshaft lifted a spring-loaded pin to initiate fuel delivery through the nozzle. Before World War I technology had not advanced to the point that oil engines could run faster than 150 rpm. The structure of these engines were similar to steam engines, and without pressure-fed lubrication. In hot bulb engines, fuel is injected at low pressure, using a more economical and more reliable, and simpler configuration. However, by not using compressed air injection it is less efficient. In this period diesel and hot bulb engines were four stroke. In 1902 F. Rundlof invented the two-stroke crankcase scavenged engine that went on to become the prevalent hot bulb type engine. 1910–1950s Small direct-injected diesel engines still were not practical and the prechambered indirect injection engine was invented, along with the requirement of glowplugs to be used for starting. With technology developed by Robert Bosch GmbH pump and injector systems could be built to run at a much higher pressure. Combined with high-precision injectors, high-speed diesels were produced from 1927. The hot bulbs started to develop cracks and breakups and were gradually replaced by water cooled cylinder heads with a flat hot spot. Over time the compression ratios were increased from 3:1 to 14:1. Fuel injection started from 135 degrees before top dead center with low compression down to 20 degrees before top dead center with later higher compression engines increasing the hot air factor for ignition and increasing the fuel efficiency. Glowplugs finally replaced the preheating with a blowtorch methods and engine speeds were increased, resulting in what is now classified as an indirect-injection diesel. Hot bulb or prechambered engines were always easier to produce, more reliable and could handle smaller amounts of fuel in smaller engines than the direct-injected "pure" diesels could. Production Hot-bulb engines were built by a large number of manufacturers, usually in modest series. These engines were slow-running (300-400 rpm) and mostly with cast-iron parts, including pistons. The fuel pump was usually made with a brass housing and steel plunger, operating with a variable stroke length. This resulted in a simple, rugged heavy engine. Therefore, they could be machined in an average machine shop without special tools. The Pythagoras Engine Factory in Norrtälje in Sweden is kept as a museum (the Pythagoras Mechanical Workshop Museum) and has a functioning production line and extensive factory archives. See also Crude oil engine Hesselman engine Fuel injection Gasoline direct injection Prosper L'Orange References Patents US Patent 845140 Combustion Engine, dated February 26, 1907. US Patent 502837 Engine operated by the explosion of mixtures of gas or hydrocarbon vapor and air, dated August 8, 1893. US Patent 439702 Petroleum Engine or Motor, dated November 4, 1890. External links The Stationary Engine Club of Sweden A video on the history of the diesel engine, which also contains a demonstration and illustration of the hot bulb engine's working cycle An article from Gas Engine Magazine on Mietz & Weiss hot bulb engines Norwegian-made semi-diesel engines; the last semi-diesel Sabb ended in 1969 Stationary Hot Bulb and Crude Oil Engine Museum English inventions Marine engines Marine propulsion Stationary engines Internal combustion piston engines Articles containing video clips Shipbuilding in England
5326585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemin	Systemin	Systemin is a plant peptide hormone involved in the wound response in the family Solanaceae. It was the first plant hormone that was proven to be a peptide having been isolated from tomato leaves in 1991 by a group led by Clarence A. Ryan. Since then, other peptides with similar functions have been identified in tomato and outside of the Solanaceae. Hydroxyproline-rich glycopeptides were found in tobacco in 2001 and AtPeps (Arabidopsis thaliana Plant Elicitor Peptides) were found in Arabidopsis thaliana in 2006. Their precursors are found both in the cytoplasm and cell walls of plant cells, upon insect damage, the precursors are processed to produce one or more mature peptides. The receptor for systemin was first thought to be the same as the brassinolide receptor but this is now uncertain. The signal transduction processes that occur after the peptides bind are similar to the cytokine-mediated inflammatory immune response in animals. Early experiments showed that systemin travelled around the plant after insects had damaged the plant, activating systemic acquired resistance, now it is thought that it increases the production of jasmonic acid causing the same result. The main function of systemins is to coordinate defensive responses against insect herbivores but they also affect plant development. Systemin induces the production of protease inhibitors which protect against insect herbivores, other peptides activate defensins and modify root growth. They have also been shown to affect plants' responses to salt stress and UV radiation. AtPEPs have been shown to affect resistance against oomycetes and may allow A. thaliana to distinguish between different pathogens. In Nicotiana attenuata, some of the peptides have stopped being involved in defensive roles and instead affect flower morphology. Discovery and structure In 1991 a research group led by Clarence A. Ryan, isolated an 18 amino acid polypeptide from tomato leaves that induced the production of protease inhibitor proteins (PIs) in response to wounding. Experiments using synthetic radio-labelled forms of the polypeptide demonstrated that it was able to travel systemically through the plant and induce PI production in unwounded leaves. Because of the systemic nature of the wounding signal, it was named systemin, it was the first polypeptide found to function as a hormone in plants. mRNA encoding for systemin is found in all tissues of the plant except the roots. Later studies identified homologs of tomato systemin in other members of the Solanaceae including potato, black nightshade and bell pepper. Systemins have only been identified in the Solaneae subtribe of the Solanaceae, but other members of the family, such as tobacco, also respond to wounding by systemically producing protease inhibitors. Peptides with similar functions In 2001, biologically active hydroxyproline-rich glycopeptides were isolated from tobacco which activated the production of protease inhibitors in a similar way to systemin in tomatoes. Although they are structurally unrelated to systemins, their similar function resulted in them being named hydroxyproline-rich systemins (HypSys). Following the initial discovery other HypSys peptides were found in tomato, Petunia and black nightshade. In 2007, HypSys were found outside the Solanaceae, in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and sequence analysis identified HypSys analogs in poplar (Populus trichocarpa) and coffee (Coffea canephora). Systemins are highly conserved between species, whereas HypSys are more divergent but all contain a conserved proline or hydroxyproline-rich central domain. In 2006, AtPEP1, a 23 amino acid polypeptide was isolated from Arabidopsis thaliana, which was found to activate components of the innate immune response. Unlike HypSys, AtPEP1 is not post-translationally modified by hydroxylation or glycosylation. Six paralogs of the precursor have been identified in A. thaliana as well as orthologs in grape, rice, maize, wheat, barley, canola, soybean, medicago and poplar, although the activity of these orthologs has not been tested in assays. The predicted structures of the paralogs of AtPEP1 are varied within A. thaliana but all contain a SSGR/KxGxxN sequence motif. The orthologs identified in other species are more varied but still contain components of the sequence motif. Localisation and precursors Systemin and AtPEP1 are found in the cell cytosol. The precursor to tomato systemin is transcribed as a 200 amino acid polypeptide. It does not contain a putative signal sequence suggesting that it is synthesised on free ribosomes in the cytosol. The precursor to AtPEP1 is a 92 amino acid polypeptide and also lacks a signal sequence. In tomato, mRNA encoding the precursor for systemin is present at very low levels in unwounded leaves but accumulates upon wounding, particularly in the cells surrounding the sieve elements of the phloem in vascular bundles of mid veins. The precursor accumulates exclusively in the phloem parenchyma cells of leaves in tomato after wounding. The precursor to potato systemin is also localised in a similar manner suggesting it is under the same cell-type-specific regulation in both species. HypSys are localised in the cell wall. The precursor for tobacco HypSys is transcribed as a 165 amino acid polypeptide which has no structural homology to the precursor for systemin in tomato. The structural properties of HypSys, containing hydroxyproline and being glycosylated, indicate that they are synthesised through the secretory system. The precursor to HypSys in tomato is a 146 amino acid polypeptide, exclusively synthesised within the vascular bundles of leaves and petioles associated with parenchyma cells of phloem bundles. Unlike systemin, it is primarily associated with the cell wall. The precursors to HypSys appear to represent a distinct subfamily of hydroxyproline-rich proteins found in cell walls. Upon wounding it is thought that a protease from the cytosol, the cell wall matrix, or the pathogen, processes the precursor producing active HypSys peptides. Processing of precursors The precursors for systemin and AtPEP1 are both processed to yield one active peptide from the C-terminus of the precursor. It has been speculated that ProAtPEP1 is processed by CONSTITUTIVE DISEASE RESISTANCE 1, an apoplastic aspartic protease. The precursors to HypSys are processed into more than one active peptide. In tobacco, it is processed into two peptides, in petunia into three, and in sweet potato, possibly into six. At 291 amino acids long, the precursor to HypSys in sweet potato is the longest precursor described. The production of multiple signalling peptides from one precursor is a common feature found in animals. Receptors Exceedingly small amounts of tomato systemin are active, femto-molar concentrations of the peptide are sufficient to elicit a response at the whole plant level, making it one of the most potent gene activators identified. A receptor for tomato systemin was identified as a 160KDa leucine-rich repeat receptor like kinase (LRR-RLK), SR160. After being isolated it was found that was very similar in structure to BRI1 from A. thaliana, the receptor that brassinolides bind to on the cell membrane. This was the first receptor which was found to be able to bind both a steroid and a peptide ligand and also to be involved in both defensive and developmental responses. Recent studies have found that the initial conclusion that BRI1 is the receptor for tomato systemin may be incorrect. In cu3 mutants of tomato, a null allele with a stop codon present in the extracellular LRR domain of BRI1 prevents the receptor from being localised correctly and it also lacks the kinase domain, required for signalling. These mutants are insensitive to brassinolide yet still respond to tomato systemin by producing protease inhibitors and causing an alkalisation response. This led Holton et al. to suggest that there is another mechanism by which systemin is perceived. Further investigation showed that binding of systemin to BRI1 does not cause the receptor to become phosphorylated, as when brassinolides bind, suggesting that it does not transduce a signal. When BRI1 is silenced in tomato, the plants have a similar phenotype to cu3 mutants yet are still able to respond normally to systemin, strengthening the view that BRI1 is not the systemin receptor. In 1994, tomato systemin was found to bind to a 50KDa protein in the cell membrane of tomato. The protein has a structure similar to proteases of the Kex2p-like prohormone convertases. This led Schaller and Ryan to suggest that it is not a receptor, but instead is involved in the processing of ProSys into the active form, or the degradation of Sys. Synthetic forms of tomato systemin, with substituted amino acids at the predicted dibasic cleavage site, remained stable in cell cultures for longer than the native form. Later studies have noted that the enzymes responsible for processing ProSys remain unidentified. No further research has been reported on the 50KDa protein to date, and the gene has not been identified. No receptors for HypSys have so far been reported, but it is thought that they are perceived on the cell membrane by a LRR-RLK. The receptor for AtPep1 has been identified as a 170KDa LRR-RLK and has been named AtPEPR1. AtPep1 is active at 0.1 nano-molar (nM) concentrations and the receptor saturates at 1nM. An analysis of the structure of the AtPEPR1 receptor has shown that it is a member of the LRR XI subfamily of LRR-RLKs in A. thaliana which includes the receptor for another peptide hormone CLAVATA3. Transforming tobacco cell cultures with AtPEPR1 allowed them to respond to AtPep1 in an alkalisation assay, whereas normal tobacco did not show such a response. BRI1-associated receptor kinase 1 (BAK1) is an LRR-RLK found in A. thaliana, which has been proposed to function as an adaptor protein that is required for the proper functioning of other RLKs. Yeast two-hybrid assays have shown that AtPEPR1 and its closest analog, AtPEPR2, interact with BAK1. Signal transduction Although the receptors for systemins and HypSys remain poorly understood, we have a better understanding of the signal transduction that occurs once the peptide had bound to its receptor. Jasmonic acid is an essential, albeit late component, in the systemin and wound-signalling pathways. In tomato, the signal is transduced from the receptor by mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Cosilencing of two MAPKs, MPK1 and MPK2, in tomato compromised their defence response against insect larvae compared to wild type plants. Cosilencing these genes also decreased production of jasmonic acid and of jasmonic acid-dependent defence genes. Applying methyl jasmonate to cosilenced plants rescued them, indicating that jasmonates are the signal responsible for causing changes in gene expression. The alkalisation of the apoplast is a downstream effect of signalling processing by MAPKs. Applying fusicoccin, which activates the H+ ATPase inhibited by systemin, along with systemin still activates MAPKs, even though the pH of the apoplast does not change. Within minutes of systemin perception, the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration increases, and linolenic acid is released from cell membranes after a phospholipase has been activated. Linolenic acid is then converted to jasmonic acid via the octadecanoid pathway and jasmonic acid activates defensive genes. Production of methyl jasmonate is induced by systemins and also upregulates systemin precursor genes creating a feedback loop, amplifying the defensive signal. Methyl jasmonate is volatile and can therefore activate systemic acquired resistance in neighbouring plants, preparing their defences for attack. These signalling events are analogous to the cytokine-mediated inflammatory immune response in animals. When the inflammatory response is activated in animals, MAPKs are activated which in turn activate phospholipases. Lipids in the membrane are converted to arachidonic acid and then to prostaglandins, which are analogs of jasmonic acid. Both pathways can be inhibited by suramin. Early experiments with radiolabelled systemin in tomato demonstrated that it is transported through the phloem sap in tomato plants and was therefore thought to be the systemic signal that activated systemic acquired resistance. This view was challenged by grafting experiments which showed that mutants deficient in jasmonic acid biosynthesis and perception were unable to activate systemic acquired resistance. It is now thought that jasmonic acid is the systemic signal and that systemin upregulates the pathways for jasmonic acid synthesis. Functions Defence Systemin plays a critical role in defence signalling in tomato. It promotes the synthesis of over 20 defence-related proteins, mainly antinutritional proteins, signaling pathway proteins and proteases. The over-expression of the prosystemin resulted in a significant decrease of the larvae damage, indicating that a high level of constitutive protection is superior to an inducible defence mechanism. However, the continuous activation of prosystemin is costly, affecting the growth, the physiology and the reproductive success of tomato plants. When systemin was silenced, production of protease inhibitors in tomato was severely impaired and larvae feeding on the plants grew three times as fast. HypSys caused similar changes in gene expression in tobacco, for example polyphenol oxidase activity increased tenfold in tobacco leaves and protease inhibitors caused a 30% decrease in chymotrypsin activity within three days of wounding. When HypSys was over-expressed in tobacco, larvae feeding on transgenic plants weighed half as much after ten days feeding, as those feeding on normal plants. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide increased in the vasculature tissues when the production of systemin, HypSys or AtPep1 is induced, this may also be involved in initiating systemic acquired resistance. Tomato plants over-expressing systemin also accumulated HypSys but did not if the systemin precursor was silenced, indicating that in tomato, HypSys is controlled by systemin. Each of the three HypSys peptides in tomato is able to activate the synthesis and accumulation of protease inhibitors. When HypSys is silenced the production of protease inhibitors induced by wounding is halved compared to wild type plants indicating that both systemin and HypSys are required for a strong defence response against herbivores in tomato. When applied through cut petioles in Petunia, HypSys did not induce the production of protease inhibitors, but instead increased expression of defensin, a gene which produces a protein that inserts into microbial membranes, forming a pore. Defensin expression is also induced by AtPEP1. Tomato plants over-expressing systemin produced more volatile organic compounds (VOCs) than normal plants and parasitoid wasps found them more attractive. Systemin also upregulates the expression of genes involved in the production of biologically active VOCs. Such a response is crucial if antinutritional defences are to be effective, since without predators, developing insects would consume more plant material while completing their development. It is likely that VOC production is upregulated through different pathways, including oxylipin pathway that synthesises jasmonic acid aldehydes and alcohols that function in wound healing. Different AtPeps may allow A. thaliana to distinguish between different pathogens. When inoculated with a fungus, oomycete and a bacterium, the increases in AtPep expression varied depending on the pathogen. A. thaliana overexpressing AtProPep1 was more resistant to the oomycete Phythium irregulare. Silencing systemin did not affect the ability of black nightshade to resist herbivory and, when competing against normal plants, silenced plants produced more above-ground biomass and berries. Upon herbivory, systemin was down-regulated in black nightshade in contrast to the other peptides which are up-regulated after herbivory. By contrast HypSys were up-regulated and activated the synthesis of protease inhibitors. The down-regulation of systemin was associated with increased root mass but did not decrease shoot mass, demonstrating that systemin can cause developmental changes as a result of herbivory, allowing the plant to tolerate, rather than directly resist attack. Tomato roots were also affected by tomato systemin, with root growth increasing at high tomato systemin concentrations. By allocating more resources to the roots, plants under attack are thought to store carbon and then use it to re-grow when the attack ends. Overexpressing AtPEP1 also increased root and shoot biomass in A. thaliana. Abiotic stress resistance Overexpression of systemin and HypSys has been found to improve plants' tolerance to abiotic stress, including salt stress and UV radiation. When prosystemin was over-expressed in tomato, transgenic plants had lower stomatal conductance than normal plants. When grown in salt solutions, transgenic plants had higher stomatal conductances, lower leaf concentrations of abscisic acid and proline and a higher biomass. These findings suggest that systemin either allowed the plants to adapt to salt stress more efficiently or that they perceived a less stressful environment. Similarly, wounded tomato plants were less susceptible to salt stress than unwounded plants. This may be because wounding decreases the growth of the plant and therefore slows the uptake of toxic ions into the roots. An analysis of salt-induced changes in gene expression found that the differences measured between the transgenic and normal plants could not be accounted for by changes in conventional salt stress-induced pathways. Instead Orsini et al. suggested that the activation of the jasmonic acid pathway determines a physiological state that not only directs resources towards the production of compounds active against pests, but also pre-adapts plants to minimize water loss. These effects are achieved by negatively regulating the production of hormones and metabolites that will force plants to invest additional resources to counteract water loss, a secondary effect of herbivores. Plants grown under UVB light are more resistant to insect herbivory compared with plants grown under filters that exclude the radiation. When tomato plants are exposed to a pulse of UVB radiation and then weakly wounded, PIs accumulate throughout the plant. By themselves, neither the radiation nor weak wounding is sufficient to induce systemic PI accumulation. Tomato cell cultures respond similarly, with systemin and UVB acting together to activate MAPKs. Short pulses of UVB also cause alkalisation of the culturing medium. Development In Nicotiana attenuata HypSys is known to not be involved in defence against insect herbivores. Silencing and over-expression of HypSys does not affect the feeding performance of larvae compared to normal plants. Berger silenced HypSys and found that it caused changes in flower morphology which reduced the efficiency of self-pollination. The flowers had pistils that protruded beyond their anthers, a similar phenotype to CORONATINE-INSENSITIVE1-silenced plants which lack a jasmonate receptor. Measurement of jasmonate levels in the flowers revealed that they were lower than in normal plants. The authors suggested that HypSys peptides in N. attenuata have diversified from their function as defence related peptides to being involved in controlling flower morphology. The signalling processes remain similar however, being mediated through jasmonates. Systemin also increases root growth in Solanum pimpinellifolium suggesting that it may also play some role in plant development. See also Plant hormones Florigen References Plant peptide hormones
5326977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Hughes%20%28baseball%29	Phil Hughes (baseball)	Philip Joseph Hughes (born June 24, 1986) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees, Minnesota Twins, and San Diego Padres during a career that spanned from 2007 through 2018. Hughes stands tall and weighs . He was the Yankees' first-round pick in the 2004 MLB draft. During his time in the Yankees' minor-league system, Hughes became one of the most highly anticipated prospects in baseball. He debuted in the major leagues in 2007 as a starting pitcher and quickly demonstrated his potential with a bid for a no-hitter in only his second MLB start. However, injury cut short his outing, as well as significant portions of his 2007 and 2008 seasons. Hughes began 2009 in the minors but later returned to the majors, eventually becoming a relief pitcher in June and pitching as a setup man for Mariano Rivera. Hughes excelled in the new role during the regular season. Despite his struggles in the postseason, Hughes won a championship with the Yankees in the 2009 World Series over the Philadelphia Phillies. Upon returning to the Yankees' starting rotation in 2010, Hughes won 18 games and earned a berth on the American League All-Star team. Arm fatigue cost Hughes nearly half of the season in 2011. The following year, he stayed healthy for the entire season and won 16 games as the Yankees' third starter. In 2013, Hughes had his worst season, posting a 4–14 win–loss record and a 5.19 earned run average; this performance led to his removal from the starting rotation. After signing with the Minnesota Twins, Hughes had a turnaround season in 2014, finishing the season with a 16–10 record and an ERA of 3.52 and placing seventh in the American League Cy Young Award voting. Hughes ended his career with an 88–79 record and an earned run average of 4.52. Early life Hughes was born in Mission Viejo, California on June 24, 1986, and attended Foothill High School in North Tustin, California, where he was a first-team High School All-American pitcher and had one perfect game. In his junior year (2003), he had a 12–0 record and posted an 0.78 earned run average (ERA) while striking out 85 batters in 72 innings. In his senior year (2004), he had an 0.69 ERA and a 9–1 record. In 61 innings, he gave up 41 hits and three walks while striking out 83 batters. Hughes first committed to Santa Clara University, but he chose to sign with the New York Yankees when they selected him in the first round, with the 23rd overall selection, of the 2004 Major League Baseball draft. The Yankees were awarded this pick as compensation when free agent pitcher Andy Pettitte signed with the Houston Astros. Professional baseball career Minor leagues In 2004, Hughes pitched five scoreless innings for the rookie Gulf Coast League Yankees, striking out eight hitters. He spent 2005, his first full professional year, between the Class A Charleston RiverDogs and the Advanced A Tampa Yankees. He had a 9–2 record and a 1.24 ERA, and in innings he gave up 54 hits while striking out 93. After attending spring training with the Yankees in 2006, Hughes began the season with Tampa. He was promoted to the Double-A Trenton Thunder of the Eastern League at the beginning of May after he had a 2–3 record and a 1.80 ERA with Tampa while striking out 30 batters in 30 innings. On June 13, Hughes took a no-hitter into the sixth inning and threw a one-hitter through seven innings in a 3–0 victory over the New Hampshire Fisher Cats. Ten days later, he put forth another dominant start, taking a no-hitter into the eighth inning and pitching eight shutout innings in a 4–0 win over the Connecticut Defenders. With Trenton, Hughes had a 10–3 record, a 2.25 ERA, and 138 strikeouts in 116 innings. He made one appearance in the Eastern League playoffs, earning a no-decision after pitching six innings of 1-run ball with 13 strikeouts. After the season, he won the Kevin Lawn "Pitcher of the Year" Award as the top Yankees' minor league pitcher. Entering 2007, Baseball America rated Hughes the Yankees' #1 prospect, said he had the best curveball and best control in the Yankee system, and called him "arguably the best pitching prospect in the minors." Baseball America also named him the fourth-best prospect in baseball. MiLB.com named Hughes the top right-handed starting pitching prospect in the AL East farm systems. In January 2007, the Yankees announced that Hughes was being invited to spring training. According to Bryan Hoch of MLB.com, scouts believed that Hughes was ready for the major leagues. Hughes began 2007 pitching for the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees of the International League (IL). New York Yankees 2007 Following injuries to several Yankees' starters in 2007, Hughes was called up to the major leagues in April. Hughes made his major league debut on April 26 against the Toronto Blue Jays. In innings, he allowed four runs on seven hits, earning his first career loss. In his second major league start on May 1 against the Texas Rangers, he was maintaining a no-hitter through innings before pulling his left hamstring while facing his future teammate Mark Teixeira. Mike Myers later allowed a hit, but Hughes earned his first career win. After the game, he was placed on the disabled list (DL). He returned on August 4 against the Kansas City Royals, allowing six runs in innings and earning a no-decision in a 16–8 victory. In his final start of the year, on September 27 against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, he allowed one run in a season-high seven innings and earned the win in a 3–1 victory. In 17 starts for the Yankees, Hughes had a 5–3 record, a 4.46 ERA, and 58 strikeouts in innings pitched. He was the second-youngest American League (AL) player in 2007. Hughes was included on the Yankees' postseason roster as a long reliever. He made his first postseason appearance in 2007 against the Cleveland Indians in the AL Division Series (ALDS), giving up one run in two innings in Game 1, a 12–3 loss. In Game 3, Hughes (the youngest player on the Yankees' roster) relieved an injured Roger Clemens (the oldest player on the roster) in the third inning and pitched scoreless innings. He struck out four and earned his first playoff win. The Yankees were eliminated in four games in the series. 2008 Prior to the 2008 season, it was reported by numerous news sources that the Yankees were thinking of including Hughes in a trade to the Minnesota Twins for Johan Santana. The trade never happened; Santana was traded to the New York Mets instead. Hughes began the 2008 season as the third starter in the Yankees' rotation. In his first six starts, he had an 0–4 record and a 9.00 ERA. On April 30, he was placed on the disabled list with a strained oblique and cracked rib. On a May 2 visit to an optometrist, Hughes was found to be slightly nearsighted. After recovering from the rib injury, Hughes pitched for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre; he helped them win the 2008 International League title, earning the win after striking out 12 batters in the clinching game. On September 13, a day after the IL playoffs, Hughes was recalled by the Yankees. On September 17, Hughes made his first start since April 29, giving up one earned run over four innings and earning a no-decision in a 5–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. In his final start of the season, on September 24, he gave up two runs in eight innings and received a no-decision in a ten-inning, 6–2 victory over Toronto. He finished the season with an 0–4 record, a 6.62 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and 34 innings pitched in eight starts. Because injuries severely limited his workload during the season, the Yankees sent Hughes to the Arizona Fall League after the season to pitch more innings. 2009 Although he had a solid performance in spring training, Hughes began the 2009 season in Triple-A. He was called up to the majors in April after Chien-Ming Wang was placed on the disabled list. Hughes made his first start of the season on April 28 against the Detroit Tigers and pitched six scoreless innings, earning his first win since 2007 in an 11–0 victory. On May 25, Hughes threw eight scoreless innings, earning the win in an 11–1 victory over the Rangers. After he posted a 3–2 record and a 5.45 ERA in seven starts, Hughes was moved to the bullpen when Wang returned to the rotation in early June. Hughes pitched well, becoming the primary setup man to Mariano Rivera in July due to injuries to Brian Bruney and Dámaso Marte. Despite his success as a reliever, Cashman maintained that Hughes would be a starter over the long-term. Hughes's first regular season win in relief came on July 17, when he threw two scoreless innings in a 5–3 victory over Detroit. On July 23, he recorded his first career save after a 6–3 Yankees victory over the Oakland Athletics. He relieved CC Sabathia in the eighth inning and pitched two perfect innings. From June 10 through July 3, he had a inning scoreless streak, the longest by a Yankee reliever since Rivera had a inning scoreless streak in 1999. In 44 games as a relief pitcher in 2009, Hughes posted a 1.40 ERA; he had 65 strikeouts in innings. Hughes pitched in all three games of the ALDS against the Minnesota Twins, posting a 9.00 ERA. In Game 5 of the AL Championship Series (ALCS) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, he suffered a loss when he gave up a run and also allowed an inherited runner to score in the 7–6 defeat. He had scoreless outings in Games 2 and 3 as the Yankees won the series in six games. He had a 16.20 ERA in the World Series, but he won his first World Series ring as the Yankees defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. 2010 On March 25, 2010, Hughes was named the Yankees' fifth starter. Throughout the season, the Yankees occasionally had Hughes skip starts to limit his innings, in hopes that this would help him stay healthy. On April 21, Hughes carried a no-hitter into the eighth inning against the Athletics before allowing a leadoff single to Eric Chavez; he faced two more hitters prior to being relieved, having struck out 10 batters. He won his first five decisions, a streak snapped May 22 by the New York Mets. He followed with another five-game win streak, the last coming against the Mets on June 19. After missing a start, he saw this win streak come to an end June 29 against the Seattle Mariners. Hughes was named to the AL All-Star Team, Sunday, July 4. Five days after his first selection to the midsummer classic, Hughes threw seven innings and gave up one run to beat the Mariners 6–1. His next outing, the All-Star Game, did not go well. Hughes, after retiring the first batter he faced in the seventh inning, allowed a pair of singles to Scott Rolen and Matt Holliday before yielding to Matt Thornton; Rolen and Holliday scored the tying and go-ahead runs on Brian McCann's three-run double that proved decisive in the NL's 3–1 victory. On August 14, Hughes allowed three runs in six innings, earning the win in an 8–3 victory over the Kansas City Royals. Hughes had 18 wins (tied for fourth in the AL with Trevor Cahill and Justin Verlander behind Sabathia, who had 21, and Jon Lester and David Price, who both had 19), only 8 losses, and a 4.19 ERA while striking out 146 batters in innings of work. His run support of 6.48 runs per game was the highest in the major leagues. Hughes made his first postseason start in Game 3 of the ALDS against the Twins. He threw seven shutout innings to earn the win in the clinching game of the series as the Yankees beat the Twins 6–1. Game 2 of the ALCS against the Rangers did not go as well for Hughes, who allowed seven runs in four innings and earned the loss as the Yankees were defeated 7–2. He allowed four runs in innings in Game 6 and earned another loss as the Yankees lost 6–1 and were eliminated from the postseason. 2011 Hughes began the 2011 season as the third starter in the Yankees rotation. He suffered from a dip in velocity, with his four-seam fastball decreasing to , compared to his previous . After opening the season 0–1 with a 13.94 ERA in three starts, Hughes was placed on the DL due to a dead arm syndrome. It was later revealed that Hughes had been suffering from shoulder inflammation. He underwent an arm strength rehabilitation program for several weeks. On July 6, he made his first start in nearly 3 months, pitching five innings, allowing two earned runs, striking out and walking two batters, in a 5–3 loss to the Cleveland Indians. On August 2, in a rain-shortened game, Hughes threw his first career shutout as the Yankees defeated the White Sox 6–0 in six innings. Late in September, Hughes was moved to the bullpen after back stiffness caused him to miss a start. In 17 games (14 starts), Hughes had a 5–5 record, a 5.79 ERA, and 47 strikeouts in innings pitched. Hughes was included on the Yankees' postseason roster as a relief pitcher. He had scoreless outings in Games 4 and 5 of the ALDS as the Yankees were defeated by the Detroit Tigers in five games. 2012 On January 16, 2012, Hughes signed a one-year deal worth $3.25 million that included incentives, effectively avoiding arbitration. His deal was a $500,000 raise from his 2011 season. Hughes was the Yankees' third starter in 2012. He started the season averaging only four innings in his first four starts while posting a 1–3 record and a 7.88 ERA. From May to the end of the season, however, Hughes had a 15–10 record and a 3.90 ERA. He had a season-high four-game winning streak from May 22 through June 15. Hughes threw a complete game on June 3, allowing one run in a 5–1 win against the Tigers. On June 26, he threw eight shutout innings and earned the win in a 6–4 victory over Cleveland. He threw shutout innings and earned the win on September 13 in a 2–0 victory over the Boston Red Sox. In 32 starts, Hughes had a 4.19 ERA and 165 strikeouts in innings pitched. He was tied for sixth in the AL in wins (16, with Max Scherzer, Yu Darvish, and Hiroki Kuroda), but he also tied for eighth in the league in losses (13, with Dan Haren and Ervin Santana). In Game 4 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles, Hughes allowed one run in innings but received a no-decision in a 13-inning, 2–1 loss. The Yankees won the series in five games. In Game 3 of the ALCS against Detroit, Hughes allowed one run in three innings before exiting with back stiffness; he took the loss as the Yankees lost 2–1. The Tigers swept the Yankees in four games. 2013 Hughes began the 2013 season on the DL with a bulging disc in his back. He returned from the DL on April 6, allowing four runs (three earned) in four plus innings and earning the loss as Detroit won 8–4. On May 15 against the Seattle Mariners, Hughes only lasted of an inning after giving up seven runs, six hits, two walks, including a grand slam to former Yankee Raúl Ibañez in a 12–2 Yankee loss. It was the shortest start of his career and at the time the shortest non-injury start by a Yankee at the new Yankee Stadium. After Hughes pitched to a 4–13 record and a 4.86 ERA, with a 5.71 ERA in the second half, the Yankees removed Hughes from the rotation on September 4. Hughes went 1–10 in home starts in 2013, making him just the second MLB pitcher to win fewer than two games when making at least 15 home starts in a season. Minnesota Twins 2014 Hughes agreed to a three-year contract worth $24 million with the Minnesota Twins on November 30, 2013. The deal was confirmed by the Twins on December 5, 2013. His first start for the Twins came against the White Sox in Chicago on April 3. Hughes threw five innings, giving up four earned runs and striking out seven. He received a no-decision as the Twins won the game 10-9. His first win in a Twins uniform came in his fourth start, where he limited the Kansas City Royals to three earned runs over six innings in an 8-3 victory on April 20. Hughes emerged as the Twins' ace in 2014. On June 1, Hughes faced the Yankees for the first time in his career, pitching at Yankees Stadium for the first time since signing with the Twins. Hughes delivered, giving up just two earned runs on three hits across eight innings and earning the win in a 7-2 victory. Three starts later, he pitched his first complete game in over two years, throwing eight innings of two-run ball in a tough loss against the Red Sox in Boston. On September 13, Hughes struck out a career-high 11 batters over seven plus innings in a 5-1 loss to the White Sox, becoming the first Twins pitcher to strike out 10 or more batters in a single game in over two years. Hughes finished the 2014 season with a win–loss record of 16–10 alongside a career-best 3.52 ERA and 1.13 WHIP. He topped the 200-inning threshold for the first time in his career, pitching innings (10th-most in the AL) in 32 starts. Hughes struck out a career-high 186 batters to go against a measly 16 walks, the fewest ever for a pitcher with more than 200 innings. He also set a new record for the best strikeout-to-walk ratio posted by a starting pitcher in a single season in MLB history (11.625), breaking the previous record of 11.000 set by Bret Saberhagen 20 years earlier. Hughes received both of the Twins' most prestigious player awards (the Joseph W. Haynes Pitcher of the Year Award and the Calvin R. Griffith MVP Award) for his performance throughout the season on an otherwise disappointing Twins team that finished last in the AL Central Division. He also finished seventh in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award. On December 22, 2014, Hughes and the Twins agreed on a three-year extension worth $42 million. 2015 Hughes was the Twins' Opening Day starter in 2015, losing 4-0 to the Detroit Tigers. During the 2015 season, Hughes's performance regressed. In August, he was placed on the disabled list with back problems. For the season, Hughes had an 11-9 record and an ERA of 4.40. In addition, he allowed 29 home runs in innings, the highest total in major league baseball. 2016 On June 9, 2016, Hughes was struck in the left knee off a line drive from J. T. Realmuto and left the game. The next day, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to left knee contusion. On June 11, it was revealed that there was a non-displaced fracture of the femur in the left knee. He was ruled out for 6–8 weeks. On June 12, he was transferred to the 60-day disabled list. On June 28, Hughes' season was declared over as he required season-ending surgery for thoracic outlet syndrome. He finished the 2016 season with a 1–7 record and a 5.95 ERA. 2017 For the 2017 season, Hughes began the season as the Twins fourth starter. He went on the disabled list at the end of May due to biceps tendinitis. Upon his return from the disabled list, due to not being able to regain his complete stamina, Hughes agreed to head to the bullpen to build up strength. On July 18, Hughes was declared out for the season due to recurring symptoms of thoracic syndrome. 2018 Hughes was in the rotation at the beginning of the season. After two starts, he landed on the disabled list. Upon his return, he was sent to the bullpen. Hughes was designated for assignment by the Twins on May 22, 2018. Hughes ended his five-year with the Twins with a 32–29 record and a 4.43 ERA. San Diego Padres On May 27, 2018, the Twins traded Hughes, along with cash and the 74th pick in the 2018 MLB draft, to the San Diego Padres in exchange for minor-league catcher Janigson Villalobos. Upon being acquired, he was put in the bullpen. Hughes pitched to a 6.10 ERA in innings. The Padres designated Hughes for assignment on August 10 and released him on August 16. On January 3, 2021, Hughes officially announced his retirement from professional baseball on his Twitter account. Scouting report Hughes's pitch repertoire varied over the years, although his main pitch was a four-seam fastball at 92–95 mph. He also relied on a spike curveball in the range of 73–77 mph. Hughes developed a mid-80s Vulcan changeup against left-handed hitters. Hughes added a cut fastball in the high 80s as a weapon against right-handers in the 2008 season, and he used the pitch 16% of the time in the 2009 and 2010 seasons: Hughes asserted that a hamstring injury he suffered in his rookie year permanently altered his pitching mechanics: "My stride, and things like that, have never quite been the same." In early 2011, Hughes's fastball velocity had dropped by several miles per hour. Hughes continued to use the cutter into the start of the 2012 season; he posted a 7.88 ERA in April, throwing the cutter about 12% of the time in this span. In early May, Hughes dropped the cutter from his repertoire, using it only 1.2% of the time for the rest of the year. In mid-2012, Hughes developed a low-80s slider that he used against right-handers. Hughes threw a disproportionate number of his pitches high in the strike zone and above the zone. Awards and honors 2004 – 1st team High School All-American P 2006 – New York Yankees Minor League Player of the Year 2007 – AL East Division Top Prospects (Right-handed starting pitcher) 2007 – Baseball America's Top 100 prospects: #4. 2009 – World Series champion 2010 – American League All-Star Personal life Hughes and his wife, Sarah, were married in November 2016. They welcomed their first child, a baby boy named Harrison, in the fall of 2019. Hughes is a Christian. His baseball glove has the reference for the Bible verse Philippians 4:13 on it, and Hughes has the entire verse ("I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.") tattooed on his left arm. As a child, Hughes was a Boston Red Sox fan. He had a poster of Nomar Garciaparra with the slogan "Reverse the Curse" on his bedroom wall. Hughes enjoys watching the Food Network and is a fan of Alton Brown. He became a fan of the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2005, after he began training at the Yankees' facility in Tampa. Hughes is an avid sports card collector. Since September 2019, he has recorded and published videos of himself opening packs to YouTube under the channel name Phil’s Pulls. See also List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders References External links Phil Hughes’s Official Blog on YardBarker Phil Hughes’s Old Blog YouTube channel 1986 births Living people New York Yankees players Minnesota Twins players San Diego Padres players Gulf Coast Yankees players Charleston RiverDogs players Tampa Yankees players Trenton Thunder players Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees players Staten Island Yankees players Foothill High School (Santa Ana, California) alumni Baseball players from Mission Viejo, California Major League Baseball pitchers American League All-Stars Peoria Javelinas players
5327145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry%27s	Terry's	Terry's (formerly Terry's of York) is a British chocolate and confectionery brand. The original company was founded in 1767 in York, England, and was part of the city's famous confectionery triumvirate along with Rowntree's and Cravens. The company's headquarters and factory, Terry's Chocolate Works, was closed by Kraft in 2005 and production moved to Kraft factories in Europe. The business returned to the UK in 2019 as Terry's Chocolate Co located in London. Their best known products include Terry's Chocolate Orange and Terry's All Gold box of assorted chocolates which were both introduced in the 1930s. The Terry's business has changed ownership on many occasions. Initially the company became a subsidiary of Forte Group in 1963 before being sold to Colgate-Palmolive in 1977. The company was purchased by United Biscuits in 1982, becoming the company's confectionery arm, before being sold in 1993 to Kraft Foods Inc. The Terry's name became part of Mondelēz International after the split of Kraft in 2012. In 2016 it was bought by investment company Eurazeo that formed the French confectioner Carambar & Co. Products using the Terry's brand name are now produced in the Carambar facilities in Strasbourg. History The business began in 1767 as a shop close to Bootham Bar, York, selling cough lozenges, lemon and orange candied fruit, and other sweets. When Robert Berry formed a partnership with William Bayldon the firm took the name Bayldon and Berry and by 1818 the business had moved to 3 St Helen's Square, York. Joseph Terry, who was born in Pocklington in 1793, went to York to serve as an apprentice apothecary in either Stonegate or Spurriergate. On gaining his certificates, he set up as a chemist in Walmgate. In 1823 he married Harriet Atkinson, who was either a niece or sister-in-law of Robert Berry and after closing his chemist shop he joined the Berry confectionery business, from which William Bayldon had retired in 1821. In 1825, after the death of Robert Berry, Terry agreed to a new partnership with George Berry; they renamed the business Terry & Berry. The partnership was joined by John Coultherd, but in 1828 George Berry left and the business was renamed Joseph Terry and Company. Two years later Coultherd also left and Terry became the sole owner of the business. Joseph Terry and Company Using the skills he learned as a chemist, Joseph developed new lines of confectionery. He began using the developing railway network of the North Eastern Railway to distribute his products in the North of England and in London. By 1840, Terry's products were sold in over 75 towns and cities and sold various products including candied eringo, coltsfoot rock, gum balls and conversation lozenges, which were an early form of Love Hearts. The company also produced marmalade, marzipan, ketchups and jellies. After Joseph Terry died in 1850 the company was in the control of solicitors and executors until 1854 when it was handed over to his sons Joseph Jnr, Robert, and John. Joseph quickly expanded the business; four years later he moved production to a leased site at Clementhorpe, beside the River Ouse. This allowed easy shipment of raw products into the new production facility from the Humber Estuary; twice weekly a steam ship brought ingredients, including sugar and cocoa, as well as coal to power the new steam-powered machinery. Joseph was knighted for his services to industry in 1887 and became Lord Mayor of York for the fourth time in 1890. He renamed the business Joseph Terry & Sons and it became a limited liability company in 1895. The Grade II listed St Helen's Square premises was retained by the company as a shop and restaurant until 1980 after which it was sold and the restaurant was converted into offices. Joseph Terry and Sons When Sir Joseph died in 1898 he was succeeded by his sons Frank and Thomas Terry and the following year Terry's Neapolitans were launched. Thomas died following a road accident in 1910 and his son Noel joined the company the following year. In the First World War Noel served in France until he was wounded and later joined his uncle Frank who had been seconded to the Ministry of Pensions. Henry Ernest Leetham, a York businessman and the father-in-law of Noel Terry became chairman of Terry's from 1915 until his death in 1923 at which point Frank and Noel Terry resumed family control of the business. They restructured the company, launched new products, and bought a site in Bishopthorpe Road, York, on which to develop a new factory known as Terry's Chocolate Works. The new factory was built in an Art Deco style and included a distinctive clock tower. It was opened in 1926; new products included the Chocolate Apple (1926), Terry's Chocolate Orange (1932), and Terry's All Gold, which were developed and produced onsite. In 1934, Joseph Terry & Sons was listed on the London Stock Exchange. Second World War With the onset of the Second World War The factory was taken over by F. Hills and Sons of Manchester as a shadow factory to manufacture and repair aircraft propeller blades. Confectionery production continued but was done for other companies; the Clementhorpe factory produced jellies for Chivers and Sons whilst chocolate was manufactured for Charbonnel et Walker. Production also included chocolate for troop and lifeboat rations. Post-war era After the war ended, the factory was handed back to the company. Production was difficult because of rationing and limited imports of raw cocoa. As a result, in 1954 production of the chocolate apple was phased out in favour of increased production of the chocolate orange. Frank Terry retired in 1958, and was replaced as chairman by Noel Terry, with Frank dying in 1960. The business was purchased by the Forte group from the Terry family in 1963, with the Mayor of York, Mona Armitage asking had Terry's been fortified or Fortes been terrified. The price was £4.25 million paid for in Forte shares and Noel Terry joined the Forte board. Forte Group already owned Fullers, a bakery and confectionery company based in Hammersmith, closing their factory in 1964 and transferring their confectionery production, including Peppermint lumps to York. Charles Forte appointed Ian Johnston as managing director, who modernised the business and introduced the first television adverts for the company. The Colgate-Palmolive company acquired Joseph Terry & Sons from Trust House Forte in 1977 for £17 million. Terry's at this time had 30% of the UK market for assortment boxes, with All Gold accounting for 20%, while Moonlight accounted for a further 10%. It was under Colgate-Palmolive that Terry's developed the short lived Chocolate Lemon. By 1981 Terry's revenue from All Gold stood at £11 million. United Biscuits subsequently acquired Joseph Terry & Sons from Colgate-Palmolive in 1982 for £24.5 million after a management buyout lost out. A year after Terry's had announced pre-tax profits of £2.7 million. Terry's would form the bulk of their confectionery division. United Biscuits used Terry's to develop private branded products for retailers which at the time only had 2% of the chocolate market. Peter Terry, the last family member that worked for the business left in 1985. In 1988, United Biscuits purchased the confectionery business of Callard and Bowser from Beatrice Foods, and together the companies were known as the Terry's Group. United Biscuits purchased French confectionery company Chocometz for £5.5 million in 1990 and added it to the Terry's Group, while also agreeing a distribution deal for Marabou's Daim bar in the UK. In 1992, United Biscuits purchased 74% of Italian confectionery business Aura which was merged into Terry's Group. Terry's Group in 1991 had made $14.3 million pre tax profits on $153 million of sales, 5% of United Biscuits business. United Biscuits in 1992 decided to concentrated its business on the savory snacks and biscuits, and sold Terry's Group to Philip Morris and its subsidiary Kraft Foods for £220 million. Terry's was amalgamated with Chocolat Suchard, to form Terry's Suchard, in 1993 after Philip Morris purchased Jacob Suchard Tobler. From 2000, the company brand was changed from Terry's of York to Terry's, reducing the company's links with York. Production was also scaled back to UK products and Terry's Chocolate Orange, Terry's All Gold, and Twilight made for the international market. Kraft had promised unions that production was being moved as the factory was not capable to handle production, and that they were looking for new sites in York. The New Millennium In 2004, Kraft Foods decided to absorb Terry's, move production of remaining products such as All Gold and Chocolate Orange to factories in Belgium, Sweden, Poland, and Slovakia, and close the plant. The factory closed on 30 September 2005 with the loss of 316 jobs. In 2012, Kraft split into two companies; one called Kraft Foods Group and the other called Mondelēz International. After the split, Terry's became part of Mondelēz. It was reported in December 2015 that Mondelēz were in discussions with Lazard, the investment bank about selling several of their brands which included Terry's. Mondelēz controversially reduced the size of the Chocolate Orange in 2016 which produced outrage amongst the buying public. In 2016, Terry's was one of a number of brands acquired by Eurazeo and it subsequently became part of Carambar & Co. Production of the Chocolate Orange was moved to the Caramber facilities in Strasbourg. Terry's Chocolate Company Ltd In February 2019, Carambar & Co set up a UK subsidiary called Terry's Chocolate Co to market the Terry's range in the UK market. The company is based in Finchley, London. In 2021, Heinz collaborated with Terry's to produce the world's first Chocolate Orange Mayonnaise. Advertising and marketing During the 1920s and 1930s, Terry's launched some very fancy packaging, which the company's 1930 product catalogue stated, The purchaser of today expects a chocolate box to be worthy of the confections it contains – in distinction of design and harmony of colours, it must reflect the quality of the chocolates within. In 1982, Terry's launched the legendary Jungle advert for Chocolate Orange, which was a spoof based on the film Raiders of the Lost Ark with the catch line How safe is yours?, that was updated with a new version in 1987. In 1997, Kraft employed Dawn French as the face of their advertising campaigns for the Chocolate Orange, using the catchphrase It's not Terry's, it's mine. In 2007, Kraft dropped Dawn French as the face of Chocolate Orange, with speculation that French no longer presented the right image for the company in the current climate of concerns over obesity and health. Manufacturing locations St Helen's Square The business was based in St Helen's Square as early as 1818 in a building that served as both a shop and a factory until 1864 when production moved to the Clementhorpe site. The building was remodelled to include a ballroom and restaurant and in 1922 an Ashlar stone facade was added which included Corinthian columns and the name Terry was inscribed on the front of the building This inscription is still present in 2019. The premises was Grade II listed in 1974 but both the shop and restaurant closed in early 1981 and it was bought by the neighbouring Trustee Savings Bank who converted the restaurant into offices. However it reopened as a restaurant in March 2017 and in August 2017 a blue plaque in honour of Joseph Terry the elder was added by York Civic Trust and unveiled by his great-great-great-grandson Anthony Terry. Clementhorpe The Clementhorpe factory was initially leased by the business in 1858 on what was the site of a former brewery and a new chocolate factory was built in 1862. A new five-storey building was added in 1920 and the factory continued to operate even after the business expanded to Bishopthorpe Road. After the factory closed the chimney was pulled down in 1974 and the rest of the site demolished in 1987. A Roman mosaic was discovered on the site at this time that Peter Terry had excavated to be preserved by the Yorkshire Museum. Terry's Chocolate Works In 1924 work began on the construction of the Terry's Chocolate Works on Bishopthorpe Road, York. The buildings designed by architect J. E. Wade and built by Dorman Long included a tall clock tower and the five-storey long main factory building. These, along with the head office building were designated Grade II listed in March 2005 six months before the site closed. The site was bought by developers Grantside and renamed The Chocolate Works. In February 2010, planning permission for a £165 million redevelopment of the site as a mixed-use of residential, commercial and leisure was given. Redevelopment started in 2011 with the removal of asbestos and the demolition of non-scheduled buildings in early 2012. The main factory building underwent a £38 million redevelopment in which it was renamed as The Residence and the first apartments were made available in 2016. The main office building was converted into The Chocolate Works Care Village which opened in 2017. Terry family Sir Joseph Terry was Lord Mayor of York in 1874, 1885–86 and 1890. Sir Francis Terry (Frank Terry) was High Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1945–46 and Peter Terry, son of Noel Terry, was High Sheriff of North Yorkshire in 1980–81. Current products Terry's Chocolate Orange: Introduced in 1932 as Terry's Dessert Chocolate Orange. Terry's Chocolate Orange Ice-cream Tubs and Sticks: Introduced 2023. Terry’s Chocolate Mint: Reintroduced in 2023. Discontinued products Terry's Neapolitans: Terry's was the first chocolate manufacturer to mass-produce Neapolitans in 1899. They were produced until the York factory was closed in 2005. The flavours were: Milk Chocolate (Blue), Plain Chocolate (Red), Mocha (coffee flavoured plain chocolate) (Brown), Cafe Au Lait (coffee flavoured milk chocolate) (Turquoise), Orange Milk Chocolate (Orange) and Orange Plain Chocolate (Pink) Terry's Spartan: Assortment box of hard centred chocolates that was launched in 1921. Terry's Dessert Chocolate Apple: An apple shaped chocolate introduced in 1924 and similar to the later developed chocolate orange. It was phased out in 1954. Terry's Theobroma: An assortment box of chocolates in a book shaped box. Terry's Cream Toffee Terry's Snack: A box containing raisins and cereal aimed at the hiking craze. Terry's All Gold: The assortment box of milk chocolates were launched in the 1930s and were discontinued in 2020. It once held 20% of the assortment box market. Terry's Devon Milk Chocolate Assortment Terry's Bridge Mints: A box of Mint Crisp Chocolates. Terry's Waifa: launched in 1952 and similar to Rowntree's Kit Kat. Production moved to Belgium in 2000. Terry's Twilight: A Dark chocolate (covered mint fondant) after dinner mint in a box. Terry's Animal Friends: A box of chocolates shaped as animals. Terry's Moonlight: A dark chocolate assortment box. Terry's York Fruits: An assorted box of flavoured jellies. The brand was sold in 2008 to Smith Kendon. Terry's Pastilles: Fruit Pastilles. Production stopped in 1997. Terry's Chocolate Lemon: a Lemon flavoured version of the chocolate orange was launced in 1979, but it was withdrawn three years later. Terry's Pyramint: A dark chocolate pyramid with a fondant cream filling. Terry's Logger: a chocolate bar aimed at Dairy Milk and Yorkie, either plain milk chocolate or fruit and nut. Terry's Bitz: Chocolate bar with flavoured sugared crunch pieces. Flavours included Plain Chocolate with Mint Crisp, Milk Chocolate with Orange Crisp or Cherry Crunch. Terry's Carousel: An assortment box of chocolates, jelly, fudge and sugared almonds. Terry's Caramel Crisp: A Milk Chocolate bar with caramel and crisped rice centre. Terry's Marzipan: A bar of Marzipan covered in Plain chocolate. Terry's Take2: A Dark chocolate bar with Peppermint fondant centre. Terry's Coffee Cream: Two bars of milk chocolate with a coffee cream centre. Terry's Nutcracker: Milk Chocolate covered Hazelnut with caramel. Terry's Harlequin: a box of wrapped milk chocolate ingots each with a different flavour and wrapping colour that was launched in 1985. Terry's Moments: Launched in 1991 as premium product aimed at women, it was a chocolate bar that contained caramel. Terry's Caramel Bite: A Milk Chocolate bar with caramel and crisped rice centre. Terry's 3D: A Milk Chocolate bar with a cream and biscuit filling. References Bibliography External links Terry's - Caramber & Co website Mondelez International brands Brand name confectionery Food and drink companies established in 1767 Food and drink companies disestablished in 2005 Defunct companies of the United Kingdom Yorkshire cuisine History of York Companies based in York British chocolate companies 1767 establishments in Great Britain Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange
5327307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20District%2071%20Comox%20Valley	School District 71 Comox Valley	School District 71 Comox Valley is a school district on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada. 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History The Comox Valley has a rich history of settlement, industrial development, and community growth. School District 71 developed alongside this local history, operating schools to meet the needs of the Comox Valley community since the late nineteenth century. The Comox School District was formed on July 30, 1870 while the area was still part of the Colony of Vancouver Island. This new school district provided the legal foundation for the Comox North School which was the Comox Valley's first official public school. Over the next decades, settlement in the region continued to expand and a number of new schools were established. School District 71 was formally created in 1946 and currently spans from Miracle Beach in the north to Denman and Hornby Islands in the south. Until 1946, individual schools in British Columbia operated with their own set of trustees and governance structures under the provincial government. A number of local school districts existed in the area that School District 71 now covers. The school district now operates a number of schools with a variety of programs including French Immersion, trades and career training, Montessori, distributed learning, and Indigenous education programs. Elected Board of Education (2018-2022) The school board is composed of seven trustees representing the urban and rural areas of the school district. They are elected officials. Sheila McDonnell, Board Chair, Area A (Baynes Sound, Hornby & Denman Islands) Michelle Waite, Vice Chair, Area B (Lazo North) Tonia Frawley, Town of Comox Janice Caton, City of Courtenay Kat Hawksby, City of Courtenay Sarah Jane Howe, Village of Cumberland Cristi May Sacht, Area C (Puntledge - Black Creek) {"type":"FeatureCollection","properties":{"name":"Current School District 71 Schools (2019)","created":"2020-01-01T03:51:26.762+01:00","modified":"2020-01-04T07:49:22.026+01:00","generated":"2020-01-04T07:49:25.563+01:00","version":-1,"metadata":""},"features":[{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_4","label":"Hornby Island Community School","name":"Hornby Island Commun","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.663356,49.533602]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_15","label":"Denman Island Community School","name":"Denman Island Commun","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.815823,49.535811]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_26","label":"Royston Elementary School","name":"Royston Elementary S","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.950153,49.645083]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_37","label":"Cumberland Community School Campus","name":"Cumberland Community","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-125.034102,49.622022]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_48","label":"Arden Elementary School","name":"Arden Elementary Sch","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-125.023714,49.672452]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_59","label":"Courtenay Elementary School","name":"Courtenay Elementary School","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.998388,49.682158]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_70","label":"Nala'atsi Indigenous Education","name":"Nala'atsi Indigenous","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.99723,49.683144]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3132496340_81","label":"Lake Trail Middle School","name":"Lake Trail Middle Sc","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-125.010491,49.680888]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_12","label":"Ecole Puntledge Park Elementary School","name":"Ecole Puntledge Park","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-125.014597,49.683776]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_23","label":"School Board Office (SD71)","name":"School Board Office","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-125.00125,49.687163]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_61","label":"Georges P. Vanier Secondary School","name":"Georges P. 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Isfeld Secondary School","name":"Mark R. Isfeld Secon","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.959328,49.703014]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_209","label":"Aspen Park Elementary School","name":"Aspen Park Elementar","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.945659,49.684831]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_231","label":"Ecole Robb Road Elementary School","name":"Ecole Robb Road Elem","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.930966,49.680197]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135207525_252","label":"Brooklyn Elementary School","name":"Brooklyn Elementary","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.904681,49.686868]}},{"type":"Feature","properties":{"id":"a_3135220261_38","label":"Highland Secondary School","name":"Highland Secondary S","path":""},"geometry":{"type":"Point","coordinates":[-124.915578,49.688826]}}]} Grade Structure (2018-2019) Elementary Schools (15): K-5 (2) K-6 (1) K-7 (11) K-9 (1) Middle School (1): 6-9 Secondary Schools (3): 7-12 (1) 8-12 (2) Alternate Schools (2): 7-12 (1) - Glacier View Secondary Centre/Sandwick Technical School 10-12 (1) - Nala'atsi Alternate School Distributed Learning (1): K-12 (1) - North island Distance Education Current schools Former Schools Surplus Property See also List of school districts in British Columbia References Courtenay, British Columbia 71
5327433	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%206%20in%20Pennsylvania	U.S. Route 6 in Pennsylvania	U.S. Route 6 (US 6) travels east–west near the north edge of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania from the Ohio state line near Pymatuning Reservoir east to the Mid-Delaware Bridge over the Delaware River into Port Jervis, New York. It is the longest highway segment in the commonwealth. Most of it is a two-lane rural highway, with some freeway bypasses around larger towns. Except east of Dunmore, where it is paralleled by Interstate 84 (I-84), it is the main route in its corridor. What is now I-80—the Keystone Shortway—was once planned along the US 6 corridor as a western extension of I-84. The corridor was originally the Roosevelt Highway from Erie, Pennsylvania, to Port Jervis, New York, designated Pennsylvania Route 7 (PA 7) in 1924. The PA 7 designation soon disappeared, but, as US 6 was extended and relocated, the Roosevelt Highway followed it. The Pennsylvania section of US 6 was renamed the Grand Army of the Republic Highway in 1946; this name was applied to its full transcontinental length by 1953. US 6 meets with US 19 near Meadville, where it turns north with US 19 to a point east of Edinboro. There it turns east (while US 6N heads west to US 20 at West Springfield) and passes through the Northern Tier. At Towanda, it turns more southeasterly to reach Dunmore, then turning back northeast out of Dunmore to Carbondale and generally east and southeast to New York. US 6 fully encompasses two Pennsylvania Scenic Byways: the Gateway to the Endless Mountains Scenic Byway along the bypass of Tunkhannock and the Governor Casey Scenic Byway along the freeway portion in Lackawanna County between I-81 in Dunmore and PA 247 in Jessup. At in length, US 6 is the longest numbered highway in Pennsylvania. Route description Ohio to Warren US 6 enters Pennsylvania from Ohio in Crawford County, heading southeast as a two-lane undivided road through farmland and woodland to the north of Pymatuning State Park, which is home to Pymatuning Reservoir. The route heads into the borough of Linesville, where it heads southeast through developed areas of the borough on Penn Street before turning east onto East Erie Street, passing north of Conneaut Area Senior High School. The road continues southeast through more rural areas as it heads away from the state park, passing over the Canadian National Railway's Bessemer Subdivision railroad line. US 6 intersects the southern terminus of PA 618 before it reaches a junction with PA 285 on the western edge of the borough of Conneaut Lake. Here, US 6 heads east for a concurrency with PA 285 and the two routes head east through the borough on Water Street. The road intersects US 322/PA 18 in the center of Conneaut Lake, where the two routes join US 6 and PA 285. A block later, PA 285 splits to the south. US 6/US 322/PA 18 become a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane and head east out of the borough, passing to the south of Conneaut Lake. PA 18 splits from US 6/US 322 by turning to the north, with US 6/US 322 continuing east-northeast on Conneaut Lake Road through farms and woods with some development. The road heads into a business area to the west of the city of Meadville and comes to a roundabout with US 19 and the southern terminus of PA 98, at which point US 19 becomes concurrent with US 6 and US 322. The roadway becomes a four-lane divided highway and comes to a cloverleaf interchange with I-79. Past this interchange, the three routes reach an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 102 before curving north and entering Meadville upon crossing French Creek and a Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad line. The road becomes French Creek Parkway and US 322 splits to the east, with US 6/US 19 continuing north through developed areas to the east of the railroad line. The two routes leave Meadville and narrow to a two-lane undivided road, passing through wooded areas with some fields and development as it follows the French Creek and the Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad. In the borough of Saegertown, US 6/US 19 head north along Main Street and form a concurrency with PA 198, intersecting PA 198 at roundabouts on either end of the borough. The road continues northeast through more rural areas alongside the creek and railroad, reaching the borough of Venango. Here, the two routes head north on Church Street before turning east onto Cussewago Street and curving north onto River Street. US 6/US 19 run northeast through farms and woods with some development to the borough of Cambridge Springs. The two routes head northeast on Venango Avenue before intersecting the northern terminus of PA 86 and the western terminus of PA 408 in the center of the borough, where they turn onto North Main Street and continue northeast. US 6/US 19 reach a junction with the southern terminus of PA 99 before leaving Cambridge Springs and heading through rural areas. US 6/US 19 continue into Erie County and comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of US 6N, at which point US 6 splits from US 19 by turning to the east and crossing French Creek. The route passes through the borough of Mill Village, where it crosses under a Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad line, and runs through a mix of farmland and woodland with some development. The road continues through rural land and turns northeast to reach the borough of Union City, where it comes to a junction with PA 8. At this point, US 6 heads north along with PA 8 through developed areas of the borough on South Main Street, crossing a Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad line. In the downtown area of Union City, US 6 splits from PA 8 by turning east onto East High Street at a crossing of a Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad line. The route leaves Union City and heads through farm fields and woods, reaching a junction with PA 89 to the north of the borough of Elgin. Here, PA 89 forms a concurrency with US 6 before splitting to the south. The route runs east-northeast through wooded areas with some development prior to entering the city of Corry. In Corry, US 6 becomes West Columbus Avenue and runs through developed areas in the northern part of the city, crossing PA 426 and becoming East Columbus Avenue. In the eastern part of Corry, the road passes south of Corry Memorial Hospital. The route enters Warren County, where it heads into the Pennsylvania Wilds region, and runs through farmland prior to an intersection with the western terminus of PA 957 in Columbus as it runs parallel to a Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad line to the south. The road crosses under the railroad tracks and heads through a mix of farms and woods before it curves to the southeast away from the railroad tracks and comes to a junction with the southern terminus of PA 958. US 6 continues south-southeast through rural land and reaches the community of Pittsfield, where it intersects PA 27 and turns to the east, forming a concurrency with that route. The road heads east through a mix of rural areas and development parallel to a Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad line located south of the road to the borough of Youngsville, where PA 27 splits to the north. At this point, US 6 becomes a four-lane divided highway called the Youngsville Bypass that crosses Brokenstraw Creek and heads to the south of Youngsville. East of the borough, the route comes to an interchange with East Main Street that provides access to Youngsville and Irvine. The highway heads east through rural areas alongside the Brokenstraw Creek and reaches a trumpet interchange with US 62. At this point, US 62 heads east for a concurrency with US 6, and the road runs through wooded areas and development to the north of a Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad line and the Allegheny River, transitioning into a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The road becomes a four-lane divided highway again and reaches the city of Warren, where it passes over the railroad and US 62 and US 6 Business (US 6 Bus.) head northeast into the central part of the city at an interchange. US 6 crosses the Allegheny River and passes through developed areas in the southern part of Warren, reaching an eastbound exit and westbound entrance at Main Avenue. Past this interchange, the divided highway narrows to two lanes before the road curves to the southeast and becomes a two-lane undivided road that runs through wooded areas with a Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad line and the river to the northeast. At the southeast edge of Warren, the roadway crosses the railroad tracks and US 6 Bus. returns to US 6 at an intersection. Warren to Mansfield After passing Warren, US 6 reaches an intersection with the western terminus of PA 59, which heads east to follow the Allegheny River. From here, the route continues southeast into the Allegheny National Forest, winding to the south parallel to a Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad line as it enters mountainous terrain. US 6 passes southeast through developed areas of the borough of Clarendon along North Main and South Main streets. Past here, the road heads south-southeast through more of the national forest, with occasional development along the road. In the community of Sheffield, the route comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of PA 666 and curves to the east. US 6 continues through rugged forests and heads northeast before making a turn to the southeast. The route crosses into McKean County and heads southeast through more of the Allegheny National Forest parallel to the railroad tracks. US 6 leaves the national forest and runs through more rural land with some development before it enters the borough of Kane. Here, the route heads south through developed areas on North Fraley Street, passing UPMC Kane hospital before running through the downtown area. Here, US 6 comes to a junction with the northern terminus of PA 66, with PA 66 continuing south on South Fraley Street and US 6 turning east onto Greeves Street. The route soon turns south onto Edgar James Street and east onto Biddle Street, passing more development and forming a short concurrency with PA 321. At this point, the railroad tracks split from paralleling the road. The road leaves Kane and becomes Kane Lantz Corners Road, winding east through a mix of farms and woods with some development. US 6 curves northeast and runs through more rural areas, coming to an intersection with US 219 in Lantz Corners. Past here, the route heads to the east and passes over the Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad's B&P Main Line Subdivision line as it enters the borough of Mount Jewett, heading through developed areas of the borough as West Main and East Main streets. East of Mount Jewett, the road heads southeast through forested mountains, passing through Hazel Hurst and turning to the northeast. US 6 reaches a junction with the western terminus of PA 146 in Marvindale and continues northeast through wooded mountains with some fields and development. The road enters the borough of Smethport and becomes Marvin Street, heading north through developed areas and coming to an intersection with the eastern terminus of PA 59. Here, the route turns east onto West Main Street and passes through the downtown area, becoming East Main Street before turning east onto East Street and intersecting PA 46 on the eastern edge of the borough. At this point, PA 46 heads east for a concurrency with US 6, with the two route continuing to East Smethport, where PA 46 splits to the south. US 6 winds east through wooded areas with some farmfields. The road turns southeast and runs through forests before heading east into the borough of Port Allegany, where it crosses the Allegheny River and the Buffalo Line railroad line, which is owned by Norfolk Southern Railway and operated by the Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad, before it comes to a junction with PA 155. At this point, US 6 turns south for a concurrency with PA 155 and the two routes pass through developed areas of the borough along North Main and South Main streets. The two routes split at the south end of Port Allegany, with US 6 heading east through wooded mountains with some farm fields and development to the north of the Allegheny River. US 6 enters Potter County and continues east through a mix of forested mountains and farmland with some development north of the river, passing the community of Roulette. The road continues southeast through rural areas, turning to the northeast as it passes south of a tract of Susquehannock State Forest. The route enters more developed areas and continues into the borough of Coudersport, where it becomes Port Allegany Road and then Eulalia Street. US 6 turns east onto Chestnut Street and crosses the Allegheny River. The route turns north onto South Main Street and heads through the downtown area of Coudersport, crossing the river again and becoming North Main Street. US 6 reaches an intersection with PA 44, which continues north on North Main Street, near the Potter County Courthouse. At this point, US 6 and PA 44 turn east for a concurrency on East 2nd Street, crossing the Allegheny River and passing through more developed areas to the south of forests. The two routes run to the north of Coudersport Area Junior/Senior High School along this stretch. The road has an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 872 before it leaves Coudersport as it passes south of UPMC Cole hospital, heading southeast through wooded areas with some fields and development to the north of Mill Creek. In the community of Sweden Valley, PA 44 splits from US 6 by turning to the south to follow the creek. US 6 heads east through woodland, entering the Susquehannock State Forest and traversing Denton Hill. After descending the hill, the road passes north of Denton Hill State Park and south of a rest area accessible from both directions and the Pennsylvania Lumber Museum. The route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 449 in Walton, at which point it leaves the state forest. US 6 begins to follow the Pine Creek, and it continues southeast through forested mountains with some fields and development. The route heads into the borough of Galeton and becomes West Main Street, heading east near developed areas and coming to a junction with the northern terminus of PA 144 in the center of the borough. Here, the road becomes East Main Street before it leaves the borough and runs through rural land with some development. US 6 crosses into Tioga County and continues east through forested mountains with some farmfields and development to the north of Pine Creek. In the community of Gaines, the route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 349. Following this, the road heads north of a rest area accessible from both directions and winds east through Tioga State Forest as it passes through more rugged terrain. Farther east, US 6 passes near some farmfields before it reaches an intersection with the western terminus of PA 362 in the community of Ansonia, where the Pine Creek turns to the south and runs through the Pine Creek Gorge. The road continues northeast through wooded mountains and farmland as it passes to the south of Tioga State Forest. The route winds northeast through more rural land before it reaches an intersection with PA 287 in Wellsboro Junction. Here, US 6 turns south for a concurrency with PA 287, with the two routes running through a mix of farms and woods to the west of the parallel Wellsboro and Corning Railroad. The two routes head into the borough of Wellsboro and become Main Street, running through developed areas and turning to the southwest. The road comes to a junction with PA 660 in the downtown area, where PA 287 continues southwest along with PA 660 on Main Street while US 6 heads east along with PA 660 on East Avenue, which alternates from a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane to a two-lane road as it passes through more of the borough. The two routes leave Wellsboro and become a two-lane road called Roosevelt Highway that heads northeast through a mix of farm- and woodland with some development. PA 660 splits to the east and US 6 runs northeast through more rural land prior to reaching an interchange with the US 15 freeway on the western edge of the borough of Mansfield. Mansfield to Scranton Past the US 15 interchange, US 6 heads into Mansfield and becomes West Wellsboro Street, heading through developed areas and crossing the Tioga River. The route continues into the downtown area, where it crosses US 15 Bus. and becomes West Wellsboro Street. US 6 becomes Sullivan Street and curves northeast and then southeast as it heads north of the Mansfield University of Pennsylvania campus. The route leaves Mansfield and becomes Roosevelt Highway, continuing southeast through wooded areas with some fields and reaching a junction with the southern terminus of PA 549. The road heads east through a mix of farmland and woodland with occasional development, passing through the community of Mainesburg. US 6 enters Bradford County and heads into the Endless Mountains region, continuing through hilly areas of farms and woods. A short distance past the county line, the road runs south of a rest area accessible from both directions. The route passes through the borough of Sylvania on Sylvania Road before running through more rural land as Roosevelt Highway. The road turns southeast and passes to the southwest of the Guthrie Troy Community Hospital before it enters the borough of Troy. Here, US 6 becomes West Main Street and runs through developed areas, curving to the east and intersecting PA 14 in the downtown area. At this point, PA 14 becomes concurrent with US 6 and the two route head northeast along Elmira Street. The road leaves Troy and turns east, with PA 14 splitting to the north. US 6 continues southeast along Roosevelt Highway through a mix of farmfields and woodland with occasional development, curving back to the east. The route continues through rural land and bends to the northeast, passing through the borough of Burlington on Main Street. The road becomes Roosevelt Highway again and winds east through more farms and woods, turning northeast. US 6 comes to an interchange with US 220, at which point it heads through developed areas in North Towanda. The route turns south-southeast and becomes Reuter Boulevard before it heads into the borough of Towanda, where it becomes York Avenue and runs past development. US 6 turns south onto Main Street and passes through the downtown area before turning east and crossing over a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line, the Susquehanna River, and the Lehigh Secondary railroad line that is owned by Norfolk Southern Railway and operated by the Lehigh Railway to leave Towanda. The route becomes Golden Mile Road, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane that runs northeast through business areas in East Towanda. The road turns east and crosses PA 187 in Wysox, where it narrows to two lanes and becomes unnamed. US 6 continues southeast as follows a winding path that passes through a mix of farm- and woodland with some development to the northeast of the Lehigh Railway and the Susquehanna River. The route runs east of the Marie Antoinette Scenic Overlook and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 409. Past this intersection, the road continues south alongside the railroad and the river and traverses a hill, where it passes east of the Wyalusing Rocks Scenic Overlook, before coming to the borough of Wyalusing. Here, US 6 runs southeast through developed areas of the borough on State Street and comes to a junction with the western terminus of PA 706. After leaving Wyalusing, the route heads northeast through farms and woods with some development, turning to the southeast as it passes north of railroad and the river. The route crosses into Wyoming County and heads into the borough of Laceyville, where it passes near developed areas and reaches an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 367. From here, the road continues southeast through farmland and woodland with occasional development alongside the Lehigh Railway and the Susquehanna River on Roosevelt Highway, winding along. US 6 bends to the east and reaches the borough of Meshoppen, where it becomes River Street and has a junction with the southern terminus of PA 267. The route continues southeast through rural areas with some industrial development as Roosevelt Highway and comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 87, where it turns east as an unnamed road. The road heads through farmfields and woodland with some developed areas, curving to the south. US 6 comes to an interchange with the western terminus of US 6 Bus., which heads southeast into the borough of Tunkhannock. At this point, the route becomes a two-lane bypass of the center of Tunhannock to the south, closely following the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad's Susquehanna Branch line and the Susquehanna River. The road curves east and enters Tunkhannock as it runs between developed areas to the north and the railroad tracks and the river to the south, coming to an intersection with PA 29 and crossing Tunkhannock Creek. US 6 continues east and intersects PA 92, which heads southeast along the Susquehanna River. At this point, PA 92 becomes concurrent with US 6, and the road soon reaches a junction with the eastern terminus of US 6 Bus. at the eastern edge of Tunkhannock. The two routes head northeast and follow Tunkhannock Creek through wooded areas with some farm fields and development. In Dixon, PA 92 splits to the northeast and US 6 continues east through more rural land with some development. Farther east, the route comes to an interchange with US 11, and the two routes become concurrent along a four-lane divided highway. The road heads east to the borough of Factoryville, where it intersects the western terminus of PA 107 and turns southeast through wooded areas and development. The highway turns to the east as it passes north of Keystone College. US 6/US 11 enter Lackawanna County and continue through forested areas with some development, turning to the southeast. In La Plume, the road has an intersection with the western end of PA 438. The two routes run through more rural land before heading south into the borough of Dalton. In this borough, the road becomes Lackawanna Trail and passes near developed areas, coming to an interchange with the western terminus of PA 632. Following this, US 6/US 11 run south-southeast through more forested areas and development, crossing into the borough of Clarks Summit. Here, the two routes turn to the southeast and narrow to two-lane undivided North State Street, passing through developed areas of the borough and crossing over Norfolk Southern Railway's Sunbury Line. In the center of Clarks Summit, the road becomes South State Street and gains a second eastbound lane. US 6/US 11 leave Clarks Summit and become Northern Boulevard, a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane that passes through a business district. The road passes under a viaduct carrying I-476 (Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension) before reaching a junction with the southern terminus of PA 407. A short distance later, US 6 splits from US 11 at a trumpet interchange onto a freeway that heads north, with US 11 continuing southeast along Northern Boulevard toward the city of Scranton. US 6 soon exits at another trumpet interchange, with the freeway becoming I-476 and making a hairpin turn to the southwest, and heads east a short distance to a trumpet interchange with I-81. Scranton to Matamoras At this interchange, US 6 heads south for a concurrency with I-81 on a four-lane freeway, turning southeast as it passes near developed areas with US 11 parallel to the southwest. The two roads pass through a gap between forested Bald Mountain to the southwest and forested Bell Mountain to the northeast, curving to the south. At this point, the freeway heads into the city of Scranton and the Wyoming Valley, continuing southeast to a cloverleaf interchange with the western terminus of US 6 Bus. and US 11 to the southwest of Viewmont Mall near the borough of Dickson City. I-81/US 6 pass near more developed areas and reach the Main Avenue exit that serves Dickson City. Following this, the freeway crosses a Delaware-Lackawanna Railroad line and the Lackawanna River before it turns to the south, entering the borough of Dunmore. I-81/US 6 curves southeast and passes near more development, reaching an interchange with PA 347. A short distance later, the freeway reaches an interchange where I-81 splits to the southwest, I-84/I-380 head to the southeast, and US 6 continues east along a four-lane freeway called the Governor Casey Highway. Following this interchange, the route bends northeast and then northwest as it heads between a landfill to the west and the forested Moosic Mountains to the east, crossing into the borough of Throop. Here, the freeway has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Marshwood Road that serves Mount Cobb and Throop. US 6 curves north and then northeast as it runs between developed areas to the west and mountains to the east, heading into the borough of Olyphant and coming to the East Lackawanna Avenue exit which serves that borough. The route continues into the borough of Jessup and reaches an interchange with PA 247 that serves that borough. From here, the freeway continues through wooded area with some nearby commercial development, crossing into the borough of Archbald. Here, the route has a diamond interchange with Salem Road that serves Archbald and Cortez. The US 6 freeway curves north through forested land and enters the borough of Mayfield, reaching a diamond interchange with the eastern terminus of PA 107 that serves the borough of Jermyn and Mayfield. Past here, the route turns northeast and comes to a diamond interchange with Meredith Street that serves the city of Carbondale and Childs. The freeway continues northeast through forests as it bypasses Carbondale to the east. US 6 makes a sharp turn east and the freeway ends as it comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of US 6 Bus. Following this, US 6 becomes two-lane undivided Roosevelt Highway, heading east across the forested Moosic Mountains. While traversing the mountains, US 6 crosses into Wayne County and passes Waymart Wind Farm. After crossing the Moosic Mountains, the route passes north of State Correctional Institution – Waymart before it heads into the borough of Waymart, passing through wooded development in the northern part of the borough as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane and crossing PA 296. East of here, the road narrows to two lanes and passes through forests with some fields and development. In the borough of Prompton, US 6 intersects the southern terminus of PA 170 and crosses the Lackawaxen River. The route continues east through rural land with some development to the north of the Lackawaxen River, reaching the borough of Honesdale. Here, the road becomes West Park Street and passes through developed areas, heading south of Wayne Memorial Hospital and coming to an intersection with PA 191. At this point, US 6 turns south for a concurrency with PA 191, following the one-way pair of Main Street eastbound and Church Street westbound across the river and through the downtown area. PA 191 splits south and US 6 follows 4th Street east across the Lackawaxen River, soon heading southeast along Willow Avenue and Grandview Avenue. The route leaves Honesdale and gains a center left-turn lane, heading east and passing near businesses as Texas Palmyra Highway. The road turns southeast and narrows to two lanes, coming to a junction with the western terminus of PA 652. US 6 winds south through forested areas with some development to the east of the Lackawaxen River and the Stourbridge Railroad. Farther south, the route reaches the borough of Hawley and becomes Hudson Street, heading southeast near development and coming to an intersection with PA 590. At this point, PA 590 turns south for a concurrency with US 6 and the two routes follow Main Avenue, crossing the river and the railroad tracks and passing through the downtown area. US 6/PA 590 turn east and become Bellemonte Avenue, heading southeast through wooded areas of development before turning southwest onto Welwood Avenue and leaving Hawley. The road passes near businesses and gains a center left-turn lane, with PA 590 splitting to the west. US 6 crosses Wallenpaupack Creek into Pike County and heads through wooded areas of development to the east of Lake Wallenpaupack in the community of Wilsonville as Lake Wallenpaupack Road, passing to the east of Wallenpaupack Area High School and the Lake Wallenpaupack Visitors Center. The road narrows to two lanes and reaches a junction with the northern terminus of PA 507, at which point it turns east away from the lake. The route heads east-southeast through dense forests in the northern Pocono Mountains as an unnamed road, coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 402. US 6 continues east through rural land, passing through a tract of Delaware State Forest prior to coming to a junction with the northern end of PA 739. The road heads east and crosses PA 434 as it runs through more forested areas. US 6 winds east before it turns southeast, passing through more woods with some development. Farther southeast, the route comes to an interchange with I-84. The road winds southeast through more forests with occasional development prior to reaching the borough of Milford. Here, US 6 becomes West Harford Street and passes through developed areas of the borough, coming to a junction with US 209. Here, US 209 continues southeast along East Harford Street and US 6 and US 209 head northeast concurrent on Broad Street, passing through the center of Milford. The two routes leave Milford and become an unnamed three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, passing through developed areas with some woodland to the northwest of the Delaware River. Farther northeast, the road comes closely parallel with I-84 to the northwest as it passes north of Delaware Valley High School and near more businesses. US 6/US 209 come to an interchange with I-84, where a welcome center is located, before heading into the borough of Matamoras. Here, the road becomes Pennsylvania Avenue and narrows to two lanes as it runs through developed areas of the borough. The road comes to the Mid-Delaware Bridge over the Delaware River, at which point US 6/US 209 leave Pennsylvania for New York and head into the city of Port Jervis. Mile markers The PA Route 6 Tourist Association and the PA Route 6 Task Force developed the DO 6 Mile Marker Program, which installed "Do 6" mile markers along the entire length of US 6 in Pennsylvania, in addition to US 6N. The mile markers begin at mile marker 1 near the Ohio border and increase east to mile marker 400 near the New York border, while US 6N has mile markers 1N to 27N. They are intended to help motorists calculate distances between towns and points of interest along the highway and for businesses to use in their directions. The mile markers were funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and were installed in 2008. History As approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) on November 11, 1926, the west end of US 6 was at Kane, where US 120 continued west to Erie. (US 6 ended concurrent with US 219, which ran east to Mount Jewett along US 6 before turning north to New York.) US 6 also used present PA 706, US 11, and PA 106 between Wyalusing and Carbondale, while US 106 took the southerly route via Scranton. By the end of 1927, US 6 had replaced US 120 in running west from Kane to Erie (making US 120 no longer connect to its "parent" US 20) and had swapped places with US 106 via Scranton; this took it along the Jefferson Highway. It was defined by AASHO to serve the following places in Pennsylvania: Erie, Waterford, Corry, Warren, Kane, Farmers Valley, Coudersport, Wellsboro, Canoe Camp, Mansfield, Towanda, Wyalusing, Tunkhannock, Clarks Summit, Scranton, Carbondale, Honesdale, Milford, and Matamoras. By 1930, its west end was at 26th Street (US 20) and State Street (US 6; now PA 505) in Erie. (By then, US 19 ended a block to the west on Peach Street, where it still ends today.) This original routing deviates majorly from present US 6 in the following places, roughly using the following current routes: PA 505 and PA 97, from Erie to Union City PA 46, PA 446, and PA 155, from Smethport to Port Allegany PA 660 and US 15 Bus. west of Mansfield PA 92 and PA 307, from Tunkhannock to Clarks Summit In 1931, US 6 was extended west to Greeley, Colorado. It left its old route—which then became US 6N—at Waterford and headed south on former PA 5 and US 19 and west on US 322 and former PA 77 into Ohio. This whole section from Waterford to Cleveland, Ohio, was regarded as temporary, but the only change was a relocation by 1936 along PA 79 from Union City west to US 19 south of Waterford. (Former US 6 from Mount Union to Waterford became PA 97. At the same time, US 6N was moved to the rest of former PA 79 from US 19 west to US 20—its current route.) Since then, only minor realignments and bypasses have been made to the route of US 6. Major intersections See also References External links Pennsylvania Highways: US 6 Pennsylvania Roads – US 6 PA Route 6 Tourist Association 06 Pennsylvania Transportation in Crawford County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Erie County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Warren County, Pennsylvania Transportation in McKean County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Potter County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Tioga County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Bradford County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Wyoming County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Wayne County, Pennsylvania Transportation in Pike County, Pennsylvania
5327777	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20policy%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Energy policy of the United Kingdom	The energy policy of the United Kingdom refers to the United Kingdom's efforts towards reducing energy intensity, reducing energy poverty, and maintaining energy supply reliability. The United Kingdom has had success in this, though energy intensity remains high. There is an ambitious goal to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in future years, but it is unclear whether the programmes in place are sufficient to achieve this objective. Regarding energy self-sufficiency, UK policy does not address this issue, other than to concede historic energy security is currently ceasing to exist (due to the decline of North Sea oil production). The United Kingdom historically has a good policy record of encouraging public transport links with cities, despite encountering problems with high speed trains, which have the potential to reduce dramatically domestic and short-haul European flights. The policy does not, however, significantly encourage hybrid vehicle use or ethanol fuel use, options which represent viable short term means to moderate rising transport fuel consumption. Regarding renewable energy, the United Kingdom has goals for wind and tidal energy. The 2007 White Paper on Energy set a target that 20% of the UK's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020. The current energy policy of the United Kingdom is the responsibility of the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ), after the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy was split into the Department for Business and Trade and the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology in 2023. Energy markets are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem). Areas of focus for energy policy by the UK government have changed since the Electricity Act 1989 and the Gas Act 1986 privatised these utilities. The policy focuses of successive UK governments since the full liberalisation of gas and electricity markets in 1998 and 1999 have included managing energy prices, decarbonisation, the rollout of smart meters, and improving the energy efficiency of the country's building stock. Overview The 2007 white paper: "Meeting the Energy Challenge" set out the government's international and domestic energy strategy to address the long term energy challenges faced by the UK, and to deliver four policy goals: To put the UK on a path to cut carbon dioxide emissions 60% by 2050, with real progress by 2020; To maintain reliable energy supplies; To promote competitive markets in the UK and beyond, helping to raise the rate of sustainable economic growth and to improve productivity; and To ensure that every home is adequately and affordably heated. The scope of energy policy includes the production and distribution of electricity, transport fuel usage, and means of heating (significantly Natural Gas). The policy recognises: "Energy is essential in almost every aspect of our lives and for the success of our economy. We face two long-term energy challenges: Tackling climate change by reducing carbon dioxide emissions both within the UK and abroad; and Ensuring secure, clean and affordable energy as we become increasingly dependent on imported fuel." The policy also recognises that the UK will need around 30-35GW of new electricity generation capacity over the next two decades as many current coal and nuclear power stations, built in the 1960s and 1970s, reach the end of their lives and are set to close. The 2006 Energy Review reintroduced the prospect of new nuclear power stations in the UK. Following a judicial review requested by Greenpeace, on 15 February 2007 elements of the 2006 Energy Review were ruled 'seriously flawed', and 'not merely inadequate but also misleading'. As a result, plans to build a new generation of nuclear power stations were ruled illegal at that time. (See Nuclear power in the United Kingdom for details). In response, the government ran "The Future of Nuclear Power" consultation from May to October 2007. The Government's response to the consultation conclusions, published in January 2008, state "set against the challenges of climate change and security of supply, the evidence in support of new nuclear power stations is compelling." The January 2008 Energy Bill updated the legislative framework in the UK to reflect government policy towards the energy market and the challenges faced on climate change and security of supply. Key elements of the bill addressed nuclear, carbon capture and storage, renewables, and offshore gas and oil. A framework to encourage investment in nuclear power within a new regulatory environment was simultaneously published in the January 2008 nuclear white paper. In October 2008, the government created the Department of Energy and Climate Change to bring together energy policy (previously with the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform), and climate change mitigation policy (previously with the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs). Scotland Though energy policy is an area reserved to the UK government under the Scotland Act 1998 that established devolved government for Scotland, the Scottish Government has an energy policy for Scotland at variance with UK policy, and has planning powers to enable it to put some aspects of its policy priorities into effect. Energy markets A Research and Markets review estimated the 2006 total market value of UK inland energy consumption was £130.73bn. Consumption by the energy sector was valued at £28.73bn, while the value of consumption by the non-energy sector was £128.2bn, with transport being the largest component of the non-energy sector. The UK is currently proposing wide-ranging reforms of its electricity market, including measures such as contracts for difference for generators and a capacity market to ensure security of supply in the latter half of this decade. Primary energy sources of electricity supply Historically a country emphasising its nuclear and off-shore natural gas production, the United Kingdom is currently in transition to become a net energy importer. In 2011 the percentage of electricity supply derived from primary energy sources was as follows: Natural gas: 41% Coal: 29% Nuclear: 18% Renewables: 12% Other: 2%. Coal In November 2015, it was announced by the UK Government that all coal fired power stations would be closed by 2025. Ironbridge ceased operations in late 2015. Then in 2016, three power stations closed at Rugeley, Ferrybridge and Longannet. Eggborough closed in 2018 and has been granted consent to convert into a gas fired power station. Lynemouth power station was converted to run on biomass in 2018 and Uskmouth is being converted. It has been announced that Cottam will close in 2019 and Kilroot will also close imminently. In May 2016, for the first time solar power produced more electricity than coal, producing 1.33TWh over the month compared to 0.9TWh from coal. On 21 April 2017, for the first time since the 19th century, the UK had a 24-hour period without any generation from coal power. As of 2018, the use of coal power is decreasing to historic lows not seen since before the Industrial Revolution. Coal supplied 5.4% of UK electricity in 2018, down from 7% in 2017, 9% in 2016, 23% in 2015 and 30% in 2014. Gas During the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a massive expansion in gas-fired generation capacity, known as the Dash for Gas. The rapidity of construction of gas-fired plants (compared to coal-fired or nuclear plants) was especially attractive due to the high interest rates of the period. Natural gas looks set to take a smaller part in providing future UK energy needs. Domestic production from the North Sea gas fields continues to lessen. And despite investment to enhance pipelines and storage of imported natural gas (mostly from Norway) there is a reluctance to allow too great a reliance on Russia and its gas exports for energy needs. By 2021, North Sea oil and natural gas production is predicted to slip 75 percent from 2005 levels to less than one million barrels per year. Oil and coal reserves for all of Europe are among the most tenuous in the developed world: for example, Europe's reserves to annual consumption ratio stands at 3.0, perilously low by world standards. A new "dash for gas" was announced by energy secretary Amber Rudd in November 2015. This is required to fill the gap between the closure of all coal-fired power stations by 2025 and the delayed opening of new nuclear power stations. Nuclear power Following the UK Government's January 2008 decision to support the building of new nuclear power stations, EDF announced that it plans to open four new plants in the UK by 2017. It is unlikely that more nuclear power stations will be built in Scotland as the Scottish Government is opposed. Renewable energy From the mid-1990s renewable energy began to contribute to the electricity generated in the United Kingdom, adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity. Renewable energy sources provided for 6.7 per cent of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2009, rising to 11.3% in 2012. By mid-2011, the installed capacity of wind power in the United Kingdom was over 5.7 gigawatts and the UK was ranked as the world's eighth largest producer of wind power. Wind power is expected to continue growing in the UK for the foreseeable future, RenewableUK estimates that more than 2 GW of capacity will be deployed per year for the next five years. Within the UK, wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass. From 2020 an expansion of grid scale battery storage has been underway, helping to cope with the variability in wind and solar power. As of May 2021, 1.3 GW of grid storage batteries was active, along with the traditional pumped storage at Dinorwig, Cruachan and Ffestiniog. Energy end usage See main article Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom For 2005, the breakdown of UK energy usage by sector was approximately: Transport: 35% Space heating: 26% Industrial: 10% Water heating: 8% Lighting/small electrics: 6% There is a steady increase of fuel usage driven by an increasingly affluent and mobile population, so that fuel use increased by ten percent in the decade ending 2000. This trend is expected to be mitigated by increased percentage of more efficient diesel and hybrid vehicles. United Kingdom space and hot water heating consume a greater share of end use compared to the US and more mild southern European or tropical climates. With regard to building and planning issues affecting energy use, the UK has developed guidance documents to promote energy conservation through local councils, especially as set forth in Part L of the Building Regulations (Conservation of Fuel and power). The associated document. Part 2B, addresses commercial uses, and is generally complete as to heating issues; the guidance is lacking on lighting issues, except with guidelines for local switching of lighting controls. In particular there are no standards set forth for illumination levels, and over-illumination is one of the most significant unneeded costs of commercial energy use. From June 2007, buildings in England and Wales have to undergo Energy Performance Certification (EPC) before they are sold or let, to meet the requirements of the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (Directive 2002/91/EC). Energy market policy history 1980s market liberalisation Under the Conservatives during the 1980s and 1990s, government policy was one of market liberalisation linked to the privatisation of state-controlled energy companies and the dismantling of the Department of Energy. As a consequence, government no longer has the ability to directly control the energy markets. Regulation is now carried out through the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem) in Great Britain, and the Northern Ireland Authority for Utility Regulation (NIAUR), while energy policy is largely limited to influencing the operation of the market. Such influence is exerted through taxation (such as North Sea Oil Tax), subsidy (such as the Renewables Obligation), incentives, planning controls, the underwriting of liabilities (such as those carried by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority), grants, and funding for research. 1990s to 2000s The UK Government continued to make reforms throughout the 1990s in the interests of creating a competitive energy market. VAT was first applied to domestic energy in 1994. When the Labour Government came to power in 1997, the commitment to creating a competitive energy market was maintained, with new Energy Minister John Battle MP also emphasising the government's social obligation to protect the poorest households and its environmental commitments. The Labour Government introduced Winter Fuel Payments for people aged over 60 and, in its first major piece of energy legislation, passed the Utilities Act 2000. This legislation implemented a licensing system for energy suppliers and created the Gas and Electricity Market Authority and Ofgem as a regulator, and the Gas and Electricity Consumer Council (known as Energywatch) as a statutory body with responsibility for protecting and promoting the interests of gas and electricity consumers in Great Britain. In 1999, the process of full liberalisation of the gas and electricity markets had been completed when all UK households were able to switch their gas or electricity supplier. Households were encouraged to save money on their gas and electricity bills by switching between different energy providers, with about a third of gas and electricity customers switching between 1998 and 2003. By the mid-2000s, the market was dominated by what became known as the Big Six energy suppliers, consisting of British Gas, EDF Energy, E.ON, Npower, Scottish Power, and SSE. Parliament also passed the Warm Homes and Energy Conservation Act 2000, a private member's bill introduced by Conservative MP David Amess, which set out the government's Fuel Poverty Strategy – defining "fuel poverty" as any household living on a lower income in a home which cannot be kept warm at reasonable cost – with a commitment to eliminate fuel poverty by 2016. In 2008, Ofgem launched its Energy Supply Probe as its first major investigation of competition in the electricity and gas markets since the full liberalisation of the two markets. The probe found there were a range of features in these markets that weakened competition, but found no evidence of a cartel or that retail energy price rises could not be justified by wholesale costs. 2010 to 2017: Energy Act In the run-up to the 2010 election, the Labour Government passed the Energy Act 2010. Among other reforms, this introduced the Warm Home Discount scheme, which came into effect in 2011, and which placed a legal obligation on larger energy suppliers to deliver support to people living in fuel poverty or in a fuel poverty risk group. This replaced a number of other schemes giving reduced tariffs to some low-income customers. Partly in response to increasing concerns about the pricing of energy tariffs by suppliers, Ofgem followed up its Energy Supply Probe with a Retail Market Review, which it launched in November 2010. The review found that complexity in the gas and electricity markets was a barrier to consumers and competition. It found that 75% of consumers were on their supplier's standard "evergreen" tariffs (also called "Standard Variable Tariffs" or SVTs), the more expensive default option than fixed-term tariffs that would save them money over a set period of time. It also found that energy prices tended to rise in response to wholesale cost increases more quickly than they fell with decreases, and that competition was weakened by significant barriers that were preventing new suppliers from entering the market. They proposed a series of measures including changing some license conditions of suppliers, to make pricing more transparent and reduce barriers for new suppliers to compete for customers, as well as working to improve consumer trust in price comparison websites. The Coalition Government elected in 2010 published their own white paper on energy in 2011, which focused on decarbonisation and security of supply, but which backed Ofgem's findings and proposed reforms. Advocates for further reform included the consumer group Which? and Consumer Focus (later Consumer Futures), the statutory body formerly known as Energywatch. The government later announced its intention to force energy suppliers to offer their cheapest tariffs to consumers, and subsequently made amendments in the Energy Act 2013 to give Ofgem greater powers. In 2014, the government amended the legislative Fuel Poverty Strategy for England to target improving as many fuel poor homes as is reasonably practicable to a minimum energy efficiency rating of Band C, by the end of 2030. On 24 September 2013, the Leader of the Labour Party and former Secretary of State for Energy, Ed Miliband, announced plans to freeze energy bills for 20 months if Labour won the next general election, saying the move would save average households £120 and businesses £1,800. The announcement was criticised by energy suppliers, and labelled "Marxist" and potentially "catastrophic" by the government, but was supported by around two-thirds of the British public. By the end of the year, the government acknowledged that there was largescale dissatisfaction among the British public about the perception that the large energy suppliers were overcharging their customers. After working with the Office of Fair Trading and the newly established Competition and Markets Authority (CMA), to again assess competition in the energy market, on 26 June 2014, Ofgem referred the energy market in Great Britain to the CMA for an investigation. An interim report by the CMA, published in 2015, claimed that energy suppliers were overcharging customers by as much as £1.7 billion. The CMA's findings and proposed remedies, published in 2016, included a price cap for energy customers who were on prepayment meters – but were widely criticised for not going far enough. By March 2017, Citizens Advice, which had taken on the funding and responsibilities of Consumer Futures to advocate for energy consumers, was calling for the government to extend the prepayment meter cap to more low-income households. 2018 to present: Default tariff energy price cap In the run-up to the 2017 general election, Prime Minister Theresa May made a commitment that the Conservative Party manifesto would include a policy to apply price controls to energy bills. May wrote in The Sun newspaper, saying that "the energy market is not working for ordinary working families" and that if she was re-elected she would introduce a price cap policy that would save households up to £100 each. There was pressure from other members of her Cabinet to change the policy after the election result forced May to form a minority government, but also pressure from other MPs to go ahead including an open letter signed by 192 MPs, over 70 of whom were Conservative MPs. The Prime Minister reiterated her commitment to her flagship energy policy in a speech at the Conservative Party Conference in October 2017. It was announced that the price cap, or "safeguard tariff", would be implemented by Ofgem and would cap prices for electricity and gas for the 11 million households on standard variable tariffs. The Domestic Gas and Electricity (Tariff Cap) Bill 2018 was introduced in legislation and had its first reading on 26 February 2018, following a period of pre-legislative scrutiny from the cross-party Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Select Committee. The legislation completed its passage through Parliament on 18 July 2018 and received royal assent the next day. The Tariff Cap Act stipulated that the price cap would be in place from the end of 2018 until 2020, when Ofgem would recommend whether the cap should remain on an annual basis up to 2023. Ofgem would also review the level of the cap at least every 6 months while it is in place. In September 2018, Ofgem proposed that the initial level of the "default tariff price cap" would mean that energy suppliers would not be allowed to charge more than £1,136 a year for a typical dual fuel customer paying by direct debit, and that this would save the 11 million British households on default or standard variable tariffs an average of £75 a year on their gas and electricity bills. The price of the cap is set for each unit (kWh) of gas and electricity used, plus a daily standing charge, so that it varies with consumption. Ofgem designed the cap level to take into account several factors: wholesale energy costs (how much a supplier has to pay to get the gas and electricity to supply households with energy), energy network costs (the regional costs of building, maintaining and operating the pipes and wires that carry energy across the country), policy costs (the costs related to government social and environmental schemes to save energy, reduce emissions and encourage take-up of renewable energy), operating costs (the costs incurred by suppliers to deliver billing and metering services, including smart metering), payment method uplift allowance (the additional costs incurred through billing customers with different payment methods), headroom allowance (allowing suppliers to manage uncertainty in their costs), the return on suppliers’ investments, and VAT (5% tax added to the level of the tariff). In November 2018, Ofgem finished its consultation and published its decision that the first level of the cap would be set at £1,137 a year for a typical direct debit dual fuel bill in November 2018. This came into force from 1 January 2019. At its initial level, the cost of electricity for those on default tariffs was capped at 17p per kWh, and gas was capped at 4p per kWh. Dual fuel users would pay no more than £177 a year for the standing charge, electricity-only users would pay no more than £83, and gas users £94. The first change in the level of the price cap was announced in February 2019, with the cap rising by £117 for typical direct debit dual fuel bills from 1 April 2019. In October 2020, the government extended the energy price cap by a year, until at least the end of 2021. In the 2020s, several consumer-facing suppliers went into liquidation including Bulb Energy, Avro Energy, Green Supplier and Orbit Energy. In August 2022, Ofgem announced that the price cap would be reviewed every three months instead of every six months, in reaction to wholesale price volatility. Thus the review in October 2022 would be followed by another in January 2023. The average price cap has been set as follows: 2022–23: Government support for households In response to the marked increase in the default tariff cap from April 2022, on 3 February the Chancellor, Rishi Sunak, announced measures to support domestic gas and electricity customers in England, Wales and Scotland. There would be a £200 discount on energy bills, to be given in the autumn and paid back by customers in later years. In addition, from April a non-repayable £150 council tax rebate was given to households in England in tax bands A to D (estimated to be 80% of homes), and local councils received £144million to provide discretionary funding to other residents. The devolved administrations received around £715million so they could provide comparable support, and there was an expansion of the Warm Homes Discount scheme. With further price rises expected in October, Sunak announced a further package on 26 May. The bills discount was doubled to £400 and changed to a non-repayable grant, instead of a loan; other "cost of living" support included a £650 payment to households on means-tested benefits, £300 to pensioner households and £150 to individuals receiving disability benefits. The £400 discount would be paid to domestic electricity customers in England, Scotland and Wales as six monthly rebates (or vouchers for non-smart prepayment meters) of £66 or £67, from October 2022 to March 2023 inclusive. Following her appointment as Prime Minister on 6 September 2022, Liz Truss announced on 8 September 2022 that a new "Energy Price Guarantee" effective from 1 October 2022 to 30 September 2024 would pay a subsidy to energy and gas suppliers, in order to limit typical household energy costs to £2,500 per year. Comparable support would be offered to businesses, public sector organisations (under a six-month scheme running to 31 March 2023) and to households who do not pay directly for electricity or mains gas, such as those in park homes or on heat networks. The cost of this package of support was uncertain since it depended on future wholesale prices, but was estimated at over £100bn per year by the Institute for Fiscal Studies. On 17 October, cost-saving measures indicated by incoming chancellor Jeremy Hunt included limiting universal assistance to six months, ending on 1 April 2023, with support beyond then to be determined by a Treasury-led review. On 17 November 2022, Hunt announced in his autumn statement that the subsidy would be reduced from April 2023, increasing the costs for a typical household to £3,000 per year, but in his March 2023 budget the chancellor reversed this decision and kept the subsidy at the £2,500 level until the end of June. Energy supply and decarbonisation policy history Early 2000s: climate change rises up the agenda In 2005, the Chancellor Gordon Brown commissioned Nicholas Stern to look into the economics of climate change. The influential Stern Report concluded that climate change was the "greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen". Joining over 170 other nations, the UK committed to reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, with consequent constraints to its energy policy. The UK produced four percent of the world's greenhouse gases as of 2003, compared to 23 percent by the US and 20 percent for the rest of Europe. The long-term reduction goal for carbon emissions is 80 percent decrease by 2050. A scheme of trading for carbon emission credits has been developed in Europe that will allow some of the reduction to arise from economic transactions. Road transport emissions reduction has been stimulated since 1999 by the banding of Vehicle Excise Duty. Bands for new vehicles are based on the results of a laboratory test, designed to calculate the theoretical potential emissions of the vehicle in grammes of CO2 per kilometre travelled, under ideal conditions. Aviation fuel is not regulated under the Kyoto Protocol, so that if the UK is successful in carbon emission reduction, aviation will constitute 25 percent of UK generated greenhouse gases by 2030. The UK government has one project in the planning stage for natural gas fed power generation with carbon capture by seawater. This facility is contemplated at Peterhead, Scotland, a relatively remote exposure to the North Sea. Prof Kevin Anderson raised concern about the growing effect of air transport on the climate in a paper and a presentation in 2008. Anderson holds a chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester in the UK. Anderson claims that even at a reduced annual rate of increase in UK passenger air travel and with the government's targeted emissions reductions in other energy use sectors, by 2030 aviation would be causing 70% of the UK's allowable CO2 emissions. Energy white paper, 2003 The UK Government published its white paper on energy ("Our Energy Future – creating a Low Carbon Economy") in 2003, establishing a formal energy policy for the UK for the first time in 20 years. Essentially, the white paper recognised that a limitation of carbon dioxide ( – the main gas contributing to global climate change) was going to be necessary. It committed the UK to working towards a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, and identified business opportunities in so doing: a recurrent theme throughout the document was "cleaner, smarter energy". It also claimed to be based on four pillars: the environment, energy reliability, affordable energy for the poorest and competitive markets. The White Paper focused more on analysing the issues than in providing detailed policy responses. Some detail began to filter through in a series of follow-on documents, including an Energy Efficiency Implementation Plan (April 2004) and the DTI Microgeneration Strategy "Our Energy Challenge" (March 2006). Nonetheless, most of the policies were a continuation of business as usual, with emphasis on market-led solutions and an expectation that consumers act rationally, for example in installing energy efficiency measures to make running cost savings. In November 2005 it was announced that the government, under DTI leadership, would undertake a full-scale energy review, and over 500 organisations and individuals made detailed submissions as part of this review. Officially, the review was to take stock of the outcomes to date of the white paper, which a particular focus on cutting carbon (emissions of which remained stubbornly high) and to look in more detail at security of supply, as the UK's oil and gas production from the North Sea had peaked, and Russia was seen as being a high-risk supplier of gas. Unofficially, it was widely felt that the real reason behind the review was to allow nuclear power back into the energy debate, as it had been sidelined in the 2003 white paper. That document had said "This white paper does not contain specific proposals for building new nuclear power stations. However, we do not rule out the possibility that at some point in the future new nuclear build might be necessary if we are to meet our carbon targets. Before any decision to proceed with the building of new nuclear power stations, there will need to be the fullest public consultation and the publication of a further white paper setting out our proposals." The energy review was therefore to be this public consultation. Energy Review, 2006 In the light of a fast changing world energy context, increasing dependence on oil and gas imports, concerns about carbon emissions, and a need to accelerate investment in electricity infrastructure and power stations the UK Government undertook the 2006 Energy Review. One aspect of the 2006 Review dealt with development of nuclear power. Greenpeace challenged the government's process of consultation on proposals to develop nuclear power and following a judicial review requested by Greenpeace, on 15 February 2007 the consultation process was ruled 'seriously flawed', and 'not merely inadequate but also misleading'. As a result, plans to build a new generation of nuclear power plants were delayed while the UK Government reran the consultation process in a way that complied with the court's decision. See Nuclear power in the United Kingdom for details. Contents The Energy Review Report 2006 came out as a broader and more balanced document than critics (in advance) had expected. It started by reiterating the government's four long-term goals for energy policy: To put the UK on a path to cut carbon dioxide emissions by some 60% by about 2050, with real progress by 2020; To maintain reliable energy supplies; To promote competitive markets in the UK and beyond, helping to raise the rate of sustainable economic growth and to improve productivity; and To ensure that every home is adequately and affordably heated. It then identified two major long-term energy challenges: Tackling climate change, along with other nations, as global carbon emissions from human activity continue to grow; and Delivering secure, clean energy at affordable prices, as we become increasingly dependent on imports for our energy needs. The Review took an internationalist response, stressing that the world's economies need to get on a path to being significantly less carbon-intensive, and noting rising global demand, especially from countries such as India and China. This means using less energy in products and services and changing the way energy is produced so that more of it comes from low-carbon sources. It also identified the need for a fairer distribution of energy around the world, and identified that many resources, especially of fossil fuels which are concentrated in just a few countries. It placed its main concerns and proposals into three groups: Saving Energy The starting point for reducing carbon emissions is to save energy. The challenge is to secure the heat, light and energy we need in homes and businesses in a way that cuts the amount of oil, gas and electricity used and the carbon dioxide emitted. Actions proposed include: Increasing information, e.g. through Home Information Packs Raising basic standards, removing inefficient goods from the market Making best use of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme and Climate Change Levy Making the government estate carbon neutral by 2012 Increasing the focus on energy efficient transport Cleaner Energy Cost-effective ways of using less energy will help move towards the carbon reduction goal. But on their own they will not provide the solution to the challenges faced: there is also a need to make the energy used cleaner. Under this head, the government considered: more distributed energy generation including low-carbon heat more use of community based systems, including CHP a strong commitment to carbon pricing in the UK, through improving the operation of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme a strengthened commitment to the Renewables Obligation proposals for reform of the planning regime for electricity projects a clear statement of our position on new nuclear build support for carbon capture and storage developing alternative fuels for transport The Energy Security Challenge The challenges of reducing carbon emissions and ensuring security of supply are closely linked. Security of supply requires that we have good access to available fuel supplies, the infrastructure in place to transport them to centres of demand and effective markets so that supply meets demand in the most efficient way. Many of the measures already described for tackling carbon emissions also contribute to the healthy diversity of energy sources that is necessary for meeting the energy security challenge. There are two main security of supply challenges for the UK: Managing increased dependence on oil and gas imports, especially in the light of the global distribution of energy reserves and growing international demand; and Ensuring that the market delivers substantial and timely investment in electricity generating capacity and networks so that households and businesses have the electricity they need at affordable prices. The government's response is to continue to open up markets and to work internationally to develop strong relationships with suppliers, developing liberalised markets. So where does nuclear power fit within this debate? Although it is mentioned a lot more in the Review compared to the White Paper (441 times, compared to 55 to be exact), the government does not propose building new stations itself. Instead, it will leave it to the market, although it will ease some of the planning constraints (which it also aims to do for renewables) and look into providing a design authorisation procedure. As with many other aspects of the Energy Review Response, the document is not likely to be the last word on the subject, as there are plans for further consultation, and the establishment of further reviews and studies in issues such as identifying suitable sites, and managing the costs of decommissioning and long term waste management. Energy white paper, 2007 The 2007 energy white paper: Meeting the Energy Challenge was published on 23 May 2007. The 2007 white paper outlines the government's international and domestic strategy for responding to two main challenges: cutting carbon emissions to tackle global warming ensuring secure, clean and affordable energy as imports replace declining production from North Sea oil and gas It seeks to do this in a way that is consistent with its four energy policy goals: cutting the UK's carbon dioxide emissions by some 60% by about 2050, with real progress by 2020; maintaining the reliability of energy supplies; promoting competitive markets in the UK and beyond, helping to raise the rate of sustainable economic growth and to improve productivity; and ensuring that every home is adequately and affordably heated. The paper anticipates that it will be necessary to install 30–35 GW of new electricity generation capacity within 20 years to plug the energy gap resulting from increased demand and the expected closure of existing power plants. It also states that, based on existing policies, renewable energy is likely to contribute around 5% of the UK's consumption by 2020, rather than the 20% target mentioned in the 2006 Energy Review. Proposed energy strategy In summary, the government's proposed strategy involves six components: Establishing an international framework to tackle climate change, including the stabilisation of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and a stronger European Union Emissions Trading Scheme Providing legally binding carbon targets for the whole UK economy, reducing emissions through the implementation of the Climate Change Bill. Making further progress in achieving fully competitive and transparent international markets, including further liberalisation of the European Union energy market. Encouraging more energy saving through better information, incentives and regulation Providing more support for low carbon technologies, including increased international and domestic public-private sector collaboration in the areas of research, development, demonstration and deployment – for example though the launch of the Energy Technologies Institute and the Environmental Transformation Fund. To achieve the government's aims, the white paper proposes a number of practical measures, including: Energy conservation Businesses: A new mandatory cap and trade scheme for organisations consuming more than 6,000 MWh of electricity per year, to be known as the Carbon Reduction Commitment. The introduction of Energy Performance Certificates for business premises and Display Energy Certificates for public sector organisations. The extension of smart metering to most business premises within 5 years. Homes: A requirement for all new homes to be zero-carbon buildings as soon as practically possible and preferably by 2016. Improving the energy efficiency of existing homes. Improving the efficiency of consumer electronics and domestic appliances, and the possible phase-out of inefficient light bulbs by around 2011. Increasing the Carbon Emission Reduction Target for the electricity and gas industries for 2008–2011. A requirement that new domestic electricity meters should have real time displays from 2008, and a commitment to upgrade existing domestic meters on request. Transport: The introduction of a Low Carbon Transport Innovation Strategy Support for including aviation within the EU Emissions Trading Scheme Energy supply The introduction of a Biomass Strategy to expand the use of biomass as an energy source. Measures to grow distributed electricity generation and distributed heat generation alongside the centralised system. A reconfirmation that, under the Renewables Obligation, renewable energy should supply 10% of electricity generation by 2010, an 'aspiration' to achieve 20% by 2020, together with the introduction of bands within the Obligation to support different renewable technologies. The launch in November 2007 of a competition to demonstrate commercial-scale carbon capture and storage technology A 'preliminary view is that it is in the public interest to give the private sector the option of investing in new nuclear power stations'. A consultation on this was launched at the same time as the White Paper. The introduction of the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation in 2008–2009, with a commitment that biofuels should provide 5% of transport fuel by 2010–2011. Measures to support the recovery of the remaining oil and gas reserves from the North Sea. Removing barriers to developing new energy infrastructure and power plants through reform of planning permission processes, as detailed in the 2007 Planning White Paper: Planning for a Sustainable Future. Response of the Scottish Government The Scottish Government responded to the UK government paper by making clear that it was against new nuclear power stations being built in Scotland and had the power to prevent any being built. In a statement to the Scottish Parliament, Energy Minister Jim Mather stated "Members will be aware that Greenpeace, backed by the courts, have forced the UK Government to consult properly on the future role of nuclear power. We will respond and we will make clear that we do not want and do not need new nuclear power in Scotland. If an application were to be submitted for a new nuclear power station that will be for Scottish Ministers to determine. We would be obliged to look at it – but given our policy position, our generating capacity, our multiplicity of energy sources and our strong alternative strategies such an application would be unlikely to find favour with this administration." Climate Change Act, 2008 On 13 March 2007, a draft Climate Change Bill was published following cross-party pressure over several years, led by environmental groups. The Act puts in place a framework to achieve a mandatory 80% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020. The Bill was passed into law in November 2008. With its passing the United Kingdom became the first country in the world to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law, or to create such a legally binding framework. The Committee on Climate Change, whose powers are invested by Part 2 of the Act, was formally launched in December 2008 with Lord Adair Turner as its chair. In April 2009 the Government set a requirement for a 34% cut in emissions by 2020, in line with the recommendations of the Committee on Climate Change, and announced that details of how this would be achieved would be published in the summer. UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009 Published on 15 July 2009, the UK Low Carbon Transition Plan details the actions to be taken to cut carbon emissions by 34% by 2020, based on 1990 levels (of which 21% had been achieved at the time of publication). As a result, by 2020 is it envisaged that: Over 1.2 million people will be employed in green jobs. The efficiency of 7 million homes will have been upgraded, with over 1.5 million of them generating renewable energy. 40% of electricity will be generated from low carbon sources (renewables, nuclear power and clean coal). Gas imports will be 50% lower than would otherwise have been the case. The average new car will emit 40% less carbon compared to 2009 levels. Energy Bill, 2012–2013 The Energy Bill 2012–2013 aims to close a number of coal power stations over the next two decades, to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and has financial incentives to reduce energy demand. The construction of a new generation of nuclear power stations will be facilitated, helped by the establishment of a new Office for Nuclear Regulation. Government climate change targets are to produce 30% of electricity from renewable sources by 2020, to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 50% on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 80% on 1990 levels by 2050. Select Committee report, 2016 The Energy and Climate Change Select Committee reported on 15October 2016 on upcoming challenges for energy and climate policy. The committee recommended investment in energy storage on the supply side and in efficiency technologies that smooth out demand peaks, by switching devices off and on and running them at lower power during times of stress, for example. Salix Finance Ltd. Salix Finance Ltd. provides government funding to the public sector to improve energy efficiency, reduce carbon emissions and lower energy bills. Salix is a non-departmental public body, owned wholly by the government, and funded by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, the Department for Education, the Welsh Government and the Scottish Government. Energy white paper 2020 The energy white paper 2020 has set within it a target to achieve net zero within the UK by 2050 in efforts to halter progress of Climate Change. The UK government aim to do this by: Investing heavily in renewable energy sources with a goal set of 40GW (about 60% of the UK's energy consumption) of offshore wind by 2030. Getting a large-scale nuclear project to the investment stages. Grow the rate at which electric heat pumps are installed. Support the deployment of CCUS Establishing a new UK emissions system Debating whether to end connections to the gas grid for new homes. Implementing policy: government oversight Government supervision of the coal, gas and electricity industries was established in the 19th century. Since then, specific departments of state and regulatory bodies have had responsibility for policy implementation, regulation and control. History The supply of energy in the nineteenth century – in the form of coal, gas and electricity – was largely by private companies and municipal gas and electricity undertakings. Public control of these supplies was generally in the hands of local authorities. Such control was exercised through limiting prices and dividends and by encouraging competition. State intervention was through legislation such as the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, and the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847 which restricted company dividends to ten per cent. The Electric Lighting Act 1882 established control over electricity supply industry from its earliest days. It required undertakings to obtain a license or order from the Board of Trade to generate and supply electricity. The Board of Trade and the Home Office therefore provided early oversight and control of the energy industries. New government bodies Between 1919 and 1941 the newly created Ministry of Transport assumed control of the electricity industry. Under wartime conditions the Ministry of Fuel and Power was established in 1942 to coordinate energy supplies. UK Government policy was enacted through a succession of ministries and departments. These are summarised in the following table. Other statutory bodies In addition to the above ministries and departments a number of regulatory bodies have been established to regulate and supervise specific aspects of energy policy and operation. These include: HM Inspectorate of Mines (1842–date), Electricity Commissioners (1919–48) to secure regional coordination, Central Electricity Board (1926–48) to control supplies and construct own and operate the national grid, National Coal Board (1947–87), owned and managed coal mining industry, British Electricity Authority (1948–55) to own and operate electricity generation and transmission, Gas Council (1948–1973), to provide supervisory and advisory function on policy, Central Electricity Authority (1955–57) to own and operate electricity generation and transmission outside Scotland, Electricity Council (1958–1990), provide supervisory and advisory function on policy, Office of Electricity Regulation (Offer) (1990–2000), economic regulator independent of government, Office of Gas Supply (Ofgas) (1986–2000), economic regulator independent of government, Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem) (2000– date), to protect the interests of consumers, where possible by promoting competition, Gas and Electricity Markets Authority (GEMA) (2000– date), Offshore Regulator for Environment and Decommissioning (OPRED), Oil and Gas Authority (2015–date), to regulate, influence and promote the UK oil and gas industry to maximise the economic recovery of resources. Fossil energy public support David Cameron announced subsidies for the North Sea oil and gas industry in March 2014 resulting in the production of 3-4bn more barrels of oil "than would otherwise have been produced". Renewable energy targets The first targets for renewable energy, 5% of by the end of 2003 and 10% by 2010 'subject to the cost to consumers being acceptable' were set by Helen Liddell in 2000. The UK Government's goal for renewable energy production is to produce 20% of electricity in the UK by 2020. The 2002 Energy Review set a target of 10% to be in place by 2010/2011. The target was increased to 15% by 2015 and most recently the 2006 Energy Review further set a target of 20% by 2020. Subsequently, the Low Carbon Transition Plan of 2009 made clear that by 2020 the UK would need to produce 30% of its electricity, 12% of its heat and 10% of its fuels from renewable sources. For Scotland, the Scottish Government has a target of generating 100% of electricity from renewables by 2020. Renewables located in Scotland count towards both the Scottish target and to the overall target for the UK. Although renewable energy sources have not played a major role in the UK historically, there is potential for significant use of tidal power and wind energy (both on-shore and off-shore) as recognised by formal UK policies, including the Energy White Paper and directives to councils in the form of PPS 22. The Renewables Obligation acts as the central mechanism for support of renewable sources of electricity in the UK, and should provide subsidies approaching one billion pounds sterling per annum by 2010. A number of other grants and smaller support mechanisms aim to support less established renewables. In addition, renewables have been exempted from the Climate Change Levy that affects all other energy sources. The amount of renewable generation added in 2004 was 250 megawatts and 500 megawatts in 2005. There is also a program established for micro-generation (less than 50 KWe (kilowatt electrical) or 45 KWt (kilowatt thermal) from a low carbon source) as well as a solar voltaic program. By comparison both Germany and Japan have photovoltaic (solar cell) programmes much larger than the installed base in the UK. Hydroelectric energy is not a viable option for most of the UK due to terrain and lack of force of rivers. Biofuels The government has established a goal of five percent of the total transport fuel that must be from renewable sources (e.g. ethanol, biofuel) by 2010 under the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation. This goal may be ambitious, without the necessary infrastructure and paucity of research on appropriate UK crops, but import from France might be a realistic option. In 2005 British Sugar announced that it will build the UK's first ethanol biofuel production facility, using British grown sugar beet as the feed stock. The plant in Norfolk will produce 55,000 metric tonnes of ethanol annually when it is completed in the first quarter of 2007. It has been argued that even using all the UK's set-aside land to grow biofuel crops would provide less than seven per cent of the UK's present transport fuel usage. Fuel poverty Reducing occurrence of fuel poverty (defined as households paying over ten percent of income for heating costs) is one of the four basic goals of UK energy policy. In the prior decade substantial progress has been made on this goal, but primarily due to government subsidies to low-income families rather than through fundamental change of home design or improved energy pricing. The following national programs have been specifically instrumental in such progress: Winter Fuel Payment, Child Tax Credit and Pension Credit. Some benefits have resulted from the Warm Front Scheme in England, the Central Heating Programme in Scotland and the Home Energy Efficiency Scheme in Wales. These latter programs provide economic incentives for physical improvement in insulation, etc. Public opinion The UK is largely supportive of renewable energy and this is primarily driven by concerns about climate change and dependence on fossil fuels. In July 2013, the UK Energy Research Centre published a national survey of public attitudes towards energy in the UK. 74% of participants were very or fairly concerned about climate change. 82% were worried about the UK becoming too dependent upon energy from other countries. 79% wanted to see a reduction in the use of fossil fuels over the next few decades. 81% expressed a desire to reduce their energy use. 85% supported solar energy. 75% supported wind energy. 42% had never heard of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and when given further information many expressed concern, viewing it as a "non transition" – a continuation of unsustainable practices associated with fossil fuels. The public was undecided on the role of nuclear power in the future energy mix. Over half (54%) said they would oppose the building of a new nuclear power station in their area. A majority (53%) were willing to use electric vehicles, rising to 75% if they performed as well as conventional models. This can be compared with a similar study from the 1st Annual World Environment Review, published in June 2007, which revealed that: 81% are concerned about climate change. 79% think their government should do more to tackle global warming. 73% think that the UK is too dependent on fossil fuels. 77% think that the UK is too reliant on foreign oil. 87% think that a minimum 25% of electricity should be generated from renewable energy sources. 24% think that the Government should do more to expand nuclear power. 56% are concerned about nuclear power. 76% are concerned about carbon dioxide emissions from developing countries. 61% think it appropriate for developed countries to demand restrictions on carbon dioxide emissions from developing countries. Oil and gas Oil and gas production peaked in 1999, but in 2023 licensed more oil and gas exploration was licensed. Analysis and criticism A 2016 paper argues that current UK energy policy is a contradictory mix of free market policies and government interventions, with an undue emphasis on electricity. It concludes that the government needs to develop a clearer strategy if it is to address the three goals of economic effectiveness, environmental protection, and energy security. In its 2022 Net zero Review the government was criticised again, with the main issue identified being a lack of consistent policy commitments and a start-stop approach to various schemes. See also UK only United Kingdom National Renewable Energy Action Plan, 2009 Climate change in the United Kingdom Energy efficiency in British housing Energy switching services in the UK List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom Merton Rule Timeline of the UK electricity supply industry UK Energy Research Centre UK and beyond Avoiding dangerous climate change Energy policy of the European Union Energy policy of the United States Energy Saving Trust Financial incentives for photovoltaics Low Carbon Building Programme National Energy Action (NEA) The Carbon Trust Notes References E McGaughey, Principles of Enterprise Law: the Economic Constitution and Human Rights (Cambridge UP 2022) chapters 11 and 12 External links United Kingdom 2004 Energy Act Text of the Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Bill Government business efficiency portal 2006 Government Energy Review 2003 Government Energy White Paper: Our Energy Future – Creating a Low Carbon Economy 2003 Green Party Alternative Energy Review 2002 Government Energy Review International Energy Agency UK energy statistics UK Government Energy Statistics Critique of Government biofuels policy Planning Policy Statement 22 (PPS22) on renewable energy Electricity calculator for 2020 Analysis of Renewables Growth to 2020 In the media 23 May 2007, BBC, Britain's energy strategy 6 September 2006, New Builder, Extra Funding For Scottish Renewables 25 July 2006, epolitix.com, House of Lords committee reject European Commission bid for role in energy policy 29 June 2006, BBC, Government promises carbon cuts 5 June 2006, epolitix.com, Alistair Darling: Electricity profits should be linked to efficiency 26 September 2005, BBC, UK needs yearly climate updates United Kingdom Energy in the United Kingdom Climate change policy in the United Kingdom Public policy in the United Kingdom
5327904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England%E2%80%93Germany%20football%20rivalry	England–Germany football rivalry	The English and German national football teams have played each other since the end of the 19th century, and officially since 1930. The teams met for the first time in November 1899, when England beat Germany in four straight matches. Notable matches between England and Germany (or West Germany) include the 1966 FIFA World Cup final, and the semi-finals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1996 and the round of sixteen of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2020. While the English public, football fans and in particular newspapers consider an England–Germany football rivalry to have developed, it is mostly an English phenomenon since most German fans consider the Netherlands or Italy to be their traditional footballing rivals. In this article, references to the German football team include the former West Germany football team before German reunification. History Early encounters The Football Association (FA) instigated a four-game tour of Germany and Austria by a representative England team in November 1899. The England team played a representative German team in Berlin on 23 November 1899, with the German side losing 1–0. Two days later a slightly altered German side lost 10–2. The third and fourth matches were played in Prague and Karlsruhe against a combined Austrian and German side, and England won 6–0 and 7–0. Those games cannot be considered as "official" and are known as "proto-international matches" (Ur-Länderspiele) in Germany because they were organised by a regional federation from Berlin and the German Football Association (DFB) was not founded until 28 January 1900. On the other hand, the DFB considers four matches played between 1908 and 1913 against the England national amateur football team of the FA as official matches against England, while the FA does not. The first ever full international between the two teams was a friendly match played on Saturday 10 May 1930, in Berlin. England were 1–0 and 2–1 up in the game, but after losing a player to injury went behind 3–2, before a late goal from David Jack brought the score to 3–3, which was how the game finished. The next match between the two teams was played on 4 December 1935, at White Hart Lane in London, the first full international to take place between the teams in England and the first since the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in 1933. It was also the first match to stir up particular controversy, as The Observer newspaper reported protests by the British Trades Union Congress that the game could be used as a propaganda event by the Nazi regime. "No recent sporting event has been treated with such high seriousness in Germany as this match ... Between 7,500 and 8,000 Germans will travel via Dover, and special trains will bring them to London. A description broadcast throughout Germany ... Sir Walter Citrine, General Secretary of the TUC, in a further letter to Sir John Simon, the Home Secretary, said that 'such a large and carefully organised Nazi contingent coming to London might confirm the impression among people in this country that the event is being regarded as of some political importance by the visitors'." Of the match itself, however, which England won 3–0, the same newspaper reported the following week that: "So chivalrous in heart and so fair in tackling were the English and German teams who played at Tottenham in mid-week that even the oldest of veterans failed to recall an international engagement played with such good manners by everybody." The next game between the two teams, and the last to be played before the Second World War, was again in Germany, a friendly at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin on 14 May 1938, played in front of a crowd of 110,000 people. It was the last time England played against a unified German team until the 1990s. This was the most controversial of all the early encounters between the two teams, as before kick-off the English players were ordered by the Foreign Office to line up and perform a Nazi salute in respect to their hosts. How compliant the players were with this situation has been a matter of debate, with a feature in The Observer in 2001 speculating that they were "perhaps merely indifferent players (who had undoubtedly become more reluctant, to the point of mutiny, by the time the post-war memoirs were published)." A BBC News Online report published in 2003 reported that the salute was calculated to show: "that Germany, which two months earlier had annexed Austria, was not a pariah state. The friendly game effectively helped clear the way for Chamberlain's "Peace for our time" deal with Hitler, which, in turn, led to Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia." England won the match 6–3, but according to German writer Ulrich Linder, author of the book Strikers for Hitler: "To lose to England at the time was nothing unusual because basically everybody lost to [them] at the time. For Hitler, the propaganda effect of that game was more important than anything else." The two countries did not meet again on a football pitch for sixteen years. Two German states had been founded in 1949, with the Germany national football team continuing its tradition, based in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1990. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) fielded a separate national football team; although the English did play some matches against them, the rivalry never developed the same edge or high-profile. A third German team, Saarland, also briefly existed between 1950 and 1956. However they never played a match against England. In a friendly at Wembley Stadium on 1 December 1954, England won 3–1 against an under-strength West German side, who were at the time the champions of the world, having won the 1954 FIFA World Cup. England won further friendlies against West Germany in 1956 (3–1 at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin) and 1965 (1–0 in Nuremberg). 1966–1969: 1966 FIFA World Cup England and West Germany met at Wembley again on 23 February 1966, as part of their preparations for the 1966 FIFA World Cup, which was to be held in England. England again won 1–0, with a goal from Nobby Stiles, and the match also saw the first appearance for England of West Ham United striker Geoff Hurst. Both countries had a successful World Cup in 1966, and met in the final played at Wembley on Saturday, 30 July 1966. This was and still is regarded by many as the most important match ever played between the two teams, and it was also the first time they had ever met in a competitive game, as opposed to the friendly matches they had played before. It was also a highly eventful and in some respects controversial game, which created the modern rivalry between the teams. England led 2–1 until the very end of normal time, when a West German goal levelled the scores and took the match into extra time. In the first period of extra time, England striker Geoff Hurst had a shot on goal which bounced down from the crossbar and then out of the goal, before being cleared away by the West German defenders. The England players celebrated a goal, but the referee was unsure as to whether or not the ball had crossed the line when it hit the ground. After consulting with a linesman, Tofiq Bahramov, the referee awarded a goal to England. Bahramov, from the Soviet Union, became famous and celebrated in English popular culture as "the Russian linesman", although he was actually from Azerbaijan. When England played the Azerbaijan national team in a World Cup qualifier in October 2004—in a stadium named after Bahramov—many England fans travelling to the game asked to be shown the grave of the official, who had died in 1993, so that they could place flowers on it, and before the game a ceremony honouring him was attended by Hurst and other footballing celebrities. West Germany, however, did not believe that the ball had crossed the line, with commentators such as Robert Becker of Kicker magazine accusing the linesman of bias because the West German team had eliminated the USSR in the semi-final. Modern studies using film analysis and computer simulation have suggested the ball never crossed the line – both Duncan Gillies of the Visual Information Processing Group at Imperial College London and Ian Reid and Andrew Zisserman of the Department of Engineering Science at University of Oxford agree that the ball would have needed to travel a further 2.5–6 cm to fully cross the line, and that therefore this was not a fair goal. In West Germany, it led to the creation of the expression "Wembley-Tor", or "Wembley-Goal", a phrase used to describe any goal scored in a similar fashion to Hurst's. England, however, scored another controversial goal at the end of extra time, winning 4–2. This goal came after fans began to spill onto the field, thinking the game was over, which should have stopped play. The goal, a third for Hurst (making him the only man ever to score a hat-trick in a World Cup final until Kylian Mbappe in 2022), was described by BBC Television commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme in a now-famous piece of commentary, "They think it's all over... it is now!", referring to the English fans who had spilled onto the field. The expression has become a celebrated part of English popular culture, indelibly linked with the game in the minds of the English public. The 1966 final's influence on the culture surrounding the England team would not end there, however. Despite playing on their home soil, England wore their away kit of red shirts, white shorts and red socks, and since then England fans have had a special affinity for their team's away kit, with retro 1966 shirts selling well in recent years. The game is often held as having been the height of English sporting achievement, it has also created some favourable legacies; a common chant among England supporters at Germany games is "Two World Wars and One World Cup" to the tune of "Camptown Races". Two years after the World Cup, on 1 June 1968, the two teams met again in another friendly match, this time in West Germany, in which the West Germans won their first victory over an English team, 38 years after they had first played. The scoreline was 1–0, Franz Beckenbauer scoring for West Germany, but as Hugh McIlvanney wrote in his match report for The Observer: "Comparing this miserable hour and a half (in which fouls far outnumbered examples of creative football) with the last great meeting between the countries is entirely fatuous. But that will not prevent the West Germans from doing it. Their celebrations will not be inhibited by the knowledge that today's losers were almost a reserve team, and even the agonies of boredom they shared with us will now seem worthwhile. They have beaten England, and that is enough." 1970–89: 1970 FIFA World Cup Far more noted and remembered, however, was the next competitive meeting between the two teams, in the quarter-finals of the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. England were 2–0 up, but Beckenbauer and Uwe Seeler equalised at 2–2 in the second half. In extra time, Geoff Hurst had a goal mysteriously ruled out and then Gerd Müller scored in extra time to win 3–2. England had been weakened by losing their goalkeeper Gordon Banks to illness, and also substituted Bobby Charlton, one of their leading players, while the Germans were in the midst of their comeback. As McIlvanney put it when reflecting on the loss five days later, "Sir Alf Ramsey's team are out because the best goalkeeper most people have ever seen turned sick, and one who is only slightly less gifted was overwhelmed by the suddenness of his promotion. In sport disaster often feeds upon itself but this was a sickeningly gluttonous example." The result was psychologically damaging for English morale—as The Guardian newspaper described in a 2006 feature: "Four days later Harold Wilson blamed Labour's loss in the general election on the defeat. This marked the start of two decades of German footballing dominance and England's decline." Two years later the teams met once more, in the quarter-finals of the European Championship, which were at the time held on a home-and-away basis. England lost 3–1 at Wembley on 29 April 1972 in the home leg, and on 13 May could only draw 0–0 in West Germany, being knocked out of the competition. Said The Observer in 2001: "England may have been robbed of the chance in Mexico ... but there were no shortage of excuses – the heat, the hostile crowd, the food which had felled Banks, the errors of Bonetti ... It was a conspiracy of fate more than a footballing defeat. In 1972, there were no excuses at all. West Germany did not just knock England out of the European Championships, they came to Wembley and comprehensively outclassed England." McIlvanney wrote in his match report for The Observer: "No Englishman can ever again warm himself with the old assumption that, on the football field if nowhere else, the Germans are an inferior race." 1990–99: 1990 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1996 There were several friendly games played in the 1970s and 1980s, with wins for both nations, but the next competitive match—a second round group game at the 1982 FIFA World Cup—ended in a disappointing 0–0 draw. England were later eliminated from that competition after drawing Spain 0-0, while Germany reached the final. However, when the teams next met competitively, at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, it was a rather more dramatic and eventful clash in the semi-finals, the first time England had reached that far in the competition since their win in 1966. In summer 1990, the process of German reunification had advanced far, with the Deutsche Mark being introduced in the East two days before the semi-finals on 3 July. Unlike in previous decades, East German fans could openly support the German team of the DFB which by then had an 80+ year tradition. The England team had started the event poorly and had not been expected to reach that stage of the competition, but in the game they could match the stronger German team, managed by Franz Beckenbauer. The Germans took the lead in the 59th minute when a free-kick from Andreas Brehme deflected off Paul Parker and over goalkeeper Peter Shilton. Gary Lineker equalised in the 80th minute, and then David Platt had a goal ruled out in extra time. The result was thus decided by a penalty shoot-out—the England team's first—which West Germany won 4–3 after misses from Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle. England would lose to host nation Italy for the third-place consolation match, whilst West Germany defeated Argentina in the final. The match stayed heavily in the English popular consciousness — not simply for the football and the dramatic manner of the defeat, but also for the reaction of star player Paul Gascoigne to receiving a yellow card. His second of the tournament, his realisation that this would see him suspended for the final should England make it prompted him to burst into tears on the pitch. Said The Observer in 2004, "There are half a dozen images that define this decade of change, which help to show why football widened its appeal. First, and most important, is the sight of Paul Gascoigne crying into his England shirt after being booked in the 1990 World Cup semi-final against West Germany. Unaggressive and emotional, a billboard image that helped to start an apparently unstoppable surge in popularity for the national team." Despite this rehabilitation of the image of football aided by the English national team's success in the 1990 tournament, the narrow defeat by Germany helped to increase the antipathy felt towards the German team and the German nation in general. Mark Perryman wrote in 2006: "How could we expect to beat mighty (West) Germany, who had only narrowly lost the final four years previously? To my mind it is the fact that we so nearly did, then lost in the penalty shoot-out that explains the past 16 years of an increasingly bitter rivalry." Germany was reunited in October 1990. For the DFB team, few things changed apart from players previously capped for East Germany becoming eligible for the united German team. This made little difference to the tone and emotion of the rivalry. England's first match against the unified Germany since 1938 was a friendly in 1991 at Wembley, which the Germans won 1–0. Five years later, at the 1996 European Championships, England played a unified German team for the first time in a competitive fixture, when they met in the semi-finals. Like the 1966 World Cup, the tournament was being held in England, and the semi-final was played at Wembley Stadium. England's fans and team were confident, particularly after wins in the group stage over Scotland (2–0) and the Netherlands (4–1) and their first ever penalty shoot-out victory, over Spain, in the quarter-finals. So vivid were the memories of 1966 for England fans that a media clamour ensued for England to wear red jerseys, instead of the unfamiliar-looking grey away kit that had been launched earlier that year (as England had not submitted details of any red kit to UEFA before the tournament, this was never going to be permitted, and England did wear grey). The build-up to the game was soured, however, by headlines in English tabloid newspapers which were regarded by many as overly nationalistic, and even racist in tone, as they had also been before the previous match against Spain. Particularly controversial was the Daily Mirrors headline "Achtung! Surrender! For You Fritz, ze Euro 96 Championship is over", accompanied by a mock article aping a report of the declaration of war between the two nations in 1939. The editor of the paper, Piers Morgan, subsequently apologised for the headline, particularly as it was at least partially blamed for violence following England's defeat, including a riot in Trafalgar Square. England took the lead in only the third minute, through tournament top scorer Alan Shearer, but in the 16th minute Stefan Kuntz equalised, and despite many close shots and a disallowed goal from the Germans, the score remained level at 1–1 until the end of extra time. The match was settled by another penalty shoot-out, as in 1990, and although this time all five of England's initial penalty-takers were successful, so were all five German players. The shoot-out carried on to "sudden death" kicks, with Gareth Southgate missing for England and Andreas Möller scoring for Germany to put the hosts out. As in 1990, Germany went on to win the tournament. Also the FA cancelled a friendly with Germany as it was pencilled for 20 April 1994 as it coincided with Hitler's 105th would-be birthday and played at the Berlin Olympic Stadium, the venue for the controversial and Nazi-politicized 1936 Summer Olympics. 2000–09: 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifier England and Germany were drawn to meet each other in the first round group stage of the Euro 2000, held jointly by Belgium and the Netherlands, with the England–Germany game taking place in Charleroi in Belgium. Before the game, played on 17 June 2000, there were violent incidents involving England fans in the town centre, although these were mostly brief and there were no violent confrontations with German fans. Nonetheless, reporting of the violence did to a degree overshadow the match result in some media coverage. The match itself was a scrappy affair that lacked the drama of many of the previous encounters, with England sneaking a 1–0 win thanks to a second-half header by striker Alan Shearer. There was enthusiastic celebration of this result in England, particularly as this was the first time that England had won a competitive match against Germany since the 1966 World Cup final. The German reaction was more pessimistic. Rounding up the German media coverage, The Guardian reported: "'0–1! Germany weeps. Is it all over?' asked the mass circulation Bild newspaper in a front-page banner headline. 'Shearer tells us to pack our bags,' wrote Berlin's Der Tagesspiegel." In the event, both England and Germany lost their final group matches and both were knocked out in the first round, finishing third and fourth respectively in their group, which was the worst German result in a tournament since the 1938 World Cup, while England had already experienced that multiple times in the two previous decades. England and Germany had also been drawn together in the same qualifying group for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. England's home match against Germany was played on Saturday 7 October 2000, and was significant as it was the last international fixture ever to be played at the old Wembley Stadium, before it was demolished and rebuilt. England lost 1–0 to a German free kick scored by Dietmar Hamann. "It was the last refuge of the inadequate. Half-time neared, England were a goal down and a sizeable section of the crowd sullied the ever-dampening occasion. 'Stand up if you won the War,' they sang", wrote journalist Ian Ridley in his match report for The Observer. The result prompted the immediate resignation of England manager Kevin Keegan, and by the time the return match was played at the Olympic Stadium in Munich on 1 September 2001, England were now managed by their first ever foreign coach, Sven-Göran Eriksson. Expectations on the English side were low, but they surprisingly won the game 5–1 with a hat-trick from striker Michael Owen, and eventually qualified for the World Cup as the winners of their group. During the game the father of German coach Rudi Völler suffered a heart attack inside the stadium, but was successfully resuscitated. Some Germans were shocked by the scale of the defeat, with former striker Karl-Heinz Rummenigge stating that "I have never seen such a terrible defeat ... This is a new Waterloo for us." At the 2002 World Cup finals in Japan and South Korea, it was Germany who enjoyed more success, finishing second. England only reached the quarter-finals. Both teams were defeated by the competition winners, Brazil. The two teams did not meet in Euro 2004, 2006 World Cup or Euro 2008. (Germany suffered a second consecutive group elimination in 2004, England avoided a showdown with Germany in the last 16 by holding Sweden to a draw and finishing at the top of their group, and England did not qualify for Euro 2008). England and Germany next played on 22 August 2007, in a friendly at the newly rebuilt Wembley Stadium. England lost the match 2–1, their first defeat at the new Wembley, with Germany, following the unexpectedly successful 2006 World Cup, still rebuilding the national team. Then in a friendly held on 19 November 2008, England inflicted Germany's first defeat in Berlin in thirty-five years with a 2–1 victory. 2010–2019: 2010 FIFA World Cup In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the two teams met at the round of 16 stage after Germany had won Group D and England had finished second in Group C. Germany inflicted England's worst World Cup defeat to date, winning the match 4–1 to advance to the quarter-finals. After Germany had raced into a 2–0 lead thanks to Miroslav Klose and Lukas Podolski, a Matthew Upson header halved the deficit for England. Moments later, a shot by Frank Lampard bounced off the crossbar and over the goal line. However, neither the referee Jorge Larrionda nor the linesman granted the goal, leading to significant protests from the English technical team. After Lampard came close by hitting the bar early in the second half, two goals from Thomas Müller sealed Germany's progression to the next round. Writing in the BBC, author Phil McNulty said "England, with some justification, will bemoan their luck but nothing must disguise the manner in which they were outclassed by Germany in stages of this game and also what has been an ultimately bitterly disappointing World Cup campaign in South Africa." Immediately after the match, parallels were drawn between Lampard's effort and Geoff Hurst's goal in the 1966 World Cup final. However, in the 2010 case there was no dispute about whether the ball had crossed the goal line, because the ball had clearly touched the grass well within the goal, and the television replay immediately showed this. Following the match, the President of FIFA Sepp Blatter apologised to England for the incident, adding that it had convinced him to reopen the debate on goal line technology use in football. Following Germany's 1–0 win over England in a friendly at Wembley in November 2013, German tabloid Bild humorously declared on its front cover that "Wembley is now German". 2020–present: UEFA Euro 2020 and beyond On 29 June 2021, England defeated Germany in the UEFA Euro 2020 round of 16 match 2–0, thanks to two late goals from Raheem Sterling and Harry Kane. This was England's first knockout stage tournament win against Germany since 1966. Comparison of England and Germany in major international tournaments {\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" \|- ! Tournament !! width=50\| !! width=80\| !! width=500\|Notes \|- \|1930 FIFA World Cup \| rowspan="3" \|DNP \|DNP \| \|- \|1934 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \| \|- \|1938 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\|9–16 \|German team included Austrian players as a result of the Anschluss. \|- \|1950 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\|5–13 \|DNP\| German teams were still banned as a result of World War II. \|- \|1954 FIFA World Cup \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|First tournament where only West Germany was represented. \|- \|1958 FIFA World Cup \|9–16 \| style="background:#def;"\|4 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 1960 \| colspan="2" \|DNP\| \|- \|1962 FIFA World Cup \| colspan="2" \|5–8 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 1964 \|FTQ\|DNP\| \|- \|1966 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|2 \|In the final, England defeated West Germany 4–2 after extra time. \|- \|UEFA Euro 1968 \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \|FTQ\| \|- \|1970 FIFA World Cup \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \|In the quarter-finals, West Germany defeated England 3–2 after extra time. \|- \|UEFA Euro 1972 \|FTQ (5–8) \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|In the final qualifying round (effectively a quarter-final) West Germany defeated England 3–1 on aggregate. \|- \|1974 FIFA World Cup \| rowspan="3" \|FTQ\| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|This tournament is the only World Cup or European Championship where East Germany qualified. \|- \|UEFA Euro 1976 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \| \|- \|1978 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\|5–8 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 1980 \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \| \|- \|1982 FIFA World Cup \|5–12 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \|In the second group stage, West Germany drew 0–0 with England. \|- \|UEFA Euro 1984 \|FTQ\| style="background:#def;"\|5–8 \| \|- \|1986 FIFA World Cup \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 1988 \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|3–4 \| \|- \|1990 FIFA World Cup \|4 \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|In the semi-finals, West Germany defeated England on penalty shoot-out. \|- \|UEFA Euro 1992 \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \|First tournament since World War II where all of Germany was represented by one team \|- \|1994 FIFA World Cup \|FTQ\| style="background:#def;"\|5–8 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 1996 \|3–4 \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \|In the semi-finals, Germany defeated England on penalty shoot-out. \|- \|1998 FIFA World Cup \|9–16 \| style="background:#def;"\|5–8 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 2000 \| style="background:#def;"\|9–16 \|9–16 \|England and Germany were placed in the same first round group. Both were eliminated, with England finishing third and Germany fourth. England defeated Germany 1–0 in the match between the two teams. \|- \|2002 FIFA World Cup \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \|England and Germany were placed in the same qualifying group. Germany won 1–0 at Wembley, while England won 5–1 in Munich. \|- \|UEFA Euro 2004 \| style="background:#def;"\|5–8 \|9–16 \|Germany were eliminated in the first round for a second consecutive European Championship. \|- \|2006 FIFA World Cup \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 2008 \|FTQ\| style="background:#def;"\|2 \| \|- \|2010 FIFA World Cup \|9–16 \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \|In the round of 16, Germany defeated England 4–1. \|- \|UEFA Euro 2012 \|5–8 \| style="background:#def;"\|3 \| \|- \|2014 FIFA World Cup \|17–32 \| style="background:#def;"\|1 \| \|- \|UEFA Euro 2016 \|9–16 \| style="background:#def;"\|3–4 \|England infamously lost in the round of 16 to Iceland. \|- \|2018 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\| 4 \| 17–32 \|Germany were eliminated in the first round of a FIFA World Cup for the first time since 1938. \|- \|UEFA Euro 2020 \| style="background:#def;"\|2 \| 9–16 \| In the round of 16, England defeated Germany 2–0. \|- \|2022 FIFA World Cup \| style="background:#def;"\| 5-8 \| 17–32 \|Germany were eliminated in the first round for a second consecutive World Cup. \|} Women's football Club football The German women's league is considered one of the strongest in the world. By the end of the 2021–22, German clubs had won nine Champions League titles, while an English club had won the competition on only one occasion (Arsenal in 2007). National teams The German women's team was generally more popular in Germany than the English women's team is in England. Germany matches were televised on national television and attracted millions of viewers. The World Cup 2011 quarter-final between Germany and Japan attracted over 17 million viewers, while England women's matches struggled to even make it into television schedules. England's group games in the World Cup 2011 were watched by up to four million viewers on German television, but less than a million on BBC, which means even with no German involvement, England games were at that point more popular in Germany than in the country the England team actually represents. Observers noted that this gap in popularity was not just due to a lack of gender equality in England, but to the fact that the success of the German women's team meant that there was much more media coverage and interest. England had not won a major title until they won Euro 2022, their best result beforehand being Euro runners up in women's Euro 1984 and in Euro 2009. Meanwhile, Germany's women have won two World Cups, 2003 and 2007, a total of eight European Championships in the years of 1989, 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009 and 2013 and the 2016 Summer Olympics. Along with Spain, Germany is the only nation to have won both the men's and women's FIFA World Cup, and the only women's team to win the European Championship a year after the men's team won (in 1996 and 1997). Together with the three Euro wins and the four World Cup wins of the men's team, Germany counts 18 major tournament titles, while England has two major tournament titles so far. On 4 July 2015, England upset Germany 1–0 in the third place match at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup; this was their first ever victory against Germany in 21 matches. The two sides met in the 2022 Arnold Clark Cup, when England won 3–1 at Molineux Stadium, and the UEFA Women's Euro 2022 final at Wembley Stadium, with England won 2–1 to secure their first ever major title. Media and public reactions England Since World War II, England has considered itself a rival to Germany in many areas, such as automobile production, naval forces, trade and economy—this rivalry has also permeated into football. English football fans often deem Germany to be their traditional football rival and care more about this rivalry than those with other countries, such as Scotland, Argentina or even Australia. In the run-up to any football match against Germany, many English tabloids publish articles that contain references to the Second World War, such as calling their opposition derogatory terms such as "krauts" or "hun". Two days before the UEFA Euro 1996 semi-final, The Daily Mirror published an article on its front page that ran with the headline "Achtung! Surrender!": another reference to the war. After the 5–1 victory over Germany in 2001, the English news media were ecstatic. The Sunday Mirror drew more comparisons to World War II, by running an article about the game on the front page under the headline "BLITZED". England's defeat of Germany in the 1966 World Cup has been often voted by the English as their greatest ever sporting moment, and the 5–1 victory in 2001 has also regularly placed highly. England's Manchester United defeating Germany's Bayern Munich at the 1999 UEFA Champions League final is also highly regarded by English football fans as a high point in their perceived rivalry. The rivalry has also made its way into various aspects of English popular culture. For example, in the 1970s BBC television series Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads?, the character Terry remarks that 14 June 1970, the day that England lost 3–2 to West Germany, should be "indelibly printed on every true Englishman's mind". England player and broadcaster Gary Lineker notoriously said "Football is a simple game; 22 men chase a ball for 90 minutes and at the end, the Germans win." He would paraphrase himself following the final of the UEFA Women's Euro 2022, saying: "Football is a simple game. 22 women chase a ball for 90 minutes and, at the end, England actually win." Germany As far back as the 1960s, the footballing rivalry between England and Germany has been considered mainly an English phenomenon; this has been observed by several commentators of both English and German origin. In June 2009, British comedian Stephen Fry stated on the BBC show QI that, unlike the English, German football fans do not care about their team's loss at the 1966 World Cup final and may not even remember that they had made it that far. Instead, German fans consider their rivalry with the Netherlands to be their traditional footballing rivalry and care more about the matches against them, such as the 1974 FIFA World Cup final. Following their 5–1 loss in 2001, many German fans were not particularly concerned, instead revelling in the Netherlands' defeat by the Republic of Ireland the same day. Some sang directly after the loss to England: "Ohne Holland fahr'n wir zur WM" ("We're going to the World Cup without Holland!"), which was eventually made into a German Schlager song. In 2010, during the lead-up to 2010 World Cup match, journalist Marina Hyde remarked in The Guardian that the rivalry between the England and Germany football teams was "quite obviously an illusion, existing only in the minds of those wishful to the point of insanity – which is to say, the English". She added: "In a world that has changed bewilderingly in recent decades, England losing to Germany in major tournaments is one of the few certainties." Similarly, professor Peter J. Beck described Germany's ambivalence to the rivalry, saying that "as far as the Germans are concerned, Sunday's game is nothing more than another sporting contest". However, it would also be false to say that there is no rivalry at all'' between England and Germany; for one thing, the very fact that the English perceive it to be such cannot go unnoticed, for another, there is the long-standing quarrel about the "Wembley goal" (only somewhat silenced since a clear goal was not awarded to the English in 2010). England vs. Germany matches, even friendlies, are always considered highly important sporting events (though the tradition and, usually, the quality of both the teams may account for most of that), going so far that a popular radioplay series mocks people in love as "looking deep into each other's eyes even if a England vs. Germany match is on TV". However, any feeling of rivalry towards England, if existent, is dwarfed by the German-Dutch rivalry. List of matches Unofficial internationals English teams played a number of games against German teams between 1899 and 1911. The first of these, encompassing an official Football Association tour of Germany and Austria in 1899, and a reciprocal tour of England by a German select squad, saw the English teams feature a mix of amateurs and professionals playing against German sides organised by regional associations, even after the foundation of the DFB in 1901. The games played between 1908 and 1913 saw the official German national team, organised by the DFB, play against the England Amateur side. Note that matches 6–9 Germany awarded caps against the England amateur team. Full internationals Overview * Euro and World Cup matchups include qualifiers. Penalty shoot-outs are recorded as draws, in which Germany defeated England 4–3 in 1990 and 6–5 in 1996. Matches Note: Since 1908, Germany is represented by the German Football Association (DFB) which fields the Germany national football team. During German division (1949–1990), the team of the German Football Association based in Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany was colloquially called West Germany. East German national team England played four matches against East Germany (1949–1990), all of which being friendly matches. List of matches:All-time record' Club level As well as the rivalry between the national sides, English and German club teams have also met on numerous occasions in the various European club competitions. The English hold the upper hand in club football encounters. Finals Other memorable matches were the controversial 1975 European Cup final in which Bayern beat Leeds United after the latter had penalty claims turned down by a French referee who also disallowed a goal scored by Peter Lorimer with a shot from outside the area. Apart from the 1977 European Cup final, Liverpool beat Mönchengladbach, they also met in the 1973 UEFA Cup final and the 1978 European Cup semi-final. Liverpool had defeated four German sides on their way to victory in their 1973 win. In the final first leg at Anfield, Liverpool won 3–0, only for Borussia Mönchengladbach to pull back to 3–2 on aggregate by half-time. The Reds hung on in the second half. Aston Villa defeated FC Bayern Munich in 1982 European Cup final in Rotterdam. In the memorable 1999 UEFA Champions League final between Manchester United and Bayern Munich, United were trailing 1–0 until they scored two late goals in injury time to win 2–1. On 19 May 2012, Bayern Munich met Chelsea in the 2012 UEFA Champions League final. Bayern Munich suffered defeat at the Allianz Arena; a game dubbed "Finale dahoam" (Bavarian for "final at home") as it marked the second time that any team played the tournament's final at their home ground. The game ended as a 1–1 draw after extra time before being decided 4–3 on penalties. Bayern Munich seemed like the more dominant of the two sides throughout, but could not break down Chelsea's defence. Borussia Dortmund's wins over holders West Ham United and Liverpool (final in Glasgow) in the 1965–66 European Cup Winners' Cup were memorable as were West Ham's win over TSV 1860 Munich at Wembley Stadium in the final of the same competition a year earlier. Chelsea also defeated VfB Stuttgart in the final of 1998. Other notable matches Leeds would eventually eliminate a German team (VfB Stuttgart) in unexpected and bizarre circumstances. After the Germans had qualified, in the first round of the 1992–93 UEFA Champions League, on the away goals rule, the return leg was awarded by UEFA 3–0 to Leeds United because Stuttgart fielded an extra foreigner, thus infringing the European competition rules that were in place at the time. A replay was ordered as the aggregate stood at 3–3. Leeds won the replay at Barcelona's Camp Nou 2–1. Borussia Dortmund beat Manchester United 1–0 both home and away in the semi-final of the 1996–97 UEFA Champions League which they won, United having been guilty of squandering numerous chances in both legs, especially the return leg at Old Trafford. In the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League, Bayern Munich defeated Arsenal 5–1 in the group stage. In the next year's competition they met again in the round of 16, where Bayern repeated the scoreline home and away for a 10–2 aggregate victory. On 1 October 2019, Bayern thrashed Tottenham Hotspur 7–2 win in a 2019–20 UEFA Champions League match. The outspoken Brian Clough is on record boasting that he never lost to a German side and that he took satisfaction from this for what the Germans had done to his father during the war. Clough memorably led Nottingham Forest to a 1–0 win in Cologne following a 3–3 draw at the City Ground in the 1979 semi-final en route to Forest winning their first European Cup. There were also some encounters between English league sides and clubs from East Germany which mostly ended in favour of the English sides, although these confrontations were less spectacular than those involving clubs from West Germany. Players The rivalry between the two nations has not prevented their respective nationals from playing in each other's domestic leagues, many notable German players have played in England, including Bert Trautmann (Manchester City), Jürgen Klinsmann (Tottenham Hotspur), Jens Lehmann (Arsenal), Michael Ballack (Chelsea), Mesut Özil (Arsenal), Lukas Podolski (Arsenal), Jérôme Boateng (Manchester City), Bastian Schweinsteiger (Manchester United) and İlkay Gündoğan (Manchester City). Trautmann was voted Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year in 1956 for continuing to play in goal for Manchester City in the 1956 FA Cup final despite a neck injury. Klinsmann was voted the same accolade in 1995 while playing for Tottenham, where he pioneered the 'diving' goal celebration. Fewer Englishmen have played in Germany, with notable players being Kevin Keegan (Hamburger SV), Jude Bellingham (Borussia Dortmund), Owen Hargreaves (Bayern Munich). Keegan won two consecutive Ballon d'Or awards and was a European Cup finalist during his time at Hamburg. In 2023, England's captain and all-time highest goalscorer, Harry Kane joined Bayern Munich from Tottenham Hotspur. See also Argentina–England football rivalry England–Ireland football rivalry England–Scotland football rivalry English football club rivalries France–Germany football rivalry Germany–Italy football rivalry Germany–Netherlands football rivalry German football rivalries References External links Article detailing 10 famous England v Germany matches Football and the Battle of Britain – analysis of Anglo-German football rivalry England v Germany 2010 Pre-Match England v Germany: The results in full at The Observer England-Germany matches 1908-2017 at RSSSF International association football rivalries England national football team rivalries Germany national football team rivalries Football England at the 1966 FIFA World Cup England at the 1970 FIFA World Cup England at the 1990 FIFA World Cup England at the 2002 FIFA World Cup England at the 2010 FIFA World Cup England at UEFA Euro 1996 England at UEFA Euro 2000 England at UEFA Euro 2020 West Germany at the 1966 FIFA World Cup West Germany at the 1970 FIFA World Cup West Germany at the 1990 FIFA World Cup Germany at the 2002 FIFA World Cup Germany at the 2010 FIFA World Cup Germany at UEFA Euro 1996 Germany at UEFA Euro 2000 Germany at UEFA Euro 2020 Football hooliganism in the United Kingdom
5328241	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Overground	London Overground	London Overground (also known simply as the Overground) is a suburban rail network serving London and its environs. Established in 2007 to take over Silverlink Metro routes, it now serves a large part of Greater London as well as the home county of Hertfordshire, with 113 stations on nine different routes. The Overground forms part of the United Kingdom's National Rail network but it is under the concession control and branding of Transport for London (TfL). Operation has been contracted to Arriva Rail London since 2016. TfL assigned orange as a mode-specific colour for the Overground in branding and publicity including the roundel, on the Tube map, trains and stations. History Pre-1999 Rail services in Great Britain are mostly run under franchises operated by private train operating companies, marketed together as National Rail. The concept of developing a network of orbital services around London goes back to the independently produced Ringrail proposals in the early 1970s. Some of these were evaluated in the London Rail Study of 1974 (the Barren Report) and Barren suggested consideration of a North London Network of orbital services, based on a later suggestion by the Ringrail Group, which involved using many existing rail routes, rather than the new construction suggested in earlier drafts of the Ringrail Plan. The proposal from Barren was for several overlapping services mainly using the North London line, generally at 20-minute intervals. The suggested routes followed the original North London line service from Broad Street to Richmond, new services from Barking to Clapham Junction, and a third service from Ealing Broadway to North Woolwich. However, the Wilson government's continuing antipathy to the railways, along with British Rail's management's lack of interest in minor local train services, meant that few of these initiatives were carried forward. In 1979, the then Greater London Council (GLC) decided to sponsor an improved service from Camden Road, on the North London line, to North Woolwich, opening up a previously freight-only line between Dalston and Stratford and linking it to an improved Stratford – North Woolwich service. This was given the marketing name Crosstown Linkline, and operated with basic two-car diesel multiple units. The next initiative came from the GLC in 1984, when the government supported the Broadgate development that would entail the demolition of Broad Street station. The closure process was convoluted because of problems in making alternative arrangements for the North London line, and the remaining services operating from Watford Junction to the City. These eventually ran to and from Liverpool Street via a new section of track, the Graham Road Curve. British Rail replaced the existing three-car electric trains (built 1957) with slightly newer but shorter two-car electric trains (built 1959), leading to overcrowding. In 1988, by reorganising and reducing services on the Great Northern routes from Moorgate, about 18 relatively modern dual-voltage electric trains were transferred to operate the North London and Watford services, from both Euston and Liverpool Street. Several voluntary sector groups, the Railway Development Society (RDS, later Railfuture), Transport 2000's then London groups, and the Capital Transport Campaign, launched a series of leaflets and briefings promoting a concept called Outer Circle. This name had once been used for a semi-circular service from Broad Street to Mansion House, which ceased during World War I. Mayor of London and GLA The pamphlets and briefings, first issued in 1997, initially suggested a route from Clapham Junction to the Greenwich Peninsula, intended to improve access from south London to the Millennium Dome. However, this was thwarted by architect Richard Rogers who considered that a railway route on a viaduct could cause "community severance", and so the Victorian brick viaduct was demolished. Nothing further happened to develop this network until after the new Greater London Authority (GLA) was launched in 2000. But the lobbying discreetly continued, with a series of short briefings published by one RDS member based in North London. Mayoral and GLA candidates were approached to discuss the viability of the Outer Circle concept. The principle was widely supported and was adopted into the first Mayor's Transport Plan, published in 2001. Meanwhile, a pilot scheme was launched in 2003 to bring several National Rail local services, mainly in South London, operated by Connex South Eastern, Southern and South West Trains under the ON – Overground Network brand. TfL introduced consistent information displays, station signage and maps on the selected routes in South London. Although this pilot was primarily an exercise in branding, some service improvements were introduced, and it was the first instance of the newly created TfL having a visible influence over National Rail services. The pilot scheme was later dropped. In January 2004 the Department for Transport (DfT) announced a review of the rail industry in Great Britain. As part of that review, TfL proposed a "London Regional Rail Authority" to give TfL regulatory powers over rail services in and around Greater London. A result of this consultation was agreement by the Secretary of State for Transport, Alistair Darling, to transfer the Silverlink Metro services from DfT to TfL control. Silverlink had two areas of operation: Silverlink County regional services from to , , and ; and Silverlink Metro within the London urban area. When the franchise was split up in 2007, County services were taken over by the London Midland franchise, and the Metro services came under TfL control. TfL decided to let this franchise as a management contract, with TfL taking the revenue risk. Announcements and launch On 20 February 2006, the DfT announced that TfL would take over management of services then provided by Silverlink Metro. Tenders were invited to operate the service under the provisional name of the North London Railway. On 5 September 2006, London Overground branding was announced, and it was confirmed that the extended East London line would be included. On 25 June 2007 a statutory instrument was laid before parliament to exclude the ex-Silverlink metro lines from the franchising process which enabled them to be operated as a concession. On 11 November 2007, TfL took over the North London Railway routes from Silverlink Metro. The following day there was an official launch ceremony at Hampstead Heath station with the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone; there was also a later media event on the bay platform at Willesden Junction. The launch was accompanied by a marketing campaign entitled "London's new train set", with posters and leaflets carrying an image of model railway packaging containing new Overground trains, tracks and staff. At the launch, TfL undertook to revamp the routes by improving service frequencies and station facilities, staffing all stations, introducing new rolling stock and allowing Oyster pay as you go throughout the network from the outset. After the takeover, all stations were "deep-cleaned", and Silverlink branding removed. Station signage was replaced with Overground-branded signs using TfL's corporate New Johnston typeface. On 15 April 2009 the North London line trains at Stratford moved to new high-level platforms 1 and 2 from low-level platforms 1 and 2, which were needed for the Docklands Light Railway's Stratford International service. The new platforms 1 and 2 are an island platform with step-free access to platform 12 and subway links to platforms 3–11. On 27 September 2009, Imperial Wharf station opened on the West London line, between West Brompton and . East London line extension On 27 April 2010, the East London line became part of the London Overground network when the Phase 1 extension was completed. The former London Underground line was extended northwards, mostly along the former Broad Street viaduct of the North London line, to the re-opened , and southwards to and West Croydon. Operations began with a limited preview service between Dalston Junction and New Cross/New Cross Gate, with full operation between Dalston Junction and West Croydon/Crystal Palace on 23 May. On 28 February 2011, the line between Dalston Junction and Highbury & Islington was opened. In attendance were the Mayor of London and London Underground's Managing Director. TfL announced in November 2010 that ridership was ahead of forecast at 92,000 a day, and that patronage at Surrey Quays had "gone through the roof". The incorporation of the East London line into the Overground network has added substantial sections of line in tunnel, including the historic Thames Tunnel, the oldest tunnel under a navigable river in the world. A peculiarity is that at the London Overground runs below the London Underground (though there are other parts of the network where this occurs, e.g. the Watford Junction to Euston route between Kenton and South Kenton – shared with the Bakerloo line – passes under the Metropolitan line between Northwick Park and Preston Road). South London line extension The next addition opened on 9 December 2012, from to via the South London line, calling at , , , and . The extension uses an alignment between Surrey Quays and just north of that had been disused since 1911; new track was laid after some major civil engineering works. Passive provision has also been made for a new station at , to be constructed when funding becomes fully available. This was put on hold in 2009, although a suitable station 'foundation structure' has been built to facilitate completion in the future. Funding for the railway rebuilding project was secured in February 2009, including £64 million from the DfT and £15 million from TfL, and construction began in May 2011. The route passes over both and stations without stopping, and this lack of interchange stations was criticised by local politicians during the planning phase of the project. No stations are planned at these locations as the line is on high railway arches, making the cost of any station construction prohibitive. Liverpool Street station services On 31 May 2015 the Liverpool Street to Enfield Town, Cheshunt (via Seven Sisters) and Chingford services, as well as the Romford to Upminster service, were transferred from Greater Anglia to TfL to become part of the London Overground network. Network Introduction The initial network, service levels and timetables were a continuation of Silverlink Metro services, a set of routes primarily built and electrified by the North London and London & North Western railway companies in the 19th and early 20th centuries. As the Overground name implies, the majority of the network is above ground, and it mostly consists of railway lines that connect areas outside Central London, with a considerable portion of the network in Zone 2. The network also uses in central London, the southern terminus of the Watford DC line. The network interchanges with the Bakerloo, Central, District, Hammersmith & City, Jubilee, Northern, Circle, Metropolitan and Victoria tube lines, and also with the Docklands Light Railway, Tramlink and Elizabeth line networks. The Overground lines appear on Tube maps issued by TfL, and a separate map of the system is available. Much of London Overground passes through less affluent areas, and is seen as contributing to their regeneration. The North London and Gospel Oak to Barking lines were previously considered by the Transport Committee of the London Assembly to be neglected and not developed to their full potential. Services , the typical off-peak service pattern is: Battersea Park railway station is served by an infrequent parliamentary train service from , which terminates at Battersea Park instead of . Since the reorganization of services into the London Overground network, this has been the only service to use the link from platform 2 at Battersea Park to . Depots Highbury & Islington to New Cross, Clapham Junction, Crystal Palace and West Croydon services are served by New Cross Gate TMD. Richmond and Clapham Junction to Stratford, Watford Junction to Euston, and Gospel Oak to Barking services are served by Willesden TMD. London Liverpool Street to Enfield Town, Cheshunt and Chingford, and Romford to Upminster are served by Ilford EMU Depot, Chingford sidings and Gidea Park Sidings. Operations London Overground's head office and control centre are at Swiss Cottage. Rolling stock is maintained at Willesden Junction and New Cross Gate TMDs, the latter being newly built for the extended East London line. There are also sidings at Silwood Triangle (just north of New Cross depot), built in 2013–14. Satellite locations for stabling trains include Stratford, London Euston and sidings (mainly used by London Northwestern Railway), and c2c's East Ham Depot. Train crews are based at stations including Euston, Willesden Junction, Watford Junction, New Cross, Stratford and Gospel Oak. Until recently London Overground operated with a conductor or guard on its North London, West London and Gospel Oak services. With the other 60% of Overground services already operated by only a driver, it was decided in 2013 to convert these remaining two-person operated trains to driver only. Operator London Overground is operated by a private company, Arriva Rail London. Following a model similar to that used for the Docklands Light Railway, TfL invited tenders for operation of the Overground. Unlike other National Rail operators under the franchise control of the Department for Transport, TfL sets fares, procures rolling stock and decides service levels. The operator takes only a small element of revenue risk, with TfL taking 90% and the operator 10%. The first operator, London Overground Rail Operations, a 50:50 joint venture between Laing Rail and MTR Corporation, was chosen by TfL on 19 June 2007. The contract was signed on 2 July 2007 for seven years with the option of a two-year extension. In preparation for the launch of the Overground, MTR Laing renamed itself London Overground Rail Operations. In February 2013, it was awarded a concession extension until 14 November 2016. In April 2015, TfL placed a notice in the Official Journal of the European Union, inviting expressions of interest in operating the next concession. In March 2016, TfL announced that Arriva Rail London had won the right to operate the London Overground concession, starting from 13 November 2016. Ticketing Ticketing is a mix of paper, Oyster cards, electronic smart cards and contactless payment cards for "pay-as-you-go" travel. As with all National Rail and TfL services in London, passengers can use a Travelcard (daily, seven-day, monthly or annual); as on other National Rail services in London, paper single, return and cheap day return tickets priced under the zonal fare scheme are also available. As part of an effort to improve safety and protect revenue, TfL has announced that it will introduce ticket barriers at a number of stations. The stations that did not have barriers when TfL took over have been fitted with standalone Oyster card readers similar to those at ungated Underground and DLR stations. The validators at which were needed to enter/exit the Oyster card system when changing to and from the Victoria line were replaced with route validators, coloured pink: these are used to show that a traveller using Oyster PAYG changed lines at that station, showing which of the possible routes was used. Typically, this avoids paying for zone 1 when the passenger did not travel into it. Ticket stock is common National Rail stock, as Overground services remain part of the National Rail network, but sometimes with a large TfL roundel in the centre and the repeated legend "Rail Settlement Plan" or on newer versions "National Rail" on a light green background. This ticket stock, coded "TFL" on the reverse, was introduced in November 2007. Ticket pricing Oyster PAYG is charged on the same zone-based rules as for the Underground and the Docklands Light Railway. Stations outside Greater London (except Watford Junction) are included in the new Travelcard Zones 7-9. On 2 January 2008 Acton Central was moved from zone 2 to 3, Hampstead Heath from 3 to 2 and Willesden Junction from 3 to both 2 and 3. Paper tickets are charged on the same zone-based rules as for Underground and DLR paper tickets, which were expanded to take in the extra zones covered. Watford Junction has its own fare scale. Paper tickets are significantly more expensive than using Oyster PAYG. Performance Although a TfL service, the Overground is part of the National Rail network, unlike the Underground. The most recent figures released by Network Rail (NR), for period 7 (20132014), showed that it had achieved 96.6% of the Public Performance Measure (PPM) target for punctuality and reliability set by the ORR – down 0.9 percentage points on the period last year. The moving annual average (MAA) of the PPM for the 12 months to 12 October 2013 was 96.5%. TfL, in conjunction with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has investigated the use of data from the Oyster smartcard ticketing system to measure the performance of the Overground explicitly from the passenger perspective. In the autumn 2011 National Passenger Survey, conducted by Passenger Focus, London Overground received an overall satisfaction rating of 92%, a 7% improvement on the previous survey. However, a survey in February 2014 by the consumer group Which? found that customer satisfaction of London Overground was at sixth place (out of 20 train operators) with a satisfaction percentage of 58%. Branding Public presentation is visually associated with TfL design standards, using similar graphic design elements to those used on the Underground. These design standards have been applied to London Overground stations, signage, rolling stock and publicity. London Overground also uses the TfL corporate typeface, New Johnston, on its signage, publicity, and stationery and on its fleet of trains. In common with other TfL services, the Overground is denoted by its own colour, a vivid orange (Pantone 158C). The orange colour was inherited from the former East London line prior to its transfer from Underground to Overground. London Overground lines are shown on the tube map in orange; the map does not use colours to distinguish between the different Overground lines. Like the Docklands Light Railway and the Elizabeth line, the Overground is represented by a double line rather than a solid single line, to distinguish it from the colour-coded Underground lines. The London Overground also uses a variant of the TfL roundel. TfL denotes its different transport modes such as London Underground and London Buses with variants of the roundel device using a range of colours, and the London Overground version consists of an orange ring with a blue bar. The roundel has its origins in a 1933 design by the London Passenger Transport Board and has spawned many variations. All Overground lines are also not officially distinguished by individual names, unlike the Underground. Some services such as the Gospel Oak to Barking line is nicknamed colloquially as the "Goblin". Mayor of London Sadiq Khan in April 2022 pledged that he would invite Londoners to give all Overground lines individual names to reflect their "diverse history" if he be reelected in 2024. Unlike other National Rail stations, London Overground stations which are not served by another National Rail operator now omit the red National Rail "double arrow" logo from signage outside the stations, using only the Overground roundel instead. A few refurbished or new stations on the reopened East London line display the station name in large orange three-dimensional uppercase letters. Passenger numbers Passenger numbers have grown very quickly since the start of London Overground in 2007. There were big increases in 2010/11 and 2011/12 due to the opening of the extensions of the East London line and South London line. The transfer of some suburban services from Liverpool Street in May 2015 from the Greater Anglia franchise to London Overground also distorted numbers, contributing to a very large growth between 2014/15 and 2015/16. Rolling stock Since the London Overground took over from Silverlink, TfL has pursued a programme of rolling-stock replacement in order to remove from service the ageing second-generation EMUs and Class 150 DMUs it inherited from Silverlink. In 2009, Class 378 Capitalstars built by Bombardier's Derby Litchurch Lane Works were introduced on the electrified lines to replace the and units used previously, while the Class 150s were replaced by new Class 172 Turbostar units on the non-electrified Gospel Oak to Barking Line. By October 2010, the new rolling stock had completely replaced the units previously operated by Silverlink. The Class 313 and 150s were cascaded to other train operating companies Southern, First Capital Connect and First Great Western. The Class 508 units were stored at Eastleigh Works but were subsequently scrapped in 2013 after being deemed unfit. Before its closure to become part of the London Overground, services on the East London line were operated with London Underground A60 and A62 Stock. The Class 378 trains were officially unveiled at on 13 July 2009. They include a number of tube-style features, including longitudinal seating and increased standing room to provide a high-capacity metro service. They also benefit from walk-through carriage interiors and air conditioning. The North London line has a base fleet of 24 four-car units, Class 378/2. However, these were delivered as three-car units (378/0), with the extended trains being introduced from September 2010, following platform extension works and delivery of the first 20 four-car units (378/1) for the East London line. A further 13 dual-voltage units were delivered to expand services, taking the total fleet to 57 four-car units. These trains are to be extended to five-car sets towards the end of 2014, starting with the East London line sets. The trains are leased from newly formed rolling stock company (ROSCO) QW Rail Leasing until 2027. TfL planned initially to buy the new fleet outright, but in February 2008 announced that it would lease the trains in order to free up the £250 million capital cost of purchase, combined with reducing the risk of making a loss through any future sell-on of the fleet. Eight two-car Class 172/0 units, leased from Angel Trains, entered service in 2010. At first their speed was restricted to but the restriction was lifted when a test was found to be flawed. TfL invited expressions of interest for a total of 39 four-car EMUs in April 2014, with 30 required for the Lea Valley lines, eight for the Gospel Oak to Barking line, and one for the Romford–Upminster line all to replace older Class 172, Class 315 and Class 317 trains. Since then the planned procurement was increased to 45 four-car EMUs, with the additional six units intended for the Watford DC Line. In July 2015, TfL announced that it had placed a £260M order for 45 four-car Bombardier Aventra EMUs, with an option for 24 more, for use on the Lea Valley lines and the Watford DC line, Gospel Oak to Barking line and Romford–Upminster line from 2018. The type will be known as the and will be similar to the used by Crossrail. Nine further units were ordered in February 2018, split between an additional three Class 710/2 units for use on the extended Gospel Oak to Barking line, and six 5-car units to allow Class 378 units to be cascaded to strengthened East London line services. On 22 May 2019, TfL announced that approval had been gained for the Class 710s to enter passenger service. The first two units entered service on the Gospel Oak to Barking line on Thursday 23 May 2019 and the remaining six were in service by August 2019, with the first unit entering service on the Watford DC line on 9 September 2019. The first units on the Lea Valley lines entered service on 3 March 2020 after a first attempt on 24 February 2020. Their use on Romford–Upminster line services began in October 2020. Current fleet Past fleet Former train types operated by London Overground include: Livery All Capitalstar and Aventra stock in service now carries Overground livery. It is similar to Underground livery, and consists of white and black coaches, a longitudinal thick blue stripe and a thin orange stripe along the bottom, London Overground roundels at midpoints along the coaches, black window-surrounds and orange doors. The ends of each Class 378 unit are painted yellow to comply with the National Rail standards that existed when the first wave of new trains began to enter service in 2009. However, Class 710 units do not have this as they were introduced into service after new standards released by the RSSB since most trains now have European-styled headlights allowing for better visibility from afar, unlike before when they needed the yellow fronts for visibility. The seat upholstery features a moquette by fabric designers Wallace Sewell. As railway lines have been transferred to London Overground operation, services are sometimes operated using rolling stock inherited from the previous train operating company, and for a temporary period these trains have been branded with transitional livery until they are replaced with newer rolling stock. When the first London Overground services began, they were operated using Silverlink rolling stock which retained Silverlink's purple and lime green livery with yellow doors. The Silverlink logos were removed and Overground banners were added. This rolling stock was eventually completely replaced with new, Overground-branded trains. Similarly, since the takeover of the Lea Valley lines, Overground services are being run with trains inherited from Abellio Greater Anglia which are mostly in a plain white livery with red doors. Prior to replacement of this rolling stock, the trains were repainted with full Overground livery and the interiors refurbished with Wallace Sewell upholstery and TfL standard signage and route maps. In June 2018, London Overground unveiled its first complete Class 710 unit, complete with a newly designed livery and moquette. In October, it then began a programme to refresh the Class 378 fleet, giving them a livery designed to appear similar to the one designed for the Class 710. Recent developments Gospel Oak to Barking line Electrification It was announced in June 2013 that £115 million of funding for electrification was being made available as part of upgrades to rail infrastructure included in the government's 2013 spending round. At the same time Transport for London announced that they had obtained a £90 million commitment from the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Secretary of State for Transport. In September 2015, Network Rail awarded the £56.9m contract to electrify the line to J. Murphy & Sons. Part closures (on weekends and from South Tottenham to Barking) were planned from June to late September 2016, followed by a full closure from October to February 2017, and further evening and weekend works until late June 2017, and finally around four months of further work to add the wires so that electric Class 710 trains can run from early 2018. The line was to be electrified using the NR Series 2 OLE range. Extension to Barking Riverside It was announced as part of the 2014 United Kingdom budget that the Gospel Oak to Barking line would be extended to Barking Riverside station. £263 million was to be spent to extend the line to the brownfield 10,800-home Barking Riverside housing development, which Barking and Dagenham Council did not believe to be viable without improved transport connections. The developers of the site, Barking Riverside Limited, would provide £172million towards the project, with the remainder coming from Transport for London. Construction started in 2017 and was planned to be completed by 2021. London Overground services started running to Barking Riverside on 18 July 2022. Night service London Overground began running 24-hour trains on Friday and Saturday nights, similar to the Night Tube of London Underground, between Dalston Junction and New Cross Gate from 15 December 2017. In February 2018 the service was extended to Highbury & Islington, which interchanges with overnight services of the Victoria line. Proposed developments Watford DC line move to Bakerloo In 2007, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to . It was suggested that most or all of the line from to Watford Junction would be used exclusively by the London Underground; London Overground services would be withdrawn. As part of this change, Overground services would have been diverted at Primrose Hill Junction via (closed to passengers since 1992) to , providing a new service between Queen's Park and Stratford. Had this change taken place, and would no longer have had direct services to Euston station, hindering access to central London. The official Croxley Rail document states, "Bakerloo Line extension to Watford Unlikely" and "TfL’s plans to extend the Bakerloo Line to Watford Junction are on hold indefinitely due to funding and business case constraints". Croxley Link Plans were approved in 2011 for the Croxley Rail Link, diverting the Watford branch of London Underground's Metropolitan line to Watford Junction via , where it would share tracks with the Overground. However, in early 2017 this scheme was paused due to funding issues. Old Oak Common interchange A long-term plan exists to create an interchange with High Speed 2 at the proposed Old Oak Common station. Planning documents issued by the DfT suggest that the new station, on a site just south of , could open by 2025 and offer connections with the Overground on both the North London and West London lines. The station would also be served by Crossrail, Great Western Main Line services and Heathrow Express, and the proposals indicate the possibility of interchange with the Bakerloo and Central lines. The plans are supported by the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. In June 2013, the Mayor of London and the London Boroughs of Brent, Ealing and Hammersmith & Fulham released 'vision' consultation documents about the Old Oak Common area. These documents mention various connections to the London Overground system, linking Old Oak to the North London line, West London line, and to two new London Overground branches, to Hounslow, and – via the Dudding Hill Line – to Thameslink stations on the Midland Main Line. In October 2017, TfL began a public consultation on the construction of two new Overground stations, on the West London line and on the North London line. If built, these stations would provide interchange between London Overground and Old Oak Common station. Thamesmead extension In addition to the plan to extend the Gospel Oak to Barking line to Barking Riverside, there are also proposals to extend it further under the River Thames to a station in Thamesmead, and then on Abbey Wood to connect with the Elizabeth line. Transport for London has confirmed that the Mayor has asked them to look at both the Overground extension from Barking Riverside and a DLR extension, for connecting to Thamesmead. Future acquisitions Following the completion of the first phase of the London Overground network in December 2012, TfL has expressed its intention to take over the operation of other suburban lines in the London area. As with the original London Overground system, this would involve devolving National Rail services from the DfT's franchising system to a TfL-managed concession. On 21 January 2016 it was announced consideration was being given to the possibility of gradually transferring the suburban services operated by Southeastern, South West Trains and Govia Thameslink Railway (Great Northern and Southern) to TfL to create a London Suburban Metro. Past attempts on acquiring routes In 2012–13, TfL and the Greater London Authority publicised a proposal for further expansion, identifying a number of services in North-East and South-East London as suitable candidates. Part of this proposal was fulfilled in May 2015 with the transfer of the Lea Valley and Romford-Upminster Lines out of to the London Overground network, but TfL's aim of acquiring Southeastern metro services currently remains at the proposal stage. Under this scheme, TfL would take over rail services out of , and to , , and , but this was rejected following spending cuts imposed by the 2013 United Kingdom budget. The possibility of TfL acquiring routes out of London Bridge has also been discussed. In October 2015, the prospect of London Overground expansion was raised again when the London Assembly Transport Committee published a report which advocated the devolution of a number of commuter rail services and the creation of a "South London Metro". In particular, the report identified four rail franchises due for renewal which could be taken over by TfL: the South Western franchise from to South West London suburbs the Thameslink, Southern and Great Northern franchise (Great Northern and Southern metro services) out of to North London and out of London Bridge/Victoria to South London suburbs the Integrated Kent franchise (Southeastern metro services) out of Victoria/Charing Cross/Cannon Street/London Bridge to South East London suburbs Kent County Council had initially expressed opposition to the Dartford route plans on account of limited capacity for Kent express trains being lost to expanded TfL services, but after negotiations with the London Assembly, reached an agreement to support the proposals. Greenford branch The Department for Transport has proposed that Transport for London should take over the Greenford to West Ealing line in West London. This would bring Greenford, , , and into the Overground network. Trains on this branch used to run directly to Paddington, but were curtailed at West Ealing in order to free up line capacity for the forthcoming Crossrail services, with West Ealing reconstructed to allow Greenford branch trains to terminate there. If this proposal were to go ahead, it would happen when the Greater Western franchise ends in 2023. West London Orbital Proposals to reopen the Dudding Hill Line to passenger services as part of the London Overground have been mooted for several years. In June 2019, TfL published a report examining the possibility of opening the line as a London Overground branch line connecting Hounslow with Cricklewood and Hendon, with stations at , Lionel Road, , and . Crowd information In 2017 it was reported that a system is being trialled at Shoreditch High Street station that indicates the crowding in each train carriage. The technology, already in use on Thameslink trains, helps passengers find the least crowded carriage when boarding a train and should reduce dwell times at stations. If the trial is successful, it will be rolled out across the London Overground network. See also Overground Network Orbirail Tramlink London Buses East London Transit Cycling in London Urban rail in the United Kingdom References Further reading Asher, Wayne (2015). A Very Political Railway – the rescue of the North London Line. Glover, John (2013). London's Overground. External links London Rail 2007 establishments in England 2007 in London Croydon 2020 Electric railways in the United Kingdom Overground Rail infrastructure in London Railway operators in London Urban ring railways
5328402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis%20Ishikawa	Travis Ishikawa	Travis Takashi Ishikawa (born September 24, 1983) is an American former professional baseball first baseman and current Minor League coach. He played for the San Francisco Giants, Milwaukee Brewers, Baltimore Orioles, New York Yankees and Pittsburgh Pirates. Ishikawa has also filled in as an outfielder at times in his career. Ishikawa grew up in Washington. He was selected in the 21st round of the 2002 Major League Baseball Draft by the San Francisco Giants out of high school and made his major league debut with the team in 2006. He started 2009 as the Giants' first baseman. On defense he was third in the National League in fielding percentage. In 2010, he earned a World Series ring as part of the Giants' World Series victory. Ishikawa signed with the Milwaukee Brewers in 2012 and in 2014 made the Pittsburgh Pirates Opening Day roster. He was re-signed by his former team the Giants in April and started for them in left field during the 2014 playoffs. On October 16, 2014, Ishikawa hit a walk-off three-run home run to give the Giants their third National League pennant in five years by defeating the St. Louis Cardinals. Early life Ishikawa attended Federal Way High School in Federal Way, Washington, where he lettered in baseball, leading his team to the Washington State Class 4A Title as a junior in 2001 and to the title game as a senior in 2002. Professional career Draft and minor leagues Ishikawa was drafted in the 21st round of the 2002 draft by the San Francisco Giants. The Giants gave him a $955,000 bonus to prevent him from attending Oregon State University. The bonus was at the time the highest for a non-first-round player, cued on by the organization's approaching signing deadline. The Giants could afford to pay a 21st-round pick that much because their higher picks had signed quickly for routine bonuses. Ishikawa began his career playing for the rookie-league Arizona League Giants in 2002. He batted .279 with 10 runs scored, 19 hits, one home run and 10 Runs batted in (RBI) in 19 games (68 at-bats) before being called up to the Class A Short Season Salem-Keizer Volcanoes of the Northwest League. With Salem-Keizer, he hit .307 with 14 runs scored, 27 hits, one home run, and 17 RBI in 23 games (96 at-bats). His performance helped Salem-Keizer win the Northwest League championship. In 2003, Ishikawa was initially assigned to the Class A Hagerstown Suns of the South Atlantic League. After he batted .206 with 20 runs scored, 40 hits, three home runs, and 22 RBI in 57 games (194 at-bats), he was demoted to Salem-Keizer. In 66 games (248 at-bats) with the Volcanoes, he batted .254 with 53 runs scored, 63 hits, three home runs, and 31 RBI. Coming into 2004, Ishikawa was ranked the Giants' seventh-best prospect by Baseball America. He spent most of 2004 with the Suns, batting .257 with 59 runs scored, 92 hits, and 54 RBI in 97 games (355 at-bats). He tied with Nate Schierholtz for the team lead with 15 home runs, and he won the Hagerstown Player of the Month award in July. In the last month of the season, Ishikawa was promoted to the Class A-Advanced San Jose Giants of the California League, where he batted .232 with 10 runs scored, 13 hits, one home run, and 10 RBI in 16 games (56 at-bats). He also played eight playoff games for San Jose. Ishikawa was ranked the 10th-best prospect in the Giants' organization by Baseball America entering 2005. In 2005, he spent the entire season with San Jose. In 127 games (432 at-bats), he batted .282 with 87 runs scored, 122 hits, and 79 RBI. His 22 home runs ranked fourth in the San Francisco Giants' organization and tied with Bryan LaHair, Travis Metcalf, and Aneudi Cuevas for seventh in the California League. He appeared in six playoff games, batting .217 with four RBI as San Jose won the California League championship. Before the 2006 season, Baseball America ranked Ishikawa the number four prospect in the Giants' organization. He attended spring training with the Giants for the first time in his career. San Francisco Giants (2006, 2008–2010) 2006 He was recalled from the minors for the first time on April 18 when Lance Niekro was placed on the Bereavement List, and made his major league debut the same day in a 7–4 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks. His first big league hit came on April 19 as a pinch-hit single off Brandon Webb in a 10–3 loss to Arizona. The next day, he returned to the minors to make room for Niekro. On May 26, he was recalled when Daniel Ortmeier was sent to the minors. He had his first big league start that day against the Colorado Rockies and had three hits, two doubles and three RBI in a 9–0 victory. After the game, Kevin Frandsen and Todd Greene gave him a pie in the face to celebrate. After four games (during which he hit .500), he was returned to the minors on May 30. He was recalled on June 13 when Niekro went on the disabled list again. After six games on this stint, he returned to the minors on June 21 when Frandsen was recalled. In the minor leagues that year, Ishikawa played for the Double-A Connecticut Defenders of the Eastern League. In 86 games (298 at-bats), he batted .232 with 33 runs scored, 69 hits, 10 home runs, and 42 RBI. In 12 games (24 at-bats) with the Giants, he batted .292 with one run scored, seven hits, no home runs, and four RBI. After the season, he played for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the Arizona Fall League. 2007 (minors) Ishikawa attended spring training with the Giants in 2007 but was reassigned to the minors on March 6. He spent the entire season in the minors, splitting time between Connecticut and San Jose. He began the season with Connecticut, hitting .214 with three home runs and 17 RBI in 48 games (173 at-bats) before suffering a knee injury. He was sent to San Jose on June 28 to recover from it, and he said that the Giants told him he would be promoted to Triple-A after a rehab assignment. However, he struggled and remained with San Jose for the rest of the year, batting .268 with 13 home runs, 34 RBI, and a .551 slugging percentage in 56 games (198 at-bats). He batted .241, hit two home runs, and posted five RBI in the playoffs as San Jose won another California League championship. 2008 In 2008, Ishikawa again attended spring training for the Giants and again began the season in the minors. On August 13, he was called up by the Giants to replace a slumping John Bowker as the Giants' starting first baseman, a position Ishikawa held for most of the remainder of the season. Ishikawa hit his first major league home run on August 17 at Turner Field, a two-run shot off Charlie Morton to right field in a 3–1 victory over the Atlanta Braves. He set a career high by having three hits on September 12 and 14 against the San Diego Padres. In 33 games (95 at-bats) with the Giants, Ishikawa batted .274 with 12 runs, 26 hits, six doubles, three home runs, and 15 RBI. Prior to his callup by the Giants, Ishikawa played for Connecticut and the Triple-A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League, batting .299 (121-for-405) with 69 runs, 35 doubles, 24 home runs, and 94 RBI in 112 games with both clubs. Initially, he was assigned to Connecticut, where he batted .289 with 16 doubles, 8 home runs, and 45 RBI in 64 games before earning a promotion to Fresno on June 20. In 48 games with Fresno, he batted .310 with 19 doubles, 16 home runs, and 46 RBI in 171 at-bats. He had the fourth-highest average, the second-most home runs, and the third-most RBI of players in the Giants' organization. In May and June, Ishikawa was awarded the Giants Player of Month title; from June 2 to 8 he was named the Eastern League Player of Week after amassing 10 hit in 22 at-bats (.455 average) with three home runs and nine RBI. 2009 Ishikawa retained the position of starting first baseman in 2009. In the first game of the season, Ishikawa had two hits, including a three-RBI triple in the first inning against Milwaukee Brewers' starting pitcher Jeff Suppan as the Giants won 10–6. From May 25 through July 11, Ishikawa had his best stretch of the year, batting .326 while hitting seven home runs and driving in 17 runs. He set a career high with four hits on May 25 and hit his first home run of the year, a three-run shot against Buddy Carlyle, in an 8–2 victory over Atlanta. On July 3, he hit a ball that was originally ruled a double against Felipe Paulino, but the umpires changed it to a three-run home run after watching the replay as the Giants won 13–0 over the Houston Astros. Ishikawa and Juan Uribe hit the Giants' first set of back-to-back home runs in 2009 against Josh Geer on July 9 in a 9–3 victory over the Padres. Through July 26, he batted .269 with seven home runs and 30 RBI. On July 27, the Giants traded for Ryan Garko from the Cleveland Indians, intending for him to replace Ishikawa at first base and provide more offense than Ishikawa had. However, Garko struggled to produce offensively, and at the end of August Ishikawa began making most of the starts at first for the rest of the year. On August 25, he snapped a 2–2 tie with a game-winning three-run eighth-inning home run against Jon Rauch as the Giants defeated Arizona 5–4. In 120 games (326 at-bats), Ishikawa batted .261 with 49 runs scored, 85 hits, 10 doubles, nine home runs, and 39 RBI. His batting average at AT&T Park was fifth in the National League (NL) for home stadiums at .349, but he batted .162 in away games. Defensively, his .996 fielding percentage was third in the NL behind Adam LaRoche's .999 and Todd Helton's .998. 2010 The Giants made Garko a free agent following the 2009 season, but they signed Aubrey Huff to play first base. As a result, Ishikawa spent most of 2010 pinch-hitting, backing up Huff, and entering as a defensive replacement at first base late in games. Ishikawa hit his first home run of the year on April 7, against Jeff Fulchino of the Astros in a 10–4 victory at Minute Maid Park. Huff began platooning in right field with Schierholtz (and later, with Andrés Torres) at the beginning of July, and Ishikawa got the starts at first base when Huff was in right field. On July 3, Ishikawa hit his first career grand slam against Ubaldo Jiménez (who had a 14–1 record at the time) in an 11–8 victory over Colorado. Ishikawa hit .290 with two home runs and 17 RBI in 36 games from July 1 through August 13, and he even saw his season batting average go over .300 at times during the stretch. However, the acquisition of José Guillén on August 13 moved Huff back to first base, which returned Ishikawa to a utility role. Giants' manager Bruce Bochy said, "[Ishikawa]'s done a nice job." Ishikawa ended up hitting .266 with three home runs and 22 RBI in 116 games (158 at-bats) for the season. He batted .315 as a pinch-hitter, which ranked seventh in the NL. In a reverse from 2009, he batted .326 on the road while only hitting .194 at AT&T Park. The Giants won the NL West for the first time since 2003, and Ishikawa was on the Giants' active roster throughout their postseason run. He had a pinch-hit double against Mark Lowe in Game 1 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers as the Giants won 11–7. In Game 4, he got his first start of the postseason, playing first base in the Giants' 4–0 victory. He earned a World Series ring as the Giants defeated Texas in five games to win their first World Series since 1954. 2011 After the final game of spring training in 2011, Ishikawa was designated for assignment and outrighted to the minors to make room for rookie first baseman Brandon Belt. On April 24, Ishikawa hit a grand slam for Fresno against Kevin Mulvey in a 12–5 victory over the Reno Aces. He did not appear for the Giants in 2011, spending the season with the Grizzlies until he injured his shoulder diving for a ball early in the year and underwent season-ending shoulder surgery in the summer of 2011. In 56 games (175 at-bats) for the Grizzlies, Ishikawa batted .251 with 21 runs scored, 44 hits, 14 doubles, three home runs, and 18 RBI. On November 2, the Giants made him a free agent. Milwaukee Brewers (2012) Ishikawa signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers on December 12, 2011, and made the team out of spring training as a backup first baseman and pinch hitter. On May 2, he became the starting first baseman for the Brewers after Mat Gamel tore his anterior cruciate ligament. He hit two home runs against Dillon Gee and had five RBI on May 15 in an 8–0 win over the New York Mets. He batted .250 with four home runs and 14 RBI in his first 32 games before going on the disabled list on May 27 with a left rib-cage strain. He returned from the disabled list on June 23, but by then Corey Hart had taken over the first base job, limiting Ishikawa to a reserve role for the rest of the year. On October 3, the final game of the season, Ishikawa had four RBI against Andrew Werner in a 7–6 loss to the Padres. In 94 games (152 at-bats), he hit .257 with four home runs and 30 RBI. On November 3, Ishikawa elected to become a free agent after being outrighted off the Brewers' 40-man roster the day before. Baltimore Orioles (2013) On December 19, 2012, Ishikawa signed a minor league contract with the Baltimore Orioles. He spent most of spring training with the team but was assigned to the Triple-A Norfolk Tides of the International League on March 27. In 49 games (177 at-bats) with Norfolk, he batted .316 with 56 hits, seven home runs, and 31 RBI. Ishikawa was brought up from the Tides on June 18 when pitcher Miguel González was placed on the paternity leave list; Ishikawa was called up to play designated hitter and give Chris Davis days off at first base. Ishikawa appeared in six games for the Orioles, getting two hits in 17 at-bats with 1 RBI. The Orioles designated him for assignment on June 29 to make room for Jair Jurrjens on the roster. New York Yankees (2013) Ishikawa was claimed off assignment waivers by the New York Yankees on July 7. He appeared in one game for the Yankees, starting at first base and going 0–2 with two strikeouts in a 5–1 loss to the Kansas City Royals. On July 14, Ishikawa cleared waivers and elected free agency after being designated for assignment when Derek Jeter returned from the 60-day disabled list. Chicago White Sox On July 18, 2013, Ishikawa signed a minor league deal with the Chicago White Sox and was assigned to the Charlotte Knights of the International League. In 34 games with the Knights (120 at-bats), he batted .250 with 30 hits, two home runs, and 23 RBI. His combined totals between Norfolk and Charlotte were a .290 batting average, 86 hits, nine home runs, and 54 RBI in 83 games (297 at-bats). Only able to see his family for 14 days between February and September, Ishikawa considered retirement. Pittsburgh Pirates (2014) After Ishikawa decided to play for one more season, the Pittsburgh Pirates signed him to a minor league contract. After prospect Andrew Lambo struggled in 2014 spring training, Ishikawa made the Pirates' roster. He started on Opening Day (March 31) and platooned at first base with Gaby Sánchez, with Ishikawa playing against right-hander and Sánchez playing against left-handers. Ishikawa batted .206 with one home run in 15 games. The Pirates traded for Ike Davis on April 18 and designated Ishikawa for assignment on April 19. He became a minor league free agent on April 23. Second stint with the Giants (2014–2015) 2014 Ishikawa signed a minor league deal with the Giants on April 24. After languishing in the minors for several months, Ishikawa again considered retirement, but the Giants promoted him to the major leagues on July 29 after ongoing injuries to first baseman Brandon Belt and a roster re-shuffle following a six-game losing streak. In late September, with the return of Belt to first base and ongoing injuries to outfielders Michael Morse and Ángel Pagán, the Giants asked Ishikawa to play left field for the first time in his career. Despite being a career first baseman and with just three career regular season starts in left field, Ishikawa became the Giants starting left fielder during the 2014 postseason. In the 2014 National League Championship Series, Ishikawa batted 5-for-13 (.385) with 7 RBIs. He recorded the game-winning RBI in Game 1 and drove in three runs via a bases-loaded double in Game 3. In Game 5, with the Giants leading the series three games to one, Ishikawa hit a 3-run walk-off home run in the bottom of the ninth inning off of St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Michael Wacha to clinch the pennant for the Giants and their third World Series appearance in the past five seasons. Ishikawa's home run was the first to send a National League team to the World Series since Bobby Thomson's Shot Heard 'Round the World in 1951. Ishikawa's home run was the first ever to end an NLCS and the fourth to end any LCS, after Chris Chambliss (1976 ALCS), Aaron Boone (2003 ALCS), and Magglio Ordóñez (2006 ALCS). Ishikawa earned his second World Series ring when the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals four games to three. 2015 On December 4, 2014, Ishikawa and the Giants agreed to a one-year, $1.1 million contract for 2015. He started the 2015 season on the disabled list due to a back injury suffered near the end of spring training. At the conclusion of his rehab assignment, he was designated for assignment by the Giants and removed from the 40-man roster. Ishikawa subsequently cleared waivers and was sent to the Sacramento River Cats. On June 24, 2015, Ishikawa was called back up to the Giants to take the place of the injured Nori Aoki. He was designated for assignment again on July 3. Second stint with the Pirates (2015) Ishikawa was claimed off waivers by the Pirates on July 5, 2015. In 38 games with the Pirates, Ishikawa hit .224 with one home run and 8 RBI. 2016 In January 2016, Ishikawa was reportedly close to signing a minor-league contract with the Seattle Mariners, but the deal fell through. He signed a minor-league contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 9. He opened the 2016 season with the Triple-A Charlotte Knights. He was released on May 24, 2016. On June 8, Ishikawa signed a minor league deal to return to the San Francisco Giants organization, but was granted free agency in November. Post-playing career On March 16, 2018, Ishikawa rejoined the Giants organization as a hitting coach for the Arizona League Giants "Orange" team, one of their two Arizona League teams. Travis is currently a coach for the low-A West affiliate of the Giants, the San Jose Giants, in San Jose, CA. Personal life Ishikawa's mother is European American. His father, Alan, is the controller for a chain of Washington supermarkets and a third generation Japanese American. His paternal grandparents were held in an internment camp in Colorado during World War II. Ishikawa met his wife, Rochelle, a dental assistant, after being hit by a pitch in the face in his first game with San Jose. They married in 2007 and have three children, including a daughter who was born on Ishikawa's 25th birthday in 2008. Ishikawa became a Christian in 2007, which he believes helped him out of his slump that year. He says, "Faith will always be the biggest part of anything that happens." References External links 1983 births American baseball players of Japanese descent American Christians Arizona League Giants players Baltimore Orioles players Baseball players from Seattle Charlotte Knights players Connecticut Defenders players Fresno Grizzlies players Hagerstown Suns players Living people Major League Baseball first basemen Major League Baseball left fielders Major League Baseball right fielders Milwaukee Brewers players Nashville Sounds players New York Yankees players Norfolk Tides players Sportspeople from Federal Way, Washington Baseball players from King County, Washington Pittsburgh Pirates players Sacramento River Cats players Salem-Keizer Volcanoes players San Francisco Giants players San Jose Giants players Minor league baseball coaches
5329520	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%20and%20apartheid	Israel and apartheid	Israel's policies and actions in its ongoing occupation of the Palestinian territories have drawn accusations that it is committing the crime of apartheid. Leading Palestinian, Israeli and international human rights groups have said that the totality and severity of the human rights violations against the Palestinian population in the occupied territories, and by some in Israel proper, amount to the crime against humanity of apartheid. Israel and some of its Western allies have rejected the accusation, with the former often labeling the charge antisemitic. Comparisons between Israel–Palestine and South African apartheid were prevalent in the mid-1990s and early 2000s. Since the definition of apartheid as a crime in 2002 Rome Statute, attention has shifted to the question of international law. In December 2019, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination announced commencing a review of the Palestinian complaint that Israel's policies in the West Bank amount to apartheid. Soon after this, two Israeli human rights NGOs, Yesh Din (July 2020), and B'Tselem (January 2021) issued separate reports that concluded, in the latter's words, that "the bar for labeling the Israeli regime as apartheid has been met." In April 2021, Human Rights Watch became the first major international human rights body to say Israel had crossed the threshold. It accused Israel of apartheid, and called for prosecution of Israeli officials under international law, calling for an International Criminal Court investigation. Amnesty International issued a report with similar findings on 1 February 2022. The issue is debated by scholars and lawyers, United Nations investigators, the African National Congress (ANC), human rights groups, and many prominent Israeli political and cultural figures. Those who support the accusations hold that certain laws explicitly or implicitly discriminate on the basis of creed or race, in effect privileging Jewish citizens and disadvantaging non-Jewish, and particularly Arab, citizens. These include the Law of Return, the 2003 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law, and many laws regarding security, land and planning, citizenship, political representation in the Knesset (legislature), education and culture. The Nation-State Law, enacted in 2018, was widely condemned in both Israel and internationally as discriminatory, and has also been called an "apartheid law" by members of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), opposition MPs, and other Arab and Jewish Israelis. Israel and a number of Western governments and scholars, on the other hand, have rejected the charges or objected to the use of the word "apartheid". The European Commission considers the term "not appropriate" to use "in connection with the State of Israel". Some argue that the situation is not comparable to apartheid in South Africa, that Israel's policies are primarily driven by security considerations, and that the accusation is factually and morally inaccurate and intended to delegitimize Israel. Historical comparisons In 1961, the South African prime minister and architect of South Africa's apartheid policies, Hendrik Verwoerd, dismissed an Israeli vote against South African apartheid at the United Nations, saying, "Israel is not consistent in its new anti-apartheid attitude ... they took Israel away from the Arabs after the Arabs lived there for a thousand years. In that, I agree with them. Israel, like South Africa, is an apartheid state." His successor John Vorster held the same view. Since then, a number of sources have used the apartheid analogy. In the early 1970s, Arabic language magazines of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) compared the Israeli proposals for Palestinian autonomy to the Bantustan strategy of South Africa. In 1970, an anti-apartheid activist in the UK's Liberal Party, Louis Eaks, referred to the situation in Israel as "apartheid" and was threatened with expulsion as a result. In 1979, the Palestinian sociologist Elia Zureik argued in his book The Palestinians in Israel A Study in Internal Colonialism that while not de jure an apartheid state, Israeli society was characterized by a latent form of apartheid. The concept emerged with some frequency in both academic and activist writings in the 1980s–90s, when Uri Davis, Meron Benvenisti, Richard Locke, and Anthony Stewart used the term "apartheid" to describe Israel's treatment of the Palestinians. In the 1990s, the term "Israeli apartheid" gained prominence after Israel, as a result of the Oslo Accords, granted the Palestinians limited self-government in the form of the Palestinian Authority and established a system of permits and checkpoints in the Palestinian Territories. The apartheid analogy gained additional traction after Israel constructed the West Bank Barrier. In 2001, an NGO Forum ran separately from the World Conference against Racism in the nearby Kingsmead Stadium in Durban, from 28 August to 1 September. It consisted of 3,000 NGOs and was attended by 8,000 representatives. The declaration the NGO Forum adopted was not an official document of the conference. The final NGO document called "for the reinstitution of the UN resolution equating Zionism with racism" and "the complete and total isolation of Israel as an apartheid state". Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter wrote the 2006 book Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid. His use of the term "apartheid" was calibrated to avoid specific accusations of racism against the government of Israel, and carefully limited to the situation in Gaza and the West Bank. In a letter to the Board of Rabbis of Greater Phoenix, Carter made clear that he was not discussing the circumstances within Israel but exclusively within Gaza and the West Bank. In a 2007 interview, he said: "Apartheid is a word that is an accurate description of what has been going on in the West Bank, and it's based on the desire or avarice of a minority of Israelis for Palestinian land. It's not based on racism...This is a word that's a very accurate description of the forced separation within the West Bank of Israelis from Palestinians and the total domination and oppression of Palestinians by the dominant Israeli military." By 2013, the analogy between the West Bank and Bantustans of apartheid-era South Africa was widely drawn in international circles. In the U.S., where the notion had previously been taboo, Israel's rule over the occupied territories was increasingly compared to apartheid. The legal standard The United Nations General Assembly adopted the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (ICSPCA) in 1973. The ICSPCA defines apartheid as "inhuman acts committed for the purpose of establishing and maintaining domination by one racial group ... over another racial group ... and systematically oppressing them". The crime of apartheid was further defined in 2002 by Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court as encompassing inhumane acts such as torture, murder, forcible transfer, imprisonment, or persecution of an identifiable group on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, or other grounds, "committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime". At Israel's 5-yearly Universal Periodic Review in January 2018, Human Rights Watch and other rights groups criticized Israel. Human Rights Watch's Geneva Director John Fisher said, "Israel's professed commitment to human rights during its UN review is belied by its unwillingness to address human rights violations in the context of the occupation, the rights of Palestinians, or illegal settlement activity." Ahead of the review, eight Palestinian human rights organizations submitted a joint 60-page report detailing "Israel's creation of an institutionalised regime of systematic racial domination and oppression over the Palestinian people as a whole, which amounts to the crime of apartheid, in violation of Article 3 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". CERD On 23 April 2018, Palestine filed an inter-state complaint against Israel for breaches of its obligations under the ICERD. On 12 December 2019, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination decided that it has jurisdiction over the complaint and would begin a review of the Palestinian complaint that Israel's policies in the West Bank amount to apartheid. The committee also expressed concern that Israel had not adopted a legal definition of racial discrimination and issued a number of recommendations. On 30 April 2021, the Committee rejected the exceptions raised about the admissibility of inter-state communication and requested the creation of an ad hoc Conciliation Commission with a view "to an amicable solution of the matter on the basis of States parties' compliance with the convention." The ad hoc Conciliation Commission will issue a report, to be distributed among all state parties to ICERD. On 17 February 2022, CERD set up the commission, composed of five human rights experts from the Committee, Verene Shepherd, Gün Kut (chair), Pansy Tlakula, Chinsung Chung and Michał Balcerzak. On 4–5 May 2022, the Commission held its first in-person meeting and published its Rules of Procedure. Opinions on applicability UN related reports 2007 report of UN Special Rapporteur In a 2007 report, U.N. Special Rapporteur for Palestine John Dugard wrote, "elements of the Israeli occupation constitute forms of colonialism and of apartheid, which are contrary to international law" and suggested that the "legal consequences of a prolonged occupation with features of colonialism and apartheid" be put to the International Court of Justice. 2014 report of UN Special Rapporteur In 2014, United Nations Special Rapporteur Richard A. Falk used the term in his "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967". 2017 ESCWA Report A 2017 report was "commissioned and approved by the UN but has not obtained an official endorsement from the Secretary General of the UN. Hence, it does not represent the views of the UN." Author Seada Hussein Adem discusses "the issue of apartheid on its own merits, in light of the Rome Statute and the Apartheid Convention" while acknowledging the analogy and taking "precaution to avoid using the discrete cases in apartheid South Africa as a yardstick to qualify conducts as amounting to the crime of apartheid", referring the reader to pages 14 to 17 of the 2017 report. At the time of publication, Rima Khalaf, then UN Under-Secretary General and ESCWA Executive Secretary, said the report "clearly and frankly concludes that Israel is a racist state that has established an apartheid system that persecutes the Palestinian people". The ESCWA comprises 18 Arab countries. 2022 report of UN Special Rapporteur On 21 March 2022, Michael Lynk, the UN's Special Rapporteur for Human Rights in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, submitted a report to the UN Human Rights Council stating that Israel's control over the West Bank and Gaza Strip amounts to apartheid, an "institutionalised regime of systematic racial oppression and discrimination." The Israeli Foreign Ministry and other Israeli and Jewish organizations called Lynk hostile to Israel and the report baseless. In January, Foreign Minister Yair Lapid warned that 2022 would see intense efforts to call Israeli policy apartheid. 2022 special committee on Israeli practices The report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People was published on 15 July 2022, following its annual mission to Amman, Jordan, from 4 to 7 July 2022. The Special Committee stated, "By design, Israel's 55-year occupation of Palestine has been used as a vehicle to serve and protect the interest of a Jewish State and its Jewish people, while subjugating Palestinians", and "Many stakeholders consider that this practice amounts to apartheid." 2022 report of new UN Special Rapporteur On 18 October 2022, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories recommended in a report that UN member states develop "a plan to end the Israeli settler-colonial occupation and apartheid regime" and concluded, "The violations described in the present report expose the nature of the Israeli occupation, that of an intentionally acquisitive, segregationist and repressive regime designed to prevent the realization of the Palestinian people's right to self-determination". Reports by NGOs 2009 legal study of the South African Human Sciences Research Council Following Dugard's report, the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) of South Africa commissioned a legal study, completed in 2009, of Israel's practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law. The report noted that one of South African apartheid's most "notorious" aspects was the "racial enclave policy" manifested in the Black Homelands called bantustans, and added: "As the apartheid regime in South Africa, Israel justifies these measures under the pretext of 'security'. Contrary to such claims, they are in fact part of an overall regime aimed at preserving demographic superiority of one racial group over the other in certain areas". According to the report, Israel's practices in the occupied Palestinian territories correlate almost entirely with the definition of apartheid as established in Article 2 of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. Comparison to South African laws and practices by the apartheid regime also found strong correlations with Israeli practices, including violations of international standards for due process (such as illegal detention); discriminatory privileges based on ascribed ethnicity (legally, as Jewish or non-Jewish); draconian enforced ethnic segregation in all parts of life, including by confining groups to ethnic "reserves and ghettoes"; comprehensive restrictions on individual freedoms, such as movement and expression; a dual legal system based on ethno-national identity (Jewish or Palestinian); denationalization (denial of citizenship); and a special system of laws designed selectively to punish any Palestinian resistance to the system. The study found: "the State of Israel exercises control in the Occupied Palestinian Territories with the purpose of maintaining a system of domination by Jews over Palestinians and that this system constitutes a breach of the prohibition of apartheid." The report was published in 2012 as Beyond Occupation: Apartheid, Colonialism and International Law in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. The question of whether Israelis and Palestinians are "racial groups" has been a point of contention in regard to the applicability of the ICSPCA and Article 7 of the Rome Statute. The HSRC's 2009 report states that in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Jewish and Palestinian identities are "socially constructed as groups distinguished by ancestry or descent as well as nationality, ethnicity, and religion". On this basis, the study concludes that Israeli Jews and Palestinian Arabs can be considered "racial groups" for the purposes of the definition of apartheid in international law. 2020 Yesh Din In 2020, the Israeli human rights organization Yesh Din found that Israeli treatment of the West Bank's Palestinian population meets the definition of the crime of apartheid under both Article 7 of the 2002 Rome Statute, which established the International Criminal Court (ICC), and the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (ICSPCA) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, which went into force in 1976. 2021 B'Tselem report In January 2021, Israeli human rights organization B'Tselem issued a report outlining the considerations that led to the conclusion that "the bar for labeling the Israeli regime as apartheid has been met." In presenting the report, B'Tselem Executive Director Hagai El-Ad said, "Israel is not a democracy that has a temporary occupation attached to it: it is one regime between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea, and we must look at the full picture and see it for what it is: apartheid." 2021 FIDH statement In March 2021, the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) issued a statement saying "The international community must hold Israel responsible for its crimes of apartheid", citing the work of its member organizations in Israel and Palestine. 2021 Human Rights Watch report In April 2021, Human Rights Watch released a report accusing Israeli officials of the crimes of apartheid and persecution under international law and calling on the International Criminal Court to investigate "systematic discrimination" against Palestinians, becoming the first major international rights NGO to do so. Its report said that Israeli authorities "have dispossessed, confined, forcibly separated, and subjugated Palestinians by virtue of their identity to varying degrees of intensity" and that "in certain areas ... these deprivations are so severe that they amount to the crimes against humanity of apartheid and persecution." Israel rejected the report, with Strategic Affairs Minister Michael Biton saying, "The purpose of this spurious report is in no way related to human rights, but to an ongoing attempt by HRW to undermine the State of Israel's right to exist as the nation state of the Jewish people." Palestinian Prime Minister Mohammad Shtayyeh welcomed HRW's report, urging the ICC to investigate Israeli officials "implicated in the crimes against humanity of apartheid or persecution". The U.S. State Department came out against HRW's report, stating, "It is not the view of this administration that Israel's actions constitute apartheid." 2022 Amnesty report On 1 February 2022, Amnesty International published a report, Israel's Apartheid Against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domination and Crime Against Humanity, which stated that Israeli practices in Israel and the occupied territories equate to apartheid and that territorial fragmentation of the Palestinians "serves as a foundational element of the regime of oppression and domination". The report states that, taken together, Israeli practices, including land expropriation, unlawful killings, forced displacement, restrictions on movement, and denial of citizenship rights amount to the crime of apartheid. The report suggested the International Criminal Court include the crime of apartheid as part of its investigations. Even before its release, Israeli officials condemned the report as "false and biased" and antisemitic, accusations that Amnesty secretary general Agnes Callamard dismissed as "baseless attacks, barefaced lies, fabrications on the messenger". The Anti-Defamation League criticized the report, saying, "Amnesty International's allegations that Israel's crimes go back to the sin of its creation in 1948, serve to present the Jewish and democratic state as singularly illegitimate at its foundational roots." The U.S. State Department also rejected the report's conclusions, calling them "absurd", and added: "it is important, as the world's only Jewish state, that the Jewish people must not be denied their right to self-determination, and we must ensure there isn't a double standard being applied." German Foreign Ministry spokesperson Christopher Burger said, "We reject expressions like apartheid or a one-sided focusing of criticism on Israel. That is not helpful to solving the conflict in the Middle East". A spokesperson for the U.K.'s Foreign and Commonwealth Development Office said, "we do not agree with the use of this terminology". The Dutch foreign minister responded by saying his government "does not agree with Amnesty's conclusion that there is apartheid in Israel or the territories occupied by Israel." J Street, a nonprofit liberal organization, did not endorse the use of the term apartheid, while discouraging labeling those who use the term "antisemitic". Thirteen Israeli human rights organizations issued a statement defending Amnesty and the report. Omar Shakir, the Israel and Palestine director of Human Rights Watch, which produced a similar report in 2021, said, "There is certainly a consensus in the international human rights movement that Israel is committing apartheid." The Arab League and the OIC welcomed the report, while the Palestinian Authority said in a statement, "The State of Palestine welcomes the report by Amnesty International on Israel's apartheid regime and racist policies and practices against the Palestinian people". On 28 September 2022, Al-Haq hosted representatives of Amnesty International, the International Federation for Human Rights and Human Rights Watch in Ramallah. Referring to Israel's outlawing of Palestinian NGOs, Amnesty International's France director of campaigns Nathalie Godard said: "The repression of Palestinian civic space is part of the system of apartheid. Not only are Palestinians under Israeli military occupation, conducted with manifold violations of international humanitarian law and human rights law, but then also those organizations and human rights defenders who seek to assist people in need are shut down." In its March 2023 annual report, Amnesty condemned "double standards" exhibited by Western countries with respect to Israel and other countries. The report said, "Rather than demand an end to that system of oppression, many Western governments chose instead to attack those denouncing Israel's apartheid system." 2022 jurists statement In March 2022, the International Commission of Jurists said it "strongly condemns Israel's laws, policies and practices of racial segregation, persecution and apartheid against the indigenous Palestinian population in Israel and in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT), comprising the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and against Palestinian refugees". 2022 ICC submission by Dawn The U.S.-based NGO Democracy for the Arab World Now (DAWN) filed a complaint with the ICC against senior Israeli military lawyer Eyal Toledano for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including apartheid. The submission follows a months-long investigation by the NGO into incidents in the West Bank between 2016 and 2020 and falls within the scope of the current International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine. DAWN Executive Director Sarah Leah Whitson said, "The international legal community, democracies across the world, and in particular the signatories of the Apartheid Convention and Rome Statute have an obligation to reject Israeli apartheid by holding Toledano accountable for his culpability in the crime of apartheid". The Israeli military said it "thoroughly rejects" the claims, which it called "baseless". Overview of reports Human rights lawyer and B'tselem director Smadar Ben-Natan analyzed the different reports in terms of temporal and spatial framing, whether they look at the situation from 1948 or from 1967, and whether they include Israel. ESCWA and the Palestinian NGOs take a very broad approach, "arguing that apartheid exists in the entire territory under Israeli control since 1948, being the constitutive logic of the State of Israel (raison d'état)", while Yesh Din focuses only on the occupied territories post-1967. B'tselem includes Israel but limits its scope to post-1967 while the HRW report differs from it in finding that while "the elements of systematic and widespread repression with the intention of maintaining the superiority of one group exist both within Israel and in the OPT, only in the OPT (including East Jerusalem) does the severity of inhumane acts make them criminal." The Amnesty report is "the only report explicitly arguing that crimes of apartheid have been perpetrated inside Israel since 1948, and accordingly considers many Israeli policies as falling under the category of inhumane acts". The U.N. Special Rapporteur report follows the mandate given and examines only the occupied territory, concluding "that Israel's occupation has turned into a system of apartheid, and that the crime of apartheid is being committed." According to author Ran Greenstein, "Two features are shared by all the reports: they agree that apartheid is a relevant, indeed essential, concept for the analysis of Israeli rule, and they focus on legal analysis and political arrangements, paying scant attention to social and historical aspects of the evolution of Israeli, Palestinian, and South African societies." Additional views Scholarly views In their 2005 book-length study Seeking Mandela: Peacemaking Between Israelis and Palestinians, Heribert Adam of Simon Fraser University and Kogila Moodley of the University of British Columbia wrote that controversy over use of the term arises because Israel as a state is unique in the region. They write that Israel is perceived as a Western democracy and is thus likely to be judged by the standards of such a state. Israel also claims to be a home for the worldwide Jewish diaspora. Adam and Moodley note that Jewish historical suffering has imbued Zionism with a "subjective sense of moral validity" that the ruling white South Africans never had. They also suggest that academic comparisons between Israel and apartheid South Africa that see both dominant groups as settler societies leave unanswered the question of "when and how settlers become indigenous", as well as failing to take into account that Israeli's Jewish immigrants view themselves as returning home. Adam and Moodley write, "because people give meaning to their lives and interpret their worlds through these diverse ideological prisms, the perceptions are real and have to be taken seriously." Manfred Gerstenfeld quoted Gideon Shimoni, professor emeritus of Hebrew University, as saying in a 2007 interview that the analogy is defamatory and reflects a double standard when applied to Israel and not to neighboring Arab countries, whose policies towards their Palestinian minorities have been described as discriminatory. Shimoni said that while apartheid was characterized by racially based legal inequality and exploitation of Black Africans by the dominant Whites within a common society, the Israel–Palestinian conflict reflects "separate nationalisms", as Israel refuses to exploit Palestinians, on the contrary seeking separation and "divorce" from Palestinians for legitimate self-defense reasons. An August 2021 survey found that 65% of academic experts on the Middle East described Israel as a "one-state reality akin to apartheid". Seven months earlier, that percentage was 59%. The increase in only seven months was potentially because of two notable events that occurred between the two surveys: the crisis in Israel following planned evictions of Palestinians in East Jerusalem pointing up the unequal treatment of Jews and Palestinians under Israeli control and the subsequent 2021 Israel-Palestine crisis, and the issue of two widely read reports by the Israeli-based B'Tselem and the U.S.-based Human Rights Watch arguing respectively that there is an apartheid reality in Israel and the Palestinian territories and that Israel's behavior fits the legal definition of apartheid. On 14 April 2023, Foreign Policy released a feature-length piece, Israel's One-State Reality, co-authored by Michael Barnett, Nathan Brown, Marc Lynch, and Shibley Telhami. The authors wrote that the "illusion of a two-state solution" had been shattered by the return of Benjamin Netanyahu at the head of a far-right Israeli coalition and called on the U.S. government to "stop shielding Israel in international organizations" when confronted by accusations of violations of international law. It concluded that "the one-state reality demands more. Looked at through that prism, Israel resembles an apartheid state." Palestinian views On 8 June 2021, the Palestine Liberation Organization released a report titled It is Apartheid: The Reality of Israel's Colonial Occupation of Palestine. In a 6 June 2022 editorial, Israeli newspaper Haaretz wrote that Israeli settlements are made possible by a "mechanism that maintains apartheid in the West Bank"; the editorial mentions "the existence of two separate legal systems in the same territory, one for Israelis (that is, Jews) and one for Palestinians, as well as two separate justice systems. There's a military justice system for subjects without [Israeli] citizenship who live under a military dictatorship, and there's a second system for privileged Jews with Israeli citizenship, who live under Israeli law in a territory that's not under Israeli sovereignty". Israeli views A number of sitting Israeli premiers have warned that Israel could become like apartheid South Africa. In 1976, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin warned that Israel risked becoming an apartheid state if it annexed and absorbed the West Bank's Arab population. In 2007, Prime Minister Ehud Olmert warned that if the two-state solution collapsed, Israel would "face a South African-style struggle for equal voting rights, and as soon as that happens, the state of Israel is finished". On 8 June 2021, two former Israeli ambassadors to South Africa, Ilan Baruch and Alon Liel, wrote in an opinion piece for South African news website GroundUp, "It is time for the world to recognize that what we saw in South Africa decades ago is happening in the occupied Palestinian territories too." Israeli Arab leader Mansour Abbas said he would not use the term "apartheid" to describe relations between Jews and Arabs inside Israel, pointing out that his Raam Party is a member of the Israeli ruling coalition. Issawi Frej, an Arab member of the Knesset, acknowledged that Israel "has many problems", but "Israel is not an apartheid state, it is a democratic state." Former Attorney General of Israel Michael Ben-Yair said, "It is with great sadness that I must also conclude that my country has sunk to such political and moral depths that it is now an apartheid regime. It is time for the international community to recognise this reality as well." As of 12 February 2023, 12 Israeli human rights groups had voiced their support for the Amnesty report and condemned the European Commission's negative reaction to it. These groups were Adalah, B'Tselem, Breaking the Silence, Combatants for Peace, Gisha, HaMoked, Haqel: In Defense of Human Rights, Human Rights Defenders Fund, Ofek: The Israeli Center for Public Affairs, Physicians for Human Rights–Israel and Yesh Din. A March 2023 position paper by the Israeli Law Professors' Forum for Democracy, a group of 120 Israeli law professors, stated that recent changes introduced by the Netanyahu government "validate the claim that Israel practices apartheid". Specifically, the group criticized the 23 February power-sharing agreement signed between the Likud parliamentary faction and the Religious Zionism faction granting the far-right leader of Religious Zionism, Bezalel Smotrich, special authority over the occupied West Bank. The professors argue that this transfer of responsibility to civilian hands violates international law, specifically the 1907 Hague Regulations. The Biden administration criticized this aspect of the power-sharing agreement, calling it a step toward annexation; a Haaretz editorial stated, "In light of the fact that there is no intention of granting civil rights to the millions of Palestinians living in the West Bank, the result of the agreement is a formal, full-fledged apartheid regime." On 13 August 2023, former IDF Northern Command commander Amiram Levin said: "There are MKs in the government who came from the West Bank and do not know what democracy is. 57 years of absolute apartheid. The IDF is standing by and beginning to be complicit in war crimes. Walk around Hebron and you will see streets where Arabs cannot walk, just like what happened in Germany". On 6 September 2023, former Mossad head Tamir Pardo said that Israel had imposed apartheid in the West Bank. He argued that "two people are judged under two legal systems" because Israel had imposed military law on the Palestinians while Jewish settlers in West Bank are governed by civilian courts. American views In 1975, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (June 1975 – February 1976) Daniel Patrick Moynihan voiced the United States' strong disagreement with the General Assembly's resolution that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination", saying that unlike apartheid, Zionism is not a racist ideology. He said that racist ideologies such as apartheid favor discrimination on the grounds of alleged biological differences, yet few people are as biologically heterogeneous as the Jews. In 2014, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry warned that if Israel did not make peace soon with a two-state solution, it could become an apartheid state. Former South African state president F. W. de Klerk, who negotiated to end his country's apartheid regime, later said: "You have Palestinians living in Israel with full political rights. You don't have discriminatory laws against them, I mean not letting them swim on certain beaches or anything like that. I think it's unfair to call Israel an apartheid state. If John Kerry did so, I think he made a mistake." The interviewer clarified that Kerry had stressed that Israel was not at present an apartheid state. In an opinion survey commissioned by the Jewish Electorate Institute following the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, 34% agreed that "Israel's treatment of Palestinians is similar to racism in the United States," 25% agreed that "Israel is an apartheid state" and 22% agreed that "Israel is committing genocide against the Palestinians." The percentages were higher among younger voters, of whom more than a third agreed that Israel is an apartheid state. In a July 2022 interview, U.S. President Joe Biden was asked about "voices in the Democratic Party" who "say that Israel is an apartheid state, calling for an end of unconditional aid." He responded: "There are a few of them. I think they're wrong. I think they're making a mistake. Israel is a democracy. Israel is our ally." A March 27 – April 5, 2023 Ipsos/University of Maryland poll found that when given choices for how they viewed Israel, 56% of the respondents said that they did not know. Of the remainder, 9% of respondents believed that Israel was a vibrant democracy, 13% said it was a flawed democracy, 7% said it was a state with restricted minority rights, and 13% said it was "a state with segregation similar to apartheid". In July 2023, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution, 412–9, declaring that "The State of Israel is not a racist or apartheid state, Congress rejects all forms of antisemitism and xenophobia, and the United States will always be a staunch partner and supporter of Israel." A 2023 Gallup survey found that Democrats' sympathies lie more with Palestinians than Israelis by a margin of 49% to 38%. In addition to the Ipsos poll, a June 2023 poll found that "in the absence of a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, three-quarters of Americans would choose a democratic Israel that is no longer Jewish over a Jewish Israel that denies full citizenship and equality to non-Jews." European views In May 2021, then French foreign minister Jean-Yves Le Drian warned of "the risk of 'long-lasting apartheid' in Israel in the event that the Palestinians fail to obtain their own state" and that "Even the status quo produces that". Commenting on the clashes between Arabs and Jews in some Israeli towns, he concluded that this "clearly shows that if in the future we had a solution other than the two-state solution, we would have the ingredients of long-lasting apartheid." In February 2022, Prime Minister Jean Castex of France read a speech on behalf of President Emmanuel Macron to the Representative Council of Jewish Institutions in France (CRIF) and said "How dare we talk about apartheid in a state where Arab citizens are represented in government and positions of leadership and responsibility?" In June 2022 the Catalan Parliament passed a resolution that "Israel commits the crime of apartheid against the Palestinian people" and calling upon the Generalitat de Catalunya to avoid any support for the Israeli regime and to aid in implementing the recommendations of the Amnesty and Human Rights Watch reports. In a joint press conference with Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas in August 2022, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz rejected Abbas's comparison of Israel to apartheid and said "Regarding the Israeli politics we have a different assessment. I want to say clearly that I won't use the word 'apartheid' and I don't believe it is right to use the term to describe the situation". On 13 January 2023, in response to questions from the EU parliament, EU high representative for foreign affairs and security policy Josep Borrell wrote, "The Commission is aware of the reports referred to by the Honourable Members and is giving them due attention. In any case, the Commission considers that it is not appropriate to use the term apartheid in connection with the State of Israel." In response, 12 Israeli human rights organizations, including B'tselem and Yesh Din, issued a statement condemning Borrell's remarks and calling on the EU Commission "to engage with the facts on which legal designations of apartheid regarding various aspects of Israel's treatment of Palestinians are based, and to reconsider its position in this regard." On 8 February 2023, the mayor of Barcelona cut ties with Israeli institutions "due to its 'apartheid policy' towards Palestinians" and announced that the city is no longer twinned with Tel Aviv. In response, Madrid's mayor offered to partner with Tel Aviv instead, denouncing Barcelona's move as having a "clear antisemitic overtone". In March 2023, the UK and Israel signed "The 2030 Roadmap for UK-Israeli Bilateral Relations", which said, "The UK and Israel will work together to tackle the singling out of Israel in the Human Rights Council as well as in other international bodies. In this context, the UK and Israel disagree with the use of the term 'apartheid' with regard to Israel." In July 2023, departing EU Ambassador to the Palestinians Sven Kühn von Burgsdorff said: "I have my personal view on that matter, but I'm still a diplomat until the 31st of July and have to represent my headquarters on that matter. However, I would certainly be on the right side of history if I were to say that one should not suppress the discussion of whether actually what we're seeing on the ground constitutes or doesn't constitute the crime of apartheid", and insisted it was a question to be decided by international courts, not politicians. Responding to Felix Klein, Germany's commissioner for Jewish Life and the Fight Against Anti-Semitism, Jewish history professor Amos Goldberg wrote in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 23 August 2023 that the Israeli government fights against human rights, democracy, and equality, and promotes the opposite—"authoritarianism, discrimination, racism and apartheid"—and that "Accusing Israel of apartheid is not anti-Semitic. It describes reality". Klein gave an interview to Die Welt on 5 August 2023 during which, in response to Middle East scholar Muriel Assenburg, who had earlier said that Israel is "prima facie committing the crime of apartheid in the occupied territories", he said, "To accuse Israel of apartheid delegitimizes the Jewish state and is therefore an anti-Semitic narrative." African views In February 2022, the Assembly of the African Union passed a resolution calling for the dismantlement of Israeli apartheid in the State of Palestine and recommended boycotting "the Israeli colonial system and illegal settlements" to end apartheid. The same declaration was renewed at the Union's Summit in 2023. On 26 July 2022, South African Foreign Minister Naledi Pandor said that Israel should be considered an apartheid state. In her remarks to the 2022 UNGA on 22 September 2022, she said, "We cannot ignore the words of the former Israeli negotiator at the Oslo talks, Daniel Levy, who addressed the UN Security Council recently and referred to 'the increasingly weighty body of scholarly, legal and public opinion that has designated Israel to be perpetrating apartheid in the territories under its control'." Other countries Foreign governments who have used the word "apartheid" to describe the situation in Israel or in the Israeli-occupied territories include those of Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Nicaragua, North Korea, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. Faith-based groups On 18 July 2021, the General Synod of the United Church of Christ adopted a resolution, denounced by the American Jewish Committee, that, among other criticism, refers to Israel's "apartheid system of laws and legal procedures". On 28 June 2022, the U.S. Presbyterian Church passed a resolution stating that "Israel's laws, policies and practices regarding the Palestinian people fulfill the international legal definition of apartheid". On 8 September 2022, the World Council of Churches adopted a statement that included a call for "The WCC to study, discuss and discern the implications of the recent reports by B'tselem, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, and for its governing bodies to respond appropriately." After much debate, the statement also read, "Recently, numerous international, Israeli and Palestinian human rights organizations and legal bodies have published studies and reports describing the policies and actions of Israel as amounting to 'apartheid' under international law. Within this Assembly, some churches and delegates strongly support the utilization of this term as accurately describing the reality of the people in Palestine/Israel and the position under international law, while others find it inappropriate, unhelpful and painful. We are not of one mind on this matter". On 6 June 2023, the Apartheid Free Communities Initiative launched, bringing together "over 100 congregations, faith groups, and organizations as an interdenominational campaign working to end the crime of apartheid committed against Palestinians." On 29 July 2023, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) adopted a resolution stating "that many of the laws, policies and practices of the State of Israel meet the definition of apartheid as defined in international law." The Anglican Church of Southern Africa passed a resolution on 27 September 2023 declaring Israel an apartheid state and reviewing pilgrimages to the Holy Land. Other views In 2017, Jacques De Maio, then Head of Delegation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, Israel and the Occupied Territories, denied there is apartheid, saying there is "no regime of superiority of race, of denial of basic human rights to a group of people because of their alleged racial inferiority. There is a bloody national conflict, whose most prominent and tragic characteristic is its continuation over the years, decades-long, and there is a state of occupation. Not apartheid." On 9 September 2022, hundreds of Google and Amazon workers protested cloud contracts made with the Israeli government known as Project Nimbus. Some protesters in San Francisco held signs reading, "Another Google Worker Against Apartheid" and "No Tech For Apartheid". Palestinian employees claim "institutionalized bias" within Google, with one saying it had become impossible to express disagreement with Israel's treatment of Palestinians without "being called into a HR [sic] meeting with the threat of retaliation". Former United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and Mary Robinson, chair of The Elders and former president of Ireland and UN human rights commissioner, visited Israel and the Palestinian territories on 22 June 2023. Ban said the situation had become worse since he was at the UN and there were signs that an apartheid system was taking root: "I'm just thinking that, as many people are saying, that this may constitute apartheid." Robinson said that in every meeting they attended "we heard the word 'apartheid'". An August 2023 open letter signed by more than 2,000 U.S., Israeli, Jewish and Palestinian academics and public figures stated that Israel operates "a regime of apartheid". Signatories included Israeli historian Benny Morris, former Jewish Agency head Avraham Burg, and Israeli-American Holocaust expert Omer Bartov, who said Israel's 37th government had brought "a very radical shift". Israel proper Adam and Moodley wrote in 2006 that Israeli Palestinians are "restricted to second-class citizen status when another ethnic group monopolizes state power" because of legal prohibitions on access to land, as well as the unequal allocation of civil service positions and per capita expenditure on educations between "dominant and minority citizens". Fifty-three faculty members from Stanford University signed a letter in 2008 expressing the view that "the State of Israel has nothing in common with apartheid" within its national territory. They argued that Israel is a liberal democracy in which Arab citizens of Israel enjoy civil, religious, social, and political equality. They said that likening Israel to apartheid South Africa was a "smear" and part of a campaign of "malicious propaganda". South African Judge Richard Goldstone, writing in The New York Times in October 2011, said that while there exists a degree of separation between Israeli Jews and Arabs, "in Israel, there is no apartheid. Nothing there comes close to the definition of apartheid under the 1998 Rome Statute". Goldstone wrote that the situation in the West Bank "is more complex. But here too there is no intent to maintain 'an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group'. This is a critical distinction, even if Israel acts oppressively toward Palestinians there." Goldstone also wrote in The New York Times, "the charge that Israel is an apartheid state is a false and malicious one that precludes, rather than promotes, peace and harmony." Amnesty International condemned an Israeli court decision to forcibly evict 500 Palestinian Bedouins from Ras Jrabah in the Negev, saying the judgment showed the "deep discrimination that Palestinian citizens of Israel face under apartheid". Land There has been a steady extension of Israeli Arab rights to lease or purchase land formerly restricted to Jewish applicants, such as that owned by the Jewish National Fund or the Jewish Agency. These groups, established by Jews during the Ottoman period to aid in building up a viable Jewish community in Ottoman Palestine, purchased land, including arid desert and swamps, that could be reclaimed, leased to and farmed by Jews, thus encouraging Jewish immigration. After the establishment of the state of Israel, the Israel Lands Authority oversaw the administration of these properties. On 8 March 2000, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled that Israeli Arabs, too, had an equal right to purchase long-term leases of such land, even inside previously solely Jewish communities and villages. The court ruled that the government may not allocate land based on religion or ethnicity and may not prevent Arab citizens from living wherever they choose: "The principle of equality prohibits the state from distinguishing between its citizens on the basis of religion or nationality," Chief Justice Aharon Barak wrote. "The principle also applies to the allocation of state land.... The Jewish character of the state does not permit Israel to discriminate between its citizens." In a book chapter dealing with the "apartheid Israel" accusation, the British philosopher Bernard Harrison has written: "No doubt much more needs to be done. But we are discussing, remember, the question of whether Israel is, or is not, an 'apartheid state'. It is not merely hard, but impossible, to imagine the South African Supreme Court, under the premiership of Hendrik Verwoerd, say, delivering an analogous decision, because to have done so would have struck at the root of the entire system of apartheid, which was nothing if not a system for separating the races by separating the areas they were permitted to occupy." In 2006, Chris McGreal of The Guardian stated that as a result of the government's control over most of the land in Israel, the vast majority of land in Israel is not available to non-Jews. In 2007 in response to a 2004 petition filed by Adalah, the Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel, Attorney General Menachem Mazuz ruled that the policy was discriminatory, it has been ruled that the JNF must sell land to non-Jews, and will be compensated with other land for any such land to ensure that the overall amount of Jewish-owned land in Israel remains unchanged. Community settlements legislation In the early 2000s, several community settlements in the Negev and the Galilee were accused of barring Arab applicants from moving in. In 2010, the Knesset passed legislation that allowed admissions committees to function in smaller communities in the Galilee and the Negev, while explicitly forbidding committees to bar applicants on the basis of race, religion, sex, ethnicity, disability, personal status, age, parenthood, sexual orientation, country of origin, political views, or political affiliation. Critics say the law gives the privately run admissions committees wide latitude over public lands, and believe it will worsen discrimination against the Arab minority. Israeli citizenship law The Knesset passed the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law in 2003 as an emergency measure after Israel had suffered its worst ever spate of suicide bombings and after several Palestinians who had been granted permanent residency on the grounds of family reunification took part in terrorist attacks in Israel. The law makes inhabitants of Iran, Afghanistan, Lebanon, Libya, Sudan, Syria, Iraq, Pakistan, Yemen, and areas governed by the Palestinian Authority ineligible for the automatic granting of Israeli citizenship and residency permits that is usually available through marriage to an Israeli citizen. This applies equally to a spouse of any Israeli citizen, whether Arab or Jewish, but in practice the law mostly affects Palestinian Israelis living in the towns bordering the West Bank. The law was intended to be temporary but has since been extended annually. The law was upheld in May 2006, by the Supreme Court of Israel on a six to five vote. Israel's Chief Justice, Aharon Barak, sided with the minority on the bench, declaring: "This violation of rights is directed against Arab citizens of Israel. As a result, therefore, the law is a violation of the right of Arab citizens in Israel to equality." Zehava Gal-On, one of the founders of B'Tselem and a Knesset member with the Meretz-Yachad party, stated that with the ruling "The Supreme Court could have taken a braver decision and not relegated us to the level of an apartheid state." The law was also criticized by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. In 2007, the restriction was expanded to citizens of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon. Adam and Moodley cite the marriage law as an example of how Arab Israelis "resemble in many ways 'Colored' and Indian South Africans". They write: "Both Israeli Palestinians and Colored and Indian South Africans are restricted to second-class citizen status when another ethnic group monopolizes state power, treats the minorities as intrinsically suspect, and legally prohibits their access to land or allocates civil service positions or per capita expenditure on education differentially between dominant and minority citizens." In June 2008, after the law was extended for another year, , the publisher of the Israeli daily Haaretz, wrote in an opinion article that the law severely discriminates when comparing the rights of young Israeli Jewish citizens and young Israeli Arab citizens who marry, and that its existence in the law books turns Israel into an apartheid state. Education Separate and unequal education systems were a central part of apartheid in South Africa, as part of a deliberate strategy designed to limit black children to a life of manual labor. Some disparities between Jews and Arabs in Israel's education system exist, although according to The Guardian they are not nearly so significant and the intent not so malign. The Israeli Pupils' Rights Law of 2000 prohibits educators from establishing different rights, obligations and disciplinary standards for students of different religions. Educational institutions may not discriminate against religious minorities in admissions or expulsion decisions, or when developing curricula or assigning students to classes. Unlike apartheid South Africa, in Israel, education is free and compulsory for all citizens, from elementary school to the end of high school, and university access is based on uniform tuition for all citizens. Israel has Hebrew-language and Arabic-language schools, while some schools are bilingual. Most Arabs study in Arabic, while a small number of Arab parents choose to enroll their children in Hebrew schools. All of Israel's eight universities use Hebrew. In 1992 a government report concluded that nearly twice as much money was allocated to each Jewish child as to each Arab pupil. Likewise, a 2004 Human Rights Watch report identified significant disparities in education spending and stated that discrimination against Arab children affects every aspect of the education system. Exam pass-rate for Arab pupils were about one-third lower than that for their Jewish compatriots. Population Registry Law Chris McGreal, The Guardian's former chief Israel correspondent, compared Israel's Population Registry Law of 1965, which requires all residents of Israel to register their nationality, to South Africa's Apartheid-era Population Registration Act, which categorized South Africans according to racial definitions in order to determine who could live in what land. According to McGreal, the Israeli identification cards determine where people are permitted to live, affects access to some government welfare programs, and affects how people are likely to be treated by civil servants and policemen. "Jewish State" bill The "Jewish State" bill, which passed in July 2018, states that "the right of national self-determination in the state of Israel is unique to the Jewish people". The bill would also allow the establishment of segregated towns in which residency would be restricted by religion or nationality—which has been compared to the 1950 Group Areas Act, which established apartheid in South Africa. Opposition members and other commentators have warned that the bill would establish or consolidate an apartheid regime; a Haaretz editorial called it "a cornerstone of apartheid". The Ministerial Committee for Legislation unanimously approved the bill in May 2017. Medical discrimination On 28 October, 2023, Knesset member Ahmad Tibi reported a Palestinian cancer patient had been denied medical care at the Ma'aini Hashu'a Hospital in Bnei Brak after the shift manager told her "Take your bag and leave. We don't accept Arabs here." West Bank and Gaza Strip Hafrada–apartheid comparison Hafrada ( literally "separation") is the Israeli government's official term for the policy of separating the Palestinian population in Palestinian territories from the Israeli population. In Israel, the term is used to refer to the general policy of separation the Israeli government has adopted and implemented over the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The word has been compared to "apartheid" by scholars and commentators, with some claiming that hafrada is equivalent to apartheid. The Israeli West Bank barrier ( , "separation fence"), the associated controls on the movement of Palestinians posed by West Bank Closures, and Israel's unilateral disengagement from Gaza have been cited as examples of hafrada. Aaron Klieman has distinguished between partition plans based on , which he translates as "detachment", and , translated as "disengagement". Since its first public introductions, the concept-turned-policy or paradigm of hafrada has dominated Israeli political and cultural discourse and debate. In 2009, Israeli historian Benny Morris said that those that equate Israeli efforts to separate the two populations to apartheid are effectively trying to undermine the legitimacy of any peace agreement based on a two-state solution. In 2023, former Human Rights Watch director Kenneth Roth said that his organization had long refrained from interpreting the reality on the ground in terms of apartheid as long as there was a chance the peace process would succeed. Since, in his view, the process is going nowhere and the Israeli government is undermining a two-state solution, Roth concluded that Israel's policies in the West Bank have "all the elements of the oppressive discrimination that constitute apartheid". Former Foreign Policy editor David Rothkopf has called Israel an apartheid state. Under Israeli military occupation Leila Farsakh, associate professor of political science at University of Massachusetts Boston, has said that after 1977, "the military government in the West Bank and Gaza Strip (WBGS) expropriated and enclosed Palestinian land and allowed the transfer of Israeli settlers to the occupied territories." She notes that settlers continued to be governed by Israeli laws, and that a different system of military law was enacted "to regulate the civilian, economic and legal affairs of Palestinian inhabitants." She says, "[m]any view these Israeli policies of territorial integration and societal separation as apartheid, even if they were never given such a name." Under Palestinian Authority Arabs living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, areas occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War and deemed to be occupied territory under international law, are under the civil control of the Palestinian Authority and are not Israeli citizens. In some areas of the West Bank, they are under Israeli security control. In 2007, in advance of a report from the United Nations Human Rights Council, Special Rapporteur John Dugard said that "Israel's laws and practices in the OPT [occupied Palestinian territories] certainly resemble aspects of apartheid." Dugard asked: "Can it seriously be denied that the purpose [...] is to establish and maintain domination by one racial group (Jews) over another racial group (Palestinians) and systematically oppressing them?" In October 2010, Richard A. Falk reported to the General Assembly Third Committee that "the nature of the occupation as of 2010 substantiates earlier allegations of colonialism and apartheid in evidence and law to a greater extent than was the case even three years ago." Falk called it a "cumulative process" and said "the longer it continues...the more serious is the abridgment of fundamental Palestinian rights." Israeli Defense Minister and former prime minister Ehud Barak said in 2010: "As long as in this territory west of the Jordan River there is only one political entity called Israel it is going to be either non-Jewish, or non-democratic. If this bloc of millions of Palestinians cannot vote, that will be an apartheid state." In November 2014, former Attorney General of Israel Michael Ben-Yair urged the European Economic Union to endorse the creation of a Palestinian state, arguing that Israel had imposed an apartheid regime on the West Bank. In 2015, Meir Dagan, a former head of the Mossad, argued that continuing Prime Minister Netanyahu's policies would result in an Israel that is either a binational state or an apartheid state. West Bank barrier In 2003, a year after Operation Defensive Shield, the Israeli government announced a project of "fences and other physical obstacles" to keep Palestinians from crossing into Israel. Several figures, including Mohammad Sarwar, John Pilger, and Mustafa Barghouti, have called the resultant West Bank barrier an "apartheid wall". Supporters of the barrier consider it largely responsible for reducing incidents of terrorism by 90% from 2002 to 2005. Some Israelis have compared the separation plan to the South African apartheid regime. Political scientist Meron Benvenisti wrote that Israel's disengagement from Gaza created a bantustan model for Gaza. According to Benvenisti, Ariel Sharon's intention to disengage from Gaza only after construction of the fence was completed, "along a route that will include all settlement blocs (in keeping with Binyamin Netanyahus demand), underscores the continuity of the bantustan concept. The fence creates three bantustans on the West Bank: Jenin-Nablus, Bethlehem-Hebron, and Ramallah. He called this "the real link between the Gaza and West Bank plans". In 2004, the International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion that the wall is illegal where it extends beyond the 1967 Green Line into the West Bank. Israel disagreed with the ruling, but its supreme court subsequently ordered the barrier to be moved in sections where its route was seen to cause more hardship to Palestinians than security concerns could justify. The Israeli Court ruled that the barrier is defensive and accepted the government's position that the route is based on security considerations. Land Henry Siegman, a former national director of the American Jewish Congress, has said that the network of settlements in the West Bank has created an "irreversible colonial project" aimed to foreclose the possibility of a viable Palestinian state. According to Siegman, in accomplishing this Israel has "crossed the threshold from 'the only democracy in the Middle East' to the only apartheid regime in the Western world". Siegman argues that denial of both self-determination and Israeli citizenship to Palestinians amounts to a "double disenfranchisement", which when based on ethnicity amounts to racism. He argues that reserving democracy for privileged citizens and keeping others "behind checkpoints and barbed wire fences" is the opposite of democracy. John Dugard has compared Israel's confiscation of Palestinian farms and land, and destruction of Palestinian homes, to similar policies of Apartheid-era South Africa. A major 2002 study of Israeli settlement practices by the Israeli human rights organization B'Tselem concluded: "Israel has created in the Occupied Territories a regime of separation based on discrimination, applying two separate systems of law in the same area and basing the rights of individuals on their nationality. This regime is the only one of its kind in the world, and is reminiscent of distasteful regimes from the past, such as the apartheid regime in South Africa. Criminal law In 2007, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination reported that Palestinians and Israeli settlers in the occupied territories are subject to different criminal laws, leading to longer detention and harsher punishments for Palestinians than for Israelis for the same offenses. Amnesty International has reported that in the West Bank, Israeli settlers and soldiers who engage in abuses against Palestinians, including unlawful killings, enjoy "impunity" from punishment and are rarely prosecuted, but Palestinians detained by Israeli security forces may be imprisoned for prolonged periods of time, and reports of their torture and other ill-treatment are not credibly investigated. Dugard has compared Israeli imprisonment of Palestinians to policies of apartheid-era South Africa, saying, "Apartheid's security police practiced torture on a large scale. So do the Israeli security forces. There were many political prisoners on Robben Island but there are more Palestinian political prisoners in Israeli jails." Access to water The World Bank found in 2009 that Israeli settlements in the West Bank (which amount to 15% of the population of the West Bank) are given access to over 80% of its fresh water resources, despite the fact that the Oslo accords call for "joint" management of such resources. This has created, according to the Bank, "real water shortages" for the Palestinians. In January 2012, the Foreign Affairs Committee of the French parliament published a report describing Israel's water policies in the West Bank as "a weapon serving the new apartheid". The report noted that the 450,000 Israeli settlers used more water than the 2.3 million Palestinians, "in contravention of international law", that Palestinians are not allowed to use the underground aquifers, and that Israel was deliberately destroying wells, reservoirs and water purification plants. Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman Yigal Palmor said the report was "loaded with the language of vicious propaganda, far removed from any professional criticism with which one could argue intelligently". A Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies report concludes that Israel has fulfilled the water agreements it has made with the Palestinians, and the author has commented that the situation is "just the opposite of apartheid" as Israel has provided water infrastructure to more than 700 Palestinian villages. The Association for Civil Rights in Israel concluded in 2008 that a segregated road network in the West Bank, expansion of Jewish settlements, restriction of the growth of Palestinian towns and discriminatory granting of services, budgets and access to natural resources are "a blatant violation of the principle of equality and in many ways reminiscent of the Apartheid regime in South Africa". The group reversed its previous reluctance to use the comparison to South Africa because "things are getting worse rather than better", according to spokeswoman Melanie Takefman. Travel and movement Palestinians living in the non-annexed portions of the West Bank do not have Israeli citizenship or voting rights in Israel, but are subject to movement restrictions of the Israeli government. Israel has created roads and checkpoints in the West Bank with the stated purpose of preventing the uninhibited movement of suicide bombers and militants in the region. The human rights NGO B'Tselem has indicated that such policies have isolated some Palestinian communities and state that Israel's road regime "based on the principle of separation through discrimination, bears striking similarities to the racist apartheid regime that existed in South Africa until 1994". The International Court of Justice stated that the fundamental rights of the Palestinian population of the occupied territories are guaranteed by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and that Israel could not deny them on the grounds of security. Marwan Bishara, a teacher of international relations at the American University of Paris, has claimed that the restrictions on the movement of goods between Israel and the West Bank are "a de facto apartheid system". Michael Oren argues that none of this even remotely resembles apartheid, since "the vast majority of settlers and Palestinians choose to live apart because of cultural and historical differences, not segregation, though thousands of them do work side by side. The separate roads were created in response to terrorist attacks—not to segregate Palestinians but to save Jewish lives. And Israeli roads are used by Israeli Jews and Arabs alike." A permit and closure system was introduced in 1990. Leila Farsakh maintains that this system imposes "on Palestinians similar conditions to those faced by blacks under the pass laws. Like the pass laws, the permit system controlled population movement according to the settlers' unilaterally defined considerations." In response to the Al-Aqsa Intifada, Israel modified the permit system and fragmented the WBGS [West Bank and Gaza Strip] territorially. "In April 2002 Israel declared that the WBGS would be cut into eight main areas, outside which Palestinians could not live without a permit." John Dugard has said these laws "resemble, but in severity go far beyond, apartheid's pass system". Jamal Zahalka, an Israeli-Arab member of the Knesset has also said that this permit system is a feature of apartheid. Azmi Bishara, a former Knesset member, argued that the Palestinian situation had been caused by "colonialist apartheid". B'Tselem wrote in 2004, "Palestinians are barred from or have restricted access to of West Bank roads" and has said this system has "clear similarities" with the apartheid regime in South Africa. In October 2005 the Israel Defense Forces stopped Palestinians from driving on Highway 60, as part of a plan for a separate road network for Palestinians and Israelis in the West Bank. The road had been sealed after the fatal shooting of three settlers near Bethlehem. As of 2005, no private Palestinian cars were permitted on the road although public transport was still allowed. In 2011, Major General Nitzan Alon abolished separate public transportation systems on the West Bank, permitting Palestinians to ride alongside Israelis. Settlers have protested the measure. The IDF order was reportedly overturned by Moshe Ya'alon who, responding to pressure from settler groups, issued a directive that would deny Palestinians passage on buses running from Israel to the West Bank. In 2014, the decision was said to be made on security grounds, though according to Haaretz, military officials state that Palestinian use of such transport poses no security threat. Justice Minister Tzipi Livni asked Israeli Attorney General Yehuda Weinstein to examine the ban's legality and Weinstein immediately demanded that Ya'alon provide an explanation for his decision. Israeli security sources were quoted saying the decision had nothing to do with public buses and that the goal was to supervise entrance into and exit out of Israeli territory, thereby decreasing the chance of terrorist attacks inside Israel. Critics on the left called the policy tantamount to apartheid, and something that would render Israel a pariah state. On 29 December 2009 Israel's High Court of Justice accepted the Association for Civil Rights in Israel's petition against an IDF order barring Palestinians from driving on Highway 443. The ruling was to come into effect five months after being issued, allowing Palestinians to use the road. According to plans the IDF laid out to implement the court's ruling, Palestinian use of the road was to remain limited. In March 2013, the Israeli Afikim bus company announced that, as of 4 March 2013, it would operate separate bus lines for Jews and Arabs in the occupied territories. Comments from South Africans Anglican Archbishop and Nobel Peace Prize winner Desmond Tutu commented on the similarities between South Africa and Palestine and the importance of international pressure in ending apartheid in South Africa. He drew a parallel between the movement "aiming to end Israeli occupation" and the international pressure that helped end apartheid in South Africa, saying: "If apartheid ended, so can the occupation, but the moral force and international pressure will have to be just as determined." In 2014, Tutu urged the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States to divest from companies that contributed to the occupation, saying that Israel "has created an apartheid reality within its borders and through its occupation", and that the alternative to Israel being "an apartheid state in perpetuity" was to end the occupation through either a one-state solution or a two-state solution. Howard Friel writes that Tutu "views the conditions in the occupied Palestinian territories as resembling apartheid in South Africa." BBC News reported in 2012 that Tutu "accused Israel of practicing apartheid in its policies towards Palestinians." Both Friel and Israeli author Uri Davis have quoted the following comment from Tutu, published in the Guardian in 2002, in their own work: "I was deeply distressed in my visit to the Holy Land; it reminded me so much of what has happened to us black people in South Africa." Davis discusses Tutu's remark in his book Apartheid Israel: Possibilities for the Struggle Within, in which he argues that "fundamental apartheid structures of the Israeli polity" with respect to property inheritance rights, access to state land and water resources and access to state welfare resources "fully justify the classification of Israel as an apartheid State." Other prominent South African anti-apartheid activists have used apartheid comparisons to criticize the occupation of the West Bank, and particularly the construction of the separation barrier. These include Farid Esack, a writer who is currently William Henry Bloomberg Visiting professor at Harvard Divinity School, Ronnie Kasrils, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, Denis Goldberg, and Arun Gandhi. In 2008, a delegation of African National Congress (ANC) veterans visited Israel and the Occupied Territories, and said that in some respects it was worse than apartheid. In May 2018, in the aftermath of the Gaza border protests, the ANC issued a statement comparing the actions of Palestinians to "our struggle against the apartheid regime". It also accused the Israeli military of "the same cruelty" as Hitler, and said that "all South Africans must rise up and treat Israel like the pariah that it is". Around the same time, the South African government withdrew indefinitely its ambassador to Israel, Sisa Ngombane, to protest "the indiscriminate and grave manner of the latest Israeli attack". Human rights lawyer Fatima Hassan, a member of the 2008 ANC delegation, cited the separate roads, different registration of cars, the indignity of having to produce a permit, and long queues at checkpoints as worse than what black South Africans had experienced during apartheid. But she also thought the apartheid comparison was a potential "red herring": "the context is different and the debate on whether this is Apartheid or not deflects from the real issue of occupation, encroachment of more land, building of the wall and the indignity of the occupation and the conduct of the military and police. I saw the check point at Nablus, I met with Palestinians in Hebron, I met the villagers who are against the wall—I met Israelis and Palestinians who have lost family members, their land and homes. They have not lost hope though—and they believe in a joint struggle against the occupation and are willing in non-violent means to transform the daily direct and indirect forms of injustice and violence. To sum up, there is a transgression that is continuing unabated—call it what you want, apartheid/separation/closure/security—it remains a transgression". Sasha Polakow-Suransky notes that Israel's labour policies are very different from those of apartheid-era South Africa, that Israel has never enacted miscegenation laws, and that liberation movements in South Africa and Palestine have had different "aspirations and tactics". Still, he argues that the apartheid analogy is likely to gain further legitimacy in coming years unless Israel moves to dismantle West Bank settlements and create a viable Palestinian state. Polakow-Suransky also writes that the response of Israel's defenders to the analogy since 2007 has been "knee-jerk" and based on "vitriol and recycled propaganda" rather than an honest assessment of the situation. After the proposed Israeli annexation of the West Bank Benjamin Netanyahu announced in 2020, South-African born Israeli writer Benjamin Pogrund, a longtime critic of the analogy between Israeli occupational practices and apartheid, commented that if implemented, such a plan would alter his assessment: "[At] least it has been a military occupation. Now we are going to put other people under our control and not give them citizenship. That is apartheid. That is an exact mirror of what apartheid was [in South Africa]." In an August 2023 opinion piece for Haaretz, Pogrund wrote, "In Israel, I am now witnessing the apartheid with which I grew up." See also Notes References Further reading Adam, Heribert and Kogila Moodley. Seeking Mandela : peacemaking between Israelis and Palestinians. Politics, history, and social change. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005. , . Carter, Jimmy. Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid. Simon & Schuster, 2006. Davis, Uri. Apartheid Israel: Possibilities for the Struggle Within. Zed Books, 2004. Lavie, Smadar. 2003. "Lily White Feminism and Academic Apartheid in Israel: Anthropological Perspectives." Anthropology Newsletter, October:10–11. External links International Human Rights Clinic at Harvard Law School and Adameer Apartheid in the Occupied West Bank: A Legal Analysis of Israel's Actions (PDF) Anti-Defamation League Allegation: Israel is an Apartheid State Journeyman Pictures (2012, reposted in Oct. 2023) Shocking insight into Israel's Apartheid \| Roadmap to Apartheid Political neologisms Definition of racism controversy Discrimination
5329704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Indianapolis%20500	2007 Indianapolis 500	The 91st Indianapolis 500 was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday May 27, 2007. It was the twelfth Indy 500 sanctioned by the Indy Racing League, and marked the fifth race of the 2007 IndyCar Series season. Hélio Castroneves started the race on the pole position. The race began at 1:11 p.m. EDT, and was televised in the United States on the ABC. The race was broadcast in high-definition for the first time. The race also was carried live on the IMS Radio Network and XM Satellite Radio. On lap 113, the race underwent a lengthy rain delay, with Tony Kanaan tentatively sitting as the leader. After three hours, the rain ceased, the track was dried, and the race restarted shortly before 6:15 p.m. EDT. A crash on lap 162 between Dan Wheldon and Marco Andretti brought out the yellow flag with Dario Franchitti leading. Under the caution, rain began falling again and officials halted the race on lap 166. Dario Franchitti was declared the winner after leading 34 laps during the race. All entries utilized ethanol, after 42 years of utilizing methanol. As part of a two-year roll-out, the cars used a 10% ethanol blend in 2006, and for 2007, the cars utilized a full ethanol mixture. Although branded as "100% percent fuel-grade", the fuel was actually a denatured 98% ethanol/2% gasoline blend (E98). The 2007 race was also the final 500 to see the Panoz chassis in competition. Race schedule News The pace car for the 2007 Indy 500 was a Chevrolet Corvette. Patrick Dempsey was the driver. Kid Rock headlined the Miller Lite Carb Day concert. Other performers during the month included Daughtry, Saliva, Augustana, and Bräck (a band headed by the former Indy 500 champion). Indianapolis Colts quarterback and Super Bowl XLI MVP Peyton Manning served as the grand marshal of the IPL 500 Festival Parade on May 26, and waved the green flag to start the 2007 Indy 500. No testing took place prior to the start of official May activities. The initial official entry list was released on April 10, 2007, featuring 69 cars, four former winners, and one rookie. Davey Hamilton's 02 car marks the first time in which a car number beginning with the digit "0" has been entered in the 500. Dreyer & Reinbold Racing was fined $25,000 for the use of an illegal fuel mixture, containing 27% methanol (no methanol is allowed) in one of its cars during Pole day. Team officials claimed this was due to an inexperienced crew member using an old container of fuel and was not intentional. Indy Racing League chief administrator Brian Barnhart called this "at least plausible," noting that the presence of water in the fuel mixture supports the claim that the fuel was old. The illegal mixture was used only during practice, not for a qualification attempt. From 1974 to 2005, only methanol fuel was used in the Indianapolis 500; and from 1965 to 1973, the rules were crafted in such a way to encourage the use of methanol in order to be competitive. In 2006, a 10% ethanol-90% methanol mixture had been used in the IRL in transition to the ethanol fuel used in the IRL for the 2007 season. Jim Nabors, who sang "Back Home Again in Indiana" during the pre-race festivities twenty-nine times from 1972 to 2006, missed the 2007 race due to an illness. The fans were asked to sing the song in his place. Practice (week 1) Sunday May 6, 2007 - A. J. Foyt Opening Day & Rookie Orientation Program Weather: Sunny, Practice summary: The first day of practice opened with a ceremonial lap celebrating A. J. Foyt's fiftieth year of participation at Indianapolis. Practice focused on the rookie tests of Milka Duno and Phil Giebler, as well as refresher tests by five veterans. Duno completed all four phases of her rookie test, and Giebler completed two. Michael Andretti posted the fastest speed of the day, while popular Davey Hamilton made his return to the cockpit, after a devastating 2001 crash at Texas. No incidents were reported. Monday May 7, 2007 - Rookie Orientation Program Weather: Sunny, Practice summary: The second day of Rookie Orientation saw the same seven drivers from the previous day's practice without incident. Rookie Phil Giebler finished the final two phases of his rookie test. Rookie Milka Duno completed the most practice laps of the day (74), while Michael Andretti posted the fastest speed for the second day in a row. Tuesday May 8, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Sunny, Practice summary: The first full day of practice featured veterans on the track for the first time. Dan Wheldon led the speed chart as the first driver over . Jon Herb was involved in the first crash of the month, doing a half-spin at the exit of turn two and crashing into the outside wall. Herb was not injured. Wednesday May 9, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Morning rain, afternoon clouds, Practice summary: Rain in the morning and early afternoon delayed the start of practice until 4:00 p.m. The two-hours session saw heavy action, with Dan Wheldon leading the speed chart for the second day in a row. No incidents were reported. Thursday May 10, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Partly cloudy, Practice summary: The warmest day of the week thus far saw some of the fastest laps turned so far for the month. Scott Dixon set fast lap with two minutes remaining in the session. Danica Patrick was second fastest for the day. No incidents were reported Friday May 11, 2007 - "Fast" Friday IndyCar Series practice Weather: Partly cloudy, Practice summary: The final day of practice before pole qualifying saw Scott Dixon turn the fastest lap of the month. Rookie Milka Duno crashed in the exit of turn 1. She spun and hit the SAFER barrier hard with the rear of the car, but she was not injured. Qualifying (first weekend) Saturday May 12, 2007 - AAMCO Pole Day Weather: Sunny, high Qualifying summary: Pole day time trials were held under a new qualifying procedure, implemented in 2005, but not fully utilized in 2005 or 2006 due to rain delays. Only the top 11 cars would qualify on pole day, and the remaining would be "bumped" out. Each qualifying run consisted of four laps, and each car was allowed three attempts per day. Buddy Rice was the first out to qualify, but his speed ultimately did not make the top 11. During the first trip through the qualifying order, Team Penske pulled both Hélio Castroneves and Sam Hornish Jr. out of line, and decided to attempt to qualify later in the day, when the temperatures would be cooler. After the initial qualifying runs, Dario Franchitti qualified for the provisional pole position. Later in the afternoon, both Castroneves and Hornish completed qualifying runs, but neither were unable to knock Franchitti off the pole. Hornish's first attempt would have been fast enough to take the pole, but he nearly hit the outside wall in the southchute on his second lap. Even with this error, however, Hornish's run was only 0.0327 seconds slower than Franchitti's. Almost immediately, Hornish withdrew and tried a second attempt, and again nearly took the pole, but on his final lap, his car bobbled in the north chute, and his second attempt was slower than his first. This would cost him a spot on the starting grid when Scott Dixon later withdrew his qualifying run and made another attempt, this one faster than Hornish's second attempt. With eight minutes left in qualifying, Castroneves' car was withdrawn, and he made a second attempt. After nearly four hours, Franchitti was finally knocked off the pole position. With only three minutes left, Tony Kanaan withdrew his first attempt, made the final qualifying run of the day. While his first three laps were fast enough to take the pole away from Castroneves, his last lap fell short and qualified second. This was Hélio Castroneves' second Indy 500 pole position. He also won the pole in 2003. Sunday May 13, 2007 - Second Day Qualifying Weather: Fair skies, high Qualifying summary: The second day of time trials filled positions 12–22 on the starting grid. The first hour saw heavy action, featuring strong runs from IndyCar Series regulars such as Scott Sharp (the first to qualify, and his 223.875 speed would hold up as the fastest of the day), Jeff Simmons and Darren Manning. Fan favorite Davey Hamilton also qualified with a solid speed. Later in the afternoon, Sarah Fisher became the second woman to qualify for the field. Bumping began with Marty Roth, Buddy Lazier and Jon Herb all being bumped. Herb went out later, and bumped himself back into the field, only to be bumped out a second time by Lazier. As time was running out, Jaques Lazier took to the track to try to bump himself into the top 22, and effectively bump his brother Buddy out. He was too slow and waved off the run. At the end of the day, two-time Indy 500 winner Al Unser Jr. was the most notable driver bumped for the day, and had to attempt to qualify on the second weekend. Practice (week 2) Wednesday May 16, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Mostly cloudy early, clearing late, high , WNW winds Practice summary: The first day of practice for second-week deals. Only incident was a spin of Jimmy Kite's car when the gearbox casing of his PDM Racing Panoz cracked in turn 2, causing the left-rear suspension to fail. The car made moderate wall contact with the left-front corner and Kite was cleared to drive. Several teams that qualified during the first weekend tested race set ups and ran in packs, including Danica Patrick who set the fastest lap of the day. Jaques Lazier () had the fastest lap among drivers who are not yet in the field. Thursday May 17, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Mostly cloudy early, clearing late, high , North winds Practice summary: The second straight day of cold and windy weather resulted in fewer than 800 total laps being turned among 23 drivers. The only incident of the day resulted when Stephan Gregoire lost control on the exit of turn 1 and backed the car into the wall in the south short chute. Only light damage was sustained to the car, but Gregoire complained of back pain and was transported to Methodist Hospital where he was diagnosed with a fracture of the third vertebra endplate and was ruled out for the rest of the month. John Andretti made his first appearance in an IndyCar since 1994 and completed his refresher test. Scott Dixon turned the fastest lap of the day while drafting with teammate Dan Wheldon. Gregoire () turned the fastest lap among drivers yet to qualify before his encounter with the wall. Friday May 18, 2007 - IndyCar Series practice Weather: Sunny, high Practice summary: The final full day of practice went incident free as 31 cars took to the track. All the front runners were running in packs, learning how their cars performed in "dirty air." Sam Hornish Jr. turned the fastest lap of the day during such a session. The non-qualified cars of John Andretti and Roger Yasukawa both turned laps over without drafting assistance as their teams trimmed their cars out to prepare for qualifying. Friday marked the last day of full practice; however, all cars will be permitted to practice on Saturday and Sunday during down periods when no cars are presenting to qualify. Qualifying (second weekend) Saturday May 19, 2007 - Third Day Qualifying Weather: , sunny and fair skies Qualifying summary: The third day of time trials focused on positions 23–33. Rookie Milka Duno was the first car to make an attempt, and she became the third female (along with Danica Patrick and Sarah Fisher) to qualify for the same race, an Indy 500 record, becoming the fifth female in Indy 500 history to start the race. Veterans Al Unser Jr. and John Andretti qualified solidly, while second-week drivers Roger Yasukawa and Alex Barron also completed runs. In the final hour, Jon Herb finally made the field, after being bumped the weekend before, but rookie Phil Giebler crashed on his fourth and final lap. Veteran Roberto Moreno, just named to replace Gregoire on Friday, along with Jimmy Kite, wrapped up the qualifying for the day. At the end of the day, the field stood with 32 qualified cars, one short of a full field. During the morning and afternoon, 32 cars made practice runs, most in preparations for race day. Since only 10 of the 11 allotted positions were filled, no bumping occurred Saturday. †Qualification withdrawn on bump day. ††Bumped on bump day. Sunday May 20, 2007 - Bump Day Qualifying Weather: Sunny and warm Qualifying summary: The field filled to 33 cars just before 3 p.m. as Richie Hearn completed a qualifying attempt. Phil Giebler recovered from his crash the previous day and was able to put his car solidly in the field, bumping Jimmy Kite. Roberto Moreno withdrew his time from the previous day and improved his average by about , putting Marty Roth on the bubble. P. J. Jones and Jimmy Kite spent the afternoon trying to get their cars up to speed. In the final hour, both Jones and Kite were running out of miles on their Honda engines leases, and neither had made much progress. Ultimately, Jones gave up. Meanwhile, Kite decided to go out and make last ditch qualifying effort, but his speed was not nearly fast enough to bump Roth. The 6 p.m. gun sounded, and Roth held on to qualify for his third Indy 500. Carb Day Friday May 25, 2007 - IndyCar Series final practice Weather: cloudy, humid, Practice summary: All 33 qualified cars took to the track and turned in a complete hour-long final practice without incident. Later that day at 3:30 the Miller Lite Concert started with headline act Kid Rock. Friday May 25, 2007 - Checkers/Rally's Pit Stop Challenge Team Penske won the 31st annual pit stop contest, their record tenth overall victory in the event. The teams of Hélio Castroneves and Sam Hornish Jr. (both Penske entries) met in the finals with Castroneves and his chief mechanic Rick Rinaman winning the $100,000 first prize after an 8.335-second pit stop. Qualifying chronology Starting grid = Former Indianapolis 500 winner; = Indianapolis 500 rookie Failed to Qualify Race summary Pre-race Weather: , cloudy and rain, some patches of sunshine in the afternoon Rain fell overnight, but stopped before the gates opened in the morning. At 7:45 a.m., rain began to fall again, and threatened to delay or wash out the race. Around 10:00 a.m., the rain stopped and maintenance crews began to dry the track. Despite the morning showers, Speedway chairperson Mari Hulman George gave the command to start engines on time as scheduled at 1:05 p.m. EDT. Start During the pace lap, the race nearly took a dramatic turn as pole-sitter Hélio Castroneves failed to start. After several attempts, his car finally fired, and he joined the field in turn 4. A rather ragged start saw Castroneves take the lead into the first turn, but Tony Kanaan slipped by to lead lap one. Green-flag racing continued until lap 11, when John Andretti lost a rear-view mirror, bringing out a debris caution yellow flag. When racing resumed, Castroneves, Tony Kanaan, Marco Andretti, and Scott Dixon all took their turn at the lead. Roberto Moreno caused the 2nd caution when he slid high in turn 1, slapped the wall, and hit the wall again in turn 2 before coming to rest. Jon Herb was the next car to be in an accident after he slid in turn 2 and hit the wall, ending his day. Milka Duno also spun in turn 1 and backed her car into the wall, damaging and ending her day as well. On the 74th lap, Dario Franchitti took the lead for the first time, and led until he pit on the 89th lap. Around that time, officials were warning that rain was approaching the area. After several drivers sequenced through green-flag pit stops, Tony Kanaan led Marco Andretti. Suddenly, on the 99th lap, John Andretti got high in turn two, and crashed into the outside wall, bringing out the caution. Jeff Simmons found himself unexpectedly in the lead, but pitted a lap later, giving Marco Andretti the lead. With rain only a few miles away, the ensuing lap 107 restart could decide the winner. As the green came out, Tony Kanaan got the jump on Andretti, and took the lead in turn 1. Moments later, Phil Giebler spun and crashed in turn 1, bringing the yellow out once again. Before safety crews could clear the track, heavy rain fell, and the race was red flagged. Red flag When the race was stopped, 113 laps were completed. A race is required to go a minimum of 101 laps before it can be official. If rain continued the rest of the afternoon, it could be declared official. Andretti Green Racing was scored 1st-2nd-3rd with Kanaan leading, Marco Andretti second, and Danica Patrick third. After nearly three hours, the rain stopped and the track was dry. Shortly after 6:00 p.m., the field lined up in the pits for a restart. Restart Tony Kanaan took over where he left off and pulled away from the field. Danica Patrick got by Marco Andretti and took over second place. Approximately 30 laps of uninterrupted intense green flag racing followed. Another sequence of green-flag pit stops saw all of the leaders head to the pits. Jaques Lazier stayed out a couple of extra laps, and led the race for the first time in his career. After the stops, Kanaan returned to the lead, followed by defending champion Sam Hornish Jr. Finish On the 151st lap, Marty Roth slid high in turn 1 and smacked the wall, and started an exciting sequence of events. The skies were darkening, and rain was fast approaching again, which would certainly end the race for good. Under the yellow, many leaders pit for tires and fuel, while some drivers, including Dario Franchitti and Scott Dixon, stayed out to gain track position. On the 156th lap, the field went back to green, however, in turn four, Tony Kanaan came up on the back of Jaques Lazier, sending Lazier into the wall, and sending Kanaan's car into a spin. He blew a tire and coasted into the pits. Moments later, the field assembled for what was expected to be the final restart before the rains came. Franchitti, working lap 163, held the lead into the backstretch. Behind him, Marco Andretti tangled with Dan Wheldon, and Andretti's car flipped down the backstretch. Buddy Rice was also involved. Before the track could be cleared, a heavy rainstorm fell on the track, and the race was called after 166 laps with Dario Franchitti declared the winner. A makeshift victory lane celebration was held indoors underneath the Pagoda, as had been done for Rice who also won in the rain in 2004. As of the 2022 race, this was the most recent "500" to be shortened by rain. Full race results *C Chassis: D=Dallara; P=Panoz. All cars in the 2007 Indianapolis 500 used Honda engines and Firestone tires. Race Leaders Nine drivers led the race, with a total of twenty-three lead changes. Caution Periods There were eleven caution periods during the race, with a total of fifty-five laps run under yellow, including the race's final lap. Awards The Victory Celebration was held Monday May 28, 2007. Some of the many awards handed out during the evening included: A record total purse of $10,668,815 Race winner Dario Franchitti won $1,645,233 Phil Giebler won the Rookie of the Year Tony Kanaan won the Scott Brayton Driver's Trophy Broadcasting Television The race was broadcast in the United States on ABC for the 43rd consecutive year. Time trials were shown live on ABC, ESPN, and ESPN2. For the first time, the race would be aired in high definition. This was the final 500 broadcast for Rusty Wallace as he was involved with ESPN on ABC NASCAR broadcasts. For the second year in a row, the telecast utilized the Side-by-Side format for commercial breaks. Radio The race was broadcast on radio by the IMS Radio Network for the 55th consecutive year. Mike King served as anchor. Davey Hamilton, who previously served as the "driver expert" on the network, returned to cockpit for the first time since 2001. After six years recovery from his serious crash, he offered live in-car reporting to the broadcast during caution periods. Making a popular return to the IMS Radio Network was former "Voice of the 500" Bob Jenkins. In 2006, Jenkins had worked on the Speedway public address system, but for 2007, he took over the turn two reporting location. Jenkins filled the spot previously held by Adam Alexander, who departed the network. For the third year in a row, Kevin Olson conducted his annual pre-race interview with David Letterman. Olson served as a pit reporter in the center pits during the early stages of the race, then later moved to cover the garages and track hospital. See also Indy Racing League 2007 IndyCar Series season Gallery Notes References Works cited 2007 Indianapolis 500 Daily Trackside Report for the Media Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site Indianapolis 500 races Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500 Indianapolis 500
5329771	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0%20Vu%20%28Beyonc%C3%A9%20song%29	Déjà Vu (Beyoncé song)	"Déjà Vu" is a song by American singer Beyoncé, featuring vocals by her future husband, rapper Jay-Z. It was produced by Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins and Beyoncé for her second solo album, B'Day (2006). "Déjà Vu" is an R&B song, which incorporates elements of 1970s funk and soul music. Its music is largely based on live instrumentation, including bass guitar, hi-hat and horns, except the Roland TR-808 drum machine, which is a non-live instrument. The song's title and lyrics refer to a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover. "Déjà Vu" was released as the album's lead single to US radio stations on June 24, 2006. The song received generally mixed critical reviews. Many critics noted the similarities of "Déjà Vu" with Beyoncé's own 2003 song "Crazy in Love". Critics commended the assertiveness and the sensuality with which Beyoncé sings the lyrics and compared her vocal delivery to that of Tina Turner in the late 1980s. "Déjà Vu" and its Freemasons club remix version received three nominations at the 2007 Grammy Awards. It was recognized as the Best Song of 2006 at the Music of Black Origin (MOBO) Awards. Commercially, "Déjà Vu" peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. It topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart, the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart, and the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Déjà Vu" peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart and reached the top ten in over fifteen countries. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Sophie Muller. About 5,000 fans petitioned online for a re-shoot of the video, complaining about, amongst other factors, the lack of theme, the wardrobe choice, and the allegedly sexual interactions between Beyoncé and Jay-Z. Background and production In 2005, American record producer Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins and producer Jon Jon Traxx "came up with the concept of doing an old-school track, a throwback with real bass and horns", to which the song's title is partly attributed. Traxx with Jerkins, first recorded the bass sections, onto which the percussion, horns and vocals were layered. Production took place in Jerkins' New Jersey-based studio, and Sony Music Studios in New York City. Jerkins recorded a demo version of the song with vocals by American songwriter Makeba Riddick, who is credited as co-writer. Riddick’s demo version has the same lyrics as the final song. They presented the demo to Beyoncé, who later approved of it and added melodies to the already written lyrics. "Déjà Vu" also has lyrical contributions from songwriters Delisha Thomas and Keli Nicole Price, and Beyoncé's husband (then-boyfriend) Jay-Z. He became involved at a late stage, when Beyoncé saw him trying to sing along to a recorded version of the track, and asked him to contribute. Jay-Z recorded rap verses for the song and hence appears as a featured guest. Concerning the production of "Déjà Vu", Beyoncé told MTV News: When I recorded 'Deja Vu' ... I knew that even before I started working on my album, I wanted to add live instruments to all of my songs. It's such a balance [of music on the song] [...] It's still young, still new and fresh, but it has the old soul groove. The energy is incredible. It's the summer anthem, I pray. I feel it. Rodney Jerkins is incredible, Jay of course is on it, he blessed the song, I'm happy with it. Music and lyrics "Déjà Vu" is a contemporary R&B song, performed in a moderate hip hop groove. It is also influenced by late-1970s funk music, and it contains elements of soul music as well as dance-pop music. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, the song is composed in the key of G minor with a time signature in common time, and a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute. Beyoncé's vocals range from the note of D4 to F5. The music is largely based on live instrumentation, including a bass guitar, conga, hi-hat, and horns. A non-live instrument, the Roland TR-808 drum machine, provides the song's heavy and energetic disco beat. Spence D. of IGN Music commented that Beyoncé's vocals on the song are "silky smooth" and that her vocal range leans toward the high end, hence contrasting to the song's low-end construction. Mike Joseph of PopMatters noted that "Déjà Vu" is reminiscent of Michael Jackson's "Off the Wall" (1980). The title refers to the déjà vu phenomenon. The lyrics to "Déjà Vu" follow the verse–pre-chorus–chorus pattern, and feature two rap verses. It is hook-laden, similar in this respect to "Crazy in Love". The lyrics detail a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover, shown in the lines, "Is it because I'm missing you that I'm having déjà vu?" As the song opens, Beyoncé introduces the bass, hi-hat and Roland TR-808 by name. The sounds of the instruments blend as they are being mentioned one after the other; the horns are only audible in the pre-chorus and hook sections, and a short section in the second rap. The bass guitar, which is the first instrument to enter, slides into the main two-bar ostinato. Following the repeated bass slides, the hi-hat and the Roland TR-808 begin playing. After that Beyoncé mentions Jay-Z, the bass glides up for a vibrato-rich fill, giving way to the first rap. Backgrounded with a repeating groove, Beyoncé starts the first verse. The pre-chorus follows, for which the bass changes to a more melodic tone "to play something more singing", in the words of Jon Jon Webb, the bass player on the track. The melody returns to the main groove during the repeated hook. This pattern repeats and leads to the second rap verse. The third pre-chorus "comes from Jerkins' idea to have the part changes on top, with Webb's main groove on the bottom". It is followed by the main pre-chorus, then the hook is repeated four times. After that, the singing stops and the instruments fill in the space of the pre-chorus. The hi-hat and Roland TR-808 also stop; the song ends with the plucked bass and blasts of horns from the very first line of the chorus. Release "Déjà Vu" was leaked to the internet on June 13, 2006. On June 24, 2006, it was released to radio stations in the United States, four weeks after Beyoncé informed Columbia, her record label, that B'Day was completed. Over one month later, it was released to physical formats; the track was released as a CD single on July 31, 2006, in the United States. An enhanced CD was released on September 12, containing five tracks and an additional "Déjà Vu" multimedia track. In the United Kingdom, the digital download became available on August 15, 2006. A CD maxi and a 12-inch single were released on August 21, 2006. Beyoncé's manager approached English production team Freemasons to remix "Déjà Vu" after hearing a remix they made for a song by singer Heather Headley. A club-oriented version was produced and appeared on a "Green Light" Freemasons EP, released on July 31, 2007. A maxi single, featuring the album version of the track and Freemasons club mix, was released on August 5, 2006, in European countries. The UK hits compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 65, released in 2006, features an alternative version of the single, omitting Jay-Z's parts and running to 3 minutes and 25 seconds. Critical reception "Déjà Vu" debuted to mixed and positive reviews among critics. Mike Joseph of the international webzine PopMatters' believed that it was "fantastic to hear Beyoncé singing her lungs out over a full-bodied groove featuring live instruments". Spence D. of IGN Music, a multimedia news and reviews website, complimented Jerkins' bass-laden groove, writing that it brought the track to perfection. Describing "Déjà Vu" as a magnificent song, Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian complimented Beyoncé and Jay-Z collaboration calling it "feverish as pre-watershed pop gets". She added that even though when Jay-Z is not physically present, he manages to bring out something formidable in Beyoncé that evokes "the young, feral Tina Turner". Bernard Zuel The Sydney Morning Herald praised the assertiveness with which Beyoncé delivers her lines and considered buying "Déjà Vu" as worthwhile. Several other music critics have compared "Déjà Vu" to Beyoncé's 2003 single, "Crazy in Love", the lead single of her debut album. According to Gail Mitchell of Billboard magazine, the song is viewed by many as a sequel to "Crazy in Love". Jason King of the Vibe magazine deemed the song as "cloned from the DNA of the raucous 'Crazy in Love'" while Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine referred to it as "'Crazy in Love' lite". Some reviewers, however, were negative to the parallels drawn between the two songs. Andy Kellman of AllMusic, an online music database, wrote that "['Déjà Vu'] "had the audacity to not be as monstrous as 'Crazy in Love'", referring to the commercial success the latter experienced in 2003. The internet-based publication Pitchfork's writer Ryan Dombal claimed that "this time [Beyoncé] out-bolds the beat". Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker deemed the lyrics as a "perplexing view of memory", while Chris Richards of The Washington Post characterized Beyoncé as a "love-dazed girlfriend" in the song. Jody Rosen of the Entertainment Weekly referred to "Déjà Vu" as an "oddly flat" choice as a lead single. Jaime Gill of Yahoo! Music regarded "Déjà Vu" as a good choice for a single but concluded that it does lack "the kind of killer chorus" to suggest that Beyoncé would take one further step "to outright global domination". On the other hand, Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that Jay-Z shows up "as calmly boastful as ever" in the song but he only makes Beyoncé's "sound more insecure". Kelefa Sanneh of the same publication noted that "the refrain doesn't give Beyoncé a chance really to show off" and further described the song as a "fair-to-middling single from a singer who is the opposite of desperate". Accolades "Déjà Vu" was nominated for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration and Best R&B Song while the Freemasons club remix version was nominated for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical at the 2007 Grammy Awards. It was also nominated for Best Collaboration alongside Beyoncé's other song "Upgrade U" featuring Jay-Z, at the Black Entertainment Television (BET) Awards. "Déjà Vu" won Best Song at the 2006 MOBO Awards in the UK. The following year, it also received two nominations for the Best R&B/Urban Dance Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2007. The writers of Rap-Up magazine put the song at number ten on their list of the ten best singles of 2006. In 2013, John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E! Online placed the song at number six on their list of ten best Beyoncé's songs. In a 2013 list of Jay-Z's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits, "Déjà Vu" was ranked at number 19. In 2022, Rolling Stone named the track Beyoncé's best song. Commercial performance "Déjà Vu" debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 44 a month before its physical release. After the release of the digital and physical components, the song sold 75,000 downloads in its first week. It eventually peaked at number four on the Hot 100 chart. The track's Freemasons/M. Joshua remix topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart, while the album version peaked at number 18 on the same component chart. "Déjà Vu" also reached the top spot of the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts, number nine on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart, and number 14 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart. "Déjà Vu" reached the top 10 in eight European countries. Having sold 29,365 units on its first week, the single reached number one on the UK Singles Chart, becoming both Beyoncé and Jay-Z's second number-one single in the UK. The single reached the top five in Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Norway, and Switzerland and entered the top 10 in Belgium, Finland, and Germany. In Oceania, "Déjà Vu" peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at number 12, and on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 15. "Déjà Vu" emerged as the 98th best-selling single in Australia in 2006. Music video Background and synopsis The music video for "Déjà Vu" was filmed by British director Sophie Muller in New Orleans, Louisiana on June 20-21, 2006, with parts of the video shot at the Maple Leaf Bar and the Oak Alley Plantation in Carrollton, Louisiana and Vacherie, Louisiana respectively. The footage features couture-inspired outfits, vigorous footwork and sexually-themed routines. The video simultaneously premiered on July 12, 2006, on MTV's show TRL, and Overdrive, MTV's online video channel. It reached the top spot on the TRL, Yahoo!, and MTV countdowns. The "Deja Vu" video topped the UK TV airplay chart in late July 2006. The video begins with showing Beyoncé against a green wall and Jay-Z sitting on a chair inside a dark room. Beyoncé and Jay-Z then start to simultaneously play imaginary instruments, mimicking the song's tune. Scenes of Beyoncé are then shown in several different rooms wearing different outfits. As the chorus begins, she is shown running around and dancing out in a large sugarcane field. At the end of the chorus, she dances in a red dress in front of a pond and in a large red dress out in front of a mansion. When Jay-Z's verse begins, the two are shown alone inside a room, Beyoncé is now barefoot and bare-legged, she dances seductively around Jay-Z, and leads to the controversial oral sex scene. Beyoncé is then shown wearing a green skirt and bedazzled bra while dancing Mbalax (a Senegalese & Gambian dance) around in sand. As the song progresses, she is shown dancing alone in a dark forest wearing a sparkling black dress as fireflies circle around her head. The song ends with Beyoncé leaning back in a pose as fireflies race away. Reception Reactions to the video were mixed. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented it is "more thematic and thought provoking than the videos for 'Baby Boy' and 'Naughty Girl'", Beyoncé's songs from her debut album, Dangerously in Love. Allhiphop's Eb Haynes described the video "visually fresh" and "couture motivated". A news article published by Hindustan Times reported that a particular scene in the video is suggestive of oral sex. Natalie Y. Moore of In These Times magazine echoed the latter's commentary, writing that the video showcases Beyoncé "strutting her sexuality", and that in Jay-Z's scenes it "looks as if any minute now she'll give him fellatio". The video later appeared on a list of Yahoo! Music News' Worst Videos of All Time, which pointed to the negative fan reaction and stated, "It's probably the least horrific video listed ... but as far as Beyoncé videos go, it is [sic] a stinker." According to an MTV News staff report, as of July 2006, more than two thousand people had signed an online petition addressed to Beyoncé's record label, Columbia, demanding a reshoot for the video. By the end of August 2006, 5000 additional fans had signed it. The petition requested the clip to be taped again because it was considered to be "an underwhelming representation of the talent and quality of previous music-video projects of Ms. Beyoncé". Included in the laundry list of offenses were "a lack of theme, dizzying editing, over-the-top wardrobe choices, and unacceptable interactions" between Beyoncé and her now-husband, Jay-Z. Beyoncé's dance moves were also called into question by the petition, qualifying them as "erratic, confusing and alarming at times". Additionally, fans complained about the sexual theme depicted in the video, describing that some scenes as "unacceptable interactions [between Beyoncé and Jay-Z]" while also complaining of a "non-existent sexual chemistry" between the two. The music video was awarded Best Video at the 2006 MOBO Awards. It also received two nominations for Sexiest Video and Best Hook-Up at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards. Live performances "Déjà Vu" was performed by Beyoncé at the 2006 BET Awards on June 27 at the Shrine Auditorium. The show was opened with a performance of the song and Jay-Z joined Beyoncé onstage during the second half of the song. William Keck of USA Today commented that Beyoncé "sizzled in a revealing silver ensemble" as she performed the song. She also performed "Déjà Vu" at the Fashion Rocks on September 8, 2006. According to Farrah Weinstein of MTV News, Beyoncé's performance of the song was billed as a tribute to Josephine Baker, and both her stage set and outfit were in homage to the singer and dancer. The set was designed like an old cabaret club, complete with male dancers bearing saxophones, and both Beyoncé and her female dancers wore Baker's trademark mini-hula skirt embellished with fake bananas. She performed the song on the American morning news and talk show, Good Morning America during an episode which aired on September 8, 2006. Beyoncé also performed the song at The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 9, 2006, and at The Tyra Banks Show on September 15, 2006. At the 2006 World Music Awards on November 15, 2006, Beyoncé opened the show with a performance of "Déjà Vu". In addition to her live performances of "Déjà Vu" in awards ceremonies and televised shows, the song was included on the set list for her tours The Beyoncé Experience and I Am... World Tour. During Beyoncé's performance of "Déjà Vu" at a concert in Toronto on August 25, 2007, she had a wardrobe malfunction as her dress flew over her head and was speculated to reveal her breast. However, a spokesperson for the singer denied speculations saying, "She's wearing a flesh-tone bra! Do you really think Beyoncé would go onstage like that?". The video which was uploaded to YouTube went viral. Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times discussed about the malfunction, saying: "As a pop queen, Beyoncé is almost too perfect... [a] 'wardrobe malfunction' in Toronto garnered far more attention than was warranted partly because these mistakes contradicted her fiercely athletic style." During the revue I Am... Yours which was a part of the tour, Beyoncé performed a jazz medley of "Déjà Vu", "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)" and "Bootylicious" and continued with a full version of the first song. Concert performances of "Déjà Vu" were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live (2007), I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas (2009) and I Am... World Tour (2010). Beyoncé performed Déjà Vu during her 2018 Coachella Performances on April 14 and 21, 2018, with a guest appearance by Jay Z, along with a live orchestra. It had been more than 8 years since she last performed the song. The same performance was featured on her and Jay-Z’s co-headlining On the Run II Tour the same year. Cover versions On January 31, 2009 Jade Ewen performed the song during the Eurovision: Your Country Needs You show. During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25, 2011, the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform "Déjà Vu" along with a medley of Beyoncé's other hit singles. Track listings Japanese CD single "Déjà Vu" (Album Version) – 3:59 Australian, European and US CD single "Déjà Vu" (Album Version) – 3:58 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix) – 3:15 US CD maxi single "Déjà Vu" (Album Version) – 4:00 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix) – 3:15 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix – No Rap) – 3:15 "Déjà Vu" (Maurice's Nusoul Mix) – 6:01 "Déjà Vu" (Maurice's Nusoul Mixshow Mix) – 5:58 German CD maxi single "Déjà Vu" (Album Version) – 3:58 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix) – 3:15 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Club Mix – No Rap) – 8:05 "Déjà Vu" (Maurice's Nusoul Mix) – 6:01 "Déjà Vu" (Maurice's Nusoul Mixshow Mix) – 5:58 "Déjà Vu" (Video) – 4:01 US 12-inch vinyl "Déjà Vu" (Main Version) – 4:00 "Déjà Vu" (Instrumental) – 4:00 "Déjà Vu" (Main Version) – 4:00 "Déjà Vu" (A Capella) – 3:52 12-inch vinyl (Club Mixes) "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Club Mix – No Rap) – 8:05 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix) – 3:15 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Club Mix Instrumental) – 8:00 "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix Instrumental) – 3:15 Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the B'Day liner notes. Vocals: Beyoncé Knowles, Jay-Z (raps) Guitar, programming, keyboards, production: Rodney Jerkins Bass guitar: Jon Jon Brass: Ronald Judge, Allen "Al Geez" Arthur, Aaron "Goody" Goode. Recording: Jeff Villanueva, Jim Caruana Assisted by: Rob Kinelski, Jun Ishizeki Mix engineers: Jason Goldstein, Rodney Jerkins Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Release history See also List of number-one dance singles of 2006 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B singles of 2006 (U.S.) List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2000s References 2006 singles 2006 songs Beyoncé songs Columbia Records singles American funk songs Jay-Z songs Music video controversies Music videos directed by Sophie Muller Song recordings produced by Beyoncé Song recordings produced by Rodney Jerkins Songs written by Beyoncé Songs written by Jay-Z Songs written by Makeba Riddick Songs written by Rodney Jerkins UK Singles Chart number-one singles
5330098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Glascock%20Prize%20winners%20and%20participants	List of Glascock Prize winners and participants	The Glascock Poetry Prize is awarded to the winner of the invitation only Kathryn Irene Glascock Intercollegiate Poetry Contest at Mount Holyoke College. 1993 - present 2023 (100th): Winner: Thomas Bosworth from Dartmouth College Winner: Portlyn Houghton-Harjo from Pratt Institute Ace Chandler from Mount Holyoke College Elizabeth Roa Martinez from University of Massachusetts Boston Mason Ryan Newbury from Suffolk University Jordan Trice from Amherst College 2022 (99th): Winner: Clare O'Gara from Smith College Kate Blakley from University of New Hampshire Liza Marsala from Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts Jocelyn Maeyama from Wesleyan University Imani Ross from Howard University Darwin Michener-Rutledge from Mount Holyoke College 2021 (98th): Winner: Tovah Strong from Institute of American Indian Arts Alejandra Cabezas from Mount Holyoke College Julia Kudler from University of Washington at Seattle Meredith Luchs from Hampshire College Felicia Payomo from Mills College Wafa Shaikh from Houston Community College 2020 (97th): Winner: Marissa Perez from Holyoke Community College 2nd Place: Luciana Arbus-Scandiffio from Bennington College Natalie Bavar from University of Massachusetts Amherst American Xavier Gaylord from College of the Holy Cross Maren McKenna from Mount Holyoke College Samiha Swarup from University of Toronto 2019 (96th): Winner: Dur-e-Maknoon Ahmed from Mount Holyoke College Winner: Sarah Terrazano from Brandeis University Vilhelm (Billy) Anderson Woltz from Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ariana Benson from Spelman College Julia Falkner from Smith College John Krug from The New School 2018 (95th): Winner: Linda Zhang from Mount Holyoke College Michelle Chen from University of Massachusetts Amherst Jordan Jace from Williams College Noelle Powers from University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Kyra Spence from Barnard College Grayson Wolf from Hunter College 2017 (94th): Winner: Anisha Pai from Mount Holyoke College 2nd Place: Natalia Rodriquez from City College of New York Kwamesha Joseph from Fordham University Emily Robidoux from Smith College Malini Ghandi from Yale University 2016 (93rd): Winner: Zoë Bodzas from Hamilton College 2nd Place: Peter LaBerge from University of Pennsylvania Angela Nelson from University of Rhode Island James O'Connell from Emerson College Rachel Schmieder-Gropen from Mount Holyoke College Nina Shallman from Amherst College 2015 (92nd): Winners: Nisha Jain from Cornell University and Julian Parikh from Boston University 2nd place: Taylor Marks from Smith College Katherine Gibbel from Wesleyan University Emma Ginader from Mount Holyoke College Rose Laurano from Rutgers University 2014 (91st): Winner: Rebecca Liu from Columbia University 2nd place: Milo Muise from Hampshire College Ryan Kim from Middlebury College Anthea Hubanks from Mount Holyoke College Robert Allen Parry from University of Southern Maine Elizabeth Rowland from Vassar College 2013 (90th): Winner: Jamie Samdahl from Smith College 2nd place: Laura Naparstek from Skidmore College Lauren Abbate from Mount Holyoke College Salma Elmehdawi from Fordham University Paige Melin from University at Buffalo Warner James Wood from Harvard University 2012 (89th): Winner: Garon Scott from University of Connecticut 2nd place: Katherine Kinkel from Bowdoin College Layli Amerson from Mount Holyoke College Andrew Bustria from Sarah Lawrence College Brian Folan from University of Massachusetts, Amherst Jessica Yoo from Johns Hopkins University 2011 (88th): Winner: Kit Schluter from Bard College 2nd place: Melissa Yang from Mount Holyoke College Frances Cannon from University of Vermont Emily A. Lee from Trinity College Christopher Spaide from Amherst College April Walker from Emory University 2010 (87th): Winner: Nicole Gervasio from Bryn Mawr College 2nd place: Naomi Sosner from Dartmouth College and Nisa Williams from University of Maryland Caroline Georges from Hampshire College Anya Johnson from Syracuse University Bianca Young from Mount Holyoke College 2009 (86th): Winner: Emily Yates from Mount Holyoke College 2nd Place: Georgia Pearle from Smith College Miriam Callahan from American University Sarah Brenner from Bennington College Kelly Forsythe from University of Pittsburgh Elisa Gonzalez from Yale University 2008 (85th): Winner: Alexandra Zelman-Döring from Brown University 2nd place: Sarah Binns from Mount Holyoke College Laura Burns from Bates College Dan Esposito from Boston College William Hough from University of Massachusetts Amherst Tina Ganguly from Stony Brook University 2007 (84th): Winners: Sarah Twombly from Mount Holyoke College and Emma Gorenberg from Amherst College Deborah Beth Medows from Brandeis University Mark Parlette from College of William & Mary Philip Matthews from Temple University Noel Tague from University of New Hampshire 2006 (83rd): Winner: Jessica Spradling from Dartmouth College 2nd Place: Sarah Giragosian from Mount Holyoke College Ashley Williard from Hampshire College Rachael Hudak from the University of Michigan Sam Donsky from the University of Pennsylvania Kate Broad from Wellesley College 2005 (82nd): Winner: Carolyn Creedon from Smith College Nancy Doherty from Mount Holyoke College Dan Joseph from Boston University Alan King from Howard University Ian Segal from Princeton University Anna Torres from Swarthmore College 2004 (81st): Winners: Davey Volner from Columbia University and Kristina Martino from UMass Amherst Rachel Kahn from Mount Holyoke College Ariele le Grand from Spelman College Heather Maki from Williams College Sokunthary Svay from the City College of New York 2003 (80th): Winner: Rachel Gainer from George Washington University 2nd Place: Billy Lopez from Amherst College Geoffrey C. Babbitt from Connecticut College Olivia Bustion from Mount Holyoke College Arnold Seong from Cornell University David Willis from Haverford College 2002 (79th): Winner: Keayr Braxton from Vassar College 2nd place: Katharine Sapper from Mount Holyoke College Susan Ellsworth from Colby College Justine Post from Hampshire College Sumitra Ratneshwar from University of Connecticut Daniel Sack from Brandeis University 2001 (78th): Winner: Emma Christensen from Bryn Mawr College 2nd place: Meghan Tally from Emory University Erica Dawson from Johns Hopkins University Kathryn Foran from Mount Holyoke College Joshua Friedman from Amherst College Kimberley Rogers from Smith College 2000 (77th): Winner: Anna Ziegler from Yale University 2nd Place: Diane Rainson from Mount Holyoke College Roseanne (Rosebud) Lane from New York University Chris Martin from Carleton College Alicia Potee from Saint John's College Elizabeth Werner from Hampshire College 1999 (76th): Winner: Erika W. Dyson from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Elspeth Healey from Brown University David Jones from George Washington University Lily Roberts from Skidmore College Elysabeth (Abe Louise) Young from Smith College Anthony Brandt Zipp from Johns Hopkins University 1998 (75th): Winner: Deirdre Lockwood from Amherst College 2nd place: Joshua Carter from Bard College Alicia Rabins from Barnard College Katie Sigelman from Harvard University Yasotha Sriharan from Mount Holyoke College Amanda Williams from University of North Carolina 1997 (74th): Winners: Stephanie Saldana from Middlebury College and Amy Thomas from Dartmouth College Tamar Stratyevskaya from Mount Holyoke College Nuy Y. Cho from Barnard College Tyler Maas from Hampshire College Sara Perry from Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1996 (73rd): Winner: Christine Bauch from Vassar College 2nd Place: Michael Donohue from Princeton University Sam Cherubin from University of Massachusetts Andrea Deese from Swarthmore College Jared Hickman from Bowdoin College Judi Ward from Mount Holyoke College 1995 (72nd): Winner: Jardine Libaire from Skidmore College 2nd place: Bess Huddle from Middlebury College 3rd place: Jennifer Lowe from Mount Holyoke College Andrea Brady from Columbia University Megan Gilbert from Boston University Victoria Pearson from Smith College 1994 (71st): Winner: Rebecca Horwitt from Tufts University 2nd place: Vikki Merton from Mount Holyoke College 3rd place: Jessica Harris from Pennsylvania State University Rachel Jones from Williams College Josephine Park from Amherst College Mika Shino from New York University 1993 (70th) Winner: Oliver Jones from Hampshire College 2nd place: Brooke Belcher from Bates College and Melanie Rehak from University of Pennsylvania Vikki Merton from Mount Holyoke College C.B. Bernard from Saint Michael's College Margaret M. Nelson (Maggie Nelson) from Wesleyan Past winners and participants 1992: Winner: Gia Hansbury from Bryn Mawr College 2nd place: Jennifer Wilder from Yale University Garrett Doherty from University of Massachusetts Amy Glynn from Mount Holyoke College Maximillian Heinegg from Union College Alonzo Patterson from Lincoln University 1991: Winner: Mara Scanlon from University of Virginia 2nd place: Norma Laurenzi from Wellesley College Robert Bradley from Stony Brook University Ken Cormier from University of Connecticut Nancy L. Richard from Mount Holyoke College Janet Walker from Boston College 1990: Winner: Steven Johnson from Brown University 2nd place: Maria Elena Robb from Cornell University Kerry Sarnoski from Smith College Jennifer Hollingsworth from Hollins University Gerard LaFemina from Sarah Lawrence College Michelle Lodjic from Mount Holyoke College 1989: Winner: Chris McEntee from St. Michael's College 2nd place: Richard Hatchett from Vanderbilt University Jennifer Call from Harvard University William Fisher from Amherst College Alex Sela from University at Albany, SUNY Anna Sibley from Mount Holyoke College 1988: Winner: Larissa Szporluk from University of Michigan 2nd place: Bruce Baker from Skidmore College Rosemary Gould from Dartmouth College Andrea Werblin from University of Massachusetts Beth Cross from Saint John's College Julia Watson from Mount Holyoke College 1987: Winner: Whedbee Mullen from Princeton University 2nd place: Jerry Smith from Hampshire College Greg Wilson from Emory University Mike Wood from University of Rhode Island Eric Arehart from Bennington College Anna Sibley from Mount Holyoke College 1986: Winners: Ralph Savarese from Wesleyan University and Nancy Burns from Vassar College Sean Reardon from University of Notre Dame Susan Bartfay from Greenfield Community College Louise A. Wareham from Columbia University Elizabeth Palermo from Mount Holyoke College 1985: Winner: Susan Lasher from Yale University 2nd place: Margaret L. Anderson from Mount Holyoke College Bruce Hainley from College of William & Mary Ruth Maus from Smith College J.D. Smith from American University Jonathan Wahl from Boston University 1984: Winner: Ellen Spring from University of Vermont 2nd place: Nina Solomon from Barnard College 3rd place: Fernando Hernandez from Brooklyn College Darrell Donnell Darrisaw from Morris Brown College David Matson from Bates College Betty Ellen Walter from Mount Holyoke College 1983: Winners: Michele McMahon from New York University and Anna Peterson from Williams College Anne Myles from Bryn Mawr College Alice Sebold from Syracuse University Theresa M. Yuhas from Mount Holyoke College 1982: Winner: Terry Hayes from Brooklyn College 2nd place: Robert Lord Keyes from University of Massachusetts and Mark Labdon from Colby College Marc Cote from McGill University Glenn Pearl from Union College Valerie Tratnyek from Mount Holyoke College 1981: Winner: Amy Boesky from Harvard University 2nd place: Elizabeth A. Cole from Swarthmore College Helen Bartlett from Trinity College Monique V. Chireau from Mount Holyoke College Jeffrey Kennell from University at Albany, SUNY Meredith Randall from Amherst College 1980: Winner: Ginny Eliason from University of New Hampshire 2nd place: Lynn Behrendt from Bard College and Emily S. Silverman from Mount Holyoke College Judith Bloch from Hunter College Hugh Blumenfeld from Massachusetts Institute of Technology Pindie Stephen from Cornell University 1979: Winner: Ellen Gray from University of Connecticut 2nd place: Lisa Hagen from Sweet Briar College and Patricia Rettew from Wellesley College Wayne Burke from Goddard College Thor Ronay from Boston College Catherine E. Whitehead from Mount Holyoke College 1978: Winner: Katherine Jane Gill from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: James Clark from Boston University Lynn Bershak from Douglass College Tom Callaghan from Vassar College Nancy Chatfield from Smith College Jeremiah Cronin from Connecticut College 1977: Winner: Alfred Nicol from Dartmouth College Jennifer Arndt from Princeton University Steven Gutherz from Tufts University Janice L. Kelemen from Mount Holyoke College Kate Llewellyn from University of Pennsylvania Steven White from Williams College 1976: Winner: Devon Miller from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Mary Jo Salter from Radcliffe College - Harvard University and Scott Haas from Hampshire College Michael Gizzi from Brown University John Latta from Cornell University Cynthia Medalie from Sarah Lawrence College 1975: Winner: Russell Sehnert from Colby College 2nd place: Dean Holmes from Wesleyan University and Robert Lloyd from University of New Hampshire Linda J. Corrente from Mount Holyoke College George-Therese Dickenson from Wellesley College Kathy Sue Orr from Sweet Briar College 1974: Winner: Gjertrud Schnackenberg from Mount Holyoke College Robert Cava from Massachusetts Institute of Technology Rika Lesser from Yale University Kathleen Sawyer from University of Massachusetts William Vassilopoulos from Manchester Community College Ellen Weinberg from Goucher College 1973: Winner: Gjertrud Schnackenberg from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Ann Peterson from Smith College and Roberta Alan Rosenberg from Harvard University Paul G. Grimes from Yale University Nini McCabe from Bennington College Thomas Skove Jr. from Amherst College 1972: Winner: Frances Padorr from Barnard College 2nd place: David Cloutier from Brown University Roger Conover from Bowdoin College Lynn Christiane Jacox from Mount Holyoke College Muffy Seigel from Swarthmore College Gretchen Wolff from Bryn Mawr College 1971: Winner: James Richardson from Princeton University 2nd place: Lynn Christiane Jacox from Mount Holyoke College Susanne K. Fickert from Smith College Allen Foresta from Cornell University Mark Fowler from Brandeis University Timothy Sammons from Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1970: Winners: Cassia Berman from Sarah Lawrence College and Katha Pollitt from Radcliffe College Harry Allan George from Bowdoin College John J. Heagney from Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania Peter M. Kaldheim from Dartmouth College Eloise F. White from Mount Holyoke College 1969: Winner: Bruce Dvorchik from University of Connecticut 2nd place: David Lehman from Columbia University and Kathleen Anne Norris from Bennington College Ellen Anthony from Vassar College Ann Schulte from Mount Holyoke College Jeffrey Wohkittel from Wesleyan University 1968: Winner: Barry Seiler from Queens College 2nd place: Maeve Kinkead from Radcliffe College and James L. Price from Dartmouth College David A. Lupher from Yale University Patricia Ann Roth from Mount Holyoke College Lillie Kate Walker from Spelman College 1967: Winner: John Koethe from Princeton University 2nd place: David J. Shapiro from Columbia University Joan Dimow from Connecticut College Cheryl Ann Lawson from Wellesley College William Mullen from Harvard University Ann Schulte from Mount Holyoke College 1966: Winner: Michael B. Wolfe from Wesleyan University 2nd place: Ellin Sarot from Barnard College and Thomas Walsh from Yale University David Glass from Tufts University Sheryl A. Owens from Mount Holyoke College Tom Parson from Yale University Elisabeth Young from Sarah Lawrence College 1965: Winner: Roberta Elzey from Bennington College 2nd place: Anne D. Cleaves from Mount Holyoke College and Margaret Edwards from Bryn Mawr College David Beckman from Brown University Richard Deutch from Bard College Gerald Meyers from Harvard University 1964: Winner: Mary Ann Radner from Wellesley College Patricia Arnold from Connecticut College Martha W. George from Mount Holyoke College William Hunt from Wesleyan University Edward Kissam from Princeton University Steven Orlen from University of Massachusetts 1963: Winner: Alarik W. Skarstrom from Tufts University 2nd place: Helen Pringle from Mount Holyoke College Steven Ablon from Amherst College Mary Lynn Davis from Vassar College Sam K. Davis from Wesleyan University Mary-Kay Gamel from Smith College Gerard Malanga from Wagner College 1962: Winner: Ellen Y. Sutherland from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Laura Kirchman from Sarah Lawrence College Edward B. Freeman from Yale University Judith Gerber from Barnard College R. Edwin Jarman from Williams College David Lander from Trinity College 1961: Winner: Margaret Hambrecht from Wellesley College 2nd place: Norman D. D’Arthenay from Wesleyan University John C. Holden from Harvard University Jacqueline Klein from Bennington College Barbara L. Morgan from Mount Holyoke College Bruce Wilder from Tufts University 1960: Winner: Mark W. Halperin from Bard College 2nd place: Miriam M. Reik from Sarah Lawrence College Charles J. Doria from Western Reserve John Harbison from Harvard University Sandra M. Iger from Mount Holyoke College Alexander Lattimore from Dartmouth College Iris Tillman from Smith College 1959: Winner: G. Jon Roush from Amherst College Carole Battista from Connecticut College Katherine Greene from Vassar College Alfred M. Lee from Yale University Peter Livingston from Tufts University Augustus Y. Napier from Wesleyan University Moira E. Thompson from Mount Holyoke College 1958: Winner: Janet Burroway from Barnard College 2nd place: Michael M. Fried from Princeton University Jill Hoffman from Bennington College Peter Livingston from Tufts University Lynne S. Mayo from Mount Holyoke College Peter Parsons from Yale University Remington Rose from Trinity College 1957 Winner: Robert Ely Bagg from Amherst College 2nd place: Michael M. Fried from Princeton University Terry Brook from Sarah Lawrence College Constance Horton from Bryn Mawr College Lynne Lawner from Wellesley College F.L. Seidel from Harvard University 1956: Winner: Harold James Wilson from Williams College 2nd place: Helen M. O’Brien from Mount Holyoke College Weir Burke from Connecticut College Jan Donald Curran from University of Vermont Lorna Regolsky from University of Massachusetts David R. Slavitt from Yale University 1955: Winners: Sylvia Plath from Smith College and William Key Whitman from Wesleyan University Lynne Lawner from Wellesley College Donald Lehmkuhl from Columbia University Jean Ann Piser from Mount Holyoke College David Rattray from Dartmouth College 1954: Winner: Margaret Tongue from Vassar College Jerome A. Barron from Tufts University Dorothy E. Fuller from Mount Holyoke College Pete Goldman from Williams College Walter Kaiser from Harvard University William Velton from Amherst College 1953: Winner: Richard C. Sewell from Bard College David N. Keightley from Amherst College Pauline Miller Leet from Boston University Mary Anne Muller from Mount Holyoke College Marnie Pomeroy from Sarah Lawrence College J. N. Smith from Haverford College 1952: Winner: George Garrett from Princeton University Jack Brownfield from Hamilton College Ann Hyde from Wheaton College George A. Kelly from Harvard University William McGrath from University of Massachusetts Mary Anne Muller from Mount Holyoke College 1951: Winner: Robert Colleen from Tufts University 2nd place: Donald Hall from Harvard University Robert LaGuardia from Columbia University Lora S. Levy from Brandeis University Alexandra Tschacbasoff from Bennington College E. Jane Williams from Mount Holyoke College 1950: Winner: Edward Collins Bogardus from Yale University Janet A. Emig from Mount Holyoke College Maureen Kearns from Smith College Roger Simmons from Dartmouth College Raymond Smith from Williams College Linda Weinberg from Vassar College 1949: Winner: William Burford from Amherst College Marianne Halley from Wellesley College Sidney Michaels from Tufts University Louis Edward Sissman from Harvard University Peggy Talbott from Sarah Lawrence College Evelyn M. West from Mount Holyoke College 1948: Winner: Kenneth Koch from Harvard University and Sidney Michaels from Tufts University Diana Chang from Barnard College George William Green from College of the Holy Cross Marion Elizabeth Orr from Wellesley College Rosamond Rauch from Mount Holyoke College 1947: Winner: Frederick Buechner from Princeton University 2nd place: Phoebe Pierce from Bennington College Arline Appelbaum from Swarthmore College Jane Armstrong from Mount Holyoke College Charles Burkhart from Cornell University Judith Nelson from Radcliffe College Laurence Silberstein from Dartmouth College 1946: Winner: James Merrill from Amherst College 2nd place: Miriam H. Truesdell from Mount Holyoke College M. David Bell from Brown University William Robert Fague from Wesleyan University S.A. Lieber from Williams College Roger Shattuck from Yale University Medeline Sherman from Smith College Sylvia Stallings from Bryn Mawr College 1945: Winner: John Senior from Columbia University Lucy Grey Black from Wheaton College William Robert Fague from Wesleyan University Reuben Hersh from Harvard University Alice Johnson from Boston University Mary McCullough from Mount Holyoke College 1944: Winner: John Vournakes from Tufts University Elizabeth E. Converse from Mount Holyoke College Edward Kuhn from Dartmouth College Ralph Nash from Duke University Jacqueline Steiner from Vassar College Selden Thomas from Middlebury College Ruth Whitman from Radcliffe College 1943: Winner: Sven Magnus Armens from Tufts University Elysabeth Barbour from Sarah Lawrence College William Francis from Amherst College Anthony Evan Hecht from Bard College Marion J. Kingston from Mount Holyoke College William Manchester from University of Massachusetts 1942: Winner: William Sellers from Boston University Thomas Barbour from Princeton University Josephine L. Doughton from Mount Holyoke College George McDonough from Middlebury College Blythe Morley from Vassar College 1941: Winner: Cedric Whitman from Harvard University Carl Carlson from Wesleyan University Cynthia Coggan from Smith College William Kunstler from Yale University Lois E. Neupert from Mount Holyoke College Jean Nevius from Wheaton College 1940: Winner: George Zabriskie from Duke University Frank Donaldson Brown from Williams College Edward McDonel Fritz from Dartmouth College Anne Grosvenor from Vassar College Maxine West from Pennsylvania State University Anne L. Wonders from Mount Holyoke College 1939: Winners: Elinor J. Bowker from Mount Holyoke College and Howard Houston from Cornell University John Chamberlain from Princeton University Clara Cohen from Wellesley College Frances Power from Radcliffe College Harry Rosenstein from Columbia University 1938: Winner: Eleanor Ruggles from Vassar College Edwin Burrows from Yale University Edith Conklin from Bennington College Robert T. S. Lowell from Kenyon College Samuel French Morse from Harvard University Eleanor M. Withington from Mount Holyoke College 1937: Winner: Sara L. Allen from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Reba Jane Miller from Smith College Shirley Alberta Bliss from University of Massachusetts James H. Green from Amherst College M.F. Wolfe from Williams College 1936: Winners: Sara L. Allen from Mount Holyoke College and Robert Cushman from Wesleyan University Charles Foster from Amherst College Samuel French Morse from Dartmouth College Margaret Potter from Smith College 1935: Winner: Mary Prescott Rice from Bennington College 2nd place: Florence Dunbar from Mount Holyoke College Keith Huntress from Wesleyan University Francis Whitefield from Harvard University 1934: Winner: Louise S. Porter from Mount Holyoke College 2nd place: Philip Horton from Princeton University Thomas John Carlisle from Williams College Gertrude V.V. Franchot from Bryn Mawr College J. Edward Grubb from Wesleyan University 1933: Winner: M. Virginia Hamilton from Mount Holyoke College William Kimball Flaccus from Dartmouth College Robert Alan Green from Amherst College Israel Smith from Middlebury College Constance Walther from Smith College Adelaide Weinstock from Wheaton College 1932: Winner: M. Virginia Hamilton from Mount Holyoke College James Agee from Harvard University John Finch from Wesleyan University Townsend Miller from Yale University Muriel Rukeyser from Vassar College Lawrence Stapleton from Smith College A.P. Sweet from Princeton University 1931: Winner: William Kimball Flaccus from Dartmouth College 2nd place: M. Virginia Hamilton from Mount Holyoke College Elizabeth Massie from Middlebury College Hugo Saglio from Amherst College Carl Rodney Shom from University of New Hampshire Ruth H. Dodge from University of New Hampshire 1930: Winner: Winfield Townley Scott from Brown University Sarah-Elizabeth Roger from Barnard College Peter Yates from Princeton University Anita Young from Mount Holyoke College Mary Blodgett from Radcliffe College Richard Ely Morse from Amherst College 1929 (only year held at Wesleyan University): Winner: John F. Swain from Wesleyan University Frances Strunsky from Vassar College Edward Scribner Cobb from Amherst College Constance Klugh from Mount Holyoke College Edgar Williams Larkin from Williams College 1928: Winner: Tom Prideaux from Yale University Doris Clark from Mount Holyoke College Anne Lundgren from Connecticut College John F. Swain from Wesleyan University 1927: Winner: Martha Hodgson from Mount Holyoke College Jane Boone from Vassar College Margaret Haley from Bryn Mawr College Lucia Jordan from Smith Judith Stern from Wellesley College 1926: Winner: Josephine Garwood from Barnard College John Holmes from Tufts University Edith Horton from Cornell University Judith Stern Wellesley College George Cassidy from Brown University Elizabeth Whitney from Mount Holyoke College Henry Zolinsky from College of the City of New York 1925: Winner: Roberta Teale Swartz from Mount Holyoke College John Abbott from Harvard Curtis Canfield from Amherst Barbara Ling from Bryn Mawr College (Honorable Mention) Judith Stern from Wellesley College 1924: Winner: Roberta Teale Swartz from Mount Holyoke College William Troy from Yale University Martha E. Keller from Vassar College 1923: Winner: Anita Elizabeth Don from Mount Holyoke College Julia C. Abbe from Mount Holyoke College Katharine Lee from Mount Holyoke College Kathleen S. Moore from Mount Holyoke College Roberta Teale Swartz from Mount Holyoke College Rezia Rowley from Mount Holyoke College Elizabeth Whitney from Mount Holyoke College See also List of poetry awards Poetry prizes Notes External links Glascock Poetry Contest Lists of writers Lists of award winners American poetry awards
5330368	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial%20metabolism	Microbial metabolism	Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients (e.g. carbon) it needs to live and reproduce. Microbes use many different types of metabolic strategies and species can often be differentiated from each other based on metabolic characteristics. The specific metabolic properties of a microbe are the major factors in determining that microbe's ecological niche, and often allow for that microbe to be useful in industrial processes or responsible for biogeochemical cycles. Types All microbial metabolisms can be arranged according to three principles: 1. How the organism obtains carbon for synthesizing cell mass: autotrophic – carbon is obtained from carbon dioxide () heterotrophic – carbon is obtained from organic compounds mixotrophic – carbon is obtained from both organic compounds and by fixing carbon dioxide 2. How the organism obtains reducing equivalents (hydrogen atoms or electrons) used either in energy conservation or in biosynthetic reactions: lithotrophic – reducing equivalents are obtained from inorganic compounds organotrophic – reducing equivalents are obtained from organic compounds 3. How the organism obtains energy for living and growing: phototrophic – energy is obtained from light chemotrophic – energy is obtained from external chemical compounds In practice, these terms are almost freely combined. Typical examples are as follows: chemolithoautotrophs obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds and carbon from the fixation of carbon dioxide. Examples: Nitrifying bacteria, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, iron-oxidizing bacteria, Knallgas-bacteria photolithoautotrophs obtain energy from light and carbon from the fixation of carbon dioxide, using reducing equivalents from inorganic compounds. Examples: Cyanobacteria (water () as reducing equivalent = hydrogen donor), Chlorobiaceae, Chromatiaceae (hydrogen sulfide () as hydrogen donor), Chloroflexus (hydrogen () as reducing equivalent donor) chemolithoheterotrophs obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds, but cannot fix carbon dioxide (). Examples: some Thiobacilus, some Beggiatoa, some Nitrobacter spp., Wolinella (with as reducing equivalent donor), some Knallgas-bacteria, some sulfate-reducing bacteria chemoorganoheterotrophs obtain energy, carbon, and hydrogen for biosynthetic reactions from organic compounds. Examples: most bacteria, e. g. Escherichia coli, Bacillus spp., Actinomycetota photoorganoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, carbon and reducing equivalents for biosynthetic reactions from organic compounds. Some species are strictly heterotrophic, many others can also fix carbon dioxide and are mixotrophic. Examples: Rhodobacter, Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodospirillum, Rhodomicrobium, Rhodocyclus, Heliobacterium, Chloroflexus (alternatively to photolithoautotrophy with hydrogen) Heterotrophic microbial metabolism Some microbes are heterotrophic (more precisely chemoorganoheterotrophic), using organic compounds as both carbon and energy sources. Heterotrophic microbes live off of nutrients that they scavenge from living hosts (as commensals or parasites) or find in dead organic matter of all kind (saprophages). Microbial metabolism is the main contribution for the bodily decay of all organisms after death. Many eukaryotic microorganisms are heterotrophic by predation or parasitism, properties also found in some bacteria such as Bdellovibrio (an intracellular parasite of other bacteria, causing death of its victims) and Myxobacteria such as Myxococcus (predators of other bacteria which are killed and lysed by cooperating swarms of many single cells of Myxobacteria). Most pathogenic bacteria can be viewed as heterotrophic parasites of humans or the other eukaryotic species they affect. Heterotrophic microbes are extremely abundant in nature and are responsible for the breakdown of large organic polymers such as cellulose, chitin or lignin which are generally indigestible to larger animals. Generally, the oxidative breakdown of large polymers to carbon dioxide (mineralization) requires several different organisms, with one breaking down the polymer into its constituent monomers, one able to use the monomers and excreting simpler waste compounds as by-products, and one able to use the excreted wastes. There are many variations on this theme, as different organisms are able to degrade different polymers and secrete different waste products. Some organisms are even able to degrade more recalcitrant compounds such as petroleum compounds or pesticides, making them useful in bioremediation. Biochemically, prokaryotic heterotrophic metabolism is much more versatile than that of eukaryotic organisms, although many prokaryotes share the most basic metabolic models with eukaryotes, e. g. using glycolysis (also called EMP pathway) for sugar metabolism and the citric acid cycle to degrade acetate, producing energy in the form of ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH or quinols. These basic pathways are well conserved because they are also involved in biosynthesis of many conserved building blocks needed for cell growth (sometimes in reverse direction). However, many bacteria and archaea utilize alternative metabolic pathways other than glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. A well-studied example is sugar metabolism via the keto-deoxy-phosphogluconate pathway (also called ED pathway) in Pseudomonas. Moreover, there is a third alternative sugar-catabolic pathway used by some bacteria, the pentose phosphate pathway. The metabolic diversity and ability of prokaryotes to use a large variety of organic compounds arises from the much deeper evolutionary history and diversity of prokaryotes, as compared to eukaryotes. It is also noteworthy that the mitochondrion, the small membrane-bound intracellular organelle that is the site of eukaryotic oxygen-using energy metabolism, arose from the endosymbiosis of a bacterium related to obligate intracellular Rickettsia, and also to plant-associated Rhizobium or Agrobacterium. Therefore, it is not surprising that all mitrochondriate eukaryotes share metabolic properties with these Pseudomonadota. Most microbes respire (use an electron transport chain), although oxygen is not the only terminal electron acceptor that may be used. As discussed below, the use of terminal electron acceptors other than oxygen has important biogeochemical consequences. Fermentation Fermentation is a specific type of heterotrophic metabolism that uses organic carbon instead of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. This means that these organisms do not use an electron transport chain to oxidize NADH to and therefore must have an alternative method of using this reducing power and maintaining a supply of for the proper functioning of normal metabolic pathways (e.g. glycolysis). As oxygen is not required, fermentative organisms are anaerobic. Many organisms can use fermentation under anaerobic conditions and aerobic respiration when oxygen is present. These organisms are facultative anaerobes. To avoid the overproduction of NADH, obligately fermentative organisms usually do not have a complete citric acid cycle. Instead of using an ATP synthase as in respiration, ATP in fermentative organisms is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation where a phosphate group is transferred from a high-energy organic compound to ADP to form ATP. As a result of the need to produce high energy phosphate-containing organic compounds (generally in the form of Coenzyme A-esters) fermentative organisms use NADH and other cofactors to produce many different reduced metabolic by-products, often including hydrogen gas (). These reduced organic compounds are generally small organic acids and alcohols derived from pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis. Examples include ethanol, acetate, lactate, and butyrate. Fermentative organisms are very important industrially and are used to make many different types of food products. The different metabolic end products produced by each specific bacterial species are responsible for the different tastes and properties of each food. Not all fermentative organisms use substrate-level phosphorylation. Instead, some organisms are able to couple the oxidation of low-energy organic compounds directly to the formation of a proton motive force or sodium-motive force and therefore ATP synthesis. Examples of these unusual forms of fermentation include succinate fermentation by Propionigenium modestum and oxalate fermentation by Oxalobacter formigenes. These reactions are extremely low-energy yielding. Humans and other higher animals also use fermentation to produce lactate from excess NADH, although this is not the major form of metabolism as it is in fermentative microorganisms. Special metabolic properties Methylotrophy Methylotrophy refers to the ability of an organism to use C1-compounds as energy sources. These compounds include methanol, methyl amines, formaldehyde, and formate. Several other less common substrates may also be used for metabolism, all of which lack carbon-carbon bonds. Examples of methylotrophs include the bacteria Methylomonas and Methylobacter. Methanotrophs are a specific type of methylotroph that are also able to use methane () as a carbon source by oxidizing it sequentially to methanol (), formaldehyde (), formate (), and carbon dioxide initially using the enzyme methane monooxygenase. As oxygen is required for this process, all (conventional) methanotrophs are obligate aerobes. Reducing power in the form of quinones and NADH is produced during these oxidations to produce a proton motive force and therefore ATP generation. Methylotrophs and methanotrophs are not considered as autotrophic, because they are able to incorporate some of the oxidized methane (or other metabolites) into cellular carbon before it is completely oxidized to (at the level of formaldehyde), using either the serine pathway (Methylosinus, Methylocystis) or the ribulose monophosphate pathway (Methylococcus), depending on the species of methylotroph. In addition to aerobic methylotrophy, methane can also be oxidized anaerobically. This occurs by a consortium of sulfate-reducing bacteria and relatives of methanogenic Archaea working syntrophically (see below). Little is currently known about the biochemistry and ecology of this process. Methanogenesis is the biological production of methane. It is carried out by methanogens, strictly anaerobic Archaea such as Methanococcus, Methanocaldococcus, Methanobacterium, Methanothermus, Methanosarcina, Methanosaeta and Methanopyrus. The biochemistry of methanogenesis is unique in nature in its use of a number of unusual cofactors to sequentially reduce methanogenic substrates to methane, such as coenzyme M and methanofuran. These cofactors are responsible (among other things) for the establishment of a proton gradient across the outer membrane thereby driving ATP synthesis. Several types of methanogenesis occur, differing in the starting compounds oxidized. Some methanogens reduce carbon dioxide () to methane () using electrons (most often) from hydrogen gas () chemolithoautotrophically. These methanogens can often be found in environments containing fermentative organisms. The tight association of methanogens and fermentative bacteria can be considered to be syntrophic (see below) because the methanogens, which rely on the fermentors for hydrogen, relieve feedback inhibition of the fermentors by the build-up of excess hydrogen that would otherwise inhibit their growth. This type of syntrophic relationship is specifically known as interspecies hydrogen transfer. A second group of methanogens use methanol () as a substrate for methanogenesis. These are chemoorganotrophic, but still autotrophic in using as only carbon source. The biochemistry of this process is quite different from that of the carbon dioxide-reducing methanogens. Lastly, a third group of methanogens produce both methane and carbon dioxide from acetate () with the acetate being split between the two carbons. These acetate-cleaving organisms are the only chemoorganoheterotrophic methanogens. All autotrophic methanogens use a variation of the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway to fix and obtain cellular carbon. Syntrophy Syntrophy, in the context of microbial metabolism, refers to the pairing of multiple species to achieve a chemical reaction that, on its own, would be energetically unfavorable. The best studied example of this process is the oxidation of fermentative end products (such as acetate, ethanol and butyrate) by organisms such as Syntrophomonas. Alone, the oxidation of butyrate to acetate and hydrogen gas is energetically unfavorable. However, when a hydrogenotrophic (hydrogen-using) methanogen is present the use of the hydrogen gas will significantly lower the concentration of hydrogen (down to 10−5 atm) and thereby shift the equilibrium of the butyrate oxidation reaction under standard conditions (ΔGº’) to non-standard conditions (ΔG’). Because the concentration of one product is lowered, the reaction is "pulled" towards the products and shifted towards net energetically favorable conditions (for butyrate oxidation: ΔGº’= +48.2 kJ/mol, but ΔG' = -8.9 kJ/mol at 10−5 atm hydrogen and even lower if also the initially produced acetate is further metabolized by methanogens). Conversely, the available free energy from methanogenesis is lowered from ΔGº’= -131 kJ/mol under standard conditions to ΔG' = -17 kJ/mol at 10−5 atm hydrogen. This is an example of intraspecies hydrogen transfer. In this way, low energy-yielding carbon sources can be used by a consortium of organisms to achieve further degradation and eventual mineralization of these compounds. These reactions help prevent the excess sequestration of carbon over geologic time scales, releasing it back to the biosphere in usable forms such as methane and . Aerobic respiration Aerobic metabolism occurs in Bacteria, Archaea and Eucarya. Although most bacterial species are anaerobic, many are facultative or obligate aerobes. The majority of archaeal species live in extreme environments that are often highly anaerobic. There are, however, several cases of aerobic archaea such as Haiobacterium, Thermoplasma, Sulfolobus and Yymbaculum. Most of the known eukaryotes carry out aerobic metabolism within their mitochondria which is an organelle that had a symbiogenesis origin from prokarya . All aerobic organisms contain oxidases of the cytochrome oxidase super family, but some members of the Pseudomonadota (E. coli and Acetobacter) can also use an unrelated cytochrome bd complex as a respiratory terminal oxidase. Anaerobic respiration While aerobic organisms during respiration use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, anaerobic organisms use other electron acceptors. These inorganic compounds release less energy in cellular respiration, which leads to slower growth rates than aerobes. Many facultative anaerobes can use either oxygen or alternative terminal electron acceptors for respiration depending on the environmental conditions. Most respiring anaerobes are heterotrophs, although some do live autotrophically. All of the processes described below are dissimilative, meaning that they are used during energy production and not to provide nutrients for the cell (assimilative). Assimilative pathways for many forms of anaerobic respiration are also known. Denitrification – nitrate as electron acceptor Denitrification is the utilization of nitrate () as a terminal electron acceptor. It is a widespread process that is used by many members of the Pseudomonadota. Many facultative anaerobes use denitrification because nitrate, like oxygen, has a high reduction potential. Many denitrifying bacteria can also use ferric iron () and some organic electron acceptors. Denitrification involves the stepwise reduction of nitrate to nitrite (), nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (), and dinitrogen () by the enzymes nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, nitric oxide reductase, and nitrous oxide reductase, respectively. Protons are transported across the membrane by the initial NADH reductase, quinones, and nitrous oxide reductase to produce the electrochemical gradient critical for respiration. Some organisms (e.g. E. coli) only produce nitrate reductase and therefore can accomplish only the first reduction leading to the accumulation of nitrite. Others (e.g. Paracoccus denitrificans or Pseudomonas stutzeri) reduce nitrate completely. Complete denitrification is an environmentally significant process because some intermediates of denitrification (nitric oxide and nitrous oxide) are important greenhouse gases that react with sunlight and ozone to produce nitric acid, a component of acid rain. Denitrification is also important in biological wastewater treatment where it is used to reduce the amount of nitrogen released into the environment thereby reducing eutrophication. Denitrification can be determined via a nitrate reductase test. Sulfate reduction – sulfate as electron acceptor Dissimilatory sulfate reduction is a relatively energetically poor process used by many Gram-negative bacteria found within the Thermodesulfobacteriota, Gram-positive organisms relating to Desulfotomaculum or the archaeon Archaeoglobus. Hydrogen sulfide () is produced as a metabolic end product. For sulfate reduction electron donors and energy are needed. Electron donors Many sulfate reducers are organotrophic, using carbon compounds such as lactate and pyruvate (among many others) as electron donors, while others are lithotrophic, using hydrogen gas () as an electron donor. Some unusual autotrophic sulfate-reducing bacteria (e.g. Desulfotignum phosphitoxidans) can use phosphite () as an electron donor whereas others (e.g. Desulfovibrio sulfodismutans, Desulfocapsa thiozymogenes, Desulfocapsa sulfoexigens) are capable of sulfur disproportionation (splitting one compound into two different compounds, in this case an electron donor and an electron acceptor) using elemental sulfur (S0), sulfite (), and thiosulfate () to produce both hydrogen sulfide () and sulfate (). Energy for reduction All sulfate-reducing organisms are strict anaerobes. Because sulfate is energetically stable, before it can be metabolized it must first be activated by adenylation to form APS (adenosine 5’-phosphosulfate) thereby consuming ATP. The APS is then reduced by the enzyme APS reductase to form sulfite () and AMP. In organisms that use carbon compounds as electron donors, the ATP consumed is accounted for by fermentation of the carbon substrate. The hydrogen produced during fermentation is actually what drives respiration during sulfate reduction. Acetogenesis – carbon dioxide as electron acceptor Acetogenesis is a type of microbial metabolism that uses hydrogen () as an electron donor and carbon dioxide () as an electron acceptor to produce acetate, the same electron donors and acceptors used in methanogenesis (see above). Bacteria that can autotrophically synthesize acetate are called homoacetogens. Carbon dioxide reduction in all homoacetogens occurs by the acetyl-CoA pathway. This pathway is also used for carbon fixation by autotrophic sulfate-reducing bacteria and hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Often homoacetogens can also be fermentative, using the hydrogen and carbon dioxide produced as a result of fermentation to produce acetate, which is secreted as an end product. Other inorganic electron acceptors Ferric iron () is a widespread anaerobic terminal electron acceptor both for autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Electron flow in these organisms is similar to those in electron transport, ending in oxygen or nitrate, except that in ferric iron-reducing organisms the final enzyme in this system is a ferric iron reductase. Model organisms include Shewanella putrefaciens and Geobacter metallireducens. Since some ferric iron-reducing bacteria (e.g. G. metallireducens) can use toxic hydrocarbons such as toluene as a carbon source, there is significant interest in using these organisms as bioremediation agents in ferric iron-rich contaminated aquifers. Although ferric iron is the most prevalent inorganic electron acceptor, a number of organisms (including the iron-reducing bacteria mentioned above) can use other inorganic ions in anaerobic respiration. While these processes may often be less significant ecologically, they are of considerable interest for bioremediation, especially when heavy metals or radionuclides are used as electron acceptors. Examples include: Manganic ion () reduction to manganous ion () Selenate () reduction to selenite () and selenite reduction to inorganic selenium (Se0) Arsenate () reduction to arsenite () Uranyl ion () reduction to uranium dioxide () Organic terminal electron acceptors A number of organisms, instead of using inorganic compounds as terminal electron acceptors, are able to use organic compounds to accept electrons from respiration. Examples include: Fumarate reduction to succinate Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) reduction to trimethylamine (TMA) Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) reduction to Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) Reductive dechlorination TMAO is a chemical commonly produced by fish, and when reduced to TMA produces a strong odor. DMSO is a common marine and freshwater chemical which is also odiferous when reduced to DMS. Reductive dechlorination is the process by which chlorinated organic compounds are reduced to form their non-chlorinated endproducts. As chlorinated organic compounds are often important (and difficult to degrade) environmental pollutants, reductive dechlorination is an important process in bioremediation. Chemolithotrophy Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. Most chemolithotrophic organisms are also autotrophic. There are two major objectives to chemolithotrophy: the generation of energy (ATP) and the generation of reducing power (NADH). Hydrogen oxidation Many organisms are capable of using hydrogen () as a source of energy. While several mechanisms of anaerobic hydrogen oxidation have been mentioned previously (e.g. sulfate reducing- and acetogenic bacteria), the chemical energy of hydrogen can be used in the aerobic Knallgas reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O + energy In these organisms, hydrogen is oxidized by a membrane-bound hydrogenase causing proton pumping via electron transfer to various quinones and cytochromes. In many organisms, a second cytoplasmic hydrogenase is used to generate reducing power in the form of NADH, which is subsequently used to fix carbon dioxide via the Calvin cycle. Hydrogen-oxidizing organisms, such as Cupriavidus necator (formerly Ralstonia eutropha), often inhabit oxic-anoxic interfaces in nature to take advantage of the hydrogen produced by anaerobic fermentative organisms while still maintaining a supply of oxygen. Sulfur oxidation Sulfur oxidation involves the oxidation of reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide ), inorganic sulfur (S), and thiosulfate () to form sulfuric acid (). A classic example of a sulfur-oxidizing bacterium is Beggiatoa, a microbe originally described by Sergei Winogradsky, one of the founders of environmental microbiology. Another example is Paracoccus. Generally, the oxidation of sulfide occurs in stages, with inorganic sulfur being stored either inside or outside of the cell until needed. This two step process occurs because energetically sulfide is a better electron donor than inorganic sulfur or thiosulfate, allowing for a greater number of protons to be translocated across the membrane. Sulfur-oxidizing organisms generate reducing power for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle using reverse electron flow, an energy-requiring process that pushes the electrons against their thermodynamic gradient to produce NADH. Biochemically, reduced sulfur compounds are converted to sulfite () and subsequently converted to sulfate () by the enzyme sulfite oxidase. Some organisms, however, accomplish the same oxidation using a reversal of the APS reductase system used by sulfate-reducing bacteria (see above). In all cases the energy liberated is transferred to the electron transport chain for ATP and NADH production. In addition to aerobic sulfur oxidation, some organisms (e.g. Thiobacillus denitrificans) use nitrate () as a terminal electron acceptor and therefore grow anaerobically. Ferrous iron () oxidation Ferrous iron is a soluble form of iron that is stable at extremely low pHs or under anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic, moderate pH conditions ferrous iron is oxidized spontaneously to the ferric () form and is hydrolyzed abiotically to insoluble ferric hydroxide (). There are three distinct types of ferrous iron-oxidizing microbes. The first are acidophiles, such as the bacteria Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans, as well as the archaeon Ferroplasma. These microbes oxidize iron in environments that have a very low pH and are important in acid mine drainage. The second type of microbes oxidize ferrous iron at near-neutral pH. These micro-organisms (for example Gallionella ferruginea, Leptothrix ochracea, or Mariprofundus ferrooxydans) live at the oxic-anoxic interfaces and are microaerophiles. The third type of iron-oxidizing microbes are anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas, which use ferrous iron to produce NADH for autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation. Biochemically, aerobic iron oxidation is a very energetically poor process which therefore requires large amounts of iron to be oxidized by the enzyme rusticyanin to facilitate the formation of proton motive force. Like sulfur oxidation, reverse electron flow must be used to form the NADH used for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle. Nitrification Nitrification is the process by which ammonia () is converted to nitrate (). Nitrification is actually the net result of two distinct processes: oxidation of ammonia to nitrite () by nitrosifying bacteria (e.g. Nitrosomonas) and oxidation of nitrite to nitrate by the nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (e.g. Nitrobacter). Both of these processes are extremely energetically poor leading to very slow growth rates for both types of organisms. Biochemically, ammonia oxidation occurs by the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to hydroxylamine () by the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase in the cytoplasm, followed by the oxidation of hydroxylamine to nitrite by the enzyme hydroxylamine oxidoreductase in the periplasm. Electron and proton cycling are very complex but as a net result only one proton is translocated across the membrane per molecule of ammonia oxidized. Nitrite oxidation is much simpler, with nitrite being oxidized by the enzyme nitrite oxidoreductase coupled to proton translocation by a very short electron transport chain, again leading to very low growth rates for these organisms. Oxygen is required in both ammonia and nitrite oxidation, meaning that both nitrosifying and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are aerobes. As in sulfur and iron oxidation, NADH for carbon dioxide fixation using the Calvin cycle is generated by reverse electron flow, thereby placing a further metabolic burden on an already energy-poor process. In 2015, two groups independently showed the microbial genus Nitrospira is capable of complete nitrification (Comammox). Anammox Anammox stands for anaerobic ammonia oxidation and the organisms responsible were relatively recently discovered, in the late 1990s. This form of metabolism occurs in members of the Planctomycetota (e.g. "Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans") and involves the coupling of ammonia oxidation to nitrite reduction. As oxygen is not required for this process, these organisms are strict anaerobes. Amazingly, hydrazine ( – rocket fuel) is produced as an intermediate during anammox metabolism. To deal with the high toxicity of hydrazine, anammox bacteria contain a hydrazine-containing intracellular organelle called the anammoxasome, surrounded by highly compact (and unusual) ladderane lipid membrane. These lipids are unique in nature, as is the use of hydrazine as a metabolic intermediate. Anammox organisms are autotrophs although the mechanism for carbon dioxide fixation is unclear. Because of this property, these organisms could be used to remove nitrogen in industrial wastewater treatment processes. Anammox has also been shown to have widespread occurrence in anaerobic aquatic systems and has been speculated to account for approximately 50% of nitrogen gas production in the ocean. Manganese oxidation In July 2020 researchers report the discovery of chemolithoautotrophic bacterial culture that feeds on the metal manganese after performing unrelated experiments and named its bacterial species Candidatus Manganitrophus noduliformans and Ramlibacter lithotrophicus. Phototrophy Many microbes (phototrophs) are capable of using light as a source of energy to produce ATP and organic compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Of these, algae are particularly significant because they are oxygenic, using water as an electron donor for electron transfer during photosynthesis. Phototrophic bacteria are found in the phyla "Cyanobacteria", Chlorobiota, Pseudomonadota, Chloroflexota, and Bacillota. Along with plants these microbes are responsible for all biological generation of oxygen gas on Earth. Because chloroplasts were derived from a lineage of the Cyanobacteria, the general principles of metabolism in these endosymbionts can also be applied to chloroplasts. In addition to oxygenic photosynthesis, many bacteria can also photosynthesize anaerobically, typically using sulfide () as an electron donor to produce sulfate. Inorganic sulfur (), thiosulfate () and ferrous iron () can also be used by some organisms. Phylogenetically, all oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria are Cyanobacteria, while anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria belong to the purple bacteria (Pseudomonadota), Green sulfur bacteria (e.g., Chlorobium), Green non-sulfur bacteria (e.g., Chloroflexus), or the heliobacteria (Low %G+C Gram positives). In addition to these organisms, some microbes (e.g. the Archaeon Halobacterium or the bacterium Roseobacter, among others) can utilize light to produce energy using the enzyme bacteriorhodopsin, a light-driven proton pump. However, there are no known Archaea that carry out photosynthesis. As befits the large diversity of photosynthetic bacteria, there are many different mechanisms by which light is converted into energy for metabolism. All photosynthetic organisms locate their photosynthetic reaction centers within a membrane, which may be invaginations of the cytoplasmic membrane (Pseudomonadota), thylakoid membranes ("Cyanobacteria"), specialized antenna structures called chlorosomes (Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria), or the cytoplasmic membrane itself (heliobacteria). Different photosynthetic bacteria also contain different photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophylls and carotenoids, allowing them to take advantage of different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and thereby inhabit different niches. Some groups of organisms contain more specialized light-harvesting structures (e.g. phycobilisomes in Cyanobacteria and chlorosomes in Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria), allowing for increased efficiency in light utilization. Biochemically, anoxygenic photosynthesis is very different from oxygenic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria (and by extension, chloroplasts) use the Z scheme of electron flow in which electrons eventually are used to form NADH. Two different reaction centers (photosystems) are used and proton motive force is generated both by using cyclic electron flow and the quinone pool. In anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, electron flow is cyclic, with all electrons used in photosynthesis eventually being transferred back to the single reaction center. A proton motive force is generated using only the quinone pool. In heliobacteria, Green sulfur, and Green non-sulfur bacteria, NADH is formed using the protein ferredoxin, an energetically favorable reaction. In purple bacteria, NADH is formed by reverse electron flow due to the lower chemical potential of this reaction center. In all cases, however, a proton motive force is generated and used to drive ATP production via an ATPase. Most photosynthetic microbes are autotrophic, fixing carbon dioxide via the Calvin cycle. Some photosynthetic bacteria (e.g. Chloroflexus) are photoheterotrophs, meaning that they use organic carbon compounds as a carbon source for growth. Some photosynthetic organisms also fix nitrogen (see below). Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen is an element required for growth by all biological systems. While extremely common (80% by volume) in the atmosphere, dinitrogen gas () is generally biologically inaccessible due to its high activation energy. Throughout all of nature, only specialized bacteria and Archaea are capable of nitrogen fixation, converting dinitrogen gas into ammonia (), which is easily assimilated by all organisms. These prokaryotes, therefore, are very important ecologically and are often essential for the survival of entire ecosystems. This is especially true in the ocean, where nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are often the only sources of fixed nitrogen, and in soils, where specialized symbioses exist between legumes and their nitrogen-fixing partners to provide the nitrogen needed by these plants for growth. Nitrogen fixation can be found distributed throughout nearly all bacterial lineages and physiological classes but is not a universal property. Because the enzyme nitrogenase, responsible for nitrogen fixation, is very sensitive to oxygen which will inhibit it irreversibly, all nitrogen-fixing organisms must possess some mechanism to keep the concentration of oxygen low. Examples include: heterocyst formation (cyanobacteria e.g. Anabaena) where one cell does not photosynthesize but instead fixes nitrogen for its neighbors which in turn provide it with energy root nodule symbioses (e.g. Rhizobium) with plants that supply oxygen to the bacteria bound to molecules of leghaemoglobin anaerobic lifestyle (e.g. Clostridium pasteurianum) very fast metabolism (e.g. Azotobacter vinelandii) The production and activity of nitrogenases is very highly regulated, both because nitrogen fixation is an extremely energetically expensive process (16–24 ATP are used per fixed) and due to the extreme sensitivity of the nitrogenase to oxygen. See also Lipophilic bacteria, a minority of bacteria with lipid metabolism References Further reading Metabolism Trophic ecology
5331308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood%20Sportatorium	Hollywood Sportatorium	The Hollywood Sportatorium was an indoor arena in Pembroke Pines, Florida (originally Hollywood), located at 17171 Pines Boulevard (originally 16661 West Hollywood Boulevard). The Sportatorium was from downtown Miami and from downtown Fort Lauderdale. During its 18 years of operation, it was the only venue of its kind in heavily populated South Florida. History The Sportatorium was built beginning in September 1968 by Stephen Calder and Norman Johnson. Calder would also build the Calder Race Course shortly thereafter. It stood adjacent to the Miami-Hollywood Motorsports Park, which Calder and Johnson had constructed four years earlier. Among the plans for the Sportatorium were sports events, ice follies programs, auto and boat shows, and eventually a "Gold Coast State Fair". The Sportatorium was constructed as a hangar-like facility constructed out of concrete, a steel roof, an asphalt floor, and no air conditioning. Originally designed to seat 18,000 for stage events and 15,000 for arena events, it opened in December 1969 with only 6,000 seats. "The idea was to have a facility which could have entertainment and events out of weather," said Bruce Johnson, Norman Johnson's son, who managed the arena until 1980. At first, it hosted indoor rodeos, indoor motocross events, wrestling, boxing, and some concerts. At the time, what is now the six- to eight-lane Pines Boulevard was a two-lane road in a thinly populated area of unincorporated Broward County. The first event held in the Sportatorium was the Miami Rock Festival on December 27–29, 1969. While the seating capacity did eventually increase, by 1974, the Sportatorium still lacked permanent seating, air conditioning, an enclosed roof, and good traffic access. The land on which the arena stood was annexed to Pembroke Pines in 1980. Home of the phantom sports franchise The Sportatorium was often floated as the home of a professional basketball or hockey franchise. As originally built, however, it did not have permanent seating or air conditioning. Additionally, the arena was only accessible from the then two-lane Hollywood Boulevard, resulting in massive traffic jams whenever events there attracted decent-sized crowds. Consequently, for a time there was little serious interest in the Sportatorium for a sports franchise. Even so, as early as 1969, there were inquiries to the Eastern Hockey League and the National Hockey League about the possibility of landing a hockey franchise. In 1972, the World Hockey Association awarded a franchise to South Florida called the Miami Screaming Eagles. Herb Martin, the owner, had been rebuffed in his efforts to build his own arena in Miami and considered playing at the Sportatorium instead. However, he ultimately concluded that the arena was unsuitable even as a temporary facility and sold the franchise before playing a single game. Two years later, Calder twice put off an announcement that he would acquire an expansion franchise from the WHA. Miami builder Robert Blum also hoped to get a WHA franchise, but wanted the team to play at the Miami Beach Convention Center (which had fewer than 3,000 seats). Concerning Calder's Sportatorium, Blum said: "I don't even know why they built it. It is a Tinker Toy arena. It's dumb, it's not even good for rock concerts. If they could get good crowds, they couldn't handle them, so even if they succeeded it would be self-defeating." Calder renovated the arena in 1975 in large part to help bring a professional basketball or hockey team to the arena. Four million dollars were spent renovating the arena and installing air conditioning, new and expanded seating upstairs, and pipes under the floor to make ice. After the renovation, the arena had a seating capacity of 15,532 seats. However, while four different teams were set to move into the Sportatorium in the first year following the renovations, none of them actually did: The first attempt to import a team in 1976 was in February, when former Philadelphia Flyers part-owner Bill Putnam attempted to bring the WHA's Minnesota Fighting Saints to the Sportatorium; however, the league's board of trustees voted to suspend the franchise rather than award it to the Florida group headed by Putnam. The second attempt was in June 1976, when Diplomat Hotel owner Irving Cowan obtained an option to purchase the Buffalo Braves of the NBA for $6.1 million, and planned to bring them to South Florida and the Sportatorium. Pledges of more than 8,000 season tickets were received. However, the city of Buffalo sued the Braves for breach of contract and sought a restraining order preventing the move. Although Cowan claimed the move would still take place, the effort nonetheless failed due to the lawsuit. The Braves signed a new, conditional lease with the city of Buffalo, and ended up moving to San Diego two years later, where they became the San Diego (now Los Angeles) Clippers. The third attempt came just a month later, when Putnam managed to conclude a deal to purchase another WHA club, the Cleveland Crusaders, with the first game scheduled for October 15 at the Sportatorium. The deal failed, however, and the Crusaders ended up moving to Saint Paul to become the second incarnation of the Minnesota Fighting Saints (not to be confused with the original Fighting Saints team that Putnam tried to buy five months earlier). Having already accepted deposits for season tickets, Putnam immediately sought to bring the San Diego Mariners to town, to become the Florida Breakers in time for the 1976–77 season. However, this deal failed as well, and ticket depositors who tried to get their money back found the Breakers' Hollywood Boulevard office closed and the phone disconnected. Putnam eventually filed for bankruptcy. (Had the move taken place, it would have been the franchise's fifth identity in four years, having previously played as the New York Raiders, New York Golden Blades and Jersey Knights before shifting to San Diego.) The fourth and final attempt was at the end of the WHA's 1976–77 season. Miami resident Jerry Saperstein, son of Harlem Globetrotters founder Abe Saperstein, agreed to purchase the same San Diego Mariners club that Bill Putnam tried to buy from owner Ray Kroc; pending approval from the WHA board of trustees, the renamed Florida Icegators would've come to the Sportatorium in time for 1977–78 season, . (As noted above, the move would have marked a return to the east coast for the Mariners franchise, originally the New York Golden Blades.) However, the WHA sought to merge with the National Hockey League that year, and the Mariners were not among the four WHA clubs that ultimately joined the older league in 1979. While the arena never did attract a truly permanent sports franchise, the Fort Lauderdale Strikers of the North American Soccer League played at the Sportatorium for one NASL indoor season in 1980–81. (The season was a disaster for the Strikers, with a 1-17 record and drawing only 1,590 fans per game, worst in the league.) In addition, the Sportatorium did host one preseason NBA matchup when the New Orleans Jazz defeated the Atlanta Hawks, 113-104, in front of 6,068 fans on October 7, 1977. The Rock Mecca of South Florida Despite the Sportatorium's lack of success in attracting a sports franchise, it thrived as a concert arena. The largest concert venue at the time was a small outdoor amphitheater at Pirates World in Dania. Outdoor concerts were also held at Miami Stadium. But the biggest concern with those outdoor facilities was the frequent showers that would often washout concerts. The Sportatorium had a roof, and much more available seating. Although there were various problems with the facility, it quickly became the focal point for the big-name rock music scene in the 1970s and 1980s. Virtually every well-known rock band touring during that period performed on the stage of the Sporto. In 1971, the Sportatorium began a summer series of weekly rock concerts every Sunday at 2:00 p.m. The first truly big-name rock act to play the Sportatorium was Emerson, Lake & Palmer, on August 10, 1971. Less than a month later, on September 1, 1971, Led Zeppelin stopped at the Sportatorium on its North American tour. The remainder of 1971 saw MC5 and Alice Cooper on September 12, Grand Funk Railroad on October 15, and Fleetwood Mac on November 6. In December, the Sportatorium saw appearances by Spirit, The Amboy Dukes, Teagarden & Van Winkle, Bob Seger, Crabby Appleton, and Rain. Deep Purple, with Uriah Heep as the opening act, performed the first concert of 1972 at the Sportatorium on January 13. The Allman Brothers Band played at the arena on January 22, just three months following the death of Duane Allman. Uriah Heep returned as a headliner in February, with Cactus as the opening act. In April, The Byrds, The Moody Blues, and Pink Floyd played concerts at the Sporto. On April 21 Creedence Clearwater Revival, with opening acts Freddie King and Tony Joe White, performed for the last time in Florida before the breakup of CCR. Following yet another visit mid-summer by Uriah Heep, Yes performed in September with the Eagles as the opening act. Beck, Bogert & Appice, Poco, and John Mayall played in October, and the year closed out in December with a visit from Humble Pie and return visits from the Allman Brothers Band and Fleetwood Mac. 1973 saw concerts from John Martyn, Uriah Heep with Spooky Tooth, Frank Zappa with Foghat, Pink Floyd, Focus, Elton John, Emerson, Lake & Palmer and Chicago with Gentle Giant opening for them. On February 17 Free played their final show at the venue before breaking up for good. In 1974, there were concerts from Johnny Winter with Brownsville Station, Bob Dylan & The Band, New Riders of the Purple Sage with Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen, The Beach Boys, King Crimson with Poco, The Guess Who, and Uriah Heep with Babe Ruth and Manfred Mann's Earth Band. The Doobie Brothers, with the Ozark Mountain Daredevils and Lynyrd Skynyrd as the opening acts, and Baker Gurvitz Army played the Sportatorium in 1975, shortly before renovations began on the arena. Following the 1975–1976 renovation, the Eagles performed in July 1976, followed by ZZ Top and Chicago in October, Eric Clapton in November and Kiss in December. 1977 opened with a January concert by The Beach Boys, followed by a notable February 12 concert by Elvis Presley on what would turn out to be one of his last tours before his death that August. Queen and Thin Lizzy played the Sportatorium a week after Elvis, with Blue Öyster Cult following in March. A concert by Jethro Tull took place in April, and the Grateful Dead played in May. Concerts by Bad Company, AC/DC, and Johnny Winter took place during the summer, followed by a Patti Smith concert in September. On October 15, 1977, Lynyrd Skynyrd played one of its last concerts at the Sportatorium; five days later, three members of the group were killed in a plane crash. The remainder of 1977 saw concerts from Santana, The Doobie Brothers with Pablo Cruise, Kansas, Rush, Rod Stewart, and Robin Trower. In 1978, there were concerts from Kiss, Rush with Pat Travers and Head East, John Denver, the Grateful Dead, Journey and Van Halen with Montrose, Blue Öyster Cult, The Isley Brothers, Aerosmith with Mahogany Rush, Foghat, Sweet, Genesis, Queen, Black Sabbath, Van Halen, Bob Dylan, and Ambrosia. 1979 saw visits to the Sporto from Boston, Styx, Rush with UFO, The Moody Blues, Kiss, Yes, Mick Ronson with Blue Öyster Cult, Jethro Tull, and Kansas. In the 1980s, the arena was the site of concerts for AC/DC, Beastie Boys, Billy Idol, Billy Joel, Billy Squier, Blue Öyster Cult, Bob Seger, Bon Jovi, Bruce Springsteen, Bryan Adams, Cheap Trick, Cinderella, Crosby, Stills, and Nash, Deep Purple, Def Leppard, Dio, Dokken, Duran Duran, Electric Light Orchestra, Foghat, The Firm, Foreigner, Grateful Dead, Guns N' Roses, Heart, Huey Lewis and the News, INXS, Iron Maiden, The J. Geils Band, Joan Jett, John Mellencamp, Jonathan Butler, Judas Priest, Kenny G, KISS, Krokus, Loverboy, Madonna, Mötley Crüe, Nazareth, Neil Young, Night Ranger, Ozzy Osbourne, Poison, The Police, Public Image Ltd., Queensrÿche, Quiet Riot, Ratt, REO Speedwagon, Rick James, Robert Plant, Rush, Scorpions, Starship, Stevie Nicks, Sting, Stryper, Ted Nugent, Tina Turner, Triumph, Tom Petty, Twisted Sister, Van Halen, U2, Whitesnake, Whitney Houston and Willie Nelson, Yes, as well as many of the bands who had already played the Sporto in the 1970s. Other events The Sportatorium was also regularly host to boxing, wrestling, tennis and ice skating events. Indoor short-track motorcycle racing was held in 1971. Roberto Durán successfully defended his WBA world lightweight championship at the Sportatorium on October 15, 1976, scoring a first-round knockout against Alvaro Rojas. In another bout on the same card, former heavyweight champion George Foreman, in the midst of his first comeback attempt, knocked out John (Dino) Dennis in the fourth round. The championship of the Women's Tennis Association tour, the Virginia Slims tennis tournament, took place at the Sportatorium in 1976, 1977, and 1978, featuring such well-known players as Fort Lauderdale local Chris Evert, Virginia Wade, and Margaret Court. In addition, numerous conventions took place at the facility, including a Star Trek convention featuring Gene Roddenberry. The Jehovah's Witnesses also held religious assemblies there. Concert problems An "acoustical nightmare" Despite hosting well-known musical acts, the Sportatorium was notorious for poor acoustics. Roger Waters described the Sportatorium as a "real compromise" because even though its acoustics left much to be desired, there was no other large concert venue in South Florida at the time. At one concert, Billy Joel reacted to the echo by calling the facility an "acoustical nightmare". Ironically, numerous bootleg recordings of concerts from the Sportatorium by bands such as Pink Floyd, Rush, Ambrosia, AC/DC, Black Sabbath, and U2 remain sought after. In addition, one of the Grateful Dead's most critically praised live performances ever took place at the Sportatorium on May 22, 1977, most of which was commercially released in 1995 as Dick's Picks Volume 3. Indoor rain delays The Sportatorium roof was infamous for occasionally leaking over the stage (and performers) or the audience during heavy rainfalls. Robert Plant postponed a 1985 concert for one day due to leaks in the roof, and remarked to the crowd the following night, "This is the first gig I've ever done that was rained out inside the building." Rowdyism Raucous crowds frequently created problems at the Sportatorium. Minor incidents abounded, such as the throwing of firecrackers inside the arena. After one such firecracker-throwing incident in February 1981, Bruce Springsteen announced from the stage, "All right, whoever threw those can come down to the front of the stage. We'll give you your money back and throw you the fuck out of here." Other unruly fans were reported to have urinated on the stage during the show, leading Springsteen to later declare that he would never again perform there. In July 1980, about 500 fans attending a Ted Nugent concert at the Sportatorium rioted after deputies from the Broward County Sheriff's Office arrested 15 people suspected of smoking marijuana and took them to a command trailer. The crowd held 35 deputies and 15 prisoners at bay in the trailer for nearly an hour. One deputy was injured by rocks and bottles thrown by the crowd. An additional 20 people were injured before deputies in riot gear ended the violence after 21 additional arrests. In 1981, Pembroke Pines police arrested 13 people at a Rick James concert on charges of illegally carrying weapons, including a .38-caliber revolver and semiautomatic pistols, and possession of cocaine and marijuana. On November 28, 1981, fans waiting to attend a Rush concert began throwing rocks and bottles at Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) officers and Sportatorium guards when the gates did not open on time due to the late arrival of Rush's drummer, Neil Peart. Neil had been sailing on his sailboat in the British Virgin Islands during a 10-day break and missed his original flight in due to weather and other unforeseen issues. Having to take a later flight that would've got him there in time, he sent a telegram to the venue explaining this. However, the telegram never made it, and workers for the band couldn't verify that he was on the plane (or as Neil put it in his book, Roadshow: Landscape with Drums, "In those pre-Homeland Security days, the airline I was flying on wouldn't release its passenger manifest."). When the doors were finally opened, gate crashers scaled the wall surrounding the facility and started running toward the gates. Officers sprayed tear gas on the intruders, resulting in additional rock throwing and fighting. Twenty-two people including 11 police officers were injured and two fans were arrested. As a result of this incident, a Sportatorium task force was created to handle the rowdyism and related problems. Drug-related arrests at the arena peaked at 58 at the 17 concerts held in 1983. Traffic The Sportatorium was also infamous for creating severe traffic jams. Interstate 75 would not expand to the Miami area until 1986, and most concertgoers were forced to take a lengthy, miles-long trek westward on Pines Boulevard, which by 1985 was still only a two-lane road for 8 of the west of the Florida Turnpike, the nearest major highway. The traffic jam on what was then Hollywood Boulevard would frequently extend all the way back to the Turnpike itself. One passenger in the long line of cars for the 1978 John Denver concert was reported to have jumped out of the car he was riding in, jogged a quarter-mile ahead to a fast food restaurant, and received his order in time to walk out the front door and get back in the car he was riding without either having to pause. Many fans – some without tickets – would turn the impenetrable traffic bottlenecks into impromptu tailgate parties. Cars frequently stalled because of overheated radiators, leading to many concertgoers setting out on foot. This posed some danger, however, because impatient drivers would sometimes attempt to dart down the shoulder of the road to bypass traffic, resulting in a number of pedestrians being struck. The Broward Sheriff's Office recommended what regular concertgoers knew: to avoid this traffic by taking U.S. 27 either northwest from Miami or south from State Road 84 and approaching the arena from the west. In 1979, the Sportatorium sped up the flow of traffic somewhat by eliminating its $2.00 parking charge and adding a 50-cent charge on each ticket instead. In 1985, the county began widening a four-mile (6 km) stretch of Pines Boulevard from University Drive to Flamingo Road, although the remaining four miles—with the exception of the roadway immediately in front of the arena—remained two lanes. Because of the horrendous traffic, performers drove out to the arena hours before the show. Elton John arrived by helicopter for a 1984 performance, while Kenny Rogers stopped playing at the Sportatorium for a few years after 200 to 300 ticketholders were unable to attend a show because of the traffic. Despite some improvements, half-hour delays in concert start times to accommodate late arrivals would remain common for bigger acts. After one such delay, Billy Joel remarked from the stage, "Fuck the traffic getting to this place!" Demise In 1976, the Sunrise Musical Theater (now The Faith Center) opened in Sunrise, Florida. The theater was one of the first modern facilities in Broward County to try to compete with the Sportatorium. But because of its small capacity (3,732), it wasn't able to attract as many musical artists. Even so, the Sunrise Musical Theater hosted acts like Frank Sinatra, Peter Paul and Mary, The Beach Boys, Sheena Easton, Barry Manilow, King Crimson, Frank Zappa and Black Sabbath. The Sportatorium's fate was effectively sealed with the opening of Miami Arena in 1988. It gained a short reprieve in August and September 1988 when shows by AC/DC, Iron Maiden, and others that were originally scheduled to take place at the newer facility had to be moved to the Sportatorium due to construction delays. The last heavy metal group to perform at the arena was Judas Priest in September 1988. Although by the mid-1980s it had become known as the heavy-metal showplace of South Florida, the Sportatorium's final show on October 21, 1988 featured country music acts Highway 101, The Desert Rose Band, and Larry Boone. In 1991, a franchise owner in the newly formed Continental Hockey Association proposed spending $6 million to renovate the Sportatorium, and negotiated a buy/lease agreement with Stephen Calder's heirs. The new team was to be called the Florida Makos, but shortly before the owner was due to put down a deposit on the Sportatorium and commence renovations, the fledgling hockey league failed. A month later, a developer proposed building 1,500 homes on the site and surrounding land, and the Pembroke Pines City Commission voted to change the land's zoning from commercial recreation to residential. In 1992, the Broward County Planning Council approved plans for 1,260 homes and a small shopping center on the site. In 1993, after several years of disuse as well as hurricane damage from the previous year's Hurricane Andrew, the Hollywood Sportatorium was torn down. A Sedano's supermarket now occupies the precise site where the arena once stood. Some of the Sportatorium's target business would return to Broward County in 1998 with the completion of the FLA Live Arena (originally the National Car Rental Center) in nearby Sunrise, Florida. References External links Video of Sportatorium demolition Aerial view of Sportatorium in 1986 City of Pembroke Pines website Aerosmith REO concert May 1978 Fans Jump fence to an oversold venue Parking as sunset approached for Aerosmith REO Speedwagon concert May 1978 The Concert Database Fort Lauderdale Strikers arenas Sports venues in Broward County, Florida Defunct indoor arenas in Florida Defunct indoor soccer venues in the United States Demolished music venues in the United States Demolished sports venues in Florida Pembroke Pines, Florida Sports venues in Miami Tennis venues in Florida North American Soccer League (1968–1984) indoor venues Defunct sports venues in Florida 1970 establishments in Florida 1988 disestablishments in Florida Sports venues completed in 1970 Sports venues demolished in 1993
5331594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming%20lessons	Swimming lessons	Swimming lessons are the process of learning to swim. In most countries there is a definition of a number of swimming levels that are reached in the process of the curriculum. The respective certificates of swimming tests are required for further training in aquatic abilities. Many countries have defined a minimum swimming level that children should reach by the end of primary education, in most cases with the help of school swimming classes being part of the normal curriculum. Children are often given swimming lessons, which serve to develop swimming technique and confidence. Children were traditionally viewed not to be able to swim independently until 4 years of age, but infant swimming lessons are now recommended to prevent drowning and increase water familiarality. There are many different ways of learning to swim with swimming lessons. There are community center lessons, semi-private lessons and private lessons. Swimming lessons can support children with special needs through adaptive swimming lessons. Infant swimming lessons The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends swimming lessons for children from 1–4, along with other precautionary measures to prevent drowning. In 2010, the American Academy of Pediatrics reversed its previous position in which it had disapproved of lessons before age 4, indicating that the evidence no longer supported an advisory against early swimming lessons. There is an essential difference between the new infant swimming lessons and the traditional parent-child water play sessions. Infant swimming lessons, sometimes called infant swim recovery, teach infants and toddlers how to recover from an accidental fall into a body of water. Unlike traditional parent/toddler classes, which encourage the child's face in the water through blowing bubbles, infant swimming lessons instill in the child the skills to regain buoyancy from a submerged state and to tilt the head back, getting it out of the water to take breaths and cry for help. Children ages one to six-years-old learn advanced safety skills to roll to their backs to take a breath and then to roll back to their stomachs to continue swimming. Swimming lessons reduce the risk of drowning by 88% for babies and children up to 4 years old. School swimming In many locations, swimming lessons are provided by local swimming pools, both those run by the local authority and by private leisure companies. Many schools also include swimming lessons into their physical education (PE) curricula, provided either in the schools' own pools, another school's pool, or in the nearest public pool. The Department for Education in England includes learning to swim as a compulsory element in primary school PE curriculum. According to the department's website, at the end of year 6 (age 11), all children "should be taught to...swim 25 metres" (front and back) and demonstrate an understanding of water safety. Schools can decide when and where pupils will learn to swim. Many children in the UK learn to swim in lessons that are not provided by their primary school and can swim 25 meters by the age of 6. The National Governing body for Swimming is Swim England who train and accredit 80% of swimming teachers in England and Wales * [Ofqual statistics 2012-17] Advocates for school swimming lessons in the United States frequently cite the CDC estimate that 34% of 80%American adults are unable to swim 24 yards. In Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Finland, the curriculum for 11-year-olds in the fifth grade states that all children should learn how to swim as well as how to handle emergencies near water. Most commonly, children are expected to be able to swim —of which at least is on their back—after first falling into deep water and submerging their head underwater. Even though about 95 percent of Swedish schoolchildren know how to swim, drowning remains the third-most common cause of death among children. In both the Netherlands and Belgium, swimming lessons during school time (schoolzwemmen, or school swimming) are supported by the government. Most schools provide swimming lessons. There is a long tradition of swimming lessons in the Netherlands and in Belgium; the Dutch translation for the breaststroke swimming style is schoolslag (schoolstroke). The children learn a variant of the breaststroke. In recent years however, most Dutch towns have abolished school swimming in order to cut expenses. In Germany and Austria, school swimming (Schulschwimmen) is part of the elementary school curriculum leading to the entry level certificate (Frühschwimmer) for about 90 percent of the children (a 95% goal set by the ministers for education with actual percentages ranging as low as 75% in some schools). About 50 percent reach a higher swimming level certificate during school swimming. In Switzerland most schools offer a swimming course, though only 70% of the students take part in it, which has led to the Schulschwimmen für alle petition in 2007. Unlike in Germany and Austria, the Swiss school swimming test commonly includes a jump from the diving tower. In France, school swimming (natation scolaire) is part of the curriculum for physical education in the second and third grade in elementary school, or for children aged between 4 and 6 years of age. The aim is successful completion of entry into water then swimming for , before floating for 10 seconds, then swimming on the front and on the back for each, ending with retrieval of an object from deep water of more than . In England, the "Top-ups scheme" calls for those schoolchildren who cannot swim by the age of 11 to receive intensive daily lessons. These children who have not reached the National Curriculum standard of swimming by the time they leave primary school will be given a half-hour lesson every day for two weeks during term-time. In Canada and Mexico there has been a call for swimming to be included in the public school curriculum, which has been implemented slowly in a few schools. In Singapore, most swimming schools teach the SwimSafer Programme introduced by Singapore National Water Safety Council in July 2010 with support from the Singapore Sports Council. The SwimSafer Programme combines instruction in swimming and life-saving skills.<ref>[https://happyfish.sg/swimsafer.htmSwimsafer Programme']</ref> Swimming levels Austria The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichisches Wasserrettungswesen (working committee for water rescue in Austria) is a joint committee of private organizations and government bodies. They have defined four grade levels of swimming lessons used in school swimming. Entry level Frühschwimmer (early swimmer—badge showing a penguin) requires jump from side, of swimming and 5 rules of swimming. Level 1 Freischwimmer (free swimmer—badge with one wave and a bronze pin) requires 15 minutes of swimming (any style), jump into water, and 10 rules of swimming. Level 2 Fahrtenschwimmer (trail swimmer—badge with two waves and a silver pin) requires 15 minutes of swimming, dive jump or jump from height, of swimming underwater, pickup of a thick object from deep water ( water, weight), of back crawl, and 10 rules of swimming. Level 3 Allroundswimmer (routine swimmer—badge with one wave and gold pin) requires of continuous swimming (100 metres front crawl and 100 metres back crawl), sport swimming of 100 meters under 2 minutes 30 seconds, of swimming underwater after dive jump, pickup of a thick object from deep water ( water, weight), of back crawl, of rescue swimming with a person of about the same weight, and 10 rules of swimming. Additionally, the ÖWR water rescue organization's testing requirements for the Jugendschwimmerschein (youth swimmer certificate) includes 50 metres of breast stroke under 1 minute 5 seconds, 50 metres front crawl under 1 minute, 50 metres back crawl under 1 minute 19 seconds, description of lifeguard rules, 50 metres of rescue swimming with another similar-weight person, 100-metre snorkel under 1 minute 50 seconds, and 100 metres of swimming while clothed. Canada In Canada, the Canadian Red Cross Swim program is used, with over one million Canadians enrolling each year. Similar to the system set out by the American Red Cross, the Swim Kids program for school-aged children consists of ten levels that progress from basic confidence-building skills to more complicated strokes and techniques. In beginner levels, students learn breathing techniques, basic water safety skills, and introductory swimming techniques including how to float and glide in the water at shallow depths. At intermediate levels, students are taught six swim strokes including front crawl, sculling, back crawl, breast stroke, elementary back stroke, and sidestroke. Advanced levels of the program teach students to use these techniques to swim in deeper water and remain safe while swimming. Upon successful completion of the ten levels of the program, students are eligible to enter the Bronze Medal programs (Bronze Star, Bronze Medallion, and Bronze Cross) to learn lifesaving skills. After completing all three Bronze Medal program courses, students can further advance with additional programs such as Water Safety Instructor (WSI) that teach them how to become swimming instructors themselves. Additional programs following the same structure at a faster pace are also available for teenagers and adults who wish to learn how to swim safely and build confidence in the water. Additionally, 800,000 Canadians participate annually in Lifesaving Society (LSS) swimming, lifesaving, lifeguard, first aid, and leadership training programs. Each year LSS certifies thousands of instructors who provide the leadership for those training programs. As Canada's leading lifeguarding experts, LSS sets the standard for professional lifeguard training and certify Canada's National Lifeguards. Germany The Schwimmabzeichen (swimming badge) is assigned in four levels: Entry, Bronze, Silver, and Gold. The levels are defined by the Bundesverband zur Förderung der Schwimmausbildung (federal association for promotion of swimming lessons—assembling NGO associations) in coordination with the federal Kultusministerkonferenz (assembly of the ministers for education of each Bundesland-state). The entry level Frühschwimmer (early swimmer) includes a swimming test where the student shows a jump from side, a 25-metre swim (no style prescribed), and pickup of an object underwater. The Frühschwimmer level is better known by its mascot Seepferdchen (seahorse) shown on the badge, leading many to refer to it as the Seepferdchen certificate. The bronze badge requires 200 metres of swimming in under 15 minutes (no style prescribed). The silver badge requires 400 metres of swimming in under 12 minutes, pickup of an object from deep water (more than 2 metres), jump and dive from the side, and 10 metres of swimming underwater. The gold badge requires 1,000 metres of swimming (under 24 minutes for males and under 29 minutes for females), sport swimming of 100 meters (under 1:50 for males and 2:00 for females), 100 metres of back crawl, 50 metres of rescue swimming, 15 metres of swimming underwater, pickup of three objects from deep water (2 metres minimum, under 3 minutes, maximum 3 attempts). Lifeguard certificates are defined separately by each organization; the entry level is Junior-Retter (junior rescuer) at the DLRG (the largest aquatics life saving organization in the world) and Juniorwasserretter (junior water rescuer) at the Wasserwacht (water rescue branch of the German Red Cross). Extended Lifeguard certificate grades can be obtained at three levels of the Rettungsschwimmabzeichen (rescue swimming badge) in bronze, silver, and gold. Netherlands The Dutch National Swimming diploma is issued by the National council for swim safety. The national swimming diploma exist of the Swim-ABC and separate swimming skill diplomas. The National Council for swim safety advises children to get the full Swim-ABC program. This three-stage program will teach children the basic skills of swimming. When a child understands and masters the fundamentals of the basic swimming skills, they will earn a diploma. The Swim-ABC program consists of three separate diploma's. After getting all diploma's you officially meet the standards of the National norm of swim safety. A diploma This is the first stage of the three-stage Swim-ABC and teaches the following basic swimming skills: swimming a short distance while performing breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl or back crawl while fully clothed. Getting out of the water while fully clothed. Swimming under water and swimming through or around an obstacle. Master the four basic swimming strokes: breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl and back crawl for a short distance. Tread water using arms and legs. B diploma The second stage of the Swim-ABC focuses on having a good condition and teaches children to safely orientate both underwater and above water. This stage consists of mastering the following swimming skills: swimming a distance while performing breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl or back crawl while fully clothed over a longer distance. Performing a dive in the water and swimming around or through an obstacle. Master the four basic swimming strokes: breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl and back crawl over a longer distance. Swimming towards an obstacle and climb on it to rest. Tread water using arms and legs. C diploma The last stage of the Swim-ABC focuses on having a great condition and teaches children to safely orientate both underwater and above water in swimming pools and open water. The last stage consists of mastering the following swimming skills: swimming a long distance while performing breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl or back crawl while fully clothed. Performing a dive in the water and swimming through an obstacle and find a safe place to get above water. Master the four basic swimming strokes over a long distance: breaststroke, single backstroke, front crawl and back crawl. Swimming towards an obstacle and climb on it to rest. Tread water using arms and legs. Singapore The Singapore SwimSafer program works to help children learn how to swim and how to be safe in the water. This is a six-stage program that encourages kids to have fun and to learn at a pace that is right for them. SwimSafer stage 1: introduction to water skills Stage 1 teaches children to become more confident and independent in the water. A child also learns about general water safety, how to properly enter and exit a pool, and how to move back and forth in the water. SwimSafer stage 2: fundamental water skills Stage 2 involves learning how to handle surface dives, sculling, water safety, and awareness in the water. It also involves learning how to enter the water without assistance. A primary objective of stage 2 is to enable children to successfully swim twenty-five metres. SwimSafer stage 3: personal water survival and stroke developmental skills Children in stage 3 learn how to survive in the water and handle different rescue skills. Additional skills covered are sculling, underwater swimming and learning how to use a flotation device. The goal of this stage is to enable children to successfully swim fifty metres. SwimSafer Bronze: personal water survival and stroke improvement skills This is the first advanced stage of the program. Here children learn stroke movements and coordinated breathing, and are encouraged to swim as far as one hundred metres. They will also learn how to safely handle watercraft while continuing to learn additional rescue and survival skills. SwimSafer Silver: intermediate personal water survival and stroke refinement skills Diving is introduced in this stage, along with advanced survival and rescue skills. Advanced swimming strokes will also be taught at this point in the program. SwimSafer Gold: advanced personal water survival and swimming skills proficiency This is the final stage of the program. To successfully complete this stage, a student is required to swim four hundred metres. Standing dive and survival skills are taught here along with advanced lifesaving processes and water safety. Switzerland In Switzerland the Schwimmtests (swimming tests) are not organized in levels; instead each ability is tested by itself and a number of test certificates are put in a group designation. The swimming tests are defined by "swimsports.ch", which is an association of swimming NGOs and the federal institute for sports (BASPO). The Entry level has six tests: Ente (duck), Schwan (swan), Seehund (sea lion), Nilpferd (hippo), Schildkröte (turtle), and Biber (beaver). The Basic level has seven tests: Krebs (crab), Seepferd (seahorse), Frosch (frog), Pinguin (penguin), Tintenfisch (cuttlefish), Krokodil (crocodile), and Eisbär (polar bear). The Advanced level has eight tests: Wal (whale), Hecht (pike), Hai (shark), Delfin'' (dolphin), and four additional tests with no symbols assigned. United Kingdom Scotland In Scotland swimming lessons are undertaken by pupils at an age 8 or 9 when the child is in Primary 5. These lessons take place during the school day. The Scottish Amateur Swimming Association – known as Scottish Swimming – has called for all young children to be entitled to free swimming lessons as they have been in England and Wales since the 1990s. Swimming lessons in Scotland have come under criticism because of the long waiting lists where in some counties there is a waiting list of up to 2000 children, or 1040 days. This has led to an increase of private swimming schools start up which are able to use private pools (as opposed to council run lessons only using council pools). Lessons in Scotland generally follow two main award schemes, the STA (Swimming Teachers' Association) or Swim England (SE) award schemes. The council lessons tend to follow the SE Scheme whilst private swimming lessons use either of them. There have been a number of high-profile cases of private swimming lessons changing from SE to STA. Recognised by employers for their quality, Swim England consistently remain the preferred choice of over 80% of swimming teachers in England and Wales* [Ofqual statistics 2012-17] The STA also teaches about life-saving techniques in their lessons which the ASA offer as a separate course in conjunction with the Royal Life Saving Society. In England, all schools must provide swimming instruction either in key stage 1 or key stage 2. In particular, pupils should be taught to: swim competently, confidently and proficiently over a distance of at least 25 metres use a range of strokes effectively [for example, front crawl, backstroke and breaststroke] perform safe self-rescue in different water-based situations. There is no provision for this in the Curriculum for Excellence in Scotland. United States In the United States, most swimming schools use the swimming levels "Learn To Swim" as defined by the American Red Cross. Level 1: Introduction to Water Skills The student needs to get comfortable with water: this includes kicking, bobbing, underwater exploration, front and back floating and gliding with face in the water, open eyes under water. Children learning these basic skills often will use Styrofoam kick-boards, inflatable arm-floats and other aquatic equipment to help stay afloat. Level 2: Fundamental Aquatic Skills The student needs to swim 15 feet on front and back, submerge entire head, submerge and retrieve an object. At this level, swimmers will work to swim without any equipment except an object to retrieve underwater. Level 3: Stroke Development Skills The student needs to swim 15 yards on front, back and crawl, also jump into deep water from side. Swimmers are expected to perform these skills independently of any aquatic equipment that may assist them in staying afloat. Level 4: Stroke Improvement Includes front and back crawl of 25 yards, butterfly and breaststroke of 15 yards, allowing for turns while swimming. Level 5: Stroke Refinement All strokes should be shown at 25 yards, allow for flip turn, includes swimming underwater for 15 yards. Level 6: Skill Proficiency The swimming test includes swimming continuously of 500 yards, including back and front crawl at 100 yards, plus 50 yards for each of butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and sidestroke. On top of this common swimming proficiency there are three swimming test variants for the Level 6 certificate: (A) Fundamentals of Diving – show a jump from the diving board; (B) Fitness Swimmer – demonstrate the use of training gear; (C) Personal Water Safety – life jacket and boating rules. Lifeguard certificates are obtained directly in courses of the American Red Cross. The course length varies with 30 to 37 hours with an option for blended learning for the five certificates of Pool Lifeguarding, Waterfront Lifeguarding, Waterpark Lifeguarding, Aquatic Attractions Lifeguarding and Shallow Water Lifeguarding. References Lessons Sports education and training
5331946	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtec%20languages	Mixtec languages	The Mixtec () languages belong to the Mixtecan group of the Oto-Manguean language family. Mixtec is spoken in Mexico and is closely related to Trique and Cuicatec. The varieties of Mixtec are spoken by over half a million people. Identifying how many Mixtec languages there are in this complex dialect continuum poses challenges at the level of linguistic theory. Depending on the criteria for distinguishing dialects from languages, there may be as few as a dozen or as many as fifty-three Mixtec languages. Language name The name "Mixteco" is a Nahuatl exonym, from mixtecatl, from mixtli ("cloud") + -catl ("inhabitant of place of"). Speakers of Mixtec use an expression (which varies by dialect) to refer to their own language, and this expression generally means "sound" or "word of the rain": dzaha dzavui in Classical Mixtec; or "word of the people of the rain", dzaha Ñudzahui (Dzaha Ñudzavui) in Classical Mixtec. Denominations in various modern Mixtec languages include tu'un savi , tu'un isasi or isavi , tu'un va'a , tnu'u ñuu savi , tno'on dawi , sasau , sahan sau , sahin sau , sahan ntavi , tu'un dau , dahan davi , dañudavi , dehen dau , and dedavi . Distribution The traditional range of the Mixtec languages is the region known as La Mixteca, which is shared by the states of Oaxaca, Puebla and Guerrero. Because of migration from this region, mostly as a result of extreme poverty, the Mixtec languages have expanded to Mexico's main urban areas, particularly the State of México and the Federal District, to certain agricultural areas such as the San Quintín valley in Baja California and parts of Morelos and Sonora, and into the United States. In 2012, Natividad Medical Center of Salinas, California had trained medical interpreters bilingual in Mixtec as well as in Spanish; in March 2014, Natividad Medical Foundation launched Indigenous Interpreting+, "a community and medical interpreting business specializing in indigenous languages from Mexico and Central and South America", including Mixtec, Trique, Zapotec, and Chatino. Internal classification The Mixtec language is a complex set of regional dialects which were already in place at the time of the Spanish Conquest of the Mixteca region. The varieties of Mixtec are sometimes grouped by geographic area, using designations such as those of the Mixteca Alta, the Mixteca Baja, and the Mixteca de la Costa. However, the dialects do not actually follow the geographic areas, and the precise historical relationships between the different varieties have not been worked out. The situation is far more complex than a simple dialect continuum because dialect boundaries are often abrupt and substantial, some likely due to population movements both before and after the Spanish conquest. The number of varieties of Mixtec depends in part on what the criteria are for grouping them, of course; at one extreme, government agencies once recognized no dialectal diversity. Mutual intelligibility surveys and local literacy programs have led SIL International to identify more than 50 varieties which have been assigned distinct ISO codes. Attempts to carry out literacy programs in Mixtec which cross these dialect boundaries have not met with great success. The varieties of Mixtec have functioned as de facto separate languages for hundreds of years with virtually none of the characteristics of a single "language". As the differences are typically as great as between members of the Romance language family, and since unifying sociopolitical factors do not characterize the linguistic complex, they are often referred to as separate languages. Phonology This section describes the sound systems of Mixtec by each variety. Chalcotongo Mixtec The table below shows the phonemic inventory of a selected Mixtec language, Chalcotongo Mixtec. Phoneme 1Most commonly actually a nasalized palatal approximant. Not all varieties of Mixtec have the sibilant . Some do not have the interdental fricative . Some do not have the velar fricative . A few have the affricate . By some analyses, the sounds and () are allophones conditioned by nasalization (see below), as are and , also and (). Tone One of the most characteristic features of Mixtec is its use of tones, a characteristic it shares with all other Otomanguean languages. Despite its importance in the language, the tonal analyses of Mixtec have been many and quite different one from another. Some varieties of Mixtec display complex tone sandhi. (Another Mixtecan language, Trique, has one of the most complex tonal systems in the world, with one variety, Chicahuaxtla Trique, having at least ten tones and, according to some observers, as many as 16.) It is commonly claimed that Mixtec distinguishes three different tones: high, middle, and low. Tones may be used lexically; for example: Kuu to be Kuu to die In some varieties of Mixtec, tone is also used grammatically since the vowels or whole syllables with which they were associated historically have been lost. In the practical writing systems the representation of tone has been somewhat varied. It does not have a high functional load generally, although in some languages tone is all that indicates different aspects and distinguishes affirmative from negative verbs. Nasalization The nasalisation of vowels and consonants in Mixtec is an interesting phenomenon that has had various analyses. All of the analyses agree that nasalization is contrastive and that it is somewhat restricted. In most varieties, it is clear that nasalization is limited to the right edge of a morpheme (such as a noun or verb root), and spreads leftward until it is blocked by an obstruent (plosive, affricate or fricative in the list of Mixtec consonants). A somewhat more abstract analysis of the Mixtec facts claims that the spreading of nasalization is responsible for the surface "contrast" between two kinds of bilabials ( and , with and without the influence of nasalization, respectively), between two kinds of palatals ( and nasalized —often less accurately (but more easily) transcribed as —with and without nasalization, respectively), and even two kinds of coronals ( and , with and without nasalization, respectively). Nasalized vowels which are contiguous to the nasalized variants are less strongly nasalized than in other contexts. This situation is known to have been characteristic of Mixtec for at least the last 500 years since the earliest colonial documentation of the language shows the same distribution of consonants. Glottalization The glottalization of vowels (heard as a glottal stop after the vowel, and analyzed as such in early analyses) is a distinctive and interesting contrastive feature of Mixtec languages, as it is of other Otomanguean languages. Yoloxóchitl Mixtec The sound system of Yoloxóchitl Mixtec (of Guerrero Mixtec) is described below. Sound inventory Notes: The syllable structure is (C)V(V); no consonant cluster or consonant coda allowed. Oral and nasal vowels are contrastive. Tone Yoloxóchitl Mixtec has nine tones: . Writing systems The Mixtecs, like many other Mesoamerican peoples, developed their own writing system, and their codices that have survived are one of the best sources for knowledge about the pre-Hispanic culture of the Oaxacan region prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. With the defeat of the lordship of Tututepec in 1522, the Mixtecs were brought under Spanish colonial rule, and many of their relics were destroyed. However, some codices were saved from destruction, and are today mostly held by European collections, including the Codex Zouche-Nuttall and the Codex Vindobonensis; one exception is the Codex Colombino, kept by the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. The missionaries who brought the Roman Catholic religion to the Mixtecs set about learning their language and produced several grammars of the Mixtec language, similar in style to Antonio de Nebrija's Gramática Castellana. They also began work on transcribing the Mixtec languages into the Latin alphabet. In recent decades small changes in the alphabetic representation of Mixtec have been put into practice by the Academy of the Mixtec Language. Areas of particular interest include the following: The representation of the feature that distinguishes glottalized vowels (or glottal stop, as in some earlier analyses). Some earlier alphabets used h; more commonly today a special kind of apostrophe is used. The representation of the high central unrounded vowel. Some earlier alphabets used y; today a barred-i (ɨ) is used. The representation of the voiceless velar stop. Most earlier alphabets used c and qu, in line with earlier government policies; today k is more commonly used. The representation of tone. Most non-linguistic transcriptions of Mixtec do not fully record the tones. When tone is represented, acute accent over the vowel is typically used to indicate high tone. Mid tone is sometimes indicated with a macron over the vowel, but it may be left unmarked. Low tone is sometimes indicated with a grave accent over the vowel, but it might be left unmarked, or it might be indicated with an underscore to the vowel. The alphabet adopted by the Academy of the Mixtec Language and later by the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP), contains the following letters (indicated below with their corresponding phonemes). One of the main obstacles in establishing an alphabet for the Mixtec language is its status as a vernacular tongue. The social domain of the language is eminently domestic, since federal law requires that all dealings with the state be conducted in Spanish, even though the country's indigenous languages enjoy the status of "national languages". Few printed materials in Mixtec exist and, up to a few years ago, written literature in the language was practically non-existent. There is little exposure of Mixtec in the media, other than on the CDI's indigenous radio system – XETLA and XEJAM in Oaxaca; XEZV-AM in Guerrero; and XEQIN-AM in Baja California – and a bilingual radio station based in the US in Los Angeles, California, where a significant Mixtec community can be found. At the same time, the fragmentation of the Mixtec language and its varieties means that texts published in one variety may be utterly incomprehensible to speakers of another. In addition, most speakers are unaware of the official orthography adopted by the SEP and the Mixtec Academy, and some even doubt that their language can lend itself to a written form. Grammar and syntax Pronouns Personal pronouns Personal pronouns are richly represented in Mixtec. First and second person pronouns Many varieties (but not all) have distinct "formal" and "informal" pronouns for first person and second person (except in the first person plural inclusive). If addressing a person of his own age or older, the speaker uses the formal pronouns. If addressing a younger person, the speaker uses the informal pronouns. The first person exclusive pronouns may be interpreted as either singular or plural. The second person pronouns may also be interpreted as either singular or plural. It is common to find a first person inclusive form that is interpreted as meaning to include the hearer as well as the speaker. First and second person pronouns have both independent forms and dependent (enclitic) forms. The dependent forms are used when the pronoun follows a verb (as subject) and when it follows a noun (as possessor). The independent forms are used elsewhere (although there are some variations on this rule). Personal pronoun as direct object Personal pronoun in preverbal position Personal pronoun in normal subject position Third person pronouns For the third person pronouns, Mixtec has several pronouns that indicate whether the referent is a man, a woman, an animal, a child or an inanimate object, a sacred or divine entity, or water. Some languages have respect forms for the man and woman pronouns. Some languages have other pronouns as well (such as for trees.) (These pronouns show some etymological affinity to nouns for 'man', 'woman', 'tree', etc., but they are distinct from those nouns.) These may be pluralized (in some varieties, if one wishes to be explicit) by using the common plural marker de in front of them, or by using explicit plural forms that have evolved. Interrogative pronouns Mixtec has two interrogatives, which are na vé ([²na ³ve] = "what/which"?) and nasaa ([²na.²saa]= "how much/many?"). The tone of these does not change according to the tense, person, or tone of the surrounding phrase. Verbs Mixtec verb tenses Mixtec verbs have no infinitive form. The basic form of the Mixtec verb is the future tense, and many conjugated future verb forms are also used for the present tense. To obtain the present of an irregular verb, the tone is modified in accordance with set of complicated prosodic rules. Another class of irregular verbs beginning with [k] mutate that sound to either [xe] or [xi] in the present tense. To form the preterite (past) tense, the particle ni- ([²ni]) is added. That particle causes a shift in the tone of the following verb and, while the particle itself may be omitted in informal speech, the tonal modification invariably takes place. Mixtec lacks an imperfect, pluperfect, and all the compound tenses found in other languages. In addition, Mixtec verb conjugations do not have indicators of person or number (resembling, in this, English more than Spanish). A selection of Mixtec sentences exemplifying the three verbal tenses appears below: Future Present Preterite Verb classes Causative verbs Causative verbs are verb forms modified by a prefix indicating that the action is performed by the agent of the phrase. Mixtec causative verbs are indicated by the prefix s-. Like other Mixtec particles, the causative prefix leads to a shift in the orthography and pronunciation of the related verb. When the verb to which the prefix is added begins with , that phoneme is transformed into a . Verbs beginning with shift to . There is no difference in future and present causative verbs, but the past tense is invariably indicated by adding the particle ni-. Repetitive verbs The prefix na- indicates that the action of the related verb is being performed for a second occasion. This means that there is a repetition of the action, made by the subject of the sentence or another unidentified agent. The pronunciation of some irregular verbs changes in the repetitive form. For example, certain verbs beginning with [k] take [ⁿd] o [n] the instead of na- particle. In addition, there are some verbs that never appear without this prefix: in other words, it is part of their structure. Copulative verbs Copulative verbs ("linking verbs") establish links between two nouns, a noun and an adjective, or a noun and a pronoun. Mixtec has four such verbs: kuu (to be) nduu (to be again; the repetitive form of kuu) koo (to exist) káá (to appear; present and preterite only) Káá is only used with adjectives that describe a thing's appearance. The other three can be used with practically any adjective, albeit with slight semantic shifts. Descriptive verbs Descriptive verbs are a special class that can be used as either verbs or adjectives. One of these verbs followed by a pronoun is all that is needed to form a complete sentence in Mixtec. Descriptives are not conjugated: they always appear in the present tense. To give the same idea in the past or future tenses, a copulative verb must be used. Modal verbs Modal verbs are a small group that may be followed by another verb. Only the relative pronoun jee̱ can occasionally appear between a modal and its associated verb, except in sentences involving kuu (can, to be able). Modal kuu ("can") Modal kánuú ("must") Verb moods Indicative mood The indicative mood describes actions in real life that have occurred, are occurring, or will occur. The verb forms of the indicative mood are described above, in the section on verb tenses. Imperative mood Imperatives are formed by adding the particle -ni to the future indicative form of the verb. In informal speech, the simple future indicative is frequently used, although the pronoun ró may be appended. There are three irregular verbs with imperative forms different from their future indicative. Negative imperatives are formed by adding the word má, the equivalent of "don't". Subjunctive mood In Mixtec, the subjunctive mood serves as a mild command. It is formed by placing the particle na before the future form of the verb. When used in the first person, it gives the impression that the speaker closely reflects on the action before performing it. Counter-factual mood The counter-factual mood indicates that the action was not performed or remained incomplete. To form the past counter-factual, ní is added and the tones of the verb change from preterite to present. A counter-factual statement not accompanied by a subordinate clause acquires the meaning "If only..." The particle núú can be added at the end of the main or subordinate clauses, should the speaker wish, with no change in meaning. Examples are shown below: Use of counter-factual verbs, formed by changing the tone of the past indicative. Use of a simple counter-factual sentence Use of a simple counter-factual sentence, with núú. Use of a simple counter-factual sentence, with núu (a conditional conjunction not to be confused with the mood particle described above) Use of a simple counter-factual with modal, in future tense Nouns Nouns indicate persons, animals, inanimate objects or abstract ideas. Mixtec has few nouns for abstract ideas; when they do not exist, it uses verbal constructions instead. When a noun is followed by another in a sentence, the former serves as the nucleus of the phrase, with the latter acting as a modifier. In many such constructions, the modifier possesses the nucleus. Nouns as modifiers: Modifiers possessing the nucleus of the phrase: The base number of Mixtec nouns is singular. Pluralisation is effected by means of various grammatical and lexical tools. For example, a noun's number can be implicit if the phrase uses a plural pronoun (first person inclusive only) or if one of various verb affixes that modify the meaning are used: -koo and -ngoo (suffixes) and ka- (prefix). A third way to indicate a plural is the (untranslatable) particle jijná'an, which can be placed before or after verbs, pronouns, or nouns. Pluralisation indicated by the presence of the first-person-inclusive pronoun Pluralisation with affixes: prefix ka- before the verb Pluralisation with affixes: suffix -koo after the verb Demonstratives Deictic adverbs are often used in a noun phrase as demonstrative adjectives. Some Mixtec languages distinguish two such demonstratives, others three (proximal, medial, distal), and some four (including one that indicates something out of sight). The details vary from variety to variety, as do the actual forms. In some varieties one of these demonstratives is also used anaphorically (to refer to previously mentioned nominals in the discourse), and in some varieties a special anaphoric demonstrative (with no spatial use) is found. These demonstratives generally occur at the end of the noun phrase (sometimes followed by a "limiter"). The demonstratives are also used (in some varieties) following a pronominal head as a kind of complex pronoun. Conjunctions Conjunctions serve to join two words, two phrases, or two analogous sentences. Mixtec possesses twelve coordinating conjunctions and ten subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions: te (and, but) te o (but) jíín (and) chi (because, and) chí (or) á... chí (either... or) ni... ni... (neither... nor) sa/sa su'va (but rather that) yu̱kúan na (then, so) yu̱kúan (so) je̱e yu̱kúan (for) suni (also) Subordinating conjunctions: náva̱'a (so that) je̱e (that) sɨkɨ je̱e (because) nájnu̱n (how) ve̱sú (although) núu (if) na/ níní na (when) ná/ níní (while) nde (until, since) kue̱chi (no more) Word order in the clause Mixtec is a verb–subject–object language. Variations in this word order, particularly the use of the preverbal position, are employed to highlight information. Mixtec influence on Spanish Perhaps the most significant contribution of the Mixtec language to Mexican Spanish is in the field of place names, particularly in the western regions of the state of Oaxaca, where several communities are still known by Mixtec names (joined with a saint's name): San Juan Ñumí, San Bartolo Yucuañe, Santa Cruz Itundujia, and many more. In Puebla and Guerrero, Mixtec place names have been displaced by Nahuatl and Spanish names. An example is Yucu Yuxin (in Puebla), which is now known as Gabino Barreda. Spanish words used in Mixtec languages are also those that were brought by the Spanish like some fruits and vegetables. An example is limun (in San Martin Duraznos Oaxaca), which is known as lemon (limón in Spanish), also referred to as tzikua Iya (sour orange). Mixtec literature Prior to the Spanish Conquest in the early 16th century, the native peoples of Mesoamerica maintained several literary genres. Their compositions were transmitted orally, through institutions at which members of the elite would acquire knowledge of literature and other areas of intellectual activity. Those institutions were mostly destroyed in the aftermath of the Conquest, as a result of which most of the indigenous oral tradition was lost forever. Most of the codices used to record historical events or mythical understanding of the world were destroyed, and the few that remain were taken away from the peoples that created them. Four Mixtec codices are known to survive, narrating the war exploits of the Lord Eight Deer Jaguar Claw. Of these, three are held by European collections, with one still in Mexico. The key to deciphering these codices was rediscovered only in the mid-20th century, largely through the efforts of Alfonso Caso, as the Mixtec people had lost the understanding of their ancient rules of reading and writing. However, the early Spanish missionaries undertook the task of teaching indigenous peoples (the nobility in particular) to read and write using the Latin alphabet. Through the efforts of the missionaries and, perhaps more so, of the Hispanicized natives, certain works of indigenous literature were able to survive to the modern day. Of the half-dozen varieties of Mixtec recognized in the 16th century, two in particular were preferred for writing, those of Teposcolula/Tilantongo and Achiutla/Tlaxiaco in Mixteca Alta. Over the five centuries that followed the Conquest, Mixtec literature was restricted to the popular sphere. Through music or the way in which certain rituals are carried out, popular Mixtec literature has survived as it did for millennia: by means of oral transmission. It was not until the 1990s that indigenous literature in Mexico took off again. At the vanguard were the Zapotecs of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, who had been recording their language in writing since at least the mid-19th century. Imitating the great cultural movement of the indigenous people of Juchitán de Zaragoza in the 1980s, many native cultures reclaimed their languages as literary vehicles. In 1993 the Asociación de Escritores en Lenguas Indígenas was created and, three years later, the Casa del Escritor en Lengua Indígena. At the same time, the Nezahualcóyotl Prize for indigenous language literature was created, in order to promote writing in Native American tongues. In the Mixteca region, the literary renaissance has been led by the peoples of the Mixteca Alta, including the cities of Tlaxiaco and Juxtlahuaca. The former has produced such notable writers as Raúl Gatica, who published works by several Mixtec poets in the book Asalto a la palabra, and Juan de Dios Ortiz Cruz, who in addition to collecting the region's lyrical compositions has also produced notable pieces of his own, such as Yunu Yukuninu ("Tree, Hill of Yucuninu"). That piece was later set to music by Lila Downs, one of the leading figures in contemporary Mixtec music; she has recorded several records containing compositions in Mixtec, a language spoken by her mother. See also Classification of Mixtec languages Indigenous languages of the Americas Languages of Mexico Mixtec (indigenous peoples of Mexico) Oto-Manguean languages Technological University of the Mixteca Trique language Notes CNTF:Counter-factual mood References Bradley, C. Henry & Barbara E. Hollenbach, eds. 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992. Studies in the syntax of Mixtecan languages, volumes 1–4. Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics; [Arlington, Texas:] University of Texas at Arlington. Campbell, Lyle. 1997. American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (2008). Catálogo de Lenguas Indígenas Nacionales. Diario Oficial de la Nación, January 14. Jiménez Moreno, Wigberto. 1962. Estudios mixtecos. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista (INI); Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). (Reprint of the introduction to the Vocabulario en lengua mixteca by Fray Francisco de Alvarado.) Josserand, Judy Kathryn. 1983. Mixtec Dialect History. Ph.D. Dissertation, Tulane University. Macaulay, Monica & Joe Salmons. 1995. The phonology of glottalization in Mixtec. International Journal of American Linguistics 61(1):38–61. Marlett, Stephen A. 1992. Nasalization in Mixtec languages. International Journal of American Linguistics 58(4):425–435. McKendry, Inga. 2001. Two studies of Mixtec languages. M.A. thesis. University of North Dakota. External links Technological University of the Mixteca Spanish–Mixtec dictionary AULEX (Mexico) Comparative Mixtec Swadesh vocabulary list (from Wiktionary) SEP textbook in Guerrero Mountain Mixtec Mixtec family (SIL-Mexico) Resources for certain varieties of Mixtec Digital edition of Josserand (1983) at AILLA (requires creation of free account) Mixteco Mixteco Mixteco Analytic languages Isolating languages
5332050	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avadhanam	Avadhanam	Avadhānaṃ is a literary performance popular from the medieval era in India. Avadhānaṃ was originated and primarily cultivated among Telugu poets. It involves the partial improvisation of poems using specific themes, metres, forms, or words. The true purpose of an Avadhanam event thus is the showcasing, through entertainment, of superior mastery of cognitive capabilities - of observation, memory, multitasking, task switching, retrieval, reasoning and creativity in multiple modes of intelligence - literature, poetry, music, mathematical calculations, puzzle solving etc. It requires immense memory power and tests a person's capability of performing multiple tasks simultaneously. All the tasks are memory intensive and demand an in-depth knowledge of literature, and prosody. The tasks vary from making up a poem spontaneously to keeping a count of a bell ringing at random. No external memory aids are allowed while performing these tasks except the person's mind. Avadhānaṃ can be considered as the Divided attention (clinical model of attention) as it is the highest level of attention and it refers to the ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands. Avadhāni refers to the individual who performs the Avadhānaṃ; one of the many individuals asking questions is a Pṛcchaka (questioner). The first person to ask the question is called "Pradhāna Pṛcchaka" they are the same as any other Pṛcchaka except that they ask the first question. The questions asked are primarily literary in nature. The Pṛcchakas can optionally place additional constraints. Though it is not stated explicitly, conformation to Chandas (poetic metre) is mandatory. Avadhāni should answer them in the form of a poem. The questions generally consist of a description given in prose and the avadhāni has to express it as a poem. The additional restrictions placed by the Pṛcchakas can be anything like asking the avadhāni not to use a given set of the alphabet in the entire poem or to construct only a particular type of poem etc. Characteristics The avadhāni is not allowed to recite the entire poem at once. After listening to the Pṛucchaka's question, the avadhāni constructs the first line of the poem, recites it and moves to the next Pṛcchaka. After listening to all the Pṛucchakas, and reciting one line of poem each, the avadhāni shall return to the Pradhana prucchakas (in a round-robin fashion) and continues with the second line of the poem. The beauty and challenge here is that the avadhāni has to remember the question, the line of poem said before and all the additional constraints placed. They shall not be repeated and any mistake shall disqualify the person from being titled "Avadhani". Every poem has 4 lines, so each Pṛcchaka's turn comes 4 times. Avadhaani has to recite the full poem once he finishes constructing all the lines of the poems. This is called "dharaṇa" and forms the culmination of the Avadhana. Avadhani should use only his memory for all this. An Avadhana can run for multiple days (especially Śatāvadhāna). It is a general practice for one of the Pṛcchaka to keep ringing a bell randomly and avadhani has to keep track of number of bell rings. The multitude of all these constraints makes Avadhana one of the greatest arts to master. Of the remaining Pṛcchakas, one person is in charge of "aprastuta-prasangam" (irrelevant incident). His responsibility is to distract the avadhani with questions and topics unrelated to the avadhanam and the avadhani has to reply to his questions and riddles. The Pṛcchaka who manages this should also be equally intelligent and witty to entertain the audience with his questions. An additional challenge for Avadhani here is not to get distracted by these digressions and give witty answers spontaneously even to some of the silly questions.such great memory and retention (dharana) is most important and Shri.Garikipati excels at this especially. Owing to the memory intensive nature of Avadhana, the number of Pṛcchakas plays a major role. The more the number of Pṛcchakas, the higher the challenge would be. Besides conducting Avadhanas, which in itself is a great feat, many Avadhanis also left a longer and lasting legacy by penning works and mentoring students who often grew up to contribute to Telugu and Kannada literature in their own uniquely rich ways. Types The number of Pṛcchakas can be 8 (Aṣtāvadhānaṃ) or 100 (Śatāvadhānaṃ) or even 1000 (sahasrāvadhānaṃ). A person who has successfully performed an Ashtavadhana is called as Aṣtāvadhāni, a Śatāvadhānaṃ is called a Śatāvadhāni and a sahasrāvadhānaṃ is called Sahasrāvadhāni. The other lesser known forms of Avadhana are Chitravadhanam (painting), Nrutyāvadhānaṃ (Dancing) and Gaṇitāvadhānaṃ (Mathematics). Netrāvadhānaṃ (using the eyes) is another important form of avadhānaṃ. Middle Ages Even though this technique has existed prior to the Middle Ages, most of the available historic texts are available today describing encounters in the courts of Turk Invaders. Several Jain Avadhanis displayed the art of Avadhanam in front of Mughal emperors and their Subahdars (governors). Nandivijay, a disciple of the monk Vijayasen Suri, performed the Ashtavadhana in front of Akbar. Akbar was very impressed with the art and conferred the title of Khushfahm (one of a brilliant intellect) on Nandivijay. Siddhichandra, a disciple of the monk Hiravijaya Suri, performed the Shatavadhana in front of Akbar where he performed 108 simultaneous tasks testing his miraculous memory. Akbar conferred the title of Khushfahm on Siddhichandra as well. Siddhichandra stayed in the Mughal court till the last days of Jahangir. Yashovijay Suri, the author of the work Jain Tarka Bhasha, performed several Avadhanams at Ahmedabad in the 17th century, including 18 Avadhanams in the presence of Mohabat Khan, who was the Subahdar of Gujarat under Aurangzeb. 19th and 20th centuries The trend of Avadhana in Telugu was popularized by Divakarla Tirupati sastry (1871–1919) and Chellapilla Venkata sastry (1870–1950) who were popular as Tirupati Venkata Kavulu. Contemporaries of Tirupati Venkata Kavulu that are famous for enriching the heritage of Avadhana include Kopparapu Sodara Kavulu and Venkata Raamakrishna Kavulu. Kopparapu Sodara kavulu are well known for their speed in composing poems. Students of Tirupati Venkata Kavulu include famous Gnanapith award winner Viswanatha Satyanarayana and well known Subbanna Satavadhani. Sri Paada Subrahmanya Sastri, a well-known short story and novel writer is a student of Venkata Rama Krishna Kavulu. Sathavathani Sheikh Thambi Pavalar - He was a Tamil poet, Scholar and a freedom fighter. He has performed sathavadhanam on 10-March-1907, at Madras Victoria Town hall. On 31 December 2008, a commemorative postage stamp on him was released. Raychandbhai, a Gujarati Jain poet was a Shatavadhani whose skills impressed Mahatma Gandhi greatly. Vidwan Ambati Subbaraya Chetty (March 22, 1906 – June 19, 1973) - He is a scholar known for his contributions to history, literature. He contributed to the freedom efforts of India. He was the first district magistrate of Indian origin in the entire state of Andhra Pradesh under British rule. Pandit Veni Madhav Shukla - He was a famous scholar as well as a Shatavadhani who lived in Jaunpur in the 20th century. He was a family relative of Rambhadracharya. 30 day duration avadhanam called "Apoorva Pancha Sahasra Avadhanam" was performed by Dr. Medasani Mohan of Tirupati is considered as a record breaking performance, which included producing poetry (extempore rendition) in various forms like seesa padya, champakamala, sardulam, mattebhavikriditha, thetageetha etc. The avadhanam was conducted from February 18 to March 20, 2007 and more than one thousand poets apart from 4000 scholars participated as Pruchaka (questioners). The subjects of poetry included untouchability, AIDs, women power, internet, computers, students etc. Gadiyaram Ramakrishna Sarma - freedom fighter, social reformer from Alampur has performed avadhaanam. He is well known for his efforts in reviving the temples of Alampur. Perala Bharata Sarma - was a Sanskrit scholar who served AP colleges. He was renowned for his performances of Ashtavadhanams during later part of the 20th century. Current Avadhanis Telugu Avadhanis Dr. Medasani Mohan - is referred to as 'Apoorva Pancha Sahasravadhana Sarvabhouma' for having performed the unique literary feat pancha sahasra avadhanam ( with 5000 Prucchakas ). He was the first to perform Sahasravadhanam. Dr. Mohan has performed over 1000 Astavadhanams, 16 Sathavadhanams, 40 Dwigunitha Avadhanam, 45 Chaturgunitha Avadhanams in India and abroad. Garikapati Narasimha Rao - He is referred to as Maha Sahasraavadhani for having subjected himself to thousand Prucchakas. He is well known for amazingly fast recollection of hundreds of verses composed and recited earlier and has the title 'Dhaarana Brahma Raakshasa'. His 'Saagara Ghosha' is an acclaimed literary work. Rallabandi Kavitha Prasad - (Director, Dept of Culture, Govt of Andhra Pradesh, now posted as secretary, Dharma Prachara Parishad (DPP), in TTD, Tirupati) has performed more than 500 avadhanams, including satavadhanam and dvisatavadhanam. He also performed various avadhanas such as navarasavadhanam, and astadasavadhanam, etc. and introduced various new trends in avadhana vidya. Osmania University awarded him a Doctorate degree for his thesis on avadhanam vidya. He hails from Nemali Village, Gampalagudem Mandalam in Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh. He has published "ontari poola butta" an anthology of modern poetry. He is the author of several books such as Kadambini. Smt Akella Bala Bhanu She performed her first ashtavadhanam at a very early age of 18 years in Kovvur Samskruta Kalasala. She is the first and only one woman Shathavadhani. She performed 100 ashtavadhanams, one satavadhanam and one dwi shatavadhanam. She is currently working as Sankrith Lecturer in Aditya Junior college, Amalapuram. She is also a relative of Sri Bharatam Srimannayarana Garu and Sri Yeluripati Anantaramayya Garu. She received many Awards and rewards. She also teaches Telugu poetry writing to many enthusiastic students. Asavadi Prakasarao - Dr. CV Subbanna Shatavadhani was accepted as his teacher in Avadhanam Education and imbued with his blessings. He made his first Avadhanam in 1963 at the age of 19. Since then he has stamped as the only Dalit Avadhāni in Andhra literature and mesmerized the listeners with his extraordinary perceptiveness and indescribable majestic energy. He performed 171 Avadhanams, a double octave, not only in Andhra Pradesh but also in other parts of India such as Taruttani, Arakkonam, Pallipattu, Hosur, Bengaluru, Bellary, Donimalai, Delhi etc. Madugula Nagaphani Sarma Amudala Murali Vaddiparti Padmakar - He is one of the contemporary Sahasravadhani. And it is also told, he is the only 'Tribhasha Sahasravadhani'. He does Avadhanam in Sanskrit, Telugu and Hindi. He also does Pravachanam in Telugu language. He hails from Eluru, AP. Kadimella Vara Prasad - He is a Teacher by profession. Famous for his spontaneous and prolific [31] https://www.newsgram.com/avadhaanam-shataavadhaani-r-ganesh-part-1 Gannavaram Lalith Aditya - An 18 year old Samskrta Telugu Dvigunita Ashtavadhani born and raised in the United States recently awarded with the Avadhana Yuvasiromani award by the Vamsi Foundation of USA. Bulusu Aparna - She is a Sanskrit teacher at Sri Venkateswara Devasthana Oriental High School in Dwaraka Tirumala. She has performed over 150 Ashtavadhanams, and 5 Shatavadhanams. Dorbhala Prabhakara Sarma. Sanskrit and Kannada Shatavadhani Ganesh - (Research Officer at Southern Regional Centre, Bangalore). He performed over 1004 Astavadhanams and 4 Shatavadhanams. Also known as, Dr. R. Ganesh, he is fluent in more than 18 languages (Indian and foreign). Dr. Ganesh performed his 915th Ashtavadanam on Saturday, August 27, 2011 at Sri Vani Education Centre, Rajajinagar, Bengaluru 560 010, India, as part of the school's annual Avadhana presentation. He is also credited with introducing chitrakavya into avadhana, previously considered impossible to do in an avadhana. His recent Ashtaavadaana was performed at Seva Sadana, Bangalore on 11th January, 2015. He performed Shathavadhana at Bangalore, a first in Kannada, from 30 November 2012 to 2 December 2012. He performed his 1000th avadhanam at NMKRV College on February 16, 2014. Pandit Sudhakar Kallurkar - He is a young pandit from Uttaradhi mutt and he performed ashtavadana in Sanskrit in divine presence of Sri Sathyatma thirtha Swamiji and stalwart Sanskrit scholars, More than 2000 people witnessed the Ashtavadana. Vid. Gundibailu Subrahmanya Bhat - He is a scholar from Udupi and he performed around 20 ashtavadanas in Sanskrit and Kannada mainly in and around Udupi District. He is a Vedanta scholar and has a Vidwat degree from Sri Manmadhva Sanskrita mahavidyalayam, Udupi. Tamil Avadhanis Rama. Kanaga Subburathinam - He is a Sodasa Avadhani (16 skills). He performed avadhanams in Tamil Language. He is also running a Tamil Monthly named "Kavanagar Muzhakkam". He also led a Charitable trust names "Kavanagar Muzhakkam Charitable Trust". He is the only Tamil Avadhani in present date. Jain Avadhanis Muni Manak Maharaj - He was born in Sujangarh in Rajasthan and is a disciple of Acharya Tulsi. He is fluent in nine languages and has in-depth knowledge of Buddhism, Vedas and Indian philosophical schools in addition to Jainism. He knows astrology, palmistry and numerology. He has displayed Shatavadhan many times in Indian cities and also in other countries like the UK, the US and Canada. Muni Rajkaran - He was born in Gangashahar, Bikaner (Rajasthan, India) on 15 March 1927. He was initiated into monk hood in 1942 at the minor age of 15 and became the disciple of great Jain saint Acharya Tulsi. After initiation he studied various jain agamas, Sanskrit and prakrit languages, philosophy and logic. He had a powerful memory and grip on mathematics. so he started to learn avadhanam he did more than 500 avdhan in a single day and made a record. He has travelled on foot to Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh in India, and to Bhutan and Nepal abroad. Muni Mahendra Kumar - He was born in 1937. He was initiated into monkhood in 1957 and was an associate of Acharya Tulsi and his successor Acharya Mahaprajna. Muni Mahendra Kumar is a professor at Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun, Rajasthan, serving in the departments of Science of Living and Preksha Meditation. He is a versatile scholar across diverse disciplines like Physics, Mathematics, Biology, Indian and Western Philosophy, Psychology, Parapsychology, Ancient History, Meditation, and Spirituality. He knows many languages including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, English, German, Hindi, Gujarati and Rajasthani. He has authored, translated and edited more than 60 books. He is a practitioner and instructor of Preksha Meditation. His work "The Enigma of the Universe" and "Vishva Prahelika" (Hindi Version) is a research in the field of cosmology of modern science and ancient Jain philosophy. He has demonstrated Shatavadhana at various universities and international conferences and is sometimes referred to as the "Human Computer". Muni Ajitchandra Sagar - Born in 1988, Ajitchandra Sagar is a self-taught Shatavadhani under the guidance and Blessings Of Acharya Shree Naychandrasagarji Mharaj. He has performed several Samyukta Avadhana and Mahashatavadhana where he has subjected him to up to 200 questioners. He performs the "Netravadhana" (Avadhana using eyes) and "Ganitavadhana" (mathematics) also. He demonstrated the Shatavadhana at a conference of Jain Doctors' Federation in Ahmedabad in 2009. He demonstrated the Dvishatavadhana in March 2012 in Mumbai where he first heard with closed eyes 200 questions including puzzles, names of objects, places and persons, Sanskrit shlokas, factual and philosophical questions, foreign language words and complex mathematical problems. He then opened his eyes and answered all of them in addition to reciting the questions and answers in ascending, descending and random orders. Ajitchandra Sagar holds a Guinness record for being the world's second-fastest speaker. References External links Seminar: Avadhana The Unique Art of India (2002, IGNCA) Shatavadhani-Dr. Ganesh The Hindu - July 2008 - A Literary treat The Hindu - 24 April 2011 - 'Ashtavadhanam' impresses one and all Arts in India
5332128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop%20F-15%20Reporter	Northrop F-15 Reporter	The Northrop F-15 Reporter (later RF-61) was an American unarmed photographic reconnaissance aircraft. Based on the Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighter, it was the last piston-powered photo-reconnaissance aircraft designed and produced for the United States Air Force. Though produced in limited quantities, and with a relatively short service life, the F-15's aerial photographs of the Korean Peninsula would prove vital in 1950, when North Korea invaded the south. Design and development The F-15 Reporter was created when the guns were removed from the experimental XP-61E, the last fighter variant of the P-61 Black Widow. With less than six months flying time, the first XP-61E was taken back to the Northrop modification shop where it was converted into an unarmed photographic reconnaissance aircraft. All the guns were removed, and a new nose was fitted, capable of holding an assortment of aerial cameras. The aircraft, redesignated XF-15, flew for the first time on 3 July 1945, with Northrop test pilot L. A. "Slim" Parrett at the controls. A P-61C-1-NO (serial number 42-8335) was also modified to XF-15 standards as the XF-15A. Apart from the turbosupercharged R-2800-C engines, it was identical to the XF-15 and flew for the first time on 17 October 1945. For unknown reasons Northrop subcontracted the nose for the F-15A to the Hughes Tool Company of Culver City, California. The F-15A used the existing P-61C wings (without fighter brakes), engines and tail sections but with an entirely new, more streamlined fuselage housing a crew of two under a continuous bubble-canopy. As a result of continuing development trouble with the Howard Hughes-designed XF-11, the staff of the Army Air Force Headquarters determined an immediate need for 320 F-15 Reporters. Even before the first flight of the XF-15 an initial contract for 175 aircraft was signed in June 1945. Following testing it was determined that the F-15 Reporter possessed similar performance and flight characteristics to the troublesome XF-11, despite the Reporter being powered by less powerful engines, and using mostly pre-existing parts. This spelled the end to further development of the XF-11. The first production F-15A was accepted in September 1946. However, the contract was abruptly canceled in 1947, possibly because the performance of the aircraft was rapidly being overshadowed by jets, with the last of only 36 examples being accepted by the United States Army Air Forces in April of that year. The last F-15 to be produced (serial number 45-59335) was produced as an F-15A-5-NO, which differed from the Block-1 version mainly in having a new internal camera installation in the nose. It seems that this change had been contemplated for the last 20 F-15s as well, since some records indicate that these were all eventually re-designated as F-15A-5-NO. Design The F-15 had a revised center pod with pilot and camera operator seated in tandem under a single bubble canopy. The first XP-61E, from which the first XF-15 was converted, had the canopy hinged to the side, while all subsequent XF-15 and production F-15 employed a sliding canopy. The aircraft's six cameras were placed in an elongated nose, replacing the XP-61Es four guns. Production F-15A were powered by the same turbosupercharged R-2800-73 engines as the P-61C. The aircraft had a takeoff weight of 32,145 lb (14,580 kg) and a top speed of 440 mph (382 kn, 708 km/h) at 33,000 ft (10,058 m). In the end, only 36 of the 175 ordered F-15As were built, and all were constructed from aircraft originally contracted to be built as P-61C. The pilot was seated in the front, with the reconnaissance operator in the back. The back-seat occupant controlled the cameras and navigated the aircraft. However, the rear seat of the F-15A was fitted with a set of rudimentary flying controls, which made it possible for the reconnaissance operator to relieve the pilot if needed. Both crew members were rated pilots and both were trained in the reconnaissance task, so they usually alternated position on each flight. Operational history Of the 36 F-15As produced, nine were allocated to the Air Material Command in the Continental U.S., and the remainder were issued to just one squadron, the 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron (PRS) attached to the 35th Fighter Group in Japan. The first four were sent over by ship, arriving in March 1947 at the Japan Air Material Area (JAMA), Kisarazu, Japan. Their voyage had not been smooth, and three of the four were in such bad shape that they were used for spare parts. The 8th PRS had been non-operational for about a year, and was being brought up to strength to serve in the American occupation of Japan, participating in the Post-Hostilities Mapping Program in which the beaches, villages, road networks, and cultural centers of Japan were to be extensively photographed, work that was to be performed by the F-15 in association with the F-13 variant of the B-29 Superfortress. Under the command of Major Benjamin H. Albertson, the 8th spent most of the summer of 1947 preparing for their missions to come, spending June and July at JAMA helping to assemble the newly arriving F-15's. Captain Jarvis and Lieutenant Heistand were the first two pilots selected to fly back with the first pair of Reporters in late June. The squadron spent most of July test flying their new machines. Four additional aircraft arrived in July, giving the squadron seventy-three hours experience in the F-15. The unit's first operational mission would also be flown in July, with Captain Moore at the controls. The squadron lost its first F-15 in August when a pilot made a very hard landing. The plane was a write-off, but the pilot walked away. In September, Lieutenant Colonel Ben K. Armstrong became the commanding officer of the 8th. A unit strength of 16 aircraft was finally reached in October, the same month in which three aircraft and their crews were sent to Itazuke Air Base on the Japanese island of Kyūshū. The detachment remained there until December 1947, flying four- to seven-hour aerial photography missions. In January 1948, a detachment of six F-15s were sent to Clark Field in the Philippines to assist the 5th Reconnaissance Group. Eventually other detachments of F-15s from the 8th PRS were dispatched to Itzake and Chitose Air Base for various lengths of time. The detachment to the 13th Air Force in the Philippines would remain until early September, with crews being rotated every thirty days. Maintenance was a problem for F-15 operations from the beginning. In January 1948, the entire fleet was grounded for ten days because of weather and a lack of spare parts, mostly heat exchangers that were found to be cracking prematurely. Because of the lack of spare heat exchangers, replacements had to be obtained from F-15s in storage at JAMA. By February 1948 the parts problem had become so critical that the 8th PRS had an average in service rate of only two aircraft. Cannibalization of both damaged and flyable aircraft eventually brought this rate up, but the unit would never reach a strength of sixteen operational aircraft again, reaching a high of fifteen only once, in December 1948. In April 1948, Major Russell E. Cheever took over as squadron commander. In August, the unit was redesignated the 8th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (Night Photo). In addition, under the new U.S. Air Force designation system the name F-15A (F designating Photo under AAF classifications) became the RF-61A (R for reconnaissance and F for fighter). This immediately caused confusion, both because the F-15A was unarmed and was never considered a fighter, and because the F-15A was now reclassified as the P-61A both by the USAF and in squadron records (the P-61A already existing as the earliest variant of the original "Black Widow"). The designation of RF-61C was applied later, but by this point the unit had unofficially returned to calling the aircraft the F-15A, and would continue to do so for most of their operational time with the machine. The end of F-15 operations came on 25 March 1949, when the 8th TRS (NP) was transferred to Yokota Air Base minus their equipment and personnel. There it became the 82d Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron. On 1 April, the 82nd, which consisted now of the former 8th's personnel and their F-15s, was inactivated and all F-15s were assigned to the 35th Maintenance Squadron at Johnson Air Base for salvage or other disposition. Of the nine F-15A allocated to Air Material Command, several were operated for a short time by the Pennsylvania Air National Guard from their base in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, before they too were scrapped. Mapping of Korea During their operational lifetime F-15As, mostly operating from bases in Japan, were responsible for most of the aerial maps of North Korea used at the start of the Korean War. These photographs were to prove extremely valuable, as it was not until the arrival of Marine photo-reconnaissance F7F-3P in late 1950 that additional photographs of the peninsula could be made, and then only under constant threat from attacking North Korean MiGs. Civilian use Some surviving F-15As were offered to civilian governmental agencies, or declared surplus and offered for sale on the commercial market. An F-15A (s/n 45-59300) was used by NACA at Moffett Field in California to test some early swept-wing designs by dropping recoverable aerodynamic test bodies from high altitude. This program was later joined by F-61C serial number 43-8330, borrowed from the Smithsonian Institution for the duration of the tests. These drops were carried out over Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert in California. The last flying example of the entire P-61 line was a rare F-15A Reporter (RF-61C) (s/n 45-59300), the first production model Reporter to be built. The aircraft was completed on 15 May 1946, and served with the USAAF and later the U.S. Air Force until 6 February 1948, when it was reassigned to the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory at Moffett Field in California. There it was reconfigured to serve as a launch vehicle for air dropped scale models of experimental aircraft. It served in this capacity until 1953, when it was replaced by a mammoth wind tunnel used for the same testing. In April, 1955, the F-15 was declared surplus along with a "spare parts" F-61C (s/n 43-8357). The F-15 was sold, along with the parts P-61, to Steward-Davis Incorporated of Gardena, California, and given the civilian registration N5093V. Unable to sell the P-61C, Steward-Davis scrapped it in 1957. Steward-Davis made several modifications to the Reporter to make it suitable for aerial survey work, including switching to a canopy taken from a T-33, and to propellers taken from an older P-61. The plane was sold in September, 1956 to Compania Mexicana Aerofoto S. A. of Mexico City and assigned the Mexican registration XB-FUJ. In Mexico, the Reporter was used for aerial survey work, the very role for which it was originally designed. It was bought by Aero Enterprises Inc. of Willets, California and returned to the US in January 1964 carrying the civilian registration number N9768Z. The fuselage tank and turbosupercharger intercoolers were removed; and the plane was fitted with a 1,600 gal (6,056 L) chemical tank for fire-fighting. It was purchased by Cal-Nat of Fresno, California at the end of 1964, which operated it as a firefighting aircraft for the next 3 years. In March 1968, the F-15 was purchased by TBM, Inc., an aerial firefighting company located in Tulare, California (the company's name representing the TBM Avenger, their primary equipment), who performed additional modifications on the aircraft to improve its performance, including experimenting with several types of propellers before deciding on Curtiss Electric type 34 propellers taken from a late model Lockheed Constellation. On 6 September 1968, Ralph Ponte, one of three civilian pilots to hold a rating for the F-15, was flying a series of routine Phos-Chek drops on a fire raging near Hollister, California. In an effort to reduce his return time Ponte opted to reload at a small airfield nearer the fire. The runway was shorter than the one in Fresno, and despite Ponte reducing his load, hot air from the nearby fire reduced the surrounding air pressure and rendered the aircraft overweight. Even at full power the Reporter had not rotated after clearing the 3,500 ft (1,067 m) marker, and Ponte quickly decided to abort his takeoff. He made every effort to control the hurtling craft, but the Reporter careened off the runway and through a vegetable patch, before striking an embankment which tore off the landing gear. The aircraft then slid sideways, broke up, and caught fire. Ponte scrambled through the shattered canopy unhurt, while a firefighting TBM Avenger dropped its load of Phos-Chek on the plane's two engines, possibly saving Ponte's life. The F-15 was deemed too badly damaged to rebuild, and was soon scrapped, bringing an end to the aircraft's career. Variants XF-15 The first prototype, converted from the first XP-61E. XF-15A The second prototype, converted from a P-61C (number 43-8335). F-15A Reporter Photoreconnaissance variant with a new center pod with pilot and camera operator seated in tandem under a single bubble canopy, and six cameras taking place of radar in the nose. Powered by the same turbosupercharged R-2800-73 engines as the P-61C. The aircraft had a takeoff weight of 32,145 lb (14,580 kg) and a top speed of 440 mph (382 kn, 708 km/h). Only 36 of the 175 ordered F-15As were built before the end of the war. After formation of the United States Air Force in 1947, F-15A was redesignated RF-61C. F-15As were responsible for most of the aerial maps of North Korea used at the start of the Korean War. RF-61C Reporter USAF designation for the F-15C from 1948 onwards. Operators United States Air Force Alaskan Air Command 449th Fighter Squadron (All Weather). Formed from equipment and personnel of 415th Night Fighter Squadron at Adak Air Field, Aleutian Islands, Alaska on 1 Sep 1947. Later transitioned to F-82 Twin Mustang in mid-1948. 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron. Flew F-15A (RF-61C) Reporter (1947–1949) from Johnson AB, Japan. Aircraft reassigned to 82d Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron until inactivated on 1 Apr 1949 Continental Air Forces 57th Reconnaissance Squadron and 58th Reconnaissance Squadron. Performed Weather Reconnaissance training at Rapid City AAF, South Dakota (July 1945-Jan 1946). Specifications (F-15A Reporter) See also References Notes Bibliography Balous, Miroslav. Northrop P-61 Black Widow & F-15 Reporter(bilingual Czech and English). Prague, Czech Republic: MBI Publications, 2nd edition 2003. . Bridgeman, Leonard. “The Northrop Black Widow.” Jane’s Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. . Davis, Larry and Dave Menard. P-61 Black Widow in Action (Aircraft number 106). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1990. . Jackson, Robert. The Encyclopedia of Military Aircraft. Bath, UK: Parragon Publishing, 2006. . Johnsen, Frederick A. Darkly Dangerous: The Northrop P-61 Black Widow Night Fighter. Washington, DC: Bomber Books, 1981. . Kolln, Jeff. Northrop's Night Hunter: P-61 Black Widow. North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2008. . Kolln, Jeff. The 421st Night Fighter Squadron in World War II. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military Books, 2001. . Pape, Garry R., John M. and Donna Campbell. Northrop P-61 Black Widow - The Complete History and Combat Record. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1991. . Pape, Garry R. and Ronald C. Harrison. Queen of the Midnight Skies: The Story of America's Air Force Night Fighters. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1992. . Shulenberger, Eric. Deny Them the Night Sky - A History of the 548th Night Fighter Squadron. Seattle, Washington: Shulenberger Publishing, 2005. . Thompson, Warren. P-61 Black Widow Units of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. . Thompson, Warren. Northrop P-61 Black Widow: WarbirdTech Volume 15. North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 1998. . Thompson, Warren. "Northrop P-61 Black Widow". Wings of Fame. Volume 15, 1999, pp. 36–101. London: Aerospace. . Wilson, Stewart. Aircraft of WWII. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd., 1998. . Zbiegniewski, Andre R. 421 NFS 1943–1947 (Bilingual Polish and English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2004. . External links Joe Baugher's F-15 page F-015 Reporter 1940s United States military reconnaissance aircraft High-wing aircraft Twin-boom aircraft World War II reconnaissance aircraft of the United States Aircraft first flown in 1945 Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
5332227	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kev%20Carmody	Kev Carmody	Kevin Daniel Carmody (born 1946), better known by his stage name Kev Carmody, is an Aboriginal Australian singer-songwriter and musician, a Murri man from northern Queensland. He is best known for the song "From Little Things Big Things Grow", which was recorded with co-writer Paul Kelly for their 1993 single. It was covered by the Get Up Mob (including guest vocals by both Carmody and Kelly) in 2008 and peaked at number four on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) singles charts. Carmody has won many awards, and in 2009 was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame as well as being a recipient of the Queensland Greats Awards. In 2019, Carmody was recipient of the JC Williamson Award at the Helpmann Awards. He is also known for his activism for Aboriginal rights. Early life and education Kevin Daniel Carmody was born in 1946 in Cairns, Queensland. His father, John "Jack" Carmody, was a second-generation Irish descendant and his mother, Bonny, an Aboriginal woman of Lama Lama and Bundjalung descent, were not allowed to get married because she was Aboriginal, and they went to Cairns because "the rules were a lot slacker there" due to the large number of migrants working in the cane fields. Jack (also known as "Bull"), had been a member of the red beret parachute commando unit in World War II, and had sustained a back injury during training. Kevin's younger brother, Laurie, was born three and a half years later. His family moved to southern Queensland in early 1950, and he grew up on a cattle station near Goranba (and Tara) west of Dalby in the Darling Downs area of south eastern Queensland. They lived in a hut with a dirt floor, and his parents worked as drovers, moving cattle along stock routes. The boys had to be hidden from authorities for fear of being taken from their parents. At ten years of age, Carmody and his brother were taken from their parents under the assimilation policy as part of the Stolen Generations and sent to a Catholic school in Toowoomba, after Jack and Bonny were given the choice of sending the boys to school, or Bonny and the boys being sent permanently to live on Great Palm Island. The school was housed in an old army barracks on about and run by nuns. Carmody said that the boys did not do much schoolwork, but spent their time feeding chickens, collecting eggs, "hauling in coal for the kitchen stoves and buttering bread for the nuns". They were allowed to visit their parents twice a year. He did not learn to read until he was 11 years old. After schooling, he returned to his rural roots and worked for 17 years as a country labourer, including droving, shearing, bag lumping, wool pressing and welding. The family all pooled their earnings into the same bank account, and lived mostly off the land. In 1967, he married Helen, with whom he has three sons; they later divorced but remain "good mates". University In 1978, at the age of 33, Carmody enrolled in university, Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education (now part of the University of Southern Queensland). Due to his limited schooling, Carmody's reading and writing skills were not up to required university standard. Undeterred, he suggested to the history tutor that until his writing was suitable he would present his research in a musical format accompanied by guitar. While this was a novel approach at university, it was in line with the far older Indigenous tradition of oral history. Although Carmody had extensive historical knowledge, learnt by oral traditions, much of it could not be found in library history books and was attributed to "unpublished works". Carmody completed his Bachelor of Arts degree, then postgraduate studies and a Diploma of Education at the University of Queensland, followed by commencing a PhD in History, on the Darling Downs 1830–1860. At university, Carmody had used music as a means of implementing oral history in tutorials, which led to his later career. Music career 1987-1989: Pillars of Society In the early 1980s, Carmody began his musical career. He signed a recording contract in 1987 and his first album, Pillars of Society, was released on the Rutabagas label (a label founded by artist Frances Mahony and technologist Joe Hayes); the rights were later transferred to Larrikin Records/EMI in December 1988. It drew heavily upon country and folk styles with tracks such as "Black Deaths in Custody" and "Thou Shalt Not Steal" describing ignorance and oppression experienced by indigenous Australians. In the song "Thou Shalt Not Steal", Carmody draws attention to the hypocrisy of British settlers who brought Christianity to Indigenous Australians, including the commandment prohibiting theft, and yet took the land that the Aboriginal people had inhabited for more than 60,000 years. He emphasises the importance of land to the indigenous people, "The land’s our heritage and spirit", and turns the Christian lesson given to indigenous people around: "We say to you yes, whiteman, thou shalt not steal". A Rolling Stone (Australia) journalist, Bruce Elder, described it as "the best album ever released by an Aboriginal musician and arguably the best protest album ever made in Australia". Pilllar of Society was nominated for a 1989 ARIA Award for Best Indigenous Release. In subsequent recordings Carmody adopted a broad range of musical styles, from reggae to rock and roll. 1990-1992: Eulogy (For a Black Person) and Street Beat Carmody's second album, Eulogy (For a Black Person), released in November 1990, was produced by Connolly, with musical support from the rest of the Messengers and members of pioneering Aboriginal rock band Mixed Relations. A review of the album noted that "Using a combination of folk and country music his hard-hitting lyrics deal with such potent material as the David Gundy slaying, black deaths in custody, land rights and Aboriginal pride and dignity. Carmody is deeply committed, powerfully intelligent and persuasively provocative. He uses images of revolutionaries... and challenges white Australia to stare unrelentingly at the despair which underpins Aboriginal society". The first single from the album, "Blood Red Rose", was described by Carmody as "a comment on personal isolation. Late night, big city alienation", whilst the B-side, "Elly", is the moving story of a young woman attempting to escape the poverty and racism of western Queensland, who finds herself trapped in Surfers Paradise working in the sex industry. Eulogy (For a Black Person) was nominated for a 1992 ARIA Award for Best Indigenous Release. Early in 1991 Carmody co-wrote a song, "From Little Things Big Things Grow", with Paul Kelly; it was an historical account of the Gurindji tribe drovers' walkout led by Vincent Lingiari at Wave Hill Station in the Northern Territory during the 1960s, the incident which sparked off the indigenous land rights movement. It was first recorded by Paul Kelly & the Messengers on Comedy in May and included Steve Connolly as guitarist of the Messengers. Carmody's 1992 EP Street Beat was nominated for a 1993 ARIA Award for Best Indigenous Release. 1993-1999: Bloodlines and Images and Illusions Carmody's third album, Bloodlines, was released in July 1993 and included his own version of "From Little Things Big Things Grow", with Kelly guesting on vocals, which was issued as a single. Bloodlines received a 1994 ARIA Award nomination for Best Indigenous Release, and the single "On the Wire" was nominated for this award in 1995. Also in 1993 Carmody was the subject of a musical documentary, Blood Brothers - From Little Things Big Things Grow, by Rachel Perkins and directed by Trevor Graham, which explored Carmody's life, using music clips and historical footage. After the release of his fourth album, Images And Illusions, in September 1995, produced by Steve Kilbey of The Church, The album was nominated for a 1996 ARIA Award for Best Indigenous Release. Carmody re-evaluated his life and career, reducing the demands placed on him by the mainstream recording industry. He continued performing, as a musician and public speaker, to audiences as diverse as the National Press Club and Aboriginal Australians in prison. 2000-2006: One Night the Moon and Mirrors 2000 saw the release of Messages a compilation of songs from Carmody's first four albums. In 2001, together with Kelly, Mairead Hannan, John Romeril, Deirdre Hannan and Alice Garner, Carmody assisted in writing the musical score for the Australian film One Night the Moon. The soundtrack won a Screen Music Award at the 2002 Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA)/Australian Guild of Screen Composers (AGSC) Awards. After a break of nearly ten years Carmody released his fifth studio album in 2004. The album, Mirrors, was completely self-financed and distributed. It was recorded at a friend's property "down the road" and was his first album recorded with computer technology. The songs on Mirrors cover a range of contemporary issues including refugee treatment and his thoughts on United States President George W. Bush, accompanied by the captured real life sounds of the Australian bush. 2007-2009: Cannot Buy My Soul and ARIA Hall of Fame In 2007, Kelly organised the double album, Cannot Buy My Soul - The Songs of Kev Carmody, with tribute songs by various artists on one disc and a second disc of songs by Carmody himself. On 31 October, Carmody was a special guest at the TV music channel MAX's "The Max Sessions: Powderfinger, Concert for the Cure" singing alongside front man Bernard Fanning to the controversial "Black Tears" and also joined in with the encore of "These Days". The concert was a fundraiser and thank you to the "unsung heroes" of breast cancer with an invitation-only audience made up of a special group of people – those who have suffered and survived breast cancer and their support networks. The concert closed Breast Cancer Awareness Month and was the brainchild of 20-year-old Nick Vindin, who had lost his mother Kate to the disease a few years earlier. In the aftermath of the Australian Labor Government's 2008 apology to indigenous Australians, Carmody and Kelly reprised their song "From Little Things Big Things Grow" by incorporating samples from speeches by Prime Ministers Paul Keating in 1992 and Kevin Rudd in 2008. Released under the name The Get Up Mob, part of the GetUp! advocacy group, the song peaked at #4 on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) singles charts. This version featured vocals by Carmody and Kelly, as well as other prominent Australian artists (including Urthboy, Missy Higgins, Mia Dyson, Radical Son, Jane Tyrrell, Dan Sultan, Joel Wenitong and Ozi Batla). On 22 October 2008, a DVD from two Sydney performances by Carmody and various artists was released as Cannot Buy My Soul: Kev Carmody. On 27 August 2009, Carmody was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame alongside The Dingoes, Little Pattie, Mental As Anything and John Paul Young, Carmody's first reaction was to laugh and reply "I must be getting into the Hall of Fame with the lowest record sales in history". At the ceremony, Missy Higgins inducted Carmody, who accepted the induction, Carmody was joined onstage by Paul Kelly, Dan Kelly, Missy Higgins and John Butler to perform "From Little Things Big Things Grow". As of 2007 he lived with his partner Beryl on a bush block in south-east Queensland. 2010-present In 2015, EMI released the 4 disc Recollections... Reflections... (A Journey). In 2020, Cannot Buy My Soul: The Songs of Kev Carmody was re-released featuring updated cover versions of Carmody's songs. To promote the album, Electric Fields were joined virtually by Jessica Mauboy, Missy Higgins and John Butler for a performance of "From Little Things Big Things Grow", recorded at the Adelaide Botanic Garden conservatory and broadcast for the season finale of ABC Television's 6-part pandemic series, The Sound, on 23 August 2020. The cover features on Cannot Buy My Soul: The Songs of Kev Carmody, released on 21 August 2020, which includes covers of other Carmody songs by artists such as Jimmy Barnes, Courtney Barnett, and Kate Miller-Heidke. Carmody has reduced his musical activities due to the effects of arthritis. Awards and nominations ARIA Awards The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. In 2009, Kev Carmody was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame. \|- \| 1989 \|\| Pillars of Society \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 1992 \|\| Eulogy (For a Black Person) \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 1993 \|\| Street Beat \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 1994 \|\| Bloodlines \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 1995 \|\| "On The Wire" \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 1996 \|\| Images & Illusions \|\| Best Indigenous Release \|\| \|- \| 2009 \|\| Kev Carmody \|\| ARIA Hall of Fame\|\| \|- \| 2016 \|\| Recollections... Reflections... (A Journey) \|\| Best Blues & Roots Album \|\| Country Music Awards of Australia The Country Music Awards of Australia (CMAA) (also known as the Golden Guitar Awards) is an annual awards night held in January during the Tamworth Country Music Festival, celebrating recording excellence in the Australian country music industry. They have been held annually since 1973. \|- \| 1993 \| "From Little Things, Big Things Grow" \| Heritage Award \| \|- \| 2012 \| "Children of the Gurindji" by Sara Storer & Kev Carmody \| Video of the Year \| Deadly Awards The Deadlys Awards was an annual celebration of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander achievement in music, sport, entertainment and community. \|- \| Deadly Awards 2005 \| himself \| Lifetime Achievement in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Music \| \|- Helpmann Awards The Helpmann Awards is an awards show, celebrating live entertainment and performing arts in Australia, presented by industry group Live Performance Australia (LPA) since 2001. In 2019, Carmody received the JC Williamson Award, the LPA's highest honour, for their life's work in live performance. \|- \| 2019 \|\| Kev Carmody \|\| JC Williamson Award \|\| \|- Mo Awards The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Kev Carmody won one award in that time. (wins only) \|- \| 1993 \| Kev Carmody \| Folk Performer of the Year \| \|- National Indigenous Music Awards The National Indigenous Music Awards recognise excellence, innovation and leadership among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander musicians from throughout Australia. They commenced in 2004. \|- \| 2021 \| Kev Carmody \| Hall of Fame \| \|- Queensland Music Awards The Queensland Music Awards (previously known as Q Song Awards) are annual awards celebrating Queensland, Australia's brightest emerging artists and established legends. They commenced in 2006. (wins only) \|- \| 2007 \| himself \| Grant McLennan Lifetime Achievement Award \| \|- Other recognition and honours 2001 Australian Film Industry's Open Craft Award in a Non-Feature Film for an Original Score 2008: Honorary Doctorate - University of Southern Queensland 2009: Great Queenslander in the Queensland Greats Awards 2010: "From Little Things" added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry 2013: University of Queensland Alumni Awards: Vice Chancellor's Excellence Award for Indigenous Community Impact 2022: New student accommodation at the University of Queensland named Kev Carmody House Discography Studio albums Soundtrack albums Compilation albums Extended plays Singles "Jack Deelin" (1988) "Thou Shalt Not Steal" (February 1990) "Eulogy" (November 1990) "Cannot Buy My Soul" (December 1991) "Blood Red Rose" (April 1992) "Living South of the Freeway" (October 1992) "Freedom" (July 1993) "From Little Things Big Things Grow" (1993) "On the Wire" (May 1994) "The Young Dancer Is Dead" (1995) References Further reading External links [ Kev Carmody] @ Allmusic Kev Carmody @ Discogs "From Little Things Big Things Grow" on Australian Screen 1946 births Living people APRA Award winners ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Australian male singers Australian people of Irish descent Indigenous Australian musicians Members of the Stolen Generations University of Queensland alumni University of Southern Queensland alumni People from Cairns Queensland Greats
5332448	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20Health%20Resource%20Centre	Urban Health Resource Centre	The Urban Health Resource Centre (UHRC) is a non-government organization in India that works towards improved the health, nutrition, well-being and social organization among poor urban communities. Established in 2005 in New Delhi, UHRC works in Indore, Agra and Delhi. UHRCO works through demand-supply improvement, community-provider linkages, and demonstration programs The UHRC's demonstration programs utilize community organizing to establish women's community groups consisting of slum-dwelling women who advocate for community-level infrastructure improvements. History UHRC was established in 2005 as a registered non-profit company under India's Companies Act, 1956 Its startup was supported by USAID between 2004 and 2005, but as of 2009, the UHRC no longer receives USAID financial support. Demonstration projects UHRC implements demonstration programs among slum-dwelling populations with the intention that they be adapted, replicated and up-scaled by other government and non-government agencies. These demonstration programs focus simultaneously on community empowerment to enhance demand for services and on working with the service providers to improve supply side responsiveness to meet the increased demand. Since slum-dwellers are usually not connected to the mainstream population, part of the UHRC's ground work involves proactive community mobilization, encouragement and outreach to identify vulnerable populations and facilitate their connection to social and economic sector service providers such as healthcare, living environment services, house improvement services and employment programs. Community groups UHRC programs facilitate the formation of women's and children's groups to strengthen the social cohesion in slums and to address gender inequity. The program works toward building their capacity to take charge of processes that affect family economics, health, education, nutrition, housing improvement and overall social wellbeing. UHRC provides targeted trainings and workshops to community groups on topics such as (a) acquiring knowledge, (b) building negotiations skills and, (c) interfacing with diverse government agencies to improve slum living environments and access to health, nutrition and social entitlements. Slum communities in UHRC program cities participate in health education and promotion sessions facilitated by UHRC field workers on topics such as maternal and child health, nutrition, hygiene, and environmental health. As the number of community groups in a local region reaches a critical mass, they are networked into a larger congress called a “federation” or cluster-team of women's groups, consisting of democratically agreed-upon representatives from each group. Cluster-level congresses of women's groups and slum-level groups receive regular supervision, mentoring support and materials (such as steel containers to store registers, charts, behaviour promotion materials, floor mats to sit during meetings) from UHRC teams to carry out meetings and activities working towards improved health and well-being. UHRC partners with participating community groups and federations to help them access available services, schemes and resources. Groups and cluster-team members are also coached on negotiation skills and provided trainings on how to effectively negotiate with healthcare providers and other civic authorities through dialogue and formal applications to obtain health services and environmental services such as road paving, drain installation, sanitation/water infrastructure, garbage removal, and other entitlements. Along with running the demonstration programs, UHRC also provides technical support to the government (at national, provincial, and city levels) and non-government agencies in the form of research, advocacy, and knowledge dissemination. Additionally, the UHRC central and field offices provides trainings, internships, and volunteer options for students from different universities in India and abroad. All interns and volunteers, who in the past eight years have included Masters and PhD students, have learnt from field based participatory action research in UHRC's program sites. UHRC programs Health outreach, service access, and behavior promotion Through workshops and training sessions, women's groups are encouraged to begin promoting healthy practices and health seeking behaviors in their communities, such as going to the hospital when a woman goes into labor. This process involves training women's group members to become social health activists so they can conduct preventive and promotive health workshops and sessions for their peers. An aspect of this training is encouraging women's group members to promote cultural and religious traditions that are relevant to their communities, while incorporating educational curriculums surrounding proper hygiene and healthy behaviors for new mothers. One example is that UHRC women's groups often hold group Annaprashan ceremonies (a ceremony wherein a child is first fed food other than milk), incorporating curriculums surrounding ante-natal child care. UHRC also trains group members on reaching out to private and public healthcare providers such as Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) and Anganwadi centers to run health camps in their communities. At the 13th World Congress on Public Health, the UHRC reported improvements in slum residents’ access to health services and information and adoption of healthy behaviors in intervention areas. Furthermore, they noted that as of 2009, 70% of children in intervention areas were completely immunized as opposed to 28% in areas that had not yet developed UHRC programs. In addition to advocacy and education, UHRC women's groups also play a direct role in linking women in urban slums to health services. Women's group members frequently escort married adolescent migrant girls to hospitals for safer deliveries when they go into labor, and to ante-natal services which they may not otherwise be familiar with. Collective savings/social resilience funds Once groups have developed a regular meeting schedule and have undertaken some basic health outreach activities, the UHRC proposes to groups that they could form a collective savings fund. These collective savings funds are essentially a method of risk pooling. Groups decide upon a certain monthly or weekly contribution that each member needs to make to grow their fund. All contributions to the pool are recorded by a treasurer who is elected by the group. The women are facilitated to establish standards for mutual accountability. The UHRC aids in establishing a record keeping system and in training the women to keep these records up to date – trainings cover how to track and record collective savings, loans given from the savings pool, interest received along with the principal amount, and essential elements of managing savings and loans. When a member or even a non-member family is in need of a loan, women's groups can provide low to zero interest loans (for example one group in Agra, Saraswati Mahila Swasth Samiti, has adopted a 2% interest rate). Collecting payments, managing the fund, and administering all loans is facilitated by women's group members with support from UHRC's team members. These funds play a crucial role in reducing the burden of health care costs on poor families, particularly during health emergencies. Loans are given for a variety of needs: a) Maternal and Child Health, b) Health emergencies, c) Prevention of school drop-outs, d) House improvements, e) Food insecurity, f) Expansion of small enterprises, g) Repaying debts from money-lender, and h) Social and family expenditures. Petition writing and infrastructure improvement As groups bring municipal problems forward, the UHRC will suggest that communities begin writing applications and letters to service providers, and holds trainings and workshops where group members can practice writing applications and learn about the importance of making and filing copies of all applications and letters that submitted. Field workers encourage groups to write highly specific, concrete requests that focus on a single issue rather than multiple issues to increase chances of success. They are also encouraged to have all members sign each request or petition to show consensus. Usually the first few petitions or letters written are followed by a period of struggle or stagnancy. Municipal service providers and government officials tend to be initially unresponsive and uncooperative. Group members are therefore trained to write reminders following up on requests and to seek formal receipts from civic authorities for any communications sent. For example, group members are trained to send reminders through the government postal system, which automatically provides receipts to senders. Women's groups also learn to recruit the support of democratically elected ward representatives who can help in interfacing with municipal corporations. Field workers guide group members to start by pursuing simple tasks, such as getting a street drain cleaned, before moving on to more ambitious projects such as road paving and water supply installation. Social awareness and advocacy UHRC women's groups have also begun organizing rallies around community needs, such as ousting alcohol vendors to disincentivize alcoholism, demonstrating against gambling to protect household finances, advocating against domestic violence, or organizing public health advocacy campaigns. Groups have also orchestrated sit ins at government offices to urge them to be responsive to community needs and requests by providing services, such as slum street paving, drain installation, water supply and sewage system installation, health and nutrition services, food security services, widows pensions. Government scheme awareness and application support Through engagement with its target populations in Indore, Agra, and Delhi, the UHRC began focusing its efforts on helping slum residents attain proper identification documentation. Slum residents, and particularly migrant adolescents living within urban slums, who do not have proper documentation face barriers such as ineligibility for government welfare programs and education scholarships as well as housing insecurity. The UHRC assists women's group members to learn about and apply for various forms of picture ID, voter ID, proof-of-address, and other documentation. Research and Knowledge Sharing One area of research for the UHRC has been aimed at catalyzing local urban governments to recognize yet unlisted slums. Censuses often exclude the homeless and informal urban settlements as such settlements are often built on land that is not legally owned by the residents. An analysis of five Indian cities conducted by the UHRC through field work and review of local records kept by UHRC community groups showed that 40% of slums were unlisted and thus not recognized by local governments. Further analysis revealed that unlisted slum residents made up about 36% of all slum residents in these cities. "Slum enumeration" techniques used by the UHRC rely on slum community members to draw upon their knowledge of their communities and to reach out to other households in their slum to collect information for the enumeration. Such activities and relationship building allow UHRC community groups to document additional information such as income flows, and make decisions about which slum-improvement initiatives to prioritize. Datasets and analyses of existing data generated by the UHRC have been used by UN organizations including the WHO and UN-Habitat. The UHRC's disaggregation and analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) was highlighted in the WHO's "Hidden Cities" report. Using India's National Family Health Survey (NFHS) dataset (an adaptation of DHS), the UHRC conducted an analysis of the poorest quartile of urban residents as compared to the rest of the urban population in Indian cities. David Satterthwaite in his Editorial in Environment and Urbanization 2011 highlights the significance of UHRC's research. He states that UHRC's research provides "evidence of the lack of attention to the health of the urban poor. For instance, in 2004–2005, the under-five mortality rate of the poorest urban quartile in many states in India was two to three times that of the rest of the urban population. The evidence also points to considerable differences between states in this regard. The poorest urban quartile in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, had an under-five mortality rate more than double that of the poorest urban quartile in Maharashtra. The analysis revealed that the under-five mortality rate among the poorest quartile of urban residents in many provinces in India was nearly three times higher than for the rest of the urban population. Inter-provincial disparities also exist with Uttar Pradesh's under-five mortality more than twice as high as that of Maharashtra. The analysis also showed that among the poorest quartile: 60% of children had not completed immunization regiments and around 50% suffered from undernutrition, about half of all births were not assisted by health workers, less than 20% had a direct water supply, and more than half did not use a flush or pit toilet to dispose of waste.Sattherthwaite also stresses that UHRC's research exposes the "scale of health disadvantages experienced by the poorest quartile of India’s urban population and the large disparities in provision of health care, water and sanitation and in housing conditions in the urban population of seven states, between the poorest quartile and the rest of the population." This work has been referenced in numerous publications including UNICEF's State of the World's Children 2012 report. The UHRC also has a history of collaboration with Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health to generate research on maternal and newborn health in slums and to assess the efficacy/implementation of existing interventions. One such collaboration revealed that factors affecting mothers' compliance with birth preparedness and complication readiness (BPACR) include maternal literacy and the use of antenatal services. . Another collaboration demonstrated the significance of the "human touch method" (HT) to detect hypothermia in neonates in Indian slum dwellings. The HT method was compared to axillary digital thermometry (ADT) and the results showed that while HT had moderate diagnostic accuracy when compared with ADT, it was simpler and more programmatically feasible as an early assessment of newborn sickness, freeing up field workers to focus on counseling mothers rather than managing technology. A third collaboration research with Bloomberg and King George Medical University, India surveyed women who gave birth in the three years preceding the survey. Results showed that 60% of pregnancies were registered with a health facility, and of these, only one quarter were registered with a government facility. Early registration facilitates early and frequent checkups during pregnancy and immediately after pregnancy and allows timely screening for complications. The survey showed that the low rate of government registrations was likely a result of poor-functioning public facilities, short-staffing of female doctors, poor referral systems, long queues, and impolite treatment towards slum women. Policy advocacy & technical support to government/NGOs In 2004, prior to its renaming from USAID-EHP to the Urban Health Resource Centre, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare designated UHRC as “the nodal technical agency for ‘Urban Health Programme’”. In this capacity, the UHRC’s role has been to “provide further assistance to State Governments in formulating urban health proposals and to provide concrete examples for planning of health care delivery to the urban poor in different categories of cities”. This technical assistance included recommendations for goals and objectives of the Urban Health Program, coverage criteria, and a workflow for the development of urban health proposals by cities eligible for support from the Ministry of Health The UHRC also played a key role in shaping the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM), a sub-mission to the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) launched in 2013, intended to consolidate, focus, and expand the Government of India's initiatives for addressing the needs of the urban poor which were formerly operated under the NRHM. Since its renaming to the UHRC, the organization has continued in its capacity of providing technical assistance to State Governments within India as they propose and execute urban health projects. An example of the UHRC's role in supporting state governments is its role in helping the Uttrakhand Health & Family Welfare Society to develop its Program Implementation Plan (PIP) under the National Rural Health Mission. Under the PIP, the UHRC's New Delhi location was selected to run Urban Health Centres (UHCs) aimed at providing health care and support in slum communities and regularized outreach camps to vulnerable urban populations. The UHRC's functions include coordinating NGO functionaries and collaborators and providing training to their staffs to help run UHCs, conducting GIS mapping of cities and slums to determine the most effective locations to place UHCs, and developing and piloting guidelines for women's group programs through its experience in its other program cities such as Indore and Agra. Key activities of UHCs include providing maternal and child healthcare, providing antenatal and postnatal care, providing immunizations for newborns and children, care coordination through collaboration with other NGOs, behavior change education with regards to health and sanitation, resource awareness education for slum-dwelling families, and community capacity building through collective action initiatives. Recognition and awards UHRC's initiative, Resolve-Flight-Zest (Sankalp-Umang-Udaan) for Education, was recognized in Aug 2017 by South Asia Education Summit with an award in the category "Innovative Strategy for Equitable access to Children's Eductation in Cities". http://ictpost.com/3rd- edition-of-south-Asia- education-summit-award-2017/ See also Community health References External links Urban Health Resource Centre Editorial in Environment and Urbanization 2011 External links Official website Medical and health organisations based in India
5332461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllis%20Seckler	Phyllis Seckler	Phyllis Evalina Seckler (18 June 1917 – 31 May 2004), also known as Soror Meral, an American occultist and writer. She was a ninth degree (IX°) member of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the Gnosis of Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), and a lineage holder in the A∴A∴ tradition. She was a student of Jane Wolfe, herself a student of Aleister Crowley. She was a member of O.T.O. Agape Lodge, the only working Lodge of the O.T.O. at the time of Aleister Crowley's death. Seckler was also instrumental in preserving important parts of Crowley's literary heritage, typing parts of his Confessions, and the complete texts of The Vision and the Voice and Magick Without Tears during the 1950s. Seckler was also instrumental in re-activing the O.T.O. with Grady Louis McMurtry, during the early-mid 1970s, following the death of Crowley's appointed successor, Karl Germer. Seckler continued her lifelong work with the A∴A∴, founding the College of Thelema and co-founding (with James A. Eshelman) the Temple of Thelema, and later warranting the formation of the Temple of the Silver Star. For 25 years she published the bi-annual Thelemic journal In the Continuum. Seckler served as a master of 418 Lodge of O.T.O. in California from its inception in 1979 until her death. Early life Youth: 1917–1939 Seckler was born in Edmonton, Canada on 18 June 1917. Her family moved to California when she was only about four years of age, as her father had lost a political bid for mayor of Edmonton and had gone deeply into debt for that. After graduation from high school in Los Angeles, she had a year of work in a Junior College and then another year of work to fit her to be a stenographer. She then got a job with a bank and attended drama classes in Hollywood conducted by Regina Kahl who was a member of Ordo Templi Orientis. She attended The Gnostic Mass written by Crowley and met Wilfred Talbot Smith and actress Jane Wolfe. She joined the O.T.O. in August 1939 and on 6 June, of 1940, became a Probationer of the A∴A∴ under Jane Wolfe, who had studied with Crowley in Cefalu. O.T.O. Agape Lodge: 1939–1944 Agape Lodge No. 1, founded by Wilfred Smith in 1935, was based in Hollywood, and initially had 7 initiates to the Minerval level. The lodge held regular meetings, lectures, and study classes, as well as social events and a weekly Gnostic Mass open to the public. On 6 June 1939 Seckler, and other individuals who attended drama classes, including Louis T. Culling and Roy Leffingwell were brought in by Regina Kahl who worked as a drama teacher. Kahl was a drama teacher at Los Angeles City College and the program was under the auspices of the W.P.A. to put people to work during the depression years. Since Kahl had been on the stage many times and had studied her drama parts for opera, she knew quite a lot about theatre. Seckler joined her class in January 1937 as she was bored with her job in the bank and found that it was quite a challenge to memorize her parts and to put on the skits and small plays which Kahl had asked of the class. She often mentioned matters having to do with Thelema and quotes from Crowley. Near the end of the semester, Regina Kahl decided to put on a small play in the attic of the house on 1746 Winona Boulevard where the Gnostic Mass was held. They had a dais with 3 steps and curtains and Kahl decided that this could be used for a play. About five of Kahl's students worked on presenting the play. It was a warm evening June evening and Seckler walked through the dark with some anticipation to the evening's entertainment. Seckler joined the crowd and soon their group went upstairs to the second floor and thence to the attic of the house and heard the play with a good deal of enjoyment. Afterwards, they went down to the living room and were entertained with refreshments and good conversation. Again the invitation to the Mass was given. Then Wilfred Talbot Smith quoted some Crowley's poetry. Seckler was attracted by an atmosphere and took the occasion to attend the Gnostic Mass several times that summer, often with Paul Seckler who later became her husband, or another friend. Other Agape lodge members included rocket scientist Jack Parsons, his wife Helen Parsons, L. Ron Hubbard and Helen Parson's sister Sara Northrup who he later married. Seckler made a friend of Ron Hubbard, as well as becoming friends with Wilfred Smith. She subsequently moved into the large house rented by the O.T.O. at 1003 South Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena, where many of the lodge members, including Hubbard, were living as a form of commune and raising livestock and vegetables in the grounds. Art and teaching: 1945—1947 Seckler studied Art and graduated with honors and an M.A. from the University of California in Los Angeles. After she had her teaching credential for Art, she taught in a Northern California High School for 20 years. About three years after the start of her job, Jane Wolfe died and left all of her papers and books to Seckler. Also, during those years, Seckler focused on her work in the A.·.A.·. and became a good friend of Karl Germer who was a friend of Jane Wolfe and at the time lived in New Jersey working as a merchant of machinery. Their friendship had started by correspondence. During Seckler's years as a teacher, Karl Germer, who was in continuous correspondence with her, oversaw the work of her degree. She later met Marcelo Motta who was introduced to her by Germer and wrote to him but his letters showed a dictatorial attitude towards her. Later life Rescue of Crowley literary remains: 1947–1969 Crowley died on 1 December 1947. Agape Lodge, of which Seckler was a long-standing member, was the only working Lodge of the O.T.O. at that time. At the time of Crowley's death, many of his important manuscripts had yet to be located, stored as they were in different locations with different followers, and many were yet unpublished. Karl Germer, who was appointed Crowley's successor, became the Outer Head of the Order (O.H.O.) and started working on preservation of Crowley's literary remains. In his capacity of Grand Treasurer General, Germer was sent 3 tons of materials from England. He moved these literary materials to a house in Hampton, New Jersey, where he set up a dedicated library and began the work of filing and record keeping. Before the materials had been sent to the United States, copies of everything in manuscript form had been made in England. Afterwards Germer and Gerald Yorke collaborated on sending each other a copy of anything that Crowley had written which the other did not have. Yorke intended to leave the Crowley papers in his possession to the British Museum. There was also a third person in England who obtained many copies of various of Crowley's writings. Yorke later sent much of his collection to the Warburg Institute in London where it is currently housed. Seckler was unaware that there were copies made and many of her actions and concerns were based on the belief that there was only one copy extant of Crowley's unpublished writings. It was due to Germer's effort and that of Israel Regardie and a few others that Crowley's work was preserved and published. In 1951, when Germer was in Hampton, New Jersey, Seckler wrote about her concern that some of the unpublished works of Crowley might be lost unless some copies were made. He agreed about her concern and the upshot of this correspondence was that Seckler began to type copies. During the summer of 1951, she typed part of the Confessions. During the summer of 1952, she typed The Vision and the Voice with all its complicated notes in the text. Her knowledge of the Qabalah enabled her to spot typist errors in the manuscripts. The third summer she typed Magick Without Tears. The two later typings which were done on multilith plates, were sent to Germer in Hampton, and there he had the assistance of two devoted members of O.T.O. to make reproductions. Germer was deeply grateful for Seckler's labour and efforts and gifted Seckler with Crowley's material which at the time was hard to find. In 1954, soon after Magick Without Tears. was printed, Germer retired from his job in New Jersey and moved to California. He had been living in New Jersey for about seven years and at first did not have a regular base of operations in California. This was Germer's concern and for some time he was trying to find decent headquarters where he could continue with publishing Crowley's. After about 2 years he found a house in West Point, California. He then set up the Head Office of the O.T.O. there and put together the library which had been packed away while he was moving. Trying to preserve Crowley's work, he engaged himself in sending Crowley's writings to various publishers. Germer’s death: 1962 Germer died in late October 1962 and the will he made to dispose of Crowley's literary remains provided that all of the Crowley materials should go to the Heads of the Ordo Templi Orientis, carrying hereditary rights. Sascha Germer and Frederick Mellinger of the Swiss O.T.O. were appointed to act as executors of the will. All Germer's personal property was to be left to Sascha. After Germer's death, Germer's widow became very suspicious and could not place the materials in any place suited to their importance. Seckler was almost the first one to be informed by Germer's widow of his death. A correspondence was begun between Germer's widow and Frederick Mellinger, but Mellinger would not come to California to help with the disposal of Germer's library. Soon after this, Mellinger died and Sascha was left with the task of discovering what to do about Germer library, correspondence and other materials. Knowing that Sascha Germer could not fulfill the task of securing Germer's library, Seckler asked for help from 'higher planes' and was reportedly instructed clearly to help Sascha secure Crowley's literary remains. One of Seckler's other instructions, which she later passed on to Sascha, was that she was not to let anyone in Southern California hear of Germer's death. Intuitively, Seckler was alarmed that the materials should be guarded only by Germer's widow and felt that something was terribly wrong in South California. The Germer Estate robbery: 1967 By 1967, the news of Germer's death had spread to Southern California. The upshot of this was that a group of people turned up at the Germer estate, which served as the headquarters of O.T.O. during Karl Germer's life. They told Germer's widow that they were members of O.T.O. and she fell for the trick and opened the door. Immediately they blew gas in her face, overpowered her, and administered some sort of shot which put her out completely. They then robbed Germer's library on the second floor of the house. The local sheriff was called to Germer's house and a report was made. In 1967, Seckler was informed that there had been a theft of items that were considered a part of O.T.O. heritage material from Germer's house. Sascha Germer was robbed of some of the most important documents and accused Seckler's child Stella of taking them. Since this was an outright fabrication, Seckler decided to find who the thieves might be. During the course of her investigation she wrote to various people, discovering the whereabouts of former Agape Lodge members, including her female friend who had been very active in Thelema for many years and had many students. She visited Seckler to let her know about some thefts from her own apartment by one of her trusted students after her husband's death in the summer of 1965. A year later Israel Regardie's library was also subjected to thievery by the same group of people when Regardie was absent. The last robbery was of Germer's house in West Point. It was later discovered that the robberies were carried out by the members of an organisation who called themselves The Solar Lodge. They later got themselves into trouble (The Boy in the Box (Vidal, California)) and the organisation was closed down by the FBI. Rescue of O.T.O. heritage: 1975 Germer's widow Sascha died on 1 April 1975, but Seckler only heard about it a year later. Helen Parsons Smith and Seckler drove to Germer's house in West Point in late April 1976 and discovered that Sascha had been dead for a year and that the house had been vandalised three times or more since her death, as it was almost impossible to lock it up properly. While the 1967 robbery and subsequent events caused some damage, part of Germer's library had survived. The Crowley archive was recovered from the Germer estate during the summer of 1976 after the rights were finally transferred to O.T.O. and it was later moved to a storage facility in California. The contents included Crowley manuscripts, surviving catalogues of Crowley typescripts and memorabilia. Re-establishing O.T.O. 1969–1978 During her investigation of the robbery of Germer's library, Seckler began corresponding with Grady McMurtry who resided in Washington, D.C. at the time. As a result of their lengthy correspondence from Dec. of 1968 to April 1969, McMurtry left his job in Washington, D. C. and travelled to California, arriving there on 29 April 1969. McMurtry learned from her for the first time that Germer had been dead for several years. Seckler learned that McMurtry, who had met Crowley, held letters of authorization from Crowley in regards to the O.T.O. The meeting occurred when McMurtry was a young Lieutenant in the American forces, serving in England during World War II. Crowley appears to have anticipated that Germer might not appoint a successor. In those letters Crowley named him as Caliph and successor to Germer, authorising McMurtry to take charge of the O.T.O. in case of emergency. Seckler later re-activated the Order with McMurtry (Frater Hymenaeus Alpha) by invoking his "emergency powers" to reconstitute the order, which had flagged following Germer's death. McMurtry and Seckler were both longstanding members of the O.T.O. Due to the combined efforts of McMurtry and Seckler, O.T.O. was incorporated under California law and began to grow in North America for the first time since Crowley's death. 418 Lodge: 1979–2004 Under her pen name Soror Meral, Seckler served as a Master of 418 Lodge of O.T.O. in California from its inception in 1979 until her death. The College of Thelema Seckler founded The College of Thelema. She was co-founder (with James A. Eshelman & Anna-Kria King) of the Temple of Thelema. Both organisations have a course of studies devised by Seckler to make it easier for aspirants to A∴A∴ succeed in the A∴A∴ system. The Temple of the Silver Star Prior to her death, Seckler warranted the founding of the Temple of the Silver star as an autonomous continuation of her work. Works Seeking to guide her students to an understanding of the Law of Thelema, especially deeper understanding of oneself and of one's magickal Will, Seckler continually published the bi-annual journal IN THE CONTINUUM which featured her essays on Thelema and initiation, including those from Crowley's Collected Works, as well as instructional articles for the students of the A.:.A.:., illustrations and essays which help to clarify some of Crowley's thoughts and aid in the understanding of Thelemic principles expressed in Liber AL. Printed for nearly 25 years from 1976 through 1996, IN THE CONTINUUM also published rare works by Aleister Crowley which at the time were out of print or hard to find. Empowerment of women Throughout her life Seckler was an outspoken supporter of feminism and a women's rights campaigner who supported working women. She campaigned for the empowerment of women in the Thelemic community with a particular focus on women whose contribution to the Thelemic movement was overlooked. Seckler convinced many women to fight for working rights, reproductive rights, and recognition. She used her skills as a writer to publicise Thelemic women's cause in her bi-annual journal In The Continuum, aiming to raise awareness on important Thelemic matters such as gender equality, often expressing her criticism of certain Thelemic groups who would only accept those women who had social status and good education. During her teaching career, Seckler spent time in poorer parts of Northern California, helping vulnerable gay men and disadvantaged women, including rape victims, who wanted learn about Thelema and Crowley but did not have access to a teacher or the means to purchase the right books. She wished to give opportunities to disadvantaged Thelemites, including those suffering from poverty and illiteracy, inviting them to submit their articles and illustrations for her Thelemic periodical. She also wished to make use of the technology of cinema to make Thelema more accessible to a wider audience; after Seckler's death, a newsreel film about women and the occult based on her work was seen by an estimated 10 million people. See also Great Work Secret Chiefs Marie Stopes Women in the workforce Women's empowerment References Footnotes Bibliography External links College of Thelema and Temple of Thelema Website of 418 Lodge, O.T.O. Temple of the Silver Star 1917 births 2004 deaths American occultists American occult writers American spiritual writers American Thelemites Ceremonial magicians Hermetic Qabalists Members of Ordo Templi Orientis Women mystics
5332514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les%20Aspin	Les Aspin	Leslie Aspin Jr. (July 21, 1938 – May 21, 1995) was an American Democratic Party politician who served as the U.S. representative for Wisconsin's 1st congressional district from 1971 to 1993 and as the 18th United States Secretary of Defense under President Bill Clinton from 1993 to 1994. In Congress, Aspin had a reputation as an intellectual who took a middle-of-the-road position on controversial issues. He supported the Reagan administration regarding the MX missile and aid to the Nicaraguan Contras, but he opposed the B-2 bomber and the Strategic Defense Initiative. He played a major role in convincing the House to support the January 1991 resolution supporting the use of force by President George H. W. Bush against Iraq, after it invaded Kuwait. He faced complex social issues, such as the roles of homosexuals in uniform, and of women in combat, as well as major decisions regarding the use of military force in Somalia, Bosnia, and Haiti. He proposed budget cuts and restructuring of forces as part of the downsizing of the military after the end of the Cold War. The deaths of U.S. soldiers in Somalia because of inadequate military support led to his resignation. Early life and education Aspin was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He graduated from Shorewood High School. He attended Yale University, where he was admitted to the Zeta Psi fraternity, and graduated summa cum laude in 1960 with a Bachelor of Arts in history. Aspin then attended the University of Oxford, where he received his Master of Philosophy in economics in 1962 and his Doctor of Philosophy in economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1966. Aspin met his wife, Maureen Shea, in Saigon during the Vietnam War. Shea, a graduate of Hollins College, was working for a research firm interviewing Vietcong defectors when the two were introduced by a mutual acquaintance. After the project was completed she moved to Wisconsin to work on Aspin's unsuccessful bid for Wisconsin State Treasurer in 1968. The couple became engaged in October 1968 and married in January 1969 in Shea's hometown of Hillsdale, New York. The couple divorced in 1979 and had no children. Aspin served a brief tenure as a congressional staff member for United States Senator William Proxmire. As an officer in the U.S. Army from 1966 to 1968, he served as a systems analyst in the Pentagon under Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara, serving in the Office of Systems Analysis. Before his election as a Democrat to Congress in 1970, Aspin had been active in Wisconsin politics and had taught economics at Marquette University. U.S. Congress Aspin ran as a peace candidate in 1970, opposing the Vietnam War. In the Democratic primary he was opposed by Doug La Follette, who was endorsed by the party. Aspin lost the initial count by a few dozen votes, and initially refused to pay for a recount out of his own pocket. It was only after his Kenosha County campaign director, Edwin M. Andersen, was able to garner financial support from numerous supporters, however, that the legendarily thrifty Aspin then demanded a recount and won the primary, by a few dozen votes. In the general election he defeated the incumbent, Henry Schadeberg. Aspin was elected as a Democrat to the 92nd and to the 11 succeeding Congresses and served from January 3, 1971, until his resignation January 20, 1993. Aspin began his career in the United States House of Representatives as an outsider but honed his particular interest and expertise in defense matters. Before and during his tenure in the House, he had opposed the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. In his early years in Congress, he often issued press releases critical of shortcomings he detected in the armed forces. In 1973, he criticized the Air Force for devising a plan to purchase 200 beagle puppies, tie the dogs' vocal cords, and conduct tests of poisonous gases. After Aspin began a publicity campaign against the Air Force's plan, an outraged public sent a record number of letters to the Defense Department, surpassing the amount ever sent about any other subject. In March 1974, Aspin told an audience at Brown University, including future 4-star General Wesley Clark and four West Point cadets: "You, the young officer and cadets sitting there - never in your lifetimes will you see us intervene abroad. We've learned that lesson." By 1985, when Aspin became chairman of the Armed Services Committee, he was recognized as a leading defense authority. His chairmanship caused controversy among some House Democrats, particularly because he supported the Reagan administration's policies on the MX missile and aid to the Nicaraguan Contras. Although temporarily removed from his committee chair by his Democratic colleagues in January 1987, Aspin weathered the crisis and regained the chairmanship three weeks later. He again broke with many Democrats in January 1991 when he issued a paper supporting the Bush administration's intention to use military force to drive the Iraqis from Kuwait. The accuracy of his prediction that the United States could win a quick military victory with light casualties added to his reputation as a military expert. Secretary of Defense Nomination and confirmation Aspin served as an adviser to Clinton on defense matters during the 1992 presidential campaign. Given Clinton's lack of military experience, appointment of a prominent and respected defense expert to head The Pentagon seemed desirable. Because of his leadership position in the House, Aspin's views on defense issues were well known. He was skeptical about the Strategic Defense Initiative, and favored a smaller Navy, a cut in U.S. troops in Europe, and further reduction of military personnel strength. These positions, along with the assumption that Aspin would work toward a substantial cut in the Defense budget, worried the military. Defense industry leaders applauded Aspin's selection because he favored maintaining a viable defense industrial base. Although questioned extensively, Aspin won easy confirmation in the Senate. Agenda and early difficulties "Shortly after he took office, Aspin discussed dangers that had emerged with the end of the Cold War: the uncertainty that reform could succeed in the former Soviet Union; the enhanced possibility that terrorists or terrorist states could acquire nuclear weapons; the likely proliferation of regional conflicts; and the failure to take adequate account of the impact of the state of the domestic economy on U.S. national security interests. Given these conditions and the end of the Cold War, it seemed clear that the Pentagon was entering a period of potentially profound change. Aspin looked like a sound choice to manage this change. As it turned out, Aspin faced difficulties from the beginning. A serious heart ailment put him in the hospital for several days in February 1993, after barely a month in office. A month later he was back in the hospital for implantation of a heart pacemaker. Even so, he had to deal immediately with the highly charged question of homosexuals in the military, a controversy left over from his predecessor Dick Cheney's tenure. That had become an issue in the 1992 campaign, when Clinton had promised to end discrimination against homosexuals. During his confirmation hearings Aspin indicated that he would take action quickly, and on entering office he presented a plan to the president to discuss the matter with Congress and the Joint Chiefs of Staff and presented a timetable leading to an order dealing with the matter. This plan provoked widespread protest from all sides on the issue." Gender and sexuality in the military The fallout from the controversy wounded both Clinton and Aspin politically and dragged on until December 1993, when, after many months of equivocation, confusion, and more controversy, Aspin released new regulations, known as the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy on homosexual conduct in the armed forces: Applicants for the services would not be asked about their sexual orientation, and homosexual orientation would not disqualify anyone from service "unless manifested by homosexual conduct"; military personnel would be judged on suitability for service, not sexual orientation; separation from the service would be based on homosexual acts, same sex marriage, or statements by an individual that he or she was bisexual or homosexual, with the person accorded the opportunity to rebut the presumption of homosexual acts; DoD criminal investigation or law enforcement organizations would not investigate solely to determine a service member's sexual orientation, and sexual orientation questions would not be included in personnel security questionnaires; finally, service members would be informed of DoD policy on sexual conduct during their training. This compromise policy, issued after an agonizing and divisive public debate, did not completely satisfy any of the concerned parties. Also on the social side, Aspin had to deal with the volatile question of service women in combat. In April 1993 he announced a revised policy on the assignment of women in the armed forces: The services were to allow women to compete for assignments in combat aircraft; the Navy was to open additional ships to women and draft a proposal for Congress to remove existing legislative barriers to the assignment of women to combat vessels; and the Army and Marine Corps were to look for opportunities for women to serve in such components as field artillery and air defense. (This was a response to recommendations made by an ad hoc committee chaired by Barbara S. Pope appointed in the wake of the Tailhook scandal.) Meanwhile, Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall became the first woman service secretary. Defense budget and "bottom-up review" Development of the Defense budget for FY 1994, beginning on 1 October 1993, remained Aspin's biggest task. The budget process proved more complicated than usual, owing to Clinton's campaign pledge to reduce DoD funding and to a "bottom-up review" of the military structure ordered by Aspin shortly after he took office. The end of the Cold War and the consequent opportunity to cut military costs clearly called for the kind of reevaluation of ends and means that the bottom-up review might contribute. A Pentagon steering group chaired by Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and Technology) John M. Deutch and including representatives from various OSD offices, the Joint Staff, and the services conducted the review. Because of the growing threat of regional conflicts, Aspin wanted to have a strong capability to carry out limited military operations, including peacekeeping, and to maintain "a strong peacetime presence of U.S. forces around the world". The bottom-up review report, which Aspin released in September 1993, took into account strategy formulation, force structure, weapon systems modernization, and Defense infrastructure. The report projected a reduced force structure still capable of fighting and winning two simultaneous major regional conflicts. Forces would include 10 active Army divisions; 11 carrier battle groups, 45 to 55 attack submarines, and about 345 ships; 5 active Marine brigades; and 13 active and 7 reserve Air Force fighter wings. The report also called for additional prepositioned equipment and airlift/sealift capacity, improved anti-armor and precision-guided munitions, and enhanced Army National Guard combat brigade readiness. The conclusions of the bottom-up review influenced the development of the FY 1994 Defense budget, although detailed work on the budget had begun as soon as Aspin took office. In March 1993 Aspin introduced a FY 1994 budget proposal costing $263.4 billion, about $12 billion below current levels, and reflecting cuts in the military services similar to those later included in the bottom-up review. To some critics of high military spending, Aspin's budget plan differed little from that of the Bush administration. In the fall of 1993 Aspin began to tell the White House that the five-year Defense budget, reflecting the results of the bottom-up review, would exceed the more than $1 trillion projected by the Clinton administration. In December 1993 he put the anticipated shortfall at no less than $50 billion, the consequence of inaccurate inflation estimates, a military pay raise, and failure to account for other Pentagon costs, including peacekeeping operations. The size of the force needed to meet the two regional wars scenario contributed to the projected budget shortfall. Furthermore, Aspin was on record as favoring the use of U.S. troops in regional conflicts, as opposed to other decisionmakers, including General Colin Powell, chairman of the JCS. Aspin's departure from office early in 1994 left further decisions on the Defense budget to his successor. The final FY 1994 budget amounted to a little under $252 billion in total obligational authority. Like his predecessors Carlucci and Cheney, Aspin faced the perennial issue of base closures, which could also affect the Defense budget. In March 1993 he released a plan to close an additional 31 large military installations and to shrink or consolidate 134 other sites, projecting a savings of over $3 billion a year beginning in 2000. A new Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission approved the proposal, which went into effect when Congress accepted it as a package. The SDI program also held important budget implications. In May 1993 Aspin announced "the end of the Star Wars era," explaining that the collapse of the Soviet Union had determined the fate of SDI. He renamed the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and established its priorities as theater and national missile defense and useful follow-on technologies. Aspin's assignment of responsibility for BMDO to the under secretary of defense (acquisition and technology) signified the downgrading of the program. Global crises and initiatives While seeking solutions to the complex budget and force structure issues, Aspin found himself beset with difficult regional problems and conflicts that demanded decisions and action. In NATO he pushed the U.S.-sponsored "Partnership for Peace" program to bring together NATO members and nonmembers for military activities, including training maneuvers, equipment sharing, search and rescue, antiterrorist efforts, environmental cleanup, and peacekeeping operations. At a meeting in Brussels in December 1993 the NATO defense ministers agreed to consider for future alliance membership those non-NATO nations that participated in the program. Russian President Boris Yeltsin warned that attempts to bring Eastern European nations into NATO would threaten his country's strategic interests and endanger hopes for the former Soviet bloc's reconciliation with the West. Yeltsin argued that enlarging NATO would reawaken old Russian concerns about encirclement and possibly weaken the cause of democratic reform. The unstable situation in Haiti, where elected president Jean-Bertrand Aristide had been ousted from office by the military in September 1991, presented another regional problem. The United States pressured the military government to restore Aristide. In July 1993, the Haitian military regime agreed to reinstate Aristide by October 30, 1993, but then refused to step down. In October, in an effort Clinton approved even though Aspin opposed it, the United States sent the carrying 200 troops to Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital. Met by a hostile mob of armed Haitians, the ship turned away without attempting to undertake its mission, which the Pentagon described as an effort to professionalize the Haitian military and undertake civil assistance projects. Some observers attacked Aspin for not taking a harder stand in the administration against an action he opposed and then aborting the effort in the face of local opposition. During Aspin's term the U.S. was concerned that Communist North Korea might have underway a nuclear weapons development program. This gave way to alarm when that country refused to allow full inspection of nuclear sites. In November 1993 North Korea demanded that the United States and South Korea cancel a planned joint training exercise as a precondition during discussions on the nuclear issue. Aspin rejected this demand and announced that the United States would suspend plans to withdraw its troops gradually from the peninsula. In the Persian Gulf area, Iraq remained a problem. In June 1993 two U.S. Navy ships fired Tomahawk missiles against the headquarters building of Iraq's intelligence service in Baghdad in response to evidence of a plot to assassinate former President Bush during a visit to Kuwait. Aspin described the attack as a "wake up call" for Saddam Hussein. Two months later Aspin received a report on the U.S. military performance during the 1991 Gulf War, the result of a study undertaken by the House Armed Services Committee when he chaired it. The report concluded that the U.S. Central Command had greatly exaggerated damage done to Iraqi military equipment, such as tanks and naval vessels, by air strikes. Aspin also had to consider the question of health problems of U.S. service personnel who participated in the action against Iraq. He announced that a preliminary review disclosed no connection between chemical weapon agents and the reported health problems. Nevertheless, he formed a panel of outside experts to examine the issue further. The worsening crisis in Bosnia commanded attention and demanded some kind of U.S. response. Aspin did not favor using ground forces to intervene in the civil war involving the Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, and Croats, but thought that the use of sophisticated weapons was a more reasonable option. Eventually the administration decided on an airdrop of humanitarian aid, even though Aspin did not favor the plan. Somalia turned out to be Aspin's biggest headache. A civil war involving various clans had engulfed the country since 1991. Direct U.S. involvement, begun in August 1992, provided food through a military airlift and other means to the people of Somalia. In December 1992, shortly before Aspin became secretary of defense, the United States joined a new Unified Task Force (UNITAF) to provide security as well as food relief. The United States sent 26,000 troops to Somalia to join about 13,000 others from more than 20 nations. UNITAF, operating until May 1993, restored order in Somalia and distributed food widely. In March 1993, United Nations Operation in Somalia II began in an effort to create conditions to enable the Somalis to rebuild the country. The United States cut its troops in Somalia to some 4,000 and then added 400 Army Rangers in August 1993. At that time, confronting criticism at home that the United States was getting more deeply involved in the factional violence in Somalia without a clear rationale, Aspin explained that U.S. troops would remain until order had been restored in Mogadishu, Somalia's capital, progress had been made in disarming rival clans, and effective police forces were operating in the country's major cities. At the same time the United States increased its military efforts against a leading Somali warlord, Mohamed Farrah Aidid. Criticism and final days in office In September 1993, General Powell asked Aspin to approve the request of the U.S. commander in Somalia for tanks, armored vehicles and AC-130 Spectre gunships for his forces. Aspin turned down the request and did not take Powell's request seriously. At some point during a lunch meeting, Powell presented to Aspin on the need of additional tanks, armored vehicles, AC-130 Spectre gunships air-support to support the U.S. Troops that were about to be deployed for Battle of Mogadishu and, discussing the battle preparation instead of paying attention to Powell's recommendation, Aspin caused Powell to grow more irritated. This was believed to be the primary reason for Powell's early departure as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Shortly thereafter Aidid's forces in Mogadishu killed 18 U.S. soldiers and wounded more than 75 in attacks that also resulted in the shooting down of two U.S. helicopters and the capture of one pilot in the Battle of Mogadishu. In the face of severe congressional criticism, Aspin admitted that in view of what had happened he had made a mistake, but stated that the request for armored equipment had been made within the context of delivering humanitarian aid to Somalia rather than protecting troops. In an appearance before a congressional committee to answer questions about the Somalia disaster, Aspin made an unfavorable impression and appeared weak in response to the detailed probing and criticism of his performance. The president publicly defended Aspin but made clear that the White House was not involved in the decision not to send armor reinforcements to Somalia. Several members of Congress called on Clinton to ask for Aspin's resignation. On 15 December 1993 President Clinton announced Aspin's resignation, for personal reasons. Given the problems that Aspin encountered during his short term, most obviously the losses in Mogadishu, observers assumed that the president had asked him to step down. Speculation in the media centered on the Somalia embarrassment and on Aspin's differences with the Office of Management and Budget over how much the Defense budget should be cut. The secretary's health problems may well have also been a factor. One news magazine stated that Aspin's major handicap was "neither his famously unmilitary bearing nor his inability to discipline himself or the enormous Pentagon bureaucracy; it is his politician's instinct for the middle ground on defense issues." Aspin continued to serve as Secretary of Defense until February 3, 1994, when William Perry took office. After Aspin's resignation, a number of observers would come to his defense about his job performance. This included Newsweek, who said the real fault for the events in Somalia lay with the United Nations. Final months and death After leaving his position, Aspin joined the faculty of Marquette University's international affairs program in Washington and joined the board of directors of the Washington-based think-tank the Henry L. Stimson Center. In March, he became a member of the Commission on Roles and Missions, and in May Clinton chose him to be chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board. In March 1995, he began work as chairman of the study group on the Roles and Capabilities of the Intelligence Community (Aspin–Brown Commission). Aspin had had increasing difficulty during the last years of his life with a congenital heart condition (asymmetric septal hypertrophy; hypertrophic cardiomyopathy/obstructive cardiomyopathy). It necessitated hospitalization during his tenure as Defense Secretary, with placement of a pacemaker. His cardiac disorder was complicated in May 1995 by a stroke, which resulted in his death on May 21, 1995, in Washington, D.C. He was interred at Brookfield's Wisconsin Memorial Park cemetery. Marquette University named its Les Aspin Center for Government in his honor. Electoral history U.S. House (1970–1992) References Further reading Aspin, Les. Defense for a New Era: Lessons of the Persian Gulf War (US House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, 1992) online. External links Marquette University's Les Aspin Center for Government Les Aspin's biography on DefenseLink.mil Interview about the MX missile for the WGBH series, War and Peace in the Nuclear Age \|- \|- \|- 1938 births 1995 deaths 20th-century American economists 20th-century American politicians Alumni of the University of Oxford Economists from Wisconsin Burials in Wisconsin Clinton administration cabinet members Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Wisconsin Military personnel from Wisconsin MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni People from East Troy, Wisconsin People from Shorewood, Wisconsin Politicians from Milwaukee Shorewood High School (Wisconsin) alumni The Stimson Center United States Army officers United States Secretaries of Defense Yale College alumni
5332521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Perth%2C%20Western%20Australia	History of Perth, Western Australia	Perth is the capital city of Western Australia. It was established by Britain as the Swan River Colony in 1829. The area had been explored by Europeans as early as 1697, and occupied by the Indigenous Whadjuk Noongar people for millennia. Perth was established by Captain James Stirling in 1829 as the administrative centre of the Swan River Colony. It gained city status (currently vested in the smaller City of Perth) in 1856 and was promoted to the status of a Lord Mayorality in 1929. The city inherited its name due to the influence of Sir George Murray, then Member of Parliament for Perthshire and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. Perth has been shaped by successive periods of mineral resource-led economic expansion and population growth commencing with the gold rush of the 1890s. Since at least 1966 Perth's growth rate has been continuously higher than the national average. Aboriginal history Before the founding of the Swan River Colony, the indigenous Noongar people were well established in the southwest corner of Western Australia, hunting and gathering. They called the area on which Perth now stands Boorloo. Boorloo formed part of Mooro, the tribal lands of Yellagonga, whose group was one of several based around the Swan River, known collectively as the Whadjuk. Like elsewhere in Australia, Aboriginal occupation of the coastal plain created conditions attractive to European settlement. In many cases colonial settlements and homesteads were located on grounds which Aboriginal people had cultivated with native vegetation cropping and cleared with fire whilst road alignments often followed Aboriginal tracks through the bush. The lakes on the coastal plain were particularly important to the Aboriginal people, providing them with both spiritual and physical sustenance. The swamps to the north of the river provided food, meeting places, shelter, and familiar hunting grounds. Fish, turtles, oysters, crabs, birds and their eggs, frogs, edible roots, fungi, kangaroos and possums abounded. The waters were fringed with tea-tree, grass trees and paper bark, the last providing shelter. The large flat spaces of the swamp flood plains created natural amphitheatres for ceremonies and camping. From 1831, there were hostile encounters between settlers and Noongars that culminated in several executions and massacres that lead to the disintegration of the tribes and their retreat to the swamps and lakes north of the river. These were known to them as Boodjamooling, and became their main campsites and gathering places following dispossession from traditional lands. Early European exploration Early European exploration of the area commenced in 1697 with the discovery of the Swan River by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh. A sloop was dragged over the limestone bar and sandy shoals that blocked the river mouth, and an expedition made up the river. Surveying the area from "high ground" (Mount Eliza), Vlamingh was not impressed. Similar explorations by the French in 1801, and the British in 1822 left equally unfavourable impressions regarding any potential settlement of the area. The first explorer to gain a favourable opinion of the Swan River was Captain James Stirling, who explored the area in March 1827. With relatives in the powerful British East India Company, Stirling was predisposed to the idea of a West Australian colony with potential for Indian Ocean trade. With Frederick Garling and the botanist Charles Fraser, Stirling spent 12 days exploring the river, travelling as far upstream as the Ellen Brook junction. The party did not go far enough ashore to see that sandy soil characterised much of the land around the river. As a result, their favourable impressions of the quality of the soil was highly inaccurate, but became instrumental in the decision to establish the Swan River Colony. In his reports to the Home Office, Stirling acknowledged that previous explorations had found the area "sterile, forbidding and inhospitable" but argued that he had found it superior to New South Wales even, and promoted in glowing terms the agricultural potential of the area. His lobbying was for the establishment of a free settlement, unlike the other penal settlements at New South Wales, Port Arthur and Norfolk Island. Persuaded that the proposed colony would incur no significant cost on the part of the British Government, and perhaps fuelled by rumours that the French were about to establish a penal colony in the western part of Australia, the Colonial Office assented to the proposal in mid-October 1828. Founding of the Swan River Colony (1829) The first fleet of settlers arrived in June 1829, disembarking with their possessions on the sandy beaches north of the Swan River. No advance party had been sent, no land had been allocated, and no buildings had been constructed. Under intense pressure from the settlers, Stirling's energetic Surveyor-General, John Septimus Roe went to work demarcating the allotments along the river. The fertile locations around Perth did not extend very far from the Swan and Canning Rivers, and the most fertile locations were upstream. The district of Guildford had the best quality soils and was settled in the first year of the colony. Layout of the principal towns Septimus Roe laid out the townsites of Perth, Fremantle and Guildford. Fremantle was to be the port city, and entry into the colony; Guildford was the loading point for agricultural produce that was to be shipped down the Swan River; and Perth was the administrative and military hub. All three towns developed slowly in the early years. The boundaries of the capital Perth were defined by the Swan River to the south and east, by the promontory of Mount Eliza to the west, and by a chain of swamps and lakes to the north. The site was chosen for its access to fresh water and river transport, the availability of building materials, fine views of the Darling Scarp and the shelter offered by Mount Eliza from naval bombardment. The official foundation ceremony took place on 12 August 1829 with the chopping down of a tree by Helen Dance, the wife of Captain William Dance of the Sulphur. This event is commemorated by a plaque set in the footpath of Barrack Street at the approximate location. Early years (1830 - 1849) As much of the remaining land turned out to be quite sandy and unsuitable for agriculture, the first reports of the colony were not as glowing as Stirling had been led to expect. These reports, along with the difficulty of clearing land to grow crops, was a factor in the slow growth of Perth during the first two decades. Agriculture developed away from Perth in places like the Avon Valley, and along the southwest coastline. Transport in the early years was primarily along the coastline and river system, and one of the earliest projects was the construction of a canal creating Burswood Island. Two years later, in 1833, the first dirt track between Perth and Fremantle was cut through the bush. Other tracks from the towns to the districts of Canning, Kelmscott, Guildford and Mandurah followed. The first bridge was the causeway across the Swan River, little more than a primitive timber bridge, but connecting what is now the suburbs of East Perth and Victoria Park. Early building activity laid the administrative, institutional and social foundations of colonial society. In 1831 the Round House was completed, providing the colony with its first prison; the Court House was opened in December 1836, doubling as place of worship until St George's Church was built in 1842. This wasn't the first church however; that honour goes to the All Saints Church in the Swan Valley, north-east of Perth, completed in 1841. The colony's first brewery, Swan Brewery, was established at the corner of Spring Street and Mounts Bay Road, near the base of Mount Eliza in Perth. Relations between the Europeans and local Aboriginal peoples were not always amicable, and sometimes resulted in violent skirmishes. On 11 July 1833, a senior warrior named Yagan, of the local Aboriginal tribe near the Swan River, was murdered after a bounty was issued for his capture following the slaying of a couple of settlers. By 1850, the population of the colony of Western Australia had increased to 5886, while the population around Perth was still only about 1940, approximately equal with that of Fremantle. Convict era (1850 - 1869) In 1849, after a decade and half of meagre growth, Perth became a penal colony and in the next 16 years received an influx of over 9000 convicts. This significantly changed the social and economic dynamics of the colony. The convicts were involved in the construction of a large amount of infrastructure and this shaped the character of the city. Perth's early buildings had been rudimentary and simple, however with the arrival of labour in the form of a convict workforce, new buildings of colonial authority arose. These embraced the culture and aspirations of Empire in a remote settlement, and were largely constructed in the Gothic style so much in vogue in England at the time. Constructed of locally harvested clay bricks, mellow in colour and soft in texture, the public architecture of the colony was relatively small-scale as befitting a new settlement. Buildings constructed during this time include the Fremantle Prison, Government House, the Perth Town Hall, The Cloisters, Perth Gaol, and the Swan River Mechanics' Institute. The convict workforce led to an improvement in the prospects of the colony, however Perth's underlying identity as a remote and rustic frontier town remained unchanged. Despite being proclaimed a city by Queen Victoria in 1856, fourteen years later a Melbourne journalist could describe Perth as: "...a quiet little town of some 3000 inhabitants spread out in straggling allotments down to the water's edge, intermingled with gardens and shrubberies and half rural in its aspect ... The main streets are macadamised, but the outlying ones and most of the footpaths retain their native state from the loose sand - the all pervading element of Western Australia - productive of intense glare or much dust in the summer and dissolving into slush during the rainy season." This village-like atmosphere of scattered single and two story brick or stone residences, surrounded by gardens, remained unchanged until the 1880s and 1890s. Later 19th century (1870 - 1901) The latter half of the nineteenth century, and in particular the last two decades, saw Perth begin to grow for the first time in a significant way. In 1877, a telegraph line from Adelaide to Perth was completed, vastly improving intracontinental communication. This increased the growth of colonial media, such as the first weekly newspaper, the Western Mail, which commenced publishing in 1885. Government architecture continued to shape the central city. In 1874 large and impressive government offices were constructed, housing the Cabinet, Treasury, Titles Office and Post Office. The business district developed slowly with a mix of shops and cottages to the west of Barrack Street. By the 1880s residential development had commenced in West Perth, while industrial development was concentrated in East Perth. During this time two events significantly shaped the development of both central Perth and the wider metropolitan region: the construction of a railway from Fremantle to Guildford, completed in 1881, and the Western Australian gold rushes, commencing in 1885. First mining boom - the gold rushes (1885 - 1901) The discovery of gold in the Kimberley, Murchison and Kalgoorlie regions in the 1880s and 1890s, and the concurrent granting of responsible government to Western Australia in 1890 had a huge impact on the development of Perth. The physical nature of the city changed dramatically with economic prosperity and the increase of population as a result of gold rush immigration. In one decade the population of the city tripled, from 8,447 in 1891 to 27,553 in 1901. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Perth was totally transformed. Its streets were lined with elaborately styled multi-storey buildings, many of which were designed by members of a now large architectural profession, and the population had spilled over into new suburbs that encircled the city. The location of the central Perth railway station had an enormous influence on the pattern and concentration of land uses within the city. With the railway line providing a boundary to the north, and the Government domain to the south, commercial and professional development was concentrated within the city's central axis, bounded by William and Barrack Streets. This development was highlighted by the opening of Western Australia's first department store, Boans, in 1895. Eventually, several department stores opened in this precinct, including Foy and Gibson, Aherns, Bon Marche, Myers and David Jones. This created a vibrant walkable district, accessible by public transport, that remains to this day. The population growth provided the impetus for the expansion of infrastructure, services, and facilities, although not necessarily fast enough to cater for growing demand. In 1893, electricity generation was made available to the city of Perth, and the suburban rail line was extended from Perth to Armadale in the same year. In 1898, the Perth Zoo opened. In 1897, Fremantle Harbour was officially opened. The harbour provided access to the Swan River for larger vessels, made possible after blasting the rocky bar across the Swan River mouth and dredging under the guidance of the colony's Engineer-in-Chief, Charles Yelverton O'Connor. The completion of this project set the seal on Fremantle becoming and remaining the main harbour in Western Australia, finally supplanting Albany. On 28 September 1899, the first electric tram services commenced, operated by Perth Electric Tramways Ltd, with services from East Perth along Hay Street to Milligan Street. The Perth Mint, on Hay Street in East Perth, opened the same year. Early 20th century (1902 - 1929) Within two years of federation the gold boom had peaked and prospectors were either leaving the state or moving into Perth or the other regions of Western Australia. In 1902, Claremont Teachers College, in the suburb of Claremont, became the first post-secondary educational institute in Western Australiaand eventually a campus of Edith Cowan University before being acquired by the University of Western Australia. In 1903, a pipeline from Mundaring Weir to Kalgoorlie opened. This was a major achievement for its time by the state's first Engineer-in-Chief C. Y. O'Connor. In 1911, the University of Western Australia became Perth's first university, but it was not until 1913 that tuition began. The original campus was located in Irwin Street, between Hay Street and St Georges Terrace. In May 1919, riots on the Fremantle wharves escalated into fatal violence. A Women's Citizens League held was holding meetings in Perth by 1923. In July 1926, there was major flooding of the Swan River. This caused the Fremantle Railway Bridge to collapse just after a train had passed over it. The Upper Swan Bridge was also damaged by the flood. On 12 August 1929, Perth commemorated 100 years of British settlement. Hard times during the depression and world war (1930 - 1946) In 1930, telephone services put Perth in connection with Adelaide, and subsequently with eastern Australia. In 1932, the University of Western Australia campus was moved from Perth to its present-day site in Crawley. During World War II, Fremantle served as a base for submarines operating in the Pacific Theatre, and in 1943 a US Navy Catalina flying boat fleet was based at Matilda Bay. The Americans brought sixty to seventy Catalinas, and 1,200 personnel. American, Australian and Dutch pilots and crew used the Swan River for training purposes, and undertook missions that were as far away as Ceylon. Post war reconstruction (1947 - 1959) Following the war there was an influx of European immigrants to Australia, with approximately 240,000 migrating to Perth between 1946 and 1970. Prior to the war, only 3.5% of Perth's population of 280,000 came from a non-English speaking background, while 14.1% of the population had been born in Britain, double the percentage of any of the other capital cities. By the 1970s, 21% of Perth's population was foreign born, with many migrating from Italy, Holland, Germany and other European nations. In 1955, Gordon Stephenson and John Alistair Hepburn prepared a plan for Perth and Fremantle. In 1958, the last of Perth's trams were retired from service, unable to compete with buses and cars. The Narrows Bridge opened in 1959, linking the north and south sides of the Swan River at The Narrows between Mill Point and Mount Eliza. At the time, it was the largest precast prestressed concrete bridge in the world. Resources boom (1960 - 1972) Whilst the expansion of manufacturing had driven the economy through the 1950s, by 1960 the economy of the state was stagnating. This began to change in 1961 with the lifting of the iron-ore embargo and, over the next decade, the discovery of nickel, petroleum, bauxite, natural gas and alumina deposits throughout the state. This was the beginning of the state's second resources boom following the gold rush of the 1890s. The city skyline changed significantly during this period with the construction of Perth's first skyscrapers. On 20 February 1962, Perth became known worldwide as the "City of Light", as city residents lit their house lights and streetlights to celebrate American astronaut John Glenn on his orbit around the Earth on Friendship 7. The city repeated its feat as Glenn passed overhead on the Space Shuttle in 1998. In 1962, Perth city hosted the British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Events were held from 22 November to 1 December at Perry Lakes Stadium in Floreat and Beatty Park Aquatic Centre in North Perth. Both venues were built for those games. On 26 October 1964, serial killer Eric Edgar Cooke was the last criminal to be executed, by hanging, in Western Australia. In 1964 the City of Perth appointed Paul Ritter as the City's first town planner, tasked with establishing a planning department and preparing the first town planning scheme. Ritter elevated the public profile of town planning through public education, activism and public disagreements with elected councillors. He was controversially sacked in 1967. In 1966 the Pensioner's Barracks was demolished in the face of widespread public opposition, with only the archway remaining. This demolition was a defining moment in the campaign to protect historic buildings in Western Australia. In 1969, the last of Perth's trolleybuses were retired from service. In 1970, the first Test Cricket match in Perth was played, from 11 to 16 December, against England. On 17 September 1974 Murdoch University, Perth's second university, was opened with an inauguration ceremony. Lectures commenced on 24 February 1975 with an enrolment of 510 students. In 1979, the WAY '79 celebrations commemorated Perth's sesquicentenary, 150 years of European settlement. The city hosted the Miss Universe competition as part of the celebrations. In 1979, the Fremantle railway line closed; it subsequently reopened in 1983. The reopening of the railway line was a turning point in state government policy towards the railway system leading to further investment and expansion of public transport. Uncertainty, change and scandal (1973 - 1993) On 26 September 1983, Australia II won the America's Cup yacht race, the first time a challenger had won it in 132 years. Although this event was held off Newport, Rhode Island, it was a significant day in Perth's history. The Australia II challenge was financed by Perth businessman Alan Bond on behalf of the Royal Perth Yacht Club. After winning the cup, Perth had four years to prepare for its defence in 1987, and in those years Fremantle especially underwent considerable economic and cultural development. In 1985, the Burswood Casino, Perth's only casino, opened for business. The resort opened in 1988. In 1987, the city hosted, and lost, the defence of the America's Cup. In the 1980s, a political scandal, which came to be known as WA Inc, caused the loss of public money - an estimated minimum of $600 million - and the insolvency of several large corporations. Some major businesses based in Perth suffered financial difficulties, in part due to the 1987 stock market crash, and eventually entered bankruptcy. On 19 November 1990, Carmen Lawrence, the then Labor premier, announced her government's intention to hold a royal commission to "inquire into certain matters". After almost two years of enquiries and hearings, it was found that the state government had engaged in major business dealings with prominent businessmen, including Alan Bond, Laurie Connell and Warren Anderson. Former premier Brian Burke and his predecessor, the Liberal premier Ray O'Connor ultimately served prison sentences as a result of convictions that arose from findings of the commission. Burke's successor, Peter Dowding, and public servant Len Brush were both found to have acted improperly. In the late 1980s arson attacks on Asian-owned businesses by Jack van Tongeren and his white supremacist group the Australian Nationalist Worker's Union gained internal attention and strained ties with Western Australia's growing Asian community. Recession and recovery (1990 - present) In 1990, Western Australia gets its first heritage protection legislation, the Heritage Act of Western Australia 1990 (WA). Earlier protection powers under the National Trust were insufficient to save many historic buildings throughout the 1960s and 1970s. In 1992, the Joondalup railway line opened to the northern suburbs, becoming the first suburban passenger railway line built in Perth since the Armadale line 103 years earlier. This railway line runs mostly along the centre of the Mitchell Freeway. In July 1994, the state government separated the Perth central business district from its surrounding suburban districts, creating a new City of Perth and three other new local government authorities. In 1995, the French Consulate in Perth was firebombed. 21st century (2000 - present) In the first decade of the 21st century, driven by the West Australian mining boom and associated economic development, it became Australia's fastest growing capital. From 2001 to 2011, the city's population increased by 346,000, which is comparable to Sydney's 499,000 over the same period despite being only one third the size. As with Melbourne, most population growth was absorbed by the outer suburbs, primarily in the City of Wanneroo, and the southern coastal suburbs (Cockburn, Rockingham and Kwinana). In recent years Perth has been getting a larger share of overseas migrants who, due to the demand for workers in the mining industry, are predominantly arriving on skilled migration visas. More than any other city in Australia, it has attracted migrants from the UK and South Africa. Major infrastructure projects completed included the $1.6 billion New MetroRail project, which effectively doubled the size of the Perth rail system, the Graham Farmer Freeway and Roe Highway. On 19 September 2006, the Federal Court of Australia brought down a judgment finding that Noongar native title continued to exist over the Perth metropolitan area. An appeal was subsequently lodged and in 2008 the Full Court of the Federal Court upheld parts of the appeal by the Western Australian and Commonwealth governments. Following this appeal, the WA Government and the South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council negotiated the South West Native Title Settlement, including the Whadjuk Indigenous Land Use Agreement over the Perth region, which was finalised by the Federal Court on 1 December 2021. As part of reaching this agreement, the Noongar (Koorah, Nitja, Boordahwan) (Past, Present, Future) Recognition Act was passed in 2016, recognising the Noongar people as the traditional owners of the south west region of Western Australia. Notable events include: November 2006: The first desalination plant in Australia commenced operation in Kwinana. 22 March 2010: Storms caused hundreds of millions of dollars worth of hail damage and left 150,000 homes without power. October 2011: Perth hosted the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting and the Queen visited. 2012: Construction of Brookfield Place was completed. Formerly known as City Square tower, the skyscraper is the second tallest in Western Australia and the eighth tallest in Australia. 2012: Construction began on Elizabeth Quay, a major redevelopment of the Perth foreshore. Elizabeth Quay opened on 29 January 2016. 2014: Barnett government abandons efforts to encourage 30 metropolitan local governments to amalgamate into 16 new local governments. March 2021: BP closes the Kwinana Oil Refinery. See also List of heritage buildings in Perth, Western Australia Land grants in the Swan River Colony A sketch of the vegetation of the Swan River Colony Further reading References
5332817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goyard	Goyard	Maison Goyard, or simply Goyard, is a French trunk and leather goods maker established in 1792 as Maison Martin in Paris; the company also operated as Maison Morel, before becoming Maison Goyard in 1853. The brand is known for a certain amount of secrecy surrounding its products; little is known of the origins of the iconic interlocking Chevron pattern, seen on many Goyard bags. History Maison Morel Maison Morel was the official purveyor of Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Sicile, duchesse de Berry, an honor that granted it the title of "box maker, trunk maker and packer of Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Berry". Maison Martin's store sign featured references to the three traditional crafts of "box making, trunk making and packing" that were at the core of its business. Pierre François Martin was the guardian of a young female ward, Pauline Moutat, and gave his business as her dowry. He was also instrumental in arranging her marriage to one of his employees, Louis-Henri Morel (1817–1852). Morel followed on Martin's footsteps, and introduced himself as the "Successor to former Maison Morel, located on rue Neuve-des-Capucines, near Place Vendôme." In turn, Louis-Henri Morel, passed on his skills and knowledge to a seventeen-year-old apprentice by the name of François Goyard, whom he hired in 1845. The apprentice received a state-of-the-art training under the dual guidance of Pierre François Martin and Louis-Henri Morel. Monsieur Morel died suddenly on 24 August 1852. Maison Goyard In a short time, the house's corporate name changed from Morel to Goyard, and from Goyard to Goyard Aîné (French for "elder", François being the firstborn among Goyard brothers), as to differentiate himself from his siblings. When he died, François Goyard left his son Edmond with a very reputable business with workshops in Bezons, a city in the northwestern suburbs of Paris. In 1834, Pierre François Martin moved his store from 4, Rue Neuve des Capucines, where Louis Vuitton opened in 1854, to 347, rue Saint-Honoré. On account of the new street numbering policy implemented in Paris in 1856, the address changed to 233, rue Saint-Honoré. His successors remained at this location at the corner of rue Saint-Honoré and rue de Castiglione, near Place Vendôme. After a thirty-two-year-tenure as head of business, François handed the company over to his 25-year-old eldest son Edmond on April "1st", 1885. The house changed its name to E. Goyard Aîné. Edmond Goyard, drawing on his father François Goyard's work, turned the store on rue Saint-Honoré into an increasingly elitist luxury brand with an international clientele. He created the first Goyard advertisements, participated in various World Expositions and opened four branch stores. He also laid the foundations for the brand as we know it today, as he came up with the Goyardine canvas, launched a pet accessories range and developed products for automobiles. He partnered with his eldest son Robert, and together they ran E. Goyard Aîné et Fils (E.Goyard Elder and Son). Robert followed his father's footsteps and ran the business from 1937 to 1979. In 1998, a purchaser took over from the Goyard family: Jean-Michel Signoles, a keen collector of all things Goyard, undertook the challenge of reinventing Goyard with the help of his sons. Without the backing of a leading luxury brand group, he exploited the heritage of the house, built new workshops in Carcassonne, France, and opened retail stores all over the world. From Clamecy to Paris The Goyards originated from Clamecy in Burgundy, where the family males had long worked as log drivers. They were members of the Compagnons de Rivière, a guild of transporters moving firewood to Paris. The family name "Goyard" derives from the French "goujard", also spelled "goyard". This sickle-like tool with a blade attached to a two-metre-long strong wooden handle was used by the Bourguignon people from the Aube area to cut thorns they would then transplant onto hedgerow stakes. Edmé Goyard (1801–1879) moves to Paris In 1832, a massive cholera epidemic decimated the population of Clamecy. On 17 December, Edmé Goyard's father died at the age of 72. His son subsequently left the hamlet with his wife and two sons, François and Claude, who were respectively four and two-years old. The family settled down in Paris and soon welcomed another son, Martin, who was born on 10 October 1833. Robert Goyard (1893–1979) Just like his father did, Robert ran the store until his demise in 1979. His impact on the house proved considerable, as he constantly updated the range of products, notably by developing a new canvas. He patented the design for this woven canvas in 1965. The Chevron pattern remained, and the overall design was simplified, as the production process required, leaving the canvas bare of any name. Robert Goyard was also determined to contribute to the prestige of his neighbourhood. On 9 December 1936, the Place Vendôme Association was set up; on 25 July 1944, an extraordinary general meeting aiming to reform the association was held. The association initially changed its name to "Place Vendôme, Rue de la Paix and surroundings" before opting for "Comité Vendôme", its current name. Robert Goyard was instrumental in setting up this cooperative agreement by taking care of the formalities for its constitution and locating its offices at Goyard's headquarters at 233, rue Saint-Honoré. François Goyard (1918–2005) Jean Edmond François was the son of Robert Goyard, and collaborated with his father. The Occupation took its toll on the house, and the store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré closed down temporarily. François took a stake in the family business on 25 May 1951, which became a limited company four days later. After the end of World War II, Robert resumed running the company until 1979; upon his death, his granddaughter Isabelle Goyard took over with the help of her father. Participation to world expositions Celebrity customers Goyard's letterhead paper dated 24 June 1891 bore the coats of arms of the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire and the Great Seal of the United States of America. The queens of Yugoslavia and Greece became customers after World War II, whilst the Duke and Duchess of Windsor purchased their first Goyard goods in 1939. High-profile purchasers such as the Grimaldis or the Maharajah of Kapurthala rub shoulders with celebrities, socialites or first ladies like Catherine Deneuve, Édith Piaf, Romy Schneider, Jean-Claude Brialy, who acquired his first Goyard pieces in 1974, Mrs Georges Pompidou, who became a client from 1963 onwards, princess Andrée Aga Khan (1956), princess Radziwill (1949) or the prince and princess von Fürstenberg (1968). Contemporary glitterati like Madonna, Victoria Beckham, Carla Bruni-Sarkozy are regularly spotted wearing Goyard bags. Kanye West mentioned his affinity for Goyard trunks in the 2007 song, The Glory, and Rich the Kid filmed a music video in a Goyard store. Manufacturing of the Goyard canvas: the Goyardine The coated cloth debuted for the World Exposition in 1900, and was used in the inter-war years. It remains unchanged in present times, keeping its chevron pattern. In 2002, 110 years after its creation, the Signoles family inaugurated their tenure at the helm of Goyard with the introduction of twelve new colours in addition to the historic black canvas. Currently, the Goyardine canvas is available in red, green, sky-blue, navy-blue, yellow, white. A natural fiber canvas From the beginning, Goyardine was made with cloth; although its appearance is similar to leather. Goyard uses three plant fibers: hemp, linen, and cotton. Hemp is particularly sought after for its hydrophobic qualities, linen is a fine thermal regulator, and the softness of linen probably caught the attention of the trunk maker. The manufacturing process The initial meters of Goyardine were likely hand-painted. When the Goyardine was launched, the workshops moved to Bezons, and the manufacturing of the canvas required a ground-colour application followed by three successive layers of etching colours. The trademark slightly raised pattern of the Goyardine results from both the cloth and the printing technique used during the manufacturing process: the plain weave shows through the Chevron pattern, and superimposes on top of the raised pattern produced by the paint dots, leaving a unique design that is difficult to counterfeit. Symbolic meaning of the Goyard Chevron pattern The dots on the fabric represent three chevrons juxtaposed to form a Y, the central letter in the Goyard family name. Edmond Goyard used the three chevrons of the letter Y to sign his canvas like a painter would sign their painting: his name written in white is the only element that truly stands out, while the address of the Paris store is spelled in two different shades of brown, and "Paris" is repeated twice, and arranged in a centrally symmetrical stack. Edmond Goyard was the very first trunk maker to build his name into his canvas, and did so even before the year 1900. The piled up dot pattern was clearly inspired by the Goyard family history, and evokes their "Compagnon de rivière"(log drivers) ancestors. Goyard woven canvases If Edmond Goyard left his mark on the history of the brand by creating the Goyardine, his son Robert also created a new fabric: a four-shade-woven canvas. This canvas is used in bags designed for frequent air travel. Robert Goyard patented his new canvas on 24 November 1965, and described its design as "Chevrons intertwined with linear stripes." This new canvas not only allows for a more modern look, for it is a woven canvas, but it is also much softer than the historic Goyard canvas, making it possible to manufacture new products. In order to improve the solidity of the weaving, Robert Goyard altered the pattern in 1968, making it easily recognizable from the previous one (as it is much more even). New Goyard woven canvases In 2010, Goyard debuted a canvas woven on a jacquard loom, marking a technical feat, as it builds "E.Goyard" into a lighter-shaded thread of the canvas, a previously unheard-of achievement in the textile industry. The new canvas is currently available in a black-charcoal grey-dove grey-white colour palette, and will shortly be available in other shades. The Lenglen canvas A rare canvas developed in collaboration with tennis player Suzanne Lenglen in the 1930s; its production stopped when Lenglen died in 1938. Special orders Nowadays, special orders are to be placed at the store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré, as it was the case when the factory was located in Bezons. Special orders are entirely hand-made in the Goyard workshops in southern France, in the Aude department. The workshops are installed in converted wine warehouses. Whilst some trunk makers specialize in standardized goods, Goyard is equally at ease with both special orders and ready-made items. Among the many extravagant special orders that Goyard was able to deliver over the course of its history, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's "Writer’s trunk" certainly stands out. In the report he wrote for the International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts in 1925, Paul Léon lists its main characteristics: "The trunk is equipped with a filing cabinet, a bookcase, a typewriter and a foldable desk." The descriptive text that goes with its patent spares no detail either: "All kinds of kits and sets can be placed in the pigeonhole located in the trunk lid, along with photograph frames, a watch, a thermometer and a barometer". After the death of the creator of Sherlock Holmes on 7 July 1930, Edmond Goyard registered a patent for the trunk on 20 July 1931, and seldom remanufactured this exceptional piece. Each order is the result of a special encounter: that taking place between the trunk maker and the customer. When it comes to special orders, everything is possible: a trunk especially designed to carry and store caviar, or to meet the needs of a sportsperson, a fabulous picnic trunk. Each piece of hard-sided luggage by Goyard is entirely hand made by a specific trunk maker, according to the highest, strictest standards. When the crafting process is over, the trunk maker writes down the serial number of the piece they made on its identification tag, along with their initials. They also write down that same serial number in the manufacturing register that has been keeping track of all items made by the Goyard workshops ever since Jean-Michel Signoles took over. The manufacturing register is used as a reference in the event an item needs to be repaired. About twenty trunk makers work in the Goyard workshops and specialize in made-to-order trunks and hard-sided luggage. Luggage monogramming and crowns When several members of a same family travel together, their luggage stripes are identical, and it is difficult to tell which piece of luggage belongs to whom. In France, tradition dictates that each piece should be monogrammed with the initials of its owner, whereas in the UK, it is customary to use the owner's full first and last names, whether they are a royal or a commoner. Initials have been used for a long time, as evidenced by the wooden trunk the compagnons de rivière used to carry along with them on their timber raft. It was the only valuable object on board, and it was used to protect food and personal belongings from the waters of the river. Over the course of time, it became a token of remembrance, reminding its owner of the many travels he made. It was monogrammed with its owner's initials and also stamped with the employers' logo. François Goyard's grandfather was a compagnon de rivière, and he owned a monogrammed trunk long before the family went into the trunk making business. Stripes perpetuate old traditions, notably those related to horse carriages, which were painted in the colours of each family. Goyard's monograms are hand-painted onto the Goyardine canvas and can be customized with a variety of different colours. The revival of customized leather goods, whether they are adorned with initials, stripes or coats of arms, proved Goyard's answer to the logo craze. Goyard boutiques Apart from the main boutique in Paris, Goyard also has freestanding monobrand stores in: In 2008, Goyard opened a boutique called "Le Chic du Chien" (Canine Chic) entirely dedicated to pet accessories and excursion items at 352, rue Saint-Honoré, right across the street from its historic store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré. Edmond Goyard was very keen on developing a range of pet accessories, as evidenced by catalogues and invoices dating from as far back as 1890. The Goyard range for pets comprised items for dogs, cats and even monkeys. Edmond Goyard hired the most sought-after illustrators of his time, such as the likes of Benjamin Rabier and Pierre Falize, the latter being also the creator of famous posters for iconic Parisian Restaurant Prunier, to work on the Chic du Chien commercial catalogues. Charitable work Sidaction and Avec Ever since it started in 1994, Goyard has been a supporter of Sidaction, a major French public event for raising awareness and collecting charitable funds for AIDS. Goyard donates prestigious prizes for the annual Fashion Dinner's raffle, in order to fund initiatives against AIDS, whether research programs, patient assistance or prevention schemes. Goyard is also a supporter of the annual AVEC (Association pour la Vie, Espoir contre le Cancer, a nonprofit organization fighting cancer) evening. At the end of the charity dinner organized at the Palace of Versailles in January 2012, "the auction was equally fun and lucrative: the Goyard prize (a hard-sided suitcase worth 4700 euros) was auctioned three times and finally repurchased by the very man who had donated it in the first place, Jean-Michel Signoles, president of Goyard, who ended up offering it to French TV show host Stéphane Bern." Un bagage pour la vie, un bagage pour Curie For the third edition of Un bagage pour la vie, un bagage pour Curie, Goyard organized an auction of customized bags and luggage to raise money for the leading cancer research centre Institut Curie in Paris. The patron of the event was Amélie Mauresmo, and the pieces auctioned off were sponsored by twenty-one female personalities from the worlds of cinema, fashion and sport: Sarah Biasini, Élodie Bouchez, Cécile Cassel, Audrey Dana, Emma de Caunes, Catherine Deneuve, Zoé Felix, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Vahina Giocante, Judith Godrèche, Audrey Marnay, Chiara Mastroianni, Amélie Mauresmo, Mathilda May, Héléna Noguerra, Géraldine Pailhas, Vanessa Paradis, Linh-Dan Pham, Barbara Schultz, Audrey Tautou, and Elsa Zylberstein. Each personality was invited by Goyard to use the iconic chevron pattern canvas to express their own vision of travelling: stripes of colour, messages or drawings. Their imagination combined to Goyard's know-how resulted in twenty-one unique pieces auctioned at Christie's in Paris. The Goyard art book The Goyard art book published by Devambez is the reference publication upon Parisian trunk makers. It was dubbed "a luxury bible" by Suzy Menkes in the article called "A tender Tome of Art and Heart" that she wrote in the New York Times on 15 June 2010. The book had a print run of 233 copies, a reference to the address of the Goyard historic store that has been located at 233, rue Saint Honoré since 1834. It will never be republished and is visible by appointment only in the Goyard Paris shop. The Goyard art book pays tribute to the golden days of luxury travelling, from horse carriage to ocean liners. It retraces the history of Goyard and is showcased in a special made-to-order trunk that is altogether a jewel case and a book's binding (sewing). Each individual purchaser is invited to make their named copy into a unique piece by picking the colour for the trunk canvas, which can also be initialled or adorned with stripes in the shades of their choice. Copies are numbered from 1 to 233, and that number is specified both on the trunk and in the book. The Goyard art book is printed on watermarked deckled vellum paper that was custom-made by Arches, France's most renowned papermakers. Lead letterpress techniques have been used for the texts. The Goyard art book is featured in the collections of the National Library of France, the Bibliothèque des Arts Décoratifs in Paris and the Kunstbibliothek in Berlin. References Companies based in Paris Manufacturing companies established in 1853 Fashion accessory brands French brands High fashion brands Luggage brands Luggage manufacturers Luxury brands Privately held companies of France
5332957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League%20of%20Revolutionary%20Struggle%20%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29	League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist–Leninist)	The League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist–Leninist) was a Marxist–Leninist[1] movement in the United States formed in 1978 by merging communist organizations. It was dissolved by the organization's leadership in 1990. The LRS(M-L) was formed from a merger of the Asian American communist organization I Wor Kuen and the Chicano-Latino communist organization August 29th Movement (M-L) in September 1978. By 1979, they absorbed a number of other ethnic based radical groups including the East Wind Collective of Japanese Americans in Los Angeles, the Seize the Time Collective of Chicanos and African Americans in San Francisco and The New York Collective of Puerto Ricans and Dominicans. Early in 1980 it also merged with the Revolutionary Communist League (Marxist-Leninist-Mao Tse-tung Thought) led by Amiri Baraka. This organization, formerly known as the Congress of Afrikan People, was composed mostly of African-Americans and had stressed Black cultural nationalism. When this merger occurred they issued a joint statement declaring ""Our unity signals a big advance in this struggle for Marxist-Leninist unity and for a single, unified, vanguard communist party."[2] History of Communism in the US Communism took hold of the United States' left wing politics primarily following the Russian Revolution of October 1917. The early 1920s was marked by surges in nativism and racism. Meanwhile, ethnic communism thrived among the Workers Party, which was renamed as the Communist Party USA. The center of the movement revolved around the American communist party. The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) was formally established in 1919 following the 1917 Russian Revolution. The Tzarist autocracy was overthrown and the Soviet Union was formed. The members of CPUSA were mostly former members of the socialist part of America. However, since the socialist party opposed the Russian Revolution and banned members who supported it, many of these exiled members joined the Communist Party, a group more left-wing than the Socialists. CPUSA came after attack following World War II when anti-communist sentiment was on the rise. The party's steadfast support for the Soviet Union was not received well. Coupled with anti-Soviet sentiment in the US, communism became increasingly unwelcome in the United States. CPUSA historically took its power from labor unions. However, as these unions were dispelled in 1949 and 1950, the party did not have a solid support system to rely on. Furthermore, left wing organizations were faced with McCarthyism in the early 1950s. Today, CPUSA remains with its existing political ideology. The parks seeks cooperation with other political groups in order to achieve effective change in the areas it trumpets. The League of Revolutionary Struggle considers itself to be the heir to CPUSA. LRS criticized CPUSA for failing to work towards revolution and for turning into a revisionist group that advocated for electoral politics and "promoted the interests of an imperialist Soviet Union." In the eyes of LRS, the Soviet Union had turned into an expansionist superpower similar to the US. As a result, the group opposed both American and Soviet aggression and was against Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Unlike CPUSA, LRS made active effort towards creating an alliance between working-class people and oppressed nationalities. It sought to create an alliance in an effort to establish a socialist state by overthrowing the current capitalist one. Origins Asian American New Left From the late 60s to the early 70s, Asian Americans became increasingly active in the New Left movement. This is evidenced by their participation in New Left activities such as the Free Speech Movement, Students for a Democratic Society, the Weatherman, and the Progressive Labor Party.[3] The Asian American Left, however, separated itself from the dominant New Left movement after highlighting racism and national oppression as pressing issues that were not being addressed by the mainstream movement. As a result, Asian American marxists added self-determination to their agenda. Activists mobilized around and within Asian American communities, addressing health care and housing issues, the lack of Asian American history in university curriculums, and the Vietnam War. The Asian American New Left had stronger ties with antiwar and the Black Power Movements than with the Old Left. The 1960s was a dynamic period for the formation of radical immigrant identities. Social activism peaked as broad political struggles as the Black Power movement and the civil rights movement erupted. Asian Americans embraced a framework that trumpeted solidarity among colonized people. Meanwhile, the political climate was continuing to push Asian American youth towards militancy. As they grappled with the hegemonic discourse of the model minority myth, Asian youth started to question American democracy. With the Vietnam War raging, the AAM's anti-racist and anti-imperialist stance did not fit within the "Bring the Boys Home" chants. Asian Americans identified with the Vietnamese communists as Asian peoples defending themselves against imperial encroachment on their independence and self-determination. This solidarity was further strengthened by their racial connection to the Vietnamese. Asian Americans were active in community issues as well as international problems. Drawing from Chairman Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution, they adhered to the phrase, "Serve the People." As a result, when the International Hotel or I-Hotel of San Francisco was evicting elderly tenants, they rallied for the community by demanding universities to support their communities and encouraging students to join the protest. I Wor Kuen I Wor Kuen (lit., "the points of justice and harmony") was a Marxist-Leninist organization in the United States that had ties with the Asian national movement and the industrial working class. It was founded in 1969. I Wor Kuen became a national organization in 1971 when it merged with the San Francisco-based Red Guard Party. Following the example of the Black Panther Party and committed to Mao Zedong, the Red Guard Party advocated for an armed struggle. The organization viewed itself as a military group rather than a political movement. Spending most of its activity on military operations rather than mobilizing on political issues, the Party broke up. Nevertheless, many of its members moved to I Wor Kuen. IWK was an integral part of the US revolutionary movement as it applied Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong thought to the US revolution. Drawing from the Chinese revolution, including the Cultural Revolution, IWK saw itself as a revolutionary organization dedicated to uniting other revolutionary forces in toppling US imperialism. It first formed in New York City in late 1969 by Asian American revolutionaries from diverse backgrounds. During that same year, the Red Guard was formed in San Francisco. In the summer of 1971, IWK and the Red Guard Party merged. The organization was centered around 12 points: 12 Points We want self-determination for all Asian Amerikans. We want self-determination for all Asians. We want liberation of all third world peoples and other oppressed peoples We want an end to male chauvinism and sexual exploitation. We want community control of our institutions and land. We want an education that exposes the true history of western imperialism in Asia and around the world: which teaches us the hardships and struggles of our ancestors in this land and which reveals the truly decadent exploitive nature of Amerikan society. We want decent housing and health and child care. We want freedom for all political prisoners and all Asians. We want an end to the Amerikan military. We want an end to racism. We want an end to the geographic boundaries of Amerika. We want a socialist society. IWK channeled efforts into addressing communities issues. During its first two years of existence it jump-started campaigns against poor living conditions and initiated programs that served the community. Chicano Movement The Chicano movement rose during the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, the United States was engaged in a war in Vietnam and other Indochinese countries. This conflict was viewed as an act of aggression against the people of Vietnam. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union, a social-imperialist power, was in direct opposition against the US for hegemony. The Black nationalist movement was the center of the rising mass movements in the US. Inspired by their resistance, the Chicano community channeled their efforts into community work, workplace organizing, and student activism. Some of the central Chicano groups from this era include the August 29th Collective, the East Bay Labor Collective, La Raza Workers Collective, and a collective from New Mexico. Although the Chicano movement did not have a strong grasp of Marxism-Leninism, it understood imperialism and the effects it had on the Chicano and Latino community. Imperialism was the root of their misery and consequently had to be overthrown. The Chicano movement developed a close working relationship with the Black Panther Party, the Young Lords Party, the Brown Berets, and the Red Guards. The August 29th Movement The August 29th Movement (ATM) was a Chicano communist movement based in Los Angeles, CA. It was formed at the Unity Conference of May 1974 after the August 29th Collective of Los Angeles, the East Bay Labor Collective of Oakland, and the La Raza Workers Collective of San Francisco merged. ATM regularly published a monthly political newspaper by the name of the Revolutionary Cause which reached people throughout the country. Since the movement's base stemmed from the Chicano nationality, the publication was printed in both English and Spanish. The group distinctively defined Chicanos living in the Southwestern United States as an oppressed nation, not an oppressed minority. ATM stems from the Brown Berets, a group formed from working class Chicano youth from across California and the Southwest. The movement formed following the footsteps of the Black Panther Party and stood for building a revolutionary front against national oppression. Unlike CPUSA, it rejected a peaceful transition to socialism. Youth started organizing in response to the oppression felt in school. As a result, they initially began by spearheading school walkouts and mobilizing around freeing Chicano political prisoners such as Chavez Ortiz. In 1973, La Raza organized a walkout in opposition to the trade union bureaucrats of the Furniture Workers Union. As Chicano workers engaged in the workout, it set an example for the rest of the Chicano national movement and is regarded as the high point of worker's struggle in Los Angeles. ATM was active in La Raza and was more geared towards working with students. While La Raza Unida Party focused on party building, the ATM Collective disagreed with this goal and started to follow its own path based on mass work. ATM was committed to an anti-revisionist ideology, clashing with the revisionist activity of the Communist League. One notable achievement of ATM was the developed of Congreso Obrero in 1973, a program set up to help Mexicano and Chicano workers to fight national oppression and to study Marxism-Leninism while on the job. Meanwhile, the Congreso Estudiantil tried to achieve the same results with Chicano students. Founding The League of Revolutionary Struggle was created from a union between I Wor Kuen and the August 29th Movement in 1978. During the 1970s, the Marxist-Leninst movement gained traction in the United States as young revolutionary groups found themselves drawn to the anti-revisionist communist movement. ATM and IWK were two prominent Marxist-Leninist organizations that were formed during the 1960s. ATM stemmed from the Chicano movement while IWK was a product of Asian movements. Realizing the importance of communist unity, ATM and IWK moved towards resolving their differences. Both being opposed to Trotskyite revisionists and dedicated to the working class and oppressed nationality movements, ATM and IWK shared many similarities. As a result, after a year and a half of discussions over ideological and political ideologies, the two organizations merged. Ideology Marxism-Leninism Marxism-Leninism is a version of Marxism developed by Vladimir Lenin. It was the ideology that served as the foundation of the first communist revolution in Russia in November 1917. Marxism-Leninism is based on the idea that a revolutionary proletarian class does not immediately emerge from capitalism. A revolutionary vanguard party is needed to lead the working class in the violent overthrow of the capitalism. Marxists-Leninists believed that after the revolution a dictatorship is needed in order to achieve communism. Marxism-Leninism rejects religion and believes that developing countries are the key to spreading communism. Maoism Maoism played an important role in Asian/American self-determination. The Little Red Book served as the foundation for their ideology as it provided a racialized analysis of Marxism. Asian Americans were inspired to further a joint Afro-Asian national self-determination agenda. In the Little Red Book, Chapter II directly supports Afro-Americans in their struggle against discrimination and US imperialism. Titled "Classes and Class Struggle", the chapter claims that "national struggle is a matter of class struggle" and centers its analysis on black and non-white resistance in the face of capitalism and imperialism. "I call on the workers, peasants, revolutionary intellectuals, elements of bourgeoisie and other enlightened persons of all colors in the world, whether white, black, yellow, or brown, to unite to oppose the radical discrimination practiced by US imperialism and support the black people in their struggle against racial discrimination." As the Chinese government started to move away from Maoist policies and grew closer with the US, LRS stated that it does not necessarily support everything China does. League of Revolutionary Struggle The League of Revolutionary Struggle saw itself as a single, unified Marxist-Leninist party fighting for the liberation of all oppressed people. With chapters across the country, it supported minority struggles in the United States and opposed the "domination and bullying of the two superpowers: the US and the Soviet Union." Adhering to Leninism, LRS believes that the world is divided among nations who possess the capital to exploit the rest of the globe's population and oppressed people living in those exploited countries. In their view, emancipation can only be achieve by mobilizing against imperialism and capitalism. Therefore, the working class is in need of a common revolutionary front in order to achieve their goal. Activity The LRS(M-L) published a newspaper called Unity and a journal called Forward: Journal of Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought. The LRS(M-L) was active in electoral work, including playing important roles in the 1984 Rainbow Coalition and the campaigns to elect Jesse Jackson for U.S. president in 1984 and 1988.When the LRS dissolved, part of the organization regrouped as the Socialist Organizing Network, which merged into Freedom Road Socialist Organization in 1994. After the organization's dissolution, the publication of Unity was continued by the Unity Organizing Committee. Unity on January 28, 1991, emphasized "A call to build an organization for the 1990s and beyond. " Jesse Jackson Although Baraka had personal criticisms reserved for Jesse Jackson, he believed that the Jackson campaign overall shifted the election towards the left. Baraka called for a focus on black voter registration and pushed the Rainbow Party in the direction of independent politics. The League of Revolutionary Struggle was involved in the anti-semitism claims surrounding Jesse Jackson. A group by the name of Jews Against Jackson, an offshoot of the radical Jewish Defense League which had been disavowed by most Jewish leaders, threatened and attacked the Jackson campaign on multiple occasions. Minister Louis Farrakhan, the black-separatist leader of the Nation of Islam, was a supporter of Jesse Jackson. He projected inflammatory remarks towards the Jewish community. Defending Jackson he said: "If you harm this brother, I warn you in the name of Allah this will be the last one you harm. Leave this servant of God alone." Following this ordeal, LRS was quick to criticize Farrakhan for not distinguishing between Judaism and Zionism. Meanwhile, Unity criticized Jackson for his slurs against Jews and called Farrakhan a nationalist. Recruitment The League of Revolutionary Struggle recruited idealistic students from institutions such as Berkeley, Stanford, UCLA, San Jose State, and San Francisco State. It also had influence in student organizations such as the Asian Pacific Islander Student Union, MEChA, and the African/Black Student Alliance. Recruited students called the process "secretive." As a result, many students felt uneasy about the covert operations of LRS on their college campuses. They thought that methods used to reel them in were devious and employed in an effort to further the league's own political agenda. Nevertheless, through its presence in institutions across the country, the league had students that were involved in campus politics. Collectively through its presence in other student organizations, university staff positions, and student government, LRS was able to push for progressive politics. After involving itself in Stanford's multicultural movement, the group damaged its credibility and reputation, "The League, in its quest for revolution, has used the struggle for multiculturalism as a front. As a result of their commitment to politics rather than people, they have done more damage to multiculturalism at Stanford than anyone else." The League of Revolutionary Struggle mocked Stanford's racial-minority communities struggle, causing activists to drift from the movement. Student leaders felt as if progressive politics were dominated by the league. Following the Stanford scandal, the league's activities were discussed and scrutinized. A conversation on the future of the League of Revolutionary Struggle was sparked, causing polarization within the group as some advocated for the organization to continue as a clandestine Marxist-Leninist organization while others wanted to replace it with a more inclusive political entity. Eventually, on September 8, 1990, the league was dismantled. Notable Figures Amiri Baraka Amiri Baraka was born in Newark, New Jersey on October 7, 1934, as Everett Leroy Jones. He lived there for his entire life. He changed his name to LeRoi, meaning "the king." Later, Baraka changed his name to "Amiri", the Swahili word for "the king." Baraka grew up in the era of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. He was heavily engaged in the Black power movement as the key organizer of the 1967 Newark Black Power Conference. In this event, they laid out the explicit political and economic agenda for the advancement of Black people. Baraka also founded the Congress of African People (CAP), an organization that linked together the forces working towards the Black liberation movement. In addition to CAP, he also spearheaded the Committed for a Unified Newark (CFUN), a community-based economic development program. Dedicated to the national self-determination of African Americans, Amiri joined the Revolutionary Communist League which later merged with the League of Revolutionary Struggle in 1980. Baraka shifted from being a nationalist to a communist. Nevertheless, his commitment to African Americans remained steadfast as reflected by the RCL pamphlet titled The Black Nation which defined Afro-American peopled as a nation based in the Black Belt of the South. Baraka is notable for his writing. In a 1982 essay titled Nationalism, Self-Determination, and Socialist Revolution, Amiri Baraka explores the relationship between the struggle for revolution and the struggle for democracy. Amiri was devoted to furthering the ideological and theoretical framework of the LRS. After the 1980s, however, LRS moved away from theory, causing Amiri to resign in protest. Wilma Chan Wilma Chan was born on October 5, 1949, in Boston, Massachusetts and was a leader of the Maoist movement in the communities of Boston and San Francisco. In the early 1980s, Chan was the Chairperson of the National Asian Struggles Commission of the League of Revolutionary Struggle. After the League of Revolutionary Struggle dissolved in 1990, she joined the Democratic Party. She served as the California State Assembly Majority Leader from 2002 to 2004 and the Assembly Majority Whip from 2001 to 2002. Jean Yonemura Jean Yonemura was the editor of Unity in 1989, the league's newspaper. She became involved in the League of Revolutionary Struggle as a parent of a student at Berkeley High School. Being an active member of the high school community, she served as a researcher on the Berkeley High School Diversity Project and advocated for issues of race and class. Her research focused on closing the racial achievement gap. Yonemura earned her doctorate at the University of California-Berkeley. International Ties Chairman Mao I Wor Kuen, a group which later merged with the League of Revolutionary Struggle, was particularly inspired by Mao as evidenced by Japanese American activism in the Bay Area in 1971. Japanese Americans adhered to Mao's proposal to "serve the people." Asian Americans sought to craft strategies to get to the root of people's oppression. LRS does not consider itself maoist but acknowledges that Mao's works inspired many of its members. Split In 1990, the group split into the Unity Organizing Committee and the Socialist Organizing Network (SON). LRS decided to disavow Marxism-Leninism and to channel its energy towards electoral political, particularly the Democratic party. Most of the Asian comrades matriculated into the Unity Organizing Committee while members of SON came from diverse backgrounds as members of national minorities (Asian American, Chicano/Latino, and African American). SON later merged with the Freedom Road Socialist Organization. The Freedom Socialist Organization continued the League of Revolutionary Struggle's mission to advance the theory and practice of self-determination socialism. References External links Issues of the LRS (ML)'s newsletter, The Black Nation Anti-revisionist organizations Defunct Maoist organizations in the United States Political parties established in 1978 1978 establishments in the United States
5333006	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch%20%28card%20game%29	Switch (card game)	Switch (also called Two Four Jacks or Black Jack, or Last Card in New Zealand) is a shedding-type card game for two or more players that is popular in the United Kingdom, Ireland and as alternative incarnations in other regions. The sole aim of Switch is to discard all of the cards in one's hand; the first player to play their final card, and ergo have no cards left, wins the game. Switch is very similar to the games UNO, Flaps and Mau Mau, both belonging to the larger Crazy Eights or Shedding family of card games. The game is also commonly known as Jack Change It, Crazy Eights, Take Two and Peanuckle in the UK and Ireland. Objective Switch is played with a regular, single deck of playing cards, or with two standard decks (shuffled into one) if there is a large number of players. Each player at their turn may play any card from their hand that matches the suit or the rank of the card previously played; for example, if the previous card was a seven of clubs, the next player may put down any seven card, or any club card, from their hand. Should the player not have any card available to play, they must pick up one card. Game rules Players are initially dealt a similar-sized hand of cards (often seven per person), but the exact number may vary depending on how many players are present. The remainder of the deck is placed face down and serves as a "pool" or drawing stack. At the beginning of the game, the topmost card from the "pool” is revealed and, so long as this card is not a trick card, play begins. (Switch may not start with a trick card, and so if the "starting card" is a trick card, cards shall continue to be selected from the pool until a non-trick card is revealed.) The first to play (generally, the player on the dealer's left) should select from his or her hand a card that matches either, the suit or the rank of the open card (the card that is "top"); for example, on a 9 of spades, only a spade card or a 9 may be played. The card played must be of the same value or higher. If a player is not able to place a card, he draws cards from the stack until he can play a card. A player may choose to withhold a card due to personal strategy but will incur the penalty of having to pick a card from the deck. If the drawing stack is run down and becomes empty, the playing stack or discard pile (except for the topmost card) is shuffled, and placed face down to become the new "pool." If the last player, at the point of when the second last player has said "Last Card", and has ended the game, the last standing player, or the lost player, can bring the player back into the game, provided the player has all logical moves remaining in hand. If the player does have all logical moves, the second last player is brought back into the game, as a form of resurrection, to re-compete. Should the last player not have all logical moves, that player loses the game. Power Cards In Switch some cards are known as "power" or "trick" cards because their being played directly affects the gameplay: 2: If a player places a two (of any suit) down, the next player is required to pick up two cards. One player may not place two 2 cards at the same time. If the next player has a two, they may place it down instead of taking cards, requiring the next player to take four. This continues until a player with no two has to pick up the current total. A player that draws cards after a two has been played is usually not permitted to put any more cards down. 8: The next player misses their turn. Ace: can be played at any time and symbolises the next player to pick up 4 cards from the deck Jack: Can be played at anytime to change the suit When a player has only one remaining card they must remember to say "last card" aloud before their turn has ended, to inform the other players that they are about to win. If a player should fail to do so before the next player has started their turn they may be penalised, often to the cost of picking up one card immediately (over and above any picking up as a matter of routine course in the game). Endgame As soon as a player plays their last card they win the game. If the last card is a power card they must draw another card as a game can not end with a power card. The game can continue until all the players get rid of their cards. If a player doesn't say "last card" he will pick up two card from main bank they may not end in an king Variations Black Jack "Black Jack" is the name of a shedding card game which shares its name with the casino card game Blackjack, and is sometimes called 7 Card Blackjack to differentiate itself from the other game. It is a variant of Crazy Eights. Dealing The dealer deals each player 7 cards (or 5 cards if there are more than 4 people), then places a single card face-up on the table and the remainder of the deck in a pile face-down on the table. A pre-determined method is used to decide which player plays first. It is usually the player left of the dealer who plays first. The game continues from there going clockwise. Play starts from the single card facing up. Player turns On each turn, the player attempts to place cards from their hand onto the stack. A card can only be placed in the stack if it matches either the rank or suit of the top card. A player can place consecutive cards of the same suit down to remove more cards. If a player cannot take their turn, they pick up a card from the remaining deck. If a player makes an error by placing an illegal card down (putting a card or cards down which goes against the rules of the game such as attempting to put a 7H on top of a 8S, or attempting a run containing one or more illegal cards) or putting a card down a wrong time (when it is not their turn, this is an easy mistake to make such as forgetting that the previous player putting an eight down makes them skip their turn), then this is declared a 'blunder' and the offending player must take back the card(s) they attempted to put down and pick up two more cards from the remaining deck as a penalty. Once the player has played their turn, they must say "Last card" if they only have one card left. If another player thinks that they can play their cards in one turn they say "cards". If they fail to do so, there is a penalty (see Endgame). An alternate method of doing this is 'knocking'. If a player thinks he can win on his next turn, he must warn the other players by making a knocking noise on the table or by saying 'knocking' (or both). If they fail to do so, there is a penalty. Magic cards Certain cards have special effects on the gameplay. Aces: The player who puts down an ace nominates a new suit, which all the players must follow. The ace can be put down at any time, of any suit, it does not have to follow the suit that the last card was, with a run on top of it if possible. It can also be used to block a two. Two: The next player is forced to pick up two cards unless he is able to lay another two, black Jack or an ace which makes the next player pick up the cards. Alternatively, a red Jack or an ace can be used to cancel the card pickup. Seven: All other cards held by that player in the same suit as the 7 may be played. Eight: The next player misses a turn unless they have an eight. Black Jack: A Black Jack causes the next player to pick up 5 cards, unless he can follow with another black Jack. If one red Jack is placed, one black Jack is cancelled. Red Jack: One red Jack cancels one black Jack. Queen: A queen must be covered by a card of any suit or rank. King: Reverses order of play. Endgame The first player to get rid of all of their cards wins the game. The game may end once a player has got rid of all of their cards, or the remaining players may continue playing until everyone has got rid of their cards (when done a player is declared to have "got out") bar one player (this player is declared "last place" or "the loser" and may be eliminated if there is an unwieldy number of people wanting to play). If the player places their last card, but failed to say "last card" at the end of their previous turn, then they must pick up two cards from the remaining deck (even if the player had multiple cards). A player can also declare their final card by 'knocking', usually by tapping the playing table. Black Jack variants Some variants may include a joker (usually only one, although the players may opt to include 2 jokers). The player is not allowed to finish on an ace or any power card Multiple cards can be placed on a single turn, where each card matches the previous card in rank or suit. There is no limit to the number of cards which can be played, but the player may not finish by placing more than one card. A 3, 7 or 10 is used as the reverse card instead of the king. The Queen can be covered by any card, not only one of her suit. Runs within a suit are allowed (in both ascending and descending order), for example with a top card of it would be possible to play The King, when it is not "reverse", is used as a "got to cover" card, in which, the player placing the king must also place a chosen card from the suit of the king. A player can end by placing a sequence of cards down. When placing "pick up" cards the black jacks and twos can be placed together giving a maximum pick up number of 18, so a move such as would be a valid and legal move. The value of the number of cards required to pick up after a black jack is played varies depending on the number of cards dealt to each player at the beginning of the game. Red Jacks do not cancel black Jacks, instead they can be combined with black Jacks. One must pick up three additional cards per red Jack. Can be played with two decks of cards if more than five people are playing. Is quite similar in several ways to the game Uno. The eight is a "play again" card. These rules tend to lead to faster play, and can make gameplay more exciting as sometimes a large number of cards can be played in a single turn by taking full advantage of both of these rules in a single turn (for instance with the 6 of clubs on top, it would be possible to play in a single turn). Using the king and queen rules from the above list, it would be possible to have this as a move, (If the 6 of clubs is on the top of the deck, the next player could play etc. until they cannot place another card) Irish Switch Irish Switch uses the following power cards: 2 the next player is required to pick up two cards. These effects may stack. 7: a player may skip a turn once the other player puts down at 7 of any suit, the next player can place another 7 down to make the next player skip, multiple people can put a 7 down, this action happens until no one has a 7, making them skip their turn. Jack: a Jack is used in play so the player can reverse to the previous player, one player may put down multiple jacks at the same time, if there are only two players in the game one player will put a jack down, making it reverse to themself, they can then put another card down on top of it. King of Hearts: Requires a player to pick up seven cards, unless they have the 2 of hearts. Then they may pick up seven cards and another 2 card makes them pick up nine and so on. Ace: Can be placed on any card of the same suit, and change the suit to any. Joker: A Joker card can be used in play, but is not necessary for the game. The Joker acts as a replacement card, i.e. it can be any card from any suit. Although, playing with these cards can make the game too easy and boring. When a player has only one remaining card they must call it or be penalised. Jacks, Twos and Eights "Jacks Twos and Eights" (J28 for short) evolved from earlier forms of rummy with the intention of being a faster, more complex game. The deck J28 is played with a standard 52-card pack of playing cards or if there is a large number of people playing one game then two packs may be mixed together and dealt as normal. Dealing Dealership alternates from round to round (the dealer to the first round is usually determined by cutting the deck and then the lowest card deals). The dealer deals a seven-card hand to each player. After seven cards are dealt the next card is placed face up in the centre of the table, this is the "discard" pile. The remainder of the pack is placed face down next to the "discard" pile, and is called the "stock". The next non-dealing player to the right of the dealer lays the first card. Play On each turn, a player plays a card or a run of card on to the discard pile. This card must be of the same suit, or the same value, a heart on a heart or a 10 on a 10. Once this card has been laid it is possible for that player to continue laying cards if a run of several cards is possible. There are several possible combinations the run may be formed from: The player may lay a set of same value cards, on top of a 10 of hearts they may lay a number of 10s regardless of suit. The player may lay a run of numbers either ascending or descending, on top of a 10 of hearts they may lay a 2, 3, 4, 5, of hearts, or a King, Queen, Jack of hearts. The run must not skip numbers, and must be of the same suit as each other and the card they are being laid upon. The player may lay a combination of the two above. They may lay a set of same value cards, three 10s then providing that they follow on suit and begin at them next number lay a run of cards, for example. On top of a 10 of hearts a player may lay: 9 of hearts, 9 of spades, 8 of spades, 7 of spades and 7 of clubs. If the player is unable to lay any card then the player must pick up a card from the stock pile. If the player is then able to play then they can lay a card down on this go. Game rules There are several rules which apply to certain cards in the game which change how the cards can be laid. Jacks can be played at any time on top of any card. Not only can it be played at any time in the game it also allows the player to change the suit of the cards to the one they prefer. For example, if a Jack is played the suit can be changed to hearts, then the player is allowed to lay a heart and any other appropriate cards on that go. If a 2 is played then the next player must pick up two cards, unless they can play a 2. This continues around the circle until a player is not able to play a 2. When this happens the player must pick up a number of cards (determined by the number or 2s laid multiplied by 2) If an 8 is played the next person in the game must play an 8 also. Again this continues around the circle until a player is unable to lay an eight. This player must then miss a number of goes (determined by the number of 8s laid) Another rule is that if a player has an ace of hearts the player next in turn must pick up 5 cards, unless they have an ace of spades, this cancels out the 5 cards they must pick up. Play continues, until one player no longer has any cards to lay. On a player's last card, “last card” must be said on their previous go in order to allow them to lay the card on their last go. One exception to this is if the player is able to end the game with a run or set of same value cards. The game cannot end on a Jack of any suit, 2 of any suit or 8 of any suit. The winner is the first player to have an empty hand. Take Two Very similar to Switch, but with some changes. Played with a 52 card deck (No jokers) or a 54 card deck (With jokers.) Dealing The dealer deals each player 5 cards, then places a single card face-up on the table and the remainder of the deck in a pile face-down on the table. The player left of the dealer plays first. The game continues from there going clockwise. Play starts from the single card facing up. Rules The player whose turn it is has to place a card of the same value (eg. on a ) or of the same suit ( on a ). If the player cannot play any card, they must take two cards from the deck. When a player is on their last card, they must say "last card". A player cannot finish on a trick card. If a player cannot finish, they must take two cards from the deck. If a player makes a mistake (e.g. places a card of the wrong suit down), they must fix the mistake and take two cards from the deck. The game has trick cards like Switch, but fewer of them: 2 if a player places a two down, the next player is required to pick up two cards. Should that player have a two themself, however, they may place it down, requiring the next player to pick up four. If they have a two, they may place it, requiring the next player to pick up six. This may continue until the flow reaches a player who does not have a two in their hand, at which point they are required to pick up the required number of cards. 8 if a player puts an eight down, the next player misses their go. Jack The jack can reverse the order of play OR skip a player depending on house rules. Ace An ace may be placed regardless of the suit, an ace allowing the person who places it to change the suit. Once a player runs out of cards, they have won, and the game goes on until there is only one person left. House rules Decided by the host of the game. Whether or not placing two or more cards of the same value at once is allowed (placing two 5s in the same turn). Whether or not placing an ace requires the same suit. Whether a jack skips a player or reverses the order. Whether or not jokers are used, if they are the next player must take 5 cards from the deck when they are player. Jokers are rarely used. When using an ace of spades it may be placed on either the ace of hearts, or a 2 if any suit. Last Card rule In some games, the "Last Card Rule" can be applied, whereby if a player is down to one card they must say "Knocking" before their turn ends. If they do not, they must pick up another card (or 5 if playing Turbo Switch). Although not an official rule, it is a rule widely accepted across Ireland and the UK. A player can also not end on a double of one card. See also Craits Screw Your Neighbour References British card games Eights group Year of introduction missing
5333892	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20situ%20resource%20utilization	In situ resource utilization	In space exploration, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) is the practice of collection, processing, storing and use of materials found or manufactured on other astronomical objects (the Moon, Mars, asteroids, etc.) that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth. ISRU could provide materials for life support, propellants, construction materials, and energy to a spacecraft payloads or space exploration crews. It is now very common for spacecraft and robotic planetary surface mission to harness the solar radiation found in situ in the form of solar panels. The use of ISRU for material production has not yet been implemented in a space mission, though several field tests in the late 2000s demonstrated various lunar ISRU techniques in a relevant environment. ISRU has long been considered as a possible avenue for reducing the mass and cost of space exploration architectures, in that it may be a way to drastically reduce the amount of payload that must be launched from Earth in order to explore a given planetary body. According to NASA, "in-situ resource utilization will enable the affordable establishment of extraterrestrial exploration and operations by minimizing the materials carried from Earth." Uses Water In the context of ISRU water is most often sought directly as fuel or as feedstock for fuel production. Applications include its use in life support either directly by drinking, for growing food, producing oxygen, or numerous other industrial processes, all of which require a ready supply of water in the environment and the equipment to extract it. Such extraterrestrial water has been discovered in a variety of forms throughout the solar system, and a number of potential water extraction technologies have been investigated. For water that is chemically bound to regolith, solid ice, or some manner of permafrost, sufficient heating can recover the water. However this is not as easy as it appears because ice and permafrost can often be harder than plain rock, necessitating laborious mining operations. Where there is some level of atmosphere, such as on Mars, water can be extracted directly from the air using a simple process such as WAVAR. Another possible source of water is deep aquifers kept warm by Mars's latent geological heat, which can be tapped to provide both water and geothermal power. Rocket propellant Rocket propellant production has been proposed from the Moon's surface by processing water ice detected at the poles. The likely difficulties include working at extremely low temperatures and extraction from the regolith. Most schemes electrolyse the water to produce hydrogen and oxygen and cryogenically store them as liquids. This requires large amounts of equipment and power to achieve. Alternatively, it may be possible to heat water in a nuclear or solar thermal rocket, which may be able to deliver a large mass from the Moon to low Earth orbit (LEO) in spite of the much lower specific impulse, for a given amount of equipment. The monopropellant hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be made from water on Mars and the Moon. Aluminum as well as other metals has been proposed for use as rocket propellant made using lunar resources, and proposals include reacting the aluminum with water. For Mars, methane propellant can be manufactured via the Sabatier process. SpaceX has suggested building a propellant plant on Mars that would use this process to produce methane () and liquid oxygen (O2) from sub-surface water ice and atmospheric . Solar cell production It has long been suggested that solar cells could be produced from the materials present in lunar soil. Silicon, aluminium, and glass, three of the primary materials required for solar cell production, are found in high concentrations in lunar soil and can be utilised to produce solar cells. In fact, the native vacuum on the lunar surface provides an excellent environment for direct vacuum deposition of thin-film materials for solar cells. Solar arrays produced on the lunar surface can be used to support lunar surface operations as well as satellites off the lunar surface. Solar arrays produced on the lunar surface may prove more cost effective than solar arrays produced and shipped from Earth, but this trade depends heavily on the location of the particular application in question. Another potential application of lunar-derived solar arrays is providing power to Earth. In its original form, known as the solar power satellite, the proposal was intended as an alternate power source for Earth. Solar cells would be launched into Earth orbit and assembled, with the resultant generated power being transmitted down to Earth via microwave beams. Despite much work on the cost of such a venture, the uncertainty lay in the cost and complexity of fabrication procedures on the lunar surface. Building materials The colonization of planets or moons will require obtaining local building materials, such as regolith. For example, studies employing artificial Mars soil mixed with epoxy resin and tetraethoxysilane, produce high enough values of strength, resistance, and flexibility parameters. Asteroid mining could also involve extraction of metals for construction material in space, which may be more cost-effective than bringing such material up out of Earth's deep gravity well, or that of any other large body like the Moon or Mars. Metallic asteroids contain huge amounts of siderophilic metals, including precious metals. Locations Mars ISRU research for Mars is focused primarily on providing rocket propellant for a return trip to Earth — either for a crewed or a sample return mission — or for use as fuel on Mars. Many of the proposed techniques utilise the well-characterised atmosphere of Mars as feedstock. Since this can be easily simulated on Earth, these proposals are relatively simple to implement, though it is by no means certain that NASA or the ESA will favour this approach over a more conventional direct mission. A typical proposal for ISRU is the use of a Sabatier reaction, , in order to produce methane on the Martian surface, to be used as a propellant. Oxygen is liberated from the water by electrolysis, and the hydrogen recycled back into the Sabatier reaction. The usefulness of this reaction is that—, when the availability of water on Mars was less scientifically demonstrated—only the hydrogen (which is light) was thought to need to be brought from Earth. , SpaceX is developing the technology for a Mars propellant plant that will use a variation on what is described in the previous paragraph. Rather than transporting hydrogen from Earth to use in making the methane and oxygen, they intend to mine the requisite water from subsurface water ice that is now known to be abundant across much of the Martian surface, produce and then store the post-Sabatier reactants, and then use it as propellant for return flights of their Starship no earlier than 2023. A similar reaction proposed for Mars is the reverse water gas shift reaction, . This reaction takes place rapidly in the presence of an iron-chrome catalyst at 400 °C, and has been implemented in an Earth-based testbed by NASA. Again, hydrogen is recycled from the water by electrolysis, and the reaction only needs a small amount of hydrogen from Earth. The net result of this reaction is the production of oxygen, to be used as the oxidizer component of rocket fuel. Another reaction proposed for the production of oxygen and fuel is the electrolysis of the atmospheric carbon dioxide, \overset{atmospheric \atop {carbon\ dioxide}}{2CO2} ->[\text{energy}] {2CO} + O2 It has also been proposed the in situ production of oxygen, hydrogen and CO from the Martian hematite deposits via a two-step thermochemical /H2O splitting process, and specifically in the magnetite/wustite redox cycle. Although thermolysis is the most direct, one-step process for splitting molecules, it is neither practical nor efficient in the case of either H2O or CO2. This is because the process requires a very high temperature (> 2,500 °C) to achieve a useful dissociation fraction. This poses problems in finding suitable reactor materials, losses due to vigorous product recombination, and excessive aperture radiation losses when concentrated solar heat is used. The magnetite/wustite redox cycle was first proposed for solar application on earth by Nakamura, and was one of the first used for solar-driven two-step water splitting. In this cycle, water reacts with wustite (FeO) to form magnetite (Fe3O4) and hydrogen. The summarised reactions in this two-step splitting process are as follows: Fe3O4 ->[\text{energy}] {3FeO} + \overbrace{1/2O2}^{\underset{(\operatorname{by-product})}{oxygen}} and the obtained FeO is used for the thermal splitting of water or CO2 : This process is repeated cyclically. The above process results in a substantial reduction in the thermal input of energy if compared with the most direct, one-step process for splitting molecules. However, the process needs wustite (FeO) to start the cycle, but on Mars there is no wustite or at least not in significant amounts. Nevertheless, wustite can be easily obtained by reduction of hematite (Fe2O3) which is an abundant material on Mars, being specially conspicuous the strong hematite deposits located at Terra Meridiani. The use of wustite from the hematite, abundantly available on Mars, is an industrial process well known on Earth, and is performed by the following two main reduction reactions: The proposed 2001 Mars Surveyor lander was to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the atmosphere of Mars, and test solar cell technologies and methods of mitigating the effect of Martian dust on the power systems, but the project was cancelled. The Mars 2020 rover mission includes a ISRU technology demonstrator (the Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment) that will extract CO2 from the atmosphere and produce O2. It has been suggested that buildings on Mars could be made from basalt as it has good insulating properties. An underground structure of this type would be able to protect life forms against radiation exposure. All of the resources required to make plastics exist on Mars. Many of these complex reactions are able to be completed from the gases harvested from the martian atmosphere. Traces of free oxygen, carbon monoxide, water and methane are all known to exist. Hydrogen and oxygen can be made by the electrolysis of water, carbon monoxide and oxygen by the electrolysis of carbon dioxide and methane by the Sabatier reaction of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These basic reactions provide the building blocks for more complex reaction series which are able to make plastics. Ethylene is used to make plastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene and can be made from carbon monoxide and hydrogen: . Moon The Moon possesses abundant raw materials that are potentially relevant to a hierarchy of future applications, beginning with the use of lunar materials to facilitate human activities on the Moon itself and progressing to the use of lunar resources to underpin a future industrial capability within the Earth-Moon system. Natural resources include solar power, oxygen, water, hydrogen, and metals. The lunar highland material anorthite can be used as aluminium ore. Smelters can produce pure aluminium, calcium metal, oxygen and silica glass from anorthite. Raw anorthite is also good for making fiberglass and other glass and ceramic products. One particular processing technique is to use fluorine brought from Earth as potassium fluoride to separate the raw materials from the lunar rocks. Over twenty different methods have been proposed for oxygen extraction from the lunar regolith. Oxygen is often found in iron-rich lunar minerals and glasses as iron oxide. The oxygen can be extracted by heating the material to temperatures above 900 °C and exposing it to hydrogen gas. The basic equation is: FeO + H2 → Fe + H2O. This process has recently been made much more practical by the discovery of significant amounts of hydrogen-containing regolith near the Moon's poles by the Clementine spacecraft. Lunar materials may also be used as a general construction material, through processing techniques such as sintering, hot-pressing, liquification, and the cast basalt method. Cast basalt is used on Earth for construction of, for example, pipes where a high resistance to abrasion is required. Glass and glass fiber are straightforward to process on the Moon and Mars. Basalt fibre has also been made from lunar regolith simulators. Successful tests have been performed on Earth using two lunar regolith simulants MLS-1 and MLS-2. In August 2005, NASA contracted for the production of 16 tonnes of simulated lunar soil, or lunar regolith simulant material for research on how lunar soil could be utilized in situ. Martian moons, Ceres, asteroids Other proposals are based on Phobos and Deimos. These moons are in reasonably high orbits above Mars, have very low escape velocities, and unlike Mars have return delta-v's from their surfaces to LEO which are less than the return from the Moon. Ceres is further out than Mars, with a higher delta-v, but launch windows and travel times are better, and the surface gravity is just 0.028 g, with a very low escape velocity of 510 m/s. Researchers have speculated that the interior configuration of Ceres includes a water-ice-rich mantle over a rocky core. Near Earth Asteroids and bodies in the asteroid belt could also be sources of raw materials for ISRU. Planetary atmospheres Proposals have been made for "mining" for rocket propulsion, using what is called a Propulsive Fluid Accumulator. Atmospheric gases like oxygen and argon could be extracted from the atmosphere of planets like the Earth, Mars, and the outer Gas Giants by Propulsive Fluid Accumulator satellites in low orbit. ISRU capability classification (NASA) In October 2004, NASA's Advanced Planning and Integration Office commissioned an ISRU capability roadmap team. The team's report, along with those of 14 other capability roadmap teams, were published 22 May 2005. The report identifies seven ISRU capabilities: resource extraction, material handling and transport, resource processing, surface manufacturing with in situ resources, surface construction, surface ISRU product and consumable storage and distribution, and ISRU unique development and certification capabilities. The report focuses on lunar and martian environments. It offers a detailed timeline and capability roadmap to 2040 but it assumes lunar landers in 2010 and 2012. ISRU technology demonstrators and prototypes The Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander was intended to carry to Mars a test payload, MIP (Mars ISPP Precursor), that was to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the atmosphere of Mars, but the mission was cancelled. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) is a 1% scale prototype model aboard the Mars 2020 rover Perseverance that produces oxygen from Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in a process called solid oxide electrolysis. The experiment produced its first 5.37 grams of oxygen on 20 April 2021. The lunar Resource Prospector rover was designed to scout for resources on a polar region of the Moon, and it was proposed to be launched in 2022. The mission concept was still in its pre-formulation stage, and a prototype rover was being tested when it was scrapped in April 2018. Its science instruments will be flown instead on several commercial lander missions contracted by NASA's new Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLSP) program, that aims to focus on testing various lunar ISRU processes by landing several payloads on multiple commercial landers and rovers. The first formal solicitation is expected sometime in 2019. See also References Further reading Resource Utilization Concepts for MoonMars; ByIris Fleischer, Olivia Haider, Morten W. Hansen, Robert Peckyno, Daniel Rosenberg and Robert E. Guinness; 30 September 2003; IAC Bremen, 2003 (29 Sept – 3 Oct 2003) and MoonMars Workshop (26–28 Sept 2003, Bremen). Accessed on 18 January 2010 External links UW AA Dept. ISRU Research Lab ISRU solar cell manufacture ISRU on the Moon Moon Ice For LEO to GEO Transfers Orders of magnitude lower cost for rocket propellant if lunar ice is present Homesteading the Planets with Local Materials In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Capabilities nasa.gov Missions to Mars Space colonization Exploration of the Moon Self-sustainability Space manufacturing Natural resources
5334192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20mimicry	Sexual mimicry	Sexual mimicry occurs when one sex mimics the opposite sex in its behavior, appearance, or chemical signalling. It is more commonly seen within invertebrate species, although sexual mimicry is also seen among vertebrates such as spotted hyenas. Sexual mimicry is commonly used as a mating strategy to gain access to a mate, a defense mechanism to avoid more dominant individuals, or a survival strategy. It can also be a physical characteristic that establishes an individual's place in society. Sexual mimicry is employed differently across species and it is part of their strategy for survival and reproduction. Examples of intraspecific sexual mimicry in animals include the spotted hyena, certain types of fish, passerine birds and some species of insect. Interspecific sexual mimicry can also occur in some plant species, especially orchids. In plants employing sexual mimicry, flowers mimic mating signals of their pollinator insects. These insects are attracted and pollinate the flowers through pseudocopulations or other sexual behaviors performed on the flower. Social systems Sexual mimicry can play a role in the development of a species' social system. Perhaps the most extreme example of this can be seen in the spotted hyena, Crocuta crocuta. Female hyenas of all ages possess pseudomasculinized genitalia, including a pseudopenis formed from the clitoris, and a false scrotum formed from the labia. These characteristics likely initially evolved to reduce rates of intrasex aggression received by cub and juvenile females from adult females. However, the trait has evolved beyond its initial use to become highly relevant to spotted hyena communication. Subordinate hyenas will greet dominant individuals by erecting their penis or pseudopenis and allowing the dominant individual to lick it. This likely initially evolved as a means of discerning the sex of the subordinate individual, as the pseudopenis less closely resembles a genuine penis when erect, and tasting the area could allow for the detection of sex specific hormone concentrations. However, this behaviour continues to be engaged in by adult, parous females which no longer convincingly resemble males, visually or olifactorily. Mating systems In the spotted hyenas, the only way for the males to mate with the females is if they have the female's full cooperation because of the female's peniform clitoris. An increase in the male's status gave them more access to dominant females in the clan. Non-dominant females are observed copulating more often with lower-ranking males. It is costly for female hyenas to give birth through their long peniform clitoris. The umbilical cord is 12–18 cm long, while the journey from the uterus to the clitoris end is 40 cm. The umbilical cord often breaks before the cub emerges, leading to death by anoxia for many young. This journey is not only harmful for the cubs, but also for the mother. The tissue of the clitoris will sometimes rip open when giving birth for the first time which can be fatal to the mother. Sexual mimicry is also used as a mate-guarding strategy by some species. Mate-guarding is a process in which a member of a species prevents another member of the same species from mating with their partner. Mate-guarding is seen in Cotesia rubecula, a parasitic wasp from the family Braconidae whose mating system is polygynous. Males are attracted to females through pheromones and they induce females to mate through vibrations, to which the female responds by assuming a specific position. When a male who has copulated with a female sees another male trying to court her, he will often adopt the female receptive position. Post-copulatory female mimicry by the male offers an advantage by acting as a mate-guarding mechanism. If a second male arrives soon enough after the female copulates with the first male, the second male may be able to induce a second copulation which will compete with the first one. However, if the first male who copulated with her mimics the female, it distracts the second male long enough that the female becomes unreceptive. Sneaky copulation Sneaky copulation is a strategy used by many aquatic organisms who portray sexual mimicry. Several studies have found that small male fish will look and behave like the female of their species in order to gain access to female territory and copulate with them. In the fish family Blenniidae, the female Salaria pavo will show a specific colour pattern and movement when they want to approach a male and copulate with him. The male guards a territory, and when the female lays her eggs, the parental male protects that territory until the eggs hatch. A second type of males, the sneaker males, is parasitic and resembles the female bleniid fish in their small size, colour, and movement patterns. This allows them to intrude into the nest guarded by the parental males. Sneaker males approach the nests with the same colour patterns and movements that the females hold. Most cases of sneaker males are seen when there is a female already inside the nest although sometimes the sneaker fish enters the nest alongside a female. This species of fish releases the sperm before the female releases her eggs into the water making it possible for the sneaker fish to fertilize an egg, even if the female is not present in the nest. In the Sepiina family, the giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama, have some males that are large and able to guard a female's nest while other males are small and resemble females in order to sneak in copulations. In the giant cuttlefish, the male courts the female and transfers its sperm to a pouch below the female's beak. During this process, the female displays a body pattern of black splotches on a white background. Once the eggs are laid, the male guards the nest from any possible suitors and opponents. A ‘second female’ is sometimes seen during male-female interaction in close proximity to the couple. This female-looking cuttlefish has the same black blotches as a real female. If the male leaves to fight other males, this individual approaches the female and copulates with her, usually with success. However, in the absence of rivals, these 'mimicking female' males display the phenotype of a mature male. Sexual mimicry against aggression A similar phenomenon to the sneaker fish males is observed in the dark-edged splitfin, Girardinichthys multiradiatus. The juveniles resemble the pregnant females in the species by having a dark spot near the vent. In this case, however, the mimicking males have the capability to resemble the females or become a morphologically mature male throughout most of their adult life. This dark spot allows the female-looking males to escape aggression from more dominant males, as well as reducing the chance of having a female nearby flee due to persisting courting males. The mature males do not attack the subordinate fish and the subordinate fish decides when to initiate the fights, which gives it an advantage as the mature male is not expecting this. The dark spot also permits access of subordinate males to females, a characteristic that is advantageous because females' eggs can only be fertilized during a five-day fertilizing window. Sexual mimicry to avoid aggression is also seen in birds. In some bird species, males have a female-like plumage colour during their second year of life (SY males). These SY males are sexually mature and able to breed, but their morphology differs greatly from the older, after second year (ASY) males. Various studies have looked into this delayed plumage maturation (DPM) and found that the DPM in SY males reduces aggression from ASY males. Female mimicry in birds was first found in European pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca. When a dull-coloured male is in the area, mature males reduce their aggressiveness and behave as if the intruder is a female. The dull plumage is seen mostly in younger males, likely due to being born later in the previous spring. The resemblance to females benefit these young males when trying to occupy a territory with many males already present because the young males can gain information and access to a territory that would not be accessible to them otherwise. There is a big cost to not looking like a male when it comes to defending a territory or attracting a mate. Females show aggression against dull-coloured males, making it harder for them to mate. However, DPM has some benefits: as mentioned above, it reduces aggression from older males. As well, these female-looking birds are able to get access to territories, mates, and food that may be not be available to them otherwise. Another benefit is that DPM provides SY birds with a longer lifespan; because they do not have to compete with other males, their mortality rate is lower. This advantage, however, only benefits individuals of species that have a longer potential lifespan and, therefore, DPM would not benefit a short-lived species. This is known as the breeding threshold hypothesis, and states that SY males should only delay breeding if there is a large mortality difference between the SY males who attempt to breed and the ones who do not. Most studies addressed DPM as a type of sexual mimicry, which is done through deception: male ASY birds should not be able to tell females or SY males apart. However, Muheter et al. (1997) found that territorial males perceive the dull-coloured males as males but they show less aggression because their dull-coloured plumage promotes low competitive ability. They referred to this as honest signalling and not sexual mimicry. Another example of sexual mimicry occurs in Broadley's Flat Lizard, Platysaurus broadleyi, where some males mimic females. Flat lizard males tend to be territorial and aggressive towards other males. Therefore, it is beneficial for some males to mimic females in order to avoid aggressive encounters and move freely through the male's territory, looking for mates. There are two types of males in this population; she-males, who mimic females, and he-males, who look like males. The she-males can visually fool the he-males into believing that they are female due to their female morphology. However, the she-males cannot fool the he-males through scent, as he-males can detect the difference. Therefore, the most successful she-males are those who avoid close contact with other males, thereby reducing the chances of detection through chemical signals. Molecular control over sexual mimicry In a lekking shorebird species, the ruff, or Philomachus pugnax, there are three distinct male morphs: independent males, the primary, dark-feathered morph, which establishes and aggressively defends a lekking territory, satellite males, a light-feathered morph which does not defend its own territory but which seeks prominent independent males to display alongside, and faeder males, which lack the typical male breeding plumage, instead more closely resembling females, possess a smaller body size, intermediate between a typical male and female, and which do not consistently occupy a single territory, but move freely between different independent male territories, perhaps owing to their female-like plumage, and engage in sneak copulations with females. When testosterone is administered to reeves (female ruffs), male courtship behaviour and male feather colouration are expressed in the reeves. Testosterone, in this case, expresses sex-limited characteristics by acting on the single autosomal gene. A different example is seen in mature female fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, who are very attractive but their level of attractiveness decreases by half or more after three minutes of mating. Males release a compound, 7-tricosene, into the female during courtship that lowers female attractiveness. However, the researcher found that the females release this compound as well, six hours after mating. This compound lowers the female's levels of attractiveness both times, when the male is courting her and during mating. This way, the female mimics the male and with this compound, she lowers her levels of attractiveness. Genetic control over sexual mimicry Some organisms' sexual mimicry is genetically determined by specific alleles. Unlike sexual mimicry that arises due to molecular compounds or hormones and can sometimes be induced through these molecules, this sexual mimicry arises from the organism's genetic material. Besides the female hyenas' sexual anatomy, which is part of their genetics, some other organisms have only some males/females in their population who look like the opposite sex and this is determined by specific alleles. In the marine isopod population, Paracerceis sculpta, there are three different male morphologies: the alpha male is the largest morph, it matures last, and it is the one who gets privileged access to the females. The beta male is of intermediate size, and it mimics the female to get access to females. Last, the gamma male is the smallest morph and it invades harems, where females go to mate with alpha males, for mating opportunities. This morphology is associated with a single autosomal gene and three different alleles. Beta is the most dominant allele, followed by gamma, which is followed by alpha. Selection on these alleles acts according to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and mating success is equivalent among all three morphs. The alpha males, who are homozygous for the alpha allele, mate with many females in a harem. The females prefer to aggregate with other females in the harem, which gives the alpha male a bigger selection of mating partners. Shuster (1992) looked at the behaviour and relationship of each morph with respect to the harem and found that beta and gamma males could locate harems that have sexually receptive females. They were also able to differentiate between a harem with a sexually receptive female, i.e. one that is able to mate, and a non-sexually receptive female, i.e. one that has already deposited the embryo into her pouch and can no longer mate. While it is still unclear how the beta males do this or how their mating strategies work, they are not harassed by alpha males due to their mimicry of females: the beta males can attract other females into the harem since females like to go where other females are, and this provides the alpha males with more mates. Another order of organisms whose sexual mimicry is influenced by their DNA is the Odonata, carnivorous insects known as dragonflies and damselflies. In these species, it is the female who sometimes mimics the male. Within a species, groups of females will differ in colour: one group mimics the males' colour and they are known as androchromes. Other groups will have their own female colouration and they are known as gynochromes. In Ischnura elegans, androchromes comprise 6-30% of the female population and their colour is usually blue, like the males; in some populations, androchromes are larger in size than gynochromes. This polymorphism is controlled by an autosomal allele and some studies have looked at the reason for the polymorphism's maintenance. The most likely theory for the maintenance of the polymorphism in Odonata is the density dependence theory that states that at a high male density, the androchromes are not bothered by the males and their existence is not threatened by male harassment. This hypothesis also assumes that males cannot distinguish between androchromes and other males. This advantage, however, is counteracted with the fact that they will not get a lot of mating opportunities (if any) and their reproduction is limited. This theory is the most likely explanation for the maintenance of polymorphism, since studies have shown that there is an advantage for androchromes in high male-density populations. Self-control over sexual mimicry While, as seen before, most organisms which portray sexual mimicry are born with this morphology/behaviour, this is not always the case. The giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama, mentioned above in the section “sneaky copulations”, is born with the capacity to choose whether to change its morphology to look like a female or a mature male. When no competition is seen nearby, the cuttlefish will look like a mature male and mate with the female. However, when a mature male and a female are copulating, the giant cuttlefish will resemble a female and stay at a close distance of the couple, hoping for a chance to mate with the female if the mature male leaves to fight other males. Another example of an organism that has the capability to remain small and look like a female, or become a morphologically mature male, is the dark-edged splitfin, Girardinichthys multiradiatus. The purpose for their female mimicry was seen before, in the “sexual mimicry against aggression” section where the female-looking males will escape aggression from dominant males and avoid females fleeing their company due to persisting courting males. Interspecific deceptive mimicry Interspecific sexual mimicry can also occur in some plant species. The most common example of this is known as sexually deceptive pollination and is found among some orchids. The orchid mimics its pollinator's females, usually hymenopterans such as wasps and bees, attracting the males to the flower. Orchid flowers mimic the sex pheromones and to some degree the visual appearance of the female insect of its pollinator species. The primacy of olfactory over visual cues has been demonstrated in many cases, such as in the European orchid genus Ophrys as well as many Australian sexually deceptive orchids. In few other cases, such as the South African daisy Gorteria diffusa, visual signals seem to be of primary importance. Visual signals also enhance the attractiveness of the flowers of some Ophrys species to their pollinators. Some male scoliid wasps such as Campsoscolia ciliata are more attracted to the Ophrys flowers' odours than to the odours of the female wasps, although they both attract the males with the same compounds. This is most likely a result of a higher amount of scent coming from the orchid flowers; female wasps tend to produce less scent to avoid attracting predators. Regardless of whether orchids use appearances, fragrances or both, they mimic the female pollinator for their own benefit. See also Fossa (animal)#External genitalia Passing (gender) Pseudo-penis Sequential hermaphroditism References Sex Animal anatomy Mimicry
5334200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20McGowan%20%28footballer%29	Paul McGowan (footballer)	Paul McGowan (born 7 October 1987) is a Scottish footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for Cove Rangers. McGowan started his career with Scottish Premier League club Celtic, but struggled to break into the first team and was sent out on loan several times. He spent the 2006–07 season with third-tier side Morton, where he won the Second Division title and received individual accolades. Having made only two appearances following his return to Celtic, he spent the second half of the 2008–09 season with Hamilton Academical in the SPL. He moved on loan to another SPL side, St Mirren, for the 2010–11 season, after which Celtic released him from his contract and he signed with St Mirren permanently. In December 2011 he won the SPL player of the month award, and won the Scottish League Cup with the club in 2013. He joined Dundee in June 2014 and would become a mainstay and a key player for the side throughout his 9-year tenure there, making over 300 appearances for the Dark Blues. He would join Dunfermline Athletic on loan in 2023 and would earn winner's medals for both the Scottish Championship and the Scottish League One in the same season. Career Celtic McGowan came through the youth system at Celtic, at which time he was considered primarily to be a striker. Loan to Greenock Morton McGowan was loaned out to Greenock Morton for the 2006–07 season. He played as a striker for Morton and scored a total of 16 goals in 44 competitive matches. During his spell at Cappielow, McGowan won the Scottish Football League's young player of the month award for January 2007. He was the club's top scorer and received a winner's medal as Morton won the Scottish Second Division. He was chosen to the 'Team of the year' in the Second Division and 3rd place in the 'Player of the Year' award. Morton failed to land the player in the summer transfer window when their bid – approaching a six-figure sum – was rejected. Return to Celtic McGowan made his Celtic debut in a 5–0 win over Inverness Caledonian Thistle in September 2007, where he came on as a substitute. It was his only appearance of the season. He scored his first goal for Celtic on 7 August 2008 in a pre-season friendly against Manchester City at Celtic Park. He had the chance to score another to win the match, but his shot hit the crossbar and the game ended 1–1. McGowan made his UEFA Champions League debut against Villarreal on 10 December 2008, as a 75th-minute substitute for Aiden McGeady. Celtic won the match 2–0 but finished bottom of their group, and once again McGowan did not appear for the club again during that campaign. Loan to Hamilton Academical McGowan was loaned out to SPL side Hamilton Academical at the beginning of the January 2009 transfer window, and started his first game with an assist for Chris Swailes in the 1–0 win over Ross County in the Scottish Cup. His first goal for the club came on 21 February 2009 in a 2–1 win over Falkirk, scoring from 10 yards out. At the end of the 2008–09 season, his loan spell came to an end. Return to Celtic In the 2009–10 season, McGowan became part of the Celtic first team squad under manager Tony Mowbray. On 17 December 2009, just over a year to the day of his European bow, McGowan made his Europa League debut in a 3–3 draw away to Rapid Vienna; he made an impact in the 91st minute by scoring his first competitive goal for the Hoops to complete a comeback from 3–0 down to draw 3–3. On 24 January 2010, McGowan made an impressive display when he provided assists for both Marc-Antoine Fortuné and Paddy McCourt, as Celtic made a comeback from 1–0 down to win 4–1 against St Johnstone. On 29 April 2010, he signed a two-year contract with Celtic. Having signed the new deal, McGowan stated in May 2010 that he expected to make more appearances in the first team in the near future, but in fact he had already made his final appearance for the club the previous week. Loan to St Mirren In July 2010, McGowan was again sent out on loan, this time to St Mirren. He made his league debut for the club in the opening game of the 2010–11 season, a 1–1 draw against Dundee United on 14 August 2010. He scored his first competitive goal for the Buddies in a Scottish League Cup match against Ross County – St Mirren lost in the penalty-shootout when the tie ended 2–2 after normal time and 3–3 after extra-time. In September 2010, McGowan received a straight red card for an off-the-ball violent incident involving Manuel Pascali of Kilmarnock, which was spotted by the referee. He was then observed to make a rude hand gesture at opposing fans who had been taunting him. After the match, McGowan apologised for his actions, while his manager Danny Lennon stated a fine would be considered once video evidence had been reviewed. After missing one game, he made his return from suspension on 25 September and scored his first goal, in a 2–1 loss against Inverness Caledonian Thistle. In January 2011, McGowan scored the first hat-trick of his career in a 6–1 win over Peterhead in a fourth round replay in the Scottish Cup. Lennon described McGowan as a "threat", who needed to rise above difficult treatment, advising him to learn from the attitude of Lionel Messi. Throughout the season, he played a total of 39 matches and scored 6 goals in all competitions for St Mirren. Danny Lennon converted McGowan from a striker to a central attacking midfielder with the role of playmaker during this period. Permanent move to St Mirren On 6 June 2011, McGowan signed a two-year deal with St Mirren, having had a successful loan spell. McGowan's first game after signing for the club on a permanent basis came on the opening game of the season, in a 0–0 draw against Dunfermline Athletic. In a 2–0 loss against his former club, on 28 August 2011, McGowan made a mistake when he misplaced a pass, allowing Gary Hooper to score, but Lennon praised him in spite of this, while McGowan himself stated he would take full responsibility for his performance. He scored a brace in a 3–0 victory against Kilmarnock in September 2011, and netted two more on 22 October 2011 in a 3–2 loss against Hibernian. In November 2011, McGowan attracted interest from English clubs, believed to be Crystal Palace and Wigan. He won the Scottish Premier League player of the month award for December 2011. McGowan revealed he was surprised to receive the award, and was the first Saints player to win it since Andy Dorman in April 2009. McGowan gained plaudits for his ability to retain possession of the ball. Throughout the season, he played a total of 45 matches and scored 8 goals in all competitions for St Mirren. After scoring two goals at the outset of the 2012–13 season (in a 5–1 win over Ayr United in first round of the Scottish League Cup, and in a 3–1 loss against Kilmarnock on 22 September 2012), McGowan suffered a shoulder injury that required surgery. While on the sideline, captain Jim Goodwin stated the club missed McGowan he was a major player. McGowan returned to the first team in mid-Decemberand went on to score a penalty against former employers Celtic in the Scottish League Cup semi-final; St Mirren qualified for the final with an unexpected 3–2 win. Ahead of the 2013 Scottish League Cup Final, McGowan scored and provided an assist for Graham Carey in a 2–0 league win over Heart of Midlothian, and in the showpiece event itself at Hampden Park, he was named 'man of the match' in the Buddies 3–2 victory over the same opposition as the club ended its 26-year wait for silverware. After the match, McGowan told BBC Scotland that he felt "very proud". A few weeks after the final, McGowan scored a penalty in a 1–1 draw against Celtic. Towards the end of the 2012–13 season, McGowan admitted that his future was uncertain, having attracted interest from English clubs, with one believed to be Birmingham City after manager Lennon revealed he had yet to sort out his future at the club by signing a new deal. Eventually, on 3 June 2013, it was announced that McGowan had re-signed for St Mirren on a free transfer, just two days after his previous contract had expired. After signing a new contract, he cited family reasons as his basis for staying in Paisley. In the 2013–14 season, McGowan started off his season by struggling to score for the eight games, netting his first of the season on 5 October 2013, in a 2–0 win over Hearts. He scored another, as well as two assists, in a 4–3 win over St Johnstone on 19 October. In the match against Inverness CT, McGowan limped off where he sustained a broken toe, and later had to wear a protective mask in the fourth round replay of the Scottish Cup against Queen of the South. Despite being disciplined by the club for an incident away from football, McGowan continued to play, adding two more goals to his tally; one was against Dundee United on 15 March 2014 and the other against Hibernian on 19 April 2014, to help the club secure their future in the Scottish Premiership. After the latter match, McGowan stated he was happy to put the disciplinary incident behind him by helping the club finish the season on a high. At the end of season 2013–14, St Mirren announced that McGowan would not be offered a new contract and he was released. Dundee McGowan signed a two-year contract with newly promoted side Dundee in June 2014. Upon joining Dundee, Manager Paul Hartley stated he immediately sought to signed him once he learned he was released by St Mirren. McGowan made his Dundee debut, playing as a central midfielder, as Dundee won 4–0 against Peterhead on 2 August 2014 in the Scottish League Cup, and then made his league debut as Dundee drew 1–1 with Kilmarnock on 9 August 2014. McGowan continued to be in the first team throughout the first half of the season until he suffered a knee injury that kept him sidelined for four weeks. He made his return to the first team in the Dundee derby, which Dundee lost 6–2 to Dundee United. McGowan scored his first Dundee goal in the last minute in a 1–0 win over Partick Thistle on 14 February 2015. As a result of being placed on a court-imposed curfew for another incident outside football, McGowan could not be included in the matchday squad for evening kick-offs for the remainder of the season, though he was still available for afternoon games. During a League Cup group stage match against Forfar Athletic in 2016, McGowan chipped Grant Adam on the edge of the box to open the scoring in a 7–0 win for Dundee. He then scored in the opening league game of the 2016–17 season, a 3–1 win over Ross County in Dingwall, however afterwards Dundee would go into a six-game losing streak which saw the club involved in a relegation fight. On 29 October, McGowan scored a crucial winning goal in a 1–0 victory over Hamilton. Just before Christmas he scored an equalising goal against Hearts as Dundee came from 2–0 down to win 3–2. Towards the end of the season McGowan assisted Marcus Haber to score in a crucial match against Kilmarnock in a 1–0 win to help Dundee steer clear of relegation during Neil McCann's reign as interim manager. McGowan scored his first goal of the 2017–18 season against Dundee United in the Dundee Derby to win the game 2–1, beating Harry Lewis from 20 yards. He picked up his second goal of the season with another long-range strike in a 1–1 draw with Motherwell at Fir Park. While not netting for the rest of the season, McGowan was a key player in once again keeping the Dee in the Premiership. After St Johnstone manager Tommy Wright confirmed his interest in signing him, McGowan signed a new one-year contract extension with Dundee with the option of a further year. McGowan remained an important piece in the 2018–19 season, but had to endure a horrible season where the club managed just five league wins all season, and only one of them being at home, en route to relegation. Despite the dismal season, McGowan managed a couple of league goals during the season, both against Hibernian. The first was a crucial equaliser at Easter Road in November during Dundee's most successful spell of the season, and the second also being an equaliser at Dens, though Dundee would eventually lose the game. As the 2019–20 season began, McGowan was given the captain's armband many times, and scored two key penalties in shootouts during Dundee's League Cup group stage matches to help them top the group. McGowan would get his scoring underway in his 200th appearance for the club, scoring the opener against Partick Thistle, though a late Dundee collapse would ruin the day. He went on to score the next week, away to Ayr United with what would prove to be the game-winning goal in a 2–1 victory. McGowan would next find the net on 14 December, scoring against Dunfermline Athletic in a 4–3 victory, and followed that up with his second goal in as many games the next week, once again netting against Partick in an away win. McGowan continued being a key player for the Dark Blues until the season was ended early due to the COVID-19 pandemic. After the season was brought to a close, McGowan was named the winner of the Andrew De Vries Player of the Year Award for the 2019–20 season. As one of the Dundee players due to have his contract expire in June and with many club officials and players on furlough due to the pandemic, McGowan's contract was extended until July in order to give more time for discussions. McGowan signed a one-year extension with Dundee near the end of June 2020, agreeing to drop his wages significantly for the year to help the club cope better with the coronavirus crisis. In April 2021, an appearance clause in his contract triggered a further one-year extension in McGowan's contract, keeping him with Dundee until the summer of 2022. He would play a prominent role in Dundee's success in the Premiership play-offs, and helped the club gain promotion back to the Premiership. In January 2022, McGowan would once again agree a one-year contract extension, taking him into his ninth season with the club. McGowan would mark his 300th appearance for the Dark Blues in September 2022, in what would be his first for the club outside of Scotland as Dundee defeated Welsh champions The New Saints away in the Scottish Challenge Cup. He would spend several months out with a knee injury. Loan to Dunfermline Athletic On 21 February 2023, McGowan reunited with former teammate and manager James McPake after joining Scottish League One club Dunfermline Athletic on loan until the end of the season. On 25 February, McGowan made his debut for the Pars as a substitute in an away league win against Queen of the South. He would win the Scottish League One with Dunfermline on 15 April 2023, in a 5–0 home win against Queen of the South. McGowan would score his first goal for the Pars in their final game of the season on 6 May in an away win against Alloa Athletic. On 1 June 2023, Dundee would confirm that McGowan had left the club after the completion of his contract. Cove Rangers On 24 July 2023, McGowan joined Scottish League One club Cove Rangers on a one-year deal. He made his debut in a Scottish League Cup group stage match against Livingston. McGowan scored his first goal for the Toonsers on his 36th birthday in a win against Annan Athletic. Personal life In December 2013, McGowan pleaded guilty to attacking two police officers at Coatbridge police station on 11 August. On 8 January 2014, the sheriff ordered McGowan to do a 130 hours of unpaid work and a one-year supervision order. Manager Danny Lennon believed McGowan was lucky to avoid a jail sentence. McGowan was told by Sheriff Frank Pieri " that the punishment was a 'direct alternative' to custody and told him to behave in future or face prison". As a result of this incident, McGowan was disciplined by the club. For the second time in 2014, McGowan was arrested after attacking a community support constable at Coatbridge Police station. McGowan was convicted of assault on 19 March 2015. On 15 April 2015, McGowan was spared a jail sentence, but was placed on a restriction curfew for sixteen weeks and had to wear electronic tags, meaning he could not play in midweek matches for the duration of the order as he had to be at home by 7pm each day. Following the incident, McGowan apologised for his actions and said he hoped to become a better person, having a problematic lifestyle of alcohol and gambling, while the club stood by him. McGowan is a father of a son. In the wake of his conviction in April 2015, he vowed to be a better father by putting his life on track for the sake of his son. In July 2018 McGowan was again convicted of assault, this time for spitting on a bouncer outside a Dundee nightclub two months earlier after attending the club's annual awards event; he again avoided a prison sentence for the offence and was instead given a community service order. Career statistics Honours Clubs Greenock Morton Scottish Second Division: 2006–07 St Mirren Scottish League Cup: 2012–13 Renfrewshire Cup: 2010, 2011, 2012 Dundee Scottish Premiership play-offs: 2020–21 Dunfermline Athletic Scottish League One: 2022–23 Individual SFL Young Player of the Month: January 2007 SPL Player of the Month: December 2011 Andrew De Vries Player of the Year: 2019–20 References External links Paul McGowan Celtic FC 1987 births Living people Footballers from Bellshill Men's association football forwards Scottish men's footballers Celtic F.C. players Greenock Morton F.C. players Hamilton Academical F.C. players St Mirren F.C. players Scottish Premier League players Scottish Football League players Scottish Professional Football League players Dundee F.C. players Dunfermline Athletic F.C. players Cove Rangers F.C. players
5334242	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Ireland%20Assembly%20%281982%29	Northern Ireland Assembly (1982)	The Northern Ireland Assembly established in 1982 represented an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to restore the devolution to Northern Ireland which had been suspended 10 years previously. The Assembly was dissolved in 1986. Origins The Assembly emerged as a result of initiatives by the then Secretaries of State for Northern Ireland, Humphrey Atkins and James Prior. The first step in this process was a white paper called The Government of Northern Ireland: A Working Paper for a Conference, published on 20 November 1979. This established a conference, attended the following year by the Democratic Unionist Party, the Alliance Party and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). (The UUP refused to become involved in protest at a decision to allow discussions on an Irish dimension, discussions which the DUP also boycotted.) Talks between the DUP, Alliance and SDLP took place between 7 January and 24 March 1980, but failed to reach agreement. In July 1980, the British Government published a discussion document, "The Government of Northern Ireland: Proposals for Further Discussion" which suggested creating a devolved Assembly either with compulsory power sharing or Majority Rule. The power sharing option proved unacceptable to Unionists while Nationalists and the Alliance Party were reluctant to return to the Majority Rule model. Consequently, on 27 November 1980, Humphrey Atkins, reported to the House of Commons that there was little prospect for a devolved government in Northern Ireland due to a lack of consensus amongst the parties. With 1981 dominated by the Hunger Strikes and the Prisons issue, constitutional initiatives took a back seat to the security situation. However, on 5 April 1982, Atkins' successor James Prior published a white paper "Northern Ireland: A Framework for Devolution" which proposed what was referred to as partial or rolling devolution. Under the proposals, a 78-member assembly would be elected by proportional representation using the Single Transferable vote as in 1973. The Assembly's role at first would only be to scrutinise Government Departments as the white paper stated its role would be "consultative and deliberative, including scrutiny of draft legislation and making reports and recommendations to the Secretary of State which he will lay before Parliament." An executive could be formed consisting of not more than 13 members. However, powers could be gradually devolved to the Assembly if 70 per cent of Assembly members agreed. These powers would be transferred back to the Secretary of State if that consent was later withdrawn. Furthermore, some functions such as Law and Order would remain with the Secretary of State, even if full devolution was achieved. The British government was clear that it was an "essential precondition" for a devolved administration to successfully function that any proposals needed the support of both Unionists and Nationalists in Northern Ireland. Cross border issues would remain the prerogative of the Westminster Parliament. Election The electoral system proved to be hugely controversial. While there was general acceptance that the elections should take part using the Single Transferable Vote system, the decision to use the same 12 constituency boundaries used in 1973 rather than the new 17 constituency boundaries which were later adopted in 1983 was heavily criticised. Great interest centred on the performance of Sinn Féin, fighting its first full election in many decades and on the inter-Unionist rivalry between the DUP and the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). The former had pulled ahead in the European election of 1979 and the Local Council Elections of 1981 but had suffered a setback in the 1982 Belfast South by-election which followed the murder of Robert Bradford. The results were seen as a positive step for the new electoral strategy of Sinn Féin which gained 5 seats on an abstentionist ticket and narrowly missed winning seats in Belfast North and Fermanagh and South Tyrone. The SDLP, also campaigning on abstentionism, were disappointed with their 14 seats; one of these was subsequently lost in a by-election to the UUP as Seamus Mallon was disqualified following a successful UUP election petition on the grounds that he was ineligible as he was a member of Seanad Éireann at the time. On the Unionist side the UUP gained a clear lead over the DUP, while the United Ulster Unionist Party (UUUP) failed to make an impact and, as a result, folded two years later. In the centre Alliance consolidated with 10 seats including unexpected wins in North and West Belfast. The Workers Party failed to make a breakthrough despite respectable vote shares in places like North and West Belfast. Assembly 1982-1986 The UUP under James Molyneaux had attempted to block moves towards devolution earlier in 1982 and after the election tried frustrating the creation of the new Assembly with a number of diversionary moves. However, by Spring 1983 the UUP agreed to serve on the Committees, with the previously agreed exception of their leader and deputy leader, Molyneaux and Harold McCusker. UUP member for Mid-Ulster William Thompson publicly appealed to the party to enter the Assembly, noting that the party was "totally opposed" to power-sharing with the SDLP. In contrast, the DUP and Alliance were enthusiastic advocates for the Assembly and eagerly applied themselves to working the scrutiny Committees, all of which were functioning by March 1983. The SDLP abstained from the Assembly outright because the party didn't believe the initiative represented a serious political solution to Northern Ireland's problems, with Unionists declaring their unwillingness to share power with the SDLP before the election was even held and the absence of an "Irish dimension." The SDLP were further discouraged from participating after SDLP Deputy Leader Seamus Mallon was disqualified from the Assembly for accepting an appointment to Seanad Éireann, following legal proceedings initiated by UUP deputy leader Harold McCusker. Mallon described his disqualification as a "symbolic disbarment" of the SDLP from political life in Northern Ireland and claimed that the British Government was guilty of a "complete portfolio of abuses of democracy". Even moderate SDLP representatives who had previously been in favour of entering the Assembly believed the move spelled the end of any chance of the party participating. The SDLP's representatives were by this time demoralised, unsure of what role constitutional nationalism had in Northern Ireland and seriously considered a mass resignation of their Assembly seats, even with the risk that Sinn Féin might take them in the ensuing by-election. The SDLP felt further vindicated in abstaining from the Assembly after Harold McCusker allegedly told the Alliance Party's John Cushnahan he could not support him as chairman of the education committee because he was Catholic. John Hume said it was no surprise to the SDLP that the UUP, through "its allegedly most liberal spokesman" would not have a Catholic, even one who accepts the Union, as the "powerless chairman of powerless committee" in a powerless Assembly: The SDLP later instead concentrated on the New Ireland Forum hosted in Dublin by the Irish government. Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald speaking in January 1983 opined that in retrospect the SDLP's decision to abstain was a "wise judgement". FitzGerald believed the move prevented an even larger proportion of the "frustrated minority population" voting for Sinn Féin and added that "There is no point in the SDLP attending the Assembly, in which the parties of the vast majority of seats are committed against any possibility of power-sharing... That's, just a dead-end, a cul-de-sac." Fitzgerald said the Irish Government was considering how it could support the SDLP. He said he wished to sustain the SDLP as a moderate nationalist party because an undermining of its position FitzGerald feared would be "highly dangerous" for the stability of the entire island. In May 1983, the Assembly debated a DUP motion calling for the continuation of the Assembly as a scrutinising body and proposed a new committee to outline a plan for the re-introduction of devolved government in Northern Ireland. The UUP proposed an amendment to focus solely on getting devolution established and neglect the Assembly. The Alliance Party proposed their own amendment, insisting that devolution must involve power-sharing between Unionists and Nationalists. All three proposals were voted down, with the UUP and DUP voting against each other and both Unionist parties uniting to defeat Alliance's power-sharing amendment. The following month the Secretary of State, James Prior, made his second appearance before the Assembly and stressed that it was an "essential precondition" for devolved government to operate successfully in Northern Ireland that any proposals must have substantial support from "both sides of the community". The DUP's Jim Allister stated in a speech responding to Prior that if the DUP had to decide between having no devolved government and a power-sharing government with the SDLP or "other representatives of Republicanism" his party wouldn't hesitate in opting for the former. In June 1983 the Assembly passed a motion, supported by the DUP and UUP, demanding that British authorities "crack down" on the flying of the Irish tricolour in Northern Ireland. The motion called for stringent enforcement of the Flags and Emblems Act and deplored recent incidents where the tricolour has been publicly flown. Alliance introduced an amendment to give the RUC a more general power to remove flags which was defeated, although Alliance representative David Cook said in the chamber he deplored the "deliberate and provocative" displaying of the tricolour. UUP elected member Edgar Graham in supporting the motion lamented there had been so few recent prosecutions under the Flags and Emblems Act, and described the tricolour as the flag of a "state which harboured murderers" and called on the RUC and British Army not to ignore the flying of the flag. DUP member George Seawright described the tricolour as a "provocative rebel rag". When the Assembly reconvened in November 1983, Prior held a press conference during which he asserted that the Unionists could have done more to encourage the SDLP to participate in the Assembly and restated his opinion that the Assembly could not move beyond the initial phase without buy-in from Nationalists, stating "if Unionists want devolved government they have to show they are prepared to meet the SDLP and make statements that will encourage them to take their places." Days later republican paramilitaries opened fire on churchgoers at a Pentecostal Church in Darkley, County Armagh; in protest the UUP withdrew from the Assembly citing what they regarded as inadequate security. In the following months four UUP representatives (John Carson, Raymond Ferguson, James Kirkpatrick and William Thompson) defied the party line and returned to the Assembly. Westminster UUP MP Ken Maginnis attempted to amend the 1982 Act by altering the 70 per cent requirement so that it only applied to those attending the Assembly rather than the total elected membership, meaning a devolved government could be created without a role for Nationalist politicians. The Amendment was unsuccessful. The UUP returned to the Assembly in May 1984. Writing in December 1983 on a possible new political initiative to entice the SDLP into participating in the Assembly, Belfast Telegraph columnist Barry White said: Later that year the UUP published their policy document on local administration, arguing the "rolling devolution" envisioned by Jim Prior had failed. The UUP opposed power-sharing, citing the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention report of 1975 and also rejected the "Irish dimension" sought by the SDLP. The UUP instead proposed that there would be no devolved government and the Assembly would make decisions within the areas of power granted to it by an enabling legislation, but not actually pass legislation. The DUP also published a policy document on devolution in 1984. In it the DUP, like the UUP, rejected power-sharing with the SDLP but in contrast argued for the restoration of a majority rule government led by a Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, albeit with a nod to "safeguards" for minorities. On 19 June Jack Allen, Chairman of the Devolution Report Committee, wrote to SDLP leader John Hume asking for a submission on the views of the SDLP as to how progress might be achieved towards a devolved administration. Hume didn't respond to the letter but Allen sent two further invitations in September and November, assuring Hume of the sincerity of the committee's intentions. After two years of operation there was a growing confidence in the future of the Assembly amongst the members who attended. On 4 December 1984 the new Secretary of State, Douglas Hurd, made his first (and last) appearance before the Assembly. After speaking on anti-terrorism efforts and economic efforts, Hurd also restated British government policy on the necessity of devolved government with the widest possible support. But his speech ended with a warning which was not lost on some of the audience - that if the Government's plans for the Assembly didn't pan out, the British Government would continue its search for new "structures and processes" in Northern Ireland and also continue dialogue with the Irish government. Throughout 1985 the idea of the Irish Government having input in Northern Ireland's internal workings gained traction in the public space as Hurd admitted such arrangements were being actively discussed. Unionist alarm at the seeming involvement of the Irish Government intensified during the summer marching season as the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) banned or restricted several Orange Order marches through Catholic areas. The final meeting of the Assembly before the 4 July recess was marked by disorder and two Alliance politicians were ordered to leave the chamber for referring to DUP members as "thugs" and "gangsters". The growing anxiety of Unionists was highlighted when during the summer recess James Molyneaux and Ian Paisley sent a letter to Margaret Thatcher signaling their readiness to consider any "reasonable" proposal for safeguarding Catholic/Nationalists interests in a devolved government short of actual seats in Cabinet (i.e. no power-sharing). However, in response Thatcher simply restated the British Government's position. The Assembly quickly adapted these proposals in October after reconvening. Set against a backdrop of the new Secretary of State Tom King visiting Dublin before meeting Unionist leaders, it could be interpreted as a last attempt to shore up the Unionist position of a Unionist-controlled local government for Northern Ireland. The Anglo-Irish Agreement was signed by Margaret Thatcher and Garret FitzGerald on 15 November 1985 at Hillsborough Castle and gave the Irish government for the first time a consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland through an "Inter Governmental Conference". Unionists were angry and felt bitterly betrayed, and months of protests and street violence followed. On 16 November the Assembly held a special adjournment debate at which the members, bar Alliance, voted to request a referendum in Northern Ireland on the Agreement. On 5 December the DUP proposed a motion to set up a "Committee on the Government of Northern Ireland" with a remit "to examine the implication of the Anglo-Irish Agreement for the government and future of Northern Ireland and the operation of the Northern Ireland Constitution Act in 1973 and the Northern Ireland Act 1982." All normal meetings of the Assembly and its scrutiny Committees were also suspended except for the Finance and Personnel Committee, which was directed to investigate the implications of the Agreement for Northern Ireland's civil service. Only the Speaker would be allowed to reconvene the Assembly, after consultation with the Business Committee. In response the Alliance party withdrew from the Assembly altogether. This left only forty-nine of the seventy-eight elected members actually attending the Assembly. From January to March 1986 the functioning of the Assembly deteriorated further as Unionists resigned from committees and efforts from Tom King to initiate dialogue with the rump Assembly were rejected by Unionist politicians. On 13 March at the recommendation of the "Grand Committee" established in November all scrutiny Committees were effectively abolished. From then on the Assembly was only a platform for Unionist opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement. On 15 May, six months after its signing, fourteen DUP members commandeered the telephone switchboard at Parliament Buildings and lectured all callers about the iniquities of the Agreement. On 23 June the Speaker read out a letter from the private secretary to the Secretary of State stating that he had ordered the dissolution the Assembly. Twenty-one Unionist representatives refused to leave the Assembly chamber until they were forcibly evicted by the RUC at the request the clerk of the chamber in the early hours of the following morning. A crowd of demonstrators gathered outside attempted to break into the building and threw stones and other missiles at police. As he was dragged out Ian Paisley warned RUC officers "don't come crying to me when your homes are attacked... because you'll reap what you sowed" (referring to widespread attacks by militant loyalists on the homes of RUC officers in preceding months) and at a follow-up press conference asserted that Northern Ireland was on the "verge of civil war." Of the twenty-one Unionist politicians removed, only two were members of the UUP, including Jeffrey Donaldson. Alliance party leader John Cushnahan labelled Paisley's remarks as "fascist" and called on the UUP to distance themselves from Paisley's behaviour. Aftermath The absence of Nationalist parties meant that the planned devolution never took place, while the UUP also intermittently boycotted proceedings. Following the Anglo-Irish Agreement of November 1985, Unionists insisted on using the debating chamber to protest at the Agreement, resulting in an Alliance walk-out on 5 December 1985 and subsequent boycott. As a result, the government dissolved the Assembly on 23 June 1986, and it would be over a decade before a new Assembly was restored to Northern Ireland. Speaker of the Northern Ireland Assembly 1982–1986 James Kilfedder (Ulster Popular Unionist Party) References Further reading Conflict Archive: University of Ulster Northern Ireland devolution Government of Northern Ireland Politics of Northern Ireland 1982 establishments in Northern Ireland 1986 disestablishments in Northern Ireland
5334404	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20AFL%20season	1998 AFL season	The 1998 AFL season was the 102nd season of the Australian Football League (AFL), the highest level senior Australian rules football competition in Australia, which was known as the Victorian Football League until 1989. The season featured sixteen clubs, ran from 27 March until 26 September, and comprised a 22-game home-and-away season followed by a finals series featuring the top eight clubs. The premiership was won by the Adelaide Football Club for the second time and second time consecutively, after it defeated by 35 points in the 1998 AFL Grand Final. AFL draft See 1998 AFL Draft. Ansett Australia Cup defeated 14.13 (97) to 12.11 (83) in the final. Premiership season Round 1 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.13 (103) \| \| 15.11 (101) \| MCG \| 27,150 \|Friday, 27 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.13 (73) \| \| 9.9 (63) \| Princes Park \| 20,957 \| Saturday, 28 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.15 (123) \| \| 12.12 (84) \| MCG \| 47,628 \| Saturday, 28 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.7 (109) \| \| 13.13 (91) \| Waverley Park \| 34,323 \| Saturday, 28 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.12 (72) \| \| 17.16 (118) \| Gabba \| 18,788 \| Saturday, 28 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.15 (117) \| \| 20.4 (124) \| Football Park \| 31,230 \| Sunday, 29 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.19 (103) \| \| 13.11 (89) \| MCG \| 70,200 \| Sunday, 29 March \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.6 (84) \| \| 8.13 (61) \| Subiaco Oval \| 18,133 \| Sunday, 29 March Round 2 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.14 (116) \| \| 8.8 (56) \| Subiaco Oval \| 35,909 \| Friday, 3 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.15 (99) \| \| 11.14 (80) \| Kardinia Park \| 26,669 \| Saturday, 4 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.7 (67) \| \| 17.10 (112) \| Waverley Park \| 18,698 \| Saturday, 4 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.11 (125) \| \| 15.10 (100) \| MCG \| 29,990 \| Saturday, 4 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 20.15 (135) \| \| 14.13 (97) \| SCG \| 32,111 \| Saturday, 4 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 25.17 (167) \| \| 11.8 (74) \| Football Park \| 40,602 \| Sunday, 5 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 28.14 (182) \| \| 13.15 (93) \| MCG \| 53,905 \| Sunday, 5 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.8 (140) \| \| 13.6 (84) \| Princes Park \| 27,659 \| Sunday, 5 April Round 3 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.13 (103) \| \| 15.7 (97) \| MCG \| 39,954 \| Saturday, 11 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.23 (119) \| \| 13.7 (85) \| Princes Park \| 26,518 \| Saturday, 11 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.9 (69) \| \| 15.8 (98) \| Football Park \| 28,167 \| Saturday, 11 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.10 (82) \| \| 8.12 (60) \| Waverley Park \| 20,532 \| Sunday, 12 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 24.16 (160) \| \| 7.15 (57) \| SCG \| 29,614 \| Sunday, 12 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.7 (67) \| \| 14.10 (94) \| Subiaco Oval \| 34,710 \| Sunday, 12 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.15 (87) \| \| 15.10 (100) \| Gabba \| 17,161 \| Monday, 13 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.14 (98) \| \| 14.15 (99) \| MCG \| 68,177 \| Monday, 13 April Round 4 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 20.13 (133) \| \| 12.16 (88) \| MCG \| 78,259 \| Friday, 17 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.13 (79) \| \| 14.10 (94) \| Kardinia Park \| 26,301 \| Saturday, 18 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.13 (121) \| \| 20.9 (129) \| Waverley Park \| 36,117 \| Saturday, 18 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.15 (99) \| \| 18.10 (118) \| WACA \| 27,059 \| Saturday, 18 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.7 (73) \| \| 8.16 (64) \| Football Park \| 41,476 \| Sunday, 19 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.10 (70) \| \| 10.12 (72) \| Princes Park \| 27,508 \| Sunday, 19 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.10 (76) \| \| 14.16 (100) \| Waverley Park \| 26,241 \| Sunday, 19 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 21.11 (137) \| \| 17.18 (120) \| MCG \| 22,688 \| Sunday, 19 April Round 5 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.14 (86) \| \| 10.11 (71) \| MCG \| 34,837 \| Friday, 24 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.18 (108) \| \| 12.16 (88) \| MCG \| 81,542 \| Saturday, 25 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.16 (124) \| \| 12.11 (83) \| Waverley Park \| 22,366 \| Saturday, 25 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.8 (104) \| \| 12.15 (87) \| WACA \| 26,335 \| Saturday, 25 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.18 (102) \| \| 6.17 (53) \| MCG \| 21,726 \| Sunday, 26 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.10 (88) \| \| 9.12 (66) \| Waverley Park \| 31,955 \| Sunday, 26 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.15 (99) \| \| 12.11 (83) \| SCG \| 36,505 \| Sunday, 26 April \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.15 (87) \| \| 8.13 (61) \| Football Park \| 39,974 \| Sunday, 26 April Round 6 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.8 (86) \| \| 7.9 (51) \| Gabba \| 19,219 \| Friday, 1 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 9.13 (67) \| \| 14.12 (96) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 69,963 \| Saturday, 2 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.12 (90) \| \| 10.13 (73) \| Kardinia Park \| 23,267 \| Saturday, 2 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.19 (97) \| \| 13.11 (89) \| Princes Park \| 24,813 \| Saturday, 2 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.18 (96) \| \| 9.6 (60) \| Football Park \| 30,519 \| Saturday, 2 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.16 (106) \| \| 15.12 (102) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 23,041 \| Sunday, 3 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 8.13 (61) \| \| 12.8 (80) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 25,951 \| Sunday, 3 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.11 (119) \| \| 18.13 (121) \| Subiaco Oval \| 36,406 \| Sunday, 3 May Round 7 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.7 (79) \| \| 18.7 (115) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 57,894 \| Friday, 8 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 8.9 (57) \| \| 15.9 (99) \| WACA \| 22,037 \| Friday, 8 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.10 (76) \| \| 25.15 (165) \| Princes Park \| 16,058 \| Saturday, 9 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.16 (82) \| \| 15.9 (99) \| Waverley Park \| 23,960 \| Saturday, 9 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.4 (70) \| \| 12.7 (79) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 56,093 \| Saturday, 9 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.13 (79) \| \| 10.11 (71) \| Football Park \| 39,057 \| Sunday, 10 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.13 (91) \| \| 7.7 (49) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 46,217 \| Sunday, 10 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.15 (111) \| \| 12.11 (83) \| Princes Park \| 22,058 \| Sunday, 10 May Round 8 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.12 (84) \| \| 8.22 (70) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 35,384 \| Friday, 15 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.4 (76) \| \| 6.18 (54) \| Kardinia Park \| 19,449 \| Saturday, 16 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.15 (105) \| \| 14.11 (95) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 43,400 \| Saturday, 16 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.12 (72) \| \| 5.15 (45) \| Waverley Park \| 20,063 \| Saturday, 16 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.20 (92) \| \| 12.12 (84) \| Subiaco Oval \| 37,361 \| Sunday, 17 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.12 (96) \| \| 21.10 (136) \| Waverley Park \| 34,541 \| Sunday, 17 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.12 (114) \| \| 16.15 (111) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 57,425 \| Sunday, 17 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.13 (79) \| \| 14.8 (92) \| Football Park \| 40,559 \| Sunday, 17 May Round 9 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.21 (105) \| \| 13.12 (90) \| WACA \| 22,803 \| Friday, 22 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.14 (74) \| \| 17.13 (115) \| Princes Park \| 20,205 \| Saturday, 23 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 5.14 (44) \| \| 9.11 (65) \| Kardinia Park \| 19,848 \| Saturday, 23 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.12 (84) \| \| 18.14 (122) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 49,580 \| Saturday, 23 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.10 (88) \| \| 11.9 (75) \| Waverley Park \| 36,428 \| Saturday, 23 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 6.14 (50) \| \| 14.14 (98) \| Gabba \| 19,509 \| Saturday, 23 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.15 (117) \| \| 11.14 (80) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 31,420 \| Sunday, 24 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.14 (80) \| \| 9.9 (63) \| Football Park \| 35,659 \| Sunday, 24 May Round 10 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.17 (113) \| \| 15.10 (100) \| WACA \| 28,193 \| Friday, 29 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.9 (111) \| \| 12.15 (87) \| Princes Park \| 18,317 \| Saturday, 30 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.9 (87) \| \| 13.15 (93) \| Waverley Park \| 41,780 \| Saturday, 30 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.19 (97) \| \| 9.13 (67) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 31,225 \| Saturday, 30 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 8.5 (53) \| \| 24.10 (154) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 36,180 \| Saturday, 30 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.9 (111) \| \| 8.10 (58) \| Football Park \| 40,844 \| Sunday, 31 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.5 (119) \| \| 17.10 (112) \| Victoria Park \| 23,188 \| Sunday, 31 May \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.13 (91) \| \| 17.12 (114) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 35,595 \| Sunday, 31 May Round 11 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 24.16 (160) \| \| 15.10 (100) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 62,866 \| Friday, 5 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.8 (80) \| \| 9.9 (63) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 41,222 \| Saturday, 6 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.10 (70) \| \| 18.9 (117) \| Waverley Park \| 31,365 \| Saturday, 6 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 7.13 (55) \| \| 8.9 (57) \| Football Park \| 28,284 \| Saturday, 6 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.19 (121) \| \| 7.8 (50) \| Subiaco Oval \| 17,452 \| Sunday, 7 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 24.11 (155) \| \| 13.10 (88) \| Princes Park \| 21,165 \| Sunday, 7 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.12 (126) \| \| 13.19 (97) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 58,369 \| Monday, 8 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 21.11 (137) \| \| 16.14 (110) \| Waverley Park \| 71,488 \| Monday, 8 June Round 12 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.9 (123) \| \| 17.6 (108) \| WACA \| 27,112 \| Friday, 12 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.16 (100) \| \| 11.8 (74) \| Princes Park \| 23,226 \| Saturday, 13 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 7.4 (46) \| \| 22.9 (141) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 41,567 \| Saturday, 13 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.18 (108) \| \| 15.16 (106) \| Football Park \| 40,700 \| Saturday, 13 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.15 (123) \| \| 18.15 (123) \| Gabba \| 15,924 \| Sunday, 14 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.16 (82) \| \| 17.15 (117) \| Waverley Park \| 50,578 \| Sunday, 14 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.13 (127) \| \| 14.8 (92) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 43,497 \| Sunday, 14 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.14 (122) \| \| 15.6 (96) \| Princes Park \| 16,487 \| Sunday, 14 June Round 13 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.6 (72) \| \| 11.17 (83) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 45,277 \| Friday, 19 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.10 (70) \| \| 11.13 (79) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 34,630 \| Saturday, 20 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.8 (80) \| \| 15.16 (106) \| Kardinia Park \| 21,833 \| Saturday, 20 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.12 (114) \| \| 17.10 (112) \| Waverley Park \| 23,845 \| Saturday, 20 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.7 (73) \| \| 5.9 (39) \| Football Park \| 28,746 \| Saturday, 20 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 5.12 (42) \| \| 19.13 (127) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 35,055 \| Sunday, 21 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.6 (102) \| \| 13.13 (91) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 28,445 \| Sunday, 21 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.16 (76) \| \| 10.8 (68) \| Subiaco Oval \| 23,899 \| Sunday, 21 June Round 14 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.13 (127) \| \| 16.13 (109) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 48,618 \| Friday, 26 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.14 (92) \| \| 11.10 (76) \| Princes Park \| 25,529 \| Saturday, 27 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 23.7 (145) \| \| 8.7 (55) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 25,723 \| Saturday, 27 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.15 (87) \| \| 10.12 (72) \| Waverley Park \| 49,706 \| Saturday, 27 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.13 (91) \| \| 10.13 (73) \| Football Park \| 32,431 \| Saturday, 27 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.21 (135) \| \| 12.11 (83) \| Gabba \| 17,275 \| Sunday, 28 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.15 (87) \| \| 18.16 (124) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 30,735 \| Sunday, 28 June \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.13 (79) \| \| 14.12 (96) \| Subiaco Oval \| 35,238 \| Sunday, 28 June Round 15 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 20.12 (132) \| \| 11.4 (70) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 66,287 \| Friday, 3 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.12 (108) \| \| 12.9 (81) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 37,685 \| Saturday, 4 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.7 (79) \| \| 22.13 (145) \| Waverley Park \| 36,557 \| Saturday, 4 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.11 (83) \| \| 9.11 (65) \| Princes Park \| 20,782 \| Saturday, 4 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 6.13 (49) \| \| 11.10 (76) \| Gabba \| 15,369 \| Saturday, 4 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 9.14 (68) \| \| 4.11 (35) \| Football Park \| 38,430 \| Sunday, 5 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.11 (71) \| \| 9.7 (61) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 44,806 \| Sunday, 5 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.9 (69) \| \| 13.4 (82) \| Subiaco Oval \| 21,042 \| Sunday, 5 July Round 16 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.5 (101) \| \| 16.9 (105) \| Football Park \| 42,713 \| Friday, 17 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.16 (76) \| \| 15.10 (100) \| Kardinia Park \| 26,879 \| Saturday, 18 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.10 (106) \| \| 13.5 (83) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 20,365 \| Saturday, 18 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 27.15 (177) \| \| 13.8 (86) \| Princes Park \| 16,131 \| Saturday, 18 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 4.14 (38) \| \| 19.10 (124) \| Waverley Park \| 39,325 \| Saturday, 18 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.10 (94) \| \| 10.15 (75) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 83,773 \| Sunday, 19 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.10 (118) \| \| 12.12 (84) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 29,325 \| Sunday, 19 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.14 (80) \| \| 13.16 (94) \| Subiaco Oval \| 36,463 \| Sunday, 19 July Round 17 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.14 (98) \| \| 15.7 (97) \| Subiaco Oval \| 18,876 \| Friday, 24 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 29.11 (185) \| \| 15.15 (105) \| Princes Park \| 26,911 \| Saturday, 25 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 9.11 (65) \| \| 13.8 (86) \| Victoria Park \| 23,293 \| Saturday, 25 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.20 (152) \| \| 13.9 (87) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 36,042 \| Saturday, 25 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.11 (119) \| \| 15.8 (98) \| Football Park \| 30,104 \| Saturday, 25 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 14.5 (89) \| \| 22.17 (149) \| Gabba \| 15,475 \| Sunday, 26 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.7 (67) \| \| 8.10 (58) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 44,222 \| Sunday, 26 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.9 (87) \| \| 14.6 (90) \| Waverley Park \| 50,778 \| Sunday, 26 July Round 18 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.7 (67) \| \| 16.14 (110) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 40,832 \| Friday, 31 July \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.15 (87) \| \| 19.7 (121) \| Kardinia Park \| 23,137 \| Saturday, 1 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.19 (151) \| \| 8.8 (56) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 16,518 \| Saturday, 1 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.23 (131) \| \| 10.16 (76) \| Manuka Oval \| 11,321 \| Saturday, 1 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.23 (137) \| \| 10.7 (67) \| Football Park \| 40,670 \| Saturday, 1 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.12 (84) \| \| 11.12 (78) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 70,969 \| Sunday, 2 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.10 (70) \| \| 4.10 (34) \| Waverley Park \| 37,297 \| Sunday, 2 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.9 (99) \| \| 8.12 (60) \| Subiaco Oval \| 37,145 \| Sunday, 2 August Round 19 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.14 (86) \| \| 15.23 (113) \| Gabba \| 14,973 \| Friday, 7 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.17 (113) \| \| 8.16 (64) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 39,704 \| Saturday, 8 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.9 (69) \| \| 19.14 (128) \| Waverley Park \| 32,286 \| Saturday, 8 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.18 (96) \| \| 14.13 (97) \| Princes Park \| 17,535 \| Saturday, 8 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.14 (86) \| \| 18.11 (119) \| Subiaco Oval \| 28,444 \| Saturday, 8 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.14 (86) \| \| 9.13 (67) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 57,303 \| Sunday, 9 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.14 (74) \| \| 9.14 (68) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 30,934 \| Sunday, 9 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.12 (144) \| \| 10.10 (70) \| Football Park \| 46,850 \| Sunday, 9 August Round 20 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.19 (151) \| \| 7.5 (47) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 19,429 \| Friday, 14 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.13 (109) \| \| 14.15 (99) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 64,480 \| Saturday, 15 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 6.8 (44) \| \| 18.10 (118) \| Kardinia Park \| 22,384 \| Saturday, 15 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.9 (99) \| \| 15.7 (97) \| Waverley Park \| 32,577 \| Saturday, 15 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 7.17 (59) \| \| 13.16 (94) \| Gabba \| 14,738 \| Saturday, 15 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.11 (71) \| \| 14.10 (94) \| Football Park \| 28,660 \| Sunday, 16 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.20 (134) \| \| 15.14 (104) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 42,120 \| Sunday, 16 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 16.16 (112) \| \| 11.7 (73) \| Subiaco Oval \| 37,920 \| Sunday, 16 August Round 21 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.12 (90) \| \| 14.17 (101) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 67,157 \| Friday, 21 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 24.11 (155) \| \| 11.12 (78) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 27,912 \| Saturday, 22 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 9.9 (63) \| \| 7.13 (55) \| Waverley Park \| 26,895 \| Saturday, 22 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.14 (92) \| \| 14.21 (105) \| Football Park \| 43,297 \| Saturday, 22 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 8.15 (63) \| \| 17.16 (118) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 60,741 \| Sunday, 23 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.18 (84) \| \| 8.15 (63) \| Waverley Park \| 28,833 \| Sunday, 23 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.11 (71) \| \| 19.10 (124) \| Subiaco Oval \| 20,412 \| Sunday, 23 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.12 (114) \| \| 12.11 (83) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 52,614 \| Monday, 24 August Round 22 \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.11 (113) \| \| 16.12 (108) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 1 \| Friday, 28 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.13 (127) \| \| 18.9 (117) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 61,089 \| Saturday, 29 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 22.17 (149) \| \| 9.6 (60) \| Waverley Park \| 39,735 \| Saturday, 29 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.9 (81) \| \| 15.16 (106) \| Subiaco Oval \| 37,388 \| Saturday, 29 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.20 (92) \| \| 13.13 (91) \| Gabba \| 14,993 \| Saturday, 29 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 19.19 (133) \| \| 8.9 (57) \| Melbourne Cricket Ground \| 76,387 \| Sunday, 30 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.11 (119) \| \| 16.11 (107) \| Sydney Cricket Ground \| 35,814 \| Sunday, 30 August \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.12 (84) \| \| 21.12 (138) \| Football Park \| 34,518 \| Sunday, 30 August Ladder All teams played 22 games during the home and away season, for a total of 176. An additional 9 games were played during the finals series. Ladder progression Finals series Qualifying finals \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 11.16 (82) \| \| 8.12 (60) \| MCG \| 71,154 \| Friday, 4 September \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.13 (115) \| \| 9.13 (67) \| MCG \| 60,817 \| Saturday, 5 September \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 12.17 (89) \| \| 13.9 (87) \| SCG \| 36,076 \| Saturday, 5 September \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 18.13 (121) \| \| 7.9 (51) \| MCG \| 43,025 \| Sunday, 6 September Semi finals \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.17 (107) \| \| 7.14 (56) \| MCG \| 88,456 \| Saturday, 12 September \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 10.7 (67) \| \| 14.10 (94) \| SCG \| 37,498 \| Saturday, 12 September Preliminary finals \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 17.12 (114) \| \| 12.12 (84) \| MCG \| 73,719 \| Friday, 18 September \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 13.15 (93) \| \| 24.17 (161) \| MCG \| 67,557 \| Saturday, 19 September Grand final \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| Home team \| Score \| Away team \| Score \| Venue \| Attendance \| Date \|- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" \| \| 15.15 (105) \| \| 8.22 (70) \| MCG \| 94,431 \| Saturday, 26 September Attendance Awards The Brownlow Medal was awarded to Robert Harvey of The Leigh Matthews Trophy was awarded to Wayne Carey of The Coleman Medal was awarded to Tony Lockett of The Norm Smith Medal was awarded to Andrew McLeod of The AFL Rising Star award was awarded to Byron Pickett of The Wooden Spoon was "awarded" to Notes became the first club since the introduction of the final five in 1972 to win the premiership from outside the top four, despite losing their first final heavily against . 's 101-point loss to in round 10 is the most recent occasion as of 2023 that the club has lost a premiership match by 100 points or more. References 1998 Season – AFL Tables AFL season Australian Football League seasons
5334607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa	Africa	Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both aspects. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surface area. With billion people as of , it accounts for about of the world's human population. Africa's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, ahead of Oceania. Scholars have attributed this to different factors including geography, climate, tribalism, colonialism, the Cold War, neocolonialism, lack of democracy, and corruption. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states, eight cities and islands that are part of non-African states, and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. This count does not include Malta and Sicily, which are geologically part of the African continent. Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population. African nations cooperate through the establishment of the African Union, which is headquartered in Addis Ababa. Africa straddles the equator and the prime meridian. It is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to the southern temperate zones. The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of Western Sahara, Algeria, Libya and Egypt, the northern tip of Mauritania, and the entire territories of Morocco, Ceuta, Melilla, and Tunisia which in turn are located above the tropic of Cancer, in the northern temperate zone. In the other extreme of the continent, southern Namibia, southern Botswana, great parts of South Africa, the entire territories of Lesotho and Eswatini and the southern tips of Mozambique and Madagascar are located below the tropic of Capricorn, in the southern temperate zone. Africa is highly biodiverse; it is the continent with the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. However, Africa also is heavily affected by a wide range of environmental issues, including desertification, deforestation, water scarcity and pollution. These entrenched environmental concerns are expected to worsen as climate change impacts Africa. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as the continent most vulnerable to climate change. The history of Africa is long, complex, and has often been under-appreciated by the global historical community. Africa, particularly Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes). The earliest hominids and their ancestors have been dated to around 7 million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster—the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) remains, found in Ethiopia, South Africa, and Morocco, date to circa 233,000, 259,000, and 300,000 years ago, respectively, and Homo sapiens is believed to have originated in Africa around 350,000–260,000 years ago. Africa is also considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited. Early human civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt and Carthage emerged in North Africa. Following a subsequent long and complex history of civilizations, migration and trade, Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. The last 400 years have witnessed an increasing European influence on the continent. Starting in the 16th century, this was driven by trade, including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which created large African diaspora populations in the Americas. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, European nations colonized almost all of Africa, reaching a point when only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent polities. Most present states in Africa emerged from a process of decolonisation following World War II. Etymology Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of then-known northern Africa to the west of the Nile river, and in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modern Berbers; see Terence for discussion. The name had usually been connected with the Phoenician word meaning "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber word ifri (plural ifran) meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya, as well as the city of Ifrane in Morocco. Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province it then named Africa Proconsularis, following its defeat of the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War in 146 BC, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim region of Ifriqiya, following its conquest of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire's Exarchatus Africae, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lies to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 CE), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa" expanded with their knowledge. Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa": The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya. Isidore of Seville in his 7th-century Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests "Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning "sunny". Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace." Michèle Fruyt in 1976 proposed linking the Latin word with africus "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind". Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University in 1984 proposed: "The name Africa, derived from the Latin *Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to Hebrew Ophir ['rich']." Ibn Khallikan and some other historians claim that the name of Africa came from a Himyarite king called Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi also called "Afrikus son of Abraham" who subdued Ifriqiya. Arabic afrīqā (feminine noun) and ifrīqiyā, now usually pronounced afrīqiyā (feminine) 'Africa', from ‘afara [‘ = ‘ain, not ’alif] 'to be dusty' from ‘afar 'dust, powder' and ‘afir 'dried, dried up by the sun, withered' and ‘affara 'to dry in the sun on hot sand' or 'to sprinkle with dust'. Possibly Phoenician faraqa in the sense of 'colony, separation'. History Prehistory Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the Human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (Before present, BP). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered. After the evolution of Homo sapiens approximately 350,000 to 260,000 years BP in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco, or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt. Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and the Sahara. Emergence of civilization The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions. At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BCE, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia. However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the Earth's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia. The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa. In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia. Between 10,000 and 9,000 BC, pottery was independently invented in the region of Mali in the savannah of West Africa. In the steppes and savannahs of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, people possibly ancestral to modern Nilo-Saharan and Mandé cultures started to collect wild millet, around 8000 to 6000 BCE. Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected. Sorghum was first domesticated in Eastern Sudan around 4000 BC, in one of the earliest instances of agriculture in human history. Its cultivation would gradually spread across Africa, before spreading to India around 2000 BC. People around modern-day Mauritania started making pottery and built stone settlements (e.g., Tichitt, Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tipped harpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains. In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expanding rainforest and wooded savanna from Senegal to Cameroon. Between 9,000 and 5,000 BC, Niger–Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm. Black-eyed peas and voandzeia (African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed by okra and kola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest. Around 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and encouraged migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa. During the first millennium BC, a reduction in wild grain populations related to changing climate conditions facilitated the expansion of farming communities and the rapid adoption of rice cultivation around the Niger River. By the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa. Around that time it also became established in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, either through independent invention there or diffusion from the north and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years, and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did not begin ironworking until the early centuries CE. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date. Early civilizations At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of ancient Egypt. One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC. Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya and Nubia, and, according to Martin Bernal, as far north as Crete. An independent centre of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage. European exploration of Africa began with the ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libyahis mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic. Christianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia; by 340 AD at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro-Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development. In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic centre of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration. In West Africa, Dhar Tichitt and Oualata in present-day Mauritania figure prominently among the early urban centers, dated to 2,000 BC. About 500 stone settlements litter the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found by Augustin Holl that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples were likely responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BCE, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. Architectural evidence and the comparison of pottery styles suggest that Dhar Tichitt was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Djenné-Djenno (in present-day Mali) was settled around 300 BC, and the town grew to house a sizable Iron Age population, as evidenced by crowded cemeteries. Living structures were made of sun-dried mud. By 250 BCE, Djenné-Djenno had become a large, thriving market town. Further south, in central Nigeria, around 1,500 BC, the Nok culture developed on the Jos Plateau. It was a highly centralized community. The Nok people produced lifelike representations in terracotta, including human heads and human figures, elephants, and other animals. By 500 BC, and possibly earlier, they were smelting iron. By 200 AD, the Nok culture had vanished. and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years. Based on stylistic similarities with the Nok terracottas, the bronze figurines of the Yoruba kingdom of Ife and those of the Bini kingdom of Benin are suggested to be continuations of the traditions of the earlier Nok culture. Ninth to eighteenth centuries Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo, Yoruba, and Igbo people in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa. By the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century. In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century. The Kingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba ('king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control. The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized, and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam. Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship. By the eleventh century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east. Height of the slave trade Slavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World. In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries. In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars. Colonialism Independence struggles Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade. Portugal's overseas presence in sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994. Post-colonial Africa Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basisper the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), only Botswana and Mauritius have been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced several coups or periods of military dictatorship. Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance. Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived in extreme poverty. The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development under colonial rule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such as Kenya still experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves. Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily from marginalization of ethnic groups, and corruption. In pursuit of personal political gain, many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnic Hutus over Tutsis in Rwanda during German and Belgian rule). Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled by military dictatorships. Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was the Nigerian Civil War, fought between government forces and an Igbo separatist republic, which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Two civil wars in Sudan, the first lasting from 1955 to 1972 and the second from 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines. Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union also contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during the Angolan Civil War, the Soviet and Cuban aligned MPLA and the American aligned UNITA received the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War and fall of the USSR resulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support. There was a major famine in Ethiopia between 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which most historians attribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communist Derg government, further exacerbated by the civil war. In 1994 a genocide in Rwanda resulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added to a severe refugee crisis and fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of the first and second Congo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths, making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of the costliest wars in human history. Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur (Sudan) which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. The Boko Haram Insurgency primarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, the Tigray War which began in 2020 has killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due to famine. Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola, Sierra Leone, and Algeria in 2002, Liberia in 2003, and Sudan and Burundi in 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (see Capitalist peace). Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 Billion to $1.63 Trillion (Constant 2015 USD). North Africa experienced comparable growth rates. A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone. While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack of industrialization, and epidemics of Ebola and COVID-19. Geology, geography, ecology, and environment Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) The coastline is long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of . From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately . Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately to Ras Hafun, 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection that neighbours Cape Guardafui, the tip of the Horn of Africa. Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast. The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia. African plate Climate The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts. The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (), was discredited in 2013. Ecology and biodiversity Africa has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity and arable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems. Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world. Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed. Over 90% of Madagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago. About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation. Environmental issues Water resources Water development and management are complex in Africa due to the multiplicity of trans-boundary water resources (rivers, lakes and aquifers). Around 75% of sub-Saharan Africa falls within 53 international river basin catchments that traverse multiple borders. This particular constraint can also be converted into an opportunity if the potential for trans-boundary cooperation is harnessed in the development of the area's water resources. A multi-sectoral analysis of the Zambezi River, for example, shows that riparian cooperation could lead to a 23% increase in firm energy production without any additional investments. A number of institutional and legal frameworks for transboundary cooperation exist, such as the Zambezi River Authority, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol, Volta River Authority and the Nile Basin Commission. However, additional efforts are required to further develop political will, as well as the financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians. Climate change Fauna Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. Politics African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of 55 member states. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Ivory Coast. Boundary conflicts Economy Although it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and least-developed continent (other than Antarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, the slave trade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African. Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of the sub-Saharan African population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India. Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973, indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors. Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debt crisis in 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite. From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. In a recently published analysis based on World Values Survey data, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notably Ghana, perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and the market economy. Tausch's global value comparison based on the World Values Survey derived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded "is really amazing". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy in Ghana, the article suggests pessimistic tendencies for Egypt and Algeria, and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. High Human Inequality, as measured by the UNDP's Human Development Report's Index of Human Inequality, further impairs the development of human security. Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of a civil society. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite, 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves. Guinea is the world's largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis pushed 100 million people into food insecurity. In recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa. A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity." Electricity generation The main source of electricity is hydropower, which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy. The Kainji Dam is a typical hydropower resource generating electricity for all the large cities in Nigeria as well as their neighbouring country, Niger. Hence, the continuous investment in the last decade, which has increased the amount of power generated. Demographics Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As of , the population of Africa is estimated at billion . Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000; Africa's rapid population growth is expected to overtake the only two nations currently larger than its population, at roughly the same time – India and China's 1.4 billion people each will swap ranking around the year 2022. This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births. The total fertility rate (children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world. All countries in sub-Saharan Africa had TFRs (average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% of global livebirths. In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births. Speakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples from the Sahel progressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan ("San" or "Bushmen") and Pygmy peoples in Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa. The peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan, and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa. The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century CE introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo- European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya. The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan. In the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic. Prior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone. Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and South Africa. The country with the largest white African population is South Africa. Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today. European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively. Alternative Estimates of African Population, 0–2018 AD (in thousands) Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen). Shares of Africa and World Population, 0–2020 AD (% of world total) Source: Maddison and others (University of Groningen). Religion While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations. According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam and Christianity are the two largest religions in Africa. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% follow traditional religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baháʼí, or Jewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who are irreligious. Languages By most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major groups indigenous to Africa: The Afroasiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia. The Nilo-Saharan languages consist of a group of several possibly related families, spoken by 30 million people between 100 languages. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by ethnic groups in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania. The Niger-Congo language family covers much of sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of number of languages, it is the largest language family in Africa and perhaps one of the largest in the world. The Khoisan languages form a group of three unrelated families and two isolates and number about fifty in total. They are mainly spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 400,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa. Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate. In total, at least a fifth of Africans speak the former colonial languages. Health More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade on African traditional medicine in an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent. Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS in post-colonial Africa is a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population, more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide – some 35 million people – were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died. Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIV and 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years. Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years. Culture Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools. Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft. Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art. According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art." Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions. Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art." Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe." On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies." There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality. As of March 2023, 98 African properties are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Among these proprieties, 54 are cultural sites, 39 are natural sites and 5 are mixed sites. The List Of World Heritage in Danger includes 15 African sites. Visual art Architecture Cinema Music Dance Sports Fifty-four African countries have football teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. Morocco made history at the 2022 World Cup in Qatar as the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play the CAF Champions League, while lower-ranked clubs compete in CAF Confederation Cup. In recent years, the continent has made major progress in terms of state-of-the-art basketball facilities which have been built in cites as diverse as Cairo, Dakar, Johannesburg, Kigali, Luanda and Rades. The number of African basketball players who drafted into the NBA has experienced major growth in the 2010s. Cricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One-Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is popular in several southern African nations. Namibia and Zimbabwe both have appeared on multiple occasions at the Rugby World Cup, while South Africa is the joint-most successful national team (alongside New Zealand) at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on 3 occasions, in 1995, 2007, and 2019. Territories and regions The countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated. See also Index of Africa-related articles African historiography Outline of Africa Notes References Bibliography Further reading Moore, Clark D., and Ann Dunbar (1968). Africa Yesterday and Today, in series, The George School Readings on Developing Lands. New York: Praeger Publishers. Naipaul, V.S. The Masque of Africa: Glimpses of African Belief. Picador, 2010. External links General information Africa: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society African & Middle Eastern Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress Africa South of the Sahara from Stanford University Aluka, digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa Africa Interactive Map from the United States Army Africa History The Story of Africa from BBC World Service Africa Policy Information Center (APIC) Hungarian military forces in Africa News media allAfrica.com current news, events and statistics Focus on Africa magazine from BBC World Service Continents
5335419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCP%20Group	OCP Group	The OCP Group (OCP S.A.) (formerly Office Chérifien des Phosphates) is a state-owned phosphate rock miner, phosphoric acid manufacturer and fertilizer producer. Founded in 1920, the company has grown to become the world's largest producer of phosphate and phosphate-based products and it is one of the largest phosphate, fertilizer, Chemicals and Mineral industrial companies in the world by revenue. OCP has access to more than 70% of the world's phosphate rock reserves. Initially a mining company, OCP diversified in 1965 to become a phosphate processor, making it the world's largest fertilizer manufacturer. The company holds a 31% market share of the world phosphate product market. The group employs nearly 23,000 people in Morocco and a number of international subsidiaries. In 2018, its revenues amounted to US$5.884 billion. History Origins The OCP Group was founded in Morocco in 1920 as the Office Chérifien des Phosphates following Royal Decree. Mining production began in 1921, when it began extracting phosphate rock at its first mine in Khouribga. Transportation of the phosphate to the port of Casablanca also started in 1921, allowing the first export of phosphate that year. Subsequently, OCP launched other mining sites in Youssoufia in 1931 and in Benguerir in 1976, and launched chemical production in Safi in 1965, and in Jorf Lasfar in 1984. Ownership In 2008, the OCP Group became a limited company. Currently 95% of the OCP Group is owned by the Moroccan state and 5% by Banque Centrale Populaire investment funds. Corporate Timeline 1920 Office Chérifien des Phosphates founded 1921 Launch of mining production in Khouribga 1931 Launch of mining production in Youssoufia 1965 Launch of chemical production in Safi 1976 Acquisition of 65% of Phosboucraa 1980 Launch of mining production at Benguerir site 1984 Launch of chemical production at Jorf Lasfar 1996 Construction of purified phosphoric acid plant launched in Jorf Lasfar 2002 OCP becomes sole owner of Phosboucraa 2006 Office Chérifien des Phosphates becomes OCP 2008 Transformation of Office Chérifien des Phosphates into a Corporation (OCP S.A) 2011 Joint Venture with Jacobs Engineering 2013 Joint Venture with DuPont de Nemours 2014 Launch of the Slurry Pipeline between Khouribga and Jorf Lasfar 2016 Creation of OCP Africa 2018 Inauguration of Mohammed VI Polytechnic University and Joint Venture with IBM In 2007, the OCP Group set itself a target to triple its production of fertilizers by 2020. The OCP Group plays an important economic and social role in Morocco. The value of phosphates and their derivatives represented nearly a quarter of the country's exports and approximately 3.5% of the GDP in 2010. In 2016, Fitch Ratings confirmed the rating of "investment grade" for the OCP Group. After approval from the AMMC ((Moroccan Authority of the Capital Market) Autorité Marocaine du Marché des Capitaux) on December 9, 2016, the OCP Group managed to reach 10.2 billion dirhams of bonds from the national community. This loan is the largest ever made in the Moroccan market. In February 2016, the OCP Group created a new subsidiary named OCP Africa, which is responsible for leading the development of the group in the African fertilizer market through a network of subsidiaries in 12 African countries. On 8 September 2023, an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.8 Mw hit Marrakesh-Safi region of Morocco. 6 Days later, the OCP Group donated $97.5 Million to Morocco’s Earthquake Relief Fund. Operations Mines and Key Sites Khouribga OCP's first mine opened in Khouribga in 1921. The Khouribga area has the richest phosphate deposits in the world. In 2014, a slurry pipeline between Khouribga and Jorf Lasfar was launched, which transports phosphate from the mines to the processing facility safely and efficiently. The pipeline, one world's longest gravity powered pipelines saves more than 3 Mm3 of water per year, as well as a significant amount of energy. The site employs more people than any other OCP mine, which is more than 6,100 people. In 2016, the mine produced 18.9MT of Phosphate Rock, or 70% of the total group output. In 1994, the OCP Group started a new mining project in Sidi Chennane in the Khouribga area. The construction of the purified phosphoric acid plant was launched in Jorf Lasfar in 1996 and started production in 1998. In 2014, the OCP Group inaugurated the slurry pipeline linking Khouribga to Jorf Lasfar, a technological advancement in the transportation of phosphates. In February 2016, a fertilizer production plant dedicated entirely to Africa was inaugurated at Jorf Lasfar, the African Fertilizer Complex. Connected to the slurry pipeline, JFC 4 will be fully integrated and have its own thermoelectric plant. These plants not only make Jorf Lasfar completely energy self-sufficient, they also create an energy surplus that fuels the complex's sea water desalination station. Gantour (Benguerir and Youssoufia) Gantour is made up of two mining facilities, Benguerir and Youssoufia and holds the second largest amount of Morocco's phosphate reserves, 37% of the total. The mine in Benguerir opened in 1980. It is situated 70 km north of Marrakesh. In 2016, the mines' produced 6.3MT of Phosphate Rock, representing 23% of the group's total output. Since 2017, the mine has been one of Mohammed VI Polytechnic University's testing sites that is open to the scientific community and allows researchers from partner universities to test full-scale solutions in key areas. Called the "Advanced Mining Technology Platform," this pilot mine has many purposes. Rock from Benguerir is transported by rail to Safi by ONCF, the national railway company of Morocco. The Group's activities are organised into an integrated model covering all operations of the value chain from the extraction of phosphates to the production and marketing of various products including fertilizers and phosphoric acid. The mine in Youssoufia is the second most important mine to the Moroccan economy after the Khouribga mine. It is also the third biggest producer worldwide of phosphate. Since 1998, OCP has also operated the Bouchane mine, which is situated 40 km from Youssoufia. The phosphate from this mine is also processed at Youssoufia. Jorf Lasfar The Jorf Lasfar processing platform is the largest fertilizer complex in the world. The first phase of the site opened in 1984 and has been expanded multiple times since. Products are made using phosphate rock mined in Khouribga. The site produced 4.63Mt of fertilizer in 2016, including, 1.86Mt Phosphoric acid, 1.91Mt MAP, and 1.14Mt DAP. Over 30 different types of fertilizer were produced to suit various soil types. The complex is made up of several units including the newest, the Africa fertilizer complex and JFC II. The site is the world's largest exporter of fertilizer. The site has a desalination plant with a capacity of 25 Mm3 per year – since its construction this has significantly reduced the amount of water consumed by the plant from local sources. Safi The first OCP chemical site, the Safi complex started its activities in 1965 to process the phosphate rock from Benguerir. In addition to fertilizer and phosphoric acid production units, the site has a phosphate washing unit and a sulfuric acid plant. In 2016, the site produced 1.5Mt of phosphoric acid and 832.6Kt of TSP fertilizer. These figures represented the highest production figures in the site's history. The site produces fertilizer for both the domestic and international markets. Phosboucraa (Subsidiary) In 1976, OCP acquired 65% of Phosboucraa mine (Boucraâ-Laayoune), in Western Sahara and became the sole owner in 2002. Because Western Sahara is a non-self governing territory, the legality of mining by a foreign state actor is contentious under international law. As a result, several funds have disinvested from buyers of phosphates mined by Phosboucraa, and exports have dropped. Operations at the mine originally began in 1972; its activities include mining, processing and marketing phosphate rock. Boucraa mine represents approximately 2% of the Morocco's total phosphate reserves, 4.6% of OCP Group's total revenue and around 8% of the total rock extracted. 100% of profits made in the region are reinvested in the local community through the Phosboucraa Foundation. The Phosboucraa Foundation has so far helped more the 50,000 people through its various programs in education, health, and entrepreneurship. Phosboucraa's activities are located in 3 different places: Headquarters located in the City of Laayoune The processing plant and wharf are located at Laayoune beach, 20 km south-west of the Headquarters. A 102 km long conveyor belt is used for transporting phosphates from the mine Mining activities are located 140 km away by road in Bou Craa, thus far from any possible shipping area To help develop the value chain at this site OCP is investing $2.2 billion to build a phosphate processing plant, producing fertilizer and phosphoric acid. The scheme is expected to create more than 5,000 job in the region. Phosboucraa says that the project will continue a policy of hiring local workers, which they say make up 76% of the workforce, up from just 4% in 1976, achieved through outreach and training programs, and which have also led to hundreds of workers being trained to do skilled work at the groups site in the North. The numbers published by Phosboucraa, however, are disputed by local activists, including Western Sahara Research Watch, which notes that the designation of "local workers" doesn't distinguish between settlers and indigenous people. Products Phosphate rock The mining of phosphorite, (also known as phosphate rock or rock phosphate) was OCP's earliest operation, with the sale of these products being the company's main business. The company extracted 34.4 million tonnes in 2018, 11.3 million tons of which were exported, with Khouribga accounting for the biggest share. OCP market share in this product category is 38%. Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid is made from phosphate and due to its non-toxic nature, is widely used in the food, cosmetic, and dental industry. It is an example of diversification and supply chain integration to drive value. OCP produced 6.1 million metric tonnes in 2018, giving it a market share of 49%. Standard (Conventional Fertilizers) OCP also has a number of sites producing fertilizer. Fertilizer sales, including fortified fertilizers now account for slightly over half of OCP's total revenue and 23% of its world market share (2018 production: 8.8MT). The phosphate-based conventional fertilizers produced by OCP include; Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) a concentrated phosphate fertilizer, made with phosphorus and nitrogen. Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) is a concentrated phosphate fertilizer, that can also be used as a fire retardant. Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) is a concentrated phosphate fertilizer made with just phosphate. These can be used directly for soil fertilization or as raw material for blends, or other products. Fortified fertilizers OCP Group also produces a number of fortified fertilizers that can be tailored to meet the needs of particular types of soil – even down to a field by field scale. A number of different formulations are produced. NP+ are nitrogen and phosphate-based complex fertilizers, enriched with secondary and micro nutrients. NPK+ is similar in structure to the former, but uses a different chemical process, and contains potash. OCP products can also be tailored to meet crop specific nutrient requirements, for example, for corn, cotton, or cocoa. Soluble fertilizers Soluble Fertilizers are used for high value crops specifically for irrigated systems. They ensure efficient use of fertilizers, thus considerably enhance agricultural productivity and reduce water consumption. These fertilizers are well-suited to new micro-irrigation and sprinkler systems. The group's total fertilizer production is 8.8 million metric tonnes (including conventional fertilizers). Animal Feeds OCP also produces animal feeds from phosphate. The product is called PHOSFEED and is made from phosphoric acid and calcium carbonate. PHOSFEED is GMP+, HACCP and ISO 22000 certified. OCP Globally While the majority of OCP's operations are based in Morocco due to its large Phosphate reserves, the company has expanded globally, in processing, sales, and distribution. The company has more than 160 customers on 5 continents. The companies also support the communities they operate in by analyzing soil to tailor fertilizer to specific needs. North America OCP North America, headquartered in New York, United States and Canada founded in 2019. The company conducts research on the North American market, as well as analyzing soil to better customize fertilizer. In early 2020, it will assume the North American sales and marketing portfolio of OCP, building on the research undertaken. South America OCP's largest South American operations are located in Brazil. The company's Brazilian operations are made up of two companies, OCP di Brasil and OCP Fertilizantes, both headquartered in São Paulo. The companies undertake competitor and market research as well as working with farmers to establish the best fertilizers for their needs. The company also helps market, sell, and distribute OCP products in the country. OCP sales in the country increased by 20% in Q1 2019. India OCP India undertakes market and soil research in order to drive sales of OCP products in the country. The company carries out administration, sales support and marketing for OCP's Indian customers. The company is constructing a fertilizer plant with Krishak Bharati Limited (Kribhco) that will have a capacity of 1.2 million tonnes per year – the combined investment is worth US$230 million. The unit will use phosphate transported from OCP facilities in Morocco, the company will also be responsible for the shipping of the products. Asia Pacific (APAC) OCP has a research, sales and marketing function in Asia Pacific based in Singapore and Beijing. The construction of a fertilizer processing plant is underway in Singapore to allow easier mass customization of products for local markets. OCP Africa Founded as a wholly owned subsidiary of OCP S.A. in 2016, the company acts as a distributor for OCP products as well as operating facilities for fertilizer production. This capacity is being expanded rapidly following a large-scale investment program. OCP Group sees Africa as a major market for growth due to its unexploited potential due to the comparatively low use of fertilizers, which is reflected in lower than average per hectare crop yields. Support provided includes training programs and soil analysis that seeks to help farmers make the most of their land. OCP Africa operates in 16 African nations and has 12 subsidiary companies. OCP's largest African operation outside of Morocco, in Ethiopia, is set to expand significantly on the completion of a new fertilizer blending unit that will increase supply of customized fertilizer. Major Subsidiaries and Joint Ventures JESA In 2010, OCP Group entered in to a joint venture with Jacobs Engineering Group Inc., one of the world's largest providers of technical, professional, and construction services. The new company was named Jacobs Engineering SA (JESA). Prayon Prayon Technologies is a joint venture between OCP Group and the Wallonia Regional Investment Company. The original company was founded in 1882, in Belgium as the Société Anonyme Métallurgique de Prayon, a Zinc producer. In 1996, OCP bought half of the shares. The company specializes in chemical R&D, finding and developing compounds and developing their use cases. The company, through OCP's expertise is recognized as a leader in phosphate creativity. SEEFCO S.A. In 2021, OCP Group and the Emirati Al Dahra Agricultural Company finalized the creation of a joint venture in Romania. The new company was dubbed SEEFCO S.A. (South East Europe Fertilizer Company). Financial information 2020 coronavirus crisis response OCP Group contributed $310 million the Moroccan emergency fund, created by King Mohammed VI on March 15. See also Economy of Morocco References 1920 establishments in Morocco Government agencies established in 1920 Phosphate mining Fertilizer companies of Morocco Government-owned companies of Morocco Mining companies of Morocco
5335737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucker%20%28surname%29	Tucker (surname)	Tucker is a surname of disputed origin. Possible derivation of the name The origin of the name is not entirely certain, but since it has a long history as a surname on the continent, as in England and from thereon, also in the United States, it presumably has the same Saxon roots. In England Recorded as both Tucker and Tooker, the derivation of the English occupational surname comes from the Old English, pre-7th century verb tucian, meaning "to torment". It would have been for a fuller, also known as a "walker", one who softened freshly woven cloth by beating and tramping on it in water. "Tucker" was the usual term in the southwest of England (and South Wales as well), "walker" in the west and north, and "fuller" in the southeast and East Anglia. The first recorded spelling of the family name is shown to be that of one Baldwin Tuckere in the 1236 Records of Battle Abbey in Sussex. Nevertheless, one should not be too hasty to assign English origin to bearers of the surname. German and Dutch origins Linguistically, the word tucker is assumed to be related to the German tucher, which means "cloth-maker". In the 15th century, the bulk of the German cotton trade was in the hands of the Tucher von Simmelsdorf family in Nürnberg, where Tucher Castle still stands. In Old Dutch, which is closely related to Old German, the word tuch was often used as a verb to mean "to tug sharply" (see above). The similar linguistic origin of these words is also recognizable in the English etymology. In the Netherlands the earliest known Tucker's are the brothers Jan and Willam die Tucker, both vassals of the Lord of Culemborg in 1358 who was parented tot the Lord of Breda where Jan Tucker sold a house in 1368 on the Hagedijk Road to Antwerp in the city of Breda. Breda held a local monopoly on the wool trade in those days. Over the centuries the Dutch form of the surname has been spelled both Tucker and Tukker. Possible Irish origin Tucker can also be an Anglicized form of the Irish surname O'Tuachair, which first appeared in the Annals of Ulster in 1126 AD as Uá Tuathchair It is not uncommon to see Anglicized representations of Irish surnames, and myriad examples may be cited. According to Patrick Woulfe, in his book Irish Names and Surnames it is the name of two distinct septs; one from the Irish Midlands region known as Ely-O'Carroll (which includes parts of County Tipperary and County Offaly), and another from County Mayo. These findings were confirmed by the first Chief Herald of Ireland, Edward MacLysaght, and published in his book More Irish Families. Variants of the Irish surname include Toher, Togher, and Tougher. People with the surname "Tucker" include A Aaron Tucker (born 1981), Canadian writer Abi Tucker (born 1973), Australian singer-songwriter Abraham Tucker (1705–1774), English philosopher Adele Tucker (1868–1971), Bermudian schoolteacher Adrian Tucker (born 1976), Welsh footballer Adrian Tucker (cricketer) (born 1969), Australian cricketer Al Tucker (1943–2001), American basketball player Alando Tucker (born 1984), American basketball player Albert Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Alexander Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Alfred Tucker (1849–1914), Equatorial Guinean bishop Allen Tucker (1866–1939), American artist Allen Tucker (Medal of Honor) (1838–1903), American soldier Amy Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Anand Tucker (born 1963), Thai-British filmmaker Andre Tucker, American football trainer Andrew Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Angela Tucker, American writer Anna Tucker (1920–2012), American civil servant Anne Wilkes Tucker, American museum curator Annette Tucker, American songwriter Anthony Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Archibald Tucker (1904–1980), South African linguist Arnold Tucker (1924–2019), American football player Art Tucker (born 1959), American boxer Avis Tucker (1915–2010), American journalist B Barbara Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Barry Tucker (born 1952), Welsh footballer Beatrice Edna Tucker (1897/1898–1984), American obstetrician Ben Tucker (1930–2013), American bassist Benjamin Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Bernard Tucker (1901–1950), English ornithologist Bert Tucker (1944–2014), Belizean politician Bessie Tucker (1906–1933), American singer-songwriter Beverley D. Tucker (1846–1930), American bishop Bill Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Billy Tucker (born 1948), English footballer B. J. Tucker (born 1980), American football player Bobby Tucker (1923–2007), American pianist Buddy Tucker, American minister Brad Tucker (born 1992), New Zealand rugby union footballer Brett Tucker (born 1972), Australian actor Brett Tucker (cricketer) (born 1979), South African cricketer Brian Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Brooks Tucker, American government official Bryan Tucker, American comedian C Carole Tucker, British professor Casey Tucker (born 1995), American football player Catherine Tucker (born 1977), American professor C. Delores Tucker (1927–2005), American politician and activist Cécile Tucker (born 1969), American rower Charles Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Charlotte Maria Tucker (1821–1893), English writer Cheyna Tucker (born 1990), South African squash player Chris Tucker (born 1972), American actor Christopher Tucker (1946–2022), British make-up artist Clarke Tucker (born 1981), American politician Clay Tucker (born 1980), American basketball player Cleopatra Tucker (born 1943), American politician Cliff Tucker (1989–2018), American basketball player Clifton Tucker (1888–1973), Australian rules footballer Cole Tucker (born 1996), American baseball player Cole Tucker (actor) (1953–2015), American actor Colm Tucker (1952–2012), Irish rugby union footballer Corin Tucker (born 1972), American singer and guitarist Curtis R. Tucker (1918–1988), American politician Cynthia Tucker (born 1955), American columnist Cynthia Tucker (politician) (born 1954), Canadian politician Cyril Tucker (1911–1992), English bishop D Dakarai Tucker (born 1994), American basketball player Daniel Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Dar Tucker (born 1988), American-Jordanian basketball player Dara Tucker, American singer-songwriter Darcy Tucker (born 1975), Canadian hockey player Darcy Tucker (footballer) (born 1997), Australian rules footballer Darren Tucker (born 1962), Australian cricketer David Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Deborah Tucker, American actress Deborah Tucker (executive), American activist Delmi Tucker (born 1997), South African cricketer Demetria Tucker, American librarian Derrol Tucker (born 1961), Sheffield One off Dexter Tucker (born 1979), English footballer Donald Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Dudley Gilman Tucker (1887–1918), American soldier Duncan Tucker, American filmmaker E Earl Snakehips Tucker (1905–1937), American dancer Ebenezer Tucker (1758–1845), American judge and legislator Eddie Tucker (born 1966), American baseball player Eddie Tucker (footballer) (born 1932), Australian rules footballer Edward Tucker (??–1739), British merchant and politician Elena J. Tucker, Australian geneticist E. M. Tucker, American architect Emma Tucker (born 1966/1967), English journalist Emmanuel Tucker, Sierra Leonean bishop Eric Tucker (1932–2018), English painter Eric James Tucker (1927–1957), Indian army officer Ethan Tucker, American rabbi Ethelyn Maria Tucker (1871–1959), American botanist Eugene A. Tucker (1856–1942), American attorney and politician Evelyn Tucker (1906–1996), American war hero F Forrest Tucker (1919–1986), American actor Forrest Tucker (criminal) (1920–2004), American criminal Francis Tucker (1923–2008), South African racing driver Francis Bland Tucker (1895–1984), American priest Frank T. Tucker (1864–1910), American politician Fred C. Tucker (1918–1994), American businessman G Gardiner L. 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Tucker (born 1978), American baseball player Todd Tucker (born 1979), American academic Todd Tucker (director), American film director Tom Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Tony Tucker (born 1958), American boxer Tony Jaye Tucker Jr. (born 1989), American football player Torrin Tucker (born 1979), American football player Travis Tucker (born 1963), American football player Tre Tucker (born 2001), American football player Trent Tucker (born 1959), American basketball player Tuck Tucker (1961–2020), American writer Tudor St. George Tucker (1862–1906), English painter Tui St. George Tucker (1924–2004), American composer and musician Tyler Tucker (born 2000), Canadian ice hockey player V Verran Tucker (born 1988), American football player Virginia Tucker (1909–1985), American mathematician W Wallace Hampton Tucker, American astrophysicist Walter Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Warwick Tucker, Australian mathematician Wendell Tucker (born 1943), American football player Whit Tucker (born 1940), Canadian football player Wilburn Tucker (1920–1980), American football coach Will Tucker (born 1998), New Zealand rugby union footballer William Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Willis Tucker (1922–2000), American politician Wilson Tucker (disambiguation), multiple people Y Yvonne Edwards Tucker (born 1941), American potter and educator Fictional characters Nina Tucker, character on the Australian soap opera television series Neighbours Shou Tucker and his daughter Nina, characters in the Fullmetal Alchemist manga and anime series Trip Tucker, character on the television series Star Trek: Enterprise Craig Tucker, a recurring South Park character See also Tucker (given name), people with the given name "Tucker" Tuck (surname), people with the surname "Tuck" Attorney General Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Attorneys General with the surname "Tucker" General Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Generals with the surname "Tucker" Governor Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Governors with the surname "Tucker" Judge Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Judges with the surname "Tucker" Justice Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Justices with the surname "Tucker" Senator Tucker (disambiguation), a page for Senators with the surname "Tucker" References Occupational surnames English-language surnames English-language occupational surnames
5335922	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blakeney%20Point	Blakeney Point	Blakeney Point (designated as Blakeney National Nature Reserve) is a national nature reserve situated near to the villages of Blakeney, Morston and Cley next the Sea on the north coast of Norfolk, England. Its main feature is a spit of shingle and sand dunes, but the reserve also includes salt marshes, tidal mudflats and reclaimed farmland. It has been managed by the National Trust since 1912, and lies within the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest, which is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Ramsar listings. The reserve is part of both an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and a World Biosphere Reserve. The Point has been studied for more than a century, following pioneering ecological studies by botanist Francis Wall Oliver and a bird ringing programme initiated by ornithologist Emma Turner. The area has a long history of human occupation; ruins of a medieval monastery and "Blakeney Chapel" (probably a domestic dwelling) are buried in the marshes. The towns sheltered by the shingle spit were once important harbours, but land reclamation schemes starting in the 17th century resulted in the silting up of the river channels. The reserve is important for breeding birds, especially terns, and its location makes it a major site for migrating birds in autumn. Up to 500 seals may gather at the end of the spit, and its sand and shingle hold a number of specialised invertebrates and plants, including the edible samphire, or "sea asparagus". The many visitors who come to birdwatch, sail or for other outdoor recreations are important to the local economy, but the land-based activities jeopardize nesting birds and fragile habitats, especially the dunes. Some access restrictions on humans and dogs help to reduce the adverse effects, and trips to see the seals are usually undertaken by boat. The spit is a dynamic structure, gradually moving towards the coast and extending to the west. Land is lost to the sea as the spit rolls forward. The River Glaven can become blocked by the advancing shingle and cause flooding of Cley village, Cley Marshes nature reserve, and the environmentally important reclaimed grazing pastures, so the river has to be realigned every few decades. Description Blakeney Point, like most of the northern part of the marshes in this area, is part of the parish of Cley next the Sea. The main spit runs roughly west to east, and joins the mainland at Cley Beach before continuing onwards as a coastal ridge to Weybourne. It is approximately long, and is composed of a shingle bank which in places is in width and up to high. It has been estimated that there are 2.3 million m3 (82 million ft3) of shingle in the spit, 97 per cent of which is derived from flint. The Point was formed by longshore drift and this movement continues westward; the spit lengthened by between 1886 and 1925. At the western end, the shingle curves south towards the mainland. This feature has developed several times over the years, giving the impression from the air of a series of hooks along the south side of the spit. Salt marshes have formed between the shingle curves and in front of the coasts sheltered by the spit, and sand dunes have accumulated at the Point's western end. Some of the shorter side ridges meet the main ridge at a steep angle due to the southward movement of the latter. There is an area of reclaimed farmland, known as Blakeney Freshes, to the west of Cley Beach Road. Norfolk Coast Path, an ancient long distance footpath, cuts across the south eastern corner of the reserve along the sea wall between the farmland and the salt marshes, and further west at Holme-next-the-Sea the trail joins Peddars Way. The tip of Blakeney Point can be reached by walking up the shingle spit from the car park at Cley Beach, or by boats from the quay at Morston. The boat gives good views of the seal colonies and avoids the long walk over a difficult surface. The National Trust has an information centre and tea room at the quay, and a visitor centre on the Point. The centre was formerly a lifeboat station and is open in the summer months. Halfway House, or the Watch House, is a building from Cley Beach car park. Originally built in the 19th century as a look-out for smugglers, it was used in succession as a coast guard station, by the Girl Guides, and as a holiday let. History To 1912 Norfolk has a long history of human occupation dating back to the Palaeolithic, and has produced many significant archaeological finds. Both modern and Neanderthal people were present in the area between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, before the last glaciation, and humans returned as the ice retreated northwards. The archaeological record is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly because of the very cold conditions that existed then, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic (10,000–5,000 BCE), the sea level rose, filling what is now the North Sea. This brought the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line, so that many ancient sites are now under the sea in an area now known as Doggerland. Early Mesolithic flint tools with characteristic long blades up to long found on the present-day coast at Titchwell Marsh date from a time when it was from the sea. Other flint tools have been found dating from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 BCE) to the Neolithic (5,000–2,500 BCE). An "eye" is an area of higher ground in the marshes, dry enough to support buildings. Blakeney's former Carmelite friary, founded in 1296 and dissolved in 1538, was built in such a location, and several fragments of plain roof tile and pantiles dating back to the 13th century have been found near the site of its ruins. Originally on the south side of the Glaven, Blakeney Eye had a ditched enclosure during the 11th and 12th centuries, and a building known as "Blakeney Chapel", which was occupied from the 14th century to around 1600, and again in the late 17th century. Despite its name, it is unlikely that it had a religious function. Nearly a third of the mostly 14th- to 16th-century pottery found within the larger and earlier of the two rooms was imported from the continent, suggesting significant international trade at this time. The spit sheltered the Glaven ports, Blakeney, Cley-next-the-Sea and Wiveton, which were important medieval harbours. Blakeney sent ships to help Edward I's war efforts in 1301, and between the 14th and 16th centuries it was the only Norfolk port between King's Lynn and Great Yarmouth to have customs officials. Blakeney Church has a second tower at its east end, an unusual feature in a rural parish church. It has been suggested that it acted as a beacon for mariners, perhaps by aligning it with the taller west tower to guide ships into the navigable channel between the inlet's sandbanks; that this was not always successful is demonstrated by a number of wrecks in the haven, including a carvel-built wooden ship. Land reclamation schemes, especially those by Henry Calthorpe in 1640 just to the west of Cley, led to the silting up of the Glaven shipping channel and relocation of Cley's wharf. Further enclosure in the mid-1820s aggravated the problem, and also allowed the shingle ridge at the beach to block the former tidal channel to the Salthouse marshes to the east of Cley. In an attempt to halt the decline, Thomas Telford was consulted in 1822, but his recommendations for reducing the silting were not implemented, and by 1840 almost all of Cley's trade had been lost. The population stagnated, and the value of all property decreased sharply. Blakeney's shipping trade benefited from the silting up of its nearby rival, and in 1817 the channel to the Haven was deepened to improve access. Packet ships ran to Hull and London from 1840, but this trade declined as ships became too large for the harbour. National Trust era In the decades preceding World War I, this stretch of coast became famous for its wildfowling; locals were looking for food, but some more affluent visitors hunted to collect rare birds; Norfolk's first barred warbler was shot on the point in 1884. In 1901, the Blakeney and Cley Wild Bird Protection Society created a bird sanctuary and appointed as its "watcher", Bob Pinchen, the first of only six men, up to 2012, to hold that post. In 1910, the owner of the Point, Augustus Cholmondeley Gough-Calthorpe, 6th Baron Calthorpe, leased the land to University College London (UCL), who also purchased the Old Lifeboat House at the end of the spit. When the baron died later that year, his heirs put Blakeney Point up for sale, raising the possibility of development. In 1912, a public appeal initiated by Charles Rothschild and organised by UCL Professor Francis Wall Oliver and Dr Sidney Long enabled the purchase of Blakeney Point from the Calthorpe estate, and the land was then donated to the National Trust. UCL established a research centre at the Old Lifeboat House in 1913, where Oliver and his college pioneered the scientific study of Blakeney Point. The building is still used by students, and also acts as an information centre. Despite formal protection, the tern colony was not fenced off until the 1960s. In 1930, the Point's first "watcher", Bob Pinchen, retired and was replaced by Billy Eales, who had assisted Pinchen the previous summer to "learn the job". His son, Ted Eales, succeeded him as warden when he died in early 1939. Ted Eales went on to work as a wildlife cameraman for Anglia Television during the winter and served as the Point's warden until retiring in March 1980. Subsequent wardens have included Joe Reed and wildlife presenter Ajay Tegala. Bob Pinchen, Ted Eales and Ajay Tegala have all written books about their experiences on Blakeney Point as watcher, warden and ranger respectively. The Point was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1954, along with the adjacent Cley Marshes reserve, and subsumed into the newly created North Norfolk Coast SSSI in 1986. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, IUCN category IV (habitat/species management area) and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Point became a National Nature Reserve (NNR) in 1994, and the coast from Holkham NNR to Salthouse, together with Scolt Head Island, became a Biosphere Reserve in 1976. Fauna and flora Birds Blakeney Point has been designated as one of the most important sites in Europe for nesting terns by the government's Joint Nature Conservation Committee. In the early 1900s, the small colonies of common and little terns were badly affected by egg-taking, disturbance and shooting, but as protection improved the common terns population rose to 2,000 pairs by mid-century, although it subsequently declined to no more than 165 pairs by 2000, perhaps due to predation. Sandwich terns were a scarce breeder until the 1970s, but there were 4,000 pairs by 1992. Blakeney is the most important site in Britain for both Sandwich and little terns, the roughly 200 pairs of the latter species amounting to eight per cent of the British population. The 2,000 pairs of black-headed gulls sharing the breeding area with the terns are believed to protect the colony as a whole from predators like red foxes. Other nesting birds include about 20 pairs of Arctic terns and a few Mediterranean gulls in the tern colony, ringed plovers and oystercatchers on the shingle and common redshanks on the salt marsh. The waders' breeding success has been compromised by human disturbance and predation by gulls, weasels and stoats, with ringed plovers particularly affected, declining to 12 pairs in 2012 compared to 100 pairs twenty years previously. The pastures contain breeding northern lapwings, and species such as sedge and reed warblers and bearded tits are found in patches of common reed. The Point juts into the sea on a north-facing coast, which means that migrant birds may be found in spring and autumn, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions force them towards land. Numbers are relatively low in spring, but autumn can produce large "falls", such as the hundreds of European robins on 1 October 1951 or more than 400 common redstarts, on 18 September 1995. The common birds are regularly accompanied by scarcer species like greenish warblers, great grey shrikes or Richard's pipits. Seabirds may be sighted passing the Point, and migrating waders feed on the marshes at this time of year. Vagrant rarities have turned up when the weather is appropriate, including a Fea's or Zino's petrel in 1997, a trumpeter finch in 2008, and an alder flycatcher in 2010. Ornithologist and pioneering bird photographer Emma Turner started ringing common terns on the Point in 1909, and the use of this technique for migration studies has continued since. A notable recovery was a Sandwich tern killed for food in Angola, and a Radde's warbler trapped for ringing in 1961 was only the second British record of this species at that time. In the winter, the marshes hold golden plovers and wildfowl including common shelduck, Eurasian wigeon, brent geese and common teal, while common scoters, common eiders, common goldeneyes and red-breasted mergansers swim offshore. Other animals Blakeney Point has a mixed colony of about 500 harbour and grey seals. The harbour seals have their young between June and August, and the pups, which can swim almost immediately, may be seen on the mud flats. Grey seals breed in winter, between November and January; their young cannot swim until they have lost their first white coat, so they are restricted to dry land for their first three or four weeks, and can be viewed on the beach during this period. Grey seals colonised a site in east Norfolk in 1993, and started breeding regularly at Blakeney in 2001. It is possible that they now outnumber harbour seals off the Norfolk coast. Seal-watching boat trips run from Blakeney and Morston harbours, giving good views without disturbing the seals. The corpses of 24 female or juvenile harbour seals were found in the Blakeney area between March 2009 and August 2010, each with spirally cut wounds consistent with the animal having been drawn through a ducted propeller. The rabbit population can grow to a level at which their grazing and burrowing adversely affects the fragile dune vegetation. When rabbit numbers are reduced by myxomatosis, the plants recover, although those that are toxic to rabbits, like ragwort, then become less common due to increased competition from the edible species. The rabbits may be killed by carnivores such as red foxes, weasels and stoats. Records of mammals that are rare in the NNR area include red deer swimming in the haven, a hedgehog and a beached Sowerby's beaked whale. An insect survey in September 2009 recorded 187 beetle species, including two new to Norfolk, the rove beetle Phytosus nigriventris and the fungus beetle Leiodes ciliaris, and two very rarely seen in the county, the sap beetle Nitidula carnaria and the clown beetle Gnathoncus nanus. There were also 24 types of spider, and the five ant species included the nationally rare Myrmica specioides. The rare millipede Thalassisobates littoralis, a specialist of coastal shingle habitats, was found here in 1972, and a red-veined darter appeared in 2012. Tens of thousands of migrant turnip sawflies were recorded for a few days in late summer 2006, along with red-eyed damselflies. The silver Y moth also appears in large numbers in some years. The many inhabitants of the tidal flats include lugworms, polychaete worms, sand hoppers and other amphipod crustaceans, and gastropod molluscs. These molluscs feed on the algae growing on the surface of the mud, and include the tiny Hydrobia, an important food for waders because of its abundance at densities of more than 130,000 m−2. Bivalve molluscs include the edible common cockle, although it is not harvested here. Plants Grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass have an important function in the driest areas of the marshes, and on the coastal dunes, where marram grass, sand couch-grass, lyme-grass and grey hair-grass help to bind the sand. Sea holly, sand sedge, bird's-foot trefoil and pyramidal orchid are other specialists of this arid habitat. Some specialised mosses and lichens are found on the dunes, and help to consolidate the sand; a survey in September 2009 found 41 lichen species. The plant distribution is influenced by the dunes' age as well as their moisture content, the deposits becoming less alkaline as calcium carbonate from animal shells is leached out of the sand to be replaced by more acidic humus from plant decomposition products. Marram grass is particularly discouraged by the change in acidity. A similar pattern is seen with mosses and lichens, with the various areas of the dunes containing different species according to the acidity of the sand. At least four moss species have been identified as important in dune stabilization, since they help to consolidate the sand, add nutrients as they decompose, and pave the way for more exacting plant species. The moss and lichen flora of Blakeney Point differs markedly from that of lime-rich dunes on the western coasts of the UK. Non-native tree lupins have become established near the Lifeboat House, where they now grow wild. The shingle ridge attracts biting stonecrop, sea campion, yellow horned poppy, sea thrift, bird's foot trefoil and sea beet. In the damper areas, where the shingle adjoins salt marsh, rock sea lavender, matted sea lavender and scrubby sea-blite also thrive, although they are scarce in Britain away from the Norfolk coast. The saltmarsh contains European glasswort and common cord grass in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with sea purslane in the creeks, and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants. Six previously unknown diatom species were found in the waters around the point in 1952, along with six others not previously recorded in Britain. European glasswort is picked between May and September and sold locally as "samphire". It is a fleshy plant which when blanched or steamed has a taste which leads to its alternative name of "sea asparagus", and it is often eaten with fish. It can also be eaten raw when young. Glasswort is also a favourite food for the rabbits, which will venture onto the saltmarsh in search of this succulent plant. Recreation The 7.7 million day visitors and 5.5 million who made overnight stays on the Norfolk coast in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122 million, and secured the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs in that area. A 2005 survey at six North Norfolk coastal sites, including Blakeney, Cley and Morston found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit. The villages nearest to the Point, Blakeney and Cley, had the highest per capita spend per visitor of those surveyed, and Cley was one of the two sites with the highest proportion of pre-planned visits. The equivalent of 52 full-time jobs in the Cley and Blakeney area are estimated to result from the £2.45 million spent locally by the visiting public. In addition to birdwatching and boat trips to see the seals, sailing and walking are the other significant tourist activities in the area. The large number of visitors at coastal sites sometimes has negative effects. Wildlife may be disturbed, a frequent difficulty for species that breed in exposed areas such as ringed plovers and little terns, and also for wintering geese. During the breeding season, the main breeding areas for terns and seals are fenced off and signposted. Plants can be trampled, which is a particular problem in sensitive habitats such as sand dunes and vegetated shingle. A boardwalk made from recycled plastic crosses the large sand dunes near the end of the Point, which helps to reduce erosion. It was installed in 2009 at a cost of £35,000 to replace its much less durable wooden predecessor. Dogs are not allowed from April to mid-August because of the risk to ground-nesting birds, and must be on a lead or closely controlled at other times. The Norfolk Coast Partnership, a grouping of conservation and environmental bodies, divide the coast and its hinterland into three zones for tourism development purposes. Blakeney Point, along with Holme Dunes and Holkham dunes, is considered to be a sensitive habitat already suffering from visitor pressure, and therefore designated as a red-zone area with no development or parking improvements to be recommended. The rest of the reserve is placed in the orange zone, for locations with fragile habitats but less tourism pressure. Coastal changes The spit is a relatively young feature in geological terms, and in recent centuries it has been extending westwards and landwards through tidal and storm action. This growth is thought to have been enhanced by the reclamation of the salt marshes along this coast in recent centuries, which removed a natural barrier to the movement of shingle. The amount of shingle moved by a single storm can be "spectacular"; the spit has sometimes been breached, becoming an island for a time, and this may happen again. The northernmost part of Snitterley (now Blakeney) village was lost to the sea in the early Middle Ages, probably due to a storm. In the last two hundred years, maps have been accurate enough for the distance from the Blakeney Chapel ruins to the sea to be measured. The in 1817 had become by 1835, in 1907, and by the end of the 20th century. The spit is moving towards the mainland at about per year; and several former raised islands or "eyes" have already disappeared, first covered by the advancing shingle, and then lost to the sea. The massive 1953 flood overran the main beach, and only the highest dune tops remained above water. Sand was washed into the salt marshes, and the extreme tip of the point was breached, but as with other purely natural parts of the coast, like Scolt Head Island, little lasting damage was done. Landward movement of the shingle meant that the channel of the Glaven was becoming blocked increasingly often by 2004. This led to flooding of Cley village and the environmentally important Blakeney freshwater marshes. The Environment Agency considered several remedial options. It concluded that attempting to hold back the shingle or breaching the spit to create a new outlet for the Glaven would be expensive and probably ineffective, and doing nothing would be environmentally damaging. The Agency decided to create a new route for the river to the south of its original line, and work to realign a stretch of river further south was completed in 2007 at a cost of about £1.5 million. The Glaven had previously been realigned from an earlier, more northerly, course in 1922. The ruins of Blakeney Chapel are now to the north of the river embankment, and essentially unprotected from coastal erosion, since the advancing shingle will no longer be swept away by the stream. The chapel will be buried by a ridge of shingle as the spit continues to move south, and then lost to the sea, perhaps within 20–30 years. Notes References Cited texts External links Open Street Map Official website: Blakeney National Nature Reserve Blakeney, Norfolk Coastal features of Norfolk Landforms of Norfolk National nature reserves in England National Trust properties in Norfolk Nature reserves in Norfolk North Norfolk Spits of England Special Protection Areas in England Beaches of Norfolk Protected areas established in 1912
5336029	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20CL-Class%20%28C216%29	Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C216)	The Mercedes-Benz C216 is the last generation for the grand tourer with name Mercedes-Benz CL-Class. It replaced the C215 platform. In 2014 it was replaced by the C217 S-Class Coupe. Initial release (2006–) Like its predecessors, the C216 has no B-pillar interrupting the sleek curve of the side windows. The C216 body was designed by Gorden Wagener and Peter Pfeiffer. The chassis is based on the W221 S-Class. The two-door coupé weighs , heavier than the equivalent S saloon, and rides on a full-size 116.3-inch wheelbase (albeit 8.2 inches less than the long wheelbase S-Class, which is the only S-Class sold in the U.S.). Despite its large size, rear seat legroom is limited in keeping in the tradition of 2+2 luxury coupés, though CL has more rear passenger space than its rivals. The CL's boot is as large as that of the Audi A8 flagship saloon. The vehicle was unveiled in the 2006 Paris Motor Show, followed by the 28th Bangkok International Motor Show (in right-handed drive configuration). The vehicle went on sale in Early-July 2006 in Europe (UK arrival spring 2007). Early models included CL 500 with 7G-TRONIC transmission, CL 600 with five-speed automatic transmission. CL 65 AMG, "40th Anniversary" limited-edition (2006–) The CL 65 AMG is a version of the CL 600 with increased engine power to at 4,800-5,100 rpm and at 2,000-4,000 rpm, vented and cross-drilled 15.4 inches front and 14.8 inches rear brake discs, frame-type sliding rear brake calipers, 255/35 ZR 20 front and 275/35 ZR 20 rear tires, forged 20-inch AMG twin-spoke wheels (8.5 inches front and 9.5 in the rear), special AMG spring struts with firmer damping, reworked ESP stability control and ASR traction control. The "40th Anniversary" edition CL 65 AMG is a limited (40 units) version of the CL 65 AMG commemorating the 40th anniversary of AMG, designed by the specialists of the AMG PERFORMANCE STUDIO. It included exclusive AMG Alubeam (Liquid Metal) body paint (from Vision GST and SL 400 CDI), AMG two-bar front grille, large under-bumper air intakes, air outlets on the front fenders and round fog lights, rear apron with a black air diffuser insert and twin V12-design tailpipes, two-tone EXCLUSIVE PASSION Nappa leather seats with new AMG V12 diamond pattern stitching, embossed V12 logos in the front head restraints, color-coordinated Alcantara roof lining, nappa leather upholstery at airbag unit of the AMG ergonomic sports steering wheel, carbon fiber interior trim, "40th Anniversary" lettering on the center console and a "One Out of 40" badge on the handrest of the COMAND controller. The 2008 model year Mercedes-Benz CL 65 AMG was unveiled in the 2007 New York International Auto Show. CL 500 model "Trademark Centenary" (2009–) It is a version of the 2009 model year CL 500 and CL 500 4MATIC commemorating the 100th birthday of the Mercedes three-pointed star and the Benz emblem, when on 24 June 1909 Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft officially registered the design of the Mercedes star, and on 6 August Benz & Cie. registered the letters "Benz", enclosed by a laurel wreath, as a trademark with the Imperial Patent Office. Changes include historic trademarks dating from 1909 in gilded plate brass, which are inset into the centre console; designo metallic graphite body colour, AMG Sports package, exclusive high-sheen 20-inch 5 twin-spoke AMG light-alloy wheels in titanium grey, 255/35 R 20 front and 275/35 R 20 rear tyres, partly hand-stitched designo aniline leather with contrasting seams in a light sand colour, wood/leather steering wheel, interior trim in shining black piano lacquer, anthracite Alcantara roof lining and black floor mats with AMG lettering and sand-coloured edging. The vehicle went on sale on 26 June 2009. CL 550 4MATIC "100 Years of Mercedes-Benz Edition" (2009–) It is a limited version of the 2010 model year CL 550 4MATIC based on the CL 500 4MATIC model "Trademark Centenary", with 255/35 R 20 tires, Sahara Beige leather interior upholstery, an SD card slot in the center console, a USB interface in the glove compartment, a universal Media Interface for connecting mobile audio devices and all components of the Premium 2 package. The US model went on sale in summer of 2009. Engines BlueEFFICIENCY models include ECO start/stop function. Transmissions Performance Equipment AMG bodystyling (includes front bumper with enlarged air intakes, chrome-ringed circular fog lamps, two slanted struts and a smooth transition to the prominent wheel arches, AMG side skirts, AMG rear apron, rear bumper with its black insert and chrome trim strip flanked by tailpipes on either side), AMG light-alloy wheels (includes 19-inch five-spoke wheels (8.5/9.5-wide) with embossed AMG lettering, high-sheen rim flange and spokes, 255/40 (front) and 275/40 (rear) tyres) went on sale in September 2006, for CL 500 and CL 600. New features The Pre-Safe Brake world premiere on the CL-Class C216 with the first partial autonomous braking (40%, or up to 0.4g deceleration) if the driver does not react to the BAS Plus warnings and the system detects a severe danger of an accident. If the driver then immediately applied the brakes, the maximum braking force was available and – depending on the situation – the accident could be averted at the last moment. If an accident was unavoidable, the PRE-SAFE brakes reduced the impact severity and, in turn, the risk of injury to the vehicle occupants. The Distronic Plus adaptive cruise control is able to bring the car to a complete stop, and accelerate again to the pre-set speed, to keep a pre-set distance away from the car ahead of it. Also introduced active infrared Night View Assist enables drivers to view the conditions in front of the car despite the dark surroundings. Intelligent Light System headlights with five light modes, including active light function. In 2007 it added the first Mercedes-Benz Blind Spot Assist system (includes six short-range radar sensors in the front and rear bumpers). This was available as option for CL-Class. AMG Sports package for 2009 CL-Class (including a front apron with large air intakes, rear apron with a black insert and integrated rectangular tailpipe trim in polished stainless steel, AMG side sill panels, 19-inch AMG light-alloy wheels in with a five-spoke design and wide-base 255/40 (front) and 275/40 (rear) tyres (optional 20-inch AMG light-alloy wheels in a twin-spoke design with 255/35 and 275/35 tyres), perforated brake discs and silver-painted brake callipers with Mercedes-Benz lettering (V8/V12 engine models), wood trim and wood/leather steering wheel in black ash, velour floor mats with AMG lettering, sports pedals in brushed stainless steel with rubber studs) was available for CL 500 and CL 500 4MATIC beginning in June 2009. From 2009, Mercedes-Benz has only been offering the CL 550 in 4Matic in US/Canada, as a strategy to increase sales in snowy regions. While all the systems are the same, the suspension has been degraded from ABC to Airmatic, as 4Matic is not compatible with ABC. The CL 600 and CL 65 AMG remained the same rear-wheel drive variants. Marketing As part of Mercedes-Benz CL-Class launch, Mercedes-Benz Accessories GMBH released accessories for the CL-Class vehicles, including leather wallet and business card case in black nappa based on the trim in the CL's cockpit, ash timber pens and umbrella handle based on the wood trim found in the car's cockpit, driving gloves and instrumentation-inspired wristwatch, keyring and money clip with the MB logo, and a diecast model car made by AUTOart. The accessories were available beginning in September 2006. 2010 facelift The vehicle was unveiled in the 2010 Goodwood Festival of Speed, followed by the 2010 Paris Motor Show. Changes include: exterior and interior, new grille, bi-xenon headlights with LED technology, LED fog lamps, revised fenders and hood, and new exhaust pipes, addition of a new interior wood trim Adaptive Highbeam Assist Attention Assist Active Blind Spot Assist world premiere Active Lane Keeping Assist world premiere 2011: first series production car with night vision-guided pedestrian spotlighting: Night View Assist Plus with Spotlight Function can flash at any pedestrians it detects in order to warn both the driver and the pedestrians. The flashing light is directed in such a way that vehicles in front and oncoming traffic are not dazzled. PRE-SAFE Brake upgrade now activates maximum braking pressure around 0.6 seconds before what it recognises as an unavoidable collision. Direct-Steer Active Body Control (ABC) with crosswind stabilisation Torque Vectoring Brake COMAND with SPLITVIEW dual view display. COMAND APS navigation system replaces DVD with 40 gigabyte hard-disk drive map. Equipment Active Body Control suspension (standard, only on rear-wheel drive, for US market only on CL 600 and AMG) AIRMATIC air suspension with continuously Adaptive Damping System Plus (standard on US market CL 550 4MATIC, not for CL 600 and AMG) Nine airbags as standard ESP Dynamic Cornering Assist Traffic Sign Assist with Speed Limit Assist ATTENTION ASSIST (as standard) ADAPTIVE BRAKE (as standard) DISTRONIC PLUS Brake Assist system BAS PLUS NECK-PRO crash-responsive head restraints PRE-SAFE, PRE-SAFE Brake Active bonnet Active Lane Keeping Assist Bi-Xenon headlamps with Intelligent Light System and Adaptive Highbeam Assist Night View Assist PLUS Active Parking Assist Active Blind Spot Assist Crosswind Assist Torque Vectoring Brake Backup camera Electric parking brake with emergency braking function Direct-Steer Electromechanical steering with Steer Assist electromechanical steering power assistance Early models include CL 500 BlueEFFICIENCY, CL 500 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY, CL 600. US models arrived at Mercedes-Benz dealerships in November 2010 as 2011 model year vehicles. Early models include CL 550 4MATIC, CL 63 AMG. CL 63 AMG (2010-2014) It is a version of the CL 500 BlueEFFICIENCY with AMG 5.5-litre V8 biturbo engine rated at 5,500 rpm and at 2,000-4,500 rpm, AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission, improved fuel efficiency over previous CL 63 AMG, newly designed AMG bodystyling, "V8 Biturbo" lettering on the mudguards, AMG triple-spoke light-alloy wheels in titanium grey and with a high-sheen finish, 255/40 and 275/40 R 19 tyres, AMG sports steering wheel with silver-coloured aluminium shift paddles and specially shaped grip area covered with perforated nappa leather, "AMG V8 Biturbo" start screen in the AMG instrument cluster, optional SPLITVIEW for COMAND multimedia system, Direct-Steer system, Torque Vectoring Brake, crosswind stabilization, AMG high-performance braking system, optional Active Lane Keeping Assist and Active Blind-Spot Assist. Other AMG Performance Studio options include: AMG Performance package: increase in maximum power by and torque by , genuine carbon fibre AMG engine cover AMG double-spoke forged wheels in titanium grey with a mirror finish with 255/35 R 20 (front) and 275/30 R 20 (rear) tyres AMG double-spoke forged wheels, in black with a mirror finish with 255/35 R 20 (front) and 275/35 R 20 (rear) tyres AMG Exterior Carbon package AMG performance steering wheel in leather/Alcantara AMG carbon-fibre trim elements Other options include designo products (including exclusive paint finishes, leather upholstery, trim elements and steering wheels), designo Selection. The vehicle went on sale in September 2010. US model arrived at Mercedes-Benz dealerships in November 2010 as 2011 model year vehicle. CL 65 AMG (2010-2014) It is a version of the CL 600 with increased engine power to at 4,800 rpm and at 2,300-4,300 rpm, reduction in fuel consumption via regenerative braking for battery management of both the on-board electrical system and generator, reduced emissions via new piston rings, a modified oil pump and use of a superior coating on the catalytic converters; AMG SPEEDSHIFT five-speed automatic transmission with three different drive modes, AMG sports suspension based on Active Body Control (ABC) with Torque Vectoring Brake, crosswind stabilisation, loading adjustment system, Direct-Steer system with speed-sensitive power steering, AMG high-performance braking system based on the ADAPTIVE BRAKE system (390 and 365 millimetres diameter ventilated and perforated composite brake discs, double floating front and sliding frame-type rear brake callipers), profiled bonnet, enlarged and more angled radiator grille, Intelligent Light System (ILS) (bi-xenon headlamps with active light function, Adaptive Highbeam Assist and AMG-specific LED daytime driving lights in the front apron), enlarged chrome-trimmed cooling-air intake with horizontal grille slat, V-shape and the lower cross strut with exclusive chrome-look finish, AMG rear apron with a chrome diffuser insert, taillamps with one-piece red-coloured cover plates, reversing headlamps placed next to the licence plate recess, AMG sports exhaust system with two chrome twin tailpipes featuring a V12 design, "V12 BITURBO" lettering on the mudguard, AMG double-spoke forged wheels in titanium grey and with a high-sheen finish, 255/35 R 20 front 275/35 R 20 rear tyres, exclusive PASSION nappa leather upholstery with V12 diamond pattern at seats and door centre panels, Nappa leather upholstery at instrument panel and seatback panels and magazine pockets and parcel shelf, Alcantara roof lining and A and C-pillars, AMG sports seats with alternate upholstery layout and active ventilation and heating and Seat Comfort package (front active multicontour seats with massage and dynamic functions, NECK-PRO luxury head restraints), PRE-SAFE positioning function at front seats, AMG sports steering wheel with silver-coloured aluminium shift paddles and perforated nappa leather in the grip area, COMAND APS multimedia system including Harman Kardon Logic 7 surround sound system with SPLITVIEW, AMG instrument cluster with "AMG V12 BITURBO" start screen and a 360-km/h speedometer scale, a gear indicator including upshift recommendation at AMG main menu, RACETIMER with lap times tracking, exclusive analogue clock with IWC design and high-gloss poplar wood trim elements. AMG Performance Studio options include: AMG double-spoke forged wheels in black with a mirror finish and 255/35 R 20 (front) and 275/35 R 20 (rear) tyres AMG Exterior Carbon package AMG performance steering wheel in leather/Alcantara AMG carbon-fibre interior trim elements Other options include designo products (including exclusive paint finishes, leather upholstery, trim elements and steering wheels), designo Selection. The vehicle went on sale for 191,450 euros (excl. VAT)/227,825 euros (incl. 19% VAT). US models arrived at Mercedes-Benz dealerships in November 2010 as 2011 model year vehicle. CL "Grand Edition" (2012-2014) It is a version of the CL 500 BlueEFFICIENCY, CL 500 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY and CL 600 commemorating 60 years of the S-Class Coupé. Changes include a choice of 3 designo body colours (platinum black metallic, mocha black metallic and matt magno cashmere white), AMG Sports package 20-inch light-alloy wheels in a choice of five-spoke or filigree 10-spoke designs, a "Grand Edition" badge, a choice interior 3 aniline leather upholstery colours (designo aniline leather armagnac, designo aniline leather deep black, designo aniline leather porcelain), full range of CL trim finishes (including black ash and high-gloss burr walnut), Active Body Control (ABC) with crosswind stabilisation, drowsiness detection system ATTENTION ASSIST, PRE-SAFE automatic emergency braking, optional Active Blind Spot Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, and Adaptive Highbeam Assist systems. The vehicle was unveiled in the 2012 Geneva Motor Show. Japan models went on sale in 2012-09-19, which included only CL 550 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY Grand Edition, with designo mocha black (17 units) or designo magno cashmere white (matte) (3 units) body colour, designo porcelain (leather) interior, black ash wood interior trim, AMG styling package (front spoiler, side and rear skirt), exclusive design 20-inch 5-spoke aluminium wheels, 'Grand Edition' side emblem and designo floor mats. Engines BlueEFFICIENCY models include ECO start/stop function. The CL 500 was sold as CL 550 in the US and Japan. Transmissions AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission includes Controlled Efficiency ("C") drive mode, Controlled Efficiency stop/start function, "S" (Sport) mode with higher engine speed level in each gear, manual shift mode "M" with 100ms gearshifts and no automatic downshifts, electronic transmission control unit with its integrated 80 MHz processor. The electronic key for selection of the three driving models is located to the left of the COMAND controller. Performance Production 2011 and 2012 model years of the CL 550 4MATIC and CL 63 AMG were recalled for cracked fuel filter flange leading to fire if an external ignition source is present. The recall campaign was expected to begin in January 2013. The CL-Class was replaced by the S-Class Coupé. Production ended in December 2013. References External links Mercedes CL C216 site Press kit: Press Kit: The new Mercedes-Benz CL-Class Press Kit: The new Mercedes-Benz CL-Class Press Kit: The great Mercedes-Benz Coupés The new generation Mercedes-Benz CL-Class: The epitome of luxury coupés Mercedes-Benz CL 63 AMG / CL 65 AMG Mercedes Benz NTG3 Navigation W216 W216 All-wheel-drive vehicles Cars introduced in 2006 Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Full-size vehicles Flagship vehicles Luxury vehicles Coupés 2010s cars
5336550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergotelis%20F.C.	Ergotelis F.C.	The Gymnastics Club «Ergotelis» Heraklion Crete (), commonly known simply as Ergotelis (), is a Greek professional football club, department of the multi-sport club Gymnastics Club Ergotelis, which is based in Heraklion, Crete. It is the club's oldest and most successful department, officially established in 1929 and named after the famous ancient Cretan expatriate Olympic runner Ergoteles of Himera. The club currently competes in the Super League 2, the second tier of the Greek football league system, and hosts its home games at the Pankritio Stadium, the city's largest and most modern sports venue. Ergotelis is one of the two Heraklion-based football clubs to have competed in the Greek Super League, the country's top-level football competition, having made a total of 9 appearances during 2004–2015. The club's best finish in the competition is 7th place during the 2013–14 season. It has also won the Beta Ethniki (second tier of the Greek football league system) once, in 2006, as well as the Greek Football Amateur Cup in 1983. Its traditional colors are yellow and black. Despite finishing at 9th place during the 2021-22 Super League Greece 2, they were discharged from the professional championship, resulting in a two-level demotion to the local top-level amateur championship, FCA Heraklion A1. History Early years Ergotelis was established as an amateur club of Cretan footballers in 1929 by prominent Heraklion citizens, mainly refugees from Asia Minor. The club's foundation, as well as its first ever recorded game, a friendly 4–0 win against local side Leon () held at Chandax () stadium on 4 August 1929, was reported onto local newspaper 'Eleythera Skepsis' () on Wednesday, 7 August 1929. Since its early days, Ergotelis showed the progressive ideals of its founders, being one of the first sports clubs in Greece to allow women into its sporting divisions, as well as its board of directors. The club temporarily shut down in 1935, following the involvement of its leading executives in political movements of the time. Ergotelis was re-established in 1937, developing a remarkable athletics department along with a strong football team, that went on to place 1st in the 1940 Heraklion Football Clubs Association Championship, which was never finished due to World War II. After the war, the club emerged as the most powerful competitor to regular Heraklion Football Clubs Association champions OFI, shaping up a new football and social rivalry in local sport. Ergotelis eventually gained its own football ground in 1946, the Ergotelis Stadium (also known as Martinengo Stadium, after the Martinengo Bastion), located on the Venetian Era walls surrounding the city's center, and would mostly play in Heraklion's local championship and Greece's national Second Division, after the latter was founded in the early 1960s. Ergotelis actually came close to achieve a historic promotion to the First Division during the very first Beta Ethniki season held in 1960, finishing 3rd in the Southern Group, just 4 points behind Group Champions Atromitos Piraeus. The club was demoted to the newly established Gamma Ethniki in 1964−65 after finishing 9th in Group 2, and subsequently won the Group 1 Gamma Ethniki championship in 1966, the club's first ever national honour, to top off instant re-promotion to the Beta Ethniki. Junta years, Theodorakis concert and repercussions (1966–1974) During the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, Ergotelis was 'branded' as an unpatriotic organization, and its officials were accused for «deviating from the purposes for which they were elected, turning the club into an instrument servicing political, and sometimes unpatriotic objectives», after the club's board of directors allowed renowned songwriter and composer Mikis Theodorakis, a key voice against the right-wing government, to perform a concert on Martinengo stadium. After the conclusion of the 1966–1967 Beta Ethniki season, the club was forcibly relegated to amateur status through a legislation, that allowed each regional city of Greece to be represented in the country's Second national Division by a single team only. Furthermore, to add insult to injury, any local clubs remaining in the Beta Ethniki had the right to demand the transfer of any number of players from the relegated clubs, bypassing official transfer regulations. As a result, five of Ergotelis' best considered players at the time (Konstantinos Theodorakis, Dimitrios Papadopoulos, Manolis Stavroulakis, Konstantinos Zouraris and Georgios Skandalakis), were signed by local rival OFI – who remained in the national competitions. Shortly after, a court decision in favor of Ergotelis was overruled by the junta-controlled Hellenic Football Federation, which finally approved OFI's contracts with the players and threatened Ergotelis officials with eviction from their home turf in Martinengo Stadium. After members of the club's board of directors were either demoted or prosecuted, Ergotelis was practically dismantled in 1967. The club made a brief comeback to the Second Division after winning the 1969−70 local Heraklion Championship, but the weakened roster and administration were too inexperienced to be competitive, and the club was therefore instantly relegated at the end of the 1970−71 season, after finishing in last place. Post-Junta period and the 80s sporadic breakthroughs (1974–1999) After the junta's collapse in 1974, several attempts were made to bring the team back to Greek football reality, however most of these were met with failure. As a result, Ergotelis struggled between the lower regional and national competitions for over 30 years. Ergotelis managed not to go completely unnoticed during these years however, achieving some notable breakthroughs in the 80s, along the way to a rebirth. During the 1982–83 season, the club won the Greek Football Amateur Cup, by defeating AO Arta 2–0 in the competition final held at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, thus becoming the first Cretan club to win the competition. The 1984–85 season saw the club finishing at the top of the Delta Ethniki Group 1 table to promote to the Gamma Ethniki as champions. However the most notable feat of this period came during the 1985–86 season, when Ergotelis, at the time playing in the Gamma Ethniki, managed to reach the Greek Cup quarterfinals, which would remain the best performance of the club in the competition for 33 years. Being the sole representative of the Gamma Ethniki still remaining in the competition, Ergotelis consecutively eliminated Niki Volos, Alpha Ethniki side Panserraikos and Ethnikos Olympiakos Volos to reach the quarterfinals, where the club squared off against eventual title winners Panathinaikos. Though giving the "Greens" a tough match to eventually go down 2–3 in the first leg held at the Theodoros Vardinogiannis Stadium in Heraklion, Ergotelis were completely dominated in the second leg, where they lost to the eventual Greek champions with an emphatic 7–1 score at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium on 9 April 1986. This feat marked the end of Ergotelis' attempts at a return during this period, as the club was relegated back to the Delta Ethniki two years later, at the end of the 1987–88 season. Ergotelis briefly resurfaced in the mid-90s, spending two consecutive seasons in the Gamma Ethniki during 1996–98, after winning the Delta Ethniki 1995–96 Group 2 championship. It would then take another 5 years for the club to re-emerge, and this time complete a full comeback. Rebirth and rise to top-flight (1999–2006) In the late 90s Ergotelis' came under the ownership of veteran football directors Georgios Soultatos and Nikos Tzortzoglou, who took over the club for the third time after two relatively successful tenures during the 90s. Learning from past experience, careful transfers of promising players from the Cretan market were made, while an emphasis was placed on the development and growth of the club's infrastructure, leading up to the establishment of the Ergotelis Youth Academy at Martinengo Stadium. Within a couple of years, Ergotelis grew into a strong, competitive team composed mostly of Cretan players, that would celebrate three consecutive promotions from the 4th Division to reach the Alpha Ethniki, the highest professional football league in Greece for the first time in club history. In 2001, the Soultatos−Tzortzoglou duo appointed Cretan manager and former OFI legendary goalkeeper Myron Sifakis as club manager, a position he would retain for the next three-and-a-half years. After managing promotion to the Gamma Ethniki in 2002, the club signed Nigerian striker Patrick Ogunsoto, who eventually developed into the club's all-time top-scorer. The professional football department of Ergotelis was established the same year, as a requirement for the club being eligible to play in the Gamma Ethniki. Despite being newcomers, Ergotelis finished second in the 2002−03 Gamma Ethniki season, boasting a remarkable 80 points on the League Table and winning every single home game played at Martinengo Stadium that season. Ogunsoto personally scored 30 goals in 32 games, with emblematic team captain Stavros Labrakis adding in another 12, both significantly contributing to the club's triumphant return to the Beta Ethniki after a 31-year absence. In the following season, Ergotelis participated in the Beta Ethniki, once again leveraging on a string of strong home game performances (eleven wins, three draws and only one loss), backed by a fierce support of the club's fans. The club came in third with 55 points in the Beta Ethniki, earning a chance at promotion in a single promotion play-off match against the club that would finish 14th in the 2003–04 Alpha Ethniki season. On May 30, 2004, Ergotelis won that match, defeating Athenian club Akratitos 1−0 at the neutral Makedonikos Stadium in Thessaloniki in front of a cheering crowd of 2,000 fans travelling from various corners of the country, thanks to an injury time goal by Jean Marie Sylla. The club thus became the second team to have represented Heraklion in the highest professional football league in Greece, alongside club rival OFI. Hundreds of Ergotelis supporters took to the streets that night in celebrations, escorting the victors' bus from the Heraklion International Airport to Martinengo Stadium. Ergotelis' promotion coincided with the completion of the Pankritio Stadium for the 2004 Summer Olympics, and due to the stricter regulations for football venues in the Alpha Ethniki, the team left Martinengo Stadium and moved to the Pankritio, which still remains the club's home ground to this day. On the sidelines, the club took full advantage of the new stadium during its debut season in the Alpha Ethniki, attracting fans from all over Crete and earning recognition by both the Greek state and Hellenic Football Federation. As a result, the club broke several attendance records, including setting the Pankritio Stadium's sold-out record on 20 February 2005, during a Super League 2−1 home win against reigning champions Olympiacos. On the pitch however, the club's lack of experience led to an underwhelming league performance. Despite achieving notable wins against Greek giants Olympiacos and PAOK, Ergotelis failed to avoid relegation and eventually finished in 15th place having just 5 wins, 5 draws and 20 losses. Patrick Ogunsoto produced 11 out of a total 19 goals scored by Ergotelis during the season, in which the club also terminated its contract with Myron Sifakis after controversial remarks following a 0−1 home loss vs. his former playing club OFI. The following year however, after overcoming a rough start to the 2005–06 season, Ergotelis returned to good form after Greek manager Nikos Karageorgiou took over in mid-season, achieving instant promotion back to top-flight and winning its first-ever Beta Ethniki title. The club spent the season undefeated at home (11 wins, 4 draws), while also managing to impress crowds once again with their performance in the Greek Football Cup, where they managed to eliminate Greek giants Panathinaikos. Once again, Ogunsoto led the club in scoring with 21 goals, earning himself a transfer abroad to Belgian First Division side Westerlo. Super League tenure and Papoutsakis' era (2006–2012) Ergotelis second promotion coincided with the founding of the Super League Greece, a modern continuation of the previous Alpha Ethniki, now under the supervision of the Super League coalition of participating clubs. Ergotelis' squad for the 2006–07 Super League season was bolstered with quality players in all positions, such as former Real Madrid forward Perica Ognjenović, Austrian international centre-back Mario Hieblinger and Brazilian midfielder Silva Júnior, many of whom stayed at the club for many years, forming a competitive team that spent several consecutive seasons in top-flight. The club was again recognized by Greek state officials for its organization of innovative actions and initiatives during the season, as well as its ethos and fair play spirit. On the pitch, Ergotelis secured a 9th-place finish with 39 points on the League Table, maintaining a strong home game performance (7 wins, 4 draws and 4 losses), and managing 4 additional Away wins, most notably vs. Panathinaikos and local rival OFI. In January 2008, Ergotelis came under the ownership of then club vice-president and prominent businessman Apostolos Papoutsakis, who put forward an ambitious investment plan to keep the club in top flight. During Papoutsakis' presidency, the club rose to prestigious standards in Greek football, which eventually earned Ergotelis consecutive Fair Play awards, for the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons. Nikos Karageorgiou remained manager of the club for six consecutive seasons, in which the club saw a steady financial growth, mainly due to the transfers of promising young Greek players Dimitrios Kiliaras and Vasilios Koutsianikoulis to prestigious clubs Panionios and PAOK respectively. Prior to these feats however, the club had to overcome a difficult transition period. Coping with the change in leadership, Ergotelis finished a turbulent 2007–08 season, barely avoiding relegation on the final match day thanks to a combination of league results, which allowed the club to capitalize on its 2–0 home win vs. Xanthi in front of 10,000 cheering fans. Club legend Patrick Ogunsoto returned to Ergotelis in mid season to assist in this feat with 6 goals, helping the club reach a 13th-place finish, boasting just 7 wins, 9 draws and 14 losses. During the 2008–09 season, Ergotelis achieved memorable wins against Greece's traditional football giants Panathinaikos and Olympiacos, including a 2–3 away competition win in the Athens Olympic Stadium against Panathinaikos on October 29, 2008. Capitalizing on strong performances away from home, along with a mediocre home record, the club tied its best league performance, finishing in 9th place. Most notably, Ergotelis became the sole club to represent Heraklion in top tier, following club rival OFI's relegation at the end of the season. The 2009–10 season was dedicated to Ergotelis' 80th anniversary, in which the club issued a special anniversary logo and completed impressive transfers, most notably bringing in Latvia's all-time top scorer Māris Verpakovskis. Moreover, Ergotelis organized a series of social and beneficial activities, and fittingly commemorated its anniversary with a stunning 5–0 thrashing of reigning champions Olympiacos in a friendly game held at Pankritio Stadium on September 6, 2009. The club's League performance fell short of expectations however, as Ergotelis finished in 11th place, stressfully securing their place in top flight with two consecutive wins during the final two match days. Next season saw the club reach its most notable achievement of this period, securing an 8th-place finish in the 2010–11 season. Outside the pitch, the club's board of directors would gain praise from the media for its initiative to sign international partnerships with Dutch side FC Utrecht and State-side Philadelphia Union. Social and beneficial activities organized by the club during this period culminated in a concert held at Pankritio Stadium on September 19, 2011, honoring Mikis Theodorakis in commemoration of the 45 years passed since the controversial concert at Martinengo Stadium in 1966. For the 2011–12 season, the club's board of directors decided to cut down the team's budget, a direct result of the Greek economic crisis of the late 2000s. While the season took off on a promising start, subsequent weak performances, along with rising tensions between several of the club's players and the manager, ultimately failed to keep Ergotelis in top-flight. The team was relegated in the end of the season, after a disastrous second round which saw the club win only 2 of the total 15 matches, and thus return to the 2nd tier (which had been renamed as the Football League) after finishing in 14th place. To further add to the fans' pain, club president Papoutsakis died on July 23, 2012, at the age of 60. Financial struggles, meltdown and Gamma Ethniki restart (2012–2017) The next season saw Ergotelis go through a major overhaul on all fronts. Nikos Karageorgiou terminated his contract on mutual consent after six years of service, and former renowned Cypriot striker Siniša Gogić took over as manager of the team. The roster was rebuilt with youngsters from the club's training academies, as most of the club's veterans were either released, or refused to follow the team in the lower division. During mid-season, the club experienced financial instability after major shareholders announced they were stepping down. Despite these facts however, Ergotelis managed to secure a second-place finish in the 2012–13 Football League marathon procedure, with 22 wins, 9 draws and 9 losses, thus celebrating a third promotion to the Super League. Ergotelis' third tenure in top-flight would prove to be short-lived however. Ergotelis' first season in top-flight after re-promotion was nothing short of impressive for club standards. The 2013–14 season saw Ergotelis achieve its best finish in the Super League. Boasting an all-time best 44 points, Ergotelis finished in 7th place, tied with 6th-place OFI as both had 11 wins, 11 draws and 12 losses at the end of the season. The club's impressive good form was disrupted in the following season however, as continuous managerial changes, an abundance of unfortunate and costly player transfers, multiple matches being postponed in mid-season and competitors withdrawing from the league due to financial reasons, led to a 16th-place finish during the regular Super League season. The club ultimately was placed in 15th place post-season, after Kerkyra was relegated for illegal transfer of shares, and were penalized to the last position of the league table. The next season turned out to be one of the most difficult in the club's recent history, as there were many open issues regarding which competition the club would be participating in at the start of the season. Open legal issues with Super League clubs Kerkyra and Veria left the relegation status of Ergotelis ambiguous, as club officials made a final effort for the club to remain in top-flight by taking both cases in court. After both cases resolved, and left Ergotelis relegated, there was much speculation on whether the club would follow in the footsteps of clubs such as AEK Athens, Larissa and local rival OFI, who chose to dissolve and voluntarily play in the Gamma Ethniki in an attempt to start anew and clear their financial debts. Despite the unbearable financial obligations tied to the decision to keep playing in the Football League, Ergotelis' major shareholder and son of the late Apostolos Papoutsakis Dimitrios, took the decision to keep the club in professional level and attempt a fourth promotion to the Super League, gathering past board members and financiers under one banner. The club hired Bosnian manager Jasminko Velić and began preparations for the Football League almost a month after the season was officially declared started. Despite high hopes however, the club soon fell behind in the League table, while its financial status worsened. As players started filing claims against the club in the winter transfer window of 2016, thus releasing themselves of their contracts due to unpaid wages, Papoutsakis announced his resignation as club president. The remaining board members along with a group of 17 players who refused to let the team die, managed to keep the club running until 19 January 2016, when club officials finally decided to withdraw the team from the competition. After 14 consecutive years playing in professional divisions, Ergotelis was once again relegated to amateur status. After its withdrawal from professional competitions, the football department of Ergotelis reinstated its amateur status, thus merging with the parent multi-sport club, Gymnastics Club Ergotelis. The latter's officials decided that the Football Club should thus be dissolved and enter into liquidation, a process that would allow Ergotelis to compete in amateur competitions under new leadership, free of the financial obligations of the previous administration. The decision was fiercely rivaled by major shareholder Papoutsakis, who instead opted for liquidation without dismantling the company, in operation under the provisions of the bankruptcy code. After the Gymnastics Club's administration reached out on the matter to the Deputy Minister for Sport Stavros Kontonis, joined by fellow Football League withdrawn competitors Olympiacos Volou, elections were held in April 2016 appointing Georgios Vrentzos as the new president of the Gymnastics Club, and head of all its football departments. After the Hellenic Football Federation, the Greek Professional Sports Commission and the Greek Ministry of Development all ruled in favor of the Gymnastics Club case and reassured its officials that the club would compete in the Gamma Ethniki, the third tier of the Greek football league system, the club's new administration was free to open up winding-up proceedings and appoint liquidators, while at the same time rebuilding the football department and attempt a swift return to professional competitions. As the club brought in former Ergotelis stars such as Sergio Leal and Nikolaos Katsikokeris to lead the effort on the pitch and filled the roster with veteran Football League players, the new administration's project eventually paid off. Ergotelis finished at the top of the 2016–17 Gamma Ethniki Group 4 Table, thus managing instant promotion back to pro-level competitions. After celebrations on securing the Division title ended, club president Vrentzos announced he could no longer financially support the football club on his own and that he had initiated talks with external parties to secure the required funds to form a new Ergotelis professional Football Club department, eligible to compete in the Football League. Eventually, after a full week of negotiations during the end of July 2017, and with Georgios Vrentzos set to retire, the club's General Assembly agreed to transfer the ownership of Ergotelis' professional football department to Egyptian businessman Maged Samy, owner of Egyptian Premier League club Wadi Degla and Belgian B Division side Lierse S.K. Maged Samy era (2017–present) For the first season in the Football League under Samy's presidency, Ergotelis boasted a youthful team led by controversial Greek manager Takis Gonias. After an experimental First Round, Ergotelis' squad significantly improved and maintained an impressive good form, winning several key matches, scoring many goals, maintaining ball possession rates close to 60%-70% and eventually battling their way out of the relegation zone, finishing in 9th place. Following the departure of Gonias for Wadi Degla at the end of the season, and his replacement with Cypriot manager Nikki Papavasiliou, Ergotelis impressed with their performance in the Greek Cup, where they managed to advance to the Round of 16 despite being drawn in the same group with Super League powerhouses PAOK and Aris. They went on to eliminate local Super League rival OFI in the knock-out phase to eventually make it to the quarter-finals for the first time since 1986, matching the club's best-ever performance in the competition. In the Football League, Ergotelis narrowly missed out on the chance to play in a promotion play-off match, finishing 4 points behind second place. However, they were eventually deducted three points for failing the economic oversight process requirements of the HFF, and thus finished in 4th place, securing its participation in the newly established Super League 2. Next year however, saw the sudden departure of Papavasiliou to take over Super League side Panionios right before the start of the season, with manager Giannis Taousianis taking over. In a season that was cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Ergotelis failed to repeat their previous year's performance, eventually finishing in seventh place with 29 points. The next season, Ergotelis came the closest to returning to the Super League, literally missing out on promotion as champions in the final match of the season. After overcoming a slow start with two losses in the first two games, Ergotelis impressed with performances during the First round of the tournament, where the team went 7-1-0 over the next 8 games. After a sluggish start to the Second round, Ergotelis entered the Promotion Play-offs in 4th place. The club won all its playoffs matches against fellow promotion contenders, until eventually going down 2−1 vs. eventual Division Champion Ionikos in the final match of the season, thus finishing in 4th place. The game raised much controversy due to the presence of Ionikos fans at Neapoli Stadium despite lockdown regulations, as well as questionable decisions by referee Vasilios Fotias late in the game. Crest and colours Ergotelis first logo survives from the historical document of the club's establishment, and depicts a runner surrounded by a laurel wreath, similar to the ones awarded to the ancient Olympic Games victors. The club's colours, yellow and black were chosen due to their prominent featuring in Minoan civilization. Early photographs of Ergotelis' football department and fans depict an alternate club logo, simply the letter E possibly framed within a circle. In recent years, Ergotelis' emblem evolved to depict a football player wearing the club's traditional colors (yellow and black). The football player, possibly a reference to Ergotelis' original establishment as a football club, honors the athlete in general, while the Olympic crown is a reference to the Olympic champion Ergoteles of Himera, whom the club is named after. Since the early 2000s, the club's logo is framed within a yellow shield. Multiple versions of the club's latter logo have been issued, primarily for sponsorship reasons. For instance, during the 2006–07 season and up until the 2013–14 season, Ergotelis' crest included its major sponsor's title "DIETHNIS ENOSIS". (Greek: «ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ ΕΝΩΣΙΣ»). In 2009, the club issued an anniversary logo, which used a slightly darker palette and featured a smaller version of the laurel wreath and athlete, framed within a golden 80, part of the phrase "80 ΧΡΟΝΙΑ 1929–2009" (80 YEARS 1929–2009"). For the club's 90th anniversary in 2019, all G.S. Ergotelis departments were issued an anniversary logo, inspired by the 1929 original, as depicted in club documents at that time. Due to the overwhelmingly positive reception the logo gained by both fans and club officials, this logo became permanent in 2020, replacing the commemorative "90" graphic behind the runner with the club's foundation date "1929". Logos Anniversary logos Kit evolution As previously mentioned, the team's jersey colours are yellow and black. Early kits resembled the kit depicted in the club's crest, with black shorts and a yellow shirt, while black stripes and variations thereof were introduced in later years. Ergotelis' kits during the club's first seasons in the Super League were supplied by French company Le Coq Sportif. Afterwards, the team signed a contract with Italian company Lotto, which resulted in several iconic kits that in some cases have been re-used throughout multiple seasons. Ergotelis' partnership with Lotto was interrupted during the 2011–12 season in which the club wore kits produced by Macron. In 2013, Ergotelis started a two-year partnership deal with fellow Italian company Eye Sportwear, which designed and produced two custom kits, one for each of the 2013–14 and 2014–15 seasons, both patented by Ergotelis. In the summer of 2018, the club announced a three-year sponsor partnership with American sports manufacturing company Capelli Sport. Manufacturers and shirt sponsors Current sponsorships Great Shirt Sponsor: N/A Official Sport Clothing Manufacturer: Capelli Official Sponsors: Vitex, Fresh Snack, imonline, Zaro's, Karatarakis Hotels and Restaurants, Gresko Inc. Stadiums and facilities Ergotelis' traditional home ground is the Nikos Kazantzakis Stadium, previously known as Ergotelis Stadium or "Martinengo Stadium", located on the Venetian-era fortifications surrounding the city of Heraklion. Built in 1946, Martinengo Stadium has been used as the home ground of multiple Heraklion amateur football clubs, and currently hosts Ergotelis' football academies, the largest training academies center on the island, and one of the largest training centers in Greece. The stadium has been used by Ergotelis during the club's tenure in lower amateur and regional competitions until the club's promotion to the Alpha Ethniki in 2004, and has also been the stage of a controversial Mikis Theodorakis concert on 6 August 1966, which many hold as the foremost reason for Ergotelis' eventual disbandment by the ruling military junta in 1967. As Martinengo Stadium was not fit for use in Alpha Ethniki matches, Ergotelis' home ground was relocated to the newly built Pankritio Stadium in 2004, with local rival OFI's neighboring Theodoros Vardinogiannis Stadium being declared the club's alternate home ground. During its first season in the competition, Ergotelis averaged almost 10,000 supporters during home games, and consequently set the Pankritio Stadium's attendance record on 20 February 2005, in a 2−1 Super League victory over reigning champions Olympiacos with 27,950 tickets being sold-out. Over the years however, attendances dropped significantly, limiting Ergotelis to a small, yet fiercely loyal fanbase. Ergotelis' core fanbase is currently organized into two supporters' unions, namely the Daltons Club and the Alternatives Fans of Ergotelis. They both attend Ergotelis' home games, usually occupying the Pankritio Stadium's Gate 19. Rivalry with OFI The two Super League clubs based in Heraklion, Ergotelis and OFI, maintain a rivalry that can be traced back to socio-political roots. Characteristic of this animosity, the first ever game between the two teams, a friendly match in 1929, ended after 35 minutes. Ergotelis were ahead by 1–0, when the game had to be abandoned after violence between the players broke out. During the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 a government legislation determined that every regional Greek city should be represented in professional divisions by a single football team. At that time, both OFI and Ergotelis used to play in the Second National division, and at the end of the 1966–67 season, had finished in 3rd and 10th place respectively. Despite both clubs having secured their place in next year's edition of the tournament, Ergotelis was relegated to amateur status by law. Furthermore, the teams remaining in the second division were granted the rights to sign any number of players from the relegated clubs, and thus OFI signed contracts with 5 of Ergotelis' best considered players at the time. Ergotelis' side claimed their relegation to be retaliation for allowing renowned left-liberal songwriter and composer Mikis Theodorakis to perform a concert in Martinengo Stadium, giving political dimensions to the already strained relations between the two clubs. In the years to come Ergotelis languished in the lower leagues, while OFI prospered. These facts have led to various controversies among the fans of the two clubs, especially since Ergotelis' come back, at the early 00's. In recent years, both sides have shown good will in maintaining this rivalry on the pitch only. Furthermore, OFI fans celebrated Ergotelis' promotion and attended home games during the club's first season in the Super League. Ergotelis on the other hand, loaned their longtime scoring legend Patrick Ogunsoto to a financially weakened Beta Ethniki side OFI in 2010 for no fee, as an attempt to assist their prestigious rival in their struggle to once again return to the Super League. Titles & honours Domestic Beta Ethniki (2nd National Division) Winners (1): 2005–06 Gamma Ethniki (3rd National Division) Winners (2): 1965–66, 2016−17 Delta Ethniki (4th National Division) Winners (2): 1984–85, 1995–96 FCA Winners' Championship Winners (1): 1970 Amateur Cup Winners (1): 1982–83 Regional Heraklion FCA Championship Winners (7): 1949−50, 1952–53, 1963−64, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1974–75, 1976–77 Heraklion FCA Cup Winners (6): 1976–77, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1995–96 Statistics Player records Club appearances and goals counted for domestic Greek professional football leagues. Players indicated in bold are currently active with the club. 1. All in the Super League. Transfer records Players Current squad Affiliated clubs Current affiliations Wadi Degla Past affiliations FC Utrecht Philadelphia Union Lierse S.K. Personnel Last updated: 2 February 2018 Source: Greek Business Registry Technical staff Managerial history Source: Giannis Petrakis (1992–94) Athanasios Loukanidis (1994) Andrea Betini (1996–97) Manolis Patemtzis (1999 – 28 December 1999) Myron Sifakis (28 December 1999 – 31 May 2001: ) Pavlos Dermitzakis (2 July 2001 – 7 November 2001: ) Myron Sifakis (9 November 2001 – 4 April 2005: ) Manolis Patemtzis (5 April 2005 – 30 January 2006: ) Nikos Karageorgiou (1 February 2006 – 30 April 2012: ) Siniša Gogić (28 June 2012 – 16 April 2013: ) Stavros Labrakis & Vasilios Plesitis (interim) (16 April 2013 – 14 June 2013: ) Giannis Petrakis (14 June 2013 – 13 January 2014: ) Marinos Ouzounidis (20 January 2014 – 13 May 2014: ) Juan Ferrando (3 July 2014 – 1 September 2014: ) Pavlos Dermitzakis (5 September 2014 – 15 December 2014: ) Giannis Taousianis (15 December 2014 – 12 February 2015: ) Ioannis Matzourakis (12 February 2015 – 25 February 2015: ) Giannis Taousianis (28 February 2015 – 30 June 2015: ) Jasminko Velić (5 August 2015 – 21 October 2015: ) Stavros Labrakis (21 October 2015 – 9 February 2016: ) Giannis Chatzinikolaou (16 June 2016 – 25 October 2016: ) Nikos Oustampasidis (26 October 2016 – 16 January 2017: ) Soulis Papadopoulos (18 January 2017 − 29 July 2017: ) Takis Gonias (21 August 2017 − 29 May 2018: ) Nikki Papavasiliou (29 May 2018 − 1 September 2019: ) Giannis Taousianis (2 September 2019 – 18 June 2021: ) Nikos Badimas (27 June 2021 – present: ) References Further reading External links Official websites Official website Ergotelis at UEFA News site Ergotelis on athleticradio.gr Media Official Facebook page Official YouTube channel Football clubs in Heraklion Football clubs in Crete Multi-sport clubs in Greece Association football clubs established in 1929 1929 establishments in Greece Sport in Heraklion Heraklion (regional unit)
5336641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogyakarta	Yogyakarta	Yogyakarta (; ; ) is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an important centre for classical Javanese fine arts and culture such as ballet, batik textiles, drama, literature, music, poetry, silversmithing, visual arts, and wayang puppetry. Renowned as a centre of Indonesian education, Yogyakarta is home to a large student population and dozens of schools and universities, including Gadjah Mada University, the country's largest institute of higher education and one of its most prestigious. Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Sultanate and served as the Indonesian capital from 1946 to 1948 during the Indonesian National Revolution, with Gedung Agung as the president's office. One of the districts in southeastern Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital of the Mataram Sultanate between 1587 and 1613. The city's population was 388,627 at the 2010 Census, and 373,589 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 378,913 - comprising 184,412 males and 195,501 females. Its metropolitan area was home to 4,010,436 inhabitants in 2010, which includes the city of Magelang and 65 districts across Sleman, Klaten, Bantul, Kulon Progo and Magelang regencies. Yogyakarta has one of the highest HDI (Human Development Index) in Indonesia. To rapidly jumpstart the economy, plan for 2nd phase Indonesia high speed train via Southbound is currently being developed from Bandung to Solo, via Yogyakarta initiating construction by 2023, which projected to be completed by 2026. Etymology and orthography Yogyakarta is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya, the birthplace of the eponymous hero Rama from the Ramayana epic. Yogya means "suitable; fit; proper", and karta means "prosperous; flourishing". Thus, Yogyakarta means "[a city that is] fit to prosper". In colonial era correspondence, the city is often written in the Javanese script as , read as with the added prefix nga-. In the orthography of the time, the proper name was spelt with the Latin alphabet as "Jogjakarta". As the orthography of the Indonesian language changed, the consonant came to be written with , and the consonant with . Personal and geographical names however, were allowed to maintain their original spelling according to contemporary Indonesian orthography. Thus, the city can be written as "Yogyakarta", which is true to its original pronunciation and the Javanese script spelling, or "Jogjakarta", which is true to the old Dutch spelling and reflects popular pronunciation today, but differs from the original Ayodhya etymology. One may encounter either "Yogyakarta" or "Jogjakarta" in contemporary documents. History Mataram Kingdom (8th–10th century CE) According to the Canggal inscription dated 732 CE, the area traditionally known as "Mataram" became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya of Mataram. The inscription was found in a Hindu temple in Central Java, 40 km away from Yogyakarta and 20 km away from the giant Borobudur temple complex. This Hindu temple itself was on the border between the area of the Hindu Sañjaya dynasty and the area of the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. Mataram became the centre of a refined and sophisticated Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture for about three centuries in the heartland of the Progo River valley, on the southern slopes of Mount Merapi volcano. This time period witnessed the construction of numerous candi, including Borobudur and Prambanan. Around the year 929 CE, the last ruler of the Sañjaya dynasty, King Mpu Sindok of Mataram, moved the seat of power of the Mataram Kingdom from Central Java to East Java and thus established the Isyana dynasty. The exact cause of the move is still uncertain; however, a severe eruption from Mount Merapi or a power struggle with the Sumatra-based Srivijaya kingdom probably caused the move. Historians suggest that some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram (924–929 CE), Merapi erupted and devastated the kingdom's capital in Mataram. Majapahit Empire (1293–1527) During the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as "Mataram" and recognised as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by a Duke known as Bhre Mataram. During the reign of the fourth king of the Majapahit Empire, the Hindu King Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) of the Rajasa dynasty, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by the king's nephew and son-in-law Wikramawardhana, later the fifth king of Majapahit. Mataram Sultanate (1587–1755) Kotagede, now a district in southeastern Yogyakarta, was established as the capital of the Mataram Sultanate from 1587 to 1613. During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo (1613–1645), the Mataram Sultanate reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, and expanded its influence to Central Java, East Java, and half of West Java. After two changes of capital—to Karta and then to Plered, both located in present-day Bantul Regency—the capital of the Mataram Sultanate finally moved to Kartasura. Yogyakarta secedes and European invasions (1745–1830) A civil war in the Mataram Sultanate broke out between Pakubuwono II (1745–1749), the last ruler of Kartasura, and his younger brother and heir apparent to the throne, Prince Mangkubumi (later known as Hamengkubuwono I, the first Sultan of Yogyakarta, and the founder of the current ruling royal house). Pakubuwono II had agreed to cooperate with the Dutch East India Company, and ceded some Mataram territory to the Dutch. His younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi, stood against the agreement, citing concerns that the people would become slaves under Dutch rule. During the war, Prince Mangkubumi defeated Pakubuwono II's forces and declared sovereignty in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, occupying the southern parts of the former Mataram Sultanate. With Pakubowono II dead from illness, the Yogyakarta Sultanate was established as a result of the Treaty of Giyanti (Perjanjian Gianti), signed and ratified on 13 February 1755 among Prince Mangkubumi, the Dutch East India Company, and his nephew Pakubuwono III and his allies. Ascending to the newly created Yogyakarta throne with the name Sultan Hamengkubuwono I, Mangkubumi thus established the royal House of Hamengkubuwono, still the ruling house of Yogyakarta today. Sultan Hamengkubuwono I and his family officially moved into the Palace of Yogyakarta, still the seat of the reigning sultan, on 7 October 1756. These events consequently marked the end of the Mataram Sultanate, resulting in the births of the rival Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate. During the brief period British rule over Java in 1811, rumours of plans by the Yogyakarta court to launch an attack against the British led to uneasiness among the Britons stationed in Java. On 20 June 1812, Sir Stamford Raffles led a 1,200-strong British force to capture the Yogyakarta kraton. The Yogyakarta forces, surprised by the attack, were easily defeated; the kraton fell in one day, and was subsequently sacked and burnt. The attack on the kraton was the first of its kind in Indonesian history, leaving the Yogyakarta court humiliated. The sultanate found itself involved in conflict again during the Java War. Republic of Indonesia era (1945–present) In 1942, the Japanese Empire invaded the Dutch East Indies and ruled Java until they were defeated in 1945. Sukarno proclaimed the independence of the Indonesian Republic on 17 August 1945; Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX promptly sent a letter to Sukarno, expressing his support for the newly born nation of Indonesia and acknowledging the Yogyakarta Sultanate as part of the Indonesian Republic. The Sultanate of Surakarta did the same, and both of the Javanese kingdoms were accordingly awarded privileged statuses as "Special Regions" within the Indonesian Republic. However, because of a leftist anti-royalist uprising in Surakarta, the Sunanate of Surakarta lost its special administrative status in 1946 and was absorbed into Central Java Province. Yogyakarta's support was essential in the Indonesian struggle for independence during the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1949). The city of Yogyakarta became the capital of the Indonesian Republic from 1946 to 1948, after the fall of Jakarta to the Dutch. Later the Dutch also invaded Yogyakarta, causing the Republic's capital to be transferred once again, to Bukittinggi in West Sumatra on 19 December 1948. The General Offensive of 1 March 1949 resulted in an Indonesian political and strategic victory against the Dutch and the withdrawal of Dutch forces from Yogyakarta. On 29 June 1949 Yogyakarta was completely cleared of Dutch forces, under pressure from the United Nations. For its significant contribution to the survival of the Indonesian Republic, Yogyakarta was given autonomy as a "special district", making it the only region headed by a recognised monarchy in Indonesia. Geography The area of the city of Yogyakarta is . While the city spreads in all directions from the Kraton, the Sultan's palace, the core of the modern city is to the north, centred around Dutch colonial-era buildings and the commercial district. Jalan Malioboro, with rows of pavement vendors and nearby markets and malls, is the primary shopping street for tourists in the city, while Jalan Solo, further north and east, is the shopping district more frequented by locals. The large local market of Beringharjo (id) and the restored Dutch fort of Vredeburg are on the eastern part of the southern end of Malioboro. Surrounding the Kraton is a densely populated residential neighbourhood that occupies land that was formerly the Sultan's sole domain. Evidence of this former use remains in the form of old walls, scattered throughout the city, and the ruins of the Taman Sari water castle, built in 1758 as a pleasure garden. No longer in use by the Sultan, the garden was largely abandoned before being used for housing by palace employees and descendants. Reconstruction efforts began in 2004, and the site is now a popular tourist attraction. Nearby to the city of Yogyakarta is Mount Merapi, with the northern outskirts of the city running up to the southern slopes of the mountain in Sleman Regency. Mount Merapi (literally "mountain of fire" in both Indonesian and Javanese), is an active stratovolcano located on the border between Central Java and Yogyakarta. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548, with the last eruption occurring in May 2018. Climate Yogyakarta features a tropical monsoon climate (Am) as the precipitation in the driest months between June and September are below . The wettest month in Yogyakarta is January with precipitation totalling . The climate is influenced by the monsoon. The annual temperature is roughly about 26 to 27 Celsius. The hottest month is April with average temperature 27.1 Celsius. Administrative districts The city of Yogyakarta is an administrative part of the Yogyakarta Special Region which has the status of a province in Indonesia. In 2020, Yogyakarta City held the highest population density in Greater Yogyakarta, with 11,546 people per square kilometre, Sleman and Bantul regencies holding the second place with a population density of 1,958.5 people/sq kilometre, and third place with 1,940 people/sq kilometre respectively. Within the Greater Yogyakarta area lies Yogyakarta city. Yogyakarta is divided into fourteen district-level subdivisions called kemantren, which makes Yogyakarta the only city in Indonesia to have such a designation, as it applied only within the Special Region of Yogyakarta. Below is a list of the kemantrens with their areas and their populations as at the 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, and the number of administrative villages within each district. Economy In 2017, the Gross Domestic Regional Product (GRDP) of Yogyakarta City at current prices was 31.31 trillion rupiahs (around US$ 2.2 billion). The tertiary sector contributed an important share (around 78% of GDP). the tertiary sector included wholesale and retail trade; repair of cars and motorcycles, transportation and warehousing; provision of accommodation and eating and drinking; information and communication; financial services and insurance; real estate; corporate services; government administration, defence and compulsory social security; educational services; health services and social activities as well as other services. In 2017, economic growth of Yogyakarta City reached 5.24 percent slightly faster compared to 2016, which the growth reached 5.11 percent. To rapidly jumpstart the economy, a plan for the 2nd phase of Indonesian high speed train is currently being developed from Bandung to Yogyakarta & Solo, initiating construction by 2020, which is projected to be completed by 2024. Demographics A large majority of the population are Javanese. However, as a city with large numbers of schools and universities and a relatively low cost of living compared to other Indonesian cities, Yogyakarta has attracted significant numbers of students from all over Indonesia. As a result, there are many other Indonesian ethnic groups living in Yogyakarta, especially from eastern parts of Indonesia. There are some foreigner communities in the city, which is mainly composed of tourist and foreign students. Religion In 2014, the religious composition in Yogyakarta was distributed over Islam (82.32%), Catholicism (10,66%), Protestantism (6.54%), Buddhism (0.34%), Hinduism (0.13%), and Confucianism (0.01%). Yogyakarta has been traditionally known as a region where different faiths live in harmony, but in recent years religious intolerance has grown. In 2018, the governor of the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Hamengkubuwono X, called for religious freedoms to be preserved after a terrorist attack against churches and public buildings in Surabaya the same year. Tourism Yogyakarta is home to a myriad of heritage buildings, landmarks and important monuments. Because of its proximity to the Borobudur and Prambanan temples, and presence of the Javanese court Kraton culture of Kraton Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta hosts a sizeable tourist industry. Kotagede, the capital of Mataram Sultanate is also located in the city. Malioboro street is a popular shopping and culinary area within the city, which has pedestrian zone. Yogyakarta Kraton is the palace and seat of the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta also located in the city. The palace complex is a centre of Javanese culture, and contains a museum displaying royal artefacts. Tugu monument is an important landmark of Yogyakarta. 1 March monument located on Jalan Malioboro was built to commemorate General Offensive of 1 March 1949 during the Indonesian National Revolution. Society and traditions Notable local traditions and marketplaces in Yogyakarta include: Batik fabric production area, with the most famous batik marketplace in Beringharjo market. Silverwork, fine filigree jewellery, with the main production centre in Kotagede. Indonesian mask production, at Bobung village, Wonosari. Traditional Javanese dance performances, especially Ramayana wayang wong performed in Prambanan and Purowisata. Other Javanese court dances are also performed in the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat (royal palace). Wayang kulit, traditional Javanese leather puppetry used for shadow plays. Contemporary puppetry and theatre, e.g., the Papermoon Puppet Theatre. Gamelan music, including local Gamelan Yogyakarta which was developed in the royal courts. Annual traditional Javanese festivals, such as Sekaten or Gerebeg Mulud (:id:Grebeg) Young theatre movements, e.g., Komunitas Sakatoya. Visual artists, e.g., the Taring Padi community in Bantul. Cuisine Gudeg Yogya: a traditional food from Yogyakarta and Central Java made from young unripe (jack fruit) boiled for several hours with palm sugar and coconut milk. This is usually accompanied by (chicken in coconut milk), (hard boiled egg stew), and (spicy beef skin and tofu stew). Gudeg from Yogyakarta has a unique sweet and savoury taste, and is drier and more reddish than other regional variants because of the addition of Javanese teak leaf. Krechek (or or ): a traditional spicy beef skin dish made from seasoned (beef skin crackers). is usually served as a side dish together with . : chicken stewed in coriander, garlic, candlenut, and coconut water, then deep-fried until crispy. Served with and raw vegetables. : rice with small side dishes. Bakpia and : a sweet pastry filled with sugared mung bean paste, derived from the Chinese pastry. A well-known bakpia-producing area is Pathok near Jalan Malioboro, where is sold. Kipo: derived from the Javanese question ("What is this?"), a small sweet snack from Kotagede made of glutinous rice flour and coconut milk dough filled with grated coconut and palm sugar. Ronde (): a hot Javanese dessert of glutinous rice balls stuffed with peanut paste, floating in a hot and sweet ginger and lemongrass tea. (): a hot soupy dessert of sago pearls, pre-cooked glutinous rice and mung beans, (brightly coloured, noodle-shaped flour cakes), and fried peanuts, covered in hot and sweet coconut milk. Wedhang uwuh (id): a hot Javanese clove drink. Museums Yogyakarta has several historical sites, such as the Candi Prambanan temple, museums in the royal court, the Sonobudoyo Museum, and museums in colonial buildings such as the Fort Vredeburg Museum housed in a former Dutch fort. Due to the importance of Yogyakarta during the war of independence from the Dutch, there are numerous memorials and museums, such as the Monument to the Recapture of Yogyakarta. To the east of the town centre is the large Air Force Museum (Museum Pusat Dirgantara Mandala), with 36 aircraft in the building and six aircraft displayed outdoors. As Indonesia was for a period in the Soviet sphere of influence, this museum contains a number of vintage Russian aircraft not widely available for inspection in the NATO sphere of influence. The collection includes examples of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 trainer, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 and Tupolev Tu-16, together with an assortment of Japanese, American and British aircraft. Other museums include the Jogja National Museum. Sport PSIM Yogyakarta football team, which currently plays in the Liga 2, is based in Yogyakarta. Education Yogyakarta is home to Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia's largest university and one of its most prominent. Other public universities in Yogyakarta include Yogyakarta State University, Sunan Kalijaga Islamic University, The Indonesian Institute of the Arts and Poltekkes Kemenkes Yogyakarta. There is also one public university in Yogyakarta providing education through distance learning or distance education at Universitas Terbuka or Indonesia Open University. The city is also the location of several well-known private universities such as Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta, College of Health Sciences Ahmad Yani Yogyakarta, Islamic University of Indonesia, Atma Jaya University, Duta Wacana Christian University, Ahmad Dahlan University and Sanata Dharma University. The city is also home to the Indonesian Air Force Academy, located on the Adisucipto Airport complex. Primagama, one of the largest tutoring institutions in Indonesia, is headquartered in the city. Transportation Airport Yogyakarta is served primarily by Yogyakarta International Airport in Kulon Progo Regency, which connects the city with other major cities in Indonesia, such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Lombok, Makassar, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Pekanbaru, Palembang, and Pontianak. It also internationally connects the city with Kuala Lumpur (operated by AirAsia and Indonesia AirAsia). Another airport is Adisutjipto International Airport in Sleman Regency, which only serves limited commercial planes. Rail Yogyakarta was first served by rail in 1872. The city is located on one of the two major railway lines that run across Java between Jakarta in the west and Surabaya in the east. Yogyakarta has two passenger railway stations, Yogyakarta Station which serves business and executive class trains, and Lempuyangan Station which serves economy class trains; both stations are located in the centre of the city. Yogyakarta Station is the terminus of two commuter train services: KRL Commuterline Yogyakarta–Solo, which runs to Solo Balapan Station in the city of Surakarta and Prambanan Express (Prameks), which runs to Kutoarjo Station in Kutoarjo. Other commuter trains run from Madiun Jaya (Madiun Station-Lempuyangan Station), and Joglosemar (Semarang Poncol Station-Lempuyangan Station). Yogyakarta International Airport Rail Link links Yogyakarta International Airport to the city center. Roads The city has an extensive system of public city buses, and is a major departure point for inter-city buses to other cities in Java and Bali, as well as taxis, andongs, and becaks. Motorbikes are by far the most commonly used personal transportation, but an increasing number of residents own automobiles. Yogyakarta and surrounding areas also have a circle highway known as the Ring Road and overpasses including Janti Overpass, Lempuyangan Overpass, and a recently built Jombor Overpass. Buses Since early 2008, the city has operated a bus rapid transit system, Trans Jogja, also known as "TJ". Trans Jogja is modelled after the TransJakarta system in the capital, but unlike TransJakarta, there is no special lane for Trans Jogja buses, which instead run on main streets. There are currently six Trans Jogja lines, with routes through the main streets of Yogyakarta, some of which overlap. The lines extend from the Jombor Bus Terminal in the north to the Giwangan Bus Terminal in the south, and to the Prambanan bus shelter in the east via Adisucipto International Airport. Health facilities Notable hospitals in Yogyakarta include: Yogyakarta City General Public Hospital (RSUD Kota Yogyakarta) Bethesda Hospital Dr. Soetarto Army Hospital Dr. Sardjito General Hospital Panti Rapih Hospital PKU Muhammadiyah Hospital. Media Kedaulatan Rakyat (KR) is the major newspaper in Yogyakarta, its headquarters is located near the Tugu monument. First published in 1945, the paper is one of the oldest continuously published newspaper in Indonesia. Other major daily newspapers include Harian Jogja, Koran Merapi and Tribun Jogja, as well as online-only Bernas. KR-owned Minggu Pagi is the major weekly newspaper. Yogyakarta is served by radio and television stations covering Special Region of Yogyakarta and surrounding areas. The public radio RRI Yogyakarta has one of its studios in the city. Other radio stations based in Yogyakarta include Geronimo FM, Retjo Buntung FM and Yasika FM. However most of television stations is located in nearby Sleman Regency, such as the public TVRI Yogyakarta, AdiTV, Jogja TV and RBTV, though their broadcast coverage include Yogyakarta city. Twin towns – sister cities Yogyakarta is twinned with: Baalbek, Lebanon Commewijne, Suriname Gangbuk (Seoul), South Korea Huế, Vietnam Le Mont-Dore, New Caledonia Paramaribo, Suriname See also List of cities in Indonesia References External links Cities in Indonesia Populated places in the Special Region of Yogyakarta Provincial capitals in Indonesia Former national capitals Opak-Oyo basin
5336733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic%20and%20Latino%20American%20Muslims	Hispanic and Latino American Muslims	Hispanic and Latino American Muslims are Hispanic and Latino Americans who are of the Islamic faith. Hispanic and Latino Americans are an ethnolinguistic group of citizens of the United States with origins in Spain and Latin America. Islam is an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah), and that Muhammad is a messenger of God. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, claimed to be the verbatim word of God, and the teachings and normative examples (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad. Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, and the Quran in its Arabic to be the unaltered and final revelation of God. The Spaniards took the Roman Catholic faith to Latin America via imperialism and colonialism; Roman Catholicism continues to be the largest, but not the only, religious denomination among most Hispanics. In contrast, the Arabs took Islam to very few Latin American countries such as Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala and Colombia via post-independence immigration. Reasons for conversion Some Latinos have argued that Islamic values harmonize with the traditional values of Latino culture. Converts have cited such similarities as respect for social solidarity, the family, the importance of religion, and education. Islam includes acceptance of tawhid (monotheism), and a belief that Muhammad is a messenger of God. This is the basis of the shahada, or declaration of faith. Many Latino converts come from Catholic backgrounds and the similarities between Catholicism and Islam give them a sense of familiarity with their new religion. However, some Latino Muslims had difficulty with the Church, believing in original sin, and in the Holy Trinity. Islam solves the problems many Latinos have with the Catholic Church. Fathi Osman, resident scholar at the Omar Foundation, says "in their own countries Hispanics did not see the Church supporting the rights of the poor. Rather it sided with the rich and the influential." This, he argues, has contributed to some Latinos converting to Islam. In addition, Islam often draws in converts because of the nature of the religion is that a person has a direct relationship with God. One does not need a mediator, like a priest in Catholicism. There is a relative simplicity within Islam with structure and theology in this respect. Some Latino Muslims claim conversion to Islam as a return to their true heritage. Muslim Moors invaded Spain in 711 and their last stronghold fell in 1492. The process of conversion is instead often referred to as "reversion" due to it being the rediscovery and connection with a lost heritage and tie to Islam. Islam began to have a more significant influence on the Latino community in the barrios in the Northeast in the early 70s through converts being introduced to the religion in African-American mosques. Others made the connection through others who were affiliated with the Nation of Islam and found solidarity with their understanding of racial struggle. Other reasons for conversion include finding resonance with Islam after researching other religions, or having an academic interest in Islam that leads to a spiritual interest. Others also choose to convert because they are dating or married to someone who is Muslim. Liberation theology The concept of liberation theology has Christian roots in the Latin American struggle for social justice in light of colonialism and oppression, but the term has also been applied in an Islamic context. Islamic liberation theology emerged from the struggle against "settler colonialism and apartheid in South Africa." According to Palombo, “[a]ll liberation theologies emerge during struggles for socioeconomic, political, and psychological liberation from objective and subjective forms of oppression,” and “the revelatory activity of God in history demonstrates a 'preferential option for the poor' and sides against those who exert oppression and domination.” Islam is seen as "refusing" the concept of separation of religion and politics of the Enlightenment, which in turn leads to the necessity for social and political activism, much like the Muslim activists of the 20th century that challenged colonialism and corruption of the government. In addition, the Qur'an tells the stories of the prophets and their "belief (iman) in God and the struggle (jihad) for social justice," which further motivates Muslims to follow the example of the prophets and engage in social activism. Similar to the struggle of African Americans, Latino Muslims can find solidarity and a similar theological understanding of struggle and oppression through Islam. Islamic liberation theology is similar to Christian liberation theology in many ways, but the break from Christianity, and Catholicism in particular, allows many Latino Muslims to disassociate from their historical oppressors in the Americas. Conversion to Islam in prisons Although there are inconsistent exact numbers of conversions, many scholars and chaplains cite Islam as the fastest growing religion among the incarcerated population. It is estimated that 15% of the U.S. prison population is Muslim, mostly composed of African Americans but followed by Latinos. In 1991 an estimated 35,000 people in prison converted to Islam every year, and more recent estimates range from 30,000–40,000 per year. With the growth of the imprisoned population with mass incarceration and the growth of Islam in the U.S., these numbers are bound to be under-representing the Muslim convert population in prison. Islam allows those convicted of crimes to recover from the stigma of being a "criminal". By following the teachings of Islam, people who are convicted of a crime have a moral framework for rehabilitation and recovery as well as providing prisoners with a more positive way to cope with the harsh environment in prison, which in turn lessens their likelihood to have to turn to violence and aggression. Spalek and El-Hassan suggest that the work of prison Imams is vital and needs to have greater support, especially during the transition period when individuals and adjusting to life after being released from prison. Studies also show that rates of recidivism are lower for Muslim converts. Despite the benefits for Muslim converts in terms of rehabilitation, some authors describe concerns about the threat of radicalization within prisons. Black nationalist sentiments have a legacy within many U.S. prisons, but less so Wahhabism or other types of radical Islamism. Statistics and demographics The terms Latino and Hispanic denote an ethnicity, not a race. Many Latino Muslims live in various cities within the United States and have shown a growing presence in states like New York, Illinois, New Jersey and Florida. The Latino Muslim community is estimated to be between 40,000 and 200,000. In 2002 the Islamic Society of North America stated that there were 40,000 Hispanic Muslims in the United States. The population of Hispanic Muslims has increased 30 percent to some 200,000 since 1999, estimates Ali Khan, national director of the American Muslim Council in Chicago. Since the United States Census Bureau does not provide statistics on religion, statistics are scarce and wide-ranging. A 2011 study conducted by the Pew Research Center showed that Latino Muslims accounted for an estimated 6 percent out of the Muslims living in the U.S. In 2015, the Pew Research Center estimated that there were about 3.3 million Muslims in the U.S. A previous Pew Research study of Muslim Americans in 2007 estimated that 10% of native-born Muslims in the U.S. are Hispanic. A more recent Pew Research study on Latinos and Religion found that less than 0.5% of Latinos identify as Muslim, which would be around 265,000 people. The majority of Hispanic converts to Islam are women. Hispanic and Latino Muslims also include people with Middle Eastern descent from Latin America. Latino Muslim Survey (LMS) In 2017, the Latino Muslim Survey — an online, English/Spanish survey with more than 560 U.S. Latino Muslim participants — released its results. Key findings include: Findings determined that many converts were attracted to the devotion of Islamic beliefs and practices. The survey found that 93% stated that religion provides meaningful guidance in their day-to-day living. The vast majority of Latino Muslims surveyed (91%) self-identify as Sunni Muslims. The majority of respondents said they first heard about Islam from a friend (40%), while 13% were introduced by a spouse, and 8% by a family member. 34% of participants described their decision to embrace Islam as a "conversion," 40% saw it as a "reversion." Racial and ethnic ties to Islam Islam draws to Hispanic and Latino individuals because many people feel that it allows them to reclaim their historical ties to "a glorious past" of the Islamic world. Many Latinos feel a connection with Spain's eight centuries of influence of Islam through the Moors. For example, the Spanish language has remnants of Arabic influence in thousands of words such as "Ojalá" (may God will)." Moreover, many Latinos are descended from Muslim West African slaves who were imported to Latin America during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, as well as Muslim Arabs from the Levant who immigrated to Latin America during the 19th and 20th centuries. There is not a lot of information about Hispanic and Latino Muslims from the colonial period up to the 19th century. Most of what we know about the Latino Muslim population came from the latter half of the 20th century when more Hispanics and Latinos living in the United States began to reestablish and reconnect with their ties to Spanish-speakers in the Americas, particularly in regards to culture, ethnicity, and religion. Meanwhile, a similar reclaiming of ties was occurring among African-Americans, especially with the founding of the Nation of Islam. Islam in the United States has a unique context of shared self-discovery of historically marginalized groups like African Americans and Latinos, which make up a large proportion of the Muslim population in the U.S., along with Middle Eastern, African, South Asian, and Southeast Asian immigrant Muslim communities. As a result of the multicultural Islamic community and the concept of ummah, the term "Raza Islámica" is used to refer to "the vision of the Prophet Muhammad—a society in which Islam, not tribe, color, nor clan, is the mark of one's identity." As the African American Sunni community grows, the gap between African American and immigrant Muslim communities is narrowing, meaning that Latino Muslims can more easily connect with both groups. Latino Muslims can share in the fight for social justice and against institutional racism with African Americans, and can empathize with immigrant Muslims through the experience of having a racially fluid cultural identity. However, like African American converts, Latino Muslims have experienced some tension with the growing immigrant Muslim community in the U.S. who "deem them inauthentic because they either lack Arabic language skills or they do not adhere to certain religious practices." In an effort to connect and integrate themselves with the Muslim community, many Latino converts will choose an Islamic name to go by. Often converts will use this second name in Muslim settings and their given name in the context of family and the Latino community. As a result, Latino ties to Islam largely resulted from African American links. For example, the Five Percent Nation had some success recruiting African American and Latino youth through hip hop music. More than ten years ago Puerto Rican converts within the Five Percent Nation translated a version of the 120 Lessons to Spanish to accommodate the growing Spanish-speaking Muslim community. Organization in the United States For many Latino Muslims, converting to Islam was an easy process because of the overall similarities between their new and old religions. Despite all of these similarities, most converts may experience rejection and criticism from their Latino families and friends. Like other Muslims, Latinos who practice Islam may face a barrage of harassment and death threats. Latino Muslim communities have created support systems, both physically and virtually, through the presence of small mosques and online sites that provide support systems for Latino Muslims, including www.HispanicMuslims.com, www.Latinodawah.org, and www.Piedad.info. In 1982 a group of Mexican Muslims established the Association of Latin American Muslims, based in D.C. In 1987 Alianza Islámica was established after a group of Latino Muslims in New York felt that their "particular culture, languages, social situations, and contributions to Islamic history" were not well addressed in the African-American or immigrant Muslim communities. In 1988 PIEDAD was founded in New York by Khadijah Rivera. Literally, PIEDAD means “Taqwa, piety or God-fearing.” In its acronym form it reads “Propagación Islámica para la Educación y la Devoción a Aláh el Divino” (Islamic dawah to educate and worship Allah the Most High). Their numerous seminars have included speakers like Imam Siraj Wahhaj, Mohammed Nasim, Dr. Thomas Irving, Dr. Omar Kasule, and others. PIEDAD began as dawah directed to the overlooked Hispanic women in NYC. In 1997 the Latino American Da'wah Organization (LADO) was founded by Samantha Sanchez, along with Juan Alvarado and Saraji Umm Zaid, with a mission to promote Islam within the Latino community and to make information available in Spanish, Portuguese, and English. Juan Galvan is its current president. It is now one of the most well-known Latino Muslim groups, working with other organizations inside and outside the United States, including Islamic Society of North America. In 1999 a group of Latino Muslims led Marta Felicitas Galedary by from Los Angeles began a study group to learn about Islam in the Spanish language. Because of much interest, they formed LALMA, which is the acronym for Los Angeles Latino Muslims Association. Their mission statement states that "LALMA is an organization of Latino Muslims that promotes a better understanding of Islam to the Spanish speaking community and establishes a forum of spiritual nurturing and social support to Latino Muslims, building bridges among the monotheistic community and advocating for social justice in accordance with Islamic values." LALMA now stands for La Asociacion Latino Musulmana de America and is still based in the Los Angeles area. In 2001 IslamInSpanish began providing multi media material in the Spanish language and conduct (sermons) in Spanish at two locations in the Houston area. The weekly sessions are broadcast online to the worldwide Spanish-speaking Muslim population. In 2016, IslamInSpanish opened up the first Spanish-speaking Islamic Center in the United States. They also hosted the first National Latino Muslim Convention in conjunction with the Texas Dawah Convention in 2016. There is also CAIR in Español and MAS in Español. Hispanic Muslim communities have grown across the United States, including in Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Texas, New Jersey, Illinois, Florida, Arizona, and California. With the common rhetoric of Islamophobia in the U.S. media, Hispanic Muslims are also concerned about the representation of Islam in broader society, especially in Spanish language outlets. Wilfredo Amr Ruiz is an attorney and Muslim chaplain, originally from Puerto Rico, who is often asked to address and contextualize current events with connections to Islam by both English and Spanish-language media in the U.S. There is also a 2009 documentary film New Muslim Cool that follows the life of Hamza Perez, a Puerto Rican Muslim rap artist, that helps to counter Islamophobia rhetoric. Questions for further inquiry According to Abbas Barzegar, "Future research aimed at understanding the significance of the rising role of Islam among Latinos in the United States needs to be placed along a comprehensive matrix that allows for the simultaneous analysis of a number of variables. Some of the factors that need attention include the religious tone of the Latino community, the role of Latinos in the United States, the location of Islam in American civic life, the relationships between immigrant Muslim communities and Latinos, and a host of other concerns." Notable Latino Muslims The conversion stories of some notable Latino Muslims listed here can be found in the book Latino Muslims: Our Journeys to Islam by Juan Jose Galvan. Cristian Gonzáles Daniel Maldonado Enrique Marquez Hamza Perez Jaime Fletcher Julio Pino Juan Carlos Gómez Khadijah Rivera Marta Felicitas Galedary Armando Bukele Kattán Other notable Latino Muslims, scholars, educators, leaders, and contributors include: Shaykh Isa Garcia - Isa Garcia was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He studied Arabic, Islamic studies, and theology at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah. He is a specialist in the origins of Prophetic Tradition. Garcia has translated numerous books, with many only available to a Spanish-speaking readership in his translation. He is also the author of the series Know Islam. Garcia is listed as one of the top 500 Most Influential Muslims in the World. Dr. Yahya Suquillo - Dr. Suquillo was born and raised in Quito, Ecuador. He received a master’s degree in Islamic Sciences from the University of Madinah in Saudi Arabia. He is the founder and religious director of El Centro Islámico de Quito. He is also the General Secretary for the Interfaith Council CONALIR fighting for religious rights and anti-discrimination. His books in Spanish have been popular and Suquillo is regarded as a bridge and reference for Latino Muslim leaders and scholars. Dr. Suquillo is listed as one of the top 500 Most Influential Muslims in the World. Imam Wesley Lebron - Imam Wesley Lebron is a Puerto Rican, born and raised in NJ, who converted to Islam in 1998. He has played a critical role in Dawah, education, and revert care for many Islamic organizations. He holds a Bachelor’s in Islamic Studies from Mishkah Islamic University of North America. He is the President of the 3 Puerto Rican Imams projects and serves as director of programs and education for MAS NY Reverts Reconnect. Imam Daniel Hernández - Born in New York of Puerto Rican Descent, raised in Union City, New Jersey, and accepted Islam in 1999. He was granted a scholarship to study Arabic and Islamic Sciences in Egypt from 2004-2007. Imam Daniel obtained a Bachelor’s and Master’s in Islamic Studies from the Islamic University of Minnesota under Shaikh Waleed Idris Al Manessey. He is currently working on his PhD in the field of Dawah. Imam Daniel is the Imam/Religious Director of the Muslim Association of Lehigh Valley in Whitehall, PA. He previously served as the imam of Pearland Islamic Center and the Islamic Society of Triplex in Texas, volunteered as an Islam In Spanish educator, and was a youth coordinator with the North Hudson Islamic Educational Center. Imam Yusuf Rios - Imam Yusuf Rios was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to a devout Christian family. In his late teens he yearned strongly to be a Catholic Monk. During his studies at Borromeo Seminary he studied Catholic and Western Philosophy and theology. It is during this period in his life where he discovered the path to Islam. He joined the Muslim community in Cleveland and began studying Islam more seriously for a number of years. His passion of learning Islam led him to join the student body at Islamic American University in Detroit where he received his foundation in the Arabic & Islamic Sciences. He then traveled to Cairo, Egypt where he continued his pursuit of Islamic knowledge for many years. He studied at the Asheera Academy for Higher Education in Islamic Psychology and Tradition (under the auspices of Al-Azhar University), Madrasatul-Hamd, and Masjid Al-Azhar. He was honored to study (both privately and publicly) with some of the most pre-eminent scholars of the Islamic sciences from Al-Azhar University. Some of his most influential teachers include Shaykh Sa’ad Al-Jawesh Al-Azhari from whom he received both specialized and general ijazaat in hadith sciences and transmission, as well as Dr. Ahmad Taha Rayyan–one of the most renowned scholars of Maliki fiqh. Imam Yusuf has a BA in Western Philosophy and Sociology from John Carroll University and is working on a Masters in Islamic Sciences at the Islamic University of Minnesota. He is also a founding member of the Three Puerto Rican Imams project Daniel Khalil Salgado - Daniel Khalil Salgado is a Muslim convert of Puerto Rican descent. He embraced Islam in 1995. He holds a Bachelors from SUNY Binghamton, a Masters from Murray State University, and a Masters in Islamic Studies and Christian-Muslim Relations from Hartford International. He also holds a diploma in Arabic from Umm Al Qura Islamic University from Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Juan Jose Galvan - Juan Jose Galvan is a notable author, speaker, and advocate for the Latino Muslim community. Born in Texas as a third-generation Mexican-American and the son of migrant workers, Juan spent his early years hoeing cotton in the rural Texas Panhandle. He obtained his degree from the University of Texas at Austin in 2001, and it was during this time that he embraced Islam. He co-authored a report called Latino Muslims in the United States: Reversion, Politics, and Islamidad. He is a contributor and the editor of the book Latino Muslims: Our Journeys to Islam. He is the President/CEO of the Latino American Dawah Organization also known as The LADO Group. Vilma Santos - Vilma Habibah is the Co-host of America’s Islamic Radio. Born and raised in Puerto Rico, Vilma Santos converted to Islam after gaining knowledge in Islamic Studies and changed her name to Vilma Habibah. She provides interfaith and intracultural da’wah (teaching about Islam) in Spanish for a number of organizations. She found her true calling in community activism and has been an active member of the Islamic Community for over ten years. Her long list of achievements includes holding the title of Chapter Leader of IslamInSpanish New York. Vilma Habibah has numerous accolades to her name, such as the Humanity Award of 2014 and the Community Hero Award of 2018. In addition to that, she won the prestigious “Woman Impact of the Year” award, presented by the United Nations. Wendy Díaz - Wendy Díaz was born in Puerto Rico, where she spent half her childhood before moving to the U.S. She is an award-winning poet, author, and translator and co-founder of Hablamos Islam, a social project focused on creating educational resources about Islam in Spanish, including children’s programming and literature. After graduating from the University of Maryland with a BA in modern languages and linguistics, specializing in secondary education, she began her career as a teacher. She later discovered her passion for creative writing and storytelling and decided to dedicate her efforts to creating unique stories for children. Through Hablamos Islam, she has authored, translated, and/or published more than 15 books. Her poetry is also featured in the Muslim American Writers at Home Anthology published by Freedom Voices Publications. Wendy’s bilingual children’s books have been distributed in over a dozen Spanish-speaking countries, while her online children’s programming has been viewed in more than 40 countries worldwide. She also works as a freelance writer and translator, and her work is published in various online and print publications. Nahela Morales - Nahela Morales is a dedicated, passionate Mexican Muslim convert, humanitarian, award-winning activist, international public speaker, community organizer, and mother of one. She co-founded Embrace, an initiative created for Reverts by Reverts. Their mission is to empower, integrate, and serve our Muslim convert community by providing social and educational space to encourage growth, shape Islamic identity, and equip them with the knowledge needed for their lifetime journey. She currently serves as the Dallas Chapter lead and Marketing Director. She has had the opportunity to speak in countries like Sweden, Columbia, Brazil, and her native Mexico. She has represented a variety of oppressed demographics through her years as an activist and humanitarian. Since 2019, she has served on the board of CAIR-Central North, whose mission is to protect civil rights, enhance understanding of Islam, promote justice, and empower American Muslims. Her dedication and discipline enable her to mentor and serve on other boards nationwide, including ISPU. She is pursuing her Master in Divinity at Bayan Islamic Graduate School, accredited through Chicago Theological Seminary. See also Alianza Islámica African-American Muslims Latino Americans Islam in the United States Latin American Muslims Latino American Dawah Organization LALMA PIEDAD IslamInSpanish References Further reading Articles on Latino Muslims The LADO Newsletter Four Muslim Latinas open up about their journeys to Islam 'It's beautiful': How four Los Angeles Latinos found peace in Islam Five Years Since the Release of ‘New Muslim Cool’: Hispanic Muslims Growing Segment of U.S. Muslim Religious Culture External links Latino American Dawah Organization La Asociación Latino Musulmana de América HispanicMuslims.com IslamInSpanish HablamosIslam PIEDAD Islam in the United States American Muslims Islam
5336787	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puebla%20Cathedral	Puebla Cathedral	The Basilica Cathedral of Puebla, as the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception is known according to its Marian invocation, is the episcopal see of the Archdiocese of Puebla de los Ángeles (Mexico). It is one of the most important buildings in the historic center of Puebla declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It has the prerogative of being the first sumptuous temple that under good designs was made in the Americas, consecrated in 1649, ahead of the Metropolitan of Mexico that was dedicated in 1653. It was founded by Philip II of Spain. The current Herrerian-style cathedral was built between the 16th and 17th centuries, and replaced the previous one that existed in what is now the atrium. Seventy-four years passed from the beginning of its construction in 1575 to its consecration, during the reigns of three successive kings of Spain, Philip II, Philip III and Philip IV. The setbacks that occurred throughout those years led to numerous modifications of the original layout. By 1624 the works were completely suspended until the arrival of Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza in July 1640, who resumed the works with determined enthusiasm. The new reforms gave a higher elevation to the central nave above the processional ones, allowing the passage of natural light and giving it the appearance of a pyramidal structure. It was consecrated by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza on April 18, 1649, without having been completely finished. The space it occupies is rectangular in shape, recharged in the corner of another larger floor, forming a large space for the atrium. The building is organized into five naves: a central one, two lateral ones and two niche chapels, its Renaissance-style façade stands out. Attached to its back is a building for offices of the Mitra, its former headquarters, and the building of the chapel called Ochavo. With its little more than 70 meters high, it was the tallest church in the Spanish colonies. The cathedral is considered one of the most important museums of New Spanish and later art due to the treasures it houses. Over the centuries it has been enriched in works of painting, sculpture, goldsmithing and carpentry of great artistic quality, as well as its decorations, the large boarded doors, aluminum and the treasures of the sacristy that protect the rich priestly ornaments embroidered with gold and silver thread, sacred vessels, chalices, ciboria, reliquaries and crosses bathed in gold inlaid with jewels and diamonds. Its historical archive has documents dating back to the founding of the city and many are waiting to be classified. The foundation of the cathedral The first church Once Queen Isabella of Portugal, wife of Carlos V, Holy Roman Emperor authorized on January 18, 1531, at the request of the Real Audiencia, the foundation of a town of Spanish Christians in the province of Tlaxcala, in the place called Cuetlaxcoapan, It was necessary to build the first parish church in the city, for which it was decided to do it in front of the Plaza Mayor in what would be called Portal de Borja and from 1852 Portal Iturbide, it was located in the middle of the street bordering on both sides with the lots granted to the first residents of the city, the mayor Hernando de Elgueta and Alonso González, who were given a license to build portals. In the sacristy of this parish, a meeting was held on May 16, 1535, with fifty-seven people who signed before a clerk in order to start the construction of a new larger church, while Bishop Julián Garcés announced, in a general meeting with the people, their intention to build a new temple. The old major church In 1537, once the new city had the minimum conditions for Bishop Garcés to reside there, the Cabildo requested, among other things, his transfer, which occurred on October 3, 1539, with the consent of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza; therefore the bishop's cathedral would occupy small and provisional buildings until there was the definitive one. In 1543, the construction of a temple for the new episcopal seat was approved by real cédula of Carlos V, Holy Roman Emperor which received the new bishop Friar Martín Sarmiento de Ojacastro since Garcés had died the previous year. Meanwhile, the space dedicated to the temple next to the Plaza Mayor had been occupied by primitive residents and there was a need to buy the houses recently built by them. Since its foundation, the Spanish colony had been projected to form a set of rectangular blocks, in which a large central space was reserved for said plaza and another one was left next to it, which after the first years of uncertainty about its use became it would become a major church. Construction began on August 29, 1535, with the financial help of Bishop Ojacastro and settlers from the city where the first stone was laid, with the assistance of Corregidor Hernández de Elgueta and Mayor Alonso Martín Partidor. The temple of 1535 was in the same space that the cathedral occupies today, however its exact position is still being discussed, but not its orientation, from north to south, that is, facing the Plaza Mayor. His factory, according to his contemporaries, was mediocre, however Motolina wrote in 1541 “it is very solemn, and stronger and larger than all those built to date throughout New Spain. It has three naves and the pillars are made of very good black stone and of good grain, with its three doors, in which there are three very carved portals and a lot of work”. Because of the quality of its materials, it had to be repaired on several occasions in which the Temple of Nuestra Señora de la Concordia served as cathedral. The modest Major church did not correspond to the claims of the inhabitants of the city of los Angéles who had requested its expansion until they finally obtained the consent of the king to build a new cathedral. The new cathedral The orders to carry out the projects and preparatory matters took many years, and a real cédula of 1552 signed by Prince Philip II of Spain in Monzón (Huesca) recommended that they get down to work and even the help offered by the king in the year 1560 was not taken advantage of by lack of resources. It had to be bought from Alonso Martín Partidor himself, owner of the houses where the cathedral would be built. Finally, on November 18, 1575, construction work began. The initial architect was the Spaniard Francisco Becerra, designated major master, together with Juan de Cigorondo, senior worker, who prepared the layout and model as well as the interior and exterior, showing them to the Dean and the Cathedral Chapter and, upon approval, they were given the land and instructions for laying foundations. At first the works received an important boost and the viceroy himself ordered that the Indians of Cholula and Tlaxcala participate in the construction of the cathedral. The building should be centered longitudinally on the large block that was assigned to it, loaded towards the east with an atrium in front that would have that of a cemetery among its functions, the latter over time would be the object of several construction projects to close it and encompass in front of the feet of the temple the cathedral Tabernacle. The direction of the building would be east–west, so the Plaza Mayor of the city would be on its north side. In 1580 Francisco Becerra left Mexico called by the viceroy of Peru to carry out the works on the cathedral of Quito and Cusco, leaving the works on the cathedral unfinished, which were resumed between 1587 and 1590 by order of the viceroy Álvaro Manrique de Zúñiga on the basis of a new trace and in which natives of Tlaxcala and Cholula had to work. Between 1618 and 1640 the works were suspended at the height of the walls and cornices, missing the altar, chapels, vaults and the floor that at that time was made of dirt floor, however Juan Gómez de Trasmonte had already been working since 1634 on reforming the Becerra project, since he had been designated as major master, but it was not until the arrival of Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza that his plan could pass from the plan to the works. Gómez de Trasmonte, who had served as Major Master of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, adapted the project, giving it a more classical appearance and a basilica plan. The era of Palafox y Mendoza Bringing Palafox with him a real cédula dated January 19, 1640 that ordered the works to be finished and concluded, the new bishop of Puebla ordered its resumption, but not before visiting the cathedral that, seeing it in total carelessness, described it: In these circumstances, Palafox undertook a fundraising campaign that included the entire society of Puebla, contributing his own inheritance, asking for contributions to the secular Cabildo, the highest, and raising the tithes, the latter action that caused him a confrontation with the religious orders and in particular with the Jesuits. The resumption of the factory required the workforce of 1,500 officers and peons that Palafox supervised every week. Gómez de Trasmonte's project gave more elevation to the central nave, giving it a pyramidal appearance seen from the front, not as a whim or aesthetic, but to give more lighting to the interior, however when the cathedral was finally consecrated on Sunday, April 18, 1649, the towers were missing and the facade had not been completed. On the afternoon of the Tuesday following the consecration, the remains of five bishops of the eight that the diocese had had were transferred and the Blessed Sacrament was celebrated with an innumerable turnout. The celebrations were intermingled with the sadness of the next departure of Bishop Palafox to Spain. The Jesuits with whom Palafox had had an open conflict for various reasons, finally managed to transfer him to March 6, 1647. The bishop not only left his cathedral to Puebla but also the San Pedro Colleges and the nucleus of the Palafoxian Library. Later additions At later dates, covers and facades were completed, such as the main one, called the Puerta del Perdón, finished in 1664. That same year in July, in a town hall session, the work for the construction of the "Ochavo" was approved, a place to store valuable religious ornaments, commissioning its construction to the renowned architect Carlos García Durango, who had intervened in the enclosure of some vaults and the conclusion of the north tower. The side facade called San Cristóbal, which faces north, was completed in 1690. The iron dressing: the bars of the chapels, the railing that runs from the chancel to the choir, the one that surrounds it and those of the chancel of the Altar of the Kings were added around 1691. The entire cathedral was paved in 1772 with the so-called Santo Tomás marble brought from the Tepozuchil hill, placed instead of the original brickwork called petatillo left by Bishop Palafox. Exterior The plot where the cathedral or basilica floor is built comprises the same as any city block: 120 meters long by 80 meters wide. The cathedral measures 97.67 meters long by 51 meters wide, is traced in a Greek cross and is placed in the same cardinal position as that of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, to the east the altar of the Kings, to the west the main entrance called del Perdón or Papal, to the north the portada real, and to the south a simple portal without any adornment. Towers The north tower, the only one that has bells, also called the Old Tower, was finished in 1678 during the reign of Charles II of Spain, without cost of lives and under the charge of the major master Carlos García Durango, according to the inscription engraved on the inner wall of the first body of the tower. The south tower was built later in 1731 and opened on September 29, 1768, during the episcopal government of Francisco Fabián y Fuero. Both are 70 meters high, being at the time the highest in the American colonies. The two towers at the front of the temple are equal and square, whose cubes are at the same height as the main façade, finished off with a cornice, above this rises the first body, which is of the Doric order with three pilasters on each front, and two arches for bells, one in each intercolumnium: these pilasters have their pedestals and receive the corresponding cornice, highlighting the architrave and carved friezes-rosettes on the cornice propecture, in the frieze there are triglyphs that lack metopes. The arches are of double proportion with their imposts, jambs and bands that garnish them, breaking these on the pedestal and secured with stonework balustrades, being all of this first body eight, the space between these and the cornice, is divided by a strip, the rest being bossage. The second body follows, slightly narrowed in width, which is of the Ionic order and has three pilasters without a pedestal, but rather a plinth on each front, and thus these, like those on the first floor, are grooved and receive the cornice of the order to which they belong. This body, although it has almost the same height, was skillfully divided by its author into two parts in the middle, with an ergot with dentils, placing four arches on each front, two in the lower division with a balustrade, and the same number in the upper one without it, which is pleasing to the eye and avoided the many subdivisions so repeated in the architectural bodies. This cornice is crowned by a sober balustrade intersected with pedestals in the corners and in the median of the fronts, in which round pyramidal merlons finish off, followed by an octagonal plinth, three times higher than the balustrade, which in each angle has a merlon like the previous ones, leaving these higher than the others and in the middle of them. The towers are topped by domes of brick and azulejos topped with a roof lantern crowned by a white stone scotia called Villería (variety of opaque white marble) that supports a globe of the same stone approximately 1 meter in diameter, ending with a cross three meters high. Bells The Old Tower is the only one that has bells totaling ten, eight esquilas or smaller bells and a bell for the clock. The heaviest and most famous is the so-called "Campana María" the maximum registered weight of this with its clapper is 8 tons 572 kilos and 572 grams. The challenge and the tremendous difficulties involved in raising the María bell through a narrow opening gave rise to the famous legend that it was the angels who raised it and held it in place. The reality is that it was raised on the day of Saint Mark in 1732 by the Indian Juan Bautista Santiago, major master in charge of the works. Some memorable chimes The cathedral bells have rung on special occasions such as coronations of kings and births of the crown's first-born, however, history records the peals in independent Mexico as memorable: On August 2, 1821 with the entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees headed by Agustín de Iturbide. On the afternoon of May 5, 1862, when a tremendous downpour ended and the troops of the French army began to withdraw, according to the chronicles, "virtually no one slept that night in Puebla when the celebration for the victory began... with great ringing and fluttering of bells" On May 5, 1962, at noon, in commemoration of the First Centenary of the Battle of Loreto y Guadalupe. On October 30, 1964, the fall of Governor Nava Castillo due to the unpopularity of his government. On Sunday, January 28, 1979, for the arrival of Pope John Paul II in the center of the city, passing in an open car, to one side of the north side of the cathedral. Facades The cathedral has five portals with access to the interior, one on both sides, three on the front, and all obey a sober Renaissance style. Puerta del Perdón and sides The middle one, which protects the so-called "Puerta del Perdón", rises 34 meters and opens only on big occasions, the same as in the Mexico City Cathedral and others. It was finished in 1664. This portal is divided into three bodies: the first of the Doric order with four fluted half columns with their pedestals and cornice, in the intercolumns there are two well-crafted niches, with two stone statues of Villería, one of Saint Peter with book and key; and that of Saint Paul with the sword, in the middle the Puerta del Perdón whose impost runs above the niches and between it and the cornice there are some shields of Villería with the shields of the cathedral: a vase of lilies, symbol of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. The second body is of the Ionic order, with four half columns and in its intercolumns there are niches and shields like the first with the statues of Saint Joseph, holding the baby Jesus by the hand on the left, and Saint James the Great on the right with a gourd on a staff and above a pine. The third body consists of two fluted Doric half-columns on pedestals and its cornice without pediment is topped with the arms of Spain, which from 1827 to 1930 was covered with mixture with the intention of putting the Mexican shield, however, and finally the place bears the Mary's monogram but keeping the golden fleece and the royal crown. Adjoining the Puerta del Perdón, on both sides, are two posts that end in a semicircular point and ergot. When the archbishopric of Puebla was erected in 1904 by bull of Pius X, two commemorative plaques were installed on the poles with Latin inscriptions, one of them (on the left) referring to the first bishop Julián Garcés and the other (right) to the last bishop and first Archbishop Ramón Ibarra y González. The side portals both show a relief with its Villería frames, on the left it represents Saint Rose of Lima receiving roses from the Virgin and a shield that says (Cordis mei rosa) Rose of my heart, and on the right Saint Teresa of Ávila in the moments in which an angel wounds her with an arrow in the heart (religious ecstasy), the shield on her left says (Vulnerasti cor meu) you hurt my heart and the one on her right (Amore langueo) consumes me of love. Norte and Sur side portals The door that leads to the Plaza Mayor is called San Cristóbal by Saint Christopher who is patron, among other things, of all entrances and exits, since there was behind the door a gigantic statue made of wood of this saint since the inauguration of the cathedral (1649) until the times of the intendant Manuel de Flon Conde de la Cadena (1786-1811) when it was removed, today in its place there is a large-format canvas of the same saint and the statue is kept in the Temple of Santiago. The Norte and Sur portals are similar in architecture although they vary in details, the Sur being simpler without statues or decorations, the latter is located in front of the Casa de la Cultura, former Seminary, and its atrium is only as wide as the portal because it is boxed in on both sides by constructions of the same church. The grille of this access was built by José Mariano Saavedra. It was opened to the public in September 2010 after having been closed for more than 50 years. The portal facing North (Norte) is approximately 30 meters high, consists of three bodies, the first is of the Doric order with four fluted columns and its capitals with carved ovos in its fourth bocel, finished off with well-proportioned cornices without triglyphs; in the intercolumnios there are ledges with well-defined niches topped with shells and in it there are two statues of Saint John the Evangelist and Saint Matthew the Apostle, life-size and of Villería; the impost of the arch runs to the sides, there are also medals with portraits of founding kings in low relief and white stone and of the same some children that adorn the spandrels of the arch. The second body is of Ionic order that starts from a very ornate pedestal, which constitutes four pilasters, two on each side, and in the center a window with a carved frame of good taste, and the intercolumns have niches and medals with the statues of Saint Luke and Saint Mark. It continues upwards with a cornice, this yes, its frieze adorned with triglyphs, next to it run two magnificent posts that give the whole a majestic appearance. The top of the posts serves to receive an arch that covers the third and last body, this breaks from the cornice of the second and is formed by two Corinthian columns on pedestals with their cornice and frontispiece. The architecture of this portal is considered a masterpiece due to its stonework, which is why it is not without reason that it is engraved on the pedestal (Hoc opus, Hic labor). Domes: Major and that of the Kings It is half orange and rises majestically over the crossing, its octagonal basement with three Ionic pilasters at each angle and on its cornice on the four front walls there are as many windows, the exterior surface included a coating of yellow and green azulejos of terracotta in whose three quarters shine the same number of stars distributed at equal distances, and ends with a graceful cusp and a statuette of the Conception. The dome of the Chapel of the Kings is smaller, its shell has four windows and as many stairs, between each one it ends with a statuette of Saint Joseph. This dome shines a lot at night when the church is illuminated. Atrium The place was probably occupied by the Major church, antecedent to the current one, which later, when it was demolished, the rubble remained for a time while the cathedral was being built, Veytia, who was born in 1718, saw them, and Bermúdez de Castro, born in 1746, describes them, but they no longer appear in the Plan of 1754. During the existence of the Major church in the 16th century, the chapel of the natives called the chapel of "San Pedro de los indios" was erected there, and next to it some priestly houses where the priests lived there being able to witness from their balcony the bullfights that took place opposite, there was also an ossuary for the bones that were taken from the Hospital de San Pedro. Once these buildings disappeared according to a plan of 1754, a new chapel was built for the natives and at their expense, this time on one side of the south tower, it had the shape of a barrel made up of four vaults, its measurements are 6 m. high, 7.5 wide, and 15 m. long and was dedicated to "Las Lágrimas de San Pedro". It was known at the end of the 18th century and during the 19th as "Capilla de los Aguadores" and whose entrance was through the atrium. It was closed to worship in 1890, transferring the devotion to the Temple of Los Gozos. Its arches were canceled and today it is used as a cellar. In 1766, as in the old Major church, an underground place was built again in front of the chapel for the mortal remains of the natives. In the 18th century, the entire atrium was paved with stairways for access and was surrounded by attic posts on whose cusps there were statues of saints and between the posts 17 Tuscan columns topped with lions and shields of white stone from Villería. The current trellis began to be built in 1878, being financed in each section by private donors according to the red stone inscriptions that can be seen today. Interior As has been said, the interior plan of the cathedral forms a parallelogram 97.67 meters long, from the façade (Puerta del Perdón) to the sidewalk of Calle 2 Sur, from West to East, by 51 meters wide, from South to North; if we have to consider only the cathedral temple without the Miter, that is to say, from the façade to the Altar of the Kings, the measurement is 82 meters. Five naves rise in this space in the form of a Greek cross: the main nave, the crossing nave, two processional naves and two for the chapels. It has 14 colossal Doric style columns almost 15 meters high from the plinth to the capital, all fluted, 6 pilasters of the same height, supporting the vaults and arches of the upper nave and 18 columns embedded in the side walls of 9.78 meters from plinth to capital, they support the vaults of the lower naves. All the pillars carry the weight of forty vaults and two domes, all of which are made of gray quarry stone that was brought from the neighboring towns of the city and carved with such precision that the work seems error-free. The 14 isolated columns that form the middle nave are not round, but form a square post with a column embedded in each face, taking this conception into account, we have a total of 74 columns and six pilasters. These support 12 visible main arches and 4 hidden ones, adding those of the lateral naves are a total of 30 visible and 4 embedded in the main walls. The main body of the cathedral has two domes, one over the Altar of the Kings without a dome and another with it in the crossing, the largest of all, in addition to 14 spherical or half-plate cupolas, which belong to the lateral naves; in addition, those of the chapels must be counted, which are 14 of the type of truncated vaulted ceiling or handkerchief, being a total of 39, all adorned with their rosettes in the middle and golden coffers ordered from largest to smallest towards the vertices that are covered fleurons with nail and in turn the medallions hang on each one along the temple and turning it. With the exception of the shell of the largest dome made of pumice stone to lighten its weight, lime and stone were used in the others. Eight niches with sculptures of the prophets and evangelists in white stucco are found in the drum of the main dome. Its creator was the Spanish architect and sculptor Pedro García Ferrer, nephew of Bishop Palafox. The paving is of alternating red and black marble,'0 called Santo Tomás. The building is illuminated by 124 windows, of which 27 are round, using 2,215 panes that were originally placed in 1664. Altars of the Gospel and the Epistle Each collateral nave has its altar at its head: the one on the Gospel side is dedicated to Saint Joseph and the one on the Epistle to Archangel Michael. These two altars are equally gilded and Corinthian order. They are made up of four large columns in the first body and two small ones in the second. Each altar has a large niche with crystals, inside of which are placed the images of the saints to whom they are dedicated, on beautiful silver bases and four bouquets of the same metal. The image of the Archangel Michael has his cane and other silver decorations, and on the sides in the intercolumnios, on some shelves, two statues of Archangel Gabriel and Archangel Raphael are placed on beautiful silver bases and their candle holders of the same metal; these figures being life-size. The altar table has a silver front and supports a tabernacle more than a meter high made of the same metal, with a niche in the middle where a Christ by José Antonio Villegas Cora is placed, and others on the sides with various relics. The altar of Saint Joseph, to the right of the Altar of the Kings, has the same silver decoration and the statues between the columns are of Joachim and Saint Anne. The one of Saint Joseph is by Cora. Another Holy Christ with the Virgin and Saint John is placed in the tabernacle of this altar. Stations of the Cross The series of paintings that recount the Stations of the Cross located along both processional naves is the work of the famous 18th-century Oaxacan painter Miguel Cabrera. Transept Through the access on the north side of the transept there is a large-format oil painting of Saint Christopher carrying the Child Jesus and in front of it is the archangel Michael by the 18th-century painter Luis Berrueco. On the south side the patronage of Saint Joseph is represented and on the opposite side Stages of the Life of Saint John Nepomucene, martyr of the secret of confession, by the 19th century painter Miguel Jerónimo Zendejas. In the second body of the crossing naves, the four evangelists, Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, Saint John and Saint Luke, are represented in 19th-century tempera paintings by the Pueblan painter Julián Ordóñez, the doors' gates were assembled in cedar in the 17th century in the Mudéjar style that were completed by the 10th Bishop Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas and the architect Francisco Gutiérrez intervened in the regency of the work, highlighting three reliefs on the main gates: in the center the coat of arms of Spain, in the lateral ones that of the first bishop Friar Julián Garcés Romano and that of the 9th bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza. Plan Altar of the Catholic Monarchs. High altar or baldachin (Cypress). Choir and organs. Chapel del Apóstol Santiago. Chapel of San Pedro. Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Chapel del Sagrado Corazón de María. Chapel of la Inmaculada Concepción. Chapel del Señor de la Preciosa Sangre. Chapel of San Nicolás De Bari. Chapel of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores. Chapel del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús. Chapel of las Santas Reliquias. Chapel of San Juan Nepomuceno. Chapel del Señor de la Columna. Chapel of la Virgen de Ocotlán. Chapel of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad. Tabernacle. Sacristy. Hall of los Gobelinos. Chapter House Hall of the Cathedral Chapter Archive. Chapel del Espíritu Santo (Ochavo). Altar of the Kings It gets its name from the images of holy kings and queens in the lateral niches of its reredos. The complex is made up of a dome on pendentives, a main altarpiece, two side reredos and the tabernacle. The chapel was designed by the Spaniard Juan Martínez Montañés and its main altarpiece in Solomonic Baroque style was the work of master Lucas Méndez under the direction of Pedro García Ferrer, and inspired by a sketch by Sebastián de Arteaga, it was consecrated on April 18, 1649. by Bishop Palafox and its factory lasted seven years. The sumptuous painting of the dome is one of the few tempera paintings preserved in Mexico and that consecrates the triumph of the Eucharist, it is the work of the Baroque painter Cristóbal de Villalpando made in the year 1688, commissioned by Bishop Manuel Fernández de Santa Cruz, achieving a large set of figures in bright colors in the manner of the great Italian masters of the seventeenth century. He himself decorated the pendentives with images of the four Jewish heroines Judith, Ruth, Esther and Jael, strong women decked out in the elitist manner of the 17th century. The fourth body and auction is made up of the oil painting of the Coronation of the Virgin Mary by the Holy Trinity placed between paired columns of the compound order, the large central space is made up of the second and third body with Solomonic columns, it is occupied by the oil painting of the Assumption of Mary, on the left side intercolumns Edward the Confessor and Ferdinand III of Castile on the right side Helena of Constantinople, mother of Emperor Constantine, and Margaret Queen of Scotland. The first body is made up of square pilasters and Ionic capitals and in each intercolumnium the sculptures of Louis IX of France and Saint Elizabeth, Queen of Hungary, in the middle part of this body is the Tabernacle with four Solomonic columns, in the glass niche there is the image of Our Lady of Defense on a base and silver column, in the collaterals of this tabernacle there are two oil paintings: the birth of the Child Jesus where the 9th bishop of Puebla Juan de Palafox y Mendoza is represented and the adoration of the Saints Magi Kings. All the paintings on this altar, with the exception of the dome, were made by the Spanish architect and painter Pedro García Ferrer, a close relative of Bishop Juan de Palafox. High altar The ninth bishop, Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, had collected the spoils of his predecessors in the year 1649, which were in other churches in Puebla and thus began the pantheon of bishops in the old tabernacle. Around the year 1798, when Salvador Bienpica y Sotomayor was bishop, they tried to make a new one and it was thought to be made of silver, but this idea was discarded and later Manuel Tolsá, director of sculpture at the Academy of Mexico, was consulted who agreed to make the plan and model; once contracted, the demolition was carried out on September 1, 1799, beginning the new work with enormous expenses, after some changes in the administration, the architect José Manzo took over the direction. They worked hard and without consideration of expenses until completing the splendid work that kept the people of Puebla in expectation for 20 years. The current main altar, called Cypress, was blessed on December 5, 1819. The burial and transfer of the mortal remains of the Angelopolitan bishops to the bishops' crypt took place on May 14, 1824. The main artists who worked on it, in addition to Tolsá and Manzo, were: Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque, master Pedro Pablo Lezama in the work of marble and masonry, José Ramírez in stucco; The bronze and silver work was done in Mexico by Manuel Camaño, the chiseled Joaquín de Izunsa and the silversmith Simón Salmón who, among other works, cast the beautiful image of the Immaculate Conception of Tolsá. The ambons for the readings and the pulpit were the work of Joseph de Medina in 1719. Architecture The height of the Cypress, from the ground to the head of the statue of Saint Peter, is 17.50 meters. It is a Neoclassical style building with the influence of ancient Roman architecture of its time of decline, which involves volumetric searches breaking into complicated entablatures and pediments to the counterpoint of straight lines and curves, in this monument there is a wide variety of materials such as Tecali marble, stucco, bronze, brass and cedar wood in the crypts. This cypress is placed on a stone pedestal 2.61 meters high in square and sits on a circular plan of Corinthian order forming an open tower with four fronts. The first body is made up of 16 fluted Corinthian columns, 5.66 meters high, grouped by four at each angle that enclose the doctors of the church in white stucco, Saint Gregory, Saint Ambrose, Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome. The cornice is interrupted in each section of the pillars to house in its gaps large gleams with the anagram of the Virgin Mary and stucco finials of angels, on the dome a Saint Peter surrounded by seraphim and clouds in white stucco finishes off, the lower part it was decorated in a very sumptuous way in keeping with the rest of the monument, the building leaves a large hollow space for the tabernacle and the Immaculate Conception, it is classified by means of a stepped plinth with eight sides that mark corner pilasters and have gilded doors in their openings, it is closed by a better half and culminates with the statue of the Immaculate Virgin who steps on the biblical serpent in the clouds, it was cast in bronze and weighs 920 kilograms. The base of the cypress, in a round shape and with a flat vault, where there are four small doors for access to the crypts of the bishops, are only opened on November 2, the All Souls' Day. Choir The Choir that is located in front of the Puerta del Perdón, was built in the last decade of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century with the purpose that this place was destined for the oratory of the cathedral chapter de Puebla, for which the installation was required, in successive periods, of organs for the harmonization of ceremonies. The Choir is made up of three large walls that open in the shape of a horseshoe in the direction of the high altar, the space it creates is closed by a 17th-century wrought Pueblan iron gate by master Juan Mateo de la Cruz that ends with the Calvary in ivory and in the collaterals, the bell towers. The interior is made up of 52 chairs in two exclusive rows for the ecclesiastical council, the stalls are made of beautiful Pueblan marquetry, with fine wood, bone and ivory forming different grecados, on the backs of each chair. The two small doors that give access to the choir were inlaid on both sides and with reliefs of Saint Peter and Saint Paul; these stalls and doors were donated by the 14th bishop Pedro Nogales Dávila and worked in the eighteenth century by the master Pedro Muñoz, in the center of the choir on a tecali stone baluster there is a cedar lectern where it supports four books of the 16th century with Gregorian music and engravings by Luis Lagarto, this beautiful lectern finishes off the statue of Saint John of Nepomuk martyr of the secret of confession and patron saint of priests. Organs The organs that make up the choral ensemble are three: the first, whose main decoration faces the epistle nave or right-hand processional nave, dates from the 18th century, was built from 1710 to 1719 by Félix Izaguirre, and is no longer in use today, the second old organ it was built by Inocencio Maldonado in 1737; The third organ that looks towards the front of the baldachin and towards the Altar del Perdón is the largest in this cathedral it has been given the name "International" because three nations participated in its construction: the United States in 1958, in the city of Buffalo the electronic part with four keyboards was built, Germany the artistic and golden tubes and Mexico the assembly of cedar wood and gold leaf decoration. It was assembled inside the cathedral by artists from Puebla. The so-called International organ has a total of 3376 pipes or musical sounds, it is electro-pneumatic based on turbines and electricity, the largest tube measures 12 m and the smallest 1 cm, it plays on big occasions such as weddings, graduations, concerts, etc. It was inaugurated on December 8, 1973, by Archbishop Octaviano Márquez y Toriz. Of the three organs, the two old ones are no longer in service since they stopped working at the end of the 19th century and they were never sent to restore since the chapter wanted to preserve them as artistic relics or decorative jewels, testimonies of the historical and religious trajectory of the cathedral. Gospel chapels The left processional nave known as the Gospel nave has the following chapels: Chapel del Apóstol Santiago This chapel communicates with the Sagrario (Tabernacle), the symbols on the fan of the grille indicate that it was originally consecrated to Saint James the Great, the Baroque altarpieces were removed to make way for a Doric Neoclassical one, which has a sculpture of Saint James the Less in the central niche, which must have come from the destroyed altarpieces. The painting of Saint Philomena stands out, patron saint of maids or lawyer to find honest servitude, it is the work of the 19th century artist Rafael Morante, in the other niches are John the Baptist and one of Saint Eligius of stupendous workmanship by the sculptor Zacarías Cora. The altarpiece of the gospel is by San José María Yermo y Parres and on the opposite side a gate that covered the old communication door with the Tabernacle, on this same side are: a descent and a Saint John of Nepomuk who offers the language that was cut as a tribute to the Virgin; work of Miguel Jerónimo Zendejas. The remains are found, under a large bronze tombstone, of the first constitutional governor of the state of Puebla Gral. José María Calderón. Chapel of San Pedro The altarpiece inaugurated in the year 1830 is of a composite order with two columns, six pilasters and a niche where Saint Peter is placed and that of Saint Paul in another, the oil paintings of Jesus walking in the sea, Christ tied and Saint Francis of Assisi. works by Vincenzo Camuccini. Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe José Manzo, who was in charge of transforming the Baroque decoration of some spaces of the cathedral into the Neoclassical style, placed the painting of the famous Oaxacan Miguel Cabrera of The Virgin of Guadalupe, already made in 1756 in her new altarpiece, accompanied by images of the Blessed Bartolomé Gutiérrez and Saint Philip of Jesus, martyred in Japan. On the side, the work of Cristóbal de Villalpando The Coronation of Mary and on the opposite side repeats Miguel Cabrera with the Holy Family, in front of the altarpiece of the Virgin, a cartouche says: (Non Fecit Taliter Omni Nationi), "He did not the same with all nations" phrase that Pope Benedict XIV said on la Guadalupana; On the floor are the mortuary remains of the first Archbishop of Puebla, Ramón Ibarra y González. The crossing continues after this chapel. Chapel del Sagrado Corazón de María Originally it housed the relics of saints and other sacred objects, then it was dedicated to the apostle Saint Andrew, which is why his sculpture and his X-shaped cross, symbol of his martyrdom, are still preserved in the middle of the fence. Here again José Manzo intervened for the redecoration in the Neoclassical style by removing the Baroque altarpieces and thus consecrating it to (María Salus Infirmorum) "Mary health of the sick" whose painting was the work of the Pueblan master Francisco Morales Van den Eyden. The emphasis on the heart of the Virgin caused people to call it the "Sweet Heart of Mary". On the sides there is an Assumption of Mary painted by the Italian artist Vincenzo Camuccini and the anonymous paintings of Saint Alphonsus Liguori and Saint Bonaventure. Chapel of the Immaculate Conception This chapel was entrusted to the Puebla silversmiths' guild, which had its respective ordinance, and the altarpiece consists of a statue of the Immaculate, Saint Louis of Toulouse, and Saint Bonaventure, on the side walls two oil paintings of Friar John Scotus Eriugena and the Pope Pius IX. Chapel del Señor de la Preciosa Sangre The chapel "del Cristo", as it was formerly called because of the magnificent life-size sculpture of the crucified Jesus, which according to legend was said to have been made in Europe and blessed by Pope Paul VI, said without support, since the piece is made of corn cane paste, a raw material from the state of Michoacán, possibly brought by Bishop Antonio Ruíz de Morales y Molina, who ruled the diocese from 1572 to 1576, the sculpture is accompanied on the sides by a Virgin of Hope and a Saint John the Baptist, both by Master Lugardo. The three original Baroque-style altarpieces were removed by the architect José del Castillo to install Neoclassical ones in their place. There are also in small niches some heads carved in wood of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and a sculpture of "Christ the King of Mockery" anonymous painting and on the top of the grille a small "Divine Face". Chapel of San Nicolás de Bari The space of this chapel was used as access to the stairs of the old tower and later a baptistery with a baptismal font. The Jesuits consecrated it to Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1700, adorning it with three altarpieces and paintings, the work of Juan Rodríguez Juárez. At the beginning of the 20th century, by decision of the chapter, the cult of Saint Nicholas of Bari was moved to this chapel, which was in his chapel to one side of the high altar, so its numerous devotees interfered with the ceremonial of the Eucharist. In the same way as the other chapels, it was converted to the Neoclassical style; the sculpture of Saint Nicholas stands out, attributed to José Antonio Villegas Cora and the paintings on the genealogy of the Virgin Mary by the 17th century painter José Rubí de Marimón, the other paintings on the sides refer to the action of the Holy Bishop in the Council of Nicaea and the miracles that were performed in his tomb. This chapel is the last of the processional nave of the gospel. Chapels of the Epistle The following chapels correspond to the right processional nave known as the nave of the Epistle: Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows This chapel communicates with the sacristy, in the altarpiece is the representation of the Virgin of Sorrows and the Calvary and on the sides Saint Rose of Lima and Saint John Vianney. Chapel del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús At the foot of this altarpiece is the image on canvas of a portrait of Our Lady of La Manga, an image that miraculously appeared on the cuff of a Mexican Hieronymite nun, as well as the remains of General Miguel Miramón and the journalist Trinidad Sánchez Santos. Chapel of the Holy Relics Chapel of the Relics. The 9th bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza consecrated it to Saint Catherine of Alexandria, then to Saint Andrew and later to Saint Anne. At the end of the 17th century, the council decided that the relics be moved here, so that the celebrant could admire them from the high altar. It was again the architect José Manzo who transformed the chapel, like the one in front, equipping it with an altarpiece identical to that of la Guadalupana. Artists from the Academy of Fine Arts made the busts that contain in their interior fragments of the bones of male and female saints, whose lists are written down in the boxes on the fence. Inside the central niche, reliquaries of different shapes and materials are kept, along with paintings by Juan Tinoco. On the altar there is a copy of the Dolorosa de Acatzingo and under it is the Roman wax figure of Saint Florence martyr, with his relics inside. Among the relics are the femur of Beato Sebastián de Aparicio. In paintings you can see Saint Sebastian and Saint Ignatius of Loyola from the Sumaya brush by the Valencian Baltasar Echave, on the sides those of the adoration of the kings to the child Jesus, and the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple by the brush of José de Ibarra called in his time The Mexican Murillo of the 19th century. The crossing continues after this chapel. Chapel of San Juan Nepomuceno Originally dedicated to Saint John the Evangelist, it was decided to consecrate it in 1678 to Saint Nicholas of Bari. The numerous and nourished devotion to the Saint disturbed the ceremonies of the high altar, which is why they changed their cult and devotion to the chapel on the west side of the gospel and dedicated it to Saint John of Nepomuk. On the altar you can see a painting of the Virgin of la Luz, and a sculpture of Saint John of Nepomuk made by José Antonio Villegas Cora from the 18th century. On the sides Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Francis of Paola sculpted by Bernardo Guerrero. The lateral walls are adorned with two paintings in each one with scenes of Saint John of Nepomuk. Chapel del Señor de la Columna This statue of the Señor de los Azotes (Lord of the Whips) was brought from Acatzingo, Puebla, on the side walls are covered by two large chrome oil paintings signed by Cristóbal de Villalpando in the year 1683 The descent from the Cross and the Transfiguration of Jesus in the passage of the metal serpent of the desert. Chapel of la Sábana Santa As in several chapels, José Manzo intervened in this one to transform it into the Neoclassical style, who also painted allegories to the Passion, Saint Aloysius Gonzaga and Saint Stanislaus Kostka, famous Marian Jesuits. The neo-Gothic bronze baldachin houses the image of the Virgin of Ocotlán, which is why many call this chapel in her name, the patron saint of Puebla and Tlaxcala. It is a replica of the original made by Bernardo Olivares Iriarte. Above the altar there is a magnificent "Catalan calvary". Every Good Friday the canopy is crossed and the altarpiece is opened revealing the copy of the Holy Shroud, which is perhaps the oldest work in the cathedral, since it has the legend: "copied from the original of Turin, April 8, 1594" thus like a sign with capital letters: Extractu ab originali Taurini, it was brought to Mexico by Archdeacon Fernando Gutiérrez Pacheco. Accompanying the sides are two paintings, one of Saint Veronica and the other of the dead Christ, whose origin is unknown but they are presumed to have been made by Pedro García Ferrer, a relative of Palafox y Mendoza. Chapel of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad The last chapel next to the door of this nave has a Neoclassical style altarpiece, the side murals are covered with two paintings of the Passion, from the 17th century, The Descent and The Calvary, there is controversy about their authorship, on the one hand it is attributes it to the Spanish artist Rodrigo de la Piedra and on the other to Antonio de Santander. Sagrario (Sanctuary) The Capilla del Sagrario Metropolitano of Puebla is a chapel of the cathedral, of the city of Puebla, Mexico. The chapel called del Sagrario responded to the need to have a space apart from the cathedral to deal with matters related to the Sacraments and spiritual services originally imparted to the Criollo-Spanish population and their servants, as it was also that the interior of the cathedral as an episcopal see should not, for practical reasons, serve as a parish. Sacristy The access to the Sacristy is through the first chapel on the side of the epistle, its measurements are 17 m and 10.40 m wide. The large space is surrounded by a large chest of drawers made of fine wood that houses the rich and abundant liturgical ornaments and in the middle a large table made of fine wood in the Renaissance style. The upper part of the sacristy is full of paintings. The large canvas in the background represents The Triumph of the Catholic Church over paganism, the lateral panels cover them, on the left, the painting of "The Triumph of the faith of Jesus Christ over the pagan theogony" and on the right another of the "Triumph of the religion", all by the 17th-century Mexican painter Baltasar de Echave Rioja that were copied from prints by Paul Rubens. Other canvases on the Revelations of the Apocalypse, also by Echave Rioja, crown the midpoints of the side panels. All these paintings are framed in gilt altarpieces of composite order of great aesthetic appeal. The walls of the following vault are also covered with large-format canvases: In the front interspace, in a Churrigueresque-style painting, the "Immaculate Conception stands out under the patronage of the bishops of the Diocese of Puebla", beside it stands Friar Julián Garcés first bishop and Juan de Palafox y Mendoza to conclude the works of the cathedral, this beautiful canvas was painted by Luis Berrueco, and in the blades of its half point, the apparitions of Our Lady of Pilar to Saint James and Saint Ildefonsus. On the sides is "The lavatory" of the painter Luis Berrueco from the 18th century. On the sides of the entrance doors are two ovals, one of Saint Joseph and the other of Archangel Michael, both by the painter Ibarra. In one corner of the large space is a 3 m high tecali marble fountain or ewer. Hall of los Gobelinos In this room, 4 tapestries (Gobelins) from Greek mythology shine in all their magnificence, representing Queen Hippolyta of the Amazons on the banks of the Termodont who was defeated by Heracles, the chariot of the aurora excels as a nurse of nature and the encounter of Thalestris and Alexander the Great Generalissimo of the Hellenes. The last gobelin is the embarkation of the Argonauts in search of the golden belloniso, they come from the French manufacture of Jean Gobelin of the fifteenth century, brought by the Spaniards. Chapter House Also known as the Hall of Bishops, it was carved with a certain amount of stone, it was originally covered with “expensive moldings in the manner of those of Mexico, with ribs, an enclosure that was modified by groin vaults made of flagstone and brick. One of the areas less known by the public of the majestic Cathedral of Puebla, which only a few people access. In it are the portraits of the bishops that Puebla has had throughout its history, such as: Rosendo Huesca y Pacheco. In the center is a statue of Saint John Nepomuk, who is there to remember the secrecy of the meetings. It has changed places several times, firstly it is the twin room of the sacristy, which was later inhabited as the Sagrario, remaining, as it has been until today, separated from the main enclosure, even in matters of worship. Later, the room that is currently the Hall of los Gobelinos was built, with its dome for greater solemnity, and then, in the 19th century, the construction of the room that today serves for the aforementioned purposes. The current Chapter House has the Hall of los Gobelinos as an antechamber, although it is somewhat narrower since it measures just 5.07 m. wide by 20 m. of length. It is covered with groin vaults, barely pointed, one of them with a skylight, oculus or "porthole", in the front wall. Chocolatier hall The chocolate room is located next to the Hall of los Gobelinos and its windows adjoin the old Calle del Obispado (now 5 Oriente). It was used by the prebendaries and canons to store their belongings in the narrow cabinets that each one was assigned, it was also provided with breakfast or snack during the long sessions of chapter in which cups of chocolate were not lacking. Its vaults are edge or handkerchief divided into several sections. Along its three walls are the oil portraits of distinguished canons of the Puebla cathedral who would later attain episcopal dignity. Archive The physical Archive of the Cathedral Chapter is a space of 14 m by 4 m adjacent to the sidewalk of 5 Oriente with only access through the Chapter house, very small for the extensive amount of documents it keeps. It has documents dating back to 1539, such as volume number one of the branch "Actas de cabildo" and the "Asientos de diezmos arrendados" from the period 1539–1583, even before the third Mexican Council of 1585 ordered the establishment of archives for the New Spanish cathedrals. Since its formation as a repository of documents, it remained in the same place through the centuries without great order or concert, only until 1952 did the Cabildo resolve its ordering, but not its classification, since it did not have indexes or catalogues. Without due control and because it was considered a pile of old papers, the archive suffered the theft of documents, many times unconsciously and others self-interested, such as the fact that there is not a single signature of Bishop Palafox, an absence attributed to the fact that the older students advantaged of the Palafoxian Seminary was rewarded with an original signature of the prelate as a souvenir. In the same way it suffered other important mutilations such as the evident lack of complete files torn from volumes of lawsuits for tithes or for rights and prerogatives of the cathedral. With all this, the cathedral Chapter Archive is considered one of the most important of the New Spanish period and indispensable for regional history. The archive was rescued and organized by Support for the Development of Archives and Libraries of Mexico. Among the most important branches of the archive, the following stand out: Acts of council from 1539 to 1558 Briefs of certificates and trades, episcopal governments of Fabián y Fuero, López Gonzalo and Pérez de Echeverría Chaplains Cédulas Reales from 1540 to 1796. Confraternities. Correspondence of Bishop Francisco Pablo Vászquez y Sánchez Vizcayno. Council Decrees. Tithes from 1539 to 1856. Edicts and pastoral letters. Building of the churches from 1570 to 1829. Cathedral inventories. Books of payments to the Holy Inquisition. Music: series containing 145 files, 86 choral books and 21 minor books. Music by Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla: seven sets of Christmas carols belonging to the years 1551, 1552, 1553, 1555, 1556 and 1557 for eight voices, in addition to the one from 1559 for seven voices. Palafox y Mendoza: about 50 volumes of his printed works. Poor and widows. Graves. Manuscripts of an indeterminate number of authors: Eguiranta, Palafox, Clavijero, Alegre, among many other branches. Music The cathedral in Puebla had a distinguished musical tradition, dating from the late sixteenth century. One of the most distinguished musicians was Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, active as chapel master from 1629 to 1664. His wrote extended and complex works, including polychoral masses as well as villancicos (for the Christmas season). His music shows between others the evidence of New Spain's non-white population in tocotines (Nahua influence) and negrillos and porto ricos (African influence). The cathedral has extant choir books of his compositions. His villancicos "stand as one of the greatest contributions to American music history." Chapel del Espíritu Santo (Ochavo) This chapel is better known as del Ochavo, it has a semicircular vault and an 8-sided lantern, its interior is covered by 3 altarpieces that are covered with small paintings and mirrors belonging mostly to historical religious series. This chapel is in the Baroque style of the 17th century, it was a small oratory and deposit, today reduced to its minimum expression and disuse, the oil paintings alternate with framed and embroidered reliquaries, they are works by Cristóbal de Villalpando. It was built under the episcopal government of Manuel Fernández de Santa Cruz. Its factory is due to the renowned architect Carlos García Durango commissioned by a chapter session who approved the work in the year 1674. It was designed on an octagonal floor plan then called Ochavada enclosed in a box of almost 10 m per side with walls of 7.30 m high to the base of the dome which is covered with bricks and finished off with a lantern with Talavera decorations ending in an iron weathervane. Jewelry The cypress is decorated with 48 candlesticks or bouncers, silver with gold overlays, one meter high of exquisite workmanship, with their respective candles, and 8 silver bouncers with gold overlays, 4 beautiful burnished silver jugs with their bouquets silver cupella 1.80 m high are combined with the said bouncers and in the tabernacle four other equal jars with their bouquets although 1.20 m high, 25 oil lamps and 6 lamps hang from the vaults of the church, of which two stand out that hang on the sides of the tabernacle of more than 2 m high and 30 lights each. One of the beautiful lamps that hang from the largest dome, the second in size, is a masterpiece by the goldsmith Diego Larios, it was premiered on Corpus Christi in 1751, it is a work they call Mestiza because it is made of silver with gold overlays, he maintains 42 lights. It has other sets of candlesticks and lecterns, being one of exquisite workmanship, bronze candlesticks with their sets of pedestals, paxes, scepters, 6 rods for the pallium, salvillas, pitchforks, gold thuribles among other things. The monstrance that serves the day of Corpus and circular jubilee, is made of gold, almost a meter high with a multitude of diamonds and emeralds on each side, it was released on June 1, 1727. There is another gold one of about a meter high, it is made of gold of various shades and is mounted with pearls, emeralds, diamonds, topazes, amethysts and garnets, it was premiered in September 1803, the work of Antonio de Villafañe. Francisco Javier Clavijero in his Description of the City of Puebla de los Ángeles speaks of some of these pieces: Among the sacred vessels, two gold ones stand out, as well as a monstrance, made by José Inzunza. An elegant tenebrio of 5 and a half meters high in ebony wood richly adorned with silver, the work of José Mariano Castillo. Schedules In the cathedral basilica, five daily masses are celebrated from Monday to Saturday, while on Sundays there is a great deal of activity, with up to ten masses being celebrated. The schedules are subject to changes or variations depending on the patron saint festivities, Easter, Christmas, or depending on the saints. See also List of buildings in Puebla City Atrial cross Notes References External links Cathedral Interior Puebla Cathedral - Puebla, Mexico Puebla's Cathedral Roman Catholic churches in Puebla (city) Baroque church buildings in Puebla Herrerian architecture Roman Catholic cathedrals in Mexico Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of Puebla de los Angeles Historic centre of Puebla Spanish Colonial architecture in Mexico Roman Catholic churches completed in 1690 17th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Mexico
5336990	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery%20sound%20ranging	Artillery sound ranging	In land warfare, artillery sound ranging is a method of determining the coordinates of a hostile battery using data derived from the sound of its guns (or mortar or rockets) firing, so called target acquisition. The same methods can also be used to direct artillery fire at a position with known coordinates, so called fire control. It is an application of sound (or acoustic) location, which is location of the source of sounds that may originate in the air, on the ground or on or below the water's surface. Sound ranging was one of three methods of locating hostile artillery that rapidly developed in World War I. The others were aerial reconnaissance (visual and photographic) and flash spotting. A sound ranger used aural and stop-watch methods which first emerged before World War I. Stop-watch methods involved spotting a gun firing, measuring the bearing to it and the length of time it took the sound to arrive. Aural methods typically involved a person listening to a pair of microphones a few kilometres apart and measuring the time between the sound arriving at the microphones. This method appears to have been used by the Germans throughout that war, but was quickly discarded as ineffective by the western allies, who developed scientific methods of sound ranging whose descendants are still used. The basis of scientific sound ranging is to use a sensor post, consisting of at least a pair of microphones, to produce a bearing to the source of the sound. When using a number of sensor posts, the intersection of these bearings gives the location of the battery. The bearings are derived from the differences in the time of arrival at the microphones located in each of these sensor posts. Typically, the sensor posts have three microphones placed in a triangular shape, typical size around 10 meters, a distance needed to obtain optimal signal to noise ratio in the lower frequency range. Since 2018, a new approach is being developed, using socalled Acoustic Multi Mission Sensors, that contain both microphones and particle velocity sensors. As the particle velocity sensors have broad banded directionality, also for lower frequencies, the large (ground based) sensor post can be shrunk to the size of a "molehill". Background Basic equipment setup A scientific method of sound ranging system requires the following equipment. An array of 4 to 6 microphones extending several kilometres A system capable of measuring the sound wave arrival time differences between the microphones. A means of analyzing the time differences to compute the position of the sound source. The basic method is to use microphones in pairs and measure the difference in the time of arrival of a sound wave at each microphone in the pair (inner microphones are members of two pairs). From this a bearing to the origin of the sound can be found from the point midway between the two microphones. The intersection of at least three bearings will be the location of the sound source. Figure 1 illustrates the basic system. These constraints would be imposed to simplify the calculation of the artillery position and are not a characteristic of the general approach. The microphones also may be designed to pick up only the sound of the gun firing. There are three types of sounds that can be picked up by the microphone. the gun firing (the desired signal) the sound of the shell moving through the air the impact of the shell During World War I it was discovered that the gun firing makes a low rumbling sound that is best picked up with a microphone that is sensitive to low frequencies and rejects high frequencies. Example Figure 2 shows an example of an artillery location problem. Assume that we position three microphones with the following relative positions (all measurements made relative to Microphone 3). Distance from Microphone 1 to Microphone 3: meters Distance from Microphone 2 to Microphone 3: meters Angle between Microphone 1 and Microphone 2 measured from Microphone 3: 16.177o These values would be established during an initial survey of the microphone layout. Figure 2: Example of An Artillery Location Problem. Assume that two time delays are measured (assume speed of sound 330 meters per second). Microphone 1 to Microphone 2 time delay: 0.455 s 150 meters Microphone 1 to Microphone 3 time delay: 0.606 s 200 meters There are a number of ways to determine the range to the artillery piece. One way is to apply the law of cosines twice. (Microphone 3, Microphone 2, Gun) (Microphone 1, Microphone 3, Gun) This is a system of two equations with two unknowns (, ). This system of equations, while nonlinear, can be solved using numerical methods to give a solution for r1 of 1621 meters. While this approach would be usable today with computers, it would have been a problem in World War I and II. During these conflicts, the solutions were developed using one of the following methods. graphically using hyperbolas drawn on paper (for a nice discussion of this procedure, see this LORAN example). Assuming the artillery is far away and using the asymptotes of the hyperbolas, which are lines, to find an approximate location of the artillery. A curvature correction could then be applied to get a more accurate bearing. Approximate solutions can be generated using sets of metal disks whose radii differ by small increments. By selecting three discs that approximate the situation in question, an approximate solution can be generated. Advantages and disadvantages Sound ranging has a number of advantages over other methods: Sound ranging is a passive method, which means that there are no emissions traceable back to the sound ranging equipment. This is different from radar, which emits energy that can be traced back to the transmitter. Sound ranging equipment tends to be small. It does not require large antennae nor large amounts of power. Sound ranging also has a number of disadvantages: the speed of sound varies with temperature. Wind also introduces errors. There are means by which to compensate for these factors. at a distance, the sound of a gun is not a sharp crack but more of a rumble (this makes it difficult to accurately measure the exact arrival time of the wavefront at different sensors) guns cannot be located until they fire it can also be triggered by friendly artillery firing artillery is often fired in large numbers, which makes it difficult to determine which wavefront is associated with which artillery piece every microphone has to be placed and very accurately surveyed to find its coordinates, which takes time each microphone has to have a communication channel to the recording apparatus. Before effective radio links appeared this meant field cable, which had to be laid and maintained to repair breaks from many causes Military forces have found various ways to mitigate these problems, but nonetheless they do create additional work and reduce the accuracy of the method and the speed of its deployment. History World War I World War I saw the birth of scientific sound ranging. It brought together the necessary sensors, measurement technology, and analysis capabilities required to do effective sound ranging. Like many technology concepts, the idea of using sound to locate enemy artillery pieces came to a number of people at about the same time. The Russians claim to have used sound ranging before World War I. A German officer, Capt Leo Loewenstein, patented a method in 1913 The French developed the first operational equipment The Americans proposed a scheme early in World War I World War I provided the ideal environment for the development of sound ranging because: electrical processing of sound was becoming mature because of the development of telephone and recording technology the technology for recording sound was available (this facilitated making time difference measurements accurate to hundredths of a second) the need for counter battery artillery fire provided a strong technology driver While the British were not the first to attempt the sound ranging of artillery, it was the British during World War I who actually fielded the first effective operational system. British sound ranging during that war began with crews that used both sound and flash detection. The sound ranging operators used equipment that augmented human hearing. Using the gun flash, the flash crew would determine a bearing to the gun using a theodolite or transit. The sound detection crew would determine the difference in time between the gun flash and the sound of the gun, which was used to determine the range of the gun. This provided the range and bearing data needed for counter battery fire. These methods were not very successful. In mid-1915 the British assigned the Australian scientist and Nobel Laureate Sir William Lawrence Bragg to the problem. Bragg was a Territorial officer of the Royal Horse Artillery in the British Army. When Bragg came onto the scene, sound ranging was slow, unreliable, and inaccurate. His first task was to investigate what was available, in particular looking at French efforts. The French had made an important development. They had taken the string galvanometer and adapted it to record signals from microphones onto photographic film. This work had been done by Lucien Bull and Charles Nordmann (an astronomer at the Paris observatory). Processing the film took some minutes but this was not a significant drawback because artillery batteries did not move very frequently. However, the apparatus could not run continuously because of the expenditure of film. This meant that it had to be switched on when enemy guns fired, which necessitated the deployment of Advanced Posts (AP) in front of the microphones which could switch on the recording apparatus remotely via field cable. These Advanced Posts were connected back to a centrally located Flash Board, and this device enabled the observers to be sure they were all observing the same muzzle flash. When this had been established they could switch on the recording apparatus. Bragg also found out that the nature of gun sounds was not well understood and that care needed to be taken to separate the sonic boom of the shell from the actual sound of the firing. This problem was solved in mid-1916 when one of Bragg's detachment, Lance Corporal William Sansome Tucker, formerly of the Physics Department, London University, invented the low-frequency microphone. This separated the low frequency sound made by the firing of the gun from the sonic boom of the shell. It used a heated platinum wire that was cooled by the sound wave of a gun firing. Later in 1916 Tucker formed an experimental sound ranging section in UK and the following year techniques were developed to correct the sound data to compensate for meteorological conditions. Other matters were researched including the optimum layout and positioning of a 'sound ranging base' – the array of microphones. It was found that a shallow curve and relatively short length base was best. With these improvements, enemy artillery could be located accurately to within 25 to 50 meters under normal circumstances. The program was very well developed by the end of World War I. In fact, the method was expanded to determine the gun location, caliber, and the intended target. The British deployed many sound ranging sections on the Western Front and sections also operated in Italy, the Balkans and Palestine. When the US entered the war in 1917 they adopted the British equipment. The German aural method was used by the Central Powers. This used an early warning listening post (LP) and a main LP in the centre with two secondary LPs 500–1000 metres slightly to the rear on either side. Stop watches were switched on when the sound reached the main LP, the secondary LP times were converted to a distance (via speed of sound) and circles plotted, another circle was then derived that touched these two circles and the main LP, the centre of this circle was the source of the sound. Corrections were made for conditions affecting the speed of sound. However, late in the war Germany introduced 'objective devices' – directional galvanometers, oscillographs and modified seismographs, with results directly transferred onto paper or photographic film. Between the World Wars British research continued between the wars as it did in other nations. It appears that in Britain this led to better microphones and recording apparatus using heat sensitive paper instead of photographic film. Radio link was also developed, although this could only connect the microphones to the recording apparatus, it did not enable the APs to switch on the recorder. Another innovation in the late 1930s was development of the comparator, a mechanical computer that calculated first order differential equations. It provided a fast means of comparing the coordinates of the fall of shot located by sound ranging with the coordinates of the target and hence deduction of a correction to the fall of shot. World War II During World War II, sound ranging was a mature technology and widely used, particularly by the British (in corps level artillery survey regiments) and Germans (in Beobachtungsabteilungen). Development continued and better equipment was introduced, particularly for locating mortars. At the end of the war the British also introduced multiplexing, which enabled microphones to share a common field cable to the recording apparatus. In 1944 it was found that radar could be used to locate mortars, but not guns or rockets. Although the radar should 'see' the shells their elliptic trajectories could not be solved. The US Marines included sound ranging units as standard parts of their defense battalions. These sound ranging units were active in the Marines both before and during World War II. The US Army also used sound locators. US Army sound ranging units took part in nearly all battles in which the army participated after November 1942. By the end of the war there were 25 observation battalions with 13,000 men. During the Okinawa campaign, the US Army used its sound ranging sets to provide effective counter battery fire. The Japanese tried to counter this effective counter-battery fire with the tactic of "shoot and scoot," which means shooting a small number of rounds and leaving the firing position before the counter-battery fire could arrive. While an effective tactic against counter-battery fire, this approach tends to reduce the effectiveness of artillery fire. During World War II, the British made extensive use of sound ranging. There are a number of excellent memoirs that address their use of sound ranging for artillery spotting available on the web, including "The 4th Durham Survey Regiment: Sounds like the Enemy" and "Communications for Artillery Location". A "Communications for Artillery Location" article describes the electronic equipment involved with these operations. A very comprehensive account of British sound ranging units including their positions is Massimo Mangilli-Climpson's 2007 account. Korean War Sound ranging of artillery was done in Korea, but mainly was supplanted by counter-mortar radar and aircraft-based artillery observers. Since anti-radar countermeasures were limited at this time and the UN had air superiority throughout the war, these approaches were simpler and more accurate. Vietnam Most counter battery work in Vietnam was with artillery spotting done using radar or aircraft. Australia deployed a sound ranging detachment from 1967 to 1970 in Vietnam, which operated a cross-base to provide all-round observation. Also, during this period the British deployed ad hoc "Cracker" batteries, with sound ranging and mortar locating radars, to Borneo and Oman. In the early 1970s an effective VHF radio link was introduced that enabled the APs to switch-on the recording apparatus. Soon after, advances in electronics meant that the manual plotting of bearings and some other calculations were replaced by electronic calculators. Present day Although effective gun-locating radars finally supplemented the counter-mortar radars from the late 1970s onwards, sound ranging is undergoing a renaissance, because some armies have retained it in spite of its drawbacks. It appears that some also recognised its potential to operate as an automatic advanced post (AP) for the radars. The British led the way in a new approach, developed by Roke Manor Research Limited, then Plessey, which had developed VHF radio-link sound ranging. This replaced the traditional sound-ranging base with an array of microphone clusters. Each comprised three microphones a few metres apart, a meteorological sensor and processing. Each unmanned cluster listened continuously for sound, calculated the bearing to the source and recorded other characteristics. These were automatically sent to a control post where they were automatically collated and the location of the sound source calculated. Prototypes of the new system, HALO (Hostile Artillery LOcating) were used in Sarajevo in 1995. The production system, ASP (Advanced Sound Ranging Project), entered British service in about 2001. Reportedly, it located hostile artillery at 50 km distance in Iraq in 2003. The UK designed systems are now manufactured by Leonardo S.p.A., (and also formerly under the BAE and Selex names) It is now being adopted by several other armies, including the United States Marines A similar system has also been developed for Germany. The same principle underpins the RAZK artillery sound ranging complex, developed independently in Ukraine from the Russian AZK-7M/1B33M system. Since 2018 The technology has progressed, both on the hardware and signal processing sides and concept of operations. As mentioned in the short description at the beginning of this page, Acoustic Multi Mission Sensors found their inroads. They consist of two particle velocity sensors and a microphone. They have a small footprint and can therefore be installed on mobile platforms such as military vehicles. Usually these vehicles have enough space to host a hardwired subarray of four Acoustic Multi Mission Sensors, creating a sensor post dubbed the CASTLE. Hence, the sensor post has at least 12 acoustic transducers with relevant spatial distribution. These CASTLEs can be networked, using MANET radios. Signal processing wise, sound ranging is moving away from processing muzzle blast noise signals because of trends. One trend is longer-range artillery. Muzzle blast noise may attenuate down to a level no longer detectable at the sensor post, but even if it does, the speed of the sound being slow and modern artillery moving on after firing (shoot & scoot), obtaining a localization might be simply too late. Another trend is the increased prevalence of rockets that, having a self-propelled phase, hardly generate muzzle blast noise. The more relevant signal is the 3D shockwave that is generated by the shell as long as it travels at supersonic speed. As compared to the muzzle blast noise, the 3D shockwave signal has a higher initial sound level, attenuates only in two directions, and usually comes from the sky when arriving at the sensor post. Moreover, the target acquisition time is no longer governed by the speed of the sound, but by the speed of the round – in practice more or less a reduction of 50%. The concept of operation should be based upon deploying the sensor posts on in-fleet vehicles being present in battlespace. On one hand, this makes the concept very affordable, as there are no operational costs for a dedicated task like a sound ranging regiment used to have. On the other hand, each sensor post provides close proximity awareness to each of the vehicles hosting the sensor post. See also Flash spotting Counter-battery fire Gunfire locator References External links Acoustic Location and Sound Mirrors LA6NCA – GERMAN WWII GERETE PHOTOS – 3 – images of a German World War II Acoustic monitoring device Popular Science, January 1942, Sensitive Microphones Spot Hidden Guns sound ranging and flash detection photos. Artillery operation
5337301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Ten	Great Ten	The Great Ten (Shi Hao Xia) or (十豪侠) is a team of Chinese comic book superheroes in the DC Comics Universe, who are sponsored by the government of the People's Republic of China. Appearing in comics published by DC Comics, they were introduced in 52 #6 (June 2006), and were created by Grant Morrison, J. G. Jones, and Joe Bennett. Several of the characters have a basis in Chinese mythology. Unlike conventional superhero monikers, their names are close to literal translations from the Chinese language. Publication history Grant Morrison explained the background to his creation of the team, in a pitch that also contained the outline for the Super Young Team: The Great Ten returned in their own title, in 10-issue monthly mini-series, beginning in early November 2009 and produced by writer Tony Bedard and artist Scott McDaniel, with covers by Stanley Lau. Fictional team biography First appearing in 52 #6, the Great Ten's actions are hampered by bureaucracy. Three of the team's members were forced to sit out a battle with Green Lanterns Hal Jordan and John Stewart because they had not completed the required paperwork. Following the events in the Infinite Crisis story arc, as a signatory of the Freedom of Power, Treaty China has entered into a Coalition with Khandaq, Iran, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan, leading the Great Ten to join forces with Black Adam on the battlefield. Later, in week #32, the Accomplished Perfect Physician saves Ralph Dibny from his rampaging teammate Yeti, and gains his help subduing and restoring him to his human self. The Accomplished Perfect Physician then shares with Dibny details about his life and powers, his role as a "super-functionary", and some cryptic advice about a coming crisis in the Middle East. The Great Ten later battle Black Adam when he invades China as part of his vendetta after the death of Isis in World War III. This also involves confrontations with several American based superheroes, as the Chinese government was willing to go so far as to launch nuclear missiles if their territory was violated. This portion of the stand-off was ended when the Great Ten lost contact with Beijing, leaving August General in Iron with the authority to allow international help - against his own wishes. On the final page of Checkmate #3, the Checkmate ground team, on an infiltration mission in China, is discovered and cornered by The Immortal Man in Darkness. In Checkmate #4 the August General in Iron, Celestial Archer and Yao Fei the Accomplished Perfect Physician show up to support the Immortal Man in Darkness, after a brief skirmish both sides declare a truce. Later after Yao Fei prevents Count Vertigo (acting under secret orders from Amanda Waller) from stealing Chinese state secrets, the August General decides that Checkmate has betrayed the truce and orders their deaths, only the timely intervention of Green Lantern Alan Scott and the Chinese Ambassador saves the lives of Sasha's ground team. In Checkmate #13-15 and Outsiders #47-49, the Checkmate team and the Outsiders are on an infiltration mission to Oolong Island. In Outsiders #48, they are attacked by The Immortal Man in Darkness and Chang Tzu has re-appeared, ready to experiment on the captured Sasha Bordeaux of Checkmate and Captain Boomerang, in the presence of August General in Iron. Issue #1 details the Accomplished Perfect Physician's origin, and introduces eight deities from Chinese mythology led by the Jade Emperor. The pantheon includes Yu Huang the Jade Emperor and King of the Gods, Lei Kung the God of Thunder, Feng Po the God of Winds, Kuan Ti the God of War, Lei Zi the Goddess of Lightning and wife of Lei Kung, Chu Jiang a minor God of the Dead who rules the second level of Diyu, Gong Gong the God of Floods, and Chu Jung the God of Fire and father of Gong Gong. Issue #2 details the Celestial Archer's origin, has the Old Chinese Gods have returned for vengeance. With the citizens of Lhasa caught in the middle, the Old Gods battle against the Great Ten, but the super functionaries are no match for the angry, ancient gods, not when one member – the Celestial Archer – chooses to turn against his team and fight alongside the gods. Issue #3 details Thundermind's origin, he appears in times of need to defend China against evil and injustice. But when Thundermind joins the Great Ten in their battle against the Old Chinese Gods, he learns the startling secret that the Old Chinese Gods have been hiding – a secret so massive it could destroy all of China. Issue #4 details the Immortal Man-in-Darkness' origin, while he battles Feng Po in Shanghai. Immortal Man-in-Darkness finally defeats Feng Po, and the Great Ten discover Feng Po is using Durlan technology and that the Old Chinese Gods are false. Issue #5 details the August General in Iron's origin, explaining the classified Qinghai incident, fifteen years ago. In the Kunlun Mountains, the Old Chinese Gods plan to invade Hong Kong. Celestial Archer realizes that the Old Chinese Gods are not the actual gods and sends a message to the Great Ten from their headquarters. Issue #6 details the Ghost Fox Killer's origin and early history as a deadly crime fighter in Hong Kong, introducing an informant she uses to gather information about the Chinese triads in China. It also introduces links between the Old Chinese Gods, Taiwanese triads and the Taiwanese government; resulting in escalation of conflict between the mainland and Taiwan, and an attack by Chu Jiang on the Hong Kong waterfront. Issue #7 details the Seven Deadly Brothers's origin, as he and Accomplished Perfect Physician battle the gangster fight in Hong Kong while trying to apprehend Taiwanese government official, Ma Saihung. This issue also introduces a fight between the remaining Old Gods and Great Ten members August General, Ghost Fox Killer, and Shaolin Robot following the death of Chu Jiang. Issue #8 details the Shaolin Robot's origin, continues the fight that was introduced at the end of the previous issue, concluding with the Jade Emperor's beheading by Shaolin Robot, Great Ten Directorate. The issue concludes with the telepathic interrogation of Taiwanese government leading to the discovery of the robot factory in the Gobi desert. Issue #9 details the Mother of Champions' origin, and wraps up the series from the viewpoint of one of her latest children, sired by Socialist Red Guardsman. Socialist Red Guardsman's origins are only hinted at throughout the series, but it is established that he was the first Super-functionary and he felt betrayed by his country. The Great Ten unite at the end, and team with the remaining "false gods" to destroy the robot army created by a rogue Taiwanese general. In the Watchmen sequel Doomsday Clock, China takes advantage of "The Superman Theory" by having the Great Ten expanded into the Great Twenty. Besides Accomplished Perfect Physician, August General-in-Iron, Celestial Archer, Ghost Fox Killer, Immortal Man-in-Darkness, Mother of Champions, Seven Deadly Brothers, Shoalin Robot, Socialist Red Guardsman, and Thundermind, it is mentioned that the other members include China's versions of Super-Man, Bat-Man, Flash, and Wonder-Woman, Gloss, Dao, Guanxi, Night-Dragon, Ri, and Striker-Z. Membership This team of "super-functionaries" (the communist Chinese ethos rejects the word 'heroes' for a humbler one) is based in China's Great Wall complex. This massive complex houses the team's command and support technicians as well as facilities for the creation of more Chinese superhumans. The bureaucracy must approve every action the Great Ten take during combat. Accomplished Perfect Physician Accomplished Perfect Physician or 達医者完 (Dá Yī Zhĕ Wán), Yao Fei was born a peasant in the Anhui Province. Yao had dreams of becoming a doctor but lacked the money for medical school. He enlisted in the army instead. When his unit was sent to suppress an uprising in Gyantse, Tibet, Yao killed a monk named Tenzin Cering. Horrified at what he'd done, he deserted his unit and was shot by his commanding officer. He was saved by a local medicine man who told Yao that his son, Tenzin, was supposed to be the seventeenth man to hold the position of the "Accomplished Perfect Physician"; since Tenzin was now dead, Yao was forced to take his place by Tenzin's father. Tenzin tossed Yao through a magical portal, wherein he was filled with the memories and powers of the past Physicians. As the new Accomplished Perfect Physician, Yao was branded an outlaw and an enemy of the state for many years before he willingly joined the Great Ten. With simple vocal sounds, the Accomplished Perfect Physician can produce a variety of magical effects, such as physical or mental paralysis, force fields, the redirection of energies, healing, destruction of matter, and earthquakes. The diplomat of the team, the Physician appears to be a collected individual with well-developed people skills. He does not get along well with his team leader, August General in Iron, who sees Yao only as an irreverent deserter. August General in Iron The August General in Iron or 钢铁圣将 (Gāng Tiě Shèng Jiāng) is Fang Zhifu formerly a member of a "Xeno-Team", an elite Chinese spec ops unit trained for encounters with aliens. 15 years ago, his unit was sent to investigate a Durlan ship that crashed in Qinghai province. The Durlans wiped out his unit with a flesh-melting pathogen weapon. Fang barely survived by injecting himself with a counter-agent that slowed the degeneration. Chinese scientists subjected him to special treatments which saved his life, but also endowed him with superhuman strength and caused his skin to grow iron-like plates. He was then recruited into China's new metahuman division. He wields a staff that can easily slice through metal. August General in Iron is the field leader of the Great Ten and while he commands the Great Ten, he must still run all command decisions in the field by the Central Committee. He also serves as the Black King's Bishop in Checkmate. He met Ghost Fox Killer in Hong Kong. For some reason, he was immune to her deathly touch, and the two became lovers instead. As a fanatical soldier, he despises the Accomplished Perfect Physician for his irreverent attitude and for deserting the army. Fang Zhifu habitually quotes from Sun Tzu's The Art of War. In The New 52 (a reboot in DC Comics), August General in Iron is invited to join the new Justice League International, with the United Nations council that assembled the group noting that he was selected because he represents "the world's most populous nation". His comments about the superiority of Chinese engineering quickly draw the ire of Rocket Red. Celestial Archer The Celestial Archer or 天体射手 (Tiān Tĭ Shè Shŏu) is a figure with ties to Chinese mythology. As a teenager, Xu Tao sold souvenirs at the foot of Mount Tai. After his father's business was shut down by corrupt police, he joined a gang to support his family. He was not a good thief, however, and a botched robbery landed his fellow gang members in jail. When they were released, they sought his death. They chased him to an old temple below Mount Tai. While hiding behind a tree, Tao was swallowed up by the earth, and found himself in a cavern where he found the Celestial Bow of Yi. The magical bow begged Tao to take it as his own, as it was dying after four thousand years of disuse. When Tao picked it up, he was transformed into the Celestial Archer and granted Yi the Archer's godlike archery skills. After chasing away his former gang, he instinctively fired an arrow at the moon, creating a magical bridge that took him to the home of the Chinese gods. The gods tasked him to serve as their agent on Earth, to inspire the Chinese and remind them of the old gods, whose worship was suppressed by the Communist government. The Celestial Archer has unerring aim capable of shooting arrows charged with a mysterious energy, or that can turn day into night. Xu is an irreverent character, disrespectful of August General's authority. He considers his role in the Great Ten as secondary to his divine mission, something which landed him in trouble when he foolishly defected to a team of metahumans posing as Chinese deities. Ghost Fox Killer The Ghost Fox Killer or 鬼狐杀手 (Guǐ Hú Shā Shǒu) is a female emissary from the hidden colony of "Ghost Fox Women". She is charged with killing evil men, and has power over the ghosts of those men. Apparently her home city is powered by the souls of evil men, and her touch causes instant death. She is typically accompanied by a rui shi (or Imperial guardian lion) of living jade. If Ghost Fox Killer does not kill off evil men for her colony, her society will fall. She encounters August General in Iron early in her career, and is stunned to discover that she can touch his body without killing him. She has demonstrated undefined feelings of loyalty towards him. Immortal Man-in-Darkness Fifteen years ago, a Durlan ship crashed in China's Qinghai province. The Chinese reverse-engineered the craft and used the technology to build the Dragonwing, the most advanced fighter plane in the world. The pilot sits in a cockpit filled with a sort of amniotic fluid, bonding himself to the craft. This type of bond gradually breaks down a human's molecular structure; each flight takes a year off the pilot's life. The Dragonwing has been flown by a succession of PLAAF pilots, all of whom knowingly sacrificed themselves to serve China as the Immortal Man-In-Darkness or 黑暗中的不朽者 (Hēi Àn Zhōng De Bù Xiǔ Zhě). The current pilot is Chen Nuo. He operates from but makes his home in Shanghai. The Dragonwing is a powerful shapeshifting aircraft. It can take the form of diffuse smoke and handle hurricane-force winds. Mother of Champions Wu Mei-Xing, the Mother of Champions or 冠軍母亲 (Guàn Jūn Mǔ Qīn) was a theoretical physicist, working on a particle accelerator when she was briefly exposed to a theoretical "god particle", which mutated her system by triggering her metagene. At first she was unable to bear children, but eventually discovered her super-fecundity powers by accident. She no longer needs to eat, and has to remind herself to breathe, and she is immune to radiation poisoning from ionizing radiation. She can now birth a litter of twenty-five genetically identical supersoldiers about every three days. These children are short-lived, however, only lasting one week, aging ten years every twenty four hours. She has at times used a metallic chair with insect-like legs to remain mobile during her pregnant state. She later pretended that the alias "Niang Guan Jun" was her real name. One of her superstrong children named Number Four appeared in The OMAC Project: Infinite Crisis Special #1. In Nightwing #144, Mother of Champions is kidnapped from the Great Wall Complex by operatives of Talia al Ghul; in this same issue it is revealed that she has had thousands of children, and that each batch of superhuman children are conceived by suitors whom she hand picks. Her children appear to demonstrate fairly standard superhuman abilities, save for when she has the children of fellow Great Ten members. She has had children with Seven Deadly Brothers, Accomplished Perfect Physician, at least one Immortal Man-in-Darkness, and most recently with Socialist Red Guardsman. Seven Deadly Brothers Yang Kei-Ying, known as the Seven Deadly Brothers or 致命七兄弟 (Zhì Mìng Qī Xiōng Dì), was born in poverty in Fujian province over 300 years ago. He was a soldier in service to the Yongzheng Emperor in 1723, and took part in the destruction of the Shaolin Temple. One of the temple's kung fu grandmasters, Bak Mei, defected to the Emperor and helped destroy the second temple. Yang was impressed with Bak Mei's skill and wanted to learn kung fu himself, but Bak Mei laughed at him and thought him unpromising. He deserted the army and headed to the school of the Seven Scribes of the Cloudy Satchel, seven taoist sorcerers in the mountains near Song Shan. Yang begged to become a pupil and fed the sorcerers all manner of excuses and lies, but the sorcerers saw through him and placed a curse on him as punishment for his evil actions. They placed in his mind complete knowledge of all seven schools of kung-fu and a lust for violence, and sent him back to slaughter Bak Mei and the soldiers who had destroyed the Shaolin temples. Centuries later, he was incorporated into the Great Ten and fabricated his origin, claiming that he received his powers from an old mystic whom he saved from a beating. When entering battle, Yang splits into seven identical clones, each a grandmaster of one of the seven schools of kung-fu. Shaolin Robot When the First Emperor of China commissioned the construction of his tomb, a brilliant engineer by the name of Lao Yuqi built a hundred clockwork automatons to serve as tomb guards. The vain and jealous emperor ordered that Lao be entombed with him upon his death so that his genius would never serve another patron. Before dying of thirst, Lao reprogrammed one of the automatons with his own insights, values and priorities and gave it a semblance of free will. Thousands of years later, when the tomb was uncovered by archaeologists, the automatons went on a rampage in an attempt to topple the Communist government and restore imperial rule. These automatons were defeated by the Super Functionaries. Only Lao's reprogrammed automaton remained inactive back at the tomb. The Chinese government reactivated it and upgraded it with Durlan technology. Shaolin Robot speaks in simple I Ching hexagrams, but can express more complex thoughts using written pinyin. It was seen using hexagrams from I Ching to speak. In 52 #50, Shaolin Robot 'speaks' three times. Springing forward to attack Black Adam, it speaks , Hexagram 38, which is 睽 (kui2), and represents opposition or contradiction. In the next frame, while actively attacking Black Adam, it speaks , Hexagram 6, 訟 (song4), which represents contention or arguing. Finally, as Black Adam destroys Shaolin Robot, it speaks , Hexagram 23, 剝 (bol), which represents deterioration or 'splitting apart'. Later while battling the Shield, it speaks , Hexagram 18 which is '蠱' (correction), , Hexagram 39 which is '蹇' (obstruction), , Hexagram 25 which is '無妄' (pestilence), and finally , Hexagram 1, which is '乾' (force). Socialist Red Guardsman Real name Gu Lao, is one of the oldest Chinese heroes. He used his solar powers to carry out the Cultural Revolution. His body is highly radioactive, so he is forced to wear special armor reverse engineered from Durlan technology. He has since become bitter and disillusioned as China abandons Mao Zedong's vision and embraces market economics. He lives like a hermit in an isolated stretch of the Gobi Desert due to the possible threat of a nuclear meltdown. Mother of Champions is immune to his radiation, and was the first person to touch him in over fifteen years. Thundermind Thundermind or 雷念 (Léi Niàn) is Zou Kang, a history teacher at Beijing No. 8 Middle School who, on a tour of the Beijing Museum, accidentally recites aloud a sanskrit "trigger phrase" from an ancient Buddhist artifact. Afterwards, he transforms into Thundermind whenever he recites his trigger phrase and unlocks what he calls his full human potential, becoming a Bodhisattva with the power to access metahuman analogues of the powers listed in the Buddhist siddhis. He saves a fellow teacher named Miss Wu, who happens to be in love with his alter ego Thundermind. He also has super-senses akin to telepathy, and fancies himself the team's conscience. He is the most loved of the Great Ten, especially in his hometown of Beijing. Reserve members Chang Tzu As revealed to Alan Scott by Thundermind, Chang Tzu and his Science Squad are members of the Great Ten that provide, among other things, the funds to operate the organization and the technology they use. Number Four Number Four was one of Mother of Champions' superstrong and tough children. Number Four was sent into Saudi Arabia to retrieve the fallen OMAC satellite, he demonstrated superhuman strength, invulnerability and heightened reflexes, Number Four is a reference to the 14th Century Chinese myth of the Ten Brothers, the fourth having super strength. Shen Li Po Shen Li Po was formerly the Black King's Bishop in Checkmate. Shen Li Po later returned to the Great Wall Complex on a leave of absence and was replaced by the August General In Iron. The Yeti Real name Hu Wei. The Yeti is a scientist who unlocked an atavistic trigger gene that transforms men into monsters. This discovery enabled him to transform into a powerful white furred yeti-like monster plagued with an uncontrollable rage. While in his Yeti form, Hu Wei must wear a special electronic amulet around his neck that keeps him from going berserk. He was killed in 52 #50 by Black Adam. Other versions Anti-Matter Universe There is an evil counterpart to the Great Ten in the Anti-Matter Universe, known as "The Most Unworthy Ten". Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, August General in Iron is a member of the H.I.V.E. council. He voted for innocent civilians to live in Western European between Aquaman and Wonder Woman before using nuclear weapons to end the war. In other media Television Yao Fei appears in the TV series Arrow portrayed by Byron Mann. This version, named Yao Fei Gulong, is a Chinese Army deserter with unspecified medical training. Yao Fei is the father of Shado (and the reason Yao Fei is later allied with Edward Fyers and Billy Wintergreen), and he acts as Oliver Queen's mentor on the island he is shipwrecked on, Lian Yu. He also resembles the Celestial Archer as this version of Yao Fei is extremely proficient with a bow and arrow, but a skilled martial artist as well, proficient enough to combat Wintergreen. He is killed by Fyers in "Darkness on the Edge of Town". His full name is revealed only in the fifth-season episode "Second Chances" and he was also one of Talia al Ghul's disciples when he became an archer. He appears as a hallucination to Oliver in "Missing", during his captivity on the island by Konstantin Kovar, telling him that despite losing loved ones and all troubles what he encountered in five years, to not give up and that Oliver can rise up against all kinds of danger. He returns in season eight episode "Purgatory" when energy build-up on the island restored him, along with Fyers and his group. He helps Oliver and his team to fight against Fyers. After Lyla Michaels activates the weapon that is tied to her DNA, the energies are absorbed causing Yao Fei, Fyers and others who died earlier to disappear. The Great Ten are among the many superhero and supervillain teams whose names can be read on the wall during a musical number in Batman: The Brave and the Bolds musical episode, "Mayhem of the Music Meister". Miscellaneous A version of the Great Ten appears in issue #8 of the Batman: The Brave and the Bold comics. They help Batman fight an army of Yetis. References External links Cosmic Teams: The Great Ten DC's The Great Ten Preview Gallery, Newsarama Straight (and Not) Out of the Comics, New York Times, May 28, 2006 Characters created by Grant Morrison Comics characters introduced in 2006 DC Comics superhero teams Chinese superheroes Fictional archers Fictional dectets
5337621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese%20orthography	Portuguese orthography	Portuguese orthography is based on the Latin alphabet and makes use of the acute accent, the circumflex accent, the grave accent, the tilde, and the cedilla to denote stress, vowel height, nasalization, and other sound changes. The diaeresis was abolished by the last Orthography Agreement. Accented letters and digraphs are not counted as separate characters for collation purposes. The spelling of Portuguese is largely phonemic, but some phonemes can be spelled in more than one way. In ambiguous cases, the correct spelling is determined through a combination of etymology with morphology and tradition; so there is not a perfect one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters or digraphs. Knowing the main inflectional paradigms of Portuguese and being acquainted with the orthography of other Western European languages can be helpful. A full list of sounds, diphthongs, and their main spellings is given at Portuguese phonology. This article addresses the less trivial details of the spelling of Portuguese as well as other issues of orthography, such as accentuation. Letter names and pronunciations Only the most frequent sounds appear below since a listing of all cases and exceptions would become cumbersome. Portuguese is a pluricentric language, and pronunciation of some of the letters differs. Apart from those variations, the pronunciation of most consonants is fairly straightforward. Only the consonants r, s, x, z, the digraphs ch, lh, nh, rr, and the vowels may require special attention from English speakers. Although many letters have more than one pronunciation, their phonetic value is often predictable from their position within a word; that is normally the case for the consonants (except x). Since only five letters are available to write the fourteen vowel sounds of Portuguese, vowels have a more complex orthography, but even then, pronunciation is somewhat predictable. Knowing the main inflectional paradigms of Portuguese can help. In the following table and in the remainder of this article, the phrase "at the end of a syllable" can be understood as "before a consonant, or at the end of a word". For the letter r, "at the start of a syllable (not between vowels)" means "at the beginning of a word or after l, n, s, or a prefix ending in a consonant". For letters with more than one common pronunciation, their most common phonetic values are given on the left side of the semicolon; sounds after it occur only in a limited number of positions within a word. Sounds separated by "~" are allophones or dialectal variants. The names of the letters are masculine. {\| class="wikitable" ! rowspan=2 \| Letter ! colspan=2 \| European ! colspan=2 \| Brazilian ! rowspan=2 \| Phonemic values ! rowspan="2" \|Example ! rowspan="2" \|Example (IPA) \|- ! Name ! Name (IPA) ! Name ! Name (IPA) \|- \| align=center\| Aa \|\| á \|\| \|\| á \|\| \|\| , \|cara \|[ˈkaɾɐ] \|- \| align=center\| Bb \|\| bê \|\| \|\| bê \|\| \|\| or \|bato\|[ˈbatu(~ʊ)] \|- \| align=center\| Cc \|\| cê \|\| \|\| cê \|\| \|\| ; \|conciso \|[kõˈsi.zu(~ʊ)] \|- \| align=center\| Dd \|\| dê \|\| \|\| dê \|\| \|\| ~ or \|dádiva \|[ˈdaðivɐ/ˈdad(ʒ)ivɐ] \|- \| align=center\| Ee \|\| é \|\| \|\| é or ê \|\| , \|\| , , , , , \|rente \|[ˈʀẽntə/ˈʁẽt(ʃ)i] \|- \| align=center\| Ff \|\| efe \|\| \|\| efe \|\| \|\| \|fala \|[ˈfa(~ɑ)lɐ] \|- \| align=center\| Gg \|\| gê or guê \|\| , \|\| gê or guê \|\| , \|\| or ; \|ɡiɡante \|[ʒiˈɣɐ̃ntə/ʒiˈɡɐ̃t(ʃ)i] \|- \| align=center\| Hh \|\| agá \|\| \|\| agá \|\| \|\| natively silent, in loanwords \|homem \|[ˈɔmɐ̃j/ˈõmẽj~ˈomẽ(ɲ)] \|- \| align=center\| Ii \|\| i \|\| \|\| i \|\| \|\| \|idade \|[iˈðaðə/iˈdad(ʒ)i] \|- \| align=center\| Jj \|\| jota \|\| \|\| jota \|\| \|\| \|janta \|[ˈʒɐ̃(n)tɐ] \|- \| align=center\|Kk \|cápa\|/ˈkapɐ/ \|cá\|/ˈka/ \|/k/ \|kiwi \|[kiːwi] \|- \| align=center\| Ll \|\| ele \|\| \|\| ele \|\| \|\| ~ \|lamaçal \|[lɐmɐˈsa(~ɑ)ɫ/lamaˈsaw] \|- \| align=center\| Mm \|\| eme \|\| \|\| eme \|\| \|\| \|mala \|[ˈma(~ɑ)lɐ] \|- \| align=center\| Nn \|\| ene \|\| \|\| ene \|\| \|\| \|ninho \|[ˈniɲʊ], [ˈnĩj̃u] \|- \| align=center\| Oo \|\| ó \|\| \|\| ó or ô \|\| , \|\| , , \|óculos \|[ˈɔkulu(~ʊ)s(/ʃ)] \|- \| align=center\| Pp \|\| pê \|\| \|\| pê \|\| \|\| \|pato \|[ˈpatu(~ʊ)] \|- \| align=center\| Qq \|\| quê \|\| \|\| quê \|\| \|\| \|quente \|[ˈkẽntə/ˈkẽt͡ʃi] \|- \| align=center\| Rr \|\| erre or rê \|\| , \|\| erre \|\| \|\| , , , ~ /h/, /ɽ/ \|raro \|[ˈʁ/ʀ/raɾu], [ˈhaɾu(~ʊ)] \|- \| align=center\| Ss \|\| esse \|\| \|\| esse \|\| \|\| , , ~ \|siso \|[ˈsizu(~ʊ)] \|- \| align=center\| Tt \|\| tê \|\| \|\| tê \|\| \|\| ~ or \|tente \|[ˈtẽntə/ˈtẽt͡ʃi] \|- \| align=center\| Uu \|\| u \|\| \|\| u \|\| \|\| \|urubu \|[uɾuˈbu] ([uɾuˈβu]) \|- \| align=center\| Vv \|\| vê \|\| \|\| vê \|\| \|\| or \|vaca \|[ˈvakɐ] ([ˈbakɐ]) \|- \| align=center\|Ww \|dâblio or duplo vê\|/ˈdɐbliu/, /ˈdupluˌve/ \|dáblio\|/ˈdabliu/ \|/u/, /v/ or /w/ \|watt \|[ˈwaːt] \|- \| align=center\| Xx \|\| xis \|\| \|\| xis \|\| \|\| , , , , \|xale \|[ˈʃa(~ɑ)lə/ˈʃali] \|- \| align=center\|Yy \|ípsilon or i grego\|/ˈipsɨlɔn/, /ˌi ˈgrɛgu/ \|ípsilon\|/ˈipsilõ/ \|/i/ or /j/ \|yeti \|[jɛtiː] \|- \| align=center\| Zz \|\| zê \|\| \|\| zê \|\| \|\| , , ~ \|zunir \|[zuˈniɾ̥(ə)/zũ.ˈ(n)iɾ~∅] \|} Notes The letters b, d, g can denote , , and in intervocalic positions, especially in northern and central Portugal. In Mozambique an intervocalic /d/ can be realized as [d.ð] or [dː], mostly before a final e-caduc or reduced /o/. In other intervocalic schemes can be realized also as [ð] of European variety. /k/ can be realized in Mozambique as [kʰ], mostly before a final e-caduc or reduced /o/. Before the letters e or i. Allophonically affricated before the sound (spelled i, or sometimes e), in BP. May become an approximant as a form of vowel reduction when unstressed before or after another vowel. Words such as bóia and proa are pronounced and . The letters f, j, l, m, n, r and s are sometimes named differently in the northwest region of Brazil: fê, ji, lê, mê, nê, rê, sê. Silent at the start or at the end of a word. Also part of the digraphs ch, lh, nh. See below. The letters K (called capa /ˈkapɐ/ in EP or cá /ka/ in BP), W (EP: dâblio /ˈdɐbliu/ or duplo vê /ˈduplu ˌve/, BP: dáblio /ˈdabliu/), and Y (EP: ípsilon /ˈipsɨlɔn/ or i grego /ˌi ˈgrɛgu/, BP: ípsilon /ˈipsilõ/) were not part of the official alphabet before 2009. Used only in foreign words, personal names, and hybrid words derived from them. The letters K, W and Y will be included in the alphabet used in East Timor, Macau, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe, when the 1990 Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement comes into legal effect. In Brazil, the Orthographic Agreement went into legal effect from January 1, 2009; in Portugal, from May 13, 2009; in Cabo Verde, from October 1, 2009. However, those letters were used before 1911 (see the article on spelling reform in Portugal). Velarized to in EP and conservative registers of southern BP. Vocalized to , , or seldom (as influence from Spanish or Japanese), at the end of syllables in most of Brazil. Usually silent or voiceless at the end of syllables (word-final n is fully pronounced by some speakers in a few loaned words). See Nasalization section, below. At the start of syllables (not between vowels) in most of the dialects or at the end of syllables (in some dialects of BP), a single graphical r is pronounced or ~~ (see Portuguese phonology for variants of this sound). However, in the dialect of São Paulo it can be realized as /ɽ/ even in consonant clusters, such as [bɽ], [dɽ], [fɽ], [gɽ], [kɽ], [pɽ], [tɽ], or after /j/. After /l/ can be assimiled and realized as [ɽ.r], e.g. melro [mˈɛɽ.rʊ]. In European dialects word-initial or preceded by /n/, /l/, /s/ ([ʒ]) or nasalisation can be pronounced as very intense /ʁ/, /ʀ/, or /r/ (latter — as in Galician). Elsewhere, it is pronounced as and its variants. Word-final rhotics may also be silent when the last syllable is stressed, in casual and vernacular speech, especially in Brazil (pervasive nationwide, though not in educated and some colloquial registers) and in some African and Asian countries. In European variety a word-initial /r/ can be realised as [r̝] after /s/. Word(or coda)-final European variants of /ɾ/ include [ɾ̥], [r̝], [r̻], and [ɻ̊]. Sometimes a non-phonematic [ə] is added after a final /ɾ/. A single s is pronounced voiced between vowels. The opposition between the four sibilants , , , is neutralized at the end of syllables; see below for more information. Letter t, surrounded by nasal vowels (realized always as nasal vowel + before it), , , , , , , and stops, can be read as allophonic in some Mozambican varieties. Mostly before final reduced vowels can be realized there also as [tʰ]. The same pattern of aspiration for /t/ occurs in East Timorese Portuguese. Northern Portuguese dialects share with Galician and other, more distantly related, North Iberian languages (Astur-Leonese, including Mirandese, Castilian, Aragonese, Catalan and, to some extent, Basque) one common feature — merger of /b/ and /v/ into /β~b/. The letter x may represent , , , , or (peixe, fixar, exemplo, próximo, hexágono). It is always pronounced at the beginning of words. Digraphs Portuguese uses digraphs, pairs of letters which represent a single sound different from the sum of their components. Digraphs are not included in the alphabet. {\| class="wikitable" style="font-size:120%" ! style="font-size:80%" \| Grapheme ! style="font-size:80%" \| Pronunciation \|- align=center \| ch \|\| // \|- align=center \| lh \|\| //, /lʲ/, /lj/ \|- align=center \| nh \|\| //, // \|- align=center \| rr \|\| // \|- align=center \| ss \|\| // \|- align=center \| qu \|\| //; // \|- align=center \| gu \|\| //; //; /ɡu/ \|} The digraphs qu and gu, before e and i, may represent both plain or labialised sounds (quebra , cinquenta , guerra , sagui ), but they are always labialised before a and o (quase, quociente, guaraná). The trema used to be employed to explicitly indicate labialized sounds before e and i (quebra vs. cinqüenta), but since its elimination, such words have to be memorised. Pronunciation divergences mean some of these words may be spelled differently (quatorze / catorze and quotidiano / cotidiano). The digraph ch is pronounced as an English sh by the overwhelming majority of speakers. The digraphs lh and nh, of Occitan origin, denote palatal consonants that do not exist in English. The digraphs rr and ss are used only between vowels. The pronunciation of the digraph rr varies with dialect (see the note on the phoneme , above). Diacritics Portuguese makes use of five diacritics: the cedilla (ç), acute accent (á, é, í, ó, ú), circumflex accent (â, ê, ô), tilde (ã, õ), and grave accent (à, rarely ò, formerly also è, ì, and ù). Formerly the diaeresis was also used (ï, ü). {\| class="wikitable" style="font-size:120%" ! style="font-size:80%" \| Grapheme ! style="font-size:80%" \| Pronunciation \|- align=center \| á \| \|- align=center \| â \| () \|- align=center \| ã \| \|- align=center \| à \| \|- align=center \| ç \| \|- align=center \| é \| \|- align=center \| ê \| (, ) \|- align=center \| í \| () \|- align=center \| ó \| \|- align=center \| ô \| () \|- align=center \| õ \| \|- align=center \| ú \| () \|- align=center \|} The cedilla indicates that ç is pronounced (from a historic palatalization). By convention, s is written instead of etymological ç at the beginning of words, as in "São", the hypocoristic form of the female name "Conceição". The acute accent and the circumflex accent indicate that a vowel is stressed and the quality of the accented vowel and, more precisely, its height: á, é, and ó are low vowels (except in nasal vowels); â, ê, and ô are high vowels. They also distinguish a few homographs: por "by" with pôr "to put", pode "[he/she/it] can" with pôde "[he/she/it] could". The tilde marks nasal vowels before glides such as in cãibra and nação, at the end of words, before final -s, and in some compounds: romãzeira "pomegranate tree", from romã "pomegranate", and vãmente "vainly", from vã "vain". It usually coincides with the stressed vowel unless there is an acute or circumflex accent elsewhere in the word or if the word is compound: órgão "organ", irmã + -zinha ("sister" + diminutive suffix) = irmãzinha "little sister". The form õ is used only in the plurals of nouns ending in -ão (nação → nações) and in the second person singular and third person forms of the verb pôr in the present tense (pões, põe, põem). The grave accent marks the contraction of two consecutive vowels in adjacent words (crasis), normally the preposition a and an article or a demonstrative pronoun: a + aquela = àquela "at that", a + a = à "at the". It can also be used when indicating time: "às 4 horas" = "at 4 o'clock". It does not indicate stress. Sometimes à and ò are used in other contraction forms, e.g.: cò(s) and cà(s) (from the comparative conjunction ‘than’ and definite articles o and a). (Although, these examples are rare and tend to be called unstandard or dialectal, as well as co(s) and coa/ca(s) from ‘with’ + definite articles). Other examples of its use are: prà, pràs (from para+a/as) and prò, pròs (from para+o/os). According to the orthographic rules of 1990 (adopted only in Portugal, Brazil, and Cabo Verde in 2009), these forms should be spelled without the grave accent. Some grammatists also used to denote unstressed [ɛ] and [ɔ] as è and ò respectively. This accentuation is not provided by the current orthographical standards. Until the spelling reforms of 1971 (Brazil) and 1973 (Portugal), the grave accent was also used to denote accents in words with so-called irregular stress after some changes. E.g., in adverbs formed with -mente affix, as well as in some other cases of indication of slightly accented or yet unaccented vowels (mostly because of affixal word formation), all of the vowels can take the grave accent mark, e.g.: provàvelmente, genèricamente, analìticamente, pròpriamente, ùnicamente. The main pattern is to change the acute accent mark, if it graphically exists in any part of the word before the affixation to the grave one, e.g.: in penultimate syllable: notável › notàvelmente; in ultimate syllable: jacaré › jacarèzinho, and so on. The circumflex accent mark did not change: simultâneo/a › simultâneamente. The graphemes â, ê, ô and é typically represent oral vowels, but before m or n followed by another consonant (or word final -m in the case of ê and é), the vowels represented are nasal. Elsewhere, nasal vowels are indicated with a tilde (ã, õ). The letters with diaeresis are nowadays practically in disuse. Until 2009 they were still used in Brazilian Portuguese in the combinations güe/qüe and güi/qüi (European Portuguese in this case used the grave accent between 1911 and 1945, then abolished). In old orthography they were also used as in English, French and Dutch to separate diphthongs (e.g.: Raïnha, Luïsa, saüde and so on). The other way to separate diphthongs and non-hiatic vowel combinations is to use acute (as in modern saúde) or circumflex (as in old-style Corôa). Stress Below are the general rules for the use of the acute accent and the circumflex in Portuguese. Primary stress may fall on any of the three final syllables of a word. A word is called oxytone if it is stressed on its last syllable, paroxytone if stress falls on the syllable before the last (the penult), and proparoxytone if stress falls on the third syllable from the end (the antepenult). Most multisyllabic words are stressed on the penult. All words stressed on the antepenult take an accent mark. Words with two or more syllables, stressed on their last syllable, are not accented if they have any ending other than -a(s), -e(s), -o(s), -am, -em, -ens; except to indicate hiatus as in açaí. With these endings paroxytonic words must then be accented to differentiate them from oxytonic words, as in amável, lápis, órgão. Monosyllables Monosyllables are typically not accented, but those whose last vowel is a, e, or o, possibly followed by final -s, -m or -ns, may require an accent mark. The verb pôr is accented to distinguish it from the preposition por. Third-person plural forms of the verbs ter and vir, têm and vêm are accented to be distinguished from third-person singulars of the same verbs, tem, vem. Other monosyllables ending in -em are not accented. Monosyllables ending in -o(s) with the vowel pronounced (as in English "do") or in -e(s) with the vowel pronounced (as in English "be") or (approximately as in English "roses") are not accented. Otherwise, they are accented. Monosyllables containing only the vowel a take an acute accent except for the contractions of the preposition a with the article a(s), which take the grave accent, à(s), and for the following clitic articles, pronouns, prepositions, or contractions, which are not accented (all pronounced with in Europe): a(s), da(s), la(s), lha(s), ma(s), na(s), ta(s). Most of those words have a masculine equivalent ending in -o(s), also not accented: o(s), do(s), lo(s), lho(s), mo(s), no(s), to(s). Polysyllables The endings -a(s), -e(s), -o(s), -am, -em, -ens are unstressed. The stressed vowel of words with such endings is assumed to be the first one before the ending itself: bonita, bonitas, gente, viveram, seria, serias (verbs), seriam. If the word happens to be stressed elsewhere, it requires an accent mark: será, serás, até, séria, sérias (adjectives), Inácio, Amazônia/Amazónia. The endings -em and -ens take the acute accent when stressed (contém, convéns), except in third-person plural forms of verbs derived from ter and vir, which take the circumflex (contêm, convêm). Words with other endings are regarded as oxytone by default: viver, jardim, vivi, bambu, pensais, pensei, pensou, pensão. They require an accent when they are stressed on a syllable other than their last: táxi, fácil, amáveis, râguebi. Rising diphthongs (which may also be pronounced as hiatuses) containing stressed i or stressed u are accented so they will not be pronounced as falling diphthongs. Exceptions are those whose stressed vowel forms a syllable with a letter other than s. Thus, raízes (syllabified as ra-í-zes), incluído (in-clu-í-do), and saíste (sa-ís-te) are accented, but raiz (ra-iz), sairmos (sa-ir-mos) and saiu (sa-iu) are not. (There are a few more exceptions, not discussed here.) The stressed diphthongs ei, eu, oi take an acute accent on the first vowel whenever it is low. Aside from those cases, there are a few more words that take an accent, usually to disambiguate frequent homographs such as pode (present tense of the verb poder, with ) and pôde (preterite of the same verb, with ). In European Portuguese, a distinction is made in the first person plural of verbs in -ar, between the present tense ending -amos and the preterite -ámos . As these are pronounced identically in Brazilian Portuguese, this accent is not used. Accentuation rules of Portuguese are somewhat different regarding syllabification than those of Spanish (English "continuous" is Portuguese contínuo, Spanish continuo, and English "I continue" is Portuguese continuo, Spanish continúo, in both cases with the same syllable accented in Portuguese and Spanish). Personal names The use of diacritics in personal names is generally restricted to the combinations above, often also by the applicable Portuguese spelling rules. Portugal is more restrictive than Brazil in regard to given names. They must be Portuguese or adapted to the Portuguese orthography and sound and should also be easily discerned as either a masculine or feminine name by a Portuguese speaker. There are lists of previously accepted and refused names, and names that are both unusual and not included in the list of previously accepted names must be subject to consultation of the national director of registries. The list of previously accepted names includes some of the most common names, like "Pedro" (Peter) and "Ana" (Anne). Brazilian birth registrars, on the other hand, are likely to accept names containing any (Latin) letters or diacritics and are limited only to the availability of such characters in their typesetting facility. Consonants with more than one spelling Most consonants have the same values as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, except for the palatals and , which are spelled and , respectively, and the following velars, rhotics, and sibilants: Velar plosives Rhotics The alveolar tap is always spelled as a single . The other rhotic phoneme of Portuguese, which may be pronounced as a trill or as one of the fricatives , , or , according to the idiolect of the speaker, is either written or , as described below. Sibilants For the following phonemes, the phrase "at the start of a syllable" can be understood as "at the start of a word, or between a consonant and a vowel, in that order". Note that there are two main groups of accents in Portuguese, one in which the sibilants are alveolar at the end of syllables ( or ), and another in which they are postalveolar ( or ). In this position, the sibilants occur in complementary distribution, voiced before voiced consonants, and voiceless before voiceless consonants or at the end of utterances. Vowels The vowels in the pairs , , only contrast in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, each element of the pair occurs in complementary distribution with the other. Stressed appears mostly before the nasal consonants , , , followed by a vowel, and stressed appears mostly elsewhere although they have a limited number of minimal pairs in EP. In Brazilian Portuguese, both nasal and unstressed vowel phonemes that only contrast when stressed tend to a mid height though may be often heard in unstressed position (especially when singing or speaking emphatically). In pre-20th-century European Portuguese, they tended to be raised to , and . It still is the case of most Brazilian dialects in which the word may be variously pronounced as , , , etc. Some dialects, such as those of Northeastern and Southern Brazil, tend to do less pre-vocalic vowel reduction and in general the unstressed vowel sounds adhere to that of one of the stressed vowel pair, namely and respectively.—The influence of foreign accents on Italian language acquisition In educated speech, vowel reduction is used less often than in colloquial and vernacular speech though still more than the more distant dialects, and in general, mid vowels are dominant over close-mid ones and especially open-mid ones in unstressed environments when those are in free variation (that is, is always , even in Portugal, while is almost certainly ). Mid vowels are also used as choice for stressed nasal vowels in both Portugal and Rio de Janeiro though not in São Paulo and southern Brazil, but in Bahia, Sergipe and neighboring areas, mid nasal vowels supposedly are close-mid like those of French. can thus vary as EP , RJ , SP and BA according to the dialect. also has significant variation, as shown in the respective dialect pronunciations of as , , and . Vowel reduction of unstressed nasal vowels is extremely pervasive nationwide in Brazil, in vernacular, colloquial and even most educated speech registers. It is slightly more resisted but still present in Portugal. Diacritics The pronunciation of the accented vowels is fairly stable except that they become nasal in certain conditions. See #Nasalization for further information about this regular phenomenon. In other cases, nasal vowels are marked with a tilde. The grave accent is only used on the letter and is merely grammatical, meaning a crasis between two such as the preposition "a" and "the (f.)" ( → "I'm going to the city"). In dialects where unstressed represents , represents ; in dialects where unstressed is the grave accent makes no difference in pronunciation. There was a proposal to use the grave for separation of unstressed diphthongs, e.g.: , , . The trema was official prior to the last orthographical reform and can still be found in older texts. It meant that the usually silent between or and or is in fact pronounced: "liquid" and "related to blood". Some words have two acceptable pronunciations, varying largely by accents. It was also proposed to use the grave accent instead of trema, e.g.: , . {\| class="wikitable" ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation \|- align=center \| á \| \|- align="center" \| é \| \|- align="center" \| í \| () \|- align="center" \| ó \| \|- align="center" \| ú \| () \|- align=center \| â \| , \|- align="center" \| ê \| , \|- align="center" \| ô \| () \|- align=center \| ã \| \|- align=center \| õ \| \|- align="center" \| à \| \|- align="center" \| è \| \|- align="center" \| ì \| \|- align="center" \| ò \| \|- align="center" \| ù \| \|- align=center \|} Diphthongs The pronunciation of each diphthong is also fairly predictable, but one must know how to distinguish true diphthongs from adjacent vowels in hiatus, which belong to separate syllables. For example, in the word (), the forms a clearer diphthong with the previous vowel (but a slight yod also in the next syllable is generally present), but in (), it forms a diphthong with the next vowel. As in Spanish, a hiatus may be indicated with an acute accent, distinguishing homographs such as () and . {\| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4 \| Oral \|- ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation \|- \| align=center \| ai \|\| \| align=center \| au \|\| \|- \| align=center \| ai, ái \|\| \| align=center \| au, áu \|\| \|- \| align=center \| ei, êi \|\| , \| align=center \| eu, êu \|\| \|- \| align="center" \| oi \|\| \| align="center" \| ou \|\| \|- \| align=center \| ei, éi \|\| , \| align=center \| eu, éu \|\| \|- \| align=center \| oi, ói \|\| \| align=center \| \|\| \|- \| \| \| align=center \| iu \| \|- \| align="center" \| ui \|\| \| \| \|- ! colspan=4 \| Nasal \|- ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation \|- \| align=center \| ãe, ãi \|\| \| align=center \| ão \|\| \|- \| align=center \| õe \|\| \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\| - \|} Nasalization When a syllable ends with or , the consonant is not fully pronounced but merely indicates the nasalization of the vowel which precedes it. At the end of words, it generally produces a nasal diphthong. {\| class="wikitable" ! colspan=2 \| Monophthongs ! colspan="3" \| Diphthongs \|- ! Grapheme ! Pronunciation ! colspan="2" \| Grapheme ! Pronunciation \|- \| -un, -um, -ún, -úm \| \| colspan="3" rowspan="2" \| \|- \| -on, -om, -ôn, -ôm \| \|- \| -an, -am, -ân, -âm \| \| colspan="2" \| -am \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| -en, -em, -ên, -êm \| rowspan="2" \| \|\| -em, -êm \| -en- \| rowspan="2" \| () \|- \| -ém \| -én- \|- \| -in, -im, -ín, -ím \| \| colspan="3"\| \|} The letter is conventionally written before or or at the end of words (also in a few compound words such as - in Brazil), and is written before other consonants. In the plural, the ending - changes into -; for example , , , → , , , . Some loaned words end with - (which is usually pronounced in European Portuguese). Nasalization of , according to modern orthography, is left unmarked in the six words , , , , , (the latter one only in Brazilian Portuguese). During some periods, the nasal was marked as : , , , , . The word endings -, -, -, with or without an accent mark on the vowel, represent nasal diphthongs derived from various Latin endings, often , or . Final -, which appears in polysyllabic verbs, is always unstressed. The grapheme -- is also pronounced as a nasal diphthong in a few compound words, such as ( + ), ( + ), and . Morphological considerations Verbs whose infinitive ends in - have in the whole conjugation: "voyage (noun)" but (third person plural of the present subjunctive of the verb "to travel"). Verbs whose thematic vowel becomes a stressed in one of their inflections are spelled with an in the whole conjugation, as are other words of the same family: "I create" implies "to create" and "creature". Verbs whose thematic vowel becomes a stressed in one of their inflections are spelled with an in the whole conjugation, as are other words of the same family: "I nominate" implies "to nominate" and "nomination". Etymological considerations The majority of the Portuguese lexicon is derived from Latin, Celtic, Greek, some Germanic and some Arabic. In principle, that would require some knowledge of those languages. However, Greek words are Latinized before being incorporated into the language, and many words of Latin or Greek origin have easily recognizable cognates in English and other western European languages and are spelled according to similar principles. For instance, "glory", "glorious", "inheritance", "real/royal". Some general guidelines for spelling are given below: vs. : if is pronounced syllabically, it is written with , as in "male underwear", and if it represents a labialized velar plosive, it is written with , as in "when". vs. : etymological , if representing a phoneme, changes into before . : this letter is silent; it appears for etymology at the start of a word, in a few interjections, and as part of the digraphs , , . Latin or Greek , , , , and are usually converted into , , , , and , respectively. vs. : in many words, the variant normally corresponds to Latin and Arabic or , more rarely to Latin , . / vs. /: the letter and the digraph correspond to Latin , , or , and to Spanish . The graphemes (before ) and (before ) are usually derived from Latin or , or from in non-European languages, such as Arabic and Amerindian languages. They often correspond to Spanish in any position or preceding or . At the beginning of words, however, is written instead of etymological , by convention. vs. between vowels: the letter corresponds to Latin (+ , ) or , to Greek or Arabic . Intervocalic corresponds to Latin . vs. : the letter derives from Latin or , or from Arabic and usually corresponds to Spanish . The digraph (before vowels) derives from Latin , , or from French and corresponds to Spanish (like in Rioplatense Spanish) or (like some varieties of Spanish). vs. vs. at the end of syllables: is the most common spelling for all sibilants. The letter appears, preceded by and followed by one of the voiceless consonants , in some words derived from Latin or Greek. The letter occurs only at the end of oxytone words and in compounds derived from them, corresponding to Latin , (+ , ) or to Arabic . Loanwords with a in their original languages receive the letter to represent it when they are nativised: "shampoo". While many dialects merged the pronunciations of and long ago, some Galician-Portuguese dialects like the Galician language, the portunhol da pampa and the speech registers of northeastern Portugal still preserve the difference as vs. , as do other Iberian languages. When one wants to stress the sound difference in dialects in which it merged the convention is to use : "ciao" and Brazilian Portuguese "Czech Republic". In most loanwords, it merges with (or : "mochi"), just as most often merges with . Alveolar affricates and , though, are more likely to be preserved (, , , , , etc.), although not all of these hold up across some dialects ( for , for and for [along with spelling ]) Syllabification and collation Portuguese syllabification rules require a syllable break between double letters: , , , , , , or other combinations of letters that may be pronounced as a single sound: fric-ci-o-nar, pro-ces-so, car-ro, ex-ce(p)-to, ex-su-dar. Only the digraphs , , , , , and are indivisible. All digraphs are however broken down into their constituent letters for the purposes of collation, spelling aloud, and in crossword puzzles. Other symbols Apostrophe The apostrophe (') appears as part of certain phrases, usually to indicate the elision of a vowel in the contraction of a preposition with the word that follows it: de + água = d'água. It is used almost exclusively in poetry. Hyphen The hyphen (-) is used to make compound words, especially plants and animal names like papagaio-de-rabo-vermelho "red-tailed parrot". It is also extensively used to append clitic pronouns to the verb, as in quero-o "I want it" (enclisis), or even to embed them within the verb (mesoclisis), as in levaria + vos + os = levar-vo-los-ia "I would take them to you". Proclitic pronouns are not connected graphically to the verb: não o quero "I do not want it". Each element in such compounds is treated as an individual word for accentuation purposes: matarias + o = matá-lo-ias "You would kill it/him", beberá + a = bebê-la-á "He/she will drink it". Quotation marks In European Portuguese, as in many other European languages, angular quotation marks are used for general quotations in literature: «Isto é um exemplo de como fazer uma citação em português europeu.» “This is an example of how to make a quotation in European Portuguese.”Although American-style (“…”) or British-style (‘…’) quotation marks are sometimes used as well, especially in less formal types of writing (they are more easily produced in keyboards) or inside nested quotations, they are less common in careful writing. In Brazilian Portuguese, only American and British-style quote marks are used. “Isto é um exemplo de como fazer uma citação em português brasileiro.” “This is an example of how to make a quotation in Brazilian Portuguese.”In both varieties of the language, dashes are normally used for direct speech rather than quotation marks: “I’m so bored,” she said. “That’s not my fault,” he shot back.Brazilian vs. European spelling Prior to the Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990, Portuguese had two orthographic standards: The Brazilian orthography, official in Brazil. The European orthography, official in Portugal, Macau, East Timor and the five African Lusophone countries (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Cape Verde). The table to the right illustrates typical differences between the two orthographies. Some are due to different pronunciations, but others are merely graphic. The main ones are: Presence or absence of certain consonants: The letters and appear in some words before , or in one orthography, but are absent from the other. Normally, the letter is written down in the European spelling, but not in the Brazilian spelling. Different use of diacritics: the Brazilian spelling has , or followed by or before a vowel, in several words where the European orthography has , or , due to different pronunciation. Different usage of double letters: also due to different pronunciation, Brazilian spelling has only , and as double letters. So, Portuguese becomes Brazilian and words ended in with suffix added, (like and ) become and in Brazilian spelling. As of 2016, the reformed orthography under the 1990 agreement is obligatory in Brazil, Cape Verde, and Portugal, but most adult people do not use it. See also Academia Brasileira de Letras Differences between Spanish and Portuguese Portuguese names Portuguese phonology Spelling reforms of Portuguese The Vietnamese orthography, partly based on the orthography of Portuguese, through the work of 16th-century Catholic missionaries. Acordo Ortográfico de 1990 Wikipedia in Portuguese: Ortografia da língua portuguesa Help:IPA/Portuguese Notes Citations References Bergström, Magnus & Reis, Neves Prontuário Ortográfico Editorial Notícias, 2004. Estrela, Edite A questão ortográfica — Reforma e acordos da língua portuguesa (1993) Editorial Notícias Formulário Ortográfico (Orthographic Form'') published by the Brazilian Academy of Letters in 1943 - the pre-2009 spelling rules in Brazil Text of the decree of the Brazilian government, in 1971, amending the orthography adopted in 1943 Orthographic Agreement of 1945 (in Portuguese) - the present day spelling rules in all Portuguese speaking countries except Portugal, Brazil, and Cabo Verde Orthographic Agreement of 1990 (PDF - in Portuguese) - the present day spelling rules in Portugal, Brazil, and Cabo Verde, to be adopted by other Portuguese-speaking countries External links Omniglot's page on Portuguese Includes a recording with the names of the letters of the alphabet, and most phonemes, by a Brazilian speaker. The pronunciation of the Portuguese of Portugal Online Keyboard for Portuguese Portuguese alphabet. Printable color and outline Portuguese letters. Orthography, Portuguese Indo-European Latin-script orthographies
5337925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirometry	Respirometry	Respirometry is a general term that encompasses a number of techniques for obtaining estimates of the rates of metabolism of vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, tissues, cells, or microorganisms via an indirect measure of heat production (calorimetry). Whole-animal metabolic rates The metabolism of an animal is estimated by determining rates of carbon dioxide production (VCO2) and oxygen consumption (VO2) of individual animals, either in a closed or an open-circuit respirometry system. Two measures are typically obtained: standard (SMR) or basal metabolic rate (BMR) and maximal rate (VO2max). SMR is measured while the animal is at rest (but not asleep) under specific laboratory (temperature, hydration) and subject-specific conditions (e.g., size or allometry), age, reproduction status, post-absorptive to avoid thermic effect of food). VO2max is typically determined during aerobic exercise at or near physiological limits. In contrast, field metabolic rate (FMR) refers to the metabolic rate of an unrestrained, active animal in nature. Whole-animal metabolic rates refer to these measures without correction for body mass. If SMR or BMR values are divided by the body mass value for the animal, then the rate is termed mass-specific. It is this mass-specific value that one typically hears in comparisons among species. Closed respirometry Respirometry depends on a "what goes in must come out" principle. Consider a closed system first. Imagine that we place a mouse into an air-tight container. The air sealed in the container initially contains the same composition and proportions of gases that were present in the room: 20.95% O2, 0.04% CO2, water vapor (the exact amount depends on air temperature, see dew point), 78% (approximately) N2, 0.93% argon and a variety of trace gases making up the rest (see Earth's atmosphere). As time passes, the mouse in the chamber produces CO2 and water vapor, but extracts O2 from the air in proportion to its metabolic demands. Therefore, as long as we know the volume of the system, the difference between the concentrations of O2 and CO2 at the start when we sealed the mouse into the chamber (the baseline or reference conditions) compared to the amounts present after the mouse has breathed the air at a later time must be the amounts of CO2/O2 produced/consumed by the mouse. Nitrogen and argon are inert gasses and therefore their fractional amounts are unchanged by the respiration of the mouse. In a closed system, the environment will eventually become hypoxic. Open respirometry For an open-system, design constraints include washout characteristics of the animal chamber and sensitivity of the gas analyzers. However, the basic principle remains the same: What goes in must come out. The primary distinction between an open and closed system is that the open system flows air through the chamber (i.e., air is pushed or pulled by pump) at a rate that constantly replenishes the O2 depleted by the animal while removing the CO2 and water vapor produced by the animal. The volumetric flow rate must be high enough to ensure that the animal never consumes all of the oxygen present in the chamber while at the same time, the rate must be low enough so that the animal consumes enough O2 for detection. For a 20 g mouse, flow rates of about 200 ml/min through 500 ml containers would provide a good balance. At this flow rate, about 40 ml of O2 is brought to the chamber and the entire volume of air in the chamber is exchanged within 5 minutes. For other smaller animals, chamber volumes can be much smaller and flow rates would be adjusted down as well. Note that for warm-blooded or endothermic animals (birds and mammals), chamber sizes and or flow rates would be selected to accommodate their higher metabolic rates. Calculations Calculating rates of VO2 and/or VCO2 requires knowledge of the flow rates into and out of the chamber, plus fractional concentrations of the gas mixtures into and out of the animal chamber. In general, metabolic rates are calculated from steady-state conditions (i.e., animal's metabolic rate is assumed to be constant). To know the rates of oxygen consumed, one needs to know the location of the flow meter relative to the animal chamber (if positioned before the chamber, the flow meter is "upstream," if positioned after the chamber, the flow meter is "downstream"), and whether or not reactive gases are present (e.g., CO2, water, methane, see inert gas). For an open system with upstream flow meter, water (e.g., anhydrous calcium sulfate) and CO2 removed prior to the oxygen analyzer, a suitable equation is VO2 = \frac {\mathit{FR} \cdot (\mathit F_{in}O2 - \mathit F_{ex}O2)} {1 - \mathit F_{ex}O2} For an open system with downstream flow meter, water and CO2 removed prior to the oxygen analyzer, a suitable equation is VO2 = \frac {\mathit{FR} \cdot (\mathit F_{in}O2 - \mathit F_{ex}O2)} {1 - \mathit F_{in}O2} where FR is the volumetric flow rate adjusted to STP (see Standard conditions for temperature and pressure) FinO2 is the fractional amount of oxygen present in the incurrent air stream (the baseline or reference), and FexO2 is the fractional amount of oxygen present in the excurrent air stream (what the animal has consumed relative to baseline per unit time). For example, values for BMR of a 20 g mouse (Mus musculus) might be FR = 200 mL/min, and readings of fractional concentration of O2 from an oxygen analyzer are FinO2 = 0.2095, FexO2 = 0.2072. The calculated rate of oxygen consumption is 0.58 mL/min or 35 mL/hour. Assuming an enthalpy of combustion for O2 of 20.1 joules per milliliter, we would then calculate the heat production (and therefore metabolism) for the mouse as 703.5 J/h. Respirometry equipment For open flow system, the list of equipment and parts is long compared to the components of a closed system, but the chief advantage of the open system is that it permits continuous recording of metabolic rate. The risk of hypoxia is also much less in an open system. Pumps for air flow Vacuum Pump: a pump is needed to push (i.e., upstream location) or pull (i.e., downstream location) air into and through the animal chamber and respirometry flow-through system. Subsample pump: To pull air through the analyzers, a small, stable, reliable pump is used. Flow meter and flow controllers Bubble flow meters: A simple, yet highly accurate way to measure flow rates involves timing movement of bubbles of soap film up glass tubes between marks of known volume. The glass tube is connected at the bottom (for push systems) or at the top (for pull systems) to the air stream. A small rubber pipette bulb attached at the base of the tube acts as both a reservoir and delivery system for the soap bubbles. Operation is simple. First, wet the glass surface along the path bubbles travel (e.g., press the bulb so that copious amounts of soap are pushed up the glass by the air flow) to provide a virtually friction-free surface. Second, pinch the bulb so that one clean bubble is produced. With a stopwatch in hand, record the time required for the bubble to travel between marks on the glass. Note the volume recorded on the upper mark (e.g., 125 = 125 ml), divide the volume by the time required to travel between marks and the result is the flow rate (ml/s). These instruments can be purchased from a variety of sources, but they may also be constructed from appropriate-sized, glass volumetric pipettes. Acrylic flow meters : Under some circumstances of high flow rates we may use simple acrylic flow meters (0–2.5 liters/min) to control the flow rates through the metabolic chambers. The meters are located upstream from the metabolic chambers. The flow meters are simple to use but should be calibrated twice daily for use in the respirometry system: once before recording begins (but after the animal has been sealed inside the chamber!!) and again at the end of the recording (before the animal is removed from the chamber). Calibration must be done with a bubble flow meter because the calibration marks on the acrylic meters are only approximate. For proper calibration of flow rates remember that both barometric pressure and temperature of the air streaming through the flow meter (which we assume to be equal to room temperature) must be recorded. Mass flow meters: The equations required for calculating rates of oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production assume that the flow rates into and out of the chambers are known exactly. We use mass flow meters which have the advantage of yielding flow rates independent of temperature and air pressure. Therefore, these flow rates can be considered to be corrected to standard conditions (Standard Temperature Pressure). We only measure and control flow at one location—downstream from the chamber. Therefore, we must assume that the inflow and outflow rates are identical. However, during construction of the respirometry system, flow rate must be measured at all steps, across all connections, to verify integrity of flow. Needle valves: Mass flow meters may be purchased with mass flow controllers which permit setting flow rates. These are expensive, however. Respirometry research often will attempt to measure more than one animal at a time, which would necessitate one chamber per animal and thus controlled flow through each chamber. An alternative and more cost-effective method to control flow would be via stainless steel or carbon steel needle valves. Needle valves plus mass flow meters provides a cost-effective means to achieve desired flow rates. The valves cost about $20. Tubing and chambers Tubing and connections : Various kinds of tubing can be used to connect the components of the respirometry system to and from the animal chamber. A variety of kinds of flexible tubing may be used, depending on the characteristics of the system. Acetyl, Bev-A-Line, Kynar, nylon, Tygon tubing and connectors may be used in regions of the system where oxidizing atmospheres are low (e.g., background levels of ozone only); Teflon tubing would be recommended if there is an expectation for appreciable amounts of ozone to be present because it is inert to ozone. Teflon tubes are more costly and lack flexibility. Metabolic chambers: Chambers may be glass jars with rubber stoppers for lids; syringe barrels for small animals and insects; or constructed from Plexiglas. Ideally, chambers should be constructed from inert materials; for example, the acrylic plastics can absorb O2 and may be a poor choice for respirometry with very small insects. Chambers need to be constructed in a manner that yields rapid mixing of gases within the chamber. The simplest metabolic chamber for a small vertebrate might be a glass jar with a stopper. The stoppers are fitted with two ports: short extensions of Teflon tubing are provided for line connections. Teflon tube extensions are pushed through the bulkhead and the line connection is finished by attaching a small hose clip to the base of the Teflon tube extension. Additionally, an extension to the inlet port inside the jar should be provided—this ensures that the animal's expiratory gases are not washed away by the in flow stream. The animal is sealed inside and the rubber stopper is held in place with Velcro straps. If an upstream system is used, any metabolic chamber leak will result in loss of animal air and, therefore, an underestimate of the animal's metabolic rate. When you close an animal inside a metabolic chamber, attention must be paid to the seal. To ensure tight seals before closing the lid, firmly work the stopper into the jar and make sure that it is even. Use 1–2 straps (2 are better) and pull tightly. Acrylic (Plexiglas) chambers will be constructed for some uses, but precise engineering will be needed to ensure proper seating; gaskets will help, and judicious use of tight-fitting clamps will minimize leaks. Scrubbing tubes: Water before and after the animal chamber must be removed. One arrangement would use a large acrylic column of Drierite (8 mesh (scale), i.e., relatively coarse) upstream (before the push pump, before the animal chamber) to dry incurrent airstream and several tubes with smaller mesh (10–20, i.e., relatively fine) Drierite to remove water after the animal chamber. To prepare a scrubbing tube, make sure there is a small amount of cotton at either end of the tube to prevent dust particles from traveling to the analyzers. Use small amounts of cotton, say around 0.005 g, just enough to keep the dust out of the tubing. Large amounts of cotton will block air flow when/if it gets damp. Pour the Drierite into the tube with a funnel, tap the tube on the bench to pack the grains tightly (to increase surface area – air + water rushes through loose Drierite, requiring frequent changes of scrubbers), and cap off with a small amount of cotton. To remove carbon dioxide] before and after the animal chamber, Ascarite II is used (Ascarite II is a registered trademark of the Arthur H. Thomas Co.). Ascarite II contains NaOH, which is caustic (so don't get any on your skin and keep away from water). A scrubbing tube is prepared by placing a small amount of cotton into the tube end, filling one-third of the way with 10–20 mesh Drierite, adding a small amount of cotton, then an additional third of the tube with the Ascarite II, another layer of cotton, followed by more Drierite and capping the tube off with another small amount of cotton. Tap the tube on the bench as each layer is added to pack the grains. Note: Driereite can be used over and over again (after heating in an oven), although indicating Drierite will lose color with repeated drying; Ascarite II is used once and will be considered a hazardous waste. Analyzers Carbon dioxide analyzer: CO2 analyzers typically use infrared-based detection methods to take advantage of the fact that CO2 will absorb infra-red light and re-emit light at slightly longer wavelengths. The panel meter on the analyzer displays over the entire 0.01 – 10% CO2 range and a voltage output proportional to CO2 concentration is also generated for data recording. Oxygen analyzer: Oxygen analyzers suitable for respirometry use a variety of oxygen sensors, including galvanic ("ambient temperature"), paramagnetic, polarographic (Clark-type electrodes), and zirconium ("high temperature") sensors. Galvanic O2 analyzers use a fuel cell containing an acidic electrolyte, a heavy-metal anode and a thin gas-permeable membrane. Since the partial pressure of O2 near the anode is zero, O2 is driven by diffusion to the anode via the membrane at a rate proportional to ambient O2 partial pressure. The fuel cell produces a voltage linearly proportional to the O2 partial pressure at the membrane. As long as cabinet temperature is stable, and provided that air flow across the fuel cell is stable and within range, the response will be 0.01% or better depending on supporting electronics, software, and other considerations. Finally, a computer data acquisition and control system would be a typical addition to complete the system. Instead of a chart recorder, continuous records of oxygen consumption and or carbon dioxide production are made with the assistance of an analog-to-digital converter coupled to a computer. Software captures, filters, converts, and displays the signal as appropriate to the experimenter's needs. A variety of companies and individuals service the respirometry community (e.g., Sable Systems, Qubit Systems, see also Warthog Systems). Mitochondrial metabolic rates Inside the body oxygen is delivered to cells and in the cells to mitochondria, where it is consumed in the process generating most of the energy required by the organism. Mitochondrial respirometry measures the consumption of oxygen by the mitochondria without involving an entire living animal and is the main tool to study mitochondrial function. Three different types of samples may be subjected to such respirometric studies: isolated mitochondria (from cell cultures, animals or plants); permeabilized cells (from cell cultures); and permeabilized fibers or tissues (from animals). In the latter two cases the cellular membrane is made permeable by the addition of chemicals leaving selectively the mitochondrial membrane intact. Therefore, chemicals that usually would not be able to cross the cell membrane can directly influence the mitochondria. By the permeabilization of the cellular membrane, the cell stops to exist as a living, defined organism, leaving only the mitochondria as still functional structures. Unlike whole-animal respirometry, mitochondrial respirometry takes place in solution, i.e. the sample is suspended in a medium. Today mitochondrial respirometry is mainly performed with a closed-chamber approach. Closed-chamber system The sample suspended in a suitable medium is placed in a hermetically closed metabolic chamber. The mitochondria are brought into defined “states” by the sequential addition of substrates or inhibitors. Since the mitochondria consume oxygen, the oxygen concentration drops. This change of oxygen concentration is recorded by an oxygen sensor in the chamber. From the rate of the oxygen decline (taking into account correction for oxygen diffusion) the respiratory rate of the mitochondria can be computed. Applications Basic research The functioning of mitochondria is studied in the field of bioenergetics. Functional differences between mitochondria from different species are studied by respirometry as an aspect of comparative physiology. Applied research Mitochondrial respirometry is used to study mitochondrial functionality in mitochondrial diseases or diseases with a (suspected) strong link to mitochondria, e.g. diabetes mellitus type 2, obesity and cancer. Other fields of application are e.g. sports science and the connection between mitochondrial function and aging. Equipment The usual equipment includes a seal-able metabolic chamber, an oxygen sensor, and devices for data recording, stirring, thermostatisation and a way to introduce chemicals into the chamber. As described above for whole-animal respirometry the choice of materials is very important. Plastic materials are not suitable for the chamber because of their oxygen storage capacity. When plastic materials are unavoidable (e.g. for o-rings, coatings of stirrers, or stoppers) polymers with a very low oxygen permeability (like PVDF as opposed to e.g. PTFE) may be used. Remaining oxygen diffusion into or out of the chamber materials can be handled by correcting the measured oxygen fluxes for the instrumental oxygen background flux. The entire instrument comprising the mentioned components is often called an oxygraph. The companies providing equipment for whole-animal rspirometry mentioned above are usually not involved in mitochondrial respiromety. The community is serviced at widely varying levels of price and sophistication by companies like Oroboros Instruments, Hansatech, Respirometer Systems & Applications, YSI Life Sciences or Strathkelvin Instruments . See also Basal metabolic rate Calorimetry Metabolism Respirometer VO2max References External links Eco-environment Technology AEI Technologies AquaResp – Aquatic Respirometry Freeware Challenge Technology Loligo Systems Oroboros Instruments Qubit Systems RSA Sable Systems Seahorse Bioscience Strathkelvin Instruments Warthog systems ECHO Respirometry System Metabolism
5338204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Vampilov	Alexander Vampilov	Alexander Valentinovich Vampilov () (19 August 1937 – 17 August 1972) was a Soviet playwright. His play The Elder Son was first performed in 1969, and became a national success two years later. Many of his plays have been filmed or televised in Russia. His four full-length plays were translated into English and Duck Hunting was performed in London and Washington DC (Arena Stage). Life Vampilov was the fourth child in the family of schoolteachers. His father, Valentin Nikitich, was of Buryat ancestry, and his mother, Anastasia Prokopievna was Russian, the daughter of a Russian Orthodox Church priest. His father was arrested for alleged nationalist activity. The young Alexander taught himself guitar and mandolin, and his first comic short stories appeared in magazines in 1958, later collected as A Confluence of Circumstances under the name "A. Sanin". After studying literature and history at the Department of Philology at Irkutsk State University, graduating in 1960, he turned to theatre. He was executive secretary of an Irkutsk newspaper from 1962 to 1964, and later formed an acquaintance with popular dramatist Aleksei Arbuzov. The first production of Farewell in June in Moscow in 1966 was unsuccessful, but by the early 1970s he was becoming very well known, and his humanity and insight has been compared with that of Chekhov. . He married in the early 1970s, and drowned in 1972, while fishing on Lake Baikal. Last Summer in Tchulimsk was his final play. Youth Aleksandr Valentinovich Vampilov was born in Cheremkhovo in the Irkutsk Oblast of eastern Siberia on 19 August 1937. His father, Valentin Nikitich Vampilov, born in 1898, was a Buryat from the nearby village of Alar. At his father's death, Valentin, who was seventeen, undertook the running of the family's cattle farm. He managed at the same time to graduate from the gymnasium and go on to study in the historical-philological department of Irkutsk State University. Valentin taught Russian language and literature in, and became director of, the high school in Kutulik, the regional center of the Irkutsk oblast, some thirty kilometers south of Alar. In the summer of Vampilov's birth he was transferred to Alar as chief teacher. The parents of Valentin's wife, Anastasia Prokopevna Kopylova, Prokopi Kopylov and Aleksandra Afrikanovna Medvedeva, were Russian. Kopylov was a priest and teacher of religious law in a women's gymnasium, but after the Revolution he had to sweep streets and chop wood for a living. In 1937 he was arrested on ridiculous but standard charges for the time. Following the arrest, Aleksandra Afrikanovna, settled in Kutulik with her youngest daughter, Anastasia, Aleksandr Vampilov's mother. Aleksandra Afrikanovna lived to ninety two, dying only three years before her famous grandson, whom she had lovingly cared for when he was a child. Born in 1906, Anastasia studied at the gymnasium and then completed a teacher training course. Aleksandr Vampilov never knew his father, because on 17 January 1938, Valentin was arrested on fabricated charges. He was shot in Irkutsk in March of the same year (and rehabilitated in 1957). Aleksandr was named in honor of Aleksandr Pushkin since the year of his birth was the hundredth anniversary of the poet's death. For his son he bought the new edition of the collected works of Pushkin that was published that year. There is a certain irony in the final choice of first name, in that Vampilov, like his namesake, died prematurely, at almost exactly the same age. Vampilov was the youngest in the family of three sons and one daughter. He spent his childhood and adolescent years in the town of Kutulik, where the family lived in a room of the teachers' barracks, a log house that in earlier days had been a "forwarding point", the last place that prisoners would spend the night on their way to labor camps. Vampilov started school in 1944 and was a good student, but not outstanding. He drew well and enjoyed singing. He had a good ear and taught himself to play the guitar and mandolin. He took part both in the school orchestra and, in the university, in an ensemble of folk instruments. Other activities during his school years included fishing, soccer, the school's drama circle, and a passion for writing verses, which he hid from his family and read to friends sworn to secrecy. In 1954 Vampilov graduated from the gymnasium and took the entrance exams for the Department of Historical Philology at the Irkutsk State University. Since he failed the German exam, he had to take the entrance exams again in 1955. University and early writing career In 1955 Vampilov moved to Irkutsk and enrolled in the university. In 1958, while still a student, Vampilov published ten stories in several newspapers under the pseudonym Sanin. Only one piece, a dramatic scene entitled “Flowers and Years” (“Цветы и годы”), appeared under his real name. Vampilov was hired by the newspaper Soviet Youth (Советская молодежь) in 1959 and when he graduated from the university a year later, he went to work for the newspaper full-time. Together, work for the newspaper and TOM (Творческое обединение молодых), the Young People's Creative Union, served as a second university for Vampilov, training him to observe life and compelling him to write. TOM included a number of young men not unlike Vampilov—Valentin Rasputin, Vyacheslav Shugaev, Dmitri Sergeev, Yuri Skop—with whom Vampilov became friends. Vampilov's first collection of stories, A Coincidence (Стечение обстоятельств), appeared in 1961 under the pseudonym A. Sanin. He wrote most of these stories while still at the university. In the following years he participated in a number of seminars for young playwrights. In 1964 he left Soviet Youth, contributed to two collections of stories and sketches by Irkutsk authors, and made his debut as a playwright with the publication of The House with a View of the Field (Дом окнами в поле) in the November issue of Theatre (Театр). With that success under his belt, Vampilov set out with Vyacheslav Shugaev in 1965 to conquer Moscow. He attended advanced courses at the Gorky Literary Institute from 1965 to 1967 and made the rounds of all the theaters of Moscow with a copy of the first version of Farewell in June (Прощание в июне) that initially bore the title The Fair (Ярмарка). But he had no success in getting it adopted anywhere. Nevertheless, he made the acquaintance of Aleksandr Tvardovsky and was recommended for membership in the Union of Writers. He was accepted into the Union in February 1966, the year he completed The Elder Son (Старший сын), first titled The Suburb (Предместье) and published Farewell in June. The latter had its premier in ten theaters of the Soviet Union in the autumn. The following spring, Vampilov completed his literary courses and returned to Irkutsk. Theatrical career Eventually Vampilov emerged as one of the principal figures in the generation of dramatists who came to prominence following the death of Stalin. He reached the height of his popularity in the seventies and the first half of the eighties, but the process had begun already in his own lifetime. In 1967, the year he returned to Irkutsk from Moscow, Farewell in June had over 700 performances in fourteen theaters, and it continued to receive widespread production in the following years. The Elder Son, published in 1968 under the title The Suburb in the journal Angara (Ангара), enjoyed even greater success. It came out in a separate edition in 1970, and by 1971 was one of the leaders of the season playing in twenty-eight different theaters with more than a thousand performances that year. The fate of the one-acts, Twenty Minutes with an Angel (Двадцать минут с ангелом) and Incident with a Typesetter (История с метранпажем), was somewhat different, and both Duck Hunting (Утиная охота) and Last Summer in Chulimsk (Прошлым летом в Чулимске) gained recognition only belatedly, after Vampilov's death. Twenty Minutes with an Angel, written in 1962, was published in Angara in 1970. Incident with a Typesetter, finished in 1968, was published in a separate edition in 1971. Vampilov combined the two into Provincial Anecdotes(Провинциальные анекдоты), and they were first produced by the BDT, Big Dramatic Theater (Большой Драматический Театр), in Leningrad in March 1972, under the direction of A.G. Tovstonogov. During the winter of 1971, Vampilov took part in the rehearsals at the BDT. Although Vampilov's first plays were widely produced around the country, he always experienced difficulty getting his works produced, especially in Moscow and Leningrad. His correspondence with Elena Yakushkina (who worked in the literary department of the Ermolov Theater) reflects the problems he encountered. Likewise, although his works became very popular, few directors staged them adequately. Reviews of productions repeatedly note that directors do not quite know how to handle Vampilov's plays, for they misunderstand the style and content of the works. Even fifteen years after Vampilov's death, following the accession to leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev and the introduction of his policy of glasnost’ that had a liberating effect on the arts, and in spite of many productions, both successful and unsuccessful, the treatment of Vampilov's plays had not gone beyond conventional staging nor were they presented with full understanding. Final years and death In 1970 Vampilov participated in a seminar for young playwrights in Dubulti and a seminar for young writers in Yalta. His play, Duck Hunting, was published this year (in Angara), but was not staged until 1976, in Riga. Reviews of his other plays, however, appeared in 1970 in leading journals: Theatre (Театр), Komsomol Truth (Комсомольская правда), and Soviet Culture (Советская культура). The following year Vampilov worked on Valentina (Валентина), the first version of Last Summer in Chulimsk. He finished the play that same year but never saw it in print, because it was withdrawn from the literary almanac, Siberia (Сибирь) in the spring of 1972. It was not performed until 1973. Vampilov was in Moscow from January until May 1972, working with Tovstonogov on the staging of Farewell in June at the Stanislavsky Theater, and taking part in rehearsals of The Elder Son at the Ermolov Theater. In March he was in Leningrad for the premiere of Two Anecdotes (Provincial Anecdotes) but then returned to Moscow, where his wife, Olga, joined him. Vampilov busied himself with a multitude of petty tasks that he had long postponed, but most importantly, he made arrangements for the first collection of his plays to be published. Although he persistently spoke of his wish to return to prose, to write a novel, to start afresh, in the summer Vampilov began composing another dramatic piece, a "vaudeville", The Incomparable Nakonechnikov (Несравненный Наконечников). In May he had gone to Irkutsk, with plans to return to Moscow in September. But in August he drowned. 19 August 1972 would have been Aleksandr Vampilov's 35th birthday. He decided to treat his invited guests invited to ukha, a soup made with fresh fish. In preparation, he went fishing with a friend on Lake Baikal on August 17. On the way back, the two were caught in a storm that was brewing, the boat struck an underwater log, and capsized. Vampilov's companion, the Irkutsk writer, Gleb Pakulov, described later how he seized hold of the overturned boat, but Vampilov, an excellent swimmer, swam towards the shore. From the vantage point of the lake, it appeared to Pakulov that Vampilov had nearly reached the shore, but his dead body was later found in quite deep water, which indicates that he had not made it to safety. Rather, his heart gave out and he drowned. At the time of his death, Vampilov was married to his second wife, Olga Mikhailovna Vampilova, with whom he had a daughter, Elena, in 1966. In 1999 his widow published a new collection, nearly 800 pages long, of his works, notebooks, and letters. Personality There are many memoirs about Vampilov by his friends and colleagues, and several by relatives and teachers. The picture they paint of Vampilov is one of a shy, taciturn and thoughtful individual, yet with a sense of irony as well as of fun. The memoirs comment repeatedly on Vampilov's modesty, while at the same time remarking over and over again that he was very sociable and was always surrounded by many friends. The explanation for Vampilov's attractiveness may lie in his sympathy for and sensitivity to people, in his artlessness and naturalness, and in the fact that he was rarely sullen or depressed among friends, but rather usually smiling. In addition to noting Vampilov's huge charm, friends frequently remark on the absence of falsity in his behavior. They also write about his mischievous and sarcastic side, his readiness to crack jokes, and his spontaneity. While the memoirs reveal the lighter aspects of Vampilov's personality, they also present him as a serious, sincere and ardent person, fearless in life and in his work. Several characterize him as perceptive, wise, far-sighted and all-understanding. The author and fellow Siberian Dmitri Sergeev states that Vampilov had the wisdom of a mature person, yet the ingenuousness and inquisitiveness of a child. A trait of Vampilov's that impressed many was his faculty for succinct statement. One of Vampilov's oldest and closest friends was the writer Valentin Rasputin. They met in their first years at the university, worked together on the newspaper Soviet Youth, began to write stories at almost the same time, took part in discussions at the seminar for young writers in Chita in 1965, were accepted into the Union of Writers around the same time, and fairly often ended up on trips together. Rasputin comments on Vampilov's expressing himself in a way that compelled others to listen to him and on his enriching conversations by taking a non-standard approach to the subject at hand. Several times the adjectives "boyish" and "childlike" appear in the memoirs to describe Vampilov's behavior or his smile. His appearance too was youthful. Dmitri Sergeev states that Vampilov looked younger than his years and stood out in any gathering. Similarly, the playwright Aleksei Simukov admits that he was always struck by Vampilov's glance, which seemed to go right through people, accompanied always by the same slightly mocking, slightly embarrassed half-smile. A repeated refrain in the memoirs and biographical sketches concerns his ability to play the guitar. His mother writes that he was carried away by music, sports, and the drama circle in school and that he played the guitar and sang. Biographers note that Vampilov never parted from his guitar, and Simukov says that Vampilov played the guitar "strikingly"; others state that he sang excellently. Vampilov's taste in music was not confined, however, to popular songs. He loved classical music, especially Mozart, but also Beethoven and Glinka. Vampilov leaned towards the classics as well in his literary tastes. His mother writes that he read a lot, and she lists Pushkin, Lermontov, Chekhov, Esenin, and Tolstoy among his reading matter. Dmitri Sergeev tells us that Vampilov was familiar with a wide range of drama, both Russian and international, and contemporary and historical; and likewise had a broad knowledge of poetry, with a particular fondness for the verses of Tyutchev. Sergeev refers to Vampilov's attraction to Gogol and tells of an instance when Vampilov read Dostoevsky's Notes From the Underground and upon finishing the work immediately re-read it. Vladimir Zhemchuzhnikov claims that Vampilov's favorite authors were Gogol, Chekhov, Sukhovo-Kobylin, Naidenov and Bulgakov. Other writers, among many, whom Vampilov read are Proust and Hemingway and evidently he loved Anouilh. From these accounts it is clear that Vampilov had numerous and varied sources to draw on for inspiration. His eclectic style testifies to his having made effective use of what he read. He took elements from many sources and combined them with his own, original features to create a memorable body of plays and stories. See also The Elder Son (1976 film): Soviet two-part television adaptation of Vampilov's play The Elder Son (2006 film): American film loosely based on Vampilov's play References Works Farewell in June (Прощание в июне) (1966, rewritten 1970) The Elder Son (Старший сын) (1967) House, Overlooking the Field (Дом окнами в поле) Provincial Anecdotes (Провинциальные анекдоты) (1968, comprising the one-act plays An Incident with a Paginator (Случай с метранпажем) and Twenty Minutes with an Angel (Двадцать минут с ангелом)) Duck Hunting (Утиная охота) (1970) Last Summer in Chulimsk (Прошлым летом в Чулимске) (1972) "Прогулки по Кутулику". Советская молодежь 15, 17 August 1968: n.pag. Прощание в июне. Пьесы. Москва: Советский писатель, 1977 Белые города. Москва: Современник, 1979 Дом окнами в поле. Иркутск: Восточно-Сибирское книжное издательство, 1982 Избранное. 2nd ed. Москва: Искусство, 1984 Я с вами люди. Москва: Советская Россия, 1988 Избранное. Москва: Согласие, 1999 Last Summer in Chulimsk. Trans. Margaret Wettlin. In Nine Modern Soviet Plays. Ed. Victor Komissarzhevsky. Moscow: Progress, 1977. 467–542 The House With a View in the Field. Trans. A. Fyodorov. Soviet Literature 3 (1980), 140–48 The Elder Son. Trans. Maya Gordeyeva and Mike Davidow. In Five of the Best Soviet Plays of the 1970s. Moscow: Raduga, n.d., 282–323 Farewell in June: Four Russian Plays. Trans. Kevin Windle and Amanda Metcalf. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1983 Duck Hunting, Last Summer in Chulimsk. Trans. Patrick Miles. Nottingham: Bramcote Press, 1994 The Major Plays. Trans. Alma Law. Newark, NJ: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996 Bibliography Farber, Vreneli, Aleksandr Vampilov: An Ironic Observer (New York: Peter Lang, 2001) Farber, Vreneli, The Prose of Aleksandr Vampilov (New York: Peter Lang, 2003) Streltsova, Elena, Плен утиной охоты (Иркутск: Издание ГП "Иркутская областная типография No. 1", 1998) [Biography and analysis of Vampilov's works] Elizarova, E. D., comp. Александр Валентинович Вампилов: Библиографический Указатель, ed. L. A. Kazantseva and M.D. Sergeev (Иркутск:Редакционно-издательский отдел упрполиграфиздата, 1989) [Bibliographical index covering 1958–1986.] Zhikhareva, T. D., comp. Александр Валентинович Вампилов: Библиографический Указатель, ed. L. A. Kazantseva (Иркутск: Изд-во Иркутской областной публичной библиотеки имени И.И. Молчанова-Сибирского, 2000) [Bibliographical index covering 1987–1997.] Miles, Patrick. "Duck Hunting by Alexander Vampilov". International Dictionary of Theatre: Plays. Ed. Mark Hawkins-Dady. London: St James Press, 1992. 205–206. Miles, Patrick. "Aleksandr Vampilov: A Playwright Whose Time Is Now". British East-West Journal 99 (December 1994): 7–8. Miles, Patrick.Introduction. Duck Hunting, Last Summer in Chulimsk. By Aleksandr Vampilov. Trans. Patrick Miles. Nottingham: Bramcote Press, 1994. 7–9. Miles, Patrick. "Vampilov". International Dictionary of Theatre: Playwrights. London: St James Press, 1994. 992–994. External links 65th birth anniversary of famous writer, playwright Alexander Vampilov, Pravda, 19 August 2002. Also . http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_199609/ai_n8756041 Biographical article in Russian 1937 births 1972 deaths Soviet dramatists and playwrights Soviet male writers Buryat people People from Cheremkhovo, Irkutsk Oblast Accidental deaths in the Soviet Union Deaths by drowning in Russia Russian people of Buryat descent
5338312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein%20in%20popular%20culture	Frankenstein in popular culture	Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, and the famous character of Frankenstein's monster, have influenced popular culture for at least a century. The work has inspired numerous films, television programs, video games and derivative works. The character of the Monster remains one of the most recognized icons in horror fiction. Film derivatives Silent era The first film adaptation of the tale, Frankenstein, was made by Edison Studios in 1910, written and directed by J. Searle Dawley, with Augustus Phillips as Frankenstein, Mary Fuerte as Elizabeth, and Charles Ogle as the Monster. The brief (16 min.) story has Frankenstein chemically create the Creature in a vat. The Creature has encounters with the scientist until Frankenstein's wedding night, when true love causes the Creature to vanish. For many years, this film was believed lost. A collector announced in 1980 that he had acquired a print in the 1950s and had been unaware of its rarity. The Edison version was followed soon after by another adaptation entitled Life Without Soul (1915), directed by Joseph W. Smiley, starring William A. Cohill as Dr. William Frawley, a modern-day Frankenstein who creates a soulless man, played to much critical praise by Percy Standing, who wore little make-up in the role. The film was shot at various locations around the United States, and reputedly featured much spectacle. In the end, it turns out that a young man has dreamed the events of the film after falling asleep reading Mary Shelley's novel. This film is now considered a lost film. There was also at least one European film version, the Italian The Monster of Frankenstein (Il Mostro di Frankenstein) in 1921. The film's producer, Luciano Albertini, essayed the role of Frankenstein, with the Creature being played by Umberto Guarracino, and Eugenio Testa directing from a screenplay by Giovanni Drivetti. This film is also now considered lost. Universal Pictures The first sound adaptation of the story, Frankenstein (1931), was produced by Universal Pictures, directed by James Whale, and starred Boris Karloff as the creature. The film has been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. Its sequel, The Bride of Frankenstein (1935) was also directed by Whale with Karloff as the Creature. It was followed by Son of Frankenstein (1939), the last of the three films with Boris Karloff as the Creature. The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942) marked the Universal series' descent into B movie territory; later efforts by the studio combined two or more monsters, culminating in the comedy Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. The later Universal films in which the Monster appears (and the actors who played him) are: The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942 – Lon Chaney Jr.) Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943 – Béla Lugosi, with Eddie Parker, Gil Perkins, and a possible third stuntman often doubling) The House of Frankenstein (1944 – Glenn Strange) House of Dracula (1945 – Strange) Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948 – Strange, with Lon Chaney Jr. taking the role for one scene). Future reboot film For the reboot film, Guillermo del Toro said his Frankenstein would be a faithful "Miltonian tragedy", citing Frank Darabont's "near perfect" script, which evolved into Kenneth Branagh's Frankenstein. Del Toro said of his vision, "What I'm trying to do is take the myth and do something with it, but combining elements of Frankenstein and Bride of Frankenstein without making it just a classical myth of the monster. The best moments in my mind of Frankenstein, of the novel, are yet to be filmed ... The only guy that has ever nailed for me the emptiness, not the tragic, not the Miltonian dimension of the monster, but the emptiness is Christopher Lee in the Hammer films, where he really looks like something obscenely alive. Boris Karloff has the tragedy element nailed down but there are so many versions, including that great screenplay by Frank Darabont that was ultimately not really filmed." He has also cited Bernie Wrightson's illustrations as inspiration, and said the film will not focus on the monster's creation, but be an adventure film featuring the character. Del Toro said he would like Wrightson to design his version of the creature. The film will also focus on the religious aspects of Shelley's tale. In June 2009, del Toro stated that production on Frankenstein was not likely to begin for at least four years. Despite this, he has already cast frequent collaborator Doug Jones in the role of Frankenstein's monster. In an interview with Sci Fi Wire, Jones stated that he learned of the news the same day as everybody else; that "Guillermo did say to the press that he's already cast me as his monster, but we’ve yet to talk about it. But in his mind, if that's what he's decided, then it's done ... It would be a dream come true." The film will be a period piece. It is unclear what stage of development this film is in. Universal Studios later began the development of their own cinematic universe featuring their classic monsters. Variety reported that Academy Award-winner Javier Bardem was in negotiations to star as the Frankenstein Monster. The Dark Universe film was not made due to the failure of the 2017 film The Mummy. Hammer Films In Great Britain, a long-running series by Hammer Films focused on the character of Dr Frankenstein (usually played by Peter Cushing) rather than his monster. Peter Cushing played Dr Frankenstein in all of the films except for The Horror of Frankenstein, in which the character was played by Ralph Bates. Cushing also played a creation in The Revenge of Frankenstein. David Prowse played two different Creatures. The Hammer films are a series in the loosest sense since there is only tenuous continuity between the films after the first two (which are, by contrast, carefully connected). Starting with The Evil of Frankenstein, the films are standalone stories with occasional vague references to previous films, much the way the James Bond films form a series. In some of the films, the Baron is a kindly, even heroic figure, while in others he is ruthless, cruel and clearly the villain of the piece. The Hammer Films series (and the actor playing the Creature) consisted of: The Curse of Frankenstein (1957 – Christopher Lee) The Revenge of Frankenstein (1958 – two Creatures: Michael Gwynn and Peter Cushing) The Evil of Frankenstein (1964 – Kiwi Kingston) Frankenstein Created Woman (1967 – Susan Denberg) Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed (1969 – Freddie Jones) The Horror of Frankenstein (1970 – David Prowse) - a black comedy remake of The Curse of Frankenstein Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell (1974 – David Prowse) In 1959, Hammer shot a half-hour pilot episode for a TV series to be called Tales of Frankenstein in association with Columbia Pictures. Anton Diffring played the Baron, and Don Megowan his creation. Curt Siodmak directed. The series was scrapped, largely because of the two companies' disagreement over what the basic thrust of the series would be: Hammer wanted to do a series about Baron Frankenstein involved in various misadventures, while Columbia wanted a series of science fiction stories loosely based around the idea of science gone wrong. Though unreleased at the time of its production, the episode is available on DVD from several public domain sources. Other films Depictions of the Monster have varied widely, from a savage, mindless brute to the depiction of the Monster as a kind of tragic hero (closest to the Shelley version in behavior) in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, The Bride, and Van Helsing. Throughout the Universal series, he evolved from the latter to the former. Three films have depicted the genesis of the Frankenstein story in 1816: Gothic directed by Ken Russell (1986), Haunted Summer directed by Ivan Passer (1988), and Remando al viento (English title: Rowing with the Wind) directed by Gonzalo Suárez (1988). The opening scene of Bride of Frankenstein also dealt with this event. 1950s and 1960s 1957: American International Pictures (AIP) released the low-budget I Was a Teenage Frankenstein in November 1957, a few months after its successful I Was a Teenage Werewolf. In a desperate and vain attempt to be viewed as a great scientist, an unscrupulous professor creates a monster out of parts of teenagers killed in a car crash, then later directs his creation to kill a good-looking teenager to replace the monster's disfigured face. Whit Bissell stars as Professor Frankenstein, and Gary Conway plays the creature. A follow-up, How to Make a Monster, was released in July 1958. This film features actor Gary Conway as an actor playing the Teenage Frankenstein in a film. 1958: Another differing adaptation is the 1958 film Frankenstein 1970, which focuses on the themes of nuclear power, impotence, and the film industry. Boris Karloff stars as Baron Victor von Frankenstein, who harvests the bodies of actors to create a clone of himself using his nuclear-powered laboratory. His intention is to have this clone carry on his genes into future generations. 1958: This year also brought the bizarre Frankenstein's Daughter, in which a modern descendant of Frankenstein (Donald Murphy) experiments with a Jekyll/Hyde type of serum before stitching together a grotesque female creature. John Ashley and Sandra Knight co-starred. 1961: Frankenstein, el Vampiro y Cia ("Frankenstein, the Vampire and Company") is a Mexican remake of Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. 1965: Ishirō Honda's 1965 tokusatsu kaiju film Frankenstein vs. Baragon was produced by Toho Company Ltd. The film's prologue is set in World War II; the Monster's heart is stolen by Nazis from the laboratory of Dr. Reisendorf in war-torn Frankfurt, and taken to Imperial Japan. Immortal, the heart survives the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and, by 15 years later, has regenerated a new body which feeds on protein, eventually growing into a giant humanoid monster named Frankenstein that breaks loose and battles the burrowing dinosaur Baragon that was destroying villages and devouring people and animals. There is also a loose sequel to this film (see below). 1965: Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster. Martians come to Earth to steal Earth's women with the goal of repopulating their planet. When they cause a NASA space craft to crash, the humanoid robot pilot (Captain Frank Saunders) becomes horribly disfigured. Becoming a "Frankenstein"-like monster, he must save the women of Earth. 1966: Jesse James Meets Frankenstein's Daughter. Director William Beaudine's sci-fi\Western contribution has what would actually be Frankenstein's granddaughter, Maria Frankenstein, cobbling a monster out of Jesse James' (John Lupton) brawny partner-in-crime, Hank Tracy (Cal Bolder), after an ambush by the law. Frankenstein renames her creation Igor. Narda Onyx plays Maria Frankenstein. 1966: The War of the Gargantuas (Furankenshutain no Kaijû: Sanda tai Gaira), also directed by Honda, is a loose sequel to Frankenstein vs. Baragon (although this fact is obscured in the U.S. version), with samples of Frankenstein's cells growing into two giant humanoid brother monsters: Sanda (the Brown Gargantua), the strong and gentle monster raised by scientists in his youth, and Gaira (the Green Gargantua), the violent and savage monster who devours humans. The two monsters eventually battle each other in Tokyo. 1970s and 1980s 1971: Dracula vs. Frankenstein by Al Adamson is an extremely low-budget horror thriller, starring aged film stars J. Carroll Naish and Lon Chaney Jr. In the film, Count Dracula (Zandor Vorkov) has the last living descendant of Frankenstein (Naish) revive his famous ancestor's creation (played by John Bloom). 1971: The Italian La Figlia di Frankenstein ("The Daughter of Frankenstein"), released in North America as Lady Frankenstein. Joseph Cotten plays Baron Frankenstein, who is killed by his creation early in the film. Sara Bay, as the Baron's daughter, creates her own creature from a handsome young man and the brain of her homely but brilliant lover (Paul Muller). 1972: Jesús Franco contributed Dracula contra Frankenstein ("Dracula vs. Frankenstein"), which hit the North American drive-in circuit as Dracula, Prisoner of Frankenstein. Baron Frankenstein (played by Dennis Price) revives Count Dracula (Howard Vernon) in order to enslave an army of vampires to help his Monster (Fred Harrison) conquer the world. 1972: Franco followed up his Dracula/Frankenstein effort with The Erotic Rites of Frankenstein (also known as The Curse of Frankenstein, but having no relation to the Hammer film of the same name). Here, Baron Frankenstein (Dennis Price again) is killed off early on by minions of the evil Count Cagliostro (Howard Vernon), who wants to use the Monster in his plots to rule the world. 1972: Frankenstein '80, a film by Mario Mancini, featured a modern-day scientist named Albrechtstein (Gordon Mitchell) creating a monster called Mosaico (Xiro Papas). Mosaico is driven to homicidal mania by lust, and by his body's constant rejection of its constituent parts. The ingenue was played by Dalila Di Lazzaro (under the pseudonym "Dalila Parker"), who later appeared as the female creation in 1973's Flesh for Frankenstein (see below). 1973: Blackenstein, a low-budget blaxploitation film. 1973: Andy Warhol's Flesh for Frankenstein has Udo Kier playing the Baron, a bizarre but brilliant scientist who creates a male and a female creature in the hopes of breeding a superior race. Joe Dallesandro plays the handyman who attempts to thwart the Baron's mad dream, and Monique van Vooren is the Baron's nymphomaniac wife. 1974: Young Frankenstein, a comedy/horror film based on Boris Karloff's three Frankenstein films made by Universal. 1976: Victor Frankenstein (a.k.a. Terror of Frankenstein), a fairly faithful version of the book, starred Leon Vitali as Frankenstein. Per Oscarson played the creature. 1981: Another Japanese version, this one animated, was Kyofu Densetsu: Kaiki! Furankenshutain (titled in the U.S. simply Frankenstein) which was released in 1981. 1983: In Star Wars: Return of the Jedi, Darth Sidious's Force Lightning effects were based on the ones used in Frankenstein. 1984: Frankenstein's Great Aunt Tillie, a comedy film based in Transylvania. 1984: Frankenstein '90, a French film by Alain Jessua, with Jean Rochefort and Eddy Mitchell. 1985: The Bride was an adaptation directed by Franc Roddam. It stars Clancy Brown as the Monster, with rocker Sting as Dr. Charles Frankenstein. The plot features the Monster wandering about Europe with a tragic circus midget (David Rappaport) while the doctor himself engages in a Pygmalion-inspired relationship with a female creation, the eponymous Monster's Bride played by Jennifer Beals. A love triangle between the doctor, the Monster, and the Bride provides the film's conflict. 1987: The Monster Squad is a comedy/horror film written and directed by Fred Dekker that was released by TriStar Pictures. The film features the reunion of a number of classic movie monsters, led by Count Dracula and including the Frankenstein Monster (Tom Noonan), the Wolf Man, the Mummy, and the Gill-Man. 1990s and 2000s 1990: Frankenstein Unbound is a science fiction movie based on the novel by Brian Aldiss and the last movie directed by Roger Corman. In it, a scientist (John Hurt) travels back in time to meet Victor Frankenstein (Raúl Juliá) and his Creature, as well as Mary Shelley herself. 1992: In Frankenstein, directed and written by David Wickes, the Creature was not pieced together from body parts but a clone (of sorts) of Frankenstein himself, establishing a psychic bond between creator (Patrick Bergin) and Creature (Randy Quaid). A female Creature was nearly created the same way, using Elizabeth (Fiona Gillies) as the model. 1994: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was directed by Kenneth Branagh, who also portrayed Victor Frankenstein. It featured a star cast with Robert De Niro as the Monster, Tom Hulce as Henry, John Cleese as Professor Waldman, Helena Bonham Carter as Elizabeth, and Aidan Quinn as Captain Robert Walton. Despite the title, it still diverged from Mary Shelley's original novel in many ways. 2004: Van Helsing. This film is a reinvention of the famous Universal stable of monsters of the 1930s and 1940s. Shuler Hensley plays the Monster who, contrary to usual practice, is directly referred to by the name Frankenstein in the film's publicity, but he is named mostly in the film as "the Monster" or "the Creature". The portrayal of the Creature in this movie as intelligent, articulate, sympathetic, and as a hero who only wants to live, is somewhat close to the portrayal in the book. Physically, he is large and bulky, as opposed to his tall and thin portrayal in the classic films, and bears many physical features of Boris Karloff's portrayal, such as the bolted neck and flat head. He also has a visible brain and heart, which glow green and are protected under glass casings, and a large engine in his left leg. He plays a vital role in the birth of Dracula's numerous offspring through the combination of his "father's" machine that gave him life in the first place and the use of himself as a power source, allowing the numerous stillborn children Dracula has conceived with his brides over the centuries to be brought to life, requiring Van Helsing to kill Dracula himself in order to destroy the vampires' progeny. 2004: Frankenstein, a two-episode miniseries that is faithful to the novel. 2005: Frankenstein vs. the Creature from Blood Cove. In this film, Frankenstein's Monster is resurrected to fight terrorists along with a half-fish, half-man creature. However, the plan soon goes awry. 2006: Perfect Woman. This film, produced by Olympic Productions, is a modern spin on the tale. The plot follows a reality game show that is looking for the perfect woman to win the perfect man, played by Marcus Schenkenberg. Little do the girls know that the game show is a mask for an evil genius who is literally trying to make the perfect woman, using various body parts. 2006: Subject Two. This film, written and directed by Philip Chidel, has a modern nanotechnology spin on the tale. The plot follows a disillusioned medical student's journey to a remote snowbound mountain location where he is met by Dr. Vic. 2008: In Death Race, the Jason Statham character takes the place of a race car driver who goes by the name Frankenstein; the same character's beginnings are explored in the two direct-to-video prequels, Death Race 2 and Death Race 3: Inferno. 2009: Army of Frankensteins, This film is directed by Richard Raaphorst; the story tells over a fight in the year 1945 between the Polish and German borderlines at the end of the Second World War. 2011: "Frankenstein's Wedding – Live in Leeds": Broadcast live on BBC Three, this adaptation uses the romance between Victor and Elizabeth as a basis for a music drama portraying the rest of the story and was filmed live on 19 March 2011 at Kirkstall Abbey in Leeds. The drama used popular music, such as "Wires" by Athlete, sung by Andrew Gower, portraying the Scientist, Frankenstein. Other members of the cast included Lacey Turner as Elizabeth "Liz" Lavenza and David Harewood as the Creature 2010: Mary Shelley's Frankenhole 2011: Frankenstein: Day of the Beast is an independent American horror film directed by Ricardo Islas. 2012: In Hotel Transylvania, Frankenstein's Monster is one of the monsters to go check in at Hotel Transylvania. This film gives him the name Frank, and he is shown as the uncle of Dracula's daughter Mavis. He is voiced by Kevin James. His Bride appears as well and is given the name Eunice in the film. The Bride is voiced by Fran Drescher in the film. 2014: I, Frankenstein is a more action-based adaptation, which includes Frankenstein's monster, now named Adam, and a centuries-old feud between two immortal races. 2015: Victor Frankenstein tells the story from Igor's point of view. 2015: Bernard Rose's Frankenstein is a modern-set adaptation of the novel, with an emphasis on portraying elements which have not typically been included in screen adaptations, particularly the Monster's intelligence and organic (as opposed to reanimated) genesis. In the film, Victor Frankenstein and his wife Elizabeth create the Monster by manipulating DNA instead of reviving corpses, and the film unfolds from the Monster's point of view. 2019: Depraved is a modern adaptation of the novel written and directed by Larry Fessenden and centering on a soldier suffering from PTSD who creates life in a Brooklyn loft. Parodies and satires Between 1921 and 1922, H.P. Lovecraft wrote the serialized "Herbert West, Reanimator" in six parts, as a satirical send-up of Mary Shelley's original novel. In the Mighty Mouse's 1942 cartoon Frankenstein's Cat, a community of mice and birds are living and playing peacefully until the arrival of the title character: a mechanical cat who wants to eat everything that comes his way. In the 1964 cartoon Dr. Devil and Mr. Hare, a Frankenstein monster robot beats up both the Tasmanian Devil and Bugs Bunny. A 1965–1968 cartoon series featured the overly-nice Milton the Monster and "Fangenstein". In a 1968 episode of The Inspector entitled "Transylvania Mania", a smart Dracula-like character and a stupid Frankenstein-like creature try to steal the Inspector's brain to put it in a new creature that the vampire is building. The 1968 Beatles movie, Yellow Submarine, featured a scene with the Frankenstein Monster drinking a potion and becoming John Lennon. The 1970 cartoon Groovie Goolies featured Frankie, a friendly version of the Monster. Howard Morris did the voice work. Franken Berry (1971), the mascot of the General Mills cereal of the same name, is a friendly parody of the Monster (cartoon and movie clip versions of the actual Frankenstein Monster have appeared in some commercials). The Mel Brooks and Gene Wilder comedy Young Frankenstein (1974) borrows heavily from the first three Universal Frankenstein films, especially Son of Frankenstein. The production used many of James Whale's original laboratory set pieces and employed the technical contributions of their original creator, Kenneth Strickfaden. Wilder portrays Dr. Frankenstein's American grandson, Frederick, while Peter Boyle plays the Monster. A Turkish remake, Sevimli Frankestayn was released in 1975. Brooks later adapted his film for musical theater. The musical Young Frankenstein opened on Broadway in November 2007. The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975) was a musical parody of the story. In this twisted comedic tale, Dr. Frank N. Furter creates a creature for his own pleasure (named 'Rocky') and finds that his creature has heterosexual lusts as well. In the 1976 live action Saturday morning show, Monster Squad, three monster statues from a wax museum come to life to fight crime, Dracula, Bruce W. Wolf (a werewolf), and Frank N. Stein (Frankenstein's Monster). The monster was portrayed by Michael Lane The 1995 Disney Mickey Mouse short Runaway Brain features Mickey going to the nefarious Dr. Frankenollie and having his brain switched with a monster's. The 1982 young adult novel Frank and Stein and Me by Kin Platt has the protagonist meet the strange Dr. Stein and his hulking creature Frank while on the run from smugglers. In the novel Frank is described as an accident victim that Dr Stein has saved from death and rebuilt. The book features a running joke with Stein being confused by references to Frankenstein, being unfamiliar with the story. The 1985 teen comedy Weird Science stars two high school students, who are inspired by the original Universal film to create through a Memotech MTX512 home computer a virtual idealistic girlfriend, but the situation degennperates when they, hacking into a government mainframe for more power and engaging in a weird ritual, end up creating an actual girl. The film and the music video for the theme and the song of the same name by Oingo Boingo features a clip of the "It's Alive!" scene and frontman Danny Elfman doing an impression of Dr. Frankenstein in the music video. Frankenhooker (1990) is a parody of the Universal films in which Jeffrey Franken gathers body parts from various streetwalkers in order to build the "perfect" woman. This same concept was borrowed for 2006's Perfect Woman (mentioned above). The Tim Burton film Frankenweenie and it's 2012 remake bear many references to the Frankenstein story. A 2001 short film called Frankenthumb, directed by Steve Oedekerk, a parody of the 1931 film told with thumbs with superimposed faces and elaborate miniature sets. Return of the Killer Tomatoes (1988) includes a scene in which the lead character is watching a movie called Frankenstein's Mummy (as a spoof of the 1940s sequel titles) on nighttime television. Return also features a character named Igor who parodies the "hunchbacked assistant" cliche upon his first appearance in the film. Frank Enstein (1992) is a direct-to-video children's film about a robot named "Frank Enstein" who goes on an adventure. The Addams Family (2019) features a scene where Wednesday brings the dead frogs in science class back to life a la Dr. Frankenstein in a parody of the 1931 film. Television derivatives The Frankenstein story and its elements have been adapted many times for television: The anthology series Tales of Tomorrow (1951–53) featured a half-hour adaptation starring Lon Chaney Jr. as an atomically animated monster. The "Moosylvania" episode of Rocky and His Friends showed Boris and Natasha attempting to pass off some small Western town as Washington, D.C.—and the Capitol Building is topped off with a statue of Frankenstein's Monster. A 1959 Hammer Film Productions half-hour pilot episode called Tales of Frankenstein. Anton Diffring played the Baron, and Don Megowan his creation. Curt Siodmak directed. Boris Karloff reprised his role wearing the Frankenstein Monster makeup in a 1962 episode of Route 66 titled "Lizard's Leg and Owlet's Wing" for Halloween. Also appearing in the episode were Lon Chaney Jr. as both the Wolf Man and the Mummy, and Peter Lorre. Universal produced a television sitcom from 1964 to 1966 for CBS entitled The Munsters with Fred Gwynne as Herman Munster, a character physically resembling Universal's cinematic depiction of Frankenstein's Monster, who was the patriarch of a family of kindly monsters. The rest of the family included a grandfather resembling the Universal Dracula (who may actually be Dracula), a wife that resembles one of the Brides of Dracula, and a werewolf son. The Munsters' house at 1313 Mockingbird Lane can still be seen on the Universal Studios' backlot tour at Universal Studios in Universal City, California. In the 1960s series The Addams Family, the family butler was Lurch, who looked and behaved very much like the Creature. Asked about his father in an episode of The Addams Family (1992 TV series), Lurch smiled and replied, "He put me together!" His vocabulary was limited, much like Boris Karloff's creature, but he became iconic for the catchphrase, "You rang?" The 1965 Doctor Who serial The Chase features a sequence set in what appears to be a mysterious old house where various horror film monsters, including Frankenstein's Monster, menace first the Doctor and his companions and later the Daleks. The house is subsequently revealed to be a Haunted House exhibit at an event entitled the "Festival of Ghana, 1996" A 1976 Doctor Who serial, The Brain of Morbius, has a Time Lord criminal brought back to life by a mad scientist, using the Time Lord's brain and a body composed of various alien races who had crashed onto the planet where Morbius' brain had been stored since his defeat. The regeneration sequence of the seventh Doctor, Sylvester McCoy, into the eighth incarnation, Paul McGann, in the 1996 TV movie Doctor Who is set in a hospital morgue. The night attendant at the morgue is watching the 1931 Frankenstein in the next room, and scenes in which the monster is brought to life are intercut with images of the Doctor's "resurrection", his appearance out of the storage room then causing the attendant to pass out. In The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo episode "Doctor Frankenstein", the titular nearsighted Mr. Magoo plays the mad scientist Victor in what is surprisingly a semi-accurate adaptation to the original book by Mary Shelley, even for a kid's cartoon, with some notable similarities not featured in the 1931 film, such as featuring the Monster being intelligent, Captain Walton and writing Victor's story into a letter, the Monster saving the little girl, and the possibility of a race of Monster-like beings that could take over the world. Milton the Monster (1965–67) was a cartoon character developed shortly after The Munsters about a kind-hearted Frankenstein monster who famously "flipped his lid" (emitted steam out of the top of his head like a whale's blowhole) when angered, and who was constantly nearly kicked out of the lab by his scheming creator, Professor Weirdo. In the 1966 animated series Frankenstein Jr. and The Impossibles, a boy scientist Buzz Conroy and his father Professor Conroy fight supervillains with the aid of a powerful heroic robot named "Frankenstein Jr." who is like a mix between "Gigantor" and Frankenstein's Monster. The Gothic drama Dark Shadows featured a plotline running from April 1968 until December 1968 in which an artificial man named Adam is stitched together from corpses and reanimated using the life force of vampire Barnabas Collins. The 1968 Thames series Mystery and Imagination featured an adaptation starring Ian Holm as both Frankenstein and his creation. The 1970-71 Saturday morning cartoon series Groovie Goolies was a parody of both the Universal monsters and Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In. The leads were the Monster Trio of Drac, Wolfie, and Frankie, a friendly version of the Monster. Howard Morris did Frankie's voice. The 1971 Canadian series The Hilarious House of Frightenstein included a failed Frankenstein's-monster-like creation named Brucie who needed to be revived by Count Frightenstein in order to return from exile to Transylvania. Frankenstein's Monster was one of the monster trio from various skits on The Electric Company, portrayed by Skip Hinnant. Dan Curtis' 1973 adaptation had Robert Foxworth as Frankenstein and Bo Svenson as the Creature. A 1973 Universal production, Frankenstein: The True Story, was more an amalgamation of various concepts from previous films than a direct adaptation of the novel. It starred Leonard Whiting as Frankenstein and Michael Sarrazin as the Creature, with a star supporting cast including James Mason, David McCallum, John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Agnes Moorehead and Jane Seymour. "Dr. What's-his-name", an episode of the 1975 live action series The Ghost Busters, features a long-suffering Doctor Frankenstein whose goal is to make his gigantic, childlike Creature more obedient with the brain of "the world's most gullible fool". Spenser (Larry Storch), of course, is the world's most gullible fool... In the 1976 live-action Saturday morning show Monster Squad, three monster statues from a wax museum come to life to fight crime, Dracula, Bruce W. Wolf (a werewolf), and Frank N. Stein (Frankenstein's Monster). The monster was portrayed by Michael Lane. In an episode of Fantasy Island, Dr. Anne Frankenstein, a descendant of Dr. Frankenstein, visits the island to try to find out about her ancestor. A being created by the elder scientist appears, and Anne is determined to take the being with her, naively believing that it will be treated with proper care in the 1980s. CBS Television aired a 1979 series starring Jack Elam as Frank (the Monster) and Jeffrey Kramer as Ted Stein, a descendant of Dr. Frankenstein, called Struck by Lightning. In an episode of The World's Greatest Super Friends, the Super Friends battle Dr. Victor Frankenstein and three of his monsters, one with all of the powers of Superman, Wonder Woman and Batman. The 1980s cartoon Drak Pack featured Frankie, a descendant of the Monster who could assume his form as a superhero guise. One of Arale's classmates in Dr. Slump was named Monsuta (a.k.a. Frank). A 1984 Yorkshire Television version starring Robert Powell as Victor, David Warner as his Creature, and Carrie Fisher as the doomed Elizabeth. An episode of The Catillac Cats has Riff Raff as a mad scientist about to be beaten up by Mungo/Frankenstein's Monster. In Dragonball, young Goku befriends a cyborg named Number 8 (whom he nicknames Ha-chan) who was similar in appearance to Frankenstein's Monster. (1987) In The Comic Strip, he has a son named Franky who attends Camp Mini Mon. In the Scooby-Doo television movie Scooby-Doo and the Ghoul School, Scooby, Shaggy and Scrappy-Doo meet the daughters of several monsters at "Miss Grimwood's School for Girls". One of the 'girl ghouls' (as they are called in the movie) is named Elsa Frankenteen, her father being Frankenteen Sr. Frankenteen Sr. is the best representation of Boris Karloff's creature, with his daughter more closely resembling Elsa Lanchester's interpretation of the Bride of Frankenstein. "Frankenteen" is also a portmanteau of "Frankenstein" and "teen" because Elsa is a teenager. The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh episode "Frankenpooh" is a parody in which Pooh is the Monster and Piglet is the scientist who made him. In The Simpsons 2003 installment of the Treehouse of Horror series, Treehouse of Horror XIV, there is a segment entitled "Frinkenstein", whereby Professor Frink uses his universal multi-tool to resurrect his dead father, who then goes on a rampage stealing organs from others until his son is forced to kill him. In Treehouse of Horror XVIII, Bart wears a costume resembling the Monster. In Treehouse of Horror XX, he appears as one of the monsters at Homer and Marge's Halloween party wearing modern costumes after being teased by Jimbo, Kearney and Dolph, and in Treehouse of Horror XXI as the monster Frink created in his lab. Also in Treehouse of Horror III, Lewis is wearing a Halloween costume of the Monster at the Halloween party with Bart and Lisa. As played by Phil Hartman, the Monster was also a popular recurring comedic character on Saturday Night Live in the early 1990s, often delivering the line, "Fire bad!" The 1995 Fox "Tiny Toon Adventures" special Tiny Toons' Night Ghoulery offers about a dozen shorts introduced in the style of the 1970s program Night Gallery, with Babs Bunny stepping in for Rod Serling. One of the segments, "Frankenmyra & Dizzigor", is a parody of Frankenstein. An episode of Darkwing Duck had a spoof called "Steerminator" in which dead supervillain Taurus Bulba is rebuilt into a cyborg. A 1992 production for the American TNT cable network, with Patrick Bergin as Victor and Randy Quaid as his hapless creation. An episode of Goof Troop had a spoof called "Frankengoof"; despite the title, the monster is a mirror image of Black Pete. There were two instances where the concept of Frankenstein's Monster was used in the Super Sentai and Power Rangers series. In Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger, the monster Dora Frank was an obvious nod to the Monster, as well as its Mighty Morphin Power Rangers counterpart, which was simply referred to as the "Frankenstein Monster". Then, in Mahou Sentai Magiranger one of the main villains, Victory General Branken, was inspired by Frankenstein's Monster. Branken's Power Rangers: Mystic Force counterpart was Morticon. In a 1993 episode of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Frankenstein's Monster was created by Rita Repulsa to destroy the rangers. A season five episode of The X-Files, "The Post-Modern Prometheus" retold the Frankenstein legend updated with genetic engineering technology. The episode, the only one of the series filmed exclusively in black and white, was inspired by the film adaptations of the legend; the creature, shunned by the mad scientist who created him, seeks a mate in a small town. In the 1994 animated series Monster Force, Frankenstein's Monster, alias "Frankenstein" or "the Monster", becomes humanity's ally in a desperate fight against evil Creatures of the Night. The comedy series called Weird Science (1994–98) was inspired by the Frankenstein storyline (just as the 1985 film of the same name was). The series follows the adventures of two high school students who design their "perfect" woman simulation by filling their computer with various forms of data and images, which is accidentally turned into life after a freak lightning storm. "Frankenbone", a 1995 episode of the PBS children's series Wishbone, had an adaptation of Shelley's novel that stayed true to the original story with the canine star in the role of Victor and Matthew Tompkins as the Monster. The Animaniacs episode "Phranken-Runt", featuring Rita and Runt, parodied both the overall Frankenstein plot and elements of The Rocky Horror Picture Show. The 1996-98 Fox Kids series Big Bad Beetleborgs (later Beetleborgs Metallix) featured a "hulking stitched-up" character named Frankenbeans, "brought to life" by David Fletcher. The zany character owes a great debt to Herman Munster and Peter Boyle in Young Frankenstein. Strangely, the character is celebrated every year on the Thursday before the last Friday of October on a day called Frankenbeans Thursday. The children's animated series Arthur has an episode depicting a reenactment of the night the novel was created. Titled Fernkenstein's Monster, it was described as: "Inspired by Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Fern tells a tale so scary that Arthur and the gang become afraid of her. Can Fern prove her skills as a writer and create a different story that's fun instead of frightening?" Nightmare! The Birth of Horror (U.S. title: Nightmare! The Birth of Victorian Horror) was a BBC miniseries with Professor Christopher Frayling. There were four episodes on classic horror tales: Dracula, Frankenstein, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and The Hound of the Baskervilles. Each episode began on looking at the author's nightmares or encounters with the nightmarish and how it inspired their novel. Buffy the Vampire Slayer has also faced "Frankensteinian" creations. In the season 2 episode "Some Assembly Required, the creation was Darryl Epps, a reanimated high school jock whose brother reanimated him after an accident, but after his brother refused to complete a project to create a bride for him as the rapid decay rate of brain tissue would have required him to actually kill someone, Darryl allowed himself to die in a fire rather than have to live alone. The season 4 Big Bad was Adam, a conglomeration of robot, human, and demon parts created by a government scientist in charge of a demon research facility who rebelled against his creator, whom he referred to as 'Mother', mirroring the statements of the Creature, who believed that Frankenstein should have been a better father, and tried to create a new society of creatures like him before he was destroyed. In the Histeria! episode "Super Writers", at the end of a sketch about Edgar Allan Poe publishing "The Raven", Mary Shelley appears (portrayed by Charity Bazaar dressed as the Bride of Frankenstein) to pitch the book to Sammy Melman. An episode of SpongeBob SquarePants called "Frankendoodle" involves SpongeBob using a human artist's "magic pencil" to create a living, evil doodle of himself. The 2000 anime television series Argento Soma draws a large amount of inspiration from Frankenstein. The series' plotline revolves around an ambitious scientist assembling a giant silver creature from scattered components. The giant (aptly nicknamed "Frank") possesses a tender and compassionate nature but has a bizarre and hideous exterior and the potential to inflict death and destruction. In the Halloween special of another Nickelodeon series, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Jimmy's invention, the Neutronic Monster Maker, features Frankenstein's monster as one of the choices. Jimmy's father, Hugh, undergoes such mutation turning him into a Frankenstein's Monster-like being after mistaking the machine for a game he calls "Name that Monster". The Duck Dodgers episode "Castle High" revolved around the main character explaining to I.Q. High what had happened to his castle, the flashback based on the story. A 2004 production titled Frankenstein for the American USA Network starred Thomas Kretschmann as Victor and Vincent Pérez as his original creature, named "Deucalion" (because he was the "son" of the "Modern Prometheus". It was not a direct adaptation but a postmodern Gothic reinvention set in present-day New Orleans. The Monster was a recurring character on Late Night with Conan O'Brien (played by Brian Stack), mainly in the segment "Frankenstein Wastes a Minute of Our Time" and as a Jewish character. The Cartoon Network series Robot Chicken featured a Frankenstein parody character called "Frank Enstein". In Ben 10, Transylians are a race of electrokinetic aliens from Anur Transyl that resemble Frankenstein's Monster, with Frankenstrike (formerly known as Benvicktor) as their DNA sample for the Omnitrix. In the series Kamen Rider Kiva, Dogga's race, the Franken, is an obvious nod to the Monster, along with Kiva's Dogga form. In the original Transformers episode "Autobot Spike", Sparkplug Witwicky creates an Autobot using mismatched robot parts that he names Autobot X, but the robot is a mindless monster and goes berserk. Later, Spike Witwicky is injured and his consciousness is transferred to the giant robot body. Spike makes several direct references to the invention as a "robot Frankenstein Monster". Also, the character of Rampage in the Transformers: Beast Wars series has a great many similarities to Frankenstein's Monster, especially his origins as a product of science gone horribly wrong; the main differences are his status as an irredeemable psychopath and that his body was not created by piecing others together. In a later episode, Megatron's cloning of Dinobot bears a strong resemblance to the creation of the Monster. In an episode of Time Warp Trio entitled Nightmare on Joe's Street, Mary Shelley accidentally draws her first impression of the Monster in The Book, causing her dream to become a reality. Unlike typical versions of the Creature, which have one-colored complexions, this render of the Monster is seen with patchwork-colored skin, signifying his construction from various corpse parts. In The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! episode "Koopenstein", Bowser (under the guise of Dr. Koopenstein) plans to use Mario and Luigi's brains for a robotic Koopa Troopa he has made, but through the result of a horrific accident, he mutates into a Frankenstein's Monster-esque version of himself and proceeds to rampage through a nearby village. A live action segment from another episode, titled "The Mario Monster Mash", features Mario and Luigi meeting Dr. Frankenstein (played by Eugene Liebowitz) and his Monster, where a laboratory mishap causes Mario's brain to be switched with the Monster's. In a 15-minute episode of Sonic the Hedgehog, Rotor the Walrus, assisted by Antoine, creates a robot named Ro-Becca. Antoine accidentally activates Ro-Becca and she falls in love with him. Two segments from Braingames showed Frankenstein's monster. One was "Splatnarnt", in which two scientists assembling a Frankenstein's-monster-like creature using interior body parts whose names were scrambled; the idea was for the viewer to unscramble the names. The other was "Whosamawhatchamacallits", in which Frankenstein's Monster was the last character portrayed in the game. An animated segment on Sesame Street showed a mad doctor bringing to life a Frankenstein Monster-like creature that was actually a capital letter H. Dr. Frankenstein and Frankenstein's Monster appeared in Mad Monster Party?, Mad Mad Mad Monsters and Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet Frankenstein, while Frankenstein's Monster appeared in Scooby-Doo and the Reluctant Werewolf. An ITV modern adaptation simply titled Frankenstein was aired on 24 October 2007, where a mother uses lab equipment to try to create a "body of organs" for her dying eight-year-old son. The fifth-season episode of Highlander: The Series titled The Modern Prometheus has Mary Shelley draw her inspiration from two immortals battling during the long winter in the Swiss Alps. Upon seeing Byron (in the series secretly an Immortal) restored to life by lightning, she asks Methos why her child rots in her grave while Byron simply gets up and walks away. Methos admonishes her to pity their kind, for life can go on when it should not. The isolation he describes enables Shelley to write her classic. In the Star Trek:The Next Generation episode "Thine Own Self", android Lt. Commander Data suffers amnesia as a result of a power surge and is misunderstood as a monster by natives of a primitive society. Two animated segments from Sesame Street teaching basic geography were hosted by Dr. Geo and his Frankenstein-like unnamed assistant who would mimic everything Geo said behind his back. One segment talked about the concept of a globe and the other about mountains. In a season 3 episode of the NBC television series Chuck, Chuck refers to John Casey as "Trank-enstein", due to the NSA colonel's love of weaponry (in this case, tranquilizer darts) and typical brutish mannerisms. In the Adult Swim animated series Minoriteam, the title characters frequently fought an opponent named Racist Frankenstein. Frankenstein's Monster and the Bride of Frankenstein's Monster are the father and mother of Frankie Stein in Monster High. Frankenstein's Wedding was a live television adaptation broadcast on BBC Three on 19 March 2011. 2009: Wizards of Waverly Place, episode 1 season 3 "Franken Girl", Justin's monster. In an episode of the cartoon series The Venture Bros., entitled "¡Viva los Muertos!", Dr. Venture reanimates the corpse of a Monarch henchman killed by Brock Samson, naming the creature "Venturestein". In the television series Once Upon a Time, David Anders plays the mysterious Dr. Whale who is revealed to be the "real life" counterpart of Dr. Victor Frankenstein in season 2. Episode 7x07 of Criminal Minds deals with a serial killer who murders young men and removes their body parts in an attempt to build a new body for his deceased brother. In the anime/manga Soul Eater, Professor Frank N. Stein is a teacher and meister at the DWMA (Death Weapon Meister Academy). In 2014, PBS and Pemberley Digital created a webseries based on the original novel, called Frankenstein, M.D.; the series brings the story to modern days, following the medical student who subsequently becomes Doctor Victoria Frankenstein. In the Supernatural season 10 episode "Dark Dynasty", Eldon Styne reveals that his family, the Styne Family and the main enemies of Book of the Damned, Dark Dynasty and The Prisoner are in actuality members of the House of Frankenstein, one of the oldest families in Europe. Victor Frankenstein, the Creature and the Bride are major characters of the Showtime series Penny Dreadful. In the television series Grimm, the sixth season episode "The Son Also Rises" features a group of scientists attempting to bring the son of one of their number back to life in a Frankenstein-esque experiment, but their work goes wrong when the reanimated body was created using the body parts taken from dead wesen, causing an extreme reaction that provokes the scientists to try and kill him, prompting the boy to go after them in revenge. In the first episode of the animated television series VeggieTales, "Where's God When I'm S-Scared?", the plot of the first story revolves around Junior Asparagus's fear of an in-universe version of Frankenstein's Monster called "Frankencelery." The Halloween episode of Animaniacs (2020 TV series) had a segment parodying Frankenstein called "Bride of Pinky", in which Dr. Brainenstein builds a female monster in a plan to take over his village, only for Pee-Gor to fall in love with her. Phineas and Ferb had a Frankenstein parody in "The Monster of Phineas-and-Ferbenstein" in which the boys' ancestors build a giant monster version of Perry. Also, the episodes "One Good Scare Ought to Do It!" and "That's the Spirit!" both feature Ferb dressed as Frankenstein's Monster, with Phineas dressed as Dr. Frankenstein in the former. In the Mickey Mouse (TV series) Halloween special "The Scariest Story Ever!", the first story Mickey tries to scare his and Donald's nephews with is a parody of Frankenstein, with Goofy, Donald and Mickey as Dr. Goofenstein, Duckor and the Monster, respectively. Both of the TV shows Mister Magoo and The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo had adaptations of Frankenstein. In the Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (TV series), there is an episode called “Flintenstein” when Flint Lockwood and the class watch the original Frankenstein movie. However, Flint is disappointed as he considers it to be “Hollywood science”, as Flint believes that Dr. Victor Frankenstein in the movie does not behave the way normal scientists would and says he makes other inventors look bad. However, to prove it is actual science, he just grabs whatever junk he can find in the lab and then Flint's creation comes to life after the lab is struck by a lightning bolt. However, Flint's monster is really kind and friendly and calls him “Daddy”, despite Flint trying his best to prove that this monster is not his son. After hanging out though, Flint feels close to his creation until the citizens of Swallow Falls form a mob and try to get rid of him. By the end, however, Flint has to transport his creation into another universe with a portal machine and finds a lover. Both versions of Wacky Races have a parody of the Monster as half of the Gruesome Twosome. Other derivatives Music The 1962 novelty song "Monster Mash" is narrated by a Dr. Frankenstein-like character, who talks about his Monster learning a new dance. "Frankenstein" is a 1973 instrumental by the Edgar Winter Group - so named because it was constructed from bits and pieces of several different takes. The video for Yazoo's song "Don't Go" featured a Frankenstein theme. In the video for her 1983 song "Telephone (Long Distance Love Affair)", Sheena Easton is pursued through a haunted house by Frankenstein's Monster. In The Dead Milkmen video "Big Time Operator" lead singer Rodney is depicted as FrankenElvis. For their 1987 single, "Doin' It All for My Baby", Huey Lewis and the News used a Frankenstein theme in a video performance. The lyrics of T'Pau's 1987 song "China in Your Hand" reference Frankenstein. "Frankenstein" is a song by funk metal band Clutch from Pure Rock Fury. "Dr. Stein", a song produced by the power metal band Helloween for their 1988 album Keeper of the Seven Keys, Pt. 2, is based on Victor Frankenstein and his Monster. Hillbilly Frankenstein was the name of a band formed in 1988 in Athens, Georgia. Rock musician Alice Cooper recorded a song titled "Teenage Frankenstein" for his 1986 album Constrictor, and recorded "Feed My Frankenstein" for his 1991 album Hey Stoopid. The latter song was also featured in the 1992 film Wayne's World. Electric Frankenstein is an American punk rock band from New Jersey. Frankenstein Drag Queens From Planet 13, a horror punk band formed in North Carolina in 1996. How I Made This, the multimedia musical composition of Ukrainian-born Russian composer Evgeni Kostitsyn, won first place at the First International Competition for Composers in the Ukraine in 1998. Sam Cooke's song "Another Saturday Night" includes a verse that goes: "Another fellow told me / He had a sister who looked just fine. / Instead of being my deliverance, she had a strange resemblance / To a cat [guy] named Frankenstein." Frankenstein Girls Will Seem Strangely Sexy is the title of a 2000 album by the band Mindless Self Indulgence. "Frankenstein" is a song by American metal band Iced Earth from their 2001 album Horror Show, which features songs themed after classic movie monsters. "Some Kind of Monster" is a 2004 song by Metallica which uses themes from Frankenstein. "Jesse James meets Frankenstein's Daughter" is a song by American Folk musician Space Mandino. The Rammstein song "Mutter" is about a monster that kills its creator or mom in this case. The musical The Rocky Horror Picture Show includes a song called "There's A Light (Over At The Frankenstein Place)" The Abby Travis music video for her 2011 single Lightning Squared is a cartoon parody of the Frankenstein story, with the Monster and his Bride as doomed lovers forever on the run from an angry mob. The punk band Crass referenced Frankenstein in the song "Reject of Society". Dr. Frankenstein a concept album/rock opera written by Cuban/Mexican musician José Fors, was based on both the original novel and James Whale's films. It was released in 2009. East Bay hardcore punk band The Nerve Agents included a song called "Planet Frankenstein" on a split EP they released in collaboration with New York hardcore punk band Kill Your Idols in 2000. Toy Love released a 1980 single, "Bride of Frankenstein". The German band Oomph!'s song "Brennende Liebe" details a sort of Frankenstein scenario, and the video features Frankenstein, his wife, and the scientist and his associates. The rock band Glass Wave included a song about Frankenstein's Monster (entitled "Creature") on their 2010 album. The lyrics are sung through the Creature's voice. Kevin Max's song "Jumpstart Your Electric Heart", from his 2005 album The Imposter is a modern-day retelling of Shelley's Frankenstein. In the "Weird Al" Yankovic song parody, "Perform This Way", Frankenstein was mentioned on the lyrics. Pop singer Chisu released a single titled "Frankenstein" in 2012 with Finnish lyrics. It was also used as the theme song for a dark comedy TV series in Finland, Helsingin herra, in 2012. Bob Dylan's 2020 song "My Own Version of You", featuring a narrator who wants to "bring someone to life" using the body parts of disparate corpses, was inspired by Shelley's novel and makes several explicit references to it in the lyrics. In their song "Maniac" from the EP Oddinary (2022), Stray Kids encourages listeners to embrace the odd sides in themselves and show how maniac they can be using the metaphor of Frankenstein. They included the Frankenstein reference in their lyrics, choreography, and promotional photos. In Swedish House Mafia and ASAP Rocky's "Frankenstein" from Paradise Again, ASAP Rocky compares himself and frequent collaborator Tyler, the Creator to Victor Frankenstein and Igor, respectively, the latter of whom has an album called Igor which refers to the character's archetype. Radio On August 3, 1931, Alonzo Dean Cole adapted the novel as a 30-minute episode of his program The Witch's Tale. It was redone on March 7, 1932 and July 17, 1935. In 1932, George Edwards produced a 13-part, 3-hour series for radio. It follows the structure and spirit of the novel closely. On January 8, 1944 it was adapted as a 30-minute drama on the syndicated program The Weird Circle. On December 13, 1947 it was adapted as a 30-minute drama on the program Favorite Story. In 1952, an adaptation was broadcast on NBC Presents: Short Story. A 30-minute drama version was broadcast on Suspense on November 3, 1952 starring Herbert Marshall and again on June 7, 1955 starring Stacy Harris. In 1994, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a two-part adaptation written by Nick Stafford and directed by Claire Grove, with Michael Maloney as Frankenstein and John Wood as the Creature. In 1999, the Radio Tales drama series presented an adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel for National Public Radio. In 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a two-part adaptation as part of their Gothic Imagination series written by Lucy Catherine and directed by Marc Beeby, with Jamie Parker as Frankenstein, Shaun Dooley as the Monster and Susie Riddell as Elizabeth. In 2014, Big Finish Productions released an audio version by Jonathan Barnes directed by Scott Handcock starring Arthur Darvill as Victor Frankenstein, Nicholas Briggs as Waldman/the Creature, Geoffrey Beevers as Alphonse Frankenstein/DeLacey, Georgia Tennant as Elizabeth and Terry Molloy. Parodies have been broadcast on radio: On January 12, 1945 Boris Karloff guest-starred on Duffy's Tavern and appeared in a parody of Frankenstein. On January 27, 1957 The Goon Show broadcast The Curse of Frankenstein (which actually had nothing to do with the Frankenstein story except for the title). On March 10, 1968 the BBC Radio comedy series Round the Horne broadcast as part of its "Movies Gone Wrong" segment "Frankenstein's Monster". On August 7, 2008, in the Bleak Expectations episode "A Happy Life, Cruelly Re-Kippered", the antagonist Gently Benevolent is brought back to life using electricity by the mad scientist Francis Norman 'Frank N.' Sternbeater, one of many of Benevolent's step-siblings who serve as his evil accomplices. On November 20, 2014, in Series 4 Episode 6 of the BBC Radio comedy series John Finnemore's Souvenir Programme, when Finnemore's storyteller character is invited to Castle Krupenstein for a scientific demonstration, he is greeted by a slow, groaning character (voiced by Simon Kane) who he believes is 'Krupenstein's monster', but who is in fact her husband. Dr. Gretchen Krupenstein is revealed to have invented a time machine, not a means of reanimation. Stage Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein, written by Richard Brinsley Peake, was produced at the English Opera House in London in 1823. Frankenstein, or The Vampire's Victim is an 1887 musical burlesque composed by Meyer Lutz and written by Richard Henry. Frankenstein is an experimental theatre play created by The Living Theater, a company founded in 1947 and originally based in New York, but mainly touring in Europe in the late 1960s. A Broadway adaptation of the story by Victor Gialanella played for one performance on January 4, 1981 (after 29 previews) and was considered the most expensive non-musical flop ever produced to that date. However, the New York Times writer Carol Lawson observed that "critics have remarked that Mr. (Bran) Ferren's work on this play (the special effects and sound designer), which included the spectacular destruction of Dr. Frankenstein's laboratory by his Monster, had the lavishness that audiences have come to expect in films, but have never before seen in the theater." It is noteworthy for John Carradine's playing the part of the blind "DeLacey". Also starring were David Dukes as "Victor Frankenstein", Dianne Wiest as "Elizabeth", John Glover as "Henry Clervel", and Keith Joachim as "the Creature". The Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis commissioned Barbara Field to write a response/adaptation to Shelley's novel. The play, called "Frankenstein - Playing with Fire," went on a national tour in early 1988 before playing at the Guthrie during the summer of 1988. The Guthrie restaged the play in September–October 2018. Catalyst Theatre's musical adaptation premiered in 2007 in Edmonton and had subsequent productions in Banff (Eric Harvie Theatre), Vancouver (The Cultch), Saskatoon (Persephone Theatre), Calgary (Theatre Calgary/High Performance Rodeo), Whitehorse (Yukon Arts Centre), and Toronto (Canadian Stage). Book, music and lyrics by Jonathan Christenson, from the original novel. Joined At The Heart is a musical with music and lyrics by Graham Brown and Geoff Meads, book by Frances Anne Bartam and directed by Frances Brownlie. It tells the love story of Victor Frankenstein and his step-sister Elizabeth, a young orphan girl taken in by Victor's parents and cared for as if she were their own daughter. When Victor's mother dies, he vows to end the suffering that death brings by pursuing eternal life. Joined At The Heart reached the final of the Worldwide Search for Musicals competition. The show was produced at The Junction 2 in Cambridge, UK from 1–4 August 2007 and at the Edinburgh Fringe in Scotland from 12–18 August 2007. Young Frankenstein, a musical theatre adaptation of Mel Brooks' Young Frankenstein, opened in November 2007 and closed in January 2009. Frankenstein - A New Musical, a pop-opera adaptation which adhered closely to the original novel, opened at 37 Arts Theatre, New York, in autumn 2007 and closed in December 2007. The first UK performance was at The Stables Theatre Hastings in May 2009. Music was by Mark Baron, book by Jefferey Jackson and Gary P. Cohen. A performance storytelling production of Frankenstein is currently touring both in the UK and internationally. It is performed by storyteller Ben Haggarty and the composer, singer and musician Sianed Jones. Frankenstein, a play adapted by Nick Dear from the original novel, premiered at the Royal National Theatre in 2011. This production originally starred Benedict Cumberbatch and Jonny Lee Miller alternating in the roles of Victor Frankenstein and the Creature. A recording of the performance was broadcast live in cinemas worldwide in March 2011. It was later produced in the Sydney Opera House and the Denver Center for the Performing Arts. A Korean musical adaptation of the book, written and directed by Wang Yong-beom and songs by Lee Seong-joon, premiered on March 11, 2014. The show achieved unprecedented level of success for an original domestic production, and it has since been produced in Japan and China as well. Each country's top stars, such as Park Eun Tae and Akinori Nakagawa have been in it. FRANKENSTEIN, a musical theatre adaptation by Eric B. Sirota (book, music and lyrics) opened at St. Luke's Theatre, an Off-Broadway venue in NYC on Oct. 9, 2017, and continued to run there into its fourth calendar year until the pandemic. It is described as "a sweeping romantic musical about the human need for love and companionship." The Royal Ballet's production of Frankenstein in collaboration with San Francisco Ballet was produced and choreographed by Liam Scarlett, score by Lowell Liebermann and costume and set by John Macfarlane, with Federico Bonelli as Victor, Laura Morera as Elizabeth and Steven Mcrae as 'the Creature' on opening night. It was also broadcast live to cinemas on 18 May 2016. The production premiered 4 May 2016 and the run lasted until 24 May 2016. The ballet is being revived for the first time in the 2018/2019 season from the 5–23 March 2019 with a run of nine shows. Novels The story of Frankenstein and "Frankenstein's monster", has formed the basis of many original novels over the years, some of which were considered sequels to Shelley's original work, and some of which were based more upon the character as portrayed in the Universal films. Yet others were completely new tales inspired by Frankenstein. 1913: Edgar Rice Burroughs' The Monster Men features a scientist going to a remote Indonesian island, there to try to create an artificial human being. He actually creates no less than thirteen of them - but there are many problems. 1957: French screenwriter Jean-Claude Carrière wrote six Frankenstein novels in 1957 and 1958 for Angoisse, the horror imprint of publisher Fleuve Noir, under the house pseudonym of Benoît Becker (with plotting assistance from Guy Bechtel for the first novel). 1. La Tour de Frankenstein [The Tower of Frankenstein] (FNA No. 30, 1957) 2. Le Pas de Frankenstein [The Step of Frankenstein] (FNA No. 32, 1957) 3. La Nuit de Frankenstein [The Night of Frankenstein] (FNA No. 34, 1957) 4. Le Sceau de Frankenstein [The Seal of Frankenstein] (FNA No. 36, 1957) 5. Frankenstein Rôde [Frankenstein Prowls] (FNA No. 41, 1958) 6. La Cave de Frankenstein [The Cellar of Frankenstein] (FNA No. 50, 1959) Carrière followed the footsteps of the Monster, christened Gouroull, as he made his way back from Iceland, to Scotland, and then Germany and Switzerland, from the late 1800s to the 1920s. The plots have the Monster pursuing his own evil agenda, unafraid of the weaker humans. Even people who try to help or reason with him are just as likely to be killed by the inhuman fiend. Two further novels were published in the series by Black Coat Press. The books, The Quest of Frankenstein and The Triumph of Frankenstein, were written by Frank Schildiner. 1972: Popular Library published a series of nine novels called The Frankenstein Horror Series. Despite the title of the series, only the first book, The Frankenstein Wheel (catalog #01544), by Paul W. Fairman, actually concerns the further exploits of Frankenstein's creation. The remaining eight books were unrelated stories using different horror themes. 1973: Frankenstein Unbound, by Brian Aldiss, combining the titles of Mary Shelley's novel with Percy Bysshe Shelley's Prometheus Unbound (1820), sends a time traveler from the 21st century back to Geneva in 1816, when Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (as she was known then) was engaged in writing the original Frankenstein story. 1975: Robert J. Myers wrote a sequel to Shelley's novel called The Cross of Frankenstein (), in which the illegitimate son of Victor Frankenstein finds the Creature alive and well and plotting the destruction of mankind in the wilds of America in 1816. Myers followed up the novel in 1976 with a second novel called The Slave of Frankenstein (), where racism is added to the Creature's long list of sins as Frankenstein's illegitimate son again thwarts his plans to create a race of perfect slaves in the pre-Civil War America of 1859. A third novel in the series was announced, but never published. 1978: Allan Rune Pettersson wrote two novels in 1978 and 1989 Frankenstein's Aunt Frankenstein's Aunt Returns 1986: In The Frankenstein Papers, Fred Saberhagen retells Shelley's story (with significant modifications) from the Monster's point of view. It is revealed that the novel had actually taken place during the American Revolution and Benjamin Franklin and his son play a major role in the novel. It is revealed through a series of letters, as well as the Monster's journal, that the Monster is actually an amnesiac humanoid alien who was disfigured by the electric explosion used in Victor's experiments, and that the creature that Victor had stitched together never in fact came to life. It is also revealed that Victor had performed the experiments under the behest of the sinister British nobleman Roger Seville, who had wished to create a race of supermen so as to form a colony of slaves and to defeat the American rebels. It is also implied that Seville and his hunchbacked assistant Small had murdered Victor's family in order to blackmail him, and that the novel was actually written by Robert Walton (who wanted to profit from the slave business) as a means to spread distrust to the Monster. However, Benjamin rescues the alien and helps him regain his memory with the help of Cagliostro; the book ends with the alien departing Earth, and deciding that, despite the cruelty men like Seville are capable of, men like Benjamin Franklin are the true examples of the human race. 1986: In Stephen King's It, the monster "It" takes the form of Frankenstein's Monster. 1986: Margaret Tarner wrote an adaptation of the novel for elementary students as part of the Macmillan Readers series from Macmillan Publishers (). An audiobook of this version was published in 1992 (). 1994: Leonore Fleischer wrote a novelization of the Kenneth Branagh film. 1997: Frankenstein According to Spike Milligan is one of a series of parody novels by Spike Milligan. In this, Milligan crafts a bizarre story, with many gags based on specific moments and instances from the text of the novel, such as "I am self-educated: for the first fourteen years of my life I ran wild on the common. At the end of that time I fell exhausted to the ground." 2003: Jim Benton has written a series of children's chapter books about a female mad scientist that goes by the name Franny K. Stein 2004: Dean Koontz has written a series of Frankenstein novels titled Dean Koontz's Frankenstein. These stories are set in modern-day New Orleans, looking at Victor Frankenstein and his Monster (now known as Deucalion) having survived to the present day, with Deucalion recruiting a pair of New Orleans detectives to oppose the plans of Victor Helios (Frankenstein's modern alias) to destroy humanity and replace them with his 'New Race'. 2005: Joseph Covino Jr. wrote the first novel in a planned trilogy adapting and combining the characters and scenarios of the horror classics Frankenstein and Dracula, preserving the original stories of both perfectly intact without corrupting or distorting either: Frankenstein Resurrected. 2007 Larry Correia's Monster Hunter International series features a government agent known as Special Agent Franks, who is eventually revealed to have been a golem created in the 1700s by Johann Konrad Dippel that inspired Mary Shelley. In contrast to the novel, Dippel educates Franks before sending him out into the world. 2008: Peter Ackroyd's The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein is a postmodern retelling of the original story in which Victor Frankenstein encounters Percy Bysshe Shelley while studying in London. () 2012: The Fear Index by Robert Harris uses artificial intelligence as a metaphor for Frankenstein's Monster. 2015: Mackenzi Lee's debut novel,This Monstrous Thing, is a young adult retelling of Frankenstein set in an alternate fantastical world. The novel's protagonist, Alastair Finch, uses clockwork technology to resurrect his (deceased) brother. Interestingly, Shelley's Frankenstein is published in Finch's world, so both men (human and Monster) hide as society tries to identify the "real" subjects in Shelley's tale. () 2016: The Patchwork Devil by Cavan Scott features Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson post-World War One investigating a severed hand that was found on a battlefield in fresh condition three years after the man in question (identified by the hand's fingerprints) was known to have died. Their investigations reveal that various parties in the government were attempting to recreate Victor Frankenstein's experiments, their efforts coordinated by a living descendant of the doctor. Holmes and Watson also meet the original monster, who seeks to die but has so far found no way of killing himself, although they express doubts about the truth of that tale or the veracity of the experiments. 2017: William A. Chanler's Son of Terror: Frankenstein Continued, a direct sequel to Frankenstein that begins in the Arctic shortly after Victor's death. () 2017: In Monstrumfuhrer by Edward M. Erdelac Joseph Mengele discovers Frankenstein's lab journal and is ordered to recreate his experiments in his laboratory in Auschwitz. A young Jewish boy escapes and heads north to find the original Creature in the hope that he can convince him to stop Mengele. 2017: The Strange Case of the Alchemist's Daughter by Theodora Goss depicts Adam as an antagonist to a group of "monstrous" women, each of whom "must contend with the monstrous bodies they've been given, in most cases against their will, by men acting on ideological impulse." As well as Adam himself, the protagonists include Justinia Frankenstein, the "bride" Frankenstein created in the novel from the corpse of the family's dead servant, who was brought back to life without her original memories. Comics The Monster has also been the subject of many comic book adaptations, ranging from the ridiculous (a 1960s series portraying The Monster as a superhero; see below), to more straightforward interpretations of Shelley's work. Dick Briefer's Frankenstein (1940–1954) In 1940, cartoonist Dick Briefer wrote and drew a Frankenstein's-Monster comic book title for Crestwood Publications's Prize Comics, beginning with a standard horrific version, updated to contemporary America, but then in 1945 crafting an acclaimed and well-remembered comedic version that spun off into his own title, Frankenstein Comics. The series ended with issue #17 (Jan.-Feb. 1949, but was revived as a horror title from #18-33 (March 1952 - Oct.-Nov. 1954). The original Prize version served as catalyst for an intra-company crossover, where all characters starring in Prize Comics at the time teamed up to fight Frankenstein. DC Comics DC Comics' Movie Comics #1 (April 1939) featured an eight-page fumetti adaptation of the film Son of Frankenstein. The Monster appeared in Superman No. 143 (February 1961), in a story entitled "Bizarro Meets Frankenstein!" In 1973 the "Spawn of Frankenstein" appeared in the Phantom Stranger comic, written by Len Wein. The portrayal of the Monster was as a reclusive, sympathetic character who had been living alone in the Arctic since the death of his creator. A 1995 Batman special called Batman: Castle of the Bat by Jack C. Harris and Bo Hampton amalgamates Batman and Frankenstein. Bruce Wayne fills the role of Victor Frankenstein, wishing to revive his deceased father. Having successfully done so, his creation becomes the monstrous "Bat-Man", a hulking figure in a rough analogue of the Batman costume who preys upon highwaymen, similar to the one who took the lives of the (this story's) parents of Bruce Wayne. Batman's butler Alfred Pennyworth is changed to a hunchbacked dwarf named Alfredo, filling the "Igor" role. In The Superman Monster (1999), Lex Luthor is Viktor Luther, the creator. He discovers the spacecraft that would have carried the infant Superman to Earth. Inside, however, is only the skeleton of a child. Using the Kryptonian technology, he is able to animate his (unintentionally) super-powered creature, which initially resembles Bizarro. The creature flees and is raised by the kindly couple Johann and Marta Kant. They name the creature Klaus, after their dead son. The story features the Lois Lane character becoming "the Bride" to Superman's Creature. DC Comics and Roy Thomas revived the character "The Spawn of Frankenstein" in Young All-Stars; he then appeared in Grant Morrison's Seven Soldiers of Victory. Here, Frankenstein is a Milton-quoting, gun-toting warrior battling to prevent the end of the world. In addition, DC's team of movie monster-esque soldiers known as the Creature Commandos featured a character that resembled the Universal Pictures version of Frankenstein's Monster; Private Elliot "Lucky" Taylor was nearly killed after stepping on a land mine, but was grotesquely reconstructed into a "Patchwork Creature" (as designated by the Who's Who in the DC Universe entry on the Creature Commandos), and later rendered mute by a suicide attempt. Later, DC Comics debuted an unrelated superhero (and member of the Teen Titans) called "Young Frankenstein." In Warren Ellis and John Cassaday's Planetary, the protagonist, Elijah Snow, discovers an abandoned laboratory, filled with patchwork undead monsters. It is heavily implied that the lab belonged to Victor Frankenstein, and that, alongside Count Dracula, the Invisible Man, and Sherlock Holmes, Frankenstein had been part of a covert 19th century conspiracy to shape the direction of the future. In the comic book Major Bummer, Louie defends the common misnaming of the monster as "Frankenstein": Dr. Frankenstein is, so to speak, the monster's "father", and it is only right that a son should have his father's family name. This is also the argument taken by the Seven Soldiers incarnation. In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, the Seven Soldiers' version of the character is re-established in the ongoing series Frankenstein, Agent of S.H.A.D.E.. Marvel Comics The monster appeared as a foe to Marvel Comics' X-Men in issue #40 of their eponymous series (January 1968). In the story, written by Roy Thomas, the monster had various powers, including incredible strength, optic beams, and magnetized feet. He was an ambassador sent to Earth by aliens in the 1850s, but upon arrival, he went berserk. His fellow aliens followed him to the North Pole, where he was frozen. In the present, he was discovered by scientists and thawed. According to Professor X, this android was the inspiration for Shelley's novel. The Monster of Frankenstein, the first five issues of which (Jan.-September 1973) contained a faithful (in spirit at least) retelling of Shelley's tale before transferring the Monster into the present day and pitting him against James Bond-inspired evil organizations. The artist, Mike Ploog, recalled, "I really enjoyed doing Frankenstein because I related to that naive monster wandering around a world he had no knowledge of — an outsider seeing everything through the eyes of a child." In Invaders #31, the Invaders, searching for the Human Torch and Toro, disappear in Switzerland. The Invaders’ investigation brings them face to fist with Frankenstein. A wheelchair-bound Nazi scientist and Japanese doctor plan to transplant said Nazi scientist's brain into Captain America's body. The Invaders have to fight Frankenstein in the issue (Frankenstein is dressed as a Nazi officer) Other publishers Classic Comics #27 (December 1945), reprinted in Classics Illustrated #26, had versions of the Shelley novel. Dell Comics published a superhero version of the character in the comic book series Frankenstein #2-4 (September 1966 - March 1967; issue #1, published Oct. 1964, featured a very loose adaptation/update of the 1931 Universal Pictures movie). In 1972, French comics publisher Aredit devoted seven issues of its digest-sized Hallucinations horror comic magazine to adapt Jean-Claude Carrière's Frankenstein novels. In 1973, Dargaud published Dracurella, by Spanish born comic creator Julio Ribera (1927–2018), in the French comic magazine Pilote, which featured both Victor Frankenstein and his monster. In 1991, Dark Horse Comics issued an adaptation of the 1931 Universal film. The Monster is Monster in My Pocket #13. He appears among the good monsters in the comic book (1991), the video game (1991), the animated special (1992), and the 2003 animated series. In the comics, he was relatively inarticulate, represented by hyphens between each syllable he spoke, but possessed of simple wisdom and strong morals. This characterization was essentially characterized in the video game, where he was a playable character, and his only line of dialogue in the cut scenes was "Yeah..." In the animated special, he was known as "Big Ed" and was essentially a comic simpleton. Junji Ito serialized a manga adaptation of the novel, which was collected and published by Asahi Sonorama as the last tankōbon volume of The Junji Ito Horror Comic Collection in 1999. In 2001, Curtis Jobling released a picture book titled Frankenstein's Cat, which focused on Frankenstein's first creation; a cat named Nine (due to being made up of nine different cats). A television adaption aired in 2008 on CBBC. 2004 saw the debut of Doc Frankenstein, written by the Wachowskis, the writer-director team of The Matrix), and drawn by Steve Skroce. The book tells the continuing adventures of Frankenstein's monster, who has since adopted his creator's name and became a hero through the ages. In 2004, manga artist Atsushi Ōkubo produced the manga Soul Eater; in the fifth chapter, a character known as Franken Stein made his debut; much of his design was referenced from the novel Frankenstein, including his body being covered in dozens of self-inflicted stitches. Like his namesake, Franken Stein is both a skilled doctor and scientist, actually accomplishing in resurrecting another character into a zombie. But otherwise, the rest of Victor Frankenstein's character was mostly tossed aside (the character was obsessed with taking things apart, usually with scalpels, and he was also a skilled fighter, especially in hand-to-hand combat); the major difference between Franken Stein and Mary Shelley's Victor Frankenstein is the fact that Franken Stein has the classic personality of a psychopath or serial killer. In 2005, Dead Dog Comics produced a sequel to the Frankenstein mythos with Frankenstein: Monster Mayhem, written by R. D. Hall with art by Jerry Beck. In Dead Dog's version, the Monster sets out to create his own Necropolis. Also in 2005, Speakeasy Comics put out their sequel, The Living and the Dead, written by Todd Livingston and Robert Tinnell, with art by Micah Farritor. In it, Victor, now calling himself Hans, must create a new body for his first cousin who wants her syphilitic son to remain alive after a vicious beating, and she coerces him to do so under fear of exposing him for who he really is. Half-crazed due to the disease, the newly-born monster proceeds to start a Grand Guignol theater in Ingolstadt until Victor puts him down with the help of the first Monster he ever created. As thanks, Victor begins work on the last attempt he will make at playing God, and begins to build the original Creature a mate. In 2005, Puffin Books released a graphic novel adaptation adapted by Gary Reed with art from Frazer Irving. The 2006 Beckett Entertainment/Image comics graphic novel The Cobbler's Monster: A Tale of Gepetto's Frankenstein features an amalgamation between Gepetto and Victor Frankenstein, who reanimates his dead son. In 2006, Eros Comix published Adult Frankenstein, a comic book with Frankenstein X-rated stories (featuring also other classic monsters) all written by Enrico Teodorani (creator of Djustine), with cover by Joe Vigil and interior art by some of the best Italian authors in the erotic comics field. Also in 2006, Big Bang Comics published an issue of Big Bang Presents featuring a superhero incarnation of the Monster called Super Frankenstein. Manga artist Mitsukazu Mihara published a collection of six short stories entitled Beautiful People on October 20, 2001. The main story, also titled "Beautiful People", follows a woman who had plastic surgery done hoping to become beautiful and loved, but after she meets a young girl stitched together from corpses, she realizes that girl was the truly beautiful one because of the love that she gave. The 2007 manga series Embalming-The Another Tale of Frankenstein-, published by Shueisha, is based on the idea that Victor Frankenstein actually existed and created an artificial human from body parts of dead people and that 150 years after this event, numerous doctors across Europe are using what is left of his notes to try and create their own monsters. The series also features characters reading Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus. In 2009 Papercutz published a Classics Illustrated Deluxe Graphic Novel adaptation of Frankenstein by French cartoonist Marion Mousse. His adaptation was originally published in French in three volumes, and was all collected and translated into English for the Papercutz version. Of all the comic book adaptations, this one is probably the most faithful to the original book. Toys and games Frankenstein's Monster appears in the Konami video game series Castlevania numerous times, with its name being "the Monster" or "the Creature", often as a major boss, but sometimes as a regular enemy. The Monster usually has the appearance of the Karloff/Universal version; however, the 2010 series reboot Castlevania: Lords of Shadow features a completely different-looking boss known as the "Mechanical Monstrosity", created some time prior to 1047 by "Friedrich von Frankenstein". Several other video game version are also available, including Bride of Frankenstein (Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum), Frankenstein: Through the Eyes of the Monster - A Cinematic Adventure Starring Tim Curry (PC CD-ROM) and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, (Super NES, Genesis, Sega CD) based on the 1994 film of the same name. Other games featuring the monster include Frankenstein: The Monster Returns for the original Nintendo Entertainment System and Frankenstein's Monster for the Atari 2600. In the 1995 Super NES game Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, Kong's archenemy, King K. Rool, assumes the persona of Baron K. Roolenstein. A Frankenstein-like monster called Victor von Gerdenheim is a playable character in the fighting game series Darkstalkers, along with many other monsters from popular culture. Frankenstein's Monster also appears in the video game adaptation of the film Van Helsing. He only appears as a non-playable character. The role-playing game Promethean: The Created by White Wolf Publishing, focuses on beings created from human remains and animated by "the Divine Fire" who seek to attain humanity. One of the "Lineages" (groupings) of said creatures is that of the Frankensteins, who, like their namesake, are crafted from the best parts of multiple corpses and brought to life by lightning. The Monster himself, going by the name John Verney, appears in some of the book's fiction and illustrations. In 1989, the line of action figures for The Real Ghostbusters featured figures of several Universal Monsters, including Frankenstein's Monster. In 2002, LEGO released a Dr. Frankenstein and Monster set as part of the LEGO Studios toy line. In 2011, a new green-skinned Minifigure called Monster resembles the creature. The 2008 video game Fable II contains a quest in which a man named Victor is attempting to reanimate the body of a deceased woman, both homages to the book. Upon completion of the quest, if the player buys the house, it unlocks an area known as "the Shelley Tomb", a reference to the author of the novel. In the 2009 Wii game MadWorld, Frankenstein's Monster appears as a boss battle at the base of a dungeon, and is simply called "Frank" with bolts in his back, rather than in his neck as common stereotypes depict. He is also shown as being regenerative when connected to an electric chair, and his size well exceeds the usually large 7'0" to go as much as 20'0". In Atlus' popular Persona series, the residents of the "Velvet Room", a supernatural room that is "Between mind and matter", are named after characters from the Frankenstein series, namely Igor, Elizabeth, Margaret, Theodore, Marie, Lavenza, Caroline, and Justine. In 2019, Plaid Hat Games released Abomination: The Heir of Frankenstein, a board game sequel to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, taking place 20 years after the events of the novel. In Abomination, the Creature lives and recruits scientists in Paris (the role of the players) to carry on the work of Victor Frankenstein, while Captain Walton seeks to stop the competition and fulfill his vow. Also in 2019, Steel Wool Studios released Curse of Dreadbear, a Hallowe'en-themed downloadable content pack to their virtual reality game Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted. The eponymous Dreadbear is a Frankenstein version of series mascot Freddy Fazbear, and was initially named "Franken Freddy" during Curse of Dreadbears development. Dreadbear is included in merchandise and cameos in Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach on cardboard cutouts. Frankenstein's Monster appears in the horror fighting game Terrordrome 2: Reign of the Legends. This version of the Monster considers himself the legitimate son of Victor Frankenstein, explaining why the game calls him 'Frankenstein' instead of 'Frankenstein's Monster'. The Creature of Dr. Frankenstein appears as the main character in the 2019 video game 'The Wanderer: Frankenstein's Creature' (Nintendo Switch, PC, iOS/Android). The game was co-produced by La Belle Games and Arte and is a point-and-click narrative adventure which features a story based more closely on Mary Shelley's novel than a number of modern popular culture references to Frankenstein. The popular Fashion-Doll line Monster High (the concept of the line being children of famous monsters attending a high school) has a character called "Frankie Stein", who is the daughter of Frankenstein's Monster and his Bride. Other usages In the 1920s, carbon monoxide was regarded as the Frankenstein of civilization in the context of humankind's industrial production of the gas and widespread problems with carbon monoxide poisoning leading to the notion of carbon monoxide as "the automaton that turns on its maker, pursues him to the ends of the earth and finally destroys him”. Science fiction author Isaac Asimov coined the term Frankenstein complex for the fear of robots. Frankensteining is a term used by abusers of crystal methamphetamine to calm themselves by diassembling and reassembling objects. The term is used in that subculture and is recently gaining wider currency: it has been used in an episode of CSI: Miami and has four different definitions in Urban Dictionary, all with the same meaning of assembling parts from diverse sources. Frankenstein or Franken- is sometimes used as a prefix to imply artificial monstrosity as in "Frankenfood", a politically charged name, coined by the American academic Paul Lewis, for genetically manipulated foodstuffs. The Franken- prefix can also mean anything assembled haphazardly from originally disparate elements, especially if those parts were previously discarded by others—for example, a car built from parts salvaged from many other cars. For many years Eddie Van Halen played a guitar built in such a manner which he called the "Frankenstrat". In 1971, General Mills introduced "Franken Berry", a strawberry-flavored corn cereal whose mascot is a variation of the Monster from the 1931 movie. "Frankenstein" is the name of a character in the 1975 movie Death Race 2000 and its 2008 remake Death Race. The first incarnation was portrayed by veteran actor David Carradine and the second by Jason Statham. George A. Romero's 1985 film Day of the Dead features a scientist conducting experiments on zombies nicknamed "Frankenstein". The hit song China in Your Hand by the British rock band T'Pau employs the story of Frankenstein, and Mary Shelley's writing of it, in its role as a classic cautionary tale. In David Brin's science fiction novel Kiln People, defective golems that become autonomous are called "frankies". Mewtwo of the Pokémon franchise has been likened to Frankenstein's Monster in regards to being born through an artificial means and discontent with the fact. Stitch, the main protagonist of Disney's Lilo & Stitch franchise, was somewhat influenced by the Monster, as he was created by a scientist from miscellaneous alien DNA. Unlike Shelley's Monster, however, his intentions were initially evil until he discovered an inner loneliness, causing him, and eventually his creator, to turn from crime to justice. Throughout the franchise, Stitch also demonstrates the Monster's Herculean strength and childlike curiosity. In season 3 of Beast Wars Megatron clones Dinobot, making a Frankenstein's Monster out of the clone by transmetallizing him with the Transmetal Driver and adding the half of Rampage's mutant spark he cut out earlier. The result was an extremely mutated Transmetal II minion under the influence of his "half-brother's" evil. In 2006, the book The 101 Most Influential People Who Never Lived listed Dr. Frankenstein's Monster (sic) at #6. The California Medical Association, in a rather humorous gesture, chose Halloween 2006 to announce that Dr. Richard Frankenstein had been elected president of the organization. He had previously been president of the Orange County Medical Association in 1995-1996. Frankenstein is a character in the Korean web-comic manhwa Noblesse. He, like that of the actual character Frankenstein, is a scientist, but the similarities end there. Through his research he has gained immortality and immense power. He now serves the most powerful of all vampires, the Noblesse. Pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Frankenstein's Monster out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his "Totally Sweet" series in 2013. The character Professor Franken Stein from Soul Eater is a composite of Victor Frankenstein and the Monster, covered in stitches with a screw through his head as the result of self-experimentation. In Hellsing, Alexander Anderson is based on Frankenstein's Monster, given that his name came from a song that has a reference about Frankenstein's Monster, his abilities are similar and he is referred to as God's Monster after using the nail of Helena. Frankenstein's Monster appears as the Berserker class Servant of the Black Faction in the Fate/stay night spin-off Fate/Apocrypha. This depiction of the Monster is a young female homunculus in a wedding gown. The 2015 film Ex Machina is a film noir retelling of the Frankenstein story with a 21st-century femme fatale android. See also Dracula in popular culture References Further reading Baldick, Chris. In Frankenstein's Shadow: Myth, Monstrosity, and Nineteenth-Century Writing. Clarendon Press, 1987. . Forry, Steven E. Hideous Progenies: Dramatizations of Frankenstein from Mary Shelley to the Present. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990. . Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Frankenstein: A Cultural History. W. W. Norton, 2007. . Glut, Donald F. The Frankenstein Legend: A Tribute to Mary Shelley and Boris Karloff. Scarecrow Press, 1973. McCutcheon, Mark A. The Medium Is the Monster: Canadian Adaptations of Frankenstein and the Discourse of Technology. Athabasca University Press, 2018. . Morton, Timothy. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein: A Sourcebook. Routledge, 2002. . Picart, Caroline. Remaking the Frankenstein Myth on Film: Between Laughter and Horror. SUNY Press, 2003. . External links Frankensteinfilms.com - Comprehensive site on Frankenstein movies, comic books, theatre plays and the original novel Frankenstein in Popular Culture, from the Pennsylvania Electronic Edition Toonopedia entry on the early Frankenstein comic books From book to blockbuster - a comparison of the book and 1931 movie Marvel Comics Frankenstein Monster - a comprehensive review of Marvel's 1970s comic book adaptation Literature in popular culture Films in popular culture
5338444	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountjoy%20Square	Mountjoy Square	Mountjoy Square () is a Georgian garden square in Dublin, Ireland, on the Northside of the city just under a kilometre from the River Liffey. One of five Georgian squares in Dublin, it was planned and developed in the late 18th century by Luke Gardiner, 1st Viscount Mountjoy. It is surrounded on all sides by terraced, red-brick Georgian houses. Construction of the houses began piecemeal in 1792 and the final property was completed in 1818. Over the centuries, the square has been home to many of Dublin's most prominent people: lawyers, churchmen, politicians, writers and visual artists. The writer James Joyce lived around the square during some of his formative years, playwright Seán O'Casey wrote and set some of his most famous plays on the square while living there, W.B. Yeats stayed there with his friend John O'Leary, and more recently, much of the Oscar-winning film Once was made in the square. Historic meetings have taken place there, including planning for the Easter Rising and some of the earliest Dáil meetings. Prominent Irish Unionists and Republicans have shared the square. Mountjoy can boast of being Dublin's only true Georgian square, each of its sides being exactly 140 metres in length. While the North, East and West sides each have 18 houses, the South has 19, reflecting some variation in plot sizes. Though each side was originally numbered individually, the houses are now numbered continuously clockwise from no. 1 in the north-west corner. While its North and South sides are continuous from corner to corner, the East and West sides are in three terraces, interrupted by two side streets, Grenville Street and Gardiner Place to the West and Fitzgibbon and North Great Charles Street to the East. Gardiner Street passes through the West side of the square, while Belvidere Place and Gardiner Lane run off the North- and South-East corners. Although some of the original buildings fell to ruin over the 20th century and were eventually demolished, the new infill buildings were fronted with reproduction façades, so each side of the square maintains its appearance as a consistent Georgian terrace. Development of the square The first Luke Gardiner (died 1755) was a highly successful banker, developer and Member of Parliament for Dublin in the early 18th century. During his career, he acquired a wide variety of properties throughout the city. The major continuous part, much of which he purchased from the Moore family in 1714, was a large piece of land to the East of the then-established city. This estate corresponds to the modern area bounded by The Royal Canal, Dorset Street, the Western Way, Constitution Hill, Parnell Street, O'Connell Street and the River Liffey. As owner of this land, Gardiner led the development of the Northside of the city east along the river, developing what is now O'Connell Street (then Sackville Street), Dorset Street, Parnell Street and Square (then Rutland Street & Square). After his death, his son and heir Charles continued the development, finishing Rutland Square before his grandson, the second Luke Gardiner (later Lord and Viscount Mountjoy) inherited the estate and accelerated the development further East. A powerful figure, Luke II was a member of the Wide Streets Commission and MP for County Dublin. Mountjoy Square was developed as part of this third development phase. An early plan and elevation, known then as Gardiner Square was drawn up in 1787 by Thomas Sherrard, surveyor to the Wide Streets Commissioners. Gardiner and Sherrard had an ambitious vision for the square. It was on high ground, so all streets off it led downhill. It overlooked The Custom House and was connected to it by Gardiner Street. The plan included a rebuilt St. George's Church in the centre of the park. The original West side plans show a palatial stone-clad street frontage with a terrace of brick residential houses behind the cladding. A less ambitious compromise of red-brick façades, consistent with other nearby streets, eventually prevailed. The square was laid out and construction began first on the south side, about 1790, continuing until 1818. The stuccatore Michael Stapleton was one of the first to acquire leases (dated October 1789), corresponding to Nos. 43, 44 and 45 Mountjoy Square (all demolished in the 1980s, despite the presence of Stapleton's decoration). His houses were complete by 1793. Luke Gardiner II was killed at the Battle of New Ross during the Rebellion of 1798 with the third side still under construction. After completion, contemporaries Warburton, Whitelaw and Walsh said of it: In 1825, George Newenham Wright described the square: In 1802, Parliament passed legislation to govern the election of commissioners for Mountjoy Square on a yearly basis. Commissioner were drawn from residents of the square, and included Joseph Napier, Jacob Owen, James Whiteside, and William Trench, 3rd Earl of Clancarty In the late nineteenth century the park that forms the beating heart of the square was closed to all but the square's residents. Calls from Sir Charles Cameron to throw open the park to the public were rebuffed by the commissioners who called Cameron's open letter an 'audacious proceeding.' The residents' resistance to the attempt to 'provide an additional lung for congested Dublin' were so fierce that The Lancet wrote that despite the park's small size it 'seems sufficient for an Irish battlefield in the holidays.' The park was subsequently opened to the public in the twentieth century. In 1939, a plebiscite of local ratepayers rejected a proposal to change the name of the square. Much of the square became tenements from the 1900s when the south side of the city became more fashionable. By the 1960s, large portions of the square were in such poor condition that many were condemned and demolished as dangerous. Half of the south side of the square was bought up by Leinster Estates, a company owned by the property developer Matt Gallagher, in the early 1970s. His plan was to build a large office block designed by Desmond FitzGerald. Despite high objections from the Irish Georgian Society (IGI), permission for the office block scheme was granted in October 1967. After a public inquiry, Gallagher offered to sell his land with 7 standing houses and 13 demolished or partly demolished houses to the IGI for £68,000. Despite the formation of Mountjoy Square Estates in an attempt to take up Gallagher's offer, permission was granted for the office scheme again in July 1969. This stipulated that all of the house facades be reinstated, which called into question the financial viability of the project. This led to Mountjoy Square Estates purchasing the plots in December 1969 for £68,000 with the condition that all the houses would be restored individually, and all adhere to the Georgian aesthetic. However, the group could not secure the funds or purchasers willing to restore the buildings, and then continued to decay. After brickwork began to fall into the street, Dublin Corporation demolished many of the houses to first-floor level for safety reasons. In June 1972, the plot was sold to Patrick McCrea. McCrea began work on the site redeveloping it with a Georgian facade, but he ran out of funds. Following his death, the site remained untouched until 1978 when it was purchased by Stephen Treacy, though he failed to progress the project and by 1981 parts of brick cladding from the 1970s construction fell into the street, crushing two cars. Eventually, the whole site was developed with a replica Georgian facade designed by Sean Clifford and Associates. More recently in 2005, architecture critic Christine Casey stated: Notable residents Mountjoy Square has had many famous inhabitants throughout its history. The earliest was Arthur Guinness, who died there in January 1803. Subsequently, his descendant Desmond Guinness and first wife Mariga, attempted to save and restore the gracious character of the square in 1966–75, buying No. 50 and several demolished lots with members of the Irish Georgian Society. Seán O'Casey, the Irish playwright and founder member of the Irish Citizen Army, lived in a tenement in no. 35 Mountjoy Square, during the Irish War of Independence. During his time there, it is said that the house was raided by the Black and Tans. John O'Leary, a leading Fenian, poet, editor of The Irish People, mentioned in W.B. Yeats' poem September 1913, lived at no. 53 Mountjoy Square West in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Yeats, as a friend of O'Leary, is known to have stayed at 53 Mountjoy Square and sent letters from there. Dáil Éireann, the parliament of Ireland, having been suppressed by the British authorities as a dangerous organisation in September 1919, met before the foundation of the Irish Free State at the home of the republican Walter L. Cole in Mountjoy Square. When the volunteers met on Easter Monday 1916, the 1st battalion met at Blackhall Street in the liberties with the intention of taking over the Four Courts. The exception was the twelve men of D company under the command of Captain Seán Heuston who met at Mountjoy Square with the mission of taking the Mendicity Institution across the river from the four courts. Tim Healy resided at 1 Mountjoy Square, having lived previously on the adjacent Great Charles Street in number 50. James Whiteside (1804–1876), writer, orator, politician and barrister lived at no. 2 Mountjoy Square North in the mid-19th century. The eminent family of architects which included Jacob Owen and James Higgins Owen lived at no. 2 Mountjoy Square West (now no. 54) from the 1830s to the 1860s. Joseph Napier, an Irish Conservative party MP and member of the Privy Council of Ireland lived at No. 17 Mountjoy Square South (now no. 52). Richard Dowse (1824–1890) lived at no. 38 Mountjoy Square. Born in Dungannon, during his career he was MP for Londonderry (1868–1872), Attorney General, Solicitor General and a Baron of the Court of the Exchequer. Sir Robert Anderson (1841–1918) was born at Number 1 Mountjoy Square West (now 53). An infamous brothel, known as The Kasbah Health Studio, frequented by numerous senior Irish businessmen, politicians and churchmen was located in the basement of number 60 Mountjoy Square West from the late 1970s until its closure in the early 1990s. Seán O'Casey set all three of his "Dublin Trilogy" (The Shadow of a Gunman, Juno and the Paycock and The Plough and the Stars) in tenement houses in Georgian Dublin. In particular, The Shadow of a Gunman opens in A return-room in a tenement house in Hilljoy Square which is raided by the Auxiliaries during the play. This room is thought to have been based on O'Casey's former tenement home. Although the original house was demolished in the 1960s, it was later replaced by a building with a Georgian façade that now stands on the site. O'Casey subsequently lived in another Georgian house very close to Mountjoy Square at 422 North Circular Road; in that house which still stands today, is where he wrote the trilogy, before later moving to London during the nineteen twenties. The stuccatore Michael Stapleton, who built three houses there, was resident in the square from 1793 to 1795. Stapleton subsequently moved into a house at 1 Mountjoy Place, just off the south east corner of the square. Charles Thorp, another stuccadore also developed three houses on the east side, numbers 19 to 21, and is recorded as residing in number 19 in the 1835 Almanac Registry Directory. Sculptor Thomas Farrell (1827–1900) lived in number 30, which is sited along the east side of the square. Two of Farrell's sculptures can be seen on the central median of nearby O'Connell Street at the junction with Abbey Street, with a statue on either side of the Luas tracks. Padraig O'Faolain, an Irish painter, lived next to the Kasbah on Mountjoy Square West in the 1980s. Irish radio presenter, journalist, former Trinity College SU president and student activist Joe Duffy was born on Mountjoy Square in 1956. Much of John Carney's 2007 feature film Once which won the Academy Award that year for best original song was filmed in an apartment on Mountjoy Square East, where the female lead character, played by Marketa Irglova, lives with her family. Several scenes from Georgie's Story, the third episode of Mark O'Halloran's award-winning television mini-series Prosperity, screened on RTÉ in 2007, were filmed in and around Mountjoy Square park. The rock/pop band U2 used to rehearse in a squat on Mountjoy Square in the late 1970s and were photographed by Patrick Brocklebank, published in "The Dublin Music Scene and U2, 1978–81". Education The School of Art, Design & Printing and the Department of Social Sciences of the Dublin Institute of Technology are based at nos. 40–45 Mountjoy Square. Public Affairs Ireland is based at 25 Mountjoy Square. The Incorporated Society for Promoting Protestant Schools in Ireland and Mountjoy School were located at nos. 6–7 Mountjoy Square until a move to Malahide Road in 1950, becoming Mount Temple School. Dorset College currently has an office on the corner of Mountjoy Square East and Great Charles Street. The Dublin Adult Learning Centre is currently based at 3 Mountjoy Square. The St. Francis Xavier Pioneer Club of Dublin is based at 27 Mountjoy Square. CELT Ireland English School is based on the east side of the square in an historic Georgian house. Divinity Hostel, for the training of Anglican priests, was located at 25 Mountjoy Sq., from 1913 until 1964 eventually becoming the Church of Ireland Theological Institute. Amenities The square's own park has both playing areas for football, basketball and table tennis, playgrounds for children and a green park area. It's also a short walk to the Blessington Street Basin in Broadstone. Architectural Conservation Area In 2010 as part of the preparation by Dublin City Council of their City Development Plan, they received a number of representations calling for Mountjoy Square to be designated as an Architectural Conservation Area (ACA). On 14 May 2012, a meeting of Dublin City Council formally established Mountjoy Square as an Architectural Conservation Area. ACA designation gives protection to the entire streetscape of the square. Works to any building in the area now require the permission of the Planning Authority, whether the building is a Protected Structure (Listed Building) or not. In 2018, the Dublin City Council proposed restoring Mountjoy Square to its 1837 design by re-creating the 4.4-acre park at its centre. These plans were withdrawn in 2019. Transport links Close to the centre of Dublin city and having the major artery Gardiner Street as its West side, Mountjoy Square has considerable transport links in its immediate locality. The Dublin Bus termini for the 7, 7a, 7b, 7d and 46e are on the north side of the square and run toward the southeast of the city. Routes 33, 41, 41b and 41c stop on the west side of the square on their way to the northern suburbs. The square's bus stops are also covered by the hop-on, hop-off city centre 75-cent fare. The 41 bus is almost certainly the cheapest transport link to Dublin Airport from the city at €2.70 (as of 2017) from the square. The main entrance to Dublin Bus' Summerhill Depot is on Mountjoy Place, just off the southeast corner of the square. In 2009, the Dublin Bikes bicycle sharing system was launched and has one of its more northerly stations on the west side of Mountjoy Square, providing easy access for commuters, locals, and tourists. In 2013 a similar pay-as-you-go car hire scheme stationed a car on the square. The "Go-Car" is parked on Mountjoy Square West. Period features Over the centuries, new features have been added to the street furniture while for various reasons others have been removed. The footpath was originally paved with granite. By now, although the kerbs are generally still (probably Wicklow) granite, most of the paving stones have been replaced with concrete. The exception to this is the southwest corner in front of 53–54 which still has full granite paving and a small section just off of Mountjoy Square in front of the Free Church. Many of the houses on the square still have their original coal holes and ornate cast iron covers. These small holes in the street outside each house lead to a coal house underneath the street. These elegantly solved the problem of how to quickly and cleanly deliver coal to the house, allowing the coal men to simply pull the hole open and empty their sacks of coal down through it. The basement of the house then had a doorway into the coal house under the street, many of which remain intact. The street lamps on the square are of two different designs. Those on the outer sides, in front of the houses, are seemingly of the style called The Scotch Standard, dating from 1903 to 1920 when Dublin streets were being electrically lit as part of the Pigeon House scheme. On the inner (park) side of the street, a slightly more modest design is used, apparently consistent with a more recent 1940–50 design. These designs are all 9 metres tall. Prior to the installation of public lighting schemes, most houses would have had a cast iron gas lamp holder atop the railings at the bottom of the granite steps. As of 2020 few of these remain intact around the city with notable examples at nearby North Great Georges' Street and Great Denmark Street. In the late 18th century, mud streets were not uncommon and horses were also common on the streets. To avoid this muck being tramped into the houses, boot scrapers were commonly placed outside their front doors. Many of these were highly elaborate and many remain to this day. Some of the houses still contain their original wrought iron balconettes while others have since been replaced with more modern replacements. See also List of streets and squares in Dublin References External links Chapter VI of Dillon Cosgroves' North Dublin covering, Mountjoy Square Description of Mountjoy Square in An Historical Guide to the City of Dublin Illustrated by Engravings and a Plan Of the City, by G.N. Wright A.M., page 143. Discussion of The Wide Streets Commissioners in Dublin, A cultural History by James Higgins, Siobhán Marie Kilfeather Dublin City Council's page on Mountjoy Square Archiseek tour of Dublin, Mountjoy Square. Sunday Times article on Mountjoy Square, May 2010, featuring JP Donleavy, Shane MacGowan, Tim Pat Coogan Squares in Dublin (city) Parks in Dublin (city) Georgian architecture in Ireland
5338897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20tattooing	History of tattooing	Tattooing has been practiced across the globe since at least Neolithic times, as evidenced by mummified preserved skin, ancient art and the archaeological record. Both ancient art and archaeological finds of possible tattoo tools suggest tattooing was practiced by the Upper Paleolithic period in Europe. However, direct evidence for tattooing on mummified human skin extends only to the 4th millennium BC. The oldest discovery of tattooed human skin to date is found on the body of Ötzi the Iceman, dating to between 3370 and 3100 BC. Other tattooed mummies have been recovered from at least 49 archaeological sites, including locations in Greenland, Alaska, Siberia, Mongolia, western China, Egypt, Sudan, the Philippines and the Andes. These include Amunet, Priestess of the Goddess Hathor from ancient Egypt (–1991 BC), multiple mummies from Siberia including the Pazyryk culture of Russia and from several cultures throughout Pre-Columbian South America. Ancient practices Preserved tattoos on ancient mummified human remains reveal that tattooing has been practiced throughout the world for millennia. In 2015, scientific re-assessment of the age of the two oldest known tattooed mummies identified Ötzi as the oldest example then known. This body, with 61 tattoos, was found embedded in glacial ice in the Alps, and was dated to 3250 BCE. In 2018, the oldest figurative tattoos in the world were discovered on two mummies from Egypt which are dated between 3351 and 3017 BCE. Ancient tattooing was most widely practiced among the Austronesian people. It was one of the early technologies developed by the Pre-Austronesians in Taiwan and coastal South China prior to at least 1500 BCE, before the Austronesian expansion into the islands of the Indo-Pacific. It may have originally been associated with headhunting. Tattooing traditions, including facial tattooing, can be found among all Austronesian subgroups, including Taiwanese Aborigines, Islander Southeast Asians, Micronesians, Polynesians, and the Malagasy people. For the most part Austronesians used characteristic perpendicularly hafted tattooing points that were tapped on the handle with a length of wood (called the "mallet") to drive the tattooing points into the skin. The handle and mallet were generally made of wood while the points, either single, grouped or arranged to form a comb were made of Citrus thorns, fish bone, bone, teeth and turtle and oyster shells. Ancient tattooing traditions have also been documented among Papuans and Melanesians, with their use of distinctive obsidian skin piercers. Some archeological sites with these implements are associated with the Austronesian migration into Papua New Guinea and Melanesia. But other sites are older than the Austronesian expansion, being dated to around 1650 to 2000 BCE, suggesting that there was a preexisting tattooing tradition in the region. Among other ethnic groups, tattooing was also traditionally practiced among the Ainu people of Japan; some Austroasians of Indochina; Berber women of Tamazgha (North Africa); the Yoruba, Fulani and Hausa people of Nigeria; Native Americans of the Pre-Columbian Americas; and the Welsh and Picts of Iron Age Britain. Traditional practices by regions The Americas North America Indigenous peoples of North America have a long history of tattooing. Tattooing was not a simple marking on the skin: it was a process that highlighted cultural connections to Indigenous ways of knowing and viewing the world, as well as connections to family, society, and place. There is no way to determine the actual origin of tattooing for Indigenous people of North America. The oldest known physical evidence of tattooing in North America was made through the discovery of a frozen, mummified, Inuit female on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska who had tattoos on her skin. Through radiocarbon dating of the tissue, scientists estimated that the female came from the 16th century. Until recently, archeologists have not prioritized the classification of tattoo implements when excavating known historic sites. Recent review of materials found from the Mound Q excavation site point towards elements of tattoo bundles that are from pre-colonization times. Scholars explain that the recognition of tattoo implements is significant because it highlights the cultural importance of tattooing for Indigenous People. Early explorers to North America made many ethnographic observations about the Indigenous people they met. Initially, they did not have a word for tattooing and instead described the skin modifications as "pounce, prick, list, mark, and raze" to "stamp, paint, burn, and embroider." In 1585–1586, Thomas Harriot, who was part of the Grenville Expedition, was responsible for making observations about Indigenous People of North America. In A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, Harriot recorded that some Indigenous people had their skin dyed and coloured. John White provided visual representations of Indigenous people in the form of drawings and paintings. Harriot and White also provided information highlighting specific markings seen on Indigenous chiefs during that time. In 1623, Gabriel Sagard was a missionary who described seeing men and women with tattoos on their skin. The Jesuit Relations of 1652 describes tattooing among the Petun and the Neutrals: From 1712 to 1717, Joseph François Lafitau, another Jesuit missionary, recorded how Indigenous people were applying tattoos to their skin and developed healing strategies in tattooing the jawline to treat toothaches. Indigenous people had determined that certain nerves that were along the jawline connected to certain teeth, thus by tattooing those nerves, it would stop them from firing signals that led to toothaches. Some of these early ethnographic accounts questioned the actual practice of tattooing and hypothesized that it could make people sick due to unsanitary approaches. Scholars explain that the study of Indigenous tattooing is relatively new as it was initially perceived as behaviour for societies outside of the norm. The process of colonization introduced new views of what acceptable behaviour included, leading to the near erasure of the tattoo tradition for many nations. However, through oral traditions, the information about tattoos and the actual practice of tattooing has persisted to present day. St. Lawrence Iroquoians had used bones as tattooing needles. In addition, turkey bone tattooing tools were discovered at an ancient Fernvale, Tennessee site, dated back to 3500–1600 BCE. Inuit The Inuit have a deep history of tattooing. In Inuktitut, the Inuit language of the eastern Canadian Arctic, the word kakiniit translates to the English word for tattoo and the word tunniit means face tattoo. Among the Inuit, some tattooed female faces and parts of the body symbolize a girl transitioning into a woman, coinciding with the start of her first menstrual cycle. A tattoo represented a woman's beauty, strength, and maturity. This was an important practice because some Inuit believed that a woman could not transition into the spirit world without tattoos on her skin. The Inuit have oral traditions that describe how the raven and the loon tattooed each other giving cultural significance to both the act of tattooing and the role of those animals in Inuit culture and history. European missionaries colonized the Inuit in the beginning of the 20th century and associated tattooing as an evil practice "demonizing" anyone who valued tattoos. Alethea Arnaquq-Baril has helped Inuit women to revitalize the practice of traditional face tattoos through the creation of the documentary Tunniit: Retracing the Lines of Inuit Tattoos, where she interviews elders from different communities asking them to recall their own elders and the history of tattoos. The elders were able to recall the traditional practice of tattooing which often included using a needle and thread and sewing the tattoo into the skin by dipping the thread in soot or seal oil, or through skin poking using a sharp needle point and dipping it into soot or seal oil. Hovak Johnston has worked with the elders in her community to bring the tradition of kakiniit back by learning the traditional ways of tattooing and using her skills to tattoo others. Osage Nation The Osage people used tattooing for a variety of different reasons. The tattoo designs were based on the belief that people were part of the larger cycle of life and integrated elements of the land, sky, water, and the space in between to symbolize these beliefs. In addition, the Osage People believed in the smaller cycle of life, recognizing the importance of women giving life through childbirth and men removing life through warfare. Osage men were often tattooed after accomplishing major feats in battle, as a visual and physical reminder of their elevated status in their community. Some Osage women were tattooed in public as a form of a prayer, demonstrating strength and dedication to their nation. Haudenosaunee Confederation The people of the Haudenosaunee Confederation historically used tattooing in connection to war. A tradition for many young men was to go on a journey into the wilderness, fast from eating any food, and discover who their personal manitou was. Scholars explain that this process of discovery likely included dreams and visions that would bring a specific manitou to the forefront for each young man to have. The manitou became an important element of protection during warfare and many boys tattooed their manitou onto their body to symbolize cultural significance of the manitou to their lives. As they showed success in warfare, male warriors had more tattoos, some even keeping score of all the kills they had made. Some warriors had tattoos on their faces that tallied how many people they had scalped in their lifetime. Central America A Spanish expedition led by Gonzalo de Badajoz in 1515 across what is today Panama ran into a village where prisoners from other tribes had been marked with tattoos. East Asia China Cemeteries throughout the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang of western China) including the sites of Qäwrighul, Yanghai, Shengjindian, Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa have revealed several tattooed mummies with Western Asian/Indo-European physical traits and cultural materials. These date from between 2100 and 550 BC. In ancient China, tattoos were considered a barbaric practice associated with the Yue peoples of southeastern and southern China. Tattoos were often referred to in literature depicting bandits and folk heroes. As late as the Qing dynasty, it was common practice to tattoo characters such as ("Prisoner") on convicted criminals' faces. Although relatively rare during most periods of Chinese history, slaves were also sometimes marked to display ownership. However, tattoos seem to have remained a part of southern culture. Marco Polo wrote of Quanzhou, "Many come hither from Upper India to have their bodies painted with the needle in the way we have elsewhere described, there being many adepts at this craft in the city". At least three of the main characters Lu Zhishen, Shi Jin (史進), and Yan Ching (燕青) in the classic novel Water Margin are described as having tattoos covering nearly all of their bodies. Wu Song was sentenced to a facial tattoo describing his crime after killing Xi Menqing (西門慶) to avenge his brother. In addition, Chinese legend claimed the mother of Yue Fei (a famous Song general) tattooed the words "Repay the Country with Pure Loyalty" (, jing zhong bao guo) down her son's back before he left to join the army. Japan Tattooing for spiritual and decorative purposes in Japan is thought to extend back to at least the Jōmon or Paleolithic period and was widespread during various periods for both the Yamato and native Jomon groups. Chinese texts from before 300 AD described social differences among Japanese people as being indicated through tattooing and other bodily markings. Chinese texts from the time also described Japanese men of all ages as decorating their faces and bodies with tattoos. Between 1603 and 1868, Japanese tattooing was only practiced by the ukiyo (floating world) subculture. Generally firemen, manual workers and prostitutes wore tattoos to communicate their status. By the early 17th century, criminals were widely being tattooed as a visible mark of punishment. Criminals were marked with symbols typically including crosses, lines, double lines and circles on certain parts of the body, mostly the face and arms. These symbols sometimes designated the places where the crimes were committed. In one area, the character for "dog" was tattooed on the criminal's forehead. The Government of Meiji Japan, formed in 1868, banned the art of tattooing altogether, viewing it as barbaric and lacking respectability. This subsequently created a subculture of criminals and outcasts. These people had no place in "decent society" and were frowned upon. They could not simply integrate into mainstream society because of their obvious visible tattoos, forcing many of them into criminal activities which ultimately formed the roots for the modern Japanese mafia, the Yakuza, with which tattoos have become almost synonymous in Japan. The Ainu people also participate in tattooing called Sinuye. These are connected with the Kamuy, gods of the ainu culture. Women receive tattoos around their mouths at an early age, the tattooing continues until they are married. Men may receive tattoos as well, most commonly on the shoulders or arms. Mainland Southeast Asia Thailand and Cambodia Thai-Khmer tattoos, also known as Yantra tattooing, was common since ancient times. Just as other native southeast Asian cultures, animistic tattooing was common in Tai tribes that were is southern China. Over time, this animistic practice of tattooing for luck and protection assimilated Hindu and Buddhist ideas. The Sak Yant traditional tattoo is practiced today by many and are usually given either by a Buddhist monk or a Brahmin priest. The tattoos usually depict Hindu gods and use the Mon script or ancient Khmer script, which were the scripts of the classical civilizations of mainland southeast Asia. Austronesia Taiwan In Taiwan, facial tattoos of the Atayal people are called ptasan; they are used to demonstrate that an adult man can protect his homeland, and that an adult woman is qualified to weave cloth and perform housekeeping. Taiwan is believed to be the homeland of all the Austronesian peoples, which includes Filipinos, Indonesians, Polynesians and Malagasy peoples, all with strong tattoo traditions. This along with the striking correlation between Austronesian languages and the use of the so-called hand-tapping method suggests that Austronesian peoples inherited their tattooing traditions from their ancestors established in Taiwan or along the southern coast of the Chinese mainland. Philippines Tattooing (batok) on both sexes was practiced by almost all ethnic groups of the Philippine Islands during the pre-colonial era, like in other Austronesian groups. Ancient clay human figurines found in archaeological sites in the Batanes Islands, around 2500 to 3000 years old, have simplified stamped-circle patterns, which are believed to represent tattoos and possibly branding (also commonly practiced) as well. Excavations at the Arku Cave burial site in Cagayan Province in northern Luzon have also yielded both chisel and serrated-type heads of possible hafted bone tattoo instruments alongside Austronesian material culture markers like adzes, spindle whorls, barkcloth beaters, and lingling-o jade ornaments. These were dated to before 1500 BCE and are remarkably similar to the comb-type tattoo chisels found throughout Polynesia. Ancient tattoos can also be found among mummified remains of various Igorot peoples in cave and hanging coffin burials in northern Luzon, with the oldest surviving examples of which going back to the 13th century. The tattoos on the mummies are often highly individualized, covering the arms of female adults and the whole body of adult males. A 700 to 900-year-old Kankanaey mummy in particular, nicknamed "Apo Anno", had tattoos covering even the soles of the feet and the fingertips. The tattoo patterns are often also carved on the coffins containing the mummies. When Antonio Pigafetta of the Magellan expedition (c. 1521) first encountered the Visayans of the islands, he repeatedly described them as "painted all over." The original Spanish name for the Visayans, "Los Pintados" ("The Painted Ones") was a reference to their tattoos. Tattoos were known as batuk (or batok) or patik among the Visayan people; batik, buri, or tatak (compare with Samoan tatau) among the Tagalog people; buri among the Pangasinan, Kapampangan, and Bicolano people; batek, butak, or burik among the Ilocano people; batek, batok, batak, fatek, whatok (also spelled fatok), or buri among the various Igorot peoples; and pangotoeb (also spelled pa-ngo-túb, pengeteb, or pengetev) among the various Manobo peoples. These terms were also applied to identical designs used in woven textiles, pottery, and decorations for shields, tool and weapon handles, musical instruments, and others. Most of the names are derived from Proto-Austronesian beCik ("tattoo") and patik ("mottled pattern"). Affixed forms of these words were used to describe tattooed people, often as a synonym for "renowned/skilled person"; like Tagalog batikan, Visayan binatakan, and Ilocano burikan. Men without tattoos were distinguished as puraw among Visayans, meaning "unmarked" or "plain" (compare with Samoan pulau). This was only socially acceptable for children and adolescents, as well as the asog (feminized men, usually shamans); otherwise being a puraw adult usually identified someone as having very low status. In contrast, tattoos in other ethnic groups (like the Manobo people) were optional, and no words that distinguished tattooed and non-tattooed individuals exist in their languages. Though when tattoos are present, they are still have to follow various traditional rules when it comes to placement and design. Tattoos were symbols of tribal identity and kinship, as well as bravery, beauty, and social or wealth status. They were also believed to have magical or apotropaic abilities, and can also document personal or communal history. Their design and placement varied by ethnic group, affiliation, status, and gender. They ranged from almost completely covering the body, including tattoos on the face meant to evoke frightening masks among the elite warriors of the Visayans; to being restricted only to certain areas of the body like Manobo tattoos which were only done on the forearms, lower abdomen, back, breasts, and ankles. They were commonly repeating geometric designs (lines, zigzags, repeating shapes); stylized representations of animals (like snakes, lizards, dogs, frogs, or giant centipedes), plants (like grass, ferns, or flowers), or humans; or star-like and sun-like patterns. Each motif had a name, and usually a story or significance behind it, though most of them have been lost to time. They were the same patterns and motifs used in other artforms and decorations of the particular ethnic groups they belong to. Tattoos were, in fact, regarded as a type of clothing in itself, and men would commonly wear only loincloths (bahag) to show them off. Tattoos are acquired gradually over the years, and patterns can take months to complete and heal. The tattooing process were sacred events that involved rituals to ancestral spirits (anito) and the heeding of omens. For example, if the artist or the recipient sneezes before a tattooing, it was seen as a sign of disapproval by the spirits, and the session was called off or rescheduled. Artists were usually paid with livestock, heirloom beads, or precious metals. They were also housed and fed by the family of the recipient during the process. A celebration was usually held after a completed tattoo. Tattoos were made by skilled artists using the distinctively Austronesian hafted tattooing technique. This involves using a small hammer to tap the tattooing needle (either a single needle or a brush-like bundle of needles) set perpendicular to a wooden handle in an L-shape (hence "hafted"). This handle makes the needle more stable and easier to position. The tapping moves the needle in and out of the skin rapidly (around 90 to 120 taps a minute). The needles were usually made from wood, horn, bone, ivory, metal, bamboo, or citrus thorns. The needles created wounds on the skin that were then rubbed with the ink made from soot or ashes mixed with water, oil, plant extracts (like sugarcane juice), or even pig bile. The artists also commonly traced an outline of the designs on the skin with the ink, using pieces of string or blades of grass, prior to tattooing. In some cases, the ink was applied before the tattoo points are driven into the skin. Most tattoo practitioners were men, though female practitioners also existed. They were either residents to a single village or traveling artists who visited different villages. Another tattooing technique predominantly practiced by the Lumad and Negrito peoples uses a small knife or a hafted tattooing chisel to quickly incise the skin in small dashes. The wounds are then rubbed with pigment. They differ from the techniques which use points in that the process also produces scarification. Regardless, the motifs and placements are very similar to the tattoos made with hafted needles. Tattooing traditions were lost as Filipinos were converted to Christianity during the Spanish colonial era. Tattooing were also lost in some groups (like the Tagalog and the Moro people) shortly before the colonial period due to their (then recent) conversion to Islam. It survived until around the 19th to the mid-20th centuries in more remote areas of the Philippines, but also fell out of practice due to modernization and western influence. Today, it is a highly endangered tradition and only survives among some members of the Igorot people of the Luzon highlands, some Lumad people of the Mindanao highlands, and the Sulodnon people of the Panay highlands. Malaysia and Indonesia Several tribes in the insular parts have tattooing in their culture. One notable example is the Dayak people of Kalimantan in Borneo (Bornean traditional tattooing). Another ethnic group that practices tattooing are the Mentawai people, as well as Moi and Meyakh people in West Papua. Solomon Islands Some artifacts dating back 3,000 years from the Solomon Islands may have been used for tattooing human skin. Obsidian pieces have been duplicated, then used to conduct tattoos on pig skin, then compared to the original artifacts. "They conducted these experiments to observe the wear, such as chipping and scratches, and residues on the stones caused by tattooing, and then compared that use-wear with 3,000 year old artifacts. They found that the obsidian pieces, old and new, show similar patterns, suggesting that they hadn't been used for working hides, but were for adorning human skin." Polynesia Marquesas Islands New Zealand The Māori people of New Zealand practised a form of tattooing known as tā moko, traditionally created with chisels. However, from the late 20th century onward, there has been a resurgence of tā moko taking on European styles amongst Maori. Traditional tā moko was reserved for head area. There is also a related tattoo art, kirituhi, which has a similar aesthetic to tā moko but is worn by non-Maori. Samoa The traditional male tattoo in Samoa is called the pe'a. The traditional female tattoo is called the malu. The word tattoo is believed to have originated from the Samoan word tatau, coming from Proto-Oceanic *sau₃ referring to a wingbone from a flying fox used as an instrument for the tattooing process. When the Samoan Islands were first seen by Europeans in 1722 three Dutch ships commanded by Jacob Roggeveen visited the eastern island known as Manua. A crew member of one of the ships described the natives in these words, "They are friendly in their speech and courteous in their behavior, with no apparent trace of wildness or savagery. They do not paint themselves, as do the natives of some other islands, but on the lower part of the body they wear artfully woven silk tights or knee breeches. They are altogether the most charming and polite natives we have seen in all of the South Seas..." The ships lay at anchor off the islands for several days, but the crews did not venture ashore and did not even get close enough to the natives to realize that they were not wearing silk leggings, but their legs were completely covered in tattoos. In Samoa, the tradition of applying tattoo, or tatau, by hand has been unbroken for over two thousand years. Tools and techniques have changed little. The skill is often passed from father to son, each tattoo artist, or tufuga, learning the craft over many years of serving as his father's apprentice. A young artist-in-training often spent hours, and sometimes days, tapping designs into sand or tree bark using a special tattooing comb, or au. Honoring their tradition, Samoan tattoo artists made this tool from sharpened boar's teeth fastened together with a portion of the turtle shell and to a wooden handle. Traditional Samoan tattooing of the "pe'a", body tattoo, is an ordeal that is not lightly undergone. It takes many weeks to complete. The process is very painful and used to be a necessary prerequisite to receiving a matai title; this however is no longer the case. Tattooing was also a very costly procedure. Samoan society has long been defined by rank and title, with chiefs (ali'i) and their assistants, known as talking chiefs (tulafale). The tattooing ceremonies for young chiefs, typically conducted at the time of puberty, were part of their ascendance to a leadership role. The permanent marks left by the tattoo artists would forever celebrate their endurance and dedication to cultural traditions. The pain was extreme and the risk of death by infection was a concern; to back down from tattooing was to risk being labeled a "pala'ai" or coward. Those who could not endure the pain and abandoned their tattooing were left incomplete, would be forced to wear their mark of shame throughout their life. This would forever bring shame upon their family so it was avoided at all cost. The Samoan tattooing process used a number of tools which remained almost unchanged since their first use. "Autapulu" is a wide tattooing comb used to fill in the large dark areas of the tattoo. "Ausogi'aso tele" is a comb used for making thick lines. "Ausogi'aso laititi" is a comb used for making thin lines. "Aumogo" small comb is used for making small marks. "Sausau" is the mallet used for striking the combs. It is almost two feet in length and made from the central rib of a coconut palm leaf. "Tuluma" is the pot used for holding the tattooing combs. Ipulama is the cup used for holding the dye. The dye is made from the soot collected from burnt lama nuts. "Tu'I" used to grind up the dye. These tools were primarily made out of animal bones to ensure sharpness. The tattooing process itself would be 5 sessions, in theory. These 5 sessions would be spread out over 10 days for the inflammation to subside. Christian missionaries from the west attempted to purge tattooing among the Samoans, thinking it barbaric and inhumane. Many young Samoans resisted mission schools since they forbade them to wear tattoos. But over time attitudes relaxed toward this cultural tradition and tattooing began to reemerge in Samoan culture. Europe The earliest possible evidence for tattooing in Europe appears on ancient art from the Upper Paleolithic period as incised designs on the bodies of humanoid figurines. The Löwenmensch figurine from the Aurignacian culture dates to approximately 40,000 years ago and features a series of parallel lines on its left shoulder. The ivory Venus of Hohle Fels, which dates to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago also exhibits incised lines down both arms, as well as across the torso and chest. The oldest and most famous direct proof of ancient European tattooing appears on the body of Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötz valley in the Alps and dates from the late 4th millennium BC. Studies have revealed that Ötzi had 61 carbon-ink tattoos consisting of 19 groups of lines simple dots and lines on his lower spine, left wrist, behind his right knee and on his ankles. It has been argued that these tattoos were a form of healing because of their placement, though other explanations are plausible. The Picts may have been tattooed (or scarified) with elaborate, war-inspired black or dark blue woad (or possibly copper for the blue tone) designs. Julius Caesar described these tattoos in Book V of his Gallic Wars (54 BC). Nevertheless, these may have been painted markings rather than tattoos. In his encounter with a group of pagan Scandinavian Rus' merchants in the early 10th century, Ahmad ibn Fadlan describes what he witnesses among them, including their appearance. He notes that the Rus' were heavily tattooed: "From the tips of his toes to his neck, each man is tattooed in dark green with designs, and so forth." Raised in the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England, William of Malmesbury describes in his Gesta Regum Anglorum that the Anglo-Saxons were tattooed upon the arrival of the Normans (..."arms covered with golden bracelets, tattooed with coloured patterns ..."). The significance of tattooing was long open to Eurocentric interpretations. In the mid-19th century, Baron Haussmann, while arguing against painting the interior of Parisian churches, said the practice "reminds me of the tattoos used in place of clothes by barbarous peoples to conceal their nakedness". Greece and Rome Greek written records of tattooing date back to at least the 5th-century BCE. The ancient Greeks and Romans used tattooing to penalize slaves, criminals, and prisoners of war. While known, decorative tattooing was looked down upon and religious tattooing was mainly practiced in Egypt and Syria. According to Robert Graves in his book The Greek Myths, tattooing was common amongst certain religious groups in the ancient Mediterranean world, which may have contributed to the prohibition of tattooing in Leviticus. In 316, emperor Constantine I made it illegal to tattoo the face of slaves as punishment. The Romans of Late Antiquity also tattooed soldiers and arms manufacturers, a practice that continued into the ninth century. The Greek verb stizein (στίζειν), meaning "to prick," was used for tattooing. Its derivative stigma (στίγμα) was the common term for tattoo marks in both Greek and Latin. During the Byzantine period, the verb kentein (κεντεῖν) replaced stizein, and a variety of new Latin terms replaced stigmata including signa "signs," characteres "stamps," and cicatrices "scars." Scythia Tattooed mummies dating to c. 500 BC were extracted from burial mounds on the Ukok plateau during the 1990s. Their tattooing involved animal designs carried out in a curvilinear style. The Man of Pazyryk, a Scythian chieftain, is tattooed with an extensive and detailed range of fish, monsters and a series of dots that lined up along the spinal column (lumbar region) and around the right ankle. North Africa Egypt and Nubia Despite a lack of direct textual references, tattooed human remains and iconographic evidence indicate that ancient Egyptians practiced tattooing from at least 2000 BCE. It is theorized that tattooing entered Egypt through Nubia, but this claim is complicated by the high mobility between Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt as well as Egypt's annexation of Lower Nubia during the Middle Kingdom. Archeologist Geoffrey J. Tassie argues that it may be more appropriate to classify tattoo in ancient Egypt and Nubia as part of a larger Nile Valley tradition. The most famous tattooed mummies from this region are Amunet, a priestess of Hathor, and two Hathoric dancers from Dynasty XI that were found at Deir el-Bahari. In 1898, Daniel Fouquet, a medical doctor from Cairo, wrote an article on medical tattooing practices in ancient Egypt in which he describes the tattoos on these three mummies and speculates that they may have served a medicinal or therapeutic purpose: "The examination of these scars, some white, others blue, leaves in no doubt that they are not, in essence, ornament, but an established treatment for a condition of the pelvis, very probably chronic pelvic peritonitis." Ancient Egyptian tattooing appears to have been practiced on women exclusively; with an exception of a pre-dynastic male mummy found with constituting the oldest known figural tattoo. And the possible exception of one extremely worn Dynasty XII stele, there is no artistic or physical evidence that men were commonly tattooed. However, by the Meroitic Period (300 BCE – 400 CE), it was practiced on Nubian men as well. Accounts of early travelers to ancient Egypt describe the tool used as an uneven number of metal needles attached to a wooden handle. Two well-preserved Egyptian mummies from 4160 B.C.E., a priestess and a temple dancer for the fertility goddess Hathor, bear random-dot and dash tattoo patterns on the lower abdomen, thighs, arms, and chest. Copts Coptic tattoos often consist of three lines, three dots and two elements, reflecting the Trinity. The tools used had an odd number of needles to bring luck and good fortune. Many Copts have the Coptic cross tattooed on the inside of their right arm. This may have been influenced by a similar practice tattooing religious symbols on the wrists and arms during the Ptolemaic period. Persia Herodotus' writings suggest that slaves and prisoners of war were tattooed in Persia during the classical era. This practice spread from Persia to Greece and then to Rome. The most famous depiction of tattooing in Persian literature goes back 800 years to a tale by Rumi about a man who is proud to want a lion tattoo but changes his mind once he experiences the pain of the needle. In the hamam (the baths), there were dallaks whose job was to help people wash themselves. This was a notable occupation because apart from helping the customers with washing, they were massage-therapists, dentists, barbers and tattoo artists. Modern world tattooing practices Pilgrimage British and other pilgrims to the Holy Lands throughout the 17th century were tattooed with the Jerusalem cross to commemorate their voyages, including William Lithgow in 1612. "Painted Prince" Perhaps the most famous tattooed foreigner in Europe prior to the voyages of James Cook was the "Painted Prince" - a slave named "Jeoly" from Mindanao in the Philippines. He was initially bought with his mother (who died of illness shortly afterwards) from a Mindanaoan slave trader in Mindanao in 1690 by a "Mister Moody", who passed Jeoly on to the English explorer William Dampier. Dampier described Jeoly's intricate tattoos in his journals: Jeoly told Dampier that he was the son of a rajah in Mindanao, and told him that gold (bullawan) was very easy to find in his island. Jeoly also mentioned that the men and women of Mindanao were also tattooed similarly, and that his tattoos were done by one of his five wives. Some authors believe him to be a Visayan pintado. Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao that speak Binisaya language. Other authors claimed Jeoly is Palauan due to the pattern of his tattoos and his account that he was tattooed by women (Palauan tattooists were female). However, the pattern of his tattoos are very similar to all Batok in recorded history and it is a known fact that tattooing can be done by women tattoo artists like Apo Whang-od, the last surviving mambabatok. Dampier brought Jeoly with him to London, intending to recoup the money he lost while at sea by displaying Jeoly to curious crowds. Dampier invented a fictional backstory for him, renaming him "Prince Giolo" and claiming that he was the son and heir of the "King of Gilolo." Instead of being from Mindanao, Dampier now claimed that he was only shipwrecked in Mindanao with his mother and sister, whereupon he was captured and sold into slavery. Dampier also claimed that Jeoly's tattoos were created from an "herbal paint" that rendered him invulnerable to snake venom, and that the tattooing process was done naked in a room of venomous snakes. Dampier initially toured around with Jeoly, showing his tattoos to large crowds. Eventually, Dampier sold Jeoly to the Blue Boar Inn in Fleet Street. Jeoly was displayed as a sideshow by the inn, with his likeness printed on playbills and flyers advertising his "exquisitely painted" body. By this time, Jeoly had contracted smallpox and was very ill. He was later brought to the University of Oxford for examination, but he died shortly afterwards of smallpox at around thirty years of age in the summer of 1692. His tattooed skin was preserved and was displayed in the Anatomy School of Oxford for a time, although it was lost prior to the 20th century. Cook's expedition Between 1766 and 1779, Captain James Cook made three voyages to the South Pacific, the last trip ending with Cook's death in Hawaii in February 1779. When Cook and his men returned home to Europe from their voyages to Polynesia, they told tales of the 'tattooed savages' they had seen. The word "tattoo" itself comes from the Tahitian tatau, and was introduced into the English language by Cook's expedition (though the word 'tattoo' or 'tap-too', referring to a drumbeat, had existed in English since at least 1644) It was in Tahiti aboard the Endeavour, in July 1769, that Cook first noted his observations about the indigenous body modification and is the first recorded use of the word tattoo to refer to the permanent marking of the skin. In the ship's log book recorded this entry: "Both sexes paint their Bodys, Tattow, as it is called in their Language. This is done by inlaying the Colour of Black under their skins, in such a manner as to be indelible." Cook went on to write, "This method of Tattowing I shall now describe...As this is a painful operation, especially the Tattowing of their Buttocks, it is performed but once in their Lifetimes." Cook's Science Officer and Expedition Botanist, Sir Joseph Banks, returned to England with a tattoo. Banks was a highly regarded member of the English aristocracy and had acquired his position with Cook by putting up what was at the time the princely sum of some ten thousand pounds in the expedition. In turn, Cook brought back with him a tattooed Raiatean man, Omai, whom he presented to King George and the English Court. Many of Cook's men, ordinary seamen and sailors, came back with tattoos, a tradition that would soon become associated with men of the sea in the public's mind and the press of the day. In the process, sailors and seamen re-introduced the practice of tattooing in Europe, and it spread rapidly to seaports around the globe. "Reintroduction" to the Western world The popularity of modern Western tattooing owes its origins in large part to Captain James Cook's voyages to the South Pacific in the 1770s, but since the 1950s a false belief has persisted that modern Western tattooing originated exclusively from these voyages. Tattooing has been consistently present in Western society from the modern period stretching back to Ancient Greece, though largely for different reasons. A long history of European tattoo predated these voyages, including among sailors and tradesmen, pilgrims visiting the Holy Land, and on Europeans living among Native Americans. European sailors have practiced tattooing since at least the 16th century (see sailor tattoos). Tattoo historian Anna Felicity Friedman suggests a couple reasons for the "Cook Myth". First, modern European words for the practice (e.g., "tattoo", "tatuaje", "tatouage", "Tätowierung", and "tatuagem") derive from the Tahitian word "tatau", which was introduced to European languages through Cook's travels. However, prior European texts show that a variety of metaphorical terms were used for the practice, including "pricked," "marked", "engraved," "decorated," "punctured," "stained," and "embroidered." Friedman also points out that the growing print culture at the time of Cook's voyages may have increased the visibility of tattooing despite its prior existence in the West. 19th century Europe By the 19th century, tattooing had spread to British society but was still largely associated with sailors and the lower or even criminal class. Tattooing had however been practised in an amateur way by public schoolboys from at least the 1840s and by the 1870s had become fashionable among some members of the upper classes, including royalty. In its upmarket form, it could be a lengthy, expensive and sometimes painful process. Tattooing spread among the upper classes all over Europe in the 19th century, but particularly in Britain where it was estimated in Harmsworth Magazine in 1898 that as many as one in five members of the gentry were tattooed. Taking their lead from the British Court, where George V followed Edward VII's lead in getting tattooed; King Frederick IX of Denmark, the King of Romania, Kaiser Wilhelm II, King Alexander of Yugoslavia and even Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, all sported tattoos, many of them elaborate and ornate renditions of the Royal Coat of Arms or the Royal Family Crest. King Alfonso XIII of modern Spain also had a tattoo. The perception that there is a marked class division on the acceptability of the practice has been a popular media theme in Britain, as successive generations of journalists described the practice as newly fashionable and no longer for a marginalised class. Examples of this cliché can be found in every decade since the 1870s. Despite this evidence, a myth persists that the upper and lower classes find tattooing attractive and the broader middle classes rejecting it. 20th century Europe In 1969, the House of Lords debated a bill to ban the tattooing of minors, on grounds it had become "trendy" with the young in recent years but was associated with crime. It was noted that 40 per cent of young criminals had tattoos and that marking the skin in this way tended to encourage self-identification with criminal groups. Two peers, Lord Teynham and the Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair however rose to object that they had been tattooed as youngsters, with no ill effects. Since the 1970s, tattoos have become more socially acceptable and fashionable among celebrities. Tattoos are less prominent on figures of authority, and the practice of tattooing by the elderly is still considered remarkable. In recent history, authority figures have adopted the trend more widely; in Australia 65% of people in these professions are tattooed. 19th century United States The first documented professional tattooer in the United States was Martin Hildebrandt, who had enlisted in the United States Navy in the late 1840s where he learned to tattoo, served as a soldier in the American Civil War, and opened a shop in New York City in the early 1870s. The first documented professional tattooist (with a permanent studio, working on members of the paying public) in Britain was Sutherland Macdonald in the early 1880s. Tattooing was an expensive and painful process and by the late 1880s had become a mark of wealth for the crowned heads of Europe. In 1891, New York City tattooer Samuel O'Reilly patented the first electric tattoo machine, a modification of Thomas Edison's electric pen. The earliest appearance of tattoos on women during this period were in the circus in the late 19th century. These "Tattooed Ladies" were covered – with the exception of their faces, hands, necks, and other readily visible areas – with various images inked into their skin. To lure the crowd, the earliest ladies, like Betty Broadbent and Nora Hildebrandt told tales of captivity; they usually claimed to have been taken hostage by Native Americans that tattooed them as a form of torture. However, by the late 1920s the sideshow industry was slowing and by the late 1990s the last tattooed lady was out of business. Tattooing in the early United States In the period shortly after the American Revolution, to avoid impressment by British Navy ships, sailors used government issued protection papers to establish their American citizenship. However, many of the descriptions of the individual described in the seamen's protection certificates were so general, and it was so easy to abuse the system, that many impressment officers of the Royal Navy simply paid no attention to them. "In applying for a duplicate Seaman's Protection Certificate in 1817, James Francis stated that he 'had a protection granted him by the Collector of this Port on or about 12 March 1806 which was torn up and destroyed by a British Captain when at sea.'" One way of making them more specific and more effective was to describe a tattoo, which is highly personal as to subject and location, and thus use that description to precisely identify the seaman. As a result, many of the official certificates also carried information about tattoos and scars, as well as any other specific identifying information. This also perhaps led to an increase and proliferation of tattoos among American seamen who wanted to avoid impressment. During this period, tattoos were not popular with the rest of the country. "Frequently the "protection papers" made reference to tattoos, clear evidence that individual was a seafaring man; rarely did members of the general public adorn themselves with tattoos." "In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, tattoos were as much about self-expression as they were about having a unique way to identify a sailor's body should he be lost at sea or impressed by the British navy. The best source for early American tattoos is the protection papers issued following a 1796 congressional act to safeguard American seamen from impressment. These proto-passports catalogued tattoos alongside birthmarks, scars, race, and height. Using simple techniques and tools, tattoo artists in the early republic typically worked on board ships using anything available as pigments, even gunpowder and urine. Men marked their arms and hands with initials of themselves and loved ones, significant dates, symbols of the seafaring life, liberty poles, crucifixes, and other symbols." Sometimes, to protect themselves, the sailors requested not only that the tattoos be described, but that they would also be sketched out on the protection certificate as well. As one researched said, "Clerks writing the documents often sketched the tattoos as well as describing them." Russian gang culture Within the gang cultures of the world, tattoos, along with piercings, are often associated with forms of art, identification, and allegiance to brotherhood. The gang culture in Russia offers an interesting example of the desire to connect through tattoos. Beginning in the latter days of Imperial Russia, the common experience of corporal punishment created a bond among both men and women within society. Corporal punishments often left flogging marks and other scars that marred inmates' bodies. With these mutilations, people became easily identifiable as Russian/Soviet criminals. These identifiable markers became a problem when some inmates ran away into Serbia. Inmates who fled tried to conceal their scars with tattoos to keep their identity secret. However, this wouldn't last long as the prisons started to use tattoos as a form of serial numbers identification for their inmates. This marking identity imposed on inmates by the prisons simultaneously created an anti-culture and a new gang culture. By the 1920s, as the Soviet union faced even more social class troubles, many of the Russian and Soviet criminals wanted to connect with the ideals and laws associated with past criminals. This created a boom of tattoos among prisoners, that by the late 1920s “about 60-70%” of all inmates had some type of Tattoo. This new wave of tattoo among the Russian prisons were seen as a right of passage. Soviet tattoos often indicated a person's socio-demographic status, the crimes they have committed, the prisons they associated with, what drugs they had or used, and other habits. Use of Tattoos in Indigenous boarding schools Tattooing in the federal Indian boarding school system was commonly practiced during the 1960s and 1970s. Such tattoos often took the form of small markings or initials and were often used as a form of resistance; a way to reclaim one's body. Due to the forced assimilation practices of the Western boarding schools, many indigenous cultural practices were on a severe decline, tattooing being one of them. As a way to retain their cultural heritage some students practiced this ritual and tattooed themselves with found materials like sewing needles and India Ink. Within the schools, the authorities physically labeled the students: “a personal identification number was written in purple ink on their wrists and on the small cupboard in which their few belongings were stored.” Oftentimes the students had a tendency to tattoo their initials on this very spot; the exact place where the school authorities first marked them. This can be seen as a strong act of resistance where the students were physically rejecting their numerical ID, and reclaiming their own body and identity. The Tattoo Renaissance Tattooing has steadily increased in popularity since the invention of the electric tattoo machine. In 1936, 1 in 10 Americans had a tattoo of some form. In the late 1950s, Tattoos were greatly influenced by several artists, in particular Lyle Tuttle, Cliff Raven, Don Nolan, Zeke Owens and Spider Webb. A second generation of artists, trained by the first, continued these traditions into the 1970s, and included artists such as Bob Roberts, Jamie Summers, Jack Rudy and Don Ed Hardy. Since the 1970s, tattoos have become a mainstream part of global and Western fashion, common among both sexes, to all economic classes, and to age groups from the later teen years to middle age. The decoration of blues singer Janis Joplin with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, has been called a seminal moment in the popular acceptance of tattoos as art. Formal interest in the art of the tattoo became prominent in the 1970s through the beginning of the 21st century. For many young Americans, the tattoo has taken on a decidedly different meaning than for previous generations. The tattoo has "undergone dramatic redefinition" and has shifted from a form of deviance to an acceptable form of expression. In 1988, scholar Arnold Rubin created a collection of works regarding the history of tattoo cultures, publishing them as the "Marks of Civilization". In this, the term "Tattoo Renaissance" was coined, referring to a period marked by technological, artistic and social change. Wearers of tattoos, as members of the counterculture began to display their body art as signs of resistance to the values of the white, heterosexual, middle-class. The clientele changed from sailors, bikers, and gang members to the middle and upper class. There was also a shift in iconography from the badge-like images based on repetitive pre-made designs known as flash to customized full-body tattoo influenced by Polynesian and Japanese tattoo art, known as sleeves, which are categorized under the relatively new and popular avant-garde genre. In the early 90s the designs of Leo Zulueta, "the father of modern tribal tattooing", became very popular. Tattooers transformed into "Tattoo Artists": men and women with fine art backgrounds began to enter the profession alongside the older, traditional tattooists. Tattoos have experienced a resurgence in popularity in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Japan, and North and South America. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine arts training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced. Star Stowe (Miss February 1977) was the first Playboy Playmate with a visible tattoo on her centerfold. During the 2000s, the presence of tattoos became evident within pop culture, inspiring television shows such as A&E's Inked and TLC's Miami Ink and LA Ink. In addition, many celebrities have made tattoos more acceptable in recent years. Contemporary art exhibitions and visual art institutions have featured tattoos as art through such means as displaying tattoo flash, examining the works of tattoo artists, or otherwise incorporating examples of body art into mainstream exhibits. One such 2009 Chicago exhibition, Freaks & Flash, featured both examples of historic body art as well as the tattoo artists who produced it. In 2010, 25% of Australians under age 30 had tattoos. Mattel released a tattooed Barbie doll in 2011, which was widely accepted, although it did attract some controversy. Author and sociology professor Beverly Yuen Thompson wrote "Covered In Ink: Tattoos, Women, and the Politics of the Body" (published in 2015, research conducted between 2007 and 2010) on the history of tattooing, and how it has been normalized for specific gender roles in the USA. She also released a documentary called "Covered", showing interviews with heavily tattooed women and female tattoo artists in the US. From the distinct history of tattooing, its historical origins and how it transferred to American culture, come transgressive styles which are put in place for tattooed men and women. These "norms" written in the social rules of tattooing imply what is considered the correct way for a gender to be tattooed. Men of tattoo communities are expected to be "heavily tattooed", meaning there are many tattoos which cover multiple parts of the body, and express aggressive or masculine images, such as skulls, zombies, or dragons. Women, on the other hand, are expected to be "lightly tattooed". This means the opposite, in which there are only a small number of tattoos which are placed in areas of the body that are easy to cover up. These images are expected to be more feminine or cute (ex. Fairies, flowers, hearts). When women step outside of the "lightly tattooed" concept by choosing tattoos of a masculine design, and on parts of the body which are not easy to cover (forearms, legs), it's common to face certain types of discrimination from the public. Women who are heavily tattooed can report to being stared at in public, being denied certain employment opportunities, face judgement from members of family, and may even receive sexist or homophobic slurs by strangers. Over the past three decades Western tattooing has become a practice that has crossed social boundaries from "low" to "high" class along with reshaping the power dynamics regarding gender. It has its roots in "exotic" tribal practices of the Native Americans and Japanese, which are still seen in present times. As various kinds of social movements progressed bodily inscription crossed class boundaries, and became common among the general public. Specifically, the tattoo is one access point for revolutionary aesthetics of women. Feminist theory has much to say on the subject. "Bodies of Subversion: A Secret History of Women and Tattoo", by Margot Mifflin, became the first history of women's tattoo art when it was released in 1997. In it, she documents women's involvement in tattooing coinciding to feminist successes, with surges in the 1880s, 1920s and the 1970s. Today, women sometimes use tattoos as forms of bodily reclamation after traumatic experiences like abuse or breast cancer. In 2012, tattooed women outnumbered men for the first time in American history – according to a Harris poll, 23% of women in America had tattoos in that year, compared to 19% of men. In 2013, Miss Kansas, Theresa Vail, became the first Miss America contestant to show off tattoos during the swimsuit competition — the insignia of the U.S. Army Dental Corps on her left shoulder and one of the "Serenity Prayer" along the right side of her torso. The legal status of tattoos is still developing. In recent years, various lawsuits have arisen in the United States regarding the status of tattoos as a copyrightable art form. However, these cases have either been settled out of court or are currently being disputed, and therefore no legal precedent exists directly on point. The process of tattooing was held to be a purely expressive activity protected by the First Amendment by the Ninth Circuit in 2010. Tattoos are valuable identification marks because they tend to be permanent. They can be removed, but they do not fade, The color may, however, change with exposure to the sun. They have recently been very useful in identifying people, such as in the case of a decedent. In today's industrialized cultures, tattoos and piercing are a popular art form shared by many. They are also often perceived to be indicative of defiance, independence, and belonging, such as in prison or gang cultures. Military's role in tattoos in America Military and warfare have had a direct impact on the purpose, subject matter, and reception of tattoos in American popular culture. The first recorded tattoo artist in the United States was Martin Hildebrandt, who in 1846 was tattooing sailors and soldiers with proud patriotic tattoos of flags and battles. While this helped push tattooing into a popular light, simultaneously "Tattooed Freaks", like P.T. Barnum's "Prince Constantine", were inadvertently counteracting this, and keeping the world of Tattooing out of everyday life. It wasn't until the invention of the Electric Tattoo Machine in the 1880s by Samuel O'Reilly that Tattooing became a little socially acceptable. Still, O'Reilly reported in the 1880s that most of his clients were sailors. A 1908 Article in American Anthropologist reported that 75% of sailors in the U.S. Navy were tattooed. These findings led to one of the first U.S. military regulations on Tattoos in 1909, which concerned the subject matter of the tattoos allowed to be pictured on servicemen. World Wars As World War I ravaged the globe, it also ravaged the popularity of tattooing, pushing tattoos even farther under the umbrella of delinquency. What credence tattoos got as symbols of patriotism and war badges in the eyes of the public, was demolished as servicemen moved away from the proud flags motifs and into more sordid depictions. At the beginning of the second World War Tattooing once again experienced a boom in popularity as now not only sailors in the Navy, but soldiers in the Army and fliers in the Air Force, were once again tattooing their national pride onto their bodies. Famous tattoo artist, Charles Wagner said "Funny Thing about War, fighting men just want to be marked in some way or another" as a way of reasoning for its resurgence in popularity. The hype was short lived, as the craft of tattooing received a major backlash at the end of the second world war, as stories from survivors abroad made it back to the states. During the Second World War, the Nazis, under the order of Adolf Hitler, rounded up those deemed inferior, into concentration camps. Once there, if they were chosen to live, they were tattooed with numbers onto their arms. Tattoos and Nazism become intertwined, and the extreme distaste for Nazi Germany and Fascism, led to a stronger public outcry against tattooing. Post World Wars This backlash would further worsen with use of a tattooed man in a 1950s Marlboro advertisement, which strengthened the publics view that Tattoos were no longer for patriotic servicemen, but for criminals and degenerates. The public distaste was so strong by this point, that usual trend of seeing tattoo popularity spike during times of war, was not seen in the Vietnam War. It would take two more decades, and creators like Lyle Tuttle and Ed Hardy in 1970, Freddy Negrete and Jack Rudy in 1980, and celebrity patrons like Janis Joplin, Peter Fonda, and Cher, for tattooing to finally be brought back into society's good graces. Modern times/2000s Starting in the early 2000s, tattoos and the military began to reconnect, as tattoos became a symbolic and popular way to show social and political views Tattoos were being used by soldiers to show belonging, affiliation, and to mark down their war experiences. Rites of passage in the military were marked with tattoos, like when one completes basic training or returns home from service. Modern military tattoos in the United States became less about valor and honor, but about recognizing the experiences, losses, and struggles of servicemen. Tattoos can now be seen and perceived as ways to convey loss and grief, guilt and anger, as ways to highlight the transformational nature of war on individuals, and even convey a hope for a better nation and self. The history of Tattooing in the U.S. can be seen to have been influenced and affected by war and the Military. Though its expression and reception by the public are constantly in flux, both practices are deeply connected and still effect one another today. Dyvik writes in her article, War Ink: Sense Making and Curating War Through Military Tattoos, that "war lingers in and on the bodies and lifeworlds of those who have practiced it" Global military regulations on tattoos Throughout the world's different military branches, tattoos are either regulated under policies or strictly prohibited to fit dress code rules. United Kingdom Royal Navy , the Royal Navy permits most tattoos, with certain restrictions: unless visible in a front-facing passport photo, obscene or offensive, or otherwise deemed inappropriate. The National Museum of the Royal Navy has presented an exhibit about the long history of tattoos among Navy service members, part of the tradition of sailor tattoos. United States United States Air Force The United States Air Force regulates all kinds of body modification. Any tattoos which are deemed to be "prejudicial to good order and discipline", or "of a nature that may bring discredit upon the Air Force" are prohibited. Specifically, any tattoo which may be construed as "obscene or advocate sexual, racial, ethnic or religious discrimination" is disallowed. Tattoo removal may not be enough to qualify; resultant "excessive scarring" may be disqualifying. Further, Air Force members may not have tattoos on their neck, face, head, tongue, lips or scalp. United States Army The United States Army regulates tattoos under AR 670–1, last updated in 2022. Soldiers are permitted to have tattoos as long as they are not on the neck, hands, or face, with exceptions existing for of one ring tattoo on each hand, a tattoo on each hand, not exceeding one inch diameter, one tattoo behind the ear, not to exceed one inch in diameter, and permanent makeup. Additionally, tattoos that are deemed to be sexist, racist, derogatory, or extremist continue to be banned. United States Coast Guard The United States Coast Guard policy has changes over the years. Tattoos should not be visible over the collarbone or when wearing a V-neck shirt. Tattoos or military brands on the arms should not surpass the wrist. But only one hand tattoos of a form of ring are permitted when not exceeding width. Face tattoos are also permitted as permanent eyeliners for females as long as they are appropriately worn and not brightly colored to fit uniform dressing code. Disrespectful derogatory tattoos and sexually explicit tattoos are prohibited on the body. United States Marine Corps In 2016, the United States Marine Corps disclosed a new policy of standards of appearance, substituting any previous policy from the past. The policy unauthorized tattoos in different parts of the body such as the wrist, knee, elbow and above the collar bone. Wrist tattoos should be two inches above the wrist, elbow tattoos two inches above and one inch below, and the knee two inches above and two below. United States Navy The United States Navy has changed its policies and become more lenient in its policies on tattoos, allowing neck tattoos as long as one inch. Sailors are also allowed to have as many tattoos of any size on the arms and legs, as long as they are not deemed to be offensive tattoos. India The Indian Army tattoo policy has been in place since 11 May 2015. The government declared all tribal communities who enlist and have tattoos are allowed to have them all over the body only if they belong to a tribal community. Indians who are not part of a tribal community are only allowed to have tattoos in designated parts of the body such as the forearm, elbow, wrist, the side of the palm, and back and front of hands. Offensive, sexist and racist tattoos are not allowed. References Further reading Tattoo Tattooing
5339004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery%20in%20ancient%20Rome	Slavery in ancient Rome	Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Unskilled or low-skill slaves labored in the fields, mines, and mills with few opportunities for advancement and little chance of freedom. Skilled and educated slaves—including artisans, chefs, domestic staff and personal attendants, entertainers, business managers, accountants and bankers, educators at all levels, secretaries and librarians, civil servants, and physicians—occupied a more privileged tier of servitude and could hope to obtain freedom through one of several well-defined paths with protections under the law. The possibility of manumission and subsequent citizenship was a distinguishing feature of Rome's system of slavery, resulting in a significant and influential number of freedpersons in Roman society. At all levels of employment, free working people, former slaves, and the enslaved mostly did the same kinds of jobs. Elite Romans whose wealth came from property ownership saw little difference between slavery and a dependence on earning wages from labor. Slaves were themselves considered property under Roman law and had no rights of legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. The most brutal forms of punishment were reserved for slaves. The adequacy of their diet, shelter, clothing, and healthcare was dependent on their perceived utility to owners whose impulses might be cruel or situationally humane. Some people were born into slavery as the child of an enslaved mother. Others became slaves. War captives were considered legally enslaved, and Roman military expansion during the Republican era was a major source of slaves. From the 2nd century BC through late antiquity, kidnapping and piracy put freeborn people all around the Mediterranean at risk of illegal enslavement, to which the children of poor families were especially vulnerable. Although a law was passed to ban debt slavery quite early in Rome's history, some people sold themselves into contractual slavery to escape poverty. The slave trade, lightly taxed and regulated, flourished in all reaches of the Roman Empire and across borders. In antiquity, slavery was seen as the natural consequence of one group dominating another, and people of any race, ethnicity, or place of origin might become slaves, including freeborn Romans. Slavery was practiced within all communities of the Roman Empire, including Jews and Christians. Even modest households might expect to have two or three slaves. A period of rebellions known as the Servile Wars ended with the defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC; slave uprisings grew rare in the Imperial era, when individual escape was a persistent form of resistance. Fugitive slave-hunting was the most concerted form of policing in the Roman Empire. Moral discourse on slavery was concerned with the treatment of slaves, and abolitionist views were almost nonexistent. Inscriptions set up by slaves and freedpersons and the art and decoration of their houses offer glimpses of how they saw themselves. A few writers and philosophers of the Roman era were former slaves or the sons of slaves. While some scholars have made efforts to imagine more deeply the lived experiences of slaves in the Roman world, comparisons to the Atlantic slave trade also show fundamental differences from the legal and social status of slaves and freedpersons in ancient Rome. Origins From Rome's earliest historical period, domestic slaves were part of a familia, the body of a household's dependents—a word especially, or sometimes limited to, referring to the slaves collectively. Pliny (1st century AD) was nostalgic for a time when "the ancients" lived more intimately in a household with no need for "legions of slaves"—but still imagined this simpler domestic life as supported by the possession of a slave. All those belonging to the familia were subject to the paterfamilias, the "father" or head of household and more precisely the estate owner. According to Seneca, the early Romans coined paterfamilias as a euphemism for the relationship of a master to his slaves. The word for "master" was dominus as the one who controlled the domain of the domus (household); dominium was the word for his control over the slaves. The paterfamilias held the power of life and death (vitae necisque potestas) over the dependents of his household, including his sons and daughters as well as slaves. The Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century AD) asserts that this right dated back to the legendary time of Romulus. In contrast to Greek city-states, Rome was an ethnically diverse population and incorporated former slaves as citizens. Dionysius found it remarkable that when Romans manumitted their slaves, they gave them Roman citizenship as well. Myths of Rome's founding sought to account for both this heterogeneity and the role of freedmen in Roman society. The legendary founding by Romulus began with his establishment of a place of refuge that, according to the Augustan-era historian Livy, attracted "mostly former slaves, vagabonds, and runaways all looking for a fresh start" as citizens of the new city, which Livy considers a source of Rome's strength. Servius Tullius, the semi-legendary sixth king of Rome, was said to have been the son of a slave woman, and the cultural role of slavery is embedded in some religious festivals and temples that the Romans associated with his reign. Some legal and religious developments pertaining to slavery thus can be discerned even in Rome's earliest institutions. The Twelve Tables, the earliest Roman legal code, dated traditionally to 451/450 BC, do not contain law defining slavery, the existence of which is taken as a given. Specific provisions apply to manumission and the status of freedmen, who are referred to as cives Romani liberti, "freedmen who are Roman citizens," indicating that as early as the 5th century BC, former slaves were a significant demographic that the law needed to address, with a legal path to freedom and the opportunity to participate in the legal and political system. The Roman jurist Gaius described slavery as "the state that is recognized by the ius gentium in which someone is subject to the dominion of another person contrary to nature" (Institutiones 1.3.2, 161 AD). Ulpian (2nd century AD) also regarded slavery as an aspect of the ius gentium, the customary international law held in common among all peoples (gentes). In Ulpian's tripartite division of law, the "law of nations" was considered neither natural law, thought to exist in nature and govern animals as well as humans, nor civil law, the legal code particular to a people or nation. All human beings are born free (liberi) under natural law, but since slavery was held to be a universal practice, individual nations would develop their own civil laws pertaining to slaves. In ancient warfare, the victor had the right under the ius gentium to enslave a defeated population; however, if a settlement had been reached through diplomatic negotiations or formal surrender, the people were by custom to be spared violence and enslavement. The ius gentium was not a legal code, and any force it had depended on "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct". Although Rome’s earliest wars were defensive, a Roman victory would still result in the enslavement of the defeated under these circumstances, as is recorded at the conclusion of the war with the Etruscan city of Veii in 396 BC. Defensive wars also drained manpower for agriculture, increasing the demand for labor—a demand that could be met by the availability of war captives. From the sixth through the third centuries BC, Rome gradually became a “slave society,” with the first two Punic Wars (265–201 BC) producing the most dramatic surge in the number of slaves. Slavery with the possibility of manumission became so embedded in Roman society that by the 2nd century AD, most free citizens in the city of Rome are likely to have had slaves "somewhere in their ancestry." Enslavement of Roman citizens The only means of enslaving a freeborn Roman citizen that the Romans of the Republican era recognized as legal was military defeat and capture under the ius gentium. The Carthaginian leader Hannibal enslaved Roman war captives in large numbers during the Second Punic War. Following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217 BC), the treaty included terms for ransoming prisoners of war. The Roman senate declined to do so, and their commander ended up paying the ransom himself. After the disastrous Battle of Cannae the following year, Hannibal again stipulated a redemption of captives, but the senate after debate again voted not to pay, preferring to send a message that soldiers should fight to victory or die. Hannibal then sold these prisoners of war to the Greeks, and they remained slaves until the Second Macedonian War, when Flamininus recovered 1,200 men who had survived some twenty years of slavery after Cannae. The war that most dramatically escalated the number of slaves brought into Roman society at the same time had exposed an unprecedented number of Roman citizens to enslavement. In the later Republic and during the Imperial period, thousands of soldiers, citizens, and their slaves in the Roman East were taken captive and enslaved by the Parthians or later within the Sasanian Empire. The Parthians captured 10,000 survivors after the defeat of Marcus Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and marched them 1,500 miles to Margiana in Bactria, where their fate is unknown. While thoughts of returning the Roman military standards lost at Carrhae motivated military minds for decades, “considerably less official concern was expressed about the liberation of Roman prisoners.” Writing about thirty years after the battle, the Augustan poet Horace imagined them married to "barbarian" women and serving the Parthian army, too dishonored to be restored to Rome. Valerian became the first emperor to be held captive after his defeat by Shapur I at the Battle of Edessa in AD 260. According to hostile Christian sources, the aging emperor was treated as a slave and subjected to a grotesque array of humiliations. Reliefs and inscriptions located at the sacred Zoroastrian site of Naqsh-e Rostam, southwest Iran, celebrate the victories of Shapur I and his successor over the Romans, with emperors in subjection and legionaries paying tribute. Shapur’s inscriptions record that the Roman troops he had enslaved came from all reaches of the empire. A Roman enslaved in war under such circumstances lost his citizen rights at home. His right to own property was forfeited, his marriage was dissolved, and if he was head of a household his legal power (potestas) over his dependents was suspended. If he was released from slavery, his citizen status might be restored along with his property and potestas. His marriage, however, was not automatically renewed; another agreement of consent by both parties had to be arranged. The loss of citizenship was a consequence of submitting to an enemy sovereign state; freeborn people kidnapped by bandits or pirates were regarded as seized illegally, and therefore they could be ransomed, or their sale into slavery rendered void, without compromising their citizen status. This contrast between the consequences for status from war (bellum) and from banditry (latrocinium) may be reflected in the similar Jewish distinction between a “captive of a kingdom” and a “captive of banditry,” in what would be a rare example of Roman law influencing the language and formulation of rabbinic law. The legal process originally developed for reintegrating war captives was postliminium, a return after passing out of Roman jurisdiction and then crossing back over one’s own “threshold” (limen). Not all war captives were eligible for reintegration; the terms of a treaty might permit the other side to retain captives as servi hostium, “slaves of the enemy.” A ransom could be paid to redeem a captive individually or as a group; an individual ransomed by someone outside his family was required to pay back the money before his full rights could be restored, and although he was a freeborn person, his status was ambiguous until the lien was lifted. An investigative procedure was put in place under the emperor Hadrian to determine whether returned soldiers had been captured or surrendered willingly. Traitors, deserters, and those who had a chance to escape but made no attempt were not eligible for postliminium restoration of their citizenship. Because postliminium law also applied to enemy seizure of mobile property, it was the means by which military-support slaves taken by the enemy were brought back into possession and restored to their former slave status under their Roman owners. The slave in Roman law and society Fundamentally, the slave in ancient Roman law was one who lacked libertas, liberty defined as “the absence of servitude." Cicero (1st century BC) asserted that liberty “does not consist in having a just master (dominus), but in having none.” The common Latin word for "slave" was servus, but in Roman law, a slave as chattel was mancipium, a grammatically neuter word meaning something "taken in hand," manus, a metaphor for possession and hence control and subordination. Agricultural slaves, certain farmland within the Italian peninsula, and farm animals were all res mancipi, a category of property established in early Rome's rural economy as requiring a formal legal process (mancipatio) for transferring ownership. The exclusive right to trade in res mancipi was a defining aspect of Roman citizenship in the Republican era; free noncitizen residents (peregrini) could not buy and sell this form of property without a special grant of commercial rights. The Roman citizen who enjoyed liberty to the fullest extent was thus the property owner, the paterfamilias who had a legal right to control the estate. The paterfamilias exercised his power within the domus, the "house" of his extended family, as master (dominus); patriarchy was recognized in Roman law as a form of household-level governance. The head of household was entitled to manage his dependents and to administer ad hoc justice to them with minimal oversight from the state. In early Rome, the paterfamilias had the right to sell, punish, or kill both his children (liberi, the “free ones” in the household) and the slaves of the familia. This power of life and death, expressed as vitae necisque potestas, was exercised over all members of the extended household except his wife— a free Roman woman could own property of her own as a domina, and a married woman's slaves could act as her agents independently of her husband. Despite structural symmetries, the distinction between the father's governance of his children and of his slaves is put bluntly by Cicero: the master can expect his children to obey him readily but will need to "coerce and break his slave." Although slaves were recognized as human beings (homines, singular homo), they lacked legal personhood (Latin persona). Lacking legal standing as a person, a slave could not enter into legal contracts on his own behalf; in effect, he remained a perpetual minor. Slaves were thus denied legal forms of marriage (matrimonium), though some might be permitted to cohabit less formally in the arrangement known as contubernium. A slave could not be sued or be the plaintiff in a lawsuit. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced, even though the Romans were aware that testimony produced under torture was unreliable. A slave was not permitted to testify against his master unless the charge was treason (crimen maiestatis). When a slave committed a crime, the punishment exacted was likely to be far more severe than for the same crime committed by a free person. Persona gradually became "synonymous with the true nature of the individual" in the Roman world, in the view of Marcel Mauss, but "servus non habet personam ('a slave has no persona'). He has no personality. He does not own his body; he has no ancestors, no name, no cognomen, no goods of his own." Owing to a growing body of laws, in the imperial period a master could face penalties for killing a slave without just cause and could be compelled to sell a slave on grounds of mistreatment. Claudius decreed that if a slave was abandoned by his master, he became free. Nero granted slaves the right to complain against their masters in a court. And under Antoninus Pius, a master who killed a slave without just cause could be tried for homicide. From the mid to late 2nd century AD, slaves had more standing to complain of cruel or unfair treatment by their owners. But since even in late antiquity slaves still could not file lawsuits, could not testify without first undergoing torture, and could be punished by being burnt alive for testifying against their masters, it is unclear how these offenses could be brought to court and prosecuted; evidence is scant that they were. Under Constantine II (emperor AD 337–340), Jews were barred from owning Christian slaves, converting their slaves to Judaism, or circumcising their slaves. Laws in late antiquity discouraging the subjection of Christians to Jewish owners suggest that they were aimed at protecting Christian identity, since Christian households continued to have slaves who were Christian. Peculium Because they were themselves property (res), as a matter of law Roman slaves could not own property. However, they could be allowed to hold and manage property, which they could use as if it were their own, even though it belonged to their master. A fund or property set aside for a slave's use was called a peculium. Isidore of Seville, looking back from the early 7th century, offered this definition: “peculium is in the proper sense something which belongs to minors or slaves. For peculium is what a father or master allows his child or slave to manage as his own.” Slaves within a wealthy household or country estate might be given a small peculium as an allowance. The peculium in the form of property could include other slaves put at the disposal of the peculium-holder; in this sense, inscriptions not infrequently record that a slave belonged to another slave. Property otherwise could not be owned by the dependents of a household, defined as someone subordinate to the potestas of the paterfamilias—including not only slaves, but adult sons, who remained minors by law until their father's death. All wealth belonged to the head of household except for that owned independently by his wife, whose slaves might operate with their own peculia from her. The legal dodge of peculium enabled both adult sons and capable slaves to manage property, turn a profit, and negotiate contracts. Skilled or educated slaves who earned money might hope to save enough to buy their freedom. There was a risk to the still-enslaved person that the master would renege and take back the earnings, but one of the expanded protections for slaves in the Imperial era was that a manumission agreement between the slave and his master could be enforced. While very few slaves ever controlled large sums of money, slaves who managed a peculium had a far better chance of obtaining liberty. With this business acumen, certain freedmen went on to amass considerable fortunes. Manumission Slaves were released from their master's control through the legal act of manumissio ("manumission"), meaning literally a "releasing from the hand (manus)"; the equivalent act for the releasing of a minor child from their father's legal power (potestas) was emancipatio, from which the English word "emancipation" derives. Both manumission and emancipation would involve transferral of some or most of any peculium (fund or property) the slave or minor had managed, less the self-purchase cost of the slave buying his freedom. That the two procedures are parallel in undoing the control of the paterfamilias is indicated by the legal fiction through which emancipatio occurred: technically, it was a sale (mancipatio) of the minor son three times at once, based on the archaic provision of the Twelve Tables that a son sold three times was freed of his father's potestas. Slaves of the emperor's household (the familia Caesaris) were routinely manumitted at ages 30 to 35—an age that should not be taken as standard for other slaves—the lifestage at which male citizens left adolescence and the well-born entered the "career track" and became eligible to hold public office. Within the familia Caesaris, a young woman in her reproductive years seems to have had the greatest chance for manumission, allowing her to marry and bear legitimate, free children. A slave who had a large enough peculium might also buy the freedom of a fellow slave, a contubernalis with whom he had cohabited or a partner in business. Neither age nor length of service was automatic grounds for manumission. Scholars have differed on the rate of manumission. Manual laborers treated as chattel were least likely to be manumitted; skilled or highly educated urban slaves most likely. The hope was always greater than the reality, though it may have motivated some slaves to work harder and conform to the ideal of the "faithful servant." Dangling liberty as a reward, slaveholders could navigate the moral issues of enslaving people through placing the burden of merit on slaves—"good" slaves deserved freedom, and others did not. Manumission after a period of service may have been a negotiated outcome of contractual slavery, though a citizen who had entered willingly into unfree servitude was barred from full restoration of his rights. There were three kinds of legally binding manumission: by the rod, by the census, and by the terms of the owner's will; all three were ratified by the state. and desired as a status symbol. Ethnic stereotypes among the Romans included the belief that Asiatic Greeks, Jews, and Syrians were by nature more susceptible to living as slaves. Asia Minor was such an important source of slaves that the typical slave was stereotyped as a Cappadocian or Phrygian. In practice, Jews were "both slaves and slaveholders. They were the slaves of Jews and non-Jews and owned both Jewish and non-Jewish slaves” throughout the Classical period. Historian of Christianity Dale Martin has noted, “The relevant factors for slave structures and the existence of slavery itself were geographical and socio-economic and had little if anything to do with ethnicity or religion.” Treatment and daily life The "gross power differential" inherent in slavery is not peculiar to Rome, but as a universal characteristic of the institution, it defines Roman practice as it does that of other slave cultures: "slaves stood powerless before their masters' or mistresses' whims and presumably remained in a perpetual state of unease, not necessarily able to anticipate when the next act of cruelty or degradation would come yet certain it would." Many if not most slaves could expect to be subjected to relentless labor; corporal punishment or physical abuse in varying degrees of severity; sexual exploitation; or the caprices of owners in selling or threatening to sell them. Cato the Elder was a particularly harsh "slave-driver" whose exploitation was "unmitigated by any consideration of the needs of the slave as a human being." The enslaved who were traded on the open market might find themselves transported great distances across the empire: the epitaph of a slave woman in Roman Spain records her home as having been in Northern Italy; a Cretan woman was traded between two Romans in Dacia; a ten-year-old girl named Abaskantis, taken from Galatia, was sold to a buyer from Alexandria, Egypt, a destination about 1,500 miles from her home. The conditions experienced by the hundreds of thousands traded in Roman antiquity have been described as "personal degradation and humiliation, cultural disorientation, material deprivation, severance of familial bonds, emotional and psychological trauma." At the same time, despite this "natal alienation," slaves could not have been completely deprived by their masters of agency in carrying out everyday actions; even if the ongoing negotiation of power was grossly asymmetrical, as human beings slaves would have sought emotional connections and ways to improve their conditions in the moment. Literary sources were written by or for slaveholders, and inscriptions set up by slaves and freedmen preserve only glimpses of how they saw themselves. Elite literature indicates that how a Roman treated a slave was viewed as evidence of the master's character. Masters were expected to be neither gratuitously cruel and wrathful nor overly affectionate and attached to a slave. The type of the saeva domina (cruel slave mistress) emerges from Roman literature as the woman who flies into a rage at her handmaids' minor faults, stabbing them with pins or biting them and then punishing them with a beating. But Cicero was concerned that his grief over the death of Sositheus, a companionable young slave who had served him as a reader (anagnostes), might seem excessive. Plutarch writes approvingly that Cato bought slaves for their robust utility and never paid extra for mere good looks; but he finds fault with Cato for using his slaves like "beasts of burden" and then selling them off when they started to age "instead of feeding them when they were useless"—the implication being that a "good" master would provide care. Aulus Gellius in turn records an anecdote about Plutarch that exemplifies what slaveholders meant by restraint and moderate behavior. Plutarch owned a slave who had a philosophical education, despite or because of which he had developed a rebellious character. When Plutarch “for some offense or other” ordered him stripped and whipped, instead of screaming the slave began to shout that to act in anger in such a way was shameful for someone with philosophical pretensions. Plutarch simply replied, with utter composure, that he wasn’t angry; they could continue their discussion along with the lashes. In one of the Moral Epistles often cited for its humane considerations of the slave as a human being, Seneca expressed the prevailing utilitarian view that a slave who was treated well would perform a better job than a poorly treated one. Healthcare Mentions in ancient literature of medical care for slaves are infrequent. The medical writer Rufus of Ephesus has one title among his works that stands out as not self-evidently medical: On the Purchase of Slaves, which presumably gave advice to the trade on assessing slave fitness and possibly their care, since health defects could invalidate a sale. Ongoing care would have depended on the utility of keeping workers healthy to maximize productivity, and at times on the owner’s humane impulses or attachment to a particular slave. Pliny the Younger indicates that slaves did receive care from medici (medical attendants or physicians), but he observes that while “slaves and free persons differ not at all when they are in ill health, the free receive gentler and more merciful treatment.” Pliny himself had sent his slave Zosimus, for whom he expresses his affection and esteem at length, to Egypt to seek therapy for a lung disease that had him coughing up blood. Zosimus was restored to health and at some point was manumitted, but the symptoms later returned. Pliny then wrote to ask if he could send Zosimus for rehab in the more healthful climate of a friend’s country estate in a part of Gaul that is today the south of France. Individual acts of compassion by slaveholders stand apart as exceptions. The practice of abandoning sick slaves on Rome's Tiber Island, where a temple to the healing god Aesculapius was located, led to such homelessness and contagion that the emperor Claudius decreed any slave who survived abandonment could not be reclaimed by his owner and was automatically free. Law was also enacted under Claudius that criminalized the killing of a sick or disabled slave as murder even by his owner. While Roman law had no provision for medical malpractice, a physician who harmed or killed a slave through incompetence could be sued by the owner for property damage. Physicians Medicine was held in higher regard in Greece as a technē (art or skill) than it was in Rome. The best Greek medical schools did not admit slaves, and some city-states restricted slaves to practicing medicine only on fellow slaves. Though denied advanced theoretical study, slaves were part of a two-tier system to deliver care to the lower classes, and could receive often extensive training as physicians' assistants, becoming well versed in practical medicine. At Rome, medicine was considered an unsuitable occupation for the upper classes because it requires tending to the needs of another’s body. Elite households were attended by Greek physicians, either one of great prestige enticed to Rome with privileges and an offer of citizenship, or a staff of freedmen or enslaved medici. The celebrated Publius Decimus Eros Merula, in Assisi, was an enslaved clinical physician, surgeon, and eye specialist in the time of Augustus who eventually bought his freedom for 50,000 sesterces and left a fortune of 800,000. There were also free itinerant doctors who could be hired to provide care to households that lacked the means or desire to have a full-time medical attendant. Some slaves might assist with healthcare as nurses, midwives, medics, or orderlies. During the Imperial era, the desire of freedmen to acquire medical training was such that it was exploited by scam medical schools. The physician Galen, who came to Rome from Pergamum, developed his surgical techniques attending to the injuries of enslaved gladiators, and recorded a case study of one gladiator who had suffered a grievous wound to the abdomen but made a complete recovery after a high-risk omentectomy. From the perspective of the physician, the diversity of the city of Rome and its slave population made it an “exceptional field of observation”. Cicero and Tiro Among Cicero's collected letters are those he wrote to one of his administrative slaves, the well-educated Tiro. Cicero remarked that he wrote to Tiro "for the sake of keeping to [his] established practice" and occasionally revealed personal care and concern for his slave, whose education he had taken into his own hands. He sought Tiro's opinions and seems to have expected him to speak with exceptional freedom, though in collecting Cicero's papers for publication, Tiro did not publish his own replies along with those of other correspondents. While these letters suggest a personal connection between master and slave, each letter contains a direct command, suggesting that Cicero relied on familiarity to ensure performance and loyalty from Tiro. Tiro was either a verna or alumnus, part of the household from birth or childhood, and as Cicero's trusted secretary, he would have been afforded better living and working conditions than most slaves. He was freed before his master's death and was successful enough to retire on his own country estate, where he died at the age of 99. Names As a freedman, Cicero's slave Tiro became Marcus Tullius Tiro, adopting Cicero's family name. The use of a single male name in an inscription or legal document usually indicates that the person was a slave. By the Late Republic, the nomenclature of freeborn Roman men had become normalized as the tria nomina: praenomen, first name; gentilicium, the name of the family or clan (gens); and cognomen, a distinguishing last name that originally was earned by an individual but then might be passed down, added to, or replaced. When a slave was manumitted, he was renamed as free by the use of the tria nomina, most often appending his single name to the praenomen and gentilic name of his former master, now his patron. The use of a cognomen as a distinguishing third name became widespread among freedmen before it was standard for the upper class. For example, the silversmith Publius Curtilius Agatho (d. early 1st century AD), known from his funerary monument, would been called by his Greek name Agatho (“the Good”) as a slave. Upon manumission he appended his patron’s Latin names, Publius Curtilius, to create his full citizen name. Naturalized citizens followed this same convention, which might result in a tria nomina construction with two Latin names and a strikingly non-Latin cognomen. Throughout the Republican era, slaves in the city of Rome might bear a name that was also in use by free Italians or was common as a Roman praenomen, such as Marcus, or diminutives of the name (Marcio, Marcellus). Salvius, for example, was a very common name for slaves that was also in wide use as a free praenomen in Rome and throughout Italy during this time, morphing into names for freedpersons such as Salvianus, Salvillus (feminine Salvilla), and possibly Salvitto. Ancient Roman scholars thought that in earliest times slaves had been given the first name of their master suffixed with -por, perhaps to be taken as a form of puer, “boy.” Male slaves were often addressed as puer regardless of age; a slave was one who was never emancipated into adulthood and thus never allowed to become fully a man (vir). Names such as Marcipor, sometimes contracted to Marpor, are attested, but rather than being suffixed to the master’s name, the -por may have marked someone as a slave when his name was also in common use for free men. In the Late Republic and Early Empire, more differentiation between slave and free names seems to have been desired. In Cicero’s day, Greek names were the trend. Fanciful Greek names such as Hermes, Narcissus, and Eros were popular among the Romans but had not been used among free Greeks for either themselves or their slaves. Several of Cicero’s slaves are known by name, mainly from the extensive collection of his letters; those with Greek names include the readers (anagnostes) Sositheus and Dionysius; Pollex, a footman; and Acastus. The slaves and freedmen Cicero mentions by name are most often his secretaries and literary assistants; he rarely refers by name to slaves whose duties were humbler. Slave names at times may reflect ethnic origin; in the early Republic, Oscan names such as Paccius and Papus occur. But the distribution of slave names as recorded by inscriptions and papyri are cautions against assuming a slave’s ethnicity based on the linguistic origin of their name. The first-century BC scholar Varro noted that some slaves had geographical names, such as Iona from Ionia, and was likely right to think these names indicated places where they were traded and not their ethnic origin, which by law had to be stated separately in sales documents. Among the mismatched appellations found in surviving documents are the Greek names Hermes for a German, Paramone for a Jewish woman whose child was named Jacob, Argoutis for a Gaul, and Aphrodisia for a Sarmatian woman. In late antiquity, Christians might bear Greek names expressing a willing servility as a religious value, such as Theodoulos, “God’s slave” (theos, "god"; doulos, "slave"). German slaves memorialized in the family tomb of the Statilii in Rome mostly have Latin names such as Felix, Castus, Clemens, Urbanus, and Strenuus; two are named Nothus and Pothus, Latinized forms of Greek names. Greek names became so common for slaves that they began to be regarded as inherently servile; this taint may be why home-reared vernae, who generally had enhanced opportunities, are statistically more likely to have received a Latin name that would help them “pass” if they were manumitted. Gladiators are sometimes memorialized by what appear to be “stage names,” such as Pardus ("the Leopard") or Smaragdus ("Emerald"). A slave who took a path other than citizen integration might also adopt a new name. The “Salvius” who was the first leader of the Sicilian slave revolt in 104 BC restyled himself as Tryphon. In Latin epitaphs, a slave commemorating his deceased master sometimes refers to him by praenomen with the pronoun noster, for example “our Marcus”. In speaking of himself to a person of higher status, a slave might identify by his role in relation to his master’s first name; Cicero records a conversation in which a slave owned by Mark Antony is asked “Who are you?” (Quis tu?) and replies “The tabellarius [courier] from Marcus” (a Marco tabellarius). The enslaved potters who made the earliest Arretine ware signed their work with their name and the possessive form of their master’s name; for example, Cerdo M. Perenni, “Marcus Perennius’s Cerdo”. A standard phrase in sales contracts refers to the slave “named so-and-so, or by whatever name he/she is called”—the slave's name was subject to the master’s whim. Clothing Certain items of clothing or adornment were restricted by law to freeborn people entitled to wear them as markers of high status; “slave clothing” (vestis servilis) was clothing of lesser quality that lacked distinguishing features—slaves did not wear clothing meant to identify them as such. The clothing of slaves was determined primarily by the kind of work they did and secondarily by the wealth of the household they belonged to. Most working slaves would have been given clothing that looked like that of free people who did similar work; Diocletian’s edict on price controls (301 AD) lists clothes for “common people or slaves” as a single category. In a crowd, slaves would not have been immediately legible as unfree, as the everyday attire of most people was a tunic. Men wore a shorter tunic, while the tunics of women covered the legs. In depictions of domestic scenes, tunics of handmaids are sometimes shorter, reaching to mid-calf, while the mistress’s tunic falls to her feet. Ankle boots are worn by the handmaids in the “toilette” mosaic from Sidi Ghrib (see "Household slaves" above), and ancillary hairstyles are simpler than those of the centrally depicted mistress. Female slaves tucked in the loose fabric of their tunics under the bust and shaped the sleeves with belting to give themselves more freedom of movement for their tasks. Domestic slaves who would be visible to the family and their guests were given garments that met their owners’ standards for pleasing appearance and quality. Presentability was desired for slaves who served as personal attendants. Slaves wore few accessories but were themselves an extension of their masters’ accessories. Because Roman clothing lacked structured pockets, the slaves who always accompanied the well-to-do on excursions carried anything needed. They might hold parasols or wield fans to shield the privileged from the heat. They went with them to the public baths to watch over their valuable clothing, since theft was common in the dressing areas. At dinner parties, guests took off their outdoor shoes and put on light house shoes (soleas), so a rich attendee would bring a slave to wrangle their footwear. Clothing for laborers was meant to be economical, durable, and practical. A relief from Roman Germany shows mine workers wearing a tunic and an apron of leather “feathers” (pteruges). Columella recommended weather-resistant clothing of leather, patchwork, and “thick shoulder capes” for farm workers. A male farm slave working for the stern and frugal Cato could expect to be issued a tunic and a cloak (sagum) every other year, and would have to turn in the old outfit so it could be recycled for patchwork. The fragility of textiles makes them rare in the archaeological record, but a store of regularly cut pieces measuring about 10 by 15 centimeters from Roman Egypt, found at the Mons Claudianus quarry, is evidence of organized patchworking. One of the causes of the Sicilian slave rebellion of 135 BC, which broke out among rural workers, was the master’s refusal to accept responsibility for providing clothing. When the enslaved herdsmen came asking, the master, Damophilos, told them to get their own clothes, so they did—by banding together to raid small farms and waylay travelers. When violence escalated to full-scale insurrection, Damophilos was among the first to be killed. At one point, the Roman senate debated whether to require slaves to wear a sort of uniform to distinguish them as such, but eventually decided that was a bad idea: it would make the enslaved more conscious of having a group identity, and they would see how strong their numbers were. Resistance and control Open rebellion and mass violence arose among the large population of the enslaved only sporadically across the millennium of ancient Roman history. A more persistent form of resistance was escape; as Moses Finley remarked, "Fugitive slaves are almost an obsession in the sources." Runaway slaves were considered criminals and were harshly punished. Resistance might occur on a daily basis at a low-grade, even comic level. Cato, without suspecting that this might be deliberate mischief, was concerned that his taking of the auspices at home, which required ritual silence, would be vitiated by the farting of his napping slaves. Plutarch tells the story of how one Pupius Piso, having ordered his slave not to speak unless spoken to, waited in embarrassment and in vain for the guest of honor to arrive at his dinner party. The slave had received the guest's regrets, but the master didn't ask him to speak, so he didn't. A master might even seek to extend his control over a slave beyond his own death; although wills were a common way to manumit slaves, they sometimes included clauses that expressly prohibited the freeing of certain slaves perceived as unworthy. Rebellions The earliest slave uprisings occurred during, and in the immediate aftermath of, the Second Punic War, when many slaves held by the Romans would have been soldiers captured from the armies of Hannibal, and when at times as many as half the Roman male population of fighting age would have been away serving in the military. The Augustan historian Livy is the main but not always a clear source for these uprisings. The first recorded rebellion comes in 217 BC, when an informer reported that twenty-fives slaves were conspiring on the Campus Martius; they were punished in the earliest securely attested instance of crucifixion among the Romans. In 198 BC, Carthaginian captives rebelled at Setia, which they may have held briefly before being met with force and fleeing, though two thousand were captured and executed. They next made an attempt on Praeneste but were again defeated, resulting in the execution of another five hundred. This uprising prompted more policing of the streets and the building of places of confinement. Two years later, it took a full legion to quell an uprising in Etruria, after which the leaders were flogged and crucified. The last rebellion of this period broke out in 185 BC in Apulia among herdsman, who were also to play a leading role in the first two Servile Wars. The Apulian shepherds were accused of banditry (latrocinium), and 7,000 were condemned to death; some escaped. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) chronicled the three major slave rebellions of the Roman Republic known as the Servile Wars, the first two of which originated in Rome's first province, Sicily. Diodorus gives the total number of slaves participating in the first rebellion as 200,000 (elsewhere, the figure is given as 60,000–70,000), and 40,000 in the second. While these large round numbers in ancient sources seem inflated, their significance here lies in indicating the scope of rebellion. First Servile War (135–132 BC) The First Servile War began as a protest by enslaved herdsmen against deprivation and mistreatment, localized on the "ranch" (latifundium) of Damophilos in Enna, but soon spread to include slaves in the thousands. They attained a major strategic objective in controlling both Enna and Agrigentum, two towns key to holding Sicily that Rome and Carthage had fought over repeatedly during the first two Punic Wars. To assure a food supply, they refrained from laying waste to the farms around their strongholds and did not target small farmers. They were militarily capable of mounting direct confrontations with Roman troops, which were brought to bear speedily. The leader, Eunus, maintained communal cohesion and motivation on the model of the Hellenistic kings, even restyling himself by name as Antiochus and minting coins. Slave families formed a community at the stronghold of Tauromenium. The rebel slaves were able to sustain their movement within the difficult Sicilian environment for four years—eight or more, in some accounts—before Roman forces managed a decisive defeat, primarily by besieging and starving out Tauromenium. Second Servile War (104–100 BC) The Second Servile War had its roots in the piratical kidnapping that subjected freeborn people to random seizure and enslavement mostly in the eastern Mediterranean. People who had been enslaved illegally in this way had a right to reclaim their freedom under the recently passed Lex de Plagiariis, a law concerning piracy and the slave trade associated with it. The praetor assigned to Sicily, Licinius Nerva, had been holding hearings and releasing the enslaved in numbers great enough to offend the privilege of the slaveholding landowners, who pressured him to desist—whereupon the slaves revolted. The rebellion started in two households and soon encompassed 22,000 slaves. Their leader, whose slave name was Salvius, adopted the name Tryphon, perhaps in honor of Diodotus Tryphon to rally the many enslaved Cilicians among the rebels. He organized the slaves into cavalry and infantry units, besieged Morgantina, and along with the slave general Athenion had a string of early successes against Roman troops as the number of rebels grew to "immense proportions". Unlike the first rebellion, however, they were unable to hold towns or maintain supply lines, and seem to have lacked the long-term strategic objectives of Eunus; the less focused, at times incompetent Roman response enabled them to prolong the rebellion. Eunus and Salvius each had held a privileged place in his household when enslaved; both Eunus and Athenion are noted as having been born into freedom. These experiences may have enhanced their ability to lead through articulating a vision of life beyond slavery. Third Servile War (73–71 BC) The so-called Third Servile War was briefer; the cause, "to break the bonds of their own grievous oppression". But its leader, Spartacus, arguably the most famous slave from all antiquity and idealized by Marxist historians and creative artists, has captured the popular imagination over the centuries to such an extent that an understanding of the rebellion beyond his tactical victories is hard to retrieve from the various ideologies it has served. The rebellion broke out on a relatively trivial scale, only seventy-four gladiators from a training school in Capua. The two best-known leaders are the Thracian fighter Spartacus, who in some accounts is said to have served formerly in the Roman auxiliary troops, and the Gaul Crixus. They entrenched themselves at Vesuvius and quickly dispatched the forces of three successive praetors as the insurgency grew to 70,000 men "with alarming speed," both slaves and free herdsmen joining up, ultimately reaching a force of 120,000. Spartacus's plan seems to have been to head to northern Italy, where the men could disperse and head to their countries of origin, free; but the Gauls were keen on plundering first and spent weeks ravaging southern Italy, giving the Romans a more urgent reason and time to make up for their "tardy and ineffective" initial response. Crixus and his Gauls were soon dealt with, but Spartacus got as far as north as Cisalpine Gaul before turning back for a possible assault on Rome, about which he then changed his mind. After more rebel military successes without clear objectives, the senate gave Marcus Crassus special command of the consular forces, and the tide of the war turned. Spartacus headed south, hoping to cross to Sicily and "resuscitate the embers" of the slave rebellion three decades earlier; instead, the pirates who had accepted payment for transport set sail without him. After some weeks of increasingly successful fighting, Crassus obtained a victory in which Spartacus was said to have died, though his body was not identified; 5,000 fugitives fled north and ran into troops led by Pompey, who "annihilated" them; and Crassus concluded his victory by crucifying 6,000 captured rebels along the Appian Way. Later uprisings The last slave rebellion of the Republic was put down at Thurii in southern Italy by Gaius Octavius, the father of the future emperor Augustus. In 60 BC, Octavius received a commission from the senate to hunt down fugitives who were alleged (emphasis on "alleged") to be the remnants of Spartacus's men and slaves who had been drawn into the Catilinarian conspiracy. Though they failed, the Servile Wars left Romans with a deep-seated fear of slave uprisings that resulted in stricter laws regulating the keeping of slaves and harsher measures and punishments to keep enslaved people under control. In AD 10, the senate decreed that if a master was killed by one or a group of his slaves, all the slaves "under the same roof" were to be tortured and executed. In the early Imperial period, the slave uprisings against Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was killed by one of his household slaves (all 400 were executed), and Larcius Maceo, a praetor who was murdered in his private bath, occasioned panic among slaveholders but failed to catch fire as the Sicilian rebellions had. None of the sporadic attempts at rebellion over the next centuries encompassed nearly as much territory as that led by Spartacus. Fugitive slave-catching Fugitive slaves were considered criminals, whose crime was theft of the owner's property—themselves. From the perspective of owners, runaway slaves not only caused economic harm but stoked fears of a return to the social upheavals of the Servile Wars. The harboring of fugitive slaves was against the law, and professional slave-catchers (fugitivarii) were hired to hunt down runaways. Advertisements were posted with precise descriptions of escaped slaves, and offered rewards. Slave-catching was an unusually intensive police activity in that it involved coordination among all four forms of policing in the Roman Empire, which otherwise operated more or less independently: civilian or private security forces; the imperial guard; troops under the command of provincial governors, or municipal public slaves used as a quasi-police force; and the Roman army. Augustus himself boasted in his official record of achievements of having 30,000 fugitive slaves rounded up and returned for punishment to their owners. Although the Apostle Paul expresses sympathy for runaway slaves, and some Christians seem to have taken in runaways, fugitives were still a concern as the Empire was Christianized. The Synod of Gangra in the mid-4th century placed any Christian who encouraged slaves to escape under anathema. The fugitive in Roman culture In a society where slavery was not based on race, a slave who escaped could hope to blend in and go unnoticed among the free. One of Cicero's slaves on his literary staff, named Dionysius, ran away and took several books with him. Although the eventual fate of this Dionysius is unknown, two years later he remained free. Certain temples in Greece had long offered asylum to slaves who ran away, and in the Imperial era, a fugitive could claim asylum at the foot of the emperor's statue. A fugitive slave is the protagonist of a tale that became familiar from the fables of Aesop, who according to tradition was himself traded as a slave. The earliest written version of Androclus and the lion is narrated by Aulus Gellius (2nd century AD). Androclus is serving in the household of the Roman proconsul for the province of Africa, who had him beaten unjustly every day. Driven to escape, he seeks solitude in the wilderness, resigned to death by starvation, which would at least bring him peace. When he comes upon a lion nursing its wounded paw, he removes the thorn causing pain, thereby becoming a medicus for the beast. The two live as companions in the wild for three years, with the lion providing food. One day when the lion is out on the hunt, Androclus goes walking and is captured by soldiers, taken back to Rome, and condemned to the beasts in the arena. But as it turns out, the lion he had befriended has also been captured, and instead of attacking him fawns over him affectionately. Caligula himself is among the spectators, and the emperor pardons both Androclus and the lion, who are thereafter spotted strolling freely about the city as companions. Gellius sketches the story within the specific framework of a Roman slave's experience: desperation, escape, capture and punishment, and the fantasy of mercy and freedom. The experiences of captives, slaves, and fugitives were on constant display in Roman culture. The Captivi ("Captives") of Plautus is a comedy, but with "a plot featuring kidnapping, enslavement, chaining, direct discussions of flight, and torturous punishments … that were extreme enough to serve as an example to other slaves.” Punishments As the Romans increased the numbers of slaves they held, their fear of them grew, as did the severity of discipline. Cato the Elder whipped the household slaves for even small mistakes and kept his enslaved agricultural workers in chains during the winter. In the Satyricon, the immensely specialized household staff of the fictional freedman Trimalchio includes a pair of torturers who stand by with whips. The physician Galen observed slaves being kicked, beaten with fists, and having their teeth knocked out or their eyes gouged out, witnessing the impromptu blinding of one slave by means of a reed pen. Galen himself had been taught not to strike a slave with his hand but always to use a reed whip or strap. The future emperor Commodus at age 12 is supposed to have ordered one of his bath attendants to be thrown into the furnace, though this order may not have been carried out. In his treatise De Ira ("On Anger"), Seneca offers a lurid anecdote on the proportionality of punishment, famously retold, referenced, and analyzed. At a dinner party hosted by Vedius Pollio with Augustus in attendance, a young slave broke a crystal cup. Vedius flew into a rage and ordered him seized and thrown into the lamprey pond to be fed upon. The boy wriggled away and threw himself at Augustus's feet, begging to be killed rather than eaten alive—apparently aware that the lamprey "clamps its mouth on the victim and bores a dentated tongue into the flesh to ingest blood". Taken aback by the sheer novelty of this cruel punishment, Augustus ordered the boy set free, the rest of the crystal smashed, and the lamprey pond backfilled. Vedius, who became a "stock villain" in Latin literature, fell so out of favor for this and other more political reasons that Augustus eventually razed his entire villa. Seneca bookends his moral criticism of Vedius in De Clementia ("On Mercy"), comparing the torture pond to a snake pit and saying that Vedius was universally despised for his excessive cruelty. Such acts of casual sadism are perhaps to be distinguished from the head of household’s ancient right to pass sentence on a dependent for perceived wrongdoing, but the slaveholder’s right to punish a slave was only weakly limited by law. The censors were a countervailing moral authority (regimen morum) if the paterfamilias exceeded community standards of cruelty, but the office was often left vacant or manipulated toward other ideological ends, and there is little or no evidence that the censors would rebuke others of their class for the abuse of slaves. Unless the excessive cruelty had been blatantly public, there was no process for bringing it to the attention of the authorities—the slave boy targeted by Vedius was saved extrajudicially by the chance presence of an emperor willing to be offended, the only person with the authority to stop what was allowed by law. When slaves did commit an actual crime, the penalties prescribed by law were far more severe than for free persons. For instance, the regular penalty for counterfeiting was deportation and confiscation of property, but a slave was put to death. The liberty of a Roman citizen, by contrast, was defined by freedom from physical coercion and by the judicial right of appeal after receiving a capital sentence. This definition holds into the early Imperial era as a common understanding: in the Acts of the Apostles, when Paul asserts his rights as a Roman citizen to a centurion after having been bound and threatened with flogging, the tribune who has seized him acknowledges the error by backing off. In the later Imperial era, the status of "convict" versus "slave" often becomes a distinction without a practical difference as free people of lower social status were increasingly subjected to more severe legal penalties once reserved for slaves. Chaining Chaining was a legal penalty imposed with some specificity; chains weighing ten pounds were ordered for the enslaved captives who rebelled in 198 BC. Archaeological evidence of fetters, manacles, and shackles has been found mainly in the northern provinces and only infrequently in Italian villa settings. In the Republican period, a large agricultural estate would have an ergastulum (plural ergastula), a place of work confinement, built partially underground, where slaves were often kept in chains for disobedience, acts of resistance, or committing crimes. Slaves sent to the ergastulum might be sold for exploitation in gladiatorial games. However, despite the assumptions of some scholars and modern images of chained slaves at hard labor, there is no evidence that agricultural slaves routinely worked in chain gangs. Roman writers on agriculture regarded slaves who were controllable only through chaining as an inferior form of farm labor and deprecated their use on the commercial latifundia under absentee ownership. A slave who had been put in chains as punishment was labeled thereafter as a servus vinctus. As a category of property value, the “chained slave” had to be identified as such if sold, and would bring a lower price on the market. As a category of legal status, after the Augustan law that created a class of slaves to be counted permanently among the dediticii who were technically free but held no rights, the servus vinctus was barred from obtaining citizenship even if manumitted. Tattooing and branding Fugitive slaves might be marked by letters tattooed on their forehead, called stigmata in Greek and Latin sources, a practice most attested as a consequence of condemnation to hard labor. The Romans picked up slave tattooing from the Greeks, who in turn had acquired it from the Persians. Attic comedy frequently mentions slave stigmata, and the most notable passage in Latin literature comes in the Satyricon when Encolpius and Giton fake tattooing as an absurd form of disguise. Tattooing slaves with text to mark them as previous fugitives is most abundantly attested among the Greeks, and there is "no direct evidence for what was inscribed on runaways' foreheads in Rome," though criminals were labeled with the name of their crime. Literature alludes to the practice, as when the epigrammatist Martial satirizes a luxuriously attired freedman at the theater who keeps his inscribed forehead under wraps, and Libanius mentions a slave growing out bangs to cover his stigmata. In inscriptions from the Temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, Greek slaves who had been tattooed ask the god to remove their markings, and in some cases thank him for doing so. Less miraculous means might also be sought, as various sources record medical procedures for removing stigmata, mostly herbal applications for which complete success was not guaranteed. The evidence for Roman branding of slaves is less certain. The methodical tortures to which slaves were subjected juridically included the application of hot metal plates or rods, which would leave marks that could be seen as brands, since the branding of herd animals is known in the Roman world. The scars left by whipping were also "read" as inscribing slaves. Slaves who played visible or public roles on behalf of a household, and female slaves in general, were not disfigured with markings. That stigmatized slaves were those who had been marked as irredeemably criminal is indicated by their inclusion among the dediticii, those who held no citizen rights even if manumitted. Collaring What appears to be a distinctly Roman practice is the riveting of a humiliating metal collar around the former fugitive's neck. Because of the role the hope of manumission played in motivating the industry of slaves, the Romans may have preferred removable collars to permanent disfigurement, or for keeping open the possibility of resale. Some forty-five examples of Roman slave collars have been documented, most found in Rome and central Italy, with three from cities in Roman North Africa. All date from the Christian era of the 4th and 5th centuries, and some have the Christian chi-rho symbol or a palm frond. Some were found still on the necks of human skeletons or with remains, suggesting that the collars might be worn for life and not just as a temporary ID tag; others seem to have been removed, lost, or discarded. In circumference, they are about the same size as Roman neck shackles (see relief under "Enslavement of war captives"), tight enough to keep them from slipping over the head but not so tight as to restrict breathing. Fugitive slave collars have been found in urban environments rather than settings for hard labor. One tag from Bulla Regia in Africa identifies the fugitive wearing it as a meretrix, a wage-earning prostitute. The tags are typically inscribed with the owner's name, status, and occupation, and the "address" to which the slave should be returned. The most common instructional text is tene me ("hold me") with either ne fugiam ("so I don't run away") or quia fugi ("because I've run away"). The tag on the most intact example of these collars reads "I have escaped, catch me; when you return me to my master Zoninus, you'll receive a gold coin." Crucifixion Crucifixion was the capital punishment meted out specifically to slaves, traitors, and bandits. Crucifixion is rarely mentioned among the Greeks, and the Romans said that they had learned the technique from the Carthaginians during the Punic Wars. The earliest crucifixion among the Romans definitively described as such dates to 217 BC and was inflicted on rebellious slaves; Hannibal had crucified an Italian serving as his guide only a few weeks before, and several previous crucifixions by the Carthaginians were known to the Greeks and Romans. The few mentions of what might be construed as Roman crucifixion before that time are more likely to have been archaic punishments such as being bound to a stake and flogged, or being suspended from a tree (perhaps an arbor infelix) or furca and beaten to death. Curse tablets urging the hated person to commit suicide by hanging use language that overlaps with some details of crucifixion. From its early use at a time when citizens were infrequently sentenced to death, crucifixion became the servile supplicium, reserved for slaves during the Republican era, and the worst punishment that could be inflicted on a slave. Crucifying Roman citizens is one of Cicero's most vehement accusations in the prosecution of Verres as a corrupt governor of Sicily. An inscription from the late 1st century BC documents a law at Puteoli that made the services of an executioner available to private citizens who had decided to crucify a slave. The law specifies that the patibulum, generally taken as another term for the cross (crux), will be carried to the site of execution, probably by the slave to be executed, who will also be scourged before affixed to it. Advertisements for gladiatorial games sometimes promoted crucifixions as part of the spectacle, presumably as a prelude to beast-baiting or burning at the stake, since it was a notoriously slow and "static" way to die. Although crucifixion under the Christian emperors abated, the Christian apologist Lactantius (d. ca. 325) still thought that runaway slaves should be whipped, chained, and even crucified. Suicide Reports of mass suicide or suicide by an individual to avoid enslavement or submission as a result of war are not rare in the Roman world. In one incident, a group of captive Germanic women told Caracalla that they would rather be executed than enslaved. When he ordered them sold anyway, they committed suicide en masse, some of them first killing their children. Such an act could be considered honorable or rational in antiquity, and a slave might commit suicide for the same reasons a free person would, such as an agonizing health condition, religious fanaticism, or mental health crisis. But suicide among the enslaved might also be the ultimate way to resist and escape the master’s control or abuse. One of Cato’s slaves was so distraught after doing something he thought his master would disapprove of that he killed himself. An inscription from Moguntiacum records the killing of a freedman by one of his slaves, who then committed suicide by drowning himself in a river. Roman law recognized that slaves might be driven to suicidal despair. A suicide attempt was one of the pieces of information about a slave that had to be disclosed on a bill of sale, indicating that such attempts occurred often enough to be of concern. However, the law did not always regard slaves as criminally fugitive if they ran away in despair and attempted suicide. The jurist Paulus wrote, “A slave acts to commit suicide when he seeks death out of wickedness or evil ways or because of some crime that he has committed, but not when he is able no longer to bear his bodily pain.” Slavery and Roman religion Slaves in classical Roman religion Religious practices attest to the presence of slaves in Roman society from the earliest period. The Matralia was a women's festival held June 11 in connection with the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple was among Rome's oldest. According to tradition, it was established in the sixth century BC by the slave-born king Servius Tullius. The observance featured the ceremonial beating of a slave girl by free women, who brought her into the temple and then drove her from it. Slave women were otherwise forbidden from participation. It has been conjectured that this scapegoat ritual reflected the wives' anxiety about the introduction of slave girls into the household as sexual usurpers. Another slaves' holiday (servorum dies festus) was held August 13 in honor of Servius Tullius himself. Like the Saturnalia, the holiday involved a role reversal: the matron of the household washed the heads of her slaves, as well as her own. Following the Matronalia on March 1, matrons gave slaves of their household a feast, a custom that also evokes Saturnalian role reversal. Each matron feasted her own slaves in her capacity as domina or slave mistress. Both Solinus and Macrobius see the feast as a way to manipulate obedience, indicating that physical compulsion was not the only technique for domination; social theory suggests that the communal meal also promotes household cohesion and norms by articulating the hierarchy through its temporary subversion. The temple of Feronia at Terracina in Latium was the site of special ceremonies pertaining to manumission. The goddess was identified with Libertas, the personification of liberty, and was a tutelary goddess of freedmen (dea libertorum). A stone at her temple was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free." Saturnalia The Roman festival most famously celebrated by slaves was the Saturnalia, a December observance of role reversals during which time slaves enjoyed a rich banquet, gambling, free speech and other forms of license not normally available to them. To mark their temporary freedom, they wore the pilleus, the cap of freedom, as did free citizens, who normally went about bareheaded. Some ancient sources suggest that master and slave dined together, while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice may have varied over time. Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to enjoy a pretense of disrespect for their masters, and exempted them from punishment. The Augustan poet Horace calls their freedom of speech "December liberty" (libertas Decembri). In two satires set during the Saturnalia, Horace portrays a slave as offering sharp criticism to his master. But everyone knew that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end. The Festival of Handmaids Slave women were honored at the Ancillarum Feriae on July 7. The holiday is explained as commemorating the service rendered to Rome by a group of ancillae (female slaves or "handmaids") during the war with the Fidenates in the late 4th century BC. Weakened by the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the Romans next had suffered a stinging defeat by the Fidenates, who demanded that they hand over their wives and virgin daughters as hostages to secure a peace. A handmaid named either Philotis or Tutula came up with a plan to deceive the enemy: the ancillae would put on the apparel of the free women, spend one night in the enemy camp, and send a signal to the Romans about the most advantageous time to launch a counterattack. Although the historicity of the underlying tale may be doubtful, it indicates that the Romans thought they had already had a significant slave population before the Punic Wars. Temple slaves Among the public slaves (servi publici) were those who served Rome's traditional religious practices. The cult of Hercules at the Ara Maxima was transferred to the keeping of public slaves in 312 BC when the patrician families originally charged with its maintenance died out. The calator was a public slave who assisted the flamens, the senior priests of the state, and carried out their day-to-day business. An epitaph records the career of a calator of the augurs who rose to the position after serving as a dispensator (keeper of accounts) for a senator; he had been manumitted when he died at the age of 32. The popa, depicted in sacrificial processions as carrying a mallet or axe with which to strike the sacrificial animal, is said in sources from late antiquity to have been a public slave. In the East, especially during the first century BC, large numbers of “holy” slaves (Greek hierodouloi) served in temples such as those of Ma in Comana, Cappadocia, where 6,000 male and female slaves served, and of the Great Mother at Pessinus in Galatia. The notion that hierodouloi in the Roman era engaged in sacred prostitution is mostly a modern fantasy arising from the presence of prostitutes at temples and festivals, either as members of the participating community or peripherally plying their trade where potential customers would congregate. Temple slaves were not traded as chattel, and the Romans, given their instinct for religion as a source of social order, tended not to capitalize on them as such. Strabo states that the chief priest of the Temple of Ma at Comana did not have the right to sell hierodouloi; however, as the sites of such temples are often associated with trading centers, they might have played some role in facilitating the slave trade. Mithraic cult The Mithraic mysteries were open to slaves and freedmen, and at some cult sites most or all votive offerings are made by slaves, sometimes for the sake of their masters' wellbeing. The slave Vitalis is known from three inscriptions involving the cult of Mithras at Apulum (Alba Iulia in present-day Romania).The best preserved is the dedication of an altar to Sol Invictus for the wellbeing of a free man, possibly his master or a fellow Mithraic initiate. Vitalis was an arcarius, a treasurer probably in the administration of imperial customs (portorium); his position gave him the opportunity to earn the wealth required for setting up stone monuments. Numerous Mithraic inscriptions from the reaches of the empire record the names of both privately held slaves and imperial slaves, and even one Pylades in Roman Gaul who was the slave of an imperial slave. Mithraic cult, which valued submission to authority and promotion through a hierarchy, was in harmony with the structure of Roman society, and thus the participation of slaves posed no threat to social order. Early Christian church Christianity gave slaves an equal place within the religion, allowing them to participate in the liturgy. According to tradition, Pope Clement I (term c. 92–99), Pope Pius I (158–167), and Pope Callixtus I (c. 217–222) were former slaves. Commemoration Epitaphs are one of the most common forms of Roman writing to survive, arising from the intersection of two salient activities of Roman culture: the care of the dead and what Ramsay MacMullen called the “epigraphic habit.” One of the ways that Roman epitaphs differ from those of the Greeks is that the name of the commemorator is typically given along with that of the deceased. Commemorations are found both for slaves and by slaves. Simple epitaphs for domestic slaves might be set up in the communal tomb of their household. This inclusion perpetuated the domus by enlarging the number of survivors and descendants who might carry out tomb maintenance and the many ritual observances for the dead on the Roman religious calendar. The commemoration of slaves often included their job—cook, jeweler, hairdresser—or an emblem of their work such as tools. The funerary relief of the freed silversmith Publius Curtilius Agatho (see under “Names” above) shows him in the process of working a cup that lies incomplete by his left hand. He holds a hammer in his right hand, and a punch or graver in his left. Despite these realistic details of his craft, Agatho is depicted wearing a toga—which Getty Museum curator Kenneth Lapatin compares to going to work in a tuxedo—that expresses his pride in his citizen status, just as the choice of marble as the medium rather than the more common limestone gives evidence of his level of success. Although not required on tombstones, the deceased's status at times can be identified by Latin abbreviations such as SER for a slave; VERN or VER specifically for vernae, slaves born into a familia (see funerary bust above); or LIB for a freedperson. This legal status is usually absent for gladiators, who were social outcasts regardless of having been freeborn, manumitted, or enslaved at the time of death; instead they were identified by their fighting specialty such as retiarius or murmillo or less often as a freeborn man, LIBER, a status which was not typically asserted. Gladiators who had become celebrities might also be remembered by fans (amatores) in popular media—images of gladiators, sometimes labeled by name, appeared widely on everyday items such as oil lamps and vessels that could long survive them. Epitaphs represent only slaves who were more highly favored or esteemed within their household or who belonged to communities or social organizations (such as collegia) that offered care of the dead. Most slaves did not have the opportunity to develop a personal relationship with a free person or participate in social networking and were disposed of in mass graves along with "free" people who were destitute. The Augustan poet Horace, himself the son of a freedman, wrote of "a fellow slave contracted to transport the castaway corpses to narrow rooms on a cheap chest; here lay the common grave of the wretched masses." Although slaves were denied the right to make contracts or conduct other legal matters in their own name, it was possible for a master to allow his slave to make less formal arrangements that functioned like a will. In a letter to a friend, Pliny said that he permitted his slaves to write up a “sort of will” (quasi testamenta) so that their last wishes could be carried out, including who should receive their possessions or other gifts and bequests. The beneficiaries have to be other members of the household (domus), which Pliny frames as the "republic" within which slaves hold a kind of citizenship (quasi civitas). Slavery and Roman morality Slavery as an institution was practiced within every community of the Greco-Roman world, including Jewish and Christian communities who at times struggled to reconcile the practice within their beliefs. Some Jewish sects, such as the Essenes and Therapeutae, did articulate anti-slavery principles—which is one of the things that "made them look like fringe utopians" for their time. The apparent ease of manumission, along with some Roman laws and practices that mitigated slavery, have led some scholars to view Roman slavery as a relatively benign institution, especially in comparison with the race-based Atlantic slave trade. The majority of slaves suffered in grinding toil but are mostly silent and undifferentiated in ancient sources, while the freedmen and imperial slaves who enjoyed social mobility are represented because of their success: "the ideology of slaveowning had been successfully transmitted to those who had once been its victims." The Roman concept of the virtues and what it meant to be moral was not founded on the value of an individual life and preserving it, regardless of the social status of that life. In early Rome as the Twelve Tables were being formulated, murder was regarded as a pollution of the community that had to be expiated. Killing an individual was sanctioned when doing so removed a threat from the community, as in war and for capital punishment; homicide was not a statutory offense under Roman law until 80 BC. "'Life', taken as individual existence, is not significant," Jörg Rüpke has observed of Roman morality. "It is important only instrumentally." The value of the life of a slave differed from that of a conquering general in the nature of this instrumentality: the murder of a slave—a "speaking tool" (instrumentum vocale), in the words of Varro—under law was property loss to the owner. And yet in the Satyricon, Petronius has Trimalchio assert that "slaves too are men. The milk they have drunk is just the same even if an evil fate has oppressed them." The many, sometimes inadvertent acknowledgments of the slave's humanity in Roman literature and law; the individual expressions of esteem or affection toward a slave by an owner; and pleas for the humanitarian treatment of slaves particularly among Stoics all produce a dissonance within a moral framework largely dependent on utilitarianism or at best "enlightened self-interest". In his book Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine, Peter Garnsey outlines six moral views that express various and inconsistent "anxieties and tensions" inherent in slavery throughout Classical antiquity in Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Christian thought: 1. Slavery is natural, a normative view most notoriously expressed by Aristotle. 2. Slavery can be justified for its utility— culturally, the most "numerous and authoritative" of the views expressed. 3. Slavery is an evil and should be condemned as an institution—"few and isolated" voices not to be construed as an abolitionist movement. 4. The institution of slavery can be abused, and these abuses, such as the wrongful enslavement of free people, can be criticized. 5. Slaves are human beings worthy of humane regard. 6. There is an obligation to improve the conditions under which slaves live. Stoic philosophy The Stoic affirmation of universal human dignity extended to slaves and women. Cicero, who had some Stoic inclinations, did not think that slaves were by nature inferior. Because human dignity was inherent, it could not be affected by external circumstances such as enslavement or poverty. The individual's dignity could be damaged, however, by a lack of self-governance. Anger and cruelty damaged the person who felt them, and therefore a slave owner ought to exercise clementia, mildness or mercy, toward those who were slaves by law. But since emotion-based compassion was likewise a response to external conditions, it was not grounds for political action—true freedom was wisdom, and true slavery the lack thereof. By denying that material and institutional conditions for human flourishing mattered, Stoics had no impulse toward abolition and were limited to seeing the institution of slavery as, in the words of Martha Nussbaum, "no big deal." One of the major Roman-era Stoic philosophers, Epictetus (died ca. AD 135), spent his youth as a slave. Writing in colloquial Greek, he addressed a broad audience, consonant with the Stoic belief that the pursuit of philosophy should not just be the province of an elite. Epicurean philosophy The Epicureans admitted enslaved people to their philosophical circles and, like the Stoics, rejected the Aristotelian view that some people were destined by nature to be slaves—but never advocated for the abolition of slavery. Like the Stoics and other philosophical schools, the Epicureans spoke of slavery most often as a metaphor; in the Epicurean view, the moral state of being "enslaved" to custom or other psychological ills. The Epicurean poet and philosopher Philodemus (1st century BC) wrote a treatise On Anger in which he admonishes masters not to impede their moral progress by directing violence or inhumane or indecent acts against slaves; he attributes violent rebellion among slaves to the injustices perpetrated by their masters. In the treatise On Property Management, Philodemus proposes that slaves should receive moral instruction, recognizing them as capable of learning and of acting as moral agents. A good property manager should show mildness of character, sensitivity, philanthropy, and decency towards slaves and all subordinates, whereas the wealth-obsessed manager will not refrain from exploiting slave labor in the mines. It is not shameful, however, to earn income from property, and that includes slaves if they are employing their skills or arts in ways that are appropriate to them and do not require "excessive toil" from anyone. The recovery of Philodemus's work is still ongoing, as a major source is the charred rolls of texts preserved at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum owing to the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. Early Christian attitudes toward slavery In the Christian scriptures, fair treatment of slaves was enjoined upon owners, and slaves were advised to obey their earthly masters, even if they were unjust, and to obtain freedom lawfully if possible. In the theology of the Apostle Paul, slavery is an everyday reality that must be accepted, but as a condition of this world, it is ultimately rendered meaningless by salvation. Roman Christians preached that slaves were human beings and not things (res), but while slaves were regarded as human beings with souls that needed to be saved, Jesus of Nazareth said nothing toward abolishing slavery, nor were religionists of the faith admonished against owning slaves in the first two centuries of Christianity's existence. The parables of Jesus that refer in English translations to "servants" are in fact about slaves (Greek douloi), and the "faithful parabolic slave" is rewarded with greater responsibilities, not manumission. Slaves are portrayed in roles that are typical of Roman culture—agricultural workers, financial agents, household stewards, and overseers—as well as "a body awaiting discipline." In the Gospel of Matthew, parables that frame divine punishment from God as analogous to the punishments inflicted by masters on slaves assume the just proportionality of such punishments. There is little evidence that Christian theologians of the Roman Imperial era problematized slavery as morally indefensible. Certain senior Christian leaders (such as Gregory of Nyssa and John Chrysostom) called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery, while others supported it. That Christians might be susceptible to accusations of hypocrisy from outside the faith was anticipated in Christian apologetics, such as Lactantius's defense that both slave and free were inherently equal before God. Salvian, a Christian monk writing polemic for Christian slaveowners in Gaul about AD 440, wrote that kindly treatment could be a more effective way of obtaining obedience than physical punishment, but he still regarded slaves as ‘wicked and worthy of our contempt’, and he never imagined a social system without slavery. Saint Augustine, who came from an aristocratic background and likely grew up in home where slave labor was utilized, described slavery as being against God's intention and resulting from sin. Sexual ethics and attitudes Because slaves were regarded as property under Roman law, the slaveholder had license to use them for sex or to hire them out to service other people. While sexual attitudes differed substantially among the Jewish community, up to the 2nd century AD it was still assumed that male slaveholders would have sexual access to female slaves within their own household, an assumption not subjected to Christian criticism in the New Testament, though the use of prostitutes was prohibited. Salvian (5th century AD) condemned the immorality of his audience in regarding their female slaves as natural outlets for their sexual appetites, exactly as "pagan" masters had done in the time of Martial. Traditional Roman morality had some moderating influence, and upper-class slaveholders who exploited their familia for sex were criticized if this use became known as indiscreet or excessive. Social censure was not so much indignation at the owner’s abuse of the slave as disdain for his lack of self-mastery. It reflected poorly on an upper-class male to resort sexually to a female slave of his household, but a right to consent or refuse did not exist for her. The treatment of slaves and their own conduct within the elite domus contributed to the perception of the household’s respectability. The materfamilias in particular was judged by her female slaves' sexual behavior, which was expected to be moral or at least discreet; as domina, she had the right to exercise control over sexual access to female slaves who were her property. This decorum may have helped alleviate the sexual exploitation of ancillae within the household, along with men having easy, even ubiquitous access outside the home to legal, inexpensive, and often highly specialized services from professional sex workers. "Not one single surviving legal text refers in any way whatever to sexual abuse of slave children," states legal historian Alan Watson—presumably because no special protections were afforded by law to child slaves. Some household staff, such as cup-bearers for dinner parties, generally boys, were chosen at a young age for their grace and good looks, qualities that were cultivated, sometimes through formal training, to convey sexual allure and potential use by guests. A slave's own expressions of sexuality were closely controlled. An estate owner usually restricted the heterosexual activities of his male slaves to females he also owned; any children born from these unions added to his wealth. Because home-reared slaves were valued, female slaves on an estate were encouraged to have children with approved male partners. The agricultural writer Columella rewarded especially fecund women with extra time off for a mother of three, and early manumission for a mother of four or more. There is little or no evidence that estate owners bought women for the purpose of “breeding,” since the useful proportion of male to female slaves was constrained by the fewer number of tasks for which women were employed. Despite the controls and restrictions placed on a slave's sexuality, Roman art and literature often perversely portray slaves as lascivious, voyeuristic, and sexually knowing, indicating a deep ambivalence about master-slave relations. Roman art connoisseurs did not shy away from displaying explicit sexuality in their collections at home, but when figures identifiable as slaves appear in erotic paintings within a domestic scenario, they are either hovering in the background or performing routine peripheral tasks, not engaging in sex. However, most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen, and paintings found in Roman brothels (lupanaria) feature prostitutes performing sex acts. Sexual services were cheap enough that urban male slaves, unlike their rural counterparts, could frequent brothels to seek gratification, just as upper-class men did, making the lupanar one of the most egalitarian facilities among men in Roman society. Like slavery, prostitution was a legal way to use a human body other than one's own, but a use to which a free person would be expected to resist. The dynamics of Roman phallocentric sex were such that an adult male was free to enjoy same-sex relations without compromising his perceived virility, but only as an exercise of dominance and not with his adult peers or their underage sons—in effect, he was to limit his male sexual partners, whatever the desired age, to prostitutes or slaves. The Imperial poet Martial describes a specialized market to meet this demand, located at the Julian Saepta in the Campus Martius. Seneca expressed Stoic indignation that a male slave should be groomed effeminately and used sexually, because a slave's human dignity should not be debased. Eunuchs castrated under the age of ten were rare and as expensive as a skilled artisan. The trade in eunuch slaves during the reign of Hadrian prompted legislation prohibiting the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain". The significant body of law and legal argumentation pertaining to slavery and prostitution indicates that Romans recognized the moral conflict between their family values and forcing a woman into prostitution. The contract when a slave was sold might include a ne serva prostituatur covenant that prohibited the employment of the slave as a prostitute. The restriction remained in force for the term of enslavement and throughout subsequent sales, and if it was violated, the illegally prostituted slave was granted freedom, regardless of whether the buyer had known the covenant was originally attached. No laws prohibited a Roman from exploiting slaves he owned for sex, but he was not entitled to compel any enslaved person he chose to have sex; doing so might be regarded as a form of theft, since the owner retained the right to his property. If a free man did force himself on someone else's slave for sex, he could not be charged with rape because the slave lacked legal personhood. But an owner who wanted to press charges against a man who raped someone in his familia might do so under the Lex Aquilia, a law that allowed him to seek property damages. In Latin and Imperial Greek literature Slaves appear widely in genres of Roman literature written mostly by or for the elite, including history, letters, drama, satire, and prose narrative. These expressions may have served to navigate master-slave relationships in terms of slaves' behavior and punishment. Literary examples often focus on extreme cases, such as the crucifixion of hundreds of slaves for the murder of their master, and while such instances are exceptional, the underlying problems must have concerned the authors and audiences. Lost works thought to have been written by slaves or former slaves include a history of the Sicilian slave rebellions by Caecilius of Caleacte and a biographical collection by Hermippos of Berytus on slaves celebrated for their learning. Roman comedy Slaves are depicted ubiquitously in the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence. In Roman comedy, servi or slaves make up the majority of the stock characters, and generally fall into two basic categories: loyal slaves and tricksters. Loyal slaves often help their master in their plan to woo or obtain a lover—the most popular driver of plot in Roman comedy. Slaves are often dim, timid, and worried about what punishments may befall them. Trickster slaves are more numerous and often use their masters' unfortunate situation to create a "topsy-turvy" world in which they are the masters and their masters are subservient to them. The master will often ask the slave for a favor and the slave only complies once the master has made it clear that the slave is in charge, beseeching him and calling him lord, sometimes even a god. These slaves are threatened with numerous punishments for their treachery, but always escape the fulfillment of these threats through their wit. Plautus’ plays represent slavery "as a complex institution that raised perplexing problems in human relationships involving masters and slaves". Terence added a new element to how slaves were portrayed in his plays, due to his personal background as a former slave. In the work Andria, slaves are central to the plot. In this play, Simo, a wealthy Athenian wants his son, Pamphilius, to marry one girl but Pamphilius has his sights set on another. Much of the conflict in this play revolves around schemes with Pamphilius's slave, Davos, and the rest of the characters in the story. Many times throughout the play, slaves are allowed to engage in activity, such as the inner and personal lives of their owners, that would not normally be seen with slaves in every day society. This is a form of satire by Terence due to the unrealistic nature of events that occurs between slaves and citizens in his plays. See also Slavery in ancient Greece Slavery in antiquity History of slavery Slavery in the Eastern Roman Empire Notes References Bibliography . Further reading Bosworth, A. B. 2002. "Vespasian and the Slave Trade." Classical Quarterly 52:350–357. Bradley, Keith. 1994. Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Fitzgerald, William. 2000. Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Harper, Kyle. 2011. Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hopkins, Keith. 1978. Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hunt, Peter. 2018. Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Watson, Alan. 1987. Roman Slave Law. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Yavetz, Zvi. 1988. Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. External links Social class in ancient Rome
5339378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship%20by%20Google	Censorship by Google	Google and its subsidiary companies, such as YouTube, have removed or omitted information from its services in order to comply with company policies, legal demands, and government censorship laws. Numerous governments have asked Google to censor content. In 2012, Google ruled in favor of more than half the requests they received via court orders and phone calls. This did not include China or Iran, who completely blocked the site or one of its subsidiary companies. Google AdSense In February 2003, Google stopped showing advertisements from Oceana, a non-profit organization protesting against a major cruise ship operation's sewage treatment practices. Google, citing its editorial policy, stated that "Google does not accept advertising if the ad or site advocates against other individuals, groups, or organizations." In April 2014, Google accepted ads from the pro-choice abortion lobbying group NARAL, but removed ads for some anti-abortion crisis pregnancy centers. Google removed the web search ads after an investigation by NARAL found evidence that the ads violated Google's policy against deceptive advertising. According to NARAL, people using Google to search for abortion clinics found advertisements for anti-abortion pregnancy crisis centers. Google stated that it had followed company procedures in applying its ad policy standards related to ad relevance, clarity, and accuracy. In September 2018, Google removed a paid advertisement from YouTube made by supporters of Russian opposition who urged Russians to participate in a protest set on September 9. Russia's Central Election Commission earlier sent a request to Google to remove the advertisement, saying it violated election laws that call for a "day of silence" on election matters ahead of voting, but the advertisement was blocked even in regions with no voting set on September 9 and in regions where authorities had authorized the pension-reform protests. Google Maps In March 2007, the lower-resolution satellite imagery on Google Maps showing post-Hurricane Katrina damage in Louisiana, US, was allegedly replaced with higher resolution images from before the storm. Google's official blog post in April revealed that the imagery was still available in KML format on Google Earth or Google Maps. In March 2008, Google removed Street View and 360° images of military bases per the Pentagon's request. To protect the privacy and anonymity of individuals, Google selectively blurred photographs containing car license number plates and faces in Google Street View. Users may request further blurring of images that feature them, their family, their car, or their home. Users can also request the removal of images that feature what Google terms "inappropriate content," which falls under their categories of intellectual property violations; sexually explicit content; illegal, dangerous, or violent content; child endangerment; hate speech; harassment and threats; and personal or confidential information. In some countries (e.g. Germany), Google modifies images of specific buildings. In the United States, Google Street View adjusts or omits certain images deemed of interest to national security by the federal government. Google Search In the United States, Google commonly filters search results to comply with Digital Millennium Copyright Act-related legal complaints. In the United Kingdom, it was reported that Google had "delisted" Inquisition 21, a website that claims to challenge moral authoritarian and sexually absolutist ideas in the United Kingdom. Google later released a press statement suggesting Inquisition 21 had attempted to manipulate search results. In Germany and France, a study reported that approximately 113 white nationalist, Nazi, antisemitic, Islamic extremist, and other similar websites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google. Google has complied with these laws by not including sites containing such material in its search results. However, Google does list the number of excluded results at the bottom of the search result page and links to Lumen (formerly, Chilling Effects) for an explanation. Lolicon content , Google censors "lolicon", a Japanese term meaning "attractive young girls", on its search results, hiding results regarding lolicon material, even if the user types words along with the term which would typically lead to explicit content results; the terms "loli" and "lolita" also suffer from censorship in regards to this content. Removal of SafeSearch options , in countries like the U.S., U.K., and Australia, Google removed the option to turn off the SafeSearch image filter entirely, forcing users to enter more specific search queries to get adult content. Prior to this change, three SafeSearch settings—"on", "moderate", and "off"—were available to users; after the change, they were replaced with two "Filter explicit results" settings—" on" and "off". The former and new "on" settings are similar and exclude explicit images from search results, while the new "off" setting still permits explicit images to appear in search results, but users need to enter more specific search requests, and no direct equivalent of the old "off" setting exists because adding additional explicit search terms alters search results. The change brings image search results in line with Google's existing settings for web and video search. Some users have stated that the lack of a completely unfiltered option amounts to censorship by Google. A Google spokesperson disagreed, saying that Google is "not censoring any adult content," but "want to show users exactly what they are looking for—but [Google policies] aim not to show sexually-explicit results unless a user is specifically searching for them". Online pharmacies Following a settlement with the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ending Google Adwords' advertising of Canadian pharmacies that permitted Americans to access cheaper prescriptions, Google agreed to several compliances and reporting measures to limit the visibility of "rogue pharmacies". Google and other members of the Center for Safe Internet Pharmacies are collaborating to remove illegal pharmacies from search results and participating in "Operation Pangea" with the FDA and Interpol. Search suggestions In January 2010, Google was reported to have stopped providing automatic suggestions for any search beginning with the term "Islam is", while it continued to do so for other major religions. According to Wired.com, a Google spokesperson stated, "This is a bug and we're working to fix it as quickly as we can." Suggestions for "Islam is" were available later that month. The word "Bilderberg" and the family name "Buchanan" were also reportedly censored in the autocomplete results but were available by February 2010 as well. Nonetheless, Google continues to filter certain words from autocomplete suggestions, describing them as "potentially inappropriate". The publication 2600: The Hacker Quarterly has compiled a list of words that are restricted by Google Instant. These are terms that the company's Instant Search feature will not search. Most terms are often vulgar and derogatory in nature, but some apparently irrelevant searches including "Myleak" are removed. , Google's Autocomplete feature would not complete certain words such as "BitTorrent," "Torrent," "uTorrent," "Megaupload," and "Rapidshare", and Google actively censored search terms or phrases that its algorithm considered likely constituting spam or intending to manipulate search results. In September 2012, multiple sources reported that Google had removed "bisexual" from its list of blacklisted terms for Instant Search. In December 2022, Google was reported to have stopped providing automatic suggestions for any search with the term "protests in China", while it continued to do so for other countries. Ungoogleable In 2013, the Swedish Language Council included the Swedish version of the word ungoogleable () in its list of new words. It had "defined the term as something that cannot be found with any search engine". Google objected to this definition, wanting it to only refer to Google searches, and the Council removed it in order to avoid a legal confrontation, and accused Google of trying to "control the Swedish language". Leaked celebrity content On 31 August 2014, almost 200 private pictures of various celebrities containing nudity and explicit content were made public on certain websites. Google removed most search results that linked users directly to such content shortly after. COVID-19 pandemic-related content An Australian study found Google search results relating to COVID-19 were heavily curated, with no indication given to users that such curation was happening. Google removed autocomplete suggestions for searches related to the COVID-19 lab leak theory. Google also censored a public Google Docs document on efficacy of the drug hydroxychloroquine as a COVID-19 treatment, in favour of World Health Organization recommendations—some of which were themselves based on fraudulent data. International Australia In January 2010, Google Australia removed links to satirical website Encyclopedia Dramatica's "Aboriginal" article, citing it as a violation of Australia's Racial Discrimination Act. After the website's domain change in 2011, the article resurfaced in Google Australia's search results. Canada On 19 June 2014, Google was ordered by the Supreme Court of British Columbia to remove search results that linked to websites of a company called Datalink. The websites in question sell network device technology that Datalink is alleged to have stolen from Equustek Solutions. Google voluntarily removed links from google.ca, the main site used by Canadians, but the court granted a temporary injunction applying to all Google sites across the world. Google argued that Canadian law could not be imposed across the world but was given until June 17, 2014, to comply with the court's ruling. China Google adhered to the Internet censorship policies of China, enforced by means of filters colloquially known as "The Great Firewall," until March 2010. Google.cn search results were filtered to not display any results perceived to be harmful to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Google claimed that some censorship was necessary in order to keep the Chinese government from blocking Google entirely, which had happened in 2002. Google claimed it did not plan to give the government information about users who searched for blocked content and would inform users that content had been restricted if they attempt to search for it. , Google was the only major China-based search engine to explicitly inform the user when search results were blocked or hidden. , Google no longer informs the user of possible censorship for certain queries during a search. The Chinese government had restricted citizens' access to popular search engines such as Altavista, Yahoo!, and Google in the past, though the complete ban has since been lifted. However, the government remains active in filtering Internet content. In October 2005, the Blogger platform and access to the Google cache was made available in mainland China; however, in December 2005, some mainland Chinese Blogger users reported that their access to the site was once again restricted. In January 2006, Google agreed that China's version of Google, Google.cn, would filter certain keywords given to it by the Chinese government. Google pledged to tell users when search results are censored and said that it would not "maintain any services that involve personal or confidential data, such as Gmail or Blogger, on the mainland". Google said that it does not plan to give the government information about users who search for blocked content and will inform users that content has been restricted if they attempt to search for it. Searchers may encounter a message which states: "In accordance with local laws and policies, some of the results have not been displayed." Google issued a statement saying that "removing search results is inconsistent with Google's mission" but that the alternative — being shut down entirely and thereby "providing no information (or a heavily degraded user experience that amounts to no information) is more inconsistent with our mission." Initially, both the censored Google.cn and the uncensored Chinese-language Google.com were available. In June 2006, however, China blocked Google.com again. Some Chinese Internet users were critical of Google for assisting the Chinese government in repressing its own citizens, particularly those dissenting against the government and advocating for human rights. Furthermore, Google had been denounced and called hypocritical by Free Media Movement and Reporters Without Borders for agreeing to China's demands while simultaneously fighting the United States government's requests for similar information. Google China had also been condemned by Reporters Without Borders, Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International. On 14 February 2006, protesters organized a "mass breakup with Google" whereby users agreed to boycott Google on Valentine's Day to show their disapproval of the Google China policy. In June 2009, Google was ordered by the Chinese government to block various overseas websites, including some with sexually explicit content. Google was criticized by the China Illegal Information Reporting Center (CIIRC) for allowing search results that included content that was sexual in nature, and claimed the company was a dissemination channel for a "huge amount of porn and lewd content". On 12 January 2010, in response to an apparent hacking of Google's servers in an attempt to access information about Chinese dissidents, Google announced that "we are no longer willing to continue censoring our results on Google.cn, and so over the next few weeks we will be discussing with the Chinese government the basis on which we could operate an unfiltered search engine within the law, if at all." On 22 March 2010, after talks with Chinese authorities failed to reach an agreement, the company redirected its censor-complying Google China service to its Google Hong Kong service, which is outside the jurisdiction of Chinese censorship laws. However, at least as of March 23, 2010, "The Great Firewall" continues to censor search results from the Hong Kong portal, www.google.com.hk (as it does with the US portal, www.google.com) for controversial terms such as "Falun gong" and "the June 4th incident" (1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre). In August 2018, it was revealed that Google was working on a version of its search engine for use in China, which would censor content according to the restrictions placed by the Chinese government. This project was worked on by a small percentage of the company and was codenamed Dragonfly. A number of Google employees expressed their concern about the project, and several resigned. In 2019, Google's vice president of public policy, Karan Bhatia, testified before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee that the Dragonfly project had been terminated. In February 2023, Radio Free Asia reported that YouTube content satirizing CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping is routinely targeted for takedowns using YouTube's copyright infringement reporting system. European Union In July 2014, Google began removing certain search results from its search engines in the European Union in response to requests under the right to be forgotten. Articles whose links were removed, when searching for specific personal names, included a 2007 blog by the BBC journalist Robert Peston about Stanley O'Neal, a former chairman of investment bank Merrill Lynch, being forced out after the bank made huge losses. Peston criticized Google for "...cast[ing him] into oblivion". The Guardian reported that six of its articles, including three relating to a former Scottish football referee, had been "hidden". Other articles, including one about French office workers using post-it notes and another about a collapsed fraud trial of a solicitor standing for election to the Law Society's ruling body, were affected. Sky News Australia reported that a story about Kelly Osbourne falling ill on the set of Fashion Police in 2013 had been removed. The Oxford Mail reported that its publishers had been notified by Google about the removal of links to the story of a conviction for shoplifting in 2006. The paper said it was not known who had asked Google to remove the search result, but there had been a previous complaint to the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) in 2010 concerning its accuracy, claimed that the report was causing "embarrassment", and requested that the story be taken off the paper's website. The paper said two factual amendments were made to the article and the PCC dismissed the complaint. An article about the conversion to Islam of the brother of George Osborne, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, was removed after a request to Google from an unknown person under the right-to-be-forgotten ruling. The Telegraph reported that links to a report on its website about claims that a former Law Society chief faked complaints against his deputy were hidden. The search results for the articles for the same story in the Guardian and The Independent were also removed. The Independent reported that its article, together with an article on the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 and one on new trends in sofa design in 1998, had been removed. The Telegraph also reported that links to articles concerning a student's 2008 drink-driving conviction and a 2001 case that resulted in two brothers each receiving nine-month jail terms for affray had been removed. The Spanish newspaper El Mundo reported that some results were hidden over a 2008 news report of a Spanish Supreme Court ruling involving executives of Riviera Coast Invest who were involved in a mortgage mis-selling scandal. On 5 July 2014, German news magazine Der Spiegel reported removal of a search result to an article about Scientology. On 19 August 2014, the BBC reported that Google had removed 12 links to stories on BBC News. Germany and France On 22 October 2002, a study reported that approximately 113 Internet sites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google. This censorship mainly affected White Nationalist, Nazi, antisemitic, Islamic extremist websites, and at least one fundamentalist Christian website. Under French and German law, hate speech and Holocaust denial are illegal. In the case of Germany, violent or sex-related sites such as YouPorn and BME that the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien deems harmful to youth are also censored. Google has complied with these laws by not including sites containing such material in its search results. However, Google does list the number of excluded results at the bottom of the search result page and links to Lumen (formerly known as Chilling Effects) for explanation. Sweden In March 2018, Google delisted a WordPress hosted site from search results in Sweden, following an intense media frenzy targeted against Google, YouTube, and Facebook by the tabloid Expressen and the daily newspaper Dagens Nyheter. The WordPress site lists Swedish Jews in the public sphere, and also agitates against the dominant publishing house Bonnier Group, the owner of both newspapers. Although perfectly legal in Sweden, the WordPress site was described as antisemitic. The Bonnier papers argued that Google should not promote such content and above all not at a high rank. Ministers in the Swedish green-left government agreed with this sentiment, and threatened with national and EU regulation unless Google adapt its algorithms and delist contents of "threats and hate" (hot och hat). Google eventually delisted the site in Sweden due to copyright claims. Said papers also targeted the YouTube channel Granskning Sverige (Scrutiny Sweden) for its alleged extreme right-wing contents. The channel was described as a "troll factory", where members called authorities, journalists and other public figures, and recut the recorded interviews to make them fit the channel's right-wing extremist world view. The interviews were broadcast against a black backdrop with the channel logotype, and the occasional use of screen dumps from newspaper articles related to the interviews. Google eventually complied with the demands, and closed the channel, citing copyright infringement and violation of terms of agreement. On April 13, 2018, Google took part in a meeting with the Swedish government, to discuss the search company's role in the media landscape. Minister of Justice, Morgan Johansson (Social Democrats), and Minister of Digitization, Peter Eriksson (Green Party), expressed concerns that "unlawful" and "harmful" content was facilitated by Google, and that "trolls" could have a negative impact on the upcoming Swedish parliamentary election. Google agreed to refine its algorithms, and also hire more staff to make sure "threats and hate" are eliminated from Google search and YouTube videos. Critics have voiced concerns that private international companies are mandated to put censorship into effect to comply with local regulations without guidance from courts, and that free speech is deteriorating at an accelerating rate. India In September 2016, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare revealed that Google had agreed to censor search results and advertising of prenatal sex discernment, which is illegal in India. Israel Since 2015, Google removed certain search results that were defamatory in nature from its search engine in Israel following gag orders. United Kingdom On 21 September 2006, it was reported that Google had "delisted" Inquisition 21, a website that claims to challenge moral authoritarian and sexually absolutist ideas in the United Kingdom. According to Inquisition 21, Google was acting "in support of a campaign by law enforcement agencies in the US and the UK to suppress emerging information about their involvement in major malpractice", allegedly exposed by their own investigation of any legal action against those who carried out Operation Ore, a far-reaching and much-criticized law enforcement campaign against the viewers of child pornography. Google released a press statement suggesting Inquisition 21 had attempted to manipulate search results. United States Google commonly removes search results to comply with Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)-related legal complaints. In 2002, "in an apparent response to criticism of its handling of a threatening letter from a Church of Scientology lawyer," Google began to make DMCA "takedown" letters public, posting such notices on the Chilling Effects archive (now Lumen), which archives legal threats made against Internet users and Internet sites. In mid-2016, Google conducted a two-month standoff with writer Dennis Cooper after deleting his Blogger and Gmail accounts without warning or explanation following a single anonymous complaint. The case drew worldwide media attention, and finally resulted in Google returning Cooper's content to him. In mid-2018, Google permanently barred conspiracy theorist Alex Jones from using its subsidiary company YouTube. Jones' channel Infowars responded by "accusing the companies of censorship". In mid-2019, Google allegedly suspended Tulsi Gabbard's advertisements for her presidential campaign, while the candidate was at the height of public interest. Gabbard sued Google for $50 million in damages. Global blocking In June 2017, the Canadian supreme court ruled that Google can be forced to remove search results worldwide. Civil liberties groups including Human Rights Watch, the BC Civil Liberties Association, and the Electronic Frontier Foundation argue that this would set a precedent for Internet censorship. In an appeal, Google argued that the global reach of the order was unnecessary and that it raised concerns over freedom of expression. While the court writes that "[They] have not, to date, accepted that freedom of expression requires the facilitation of the unlawful sale of goods", OpenMedia spokesman, David Christopher, warns that "there is great risk that governments and commercial entities will see this ruling as justifying censorship requests that could result in perfectly legal and legitimate content disappearing off the web because of a court order in the opposite corner of the globe". Google Play On September 17, 2021, Google removed from its store the Smart Voting app used by the Russian opposition to coordinate its voting strategy against the ruling United Russia party during elections. The app was removed following threats from the Russian government. YouTube YouTube, a video sharing website and subsidiary of Google, in its Terms of Service, prohibits the posting of videos which violate copyrights or depict pornography, illegal acts, gratuitous violence, hate speech, and what it deems to be misinformation about COVID-19. User-posted videos that violate such terms may be removed and replaced with a message that reads, "This video has been removed due to a violation of our Terms of Service." General censorship In September 2007, YouTube blocked the account of Wael Abbas, an Egyptian activist who posted videos of police brutality, voting irregularities and antigovernmental demonstrations under the Mubarak regime. Shortly afterward, his account was subsequently restored, along with 187 of his videos. In 2006, Thailand blocked access to YouTube after identifying 20 offensive videos it ordered the site to remove. In 2007, a Turkish judge ordered YouTube to be blocked in the country due to videos insulting Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey (which falls under Article 301 prohibitions on insulting the Turkish nation). In February 2008, the Pakistan Telecommunications Authority banned YouTube in the country, but the manner in which it performed the block accidentally prevented access to the website worldwide for several hours. The ban was lifted after YouTube removed controversial religious comments made by a Dutch government official concerning Islam. In October 2008, YouTube removed a video by Pat Condell titled "Welcome to Saudi Britain"; in response, his fans re-uploaded the video themselves and the National Secular Society wrote to YouTube in protest. In 2016, YouTube launched a localized Pakistani version of its website for the users in Pakistan in order to censor content considered blasphemous by the Pakistan government as a part of its deal with the latter. As a result, the three-year ban on YouTube by the Pakistan government was subsequently lifted. In July 2017, YouTube began modifying suggested videos to debunk terrorist ideologies. In August 2017, YouTube wrote a blog post explaining a new "limited state" for religious and controversial videos, which would not allow comments, likes, monetization, and suggested videos. In October 2017, PragerU sued YouTube, alleging violations of their freedom of speech under the First Amendment via YouTube's "arbitrary and capricious use of 'restricted mode' and 'demonetization' viewer restriction filters" to suppress their content. A U.S. district appeals court threw out the suit in February 2020, stating that despite "[its] ubiquity and its role as a public-facing platform", YouTube was still considered a private platform (the First Amendment only applies to state actors). In December 2017, what YouTubers referred to as the "AdPocalypse" took place, with YouTube's automated content policing tool began demonetizing content that ran afoul of the company's very-broad "Not Advertiser-Friendly" category. The following April, numerous firearm-related channels began encountering additional policing by YouTube when new rules restricting videos "that facilitate private gun sales or link to websites that sell guns" were enacted. As a result, popular firearms vlogger Hickok45's account was deleted (and subsequently reinstated after an outcry). In March 2018, The Atlantic found that YouTube had delisted a video where journalist Daniel Lombroso reported a speech by white nationalist Richard B. Spencer at the 2016 annual conference of the National Policy Institute, where they celebrated Donald Trump's win at the presidential election. YouTube relisted the video after The Atlantic sent a complaint. In June 2019, YouTube updated its hate speech policy to prohibit hateful and supremacist work, and limit the spread of violent extremist content online. The policy extends to content that justifies discrimination, segregation, or exclusion based on qualities like age, gender, race, caste, religion, sexual orientation, or veteran status. It covers videos that, for example, include Nazi ideology, Holocaust denial, Sandy Hook conspiracy theories, or flat Earth theories. The policy also aims at reducing borderline content and harmful misinformation, such as videos promoting phony miracle cures for serious illnesses. In February 2020, YouTube reportedly began censoring any content related to the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) by removal or demonetization of the channel, citing the "sensitive topics" advertiser-friendly content guideline on Twitter. In 2020, Republican Senator Rand Paul criticized YouTube for removing a video of his floor speech which named the alleged Ukraine whistleblower. In October 2020, PewDiePie was allegedly shadow-banned by YouTube, which led to his channel and videos becoming unavailable on search results. However, YouTube denied shadow-banning him, although the human review was restricted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. YouTube was criticized by PewDiePie himself, his fans, other YouTubers, and netizens over this. In early February 2021, YouTube removed raw footage taken of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol by independent journalists like Ford Fischer from News2Share or from progressive media outlets such as Status Coup citing that the videos violated its policies on misinformation. The same footage from the outlets was reused by large media organizations and still up on their YouTube accounts. Some independent journalists including Fischer and other progressive outlets like The Progressive Soap Box (host Jamarl Thomas), Political Vigilante (Graham Elwood), Franc Analysis and The Convo Couch were demonetized by YouTube with some having their superchat feature blocked. Fischer was later remonetized by YouTube after it acknowledged "over-enforcement". China-related content At least since October 2019, YouTube has been automatically deleting any comments that contain the Chinese terms for "50 Cent Party" (五毛党) and its shortened version "50 Cent" (五毛). They have also been deleting any comments referring to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as "bandits" (共匪). In May 2020, YouTube made a statement to The Verge that these deletions were made "in error". In June 2021, MIT Technology Review and Reuters reported that YouTube removed videos of a human rights group documenting testimonies of the Uyghur genocide. In October 2023, Radio Free Asia reported that YouTube repeatedly removed channels satirizing General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping on the grounds of "cyberbullying". Advertiser-friendly content YouTube policies restrict certain forms of content from being included in videos being monetized with advertising, including strong violence, language, sexual content, and "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to wars, political conflicts, natural disasters, and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown", unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain". In August 2016, YouTube introduced a new system to notify users of violations of the "advertiser-friendly content" rules, and allow them to appeal. Following its introduction, many prominent YouTube users began to accuse the site of engaging in de facto censorship, arbitrarily disabling monetization on videos discussing various topics such as skincare, politics, and LGBT history. Philip DeFranco argued that not being able to earn money from a video was "censorship by a different name", while Vlogbrothers similarly pointed out that YouTube had flagged both "Zaatari: thoughts from a refugee camp" and "Vegetables that look like penises" (although the flagging on the former was eventually overturned). The hashtag "#YouTubeIsOverParty" was prominently used on Twitter as a means of discussing the controversy. A YouTube spokesperson stated that "[w]hile [their] policy of demonetizing videos due to advertiser-friendly concerns hasn't changed, [they've] recently improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to [their] creators." In March 2017, a number of major advertisers and prominent companies began to pull their advertising campaigns from YouTube over concerns that their ads were appearing on objectionable and/or extremist content, in what the YouTube community began referring to as a "boycott". YouTube personality PewDiePie described these boycotts as an "adpocalypse", noting that his video revenue had fallen to the point that he was generating more revenue from YouTube Red subscription profit sharing (which is divided based on views by subscribers) than advertising. On 6 April 2017, YouTube announced planned changes to its Partner Program, restricting new membership to vetted channels with a total of at least 10,000 video views. YouTube stated that the changes were made in order to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules". Censorship of sexual content in Restricted Mode In March 2017, the "Restricted Mode" feature was criticized by YouTube's LGBT community for filtering videos that discuss issues of human sexuality and sexual and gender identity, even when there is no explicit references to sexual intercourse or otherwise inappropriate content. Rapper Mykki Blanco told The Guardian that such restrictions are used to make LGBT vloggers feel "policed and demeaned" and "sends a clear homophobic message that the fact that my video displays unapologetic queer imagery means it's slapped with an 'age restriction', while other cis, overly sexualised heteronormative work" remain uncensored. Musicians Tegan and Sara similarly argued that LGBT people "shouldn't be restricted", after acknowledging that the mode had censored several of their music videos. YouTube later stated that a technical error on Restricted Mode wrongfully impacted "hundreds of thousands" LGBT-related videos. False positives In February 2019, automated filters accidentally flagged several channels with videos discussing the AR mobile game Pokémon Go and the massively multiplayer online game Club Penguin for containing prohibited sexual content, as some of their videos contained references to "CP" in their title. In Pokémon Go, "CP" is an abbreviation of "Combat Power"—a level system in the game, and "CP" is an abbreviation of Club Penguin, but it was believed that YouTube's filters had accidentally interpreted it as referring to child pornography. The affected channels were restored, and YouTube apologized for the inconvenience. In August 2019, YouTube mistakenly took down robot fighting videos for violating its policies against animal cruelty. 2007 anti-censorship shareholder initiative On May 10, 2007, shareholders of Google voted down an anti-censorship proposal for the company. The text of the failed proposal submitted by the New York City comptroller's office, which controls a significant number of shares on behalf of retirement funds, stated that: Data that can identify individual users should not be hosted in Internet-restricting countries, where political speech can be treated as a crime by the legal system. The company will not engage in pro-active censorship. The company will use all legal means to resist demands for censorship. The company will only comply with such demands if required to do so through legally binding procedures. Users will be clearly informed when the company has acceded to legally binding government requests to filter or otherwise censor content that the user is trying to access. Users should be informed about the company's data retention practices and the ways in which their data is shared with third parties. The company will document all cases where legally-binding censorship requests have been complied with, and that information will be publicly available. David Drummond, senior vice president for corporate development, said "Pulling out of China, shutting down Google.cn, is just not the right thing to do at this point... but that's exactly what this proposal would do." CEO Eric Schmidt and founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin recommended that shareholders vote against the proposal. Together they hold 66.2 percent of Google's total shareholder voting power, meaning that they could themselves have declined the anti-censorship proposal. Russian invasion of Ukraine In early March 2022, contractors who were working for Google and preparing translations for the Russian market received an update from Google: "Effective immediately, the ongoing Russian war against Ukraine could no longer be referred to as a war but rather only vaguely as 'extraordinary circumstances.'" Thus, Google was trying to protect itself from Russian sanctions, as well as its employees from persecution within Russia, in connection with the new law, which provided up to 15 years in prison for any information about the war against Ukraine, except when officially announced by the Kremlin. Since the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian conflict, Google has been blocking Russian state-funded media such as RT and Sputnik, and has also extended its censorship to non state-funded media outlets such as RBK by banning them entirely from the video-hosting platform YouTube. Thus said, Google has been blocking all Russian news outlets, citing that it represents a violation of their terms of services. Note that YouTube is a privately owned forum and freedom of speech does not necessarily apply, which means that Google decided to use its capabilities in this case of Russian aggression. Google also acted upon a request of the European Union. See also Criticism of Google Discontinued Google services Internet censorship Network neutrality Dragonfly (search engine) References Sources External links hiddenfromgoogle.com A list of links affected by the EU "Right to be Forgotten" ruling Pakistan v/s Google Products Blogspot Down in Pakistan. Google Google Internet law Criticism of Google
5339589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	1963 in the United Kingdom	Events from the year 1963 in the United Kingdom. This year sees changes in the leadership of both main political parties, the Profumo affair and the rise of The Beatles as well as the launch of the long-running sci-fi series Doctor Who. Incumbents Monarch – Elizabeth II Prime Minister - Harold Macmillan (Conservative) (until 18 October), Alec Douglas-Home (Conservative) (starting 19 October) Parliament – 42nd Events January–April – Winter of 1963: The UK experiences the worst winter since 1946–47. Low temperatures keep snow lying around until early-April in some areas. 7 January – Granada Television first broadcasts World in Action, its influential investigative current affairs series, which will run for thirty-five years. 11 January – Musical film Summer Holiday starring Cliff Richard premieres in London. 16 January – The Macmillan-led Conservative government announces that a new town will be developed in Shropshire. Dawley New Town will incorporate existing communities including: Dawley, Ironbridge and Madeley, and is intended to be largely used as an overspill town for Birmingham and Wolverhampton. 18 January – The Labour Party leader, Hugh Gaitskell, dies suddenly aged 56 in London. 23 January – Double agent Kim Philby disappears from Beirut having defected to the Soviet Union. 29 January – Charles de Gaulle, President of France, vetoes the UK's entry into the European Economic Community. February – The Royal Air Force deploys Blue Steel nuclear standoff missiles to arm its V bomber force. 11 February – The Beatles record their debut album Please Please Me in a single day at the Abbey Road Studios in London. 14 February – The Labour Party elects 46-year-old Huyton MP, Harold Wilson as its new leader and Leader of the Opposition. Missing out in the leadership contest is Cardiff South East MP James Callaghan. Opinion polls are currently showing strong support for the Labour Party, with a general election due before the end of next year. 16 February – Opinion polls indicate that in a general election Labour would defeat the Conservatives, who have governed since 1951. March – The divorce case of the Duke and Duchess of Argyll takes place. 15 March – Ridge v. Baldwin, a landmark case in the law of judicial review, is decided on appeal: a public official is held to be wrongfully dismissed because he had no notice of the grounds on which the decision was made, and no opportunity to be heard in his own defence. 22 March – The Beatles release their debut album, Please Please Me. 27 March – Chairman of British Railways Dr. Richard Beeching issues a report calling for huge cuts to the UK's rail network. This is expected to result in the closure of more than 2,000 railway stations as well as the loss of up to 68,000 jobs and the scrapping of some 8,000 coaches. c. April – Engineering Building at the University of Leicester is completed, the first major work by James Stirling with James Gowan, and a leading example of Brutalist architecture. 6 April – Polaris Sales Agreement with the United States, leading to commencement of construction of nuclear submarine facilities at Faslane Naval Base. 9 April – Sir Winston Churchill becomes an honorary citizen of the United States. 15 April – 70,000 protesters arrive in London, having marched 50 miles (80 km) from Aldermaston to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. 24 April – Princess Alexandra of Kent marries the Hon. Angus Ogilvy at Westminster Abbey. 2 May The Beatles reach #1 in the UK Singles chart for the first time with "From Me to You". The Rootes Group's new car plant at the town of Linwood, Renfrewshire is opened by The Duke of Edinburgh for the production of its new rear-engined mini-car – the Hillman Imp – to compete against BMC's Mini. It has an economical 875cc engine, and is expected to be developed into luxury Singer and sporty Sunbeam variants in the near future. It is the first new car to be produced in Scotland for thirty years. 7–13 May – The last servicemen are released from conscription as National Service ends. 11 May The Beatles album Please Please Me goes to the top of the UK Albums Chart. Everton F.C. win the Football League First Division title. 15 May – Tottenham Hotspur become the first British football team to win a European trophy when a 5–1 win over Atlético Madrid in Rotterdam gives them the European Cup Winners' Cup. 25 May – Manchester United F.C. beat Leicester City 3–1 in the FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium with two goals from David Herd and another from Denis Law. It is Manchester United's first major trophy since eight of their players died in the Munich air disaster five years earlier. 4 June – The high society nightclub Annabel's opens at 44 Berkeley Square, Mayfair. 5 June – Profumo affair: John Profumo, Secretary of State for War, admits to misleading Parliament and resigns over his affair with Christine Keeler. 8 June – Profumo affair: Stephen Ward is charged with living on immoral earnings. 17 June – The Profumo affair has done the Conservative government no favours in the opinion polls, which continue to show that a Labour victory would be inevitable at a general election. 1 July – Kim Philby named as the "Third Man" in the Burgess and Maclean spy ring. 12 July – Pauline Reade, 16, is reported missing on her way to a dance in Gorton, Manchester, the first victim of the Moors murders. 31 July – Water Resources Act provides for the regulation of water abstraction, principally through the establishment of regional river authorities. August – Race riots in Dudley. 5 August – The United States, United Kingdom and Soviet Union sign a nuclear test ban treaty. 8 August – The Great Train Robbery takes place in Buckinghamshire. 20 August – The Royal Shakespeare Company introduces its performance cycle of Shakespeare's history plays under the title The War of the Roses, adapted and directed by John Barton and Peter Hall, at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon. September First Leeds International Piano Competition: Michael Roll is the winner. The Sindy fashion doll is first marketed by Pedigree. 5 September – Christine Keeler is arrested for perjury. On 6 December, she is sentenced to nine months in prison. 7 September – Geophysicists Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews publish proof of seafloor spreading on the Atlantic Ocean floor. 12 September – The Beatles reach #1 for the second time, with the single "She Loves You" (released on 23 August). 17 September – RAF Fylingdales radar station on the North York Moors begins operation as part of the United States Ballistic Missile Early Warning System. 18 September – Rioters burn down the British Embassy in Jakarta to protest against the formation of Malaysia. 23 September – The Robbins Report (the report of the Committee on Higher Education, chaired by Lord Robbins) is published. It recommends immediate expansion of universities, and that university places "should be available to all who were qualified for them by ability and attainment". Its conclusions are accepted by the government on 24 October. 25 September – The Denning Report on the Profumo affair is published. 26 September – Vauxhall launches the new Viva, a small family saloon, similar in size to BMC's 1100 and the Ford Anglia. 29 September The University of East Anglia opens in Norwich. Release of the film Tom Jones. 2 October – Ford Motor Company begins production of its Ford Anglia car at their new Halewood Body & Assembly plant on Merseyside. 10 October Prime Minister Harold Macmillan announces his resignation after nearly seven years in office, at the age of 69, on the grounds of ill health. From Russia with Love, the second James Bond film, premieres at Odeon Leicester Square in London. 17 October – Two British scientists (Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Fielding Huxley) and an Australian (John Carew Eccles) are announced in Stockholm as winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane". 18 October – Macmillan resigns as Prime Minister. 19 October – Alec Douglas-Home replaces Macmillan as Prime Minister following discussion among members of the Cabinet, renouncing his peerage. 22 October – The National Theatre Company, newly formed under artistic director Laurence Olivier, gives its first performance, with Peter O'Toole as Hamlet. November – Publication of Traffic in Towns, a report on urban transport planning policy produced for the Department of Transport by a team headed by Colin Buchanan. 18 November – The Dartford Tunnel opens. 22 November – C. S. Lewis, the author most famous for the Narnia books (1950–1955), dies aged 65 in Oxford. However, media coverage of his death (as also that of Aldous Huxley in the United States on the same day) is overshadowed by the assassination of American President John F. Kennedy, news of which reaches the UK just after 18:30 UTC. 23 November First episode of the BBC Television science fiction series Doctor Who is broadcast with William Hartnell as the First Doctor. The series runs until 1989 and is revived from 2005. Police in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, begin a missing persons investigation following the disappearance of 12-year-old John Kilbride; he is the second victim of the Moors murders. 25 November – The Duke of Edinburgh, Prime Minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home and Leader of the Opposition Harold Wilson attend the funeral of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in Washington, D.C. 30 November – After an unbroken 30-week spell at the top of the UK Albums Chart, The Beatles album Please Please Me is knocked off the top of the charts by the group's latest album With the Beatles (released on 22 November). 12 December Kenya gains independence from the United Kingdom, with Jomo Kenyatta as Prime Minister. The Beatles reach #1 for the third time with "I Want to Hold Your Hand" (released on 29 November). 19 December – Zanzibar gains independence from the United Kingdom, as a constitutional monarchy under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. 21 December – First episode of the seven-part serial The Daleks broadcast in the Doctor Who series, introducing the alien Daleks (revealed fully in the following week's episode). Undated BMC's new Rover P6 luxury saloon is the first winner of the prestigious European Car of the Year award. S. Hille & Co market the Polypropylene stacking chair designed by Robin Day. The launch of the Astro or lava lamp by the founder of Mathmos, Edward Craven-Walker. The motorway network continues to grow with the opening of the first section of the M4 in Berkshire, the M6 between Warrington and Preston in Lancashire, and the M2 in Kent. Economic growth for the year reaches a postwar high of 7.5% (slightly above the previous record of 7.2% in 1959), with GDP reaching 4.3% in the second quarter of the year. Publications Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot novel The Clocks. Margaret Drabble's first novel A Summer Bird Cage. Ian Fleming's James Bond novel On Her Majesty's Secret Service. John Fowles' novel The Collector. The Group's poetry collection A Group Anthology edited by Edward Lucie-Smith and Philip Hobsbaum. John le Carré's novel The Spy Who Came in From the Cold. Alistair MacLean's thriller Ice Station Zebra. Sylvia Plath's only novel The Bell Jar (under the pseudonym Victoria Lucas). John Robinson (bishop of Woolwich)'s controversial religious book Honest to God. C. P. Snow's novel Corridors of Power. E. P. Thompson's social history The Making of the English Working Class. The Sunday Pictorial newspaper is rebranded as the Sunday Mirror. Births January – April 1 January – Linda Henry, actress 3 January – Matthew Taylor, Liberal Democrat politician and MP for Truro and St Austell 6 January – Ian Lavery, English trade unionist and politician 11 January – Jason Connery, actor, voice actor and director 15 January – Conrad Lant, English singer-songwriter and bass player 16 January – James May, English motoring journalist and television 18 January – Ian Crook, English footballer 19 January Martin Bashir, British television journalist Caron Wheeler, British singer-songwriter (Soul II Soul) John Bercow, English Conservative politician, MP for Buckingham and Speaker of the House of Commons 22 January – Huw Irranca-Davies, Welsh Labour politician and MP for Ogmore 26 January Jazzie B, DJ and music producer (Soul II Soul) Andrew Ridgeley, English musician 27 January – George Monbiot, British journalist and weekly columnist for The Guardian 2 February – Stephen McGann, actor, author and science communicator 6 February – Quentin Letts, journalist 10 February – Philip Glenister, actor 13 February – John King, English long jumper 17 February – Alison Hargreaves, British mountain climber (died 1995) 19 February – Seal, singer 22 February – Andrew Adonis, Baron Adonis, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport 7 March – Russell Williams, British-born Canadian military colonel and serial killer 11 March – Alex Kingston, English actress 12 March – Ian Holloway, English football player and manager 14 March – Michael John Foster, English Labour politician and MP for Worcester 16 March – Jerome Flynn, British actor 20 March – David Thewlis, English actor 22 March Deborah Bull, British dancer and life peer Susan Ann Sulley, British musician 3 April – Karl Beattie, director, husband of Yvette Fielding 4 April – Martin Firrell, public artist and activist 6 April – Andrew Weatherall, English disc jockey (died 2020) 7 April – Nick Herbert, Conservative politician and MP for Arundel and South Downs 8 April – Julian Lennon, musician son of John Lennon 11 April - Mark Thomas, comedian and activist 13 April – Mo Johnston, Scottish footballer 22 April – Sean Lock, comedian and actor (died 2021) 25 April – David Moyes, Scottish football player and manager 27 April – Russell T Davies, Welsh screenwriter and television producer May – August 9 May Barry Douglas Lamb, musician, author and preacher Richard Moore, diplomat 10 May – Debbie Wiseman, composer 11 May – Natasha Richardson, actress (died 2009) 15 May – Inga Beale, insurance executive 26 May – Simon Armitage, poet laureate 6 June Jason Isaacs, actor James Palumbo, Baron Palumbo of Southwark, businessman and politician 11 June – Andy Street, businessman and metropolitan mayor 13 June – Sarah Connolly, operatic mezzo-soprano 18 June – Adam Hargreaves, children’s author 23 June – Colin Montgomerie, Scottish golfer 25 June – George Michael, pop singer (died 2016) 27 June – Meera Syal, comedian, writer, singer and actress 29 June Tom Butcher, actor Errol Christie, boxer (died 2017) 1 July – Mike Joyce, drummer Kenneth Erskine, serial killer 2 July – Mark Kermode, film critic 3 July – Tracey Emin, artist 6 July – Stuart Garrard, English guitarist 7 July – Alister Jack, politician 9 July Adrian Flook, politician John Mark Ainsley, English lyric tenor 20 July – John Simmit, actor and stand-up comedian 25 July – Julian Hodgson, English chess grandmaster 29 July – Graham Poll, English football referee 31 July Fatboy Slim (born Quentin Leo Cook), English musician Fergus Henderson, English chef 1 August Laura Janner-Klausner, Reform rabbi Amber Rudd, politician 3 August – Tasmin Archer, English singer 5 August – Mark Strong, actor 15 August – Simon Hart, politician 30 August Phil Mills, race car driver Paul Oakenfold, disc jockey Mark Strong, actor September – December 3 September – Malcolm Gladwell, writer 19 September Jarvis Cocker, English musician (Pulp) David Seaman, English footballer 26 September – Lysette Anthony, English actress 5 October – Nick Robinson, journalist 12 October Dave Legeno, English actor and mixed martial artist (died 2014) Alan McDonald, Northern Irish footballer 31 October Sanjeev Bhaskar, comic actor Sarah Brown, wife of Gordon Brown Johnny Marr, English musician 1 November Rick Allen, British musician (Def Leppard) Mark Hughes, Welsh footballer and football manager 3 November – Ian Wright, English footballer and radio/TV personality 4 November – Lena Zavaroni, Scottish entertainer (died 1999) 5 November – Jo Malone, perfumer and businesswoman 10 November – Hugh Bonneville, English actor 14 November – Keith Curle, English footballer, football manager and football coach 15 November – Andrew Castle, English tennis player and broadcaster 19 November – Jon Potter, British field hockey player 20 November – William Timothy Gowers, British mathematician 21 November – Nicollette Sheridan, English actress 26 November – Joe Lydon, English rugby league footballer of the 1980s and 1990s, rugby union coach of the 2000s and 2010s 5 December – Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards, English ski jumper 7 December – Mark Bowen, Welsh footballer 8 December – Brian McClair, Scottish footballer and football coach 22 December Bryan Gunn, Scottish footballer and football coach Russell Lewis, television writer and former child actor 24 December – Caroline Aherne, comic television actress/writer (died 2016) 29 December – Dave McKean, English artist and filmmaker Deaths 15 January – Morgan Phillips, general secretary of the Labour Party (born 1902) 18 January Hugh Gaitskell, leader of the Labour Party (born 1906) Edward Charles Titchmarsh, mathematician (born 1899) 22 January – Lily Montagu, pioneer of reform Judaism (born 1873) 30 January – Cecil McGivern, broadcasting executive and writer (born 1907) 11 February – Sylvia Plath, American poet and writer, suicide (born 1932) 5 March – Cyril Smith, Scottish actor, heart attack (born 1892) 16 March – William Beveridge, economist and social reformer (born 1879) 18 March – Sir Hubert Gough, general (born 1870) 31 March – Sir Harold Franklyn, general (born 1885) 25 April – Christopher Hassall, actor, dramatist, librettist, lyricist and poet (born 1912) 26 April – Roland Pertwee, playwright, screenwriter, director and actor (born 1885) 7 May – Max Miller, music hall comedian (born 1894) 29 May – Netta Muskett, novelist (born 1887) 12 June – Andrew Cunningham, admiral (born 1883) 17 June Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, field marshal (born 1883) John Cowper Powys, novelist, lecturer and philosopher (born 1872) 4 July – Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg, general and Governor-General of New Zealand (born 1889) 10 July – Teddy Wakelam, sports broadcaster and rugby union player (born 1893) 16 August – Joan Eardley, painter (born 1921) 22 August – William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, founder of Morris Motors and philanthropist (born 1877) 30 August – Guy Burgess, spy, one of the Cambridge Five, in Moscow (born 1911) 3 September – Louis MacNeice, poet and playwright (born 1907) 20 September – Peter Craven, English motorcycle racer, in racing accident (born 1934) 22 November Aldous Huxley, novelist (born 1894) C.S. Lewis, Irish-born British writer (born 1898) 30 November – Cyril Newall, 1st Baron Newall, air marshal and Governor-General of New Zealand (born 1886) 21 December – Jack Hobbs, cricketer (born 1882) December – Andy Kennedy, Northern Irish footballer (born 1897) See also 1963 in British music 1963 in British television List of British films of 1963 References Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom 1963 by country 1960s in the United Kingdom 1963 in Europe
5339733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	1964 in the United Kingdom	Events from the year 1964 in the United Kingdom. Incumbents Monarch – Elizabeth II Prime Minister - Alec Douglas-Home (Conservative) (until 16 October), Harold Wilson (Labour) (starting 16 October) Parliament 42nd (until 25 September) 43rd (starting 27 October) Events 1 January – Top of the Pops first airs on BBC TV. 11 January – teen girls' magazine Jackie first published. 20 January – eleven men go on trial at Buckinghamshire Assizes in Aylesbury charged in connection with the Great Train Robbery five months ago. 21 January – Government figures show that the average weekly wage is £16. 22 January – film Zulu released. 28 January – families from Springtown Camp make a silent march through Derry, Northern Ireland, to demand rehousing. 29 January–9 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria, and win one gold medal. 6 February – the British and French governments agree a deal for the construction of a Channel Tunnel. The twin-tunneled rail link is expected to take five years to build. 11 February – Southampton is granted city status, the first such designation of the current reign. 19 February – actor Peter Sellers marries actress Britt Ekland. 21 February – £10 banknotes are issued for the first time since the Second World War. 9 March – London Fisheries Convention signed. 10 March – the Queen gives birth to her fourth child and third son, whose name is registered on 20 April as Edward. 19 March Power dispute talks break down and it is feared that supply disruptions will follow industrial action. The government announces plans to build three new towns in South East England to act as overspill for overpopulated London. One of these is centred on the village of Milton Keynes in north Buckinghamshire. 26 March – verdicts are passed on ten men for their role in the Great Train Robbery after one of the longest criminal trials and longest jury retirals in English legal history. 28 March – "pirate" radio station Radio Caroline begins regular broadcasting from a ship anchored just outside UK territorial waters off Felixstowe. 29 March – first purpose-built gurdwara in Britain opens, the Guru Gobind Singh Ji Gurdwara in Bradford. 30 March – violent disturbances between Mods and Rockers at Clacton beach. 31 March – Minister of Labour Joseph Godber appoints Lord Justice Pearson to chair a court of inquiry into the power dispute. 1 April – the Ministry of Defence takes over the duties of the War Office, Admiralty and Air Ministry, which cease to exist. The title of Lord High Admiral is re-vested in the Monarch. The Ministry of Education and Ministry of Science merge to form the Department of Education and Science. 9 April – Labour wins the first elections to the Greater London Council. 10 April – Runcorn, a small town in north Cheshire, is designated as a new town by Alec Douglas-Home's government. Extensive house building and industrial and commercial developments are predicted to inflate the town's population to around 70,000 by 1981. 11 April – the National Trust reopens the southern section of the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal, the first major restoration of a canal for leisure use. 16 April – sentence is passed on eleven men for their role in the Great Train Robbery, seven receiving 30 years each. 18 April – Liverpool win the Football League First Division for the sixth time in their history. 20 April – the scheduled opening night of BBC Two, the UK's third television channel, is disrupted by power cuts in London, and all that can be screened is announcer Gerald Priestland delivering apologies from Alexandra Palace. On the same day, the BBC Television Service is renamed BBC One. 21 April – BBC Two begins scheduled broadcasting; its first programme is Play School. 29 April – all schools in Aberdeen are closed following 136 cases of typhoid being reported. 1 May – Princess Margaret gives birth to a baby girl. 2 May West Ham United win the FA Cup for the first time in their history, beating Preston North End 3–2 at Wembley Stadium. The Queen and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh's seven-week-old son is christened Edward Antony Richard Louis – later he is created Earl of Wessex and Duke of Edinburgh. 5 May – Granada Television broadcasts the first in what will become a series of documentary interviews with a generation of children, Seven Up! 6 May – Joe Orton's black comedy Entertaining Mr Sloane premieres at the New Arts Theatre in London. 11 May – Terence Conran opens the first Habitat store on London's Fulham Road. 12 May – "pirate" radio station Radio Atlanta begins broadcasting from anchored off Frinton-on-Sea; in July its operations are merged with Radio Caroline. 15 May – Lord Justice Pearson reports on the power dispute. 16–18 May – violent disturbances between Mods and Rockers at Brighton. 27 May – "pirate" radio station Radio Sutch begins broadcasting from Shivering Sands Army Fort in the Thames Estuary. 29 May – official opening of the UK's first undercover shopping centre, at the Bull Ring, Birmingham. 17 June – a missing persons investigation is launched in Fallowfield, Manchester, as police search for 12-year-old Keith Bennett, who was last seen on his way to his grandmother's house yesterday evening; he is a victim of the Moors murders. July Resale Prices Act ends most resale price maintenance. Helen Brook sets up the first Brook Advisory Centre offering teenage contraception and sexual health advice. 6 July Malawi gains its independence. The Beatles' first film, A Hard Day's Night, is released. 10 July – more than 300 people are injured in Liverpool when a crowd of some 150,000 people welcome the Beatles back to their home city. 15 July – the Post Office Tower in London is completed, although it does not begin operation until October 1965. 27 July – former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill is present in the House of Commons for the last time at the age of 89, having been an MP for 63 of the last 65 years; the following day he receives a Parliamentary resolution recording his service to the House and nation and marking his retirement. 4 August The first portable televisions go on sale. Release of London group The Kinks' successful single You Really Got Me, written by Ray Davies. 13 August – Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, are hanged for the murder of John Alan West on 7 April, the last executions to take place in the British Isles. 22 August – the first Match of the Day airs on BBC Two television. September – the British Motor Corporation launches the BMC ADO17 family saloon car, initially as the Austin 1800; this again wins BMC the European Car of the Year award, in its second year. 4 September – the Forth Road Bridge opens over the Firth of Forth, linking Fife and Edinburgh. 14 September – the final edition of the left-wing Daily Herald newspaper is published. 15 September The Sun newspaper goes into circulation, replacing the Daily Herald. Sir Alec Douglas-Home calls a general election for 15 October. 17 September – Goldfinger, the third James Bond film, premieres at Odeon Leicester Square in London. 20 September – at the autumnal equinox, the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD) is founded in England, as the equivalent of Wales's Gorsedd of Bards. 21 September – Malta obtains independence from the UK. 29 September – announcement that American car manufacturer Chrysler is taking a substantial share in the British Rootes Group combine, which includes the Hillman, Singer and Sunbeam marques. October – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (the first British woman to win a Nobel) "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances". 10–24 October – Great Britain competes at the Olympics in Tokyo and wins 4 gold, 12 silver and 2 bronze medals. 15 October – 1964 United Kingdom general election. The Labour Party defeats the Conservatives and Harold Wilson becomes Prime Minister, having gained a majority of five seats. The election result spells the end of 13 years of Conservative government, although the Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home had entered office only 12 months ago. A surprise casualty as MP is Patrick Gordon Walker who was widely expected to become the Foreign Secretary in a future Labour government, but who loses his Smethwick seat to the Conservatives following a controversial racially motivated campaign by the opposing party's supporters. 17 October – Harold Wilson's cabinet is announced; it includes James Callaghan (who missed out on the Labour leadership in February 1963), Denis Healey, Barbara Castle and Roy Jenkins. Jim Griffiths becomes the first Secretary of State for Wales. 18 October – Wilson creates the Welsh Office. 24 October – Northern Rhodesia, a former British protectorate, becomes the independent Republic of Zambia, ending 73 years of British rule. 2 November – ITV soap opera Crossroads airs for the first time. 9 November – House of Commons votes to abolish the death penalty for murder in Britain. The last execution took place in August and the death penalty is set to be officially abolished before the end of next year, with the number of executions having gradually fallen during the last decade. 27 November – power unions announce that they will start balloting for a strike. 30 November – power dispute settled and strike action called off. 16 December – Government, Trades Union Congress and employers produce a joint Statement of Intent on Productivity, Prices and Incomes. 21 December – MPs vote 355 to 170 for the abolition of the death penalty, with the abolition likely to be confirmed before the end of next year. The death penalty has gradually fallen out of use over the last twenty years, with the two most recent executions having taken place in August this year. 23 December Richard Beeching announces his intention to resign as Chairman of the British Railways Board after three-and-a-half years, during which he proposed the closure of many smaller and financially non-viable railway lines as well as many passenger services on surviving lines. "Pirate" radio station Wonderful Radio London begins broadcasting from MV Galaxy anchored off Frinton-on-Sea, with a Fab 40 playlist of popular records. 24 December – The Beatles gain the Christmas number one for the second year running with "I Feel Fine", which has topped the singles charts for the third week running. The Beatles have now had six number one singles in the United Kingdom alone. 26 December – police launch a missing persons investigation after ten-year-old Lesley Ann Downey goes missing from a fairground near her home in Ancoats, Manchester; she is a victim of the Moors murders. 31 December – Donald Campbell sets the world speed record on water at 276.33 mph on Dumbleyung Lake in Australia. Undated Hanson Trust set up by James Hanson and Gordon White to purchase underperforming companies and turn them around. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies established at the University of Birmingham by Richard Hoggart. Daihatsu becomes the first Japanese carmaker to import passenger cars to the United Kingdom, launching its Compagno on the British market. Some 90% of British households now own a television, compared to around 25% in 1953 and 65% in 1959. Publications Agatha Christie's Miss Marple novel A Caribbean Mystery. J. W. B. Douglas's cohort study The Home and the School: a study of ability and attainment in the primary school. Ian Fleming's James Bond novel You Only Live Twice and his children's novel Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang (the latter posthumously). William Golding's novel The Spire. Philip Larkin's poetry collection The Whitsun Weddings. Ruth Rendell's first novel From Doon with Death. The research study London: aspects of change, introducing Ruth Glass's concept of gentrification. Births 8 January – Marc Quinn, sculptor 14 January – Mark Addy, actor 17 January – Andy Rourke, musician (d. 2023) 18 January Richard Dunwoody, jockey Jane Horrocks, actress 29 January – John Anthony Gallagher, English-New Zealand rugby player 5 February – Martha Fiennes, film director 7 February – Ray Mears, woodman and television presenter 9 February – Mark Carleton-Smith, soldier, Chief of the General Staff 16 February – Christopher Eccleston, actor 18 February – Tommy Scott, British musician and frontman of Space 22 February – Diane Charlemagne, singer (52nd Street, Urban Cookie Collective) (died 2015) 25 February – Lee Evans, comedian and actor 29 February – James Ogilvy, son of Princess Alexandra, the Honourable Lady Ogilvy and Sir Angus Ogilvy 10 March – Prince Edward (later Earl of Wessex and Duke of Edinburgh), youngest son of the Queen 11 March Emma Chambers, actress (d. 2018) Shane Richie, actor 17 March – Lee Dixon, English footballer 18 March – Courtney Pine, jazz saxophonist 19 March – Jake Weber, actor 27 March – Clive Rowe, actor 26 March – Martin Donnelly, Northern Irish racing driver 27 March – Clive Rowe, actor 28 March – Karen Lumley, politician (d. 2023) 3 April – Nigel Farage, United Kingdom Independence Party leader and MEP for South East England 4 April – Paul Parker, footballer 9 April – Dan Pearson, landscape designer 13 April Andy Goram, Scottish footballer (d. 2022) John Swinney, Scottish politician 18 April – Niall Ferguson, Scottish historian 20 April – Andy Serkis, English film actor 25 April – Andy Bell, singer-songwriter (band Erasure) 28 April – Lady Helen Taylor, daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Kent 1 May – Lady Sarah Chatto, daughter of Antony Armstrong-Jones and Princess Margaret 6 May – Diane Holl, engineer 8 May – Dave Rowntree, drummer (Blur) 11 May – John Parrott, snooker player and broadcaster 15 May – Jill McDonald, businesswoman 20 May Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer, aristocrat, author, print journalist and broadcaster, younger brother of Diana, Princess of Wales Mike Gregory, English rugby player and coach (d. 2007) 21 May – Danny Bailey, English footballer 24 May – Adrian Moorhouse, swimmer 30 May – Mark Sheppard, British-American actor and musician 10 June – Ben Daniels, actor 13 June – Kathy Burke, actress and comedian 14 June – Peter Gilliver, lexicographer and academic 19 June – Boris Johnson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2019 to 2022 21 June Sammi Davis, actress Tania Mathias, ophthalmologist and Conservative Party politician David Morrissey, actor, director, producer and screenwriter Keith Stevens, English footballer 22 June Paterson Joseph, actor John Penrose, politician, Minister for Tourism and Heritage 23 June – Jane Garvey, radio presenter 24 June Hamish Harding, businessman, pilot and explorer (d. 2023) Christopher Steele, intelligence officer 25 June – Johnny Herbert, racing driver and commentator 3 July – Joanne Harris, novelist 7 July – Rob Newman, comedian, actor and author 11 July – Craig Charles, actor, comedian and broadcaster 12 July – Gaby Roslin, TV presenter 14 July – Matt Pritchett, pocket cartoonist 17 July – Andy Abraham, singer 21 July – Ross Kemp, actor 22 July – Bonnie Langford, actress and entertainer 23 July Dom Phillips, journalist (d. 2022) Matilda Ziegler, actress 3 August – Ralph Knibbs, rugby union player 16 August – Barry Venison, English footballer and journalist 20 August – Flaminia Cinque, actress 22 August – Diane Setterfield, novelist and educator 25 August – Clive Myrie, journalist and television presenter 26 August – Allegra Huston, English-American author 1 September Sue Carr, judge Gary Mavers, actor Nigel Rhodes, actor and guitarist 8 September – Peter Murrell, Scottish politician 10 September – Edmund de Waal, potter and writer 19 September – Simon Singh, popular science author 23 September – Clayton Blackmore, footballer 30 September – Ian McCall, Scottish footballer and manager 1 October – Harry Hill, comedian, writer and actor 3 October – Clive Owen, English actor 7 October – Paul Stewart, English footballer 8 October – Martin Marquez, English actor 10 October – Sarah Lancashire, English actress 17 October – Gregg Wallace, English broadcaster 21 October – Mark Sedwill, Cabinet Secretary 22 October Mick Hill, English javelin thrower and coach Craig Levein, Scottish footballer Paul McStay, Scottish footballer 24 October Grant Gee, film maker, photographer and cinematographer Paul Vigay, computer programmer (died 2009) 28 October – Andrew Bridgen, politician 29 October – Yasmin Le Bon, model 7 November – Philip Hollobone, Conservative politician and MP for Kettering 19 November Susie Dent, lexicographer Nicholas Patrick, astronaut 21 November Sean Foley, director, writer, comedian and actor Liza Tarbuck, actress and broadcaster 24 November – Alistair McGowan, actor and comedian 26 November – Gary Love, actor and film director 7 December – Hugo Blick, filmmaker 18 December – Robson Green, actor and television presenter 21 December – Rob Kelly, footballer and manager 25 December – Gary McAllister, Scottish footballer, manager and coach 30 December – Sophie Ward, actress Undated Gillian Reid, Scottish-born chemist Nitin Sawhney, British Indian musician, producer and composer Deaths 7 January – Cyril Davies, blues musician (born 1932) 9 January – Hubert Phillips, economist, journalist, bridge player and composer of puzzles (born 1891) 17 January – T. H. White, novelist (born 1906) 20 February – Verena Holmes, mechanical engineer and inventor (born 1889) 22 February – Verrier Elwin, anthropologist and missionary (born 1902) 26 February – F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas, World War II hero (born 1901) 21 March – Nancy Spain (born 1917) and Joan Werner Laurie (born 1920), journalists, in the crash of a light plane near Aintree 9 June – Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook, Canadian-British business tycoon, politician and writer (born 1879) 27 June – Mona Barrie, English actress (born 1909) 21 July – John White, footballer (born 1937) 12 August – Ian Fleming, author and journalist (born 1908) 31 August – Peter Lanyon, painter (born 1918) 9 September – Sir George Abercromby, 8th Baronet (born 1886) 18 September – Clive Bell, art critic (born 1881) 2 November – Charles Walter Allfrey, general (born 1895) 5 November – Mabel Lucie Attwell, illustrator (born 1879) 1 December – J. B. S. Haldane, geneticist (born 1892) 8 December – Simon Marks, 1st Baron Marks of Broughton, businessman (born 1888) 9 December – Edith Sitwell, poet (born 1887) 21 December – Algernon Kingscote, tennis champion (born 1888) 24 December – Claudia Jones, black activist (born 1915) See also 1964 in British music 1964 in British television List of British films of 1964 References Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom 1964 by country 1960s in the United Kingdom 1964 in Europe
5339888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeSourdsville%20Lake%20Amusement%20Park	LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park	LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park was an amusement park located in Monroe, Ohio. Founded by Edgar Streifthau, the park originally opened in 1922 as a family picnic destination with swimming amenities. Throughout the 1940s, LeSourdsville Lake transformed into an amusement park with the addition of rides, attractions, and an arcade. The park was sold in 1961, and following heavy competition from nearby Kings Island, it was rebranded Americana Amusement Park in 1978. An electrical fire in 1990 caused over $5 million in damages and led to bankruptcy. The park continued to operate under several different owners before eventually closing in 1999. Americana briefly reopened in 2002 under the original name LeSourdsville Lake, but the effort by new owner Jerry Couch was short-lived as the park failed to turn a profit. Remaining rides and attractions were either sold or later demolished. In 2017, the city of Monroe received a portion of the land to build a city park and regional bicycle trail, and another portion was sold to a local vocational school seeking to build a new campus location. History Edgar Streifthau of Middletown, Ohio, opened LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park on May 8, 1922. Streifthau purchased a plot of land that formerly housed an ice manufacturing facility in the tiny village of LeSourdsville, and construction began in 1921. Streifthau and his business partner, Bill Rothfuss, built a bathhouse, a restaurant, dance hall and a bridge crossing the abandoned Miami-Erie Canal that passed through the property. They also constructed a concrete bottom in the man-made lake for swimming. Streifthau constructed the first of several "vacation" cabins surrounding the lake and platforms for camping tents. Streifthau's brother, Ernest, joined as a partner as Bill Rothfuss focused on his career at nearby ARMCO Steel (later known as AK Steel). 1930s Despite the onset of The Great Depression, Streifthau continued to expand the park's offerings. He expanded the bathhouse, installed a new parking lot, built the park's first office building, and imported over 1,000 tons of white sand for the beach. Admission prices, food prices and employee wages were cut. Just before the park was to open for the 1934 season, an accidental fire destroyed the bathhouse. Streifthau was desperate to rebuild a new bathhouse before the park opened in May. He went to the Middletown Lumber Company and solicited the assistance of a personable and talented draftsman, Don Dazey. On May 30, the park opened with a new bathhouse. Dazey convinced Streifthau that dances could be successful without the fighting and melee that plagued the park in earlier years. Dazey constructed Stardust Gardens next door to the bathhouse. Bands such as Ray McKinley, Glenn Miller, the Dorsey Brothers and Stan Kenton graced the rich, maple wood floor to the delight of thousands of customers. Dazey also solicited area companies to hold their picnics at the park and began an important tradition that continued until the park closed. Streifthau also added two toboggan water slides, a waterwheel, seven diving boards, and a high platform for diving. In 1939, Streifthau purchased a 1927 John Miller wooden coaster from Moxahalia Amusement Park in Zanesville, Ohio for $35,000. The coaster was rebuilt and named "The Cyclone." 1940s The 1940s represented an important decade for LeSourdsville Lake. The park became the "Miami Valley's Chosen Playground" and became the hottest entertainment spot during the summer months. In 1941, the park added The Whip and a Ferris wheel to its thrill ride line-up. Bands appearing in the Stardust Gardens Ballroom included Eddie Kadle, Earl Holderman, Gene Roberts, Mary Marshall, Little Joe Hart, Eugene Jelesnick, Billy Snyder, Tommy Flynn, Billy Yates, Jimmy Scriber and Emerson Gill. The following summer, Carl Taylor, Lloyd Labrie and Michael Mehas joined the Stardust Gardens headliners. Streifthau also built a new front entrance and added a section of new midway near the entrance to The Cyclone. After World War II, LeSourdsville Lake continued to grow and prosper. In 1947, two stream-lined trains were added to The Cyclone and a kiddie racing car ride was installed. On July 4, the park celebrated its largest one-day turnout in its history when 30,168 came through the front gate. Big bands popular in 1947 included, Barney Rapp, Jimmy Miller, Ches Walker, Les Shepard, Harold Greenanyer, Del Mason, Whitey Howard, Karl Taylor and Johnny Doom. Major improvements were visible as LeSourdsville Lake opened its 1949 season. New rides for 1949 included a Rock-O-Plane. A state-of-the-art masonry building was constructed next to The Cyclone entrance. New rides and attractions included the Fun Parade, and a penny arcade. Big bands making appearances included Sammy Leeds, Whitey Howard, Tommy Robbins, Al Cassidy, Karl Taylor, Leo Pieper, Skitch Henderson, Jimmy James and Earl Holderman. 1950s The 1950s ushered in some changes for LeSourdsville Lake as the park's image began to decline from its peak the previous decade. Big bands that once graced the Stardust Gardens Ballroom throughout the week were now featured on weekends only. Streifthau renovated the bathhouse to accommodate the large number of swimmers the park serviced each year. The brick addition to the bathhouse also "provided a fire resistive baring at an amusement park. New rides for 1951 included a Tilt-A-Whirl. By 1954, Streifthau was manufacturing his own line of turnpike cars in a partnership with Oxford, Ohio resident Frank Dodd. Kiddieland saw five new rides added, including a new steel coaster called the Jack Rabbit. In 1956, the Turnpike ride was built next to the Screechin' Eagle (formerly The Cyclone) roller coaster. Streifthau and Dazey realized that more had to be done to modernize LeSourdsville Lake. Disneyland opened in 1955 to such rave reviews from the public that they expected other parks to become just as modern and clean. At Cedar Point, a multimillion-dollar renovation was under way by 1957 in an attempt to become the "Disneyland of the Midwest." Streifthau decided to take out a loan and initiate a multi-year improvement plan. In 1957, a stone tower and fountain were constructed at the main entrance. Streifthau was ready to enter 1959 with a new vision. However, Dazey died in June 1959 of cancer. A local bank required Streifthau to immediately pay off the outstanding loan and he was forced to sell. He still owned 20 acres of land adjoining the park and he created a new, smaller theme park called Fantasy Farm. 1960s The 1960s ushered in a prosperity for the 40-year-old park. Former Cedar Point concessionaires Howard Berni and Frank Murru were successful in their purchase of the park for $550,000. They took over in 1961 and quickly continued the renovation effort that stopped prematurely when Dazey died. The WING radio Lesourdsville Lake WING FLING featured on air personalities, Lou Swanson, Rod Williams, Jim Smith and a famous sign off by Gene By Golly Barry. A Wild Mouse roller coaster was the newest ride to greet visitors for the 1961 season. In addition, an 18-hole miniature golf course and a new Arcade building were built at the end of the midway next to the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster. The park also featured a native Hawaiian ornamental garden with hand carved Tiki and live palm trees. Unfortunately, the year was plagued by abnormal amount of rain which affected attendance. At the end of the season, the area's first "pay one price plan" was established. For $1.65 for adults and 75 cents for children customers could ride all day. In 1964, Middletown resident William "Bill" Barr became a partner in the park and contributed his creative ideas and endless energy to help make LeSourdsville Lake the favorite park for hundreds of thousands of patrons. Between 1962 and 1969, a number of attractions were added to the LeSourdsville Lake line-up, including a NAD train (called the Iron Horse), a remodeled Haunted House, a Trabant and a new theme area called Tombstone Territory. The big band names of Jack Huntlemen, Sammy Kaye, Buddy Rogers and Bobby Grayson were slowly replaced by regular appearances by WLW's Bob Braun, The Cool Ghoul from WXIX, WKRC's Glenn "Skipper" Ryle and a host of television stars, movie celebrities and music acts. 1970s By the mid-1970s, LeSourdsville Lake was drawing about 600,000 patrons annually. The opening of Kings Island amusement park just a few miles away in nearby Mason, Ohio in 1972 didn't dampen the spirits of Howard Berni. "We wish them luck," said Howard in an interview in the Cincinnati Enquirer. "The first year we may feel a pinch because the local people will be curious, but we don't anticipate it will be to the point where it will bother our business. On the other hand, if Kings Island brings in the tourist, we will benefit from the overflow. We aren't going to fade away. They have the worries, not us." In 1972 a new Calypso ride was installed, and named simply The Calypso. In 1975, Bill Barr retired to Italy, and park veteran William "Bill" Robinson took over some of duties left by Barr. Bill's knack for producing interesting promotions enabled the park to enjoy large crowds. Some of the more novel promotions developed by Bill included the 1976 designation as the country's only "Official" Bicentennial Amusement Park, the Coca-Cola/WSAI Radio Rock, Roll n' Remember concerts, and the Jell-O Jump, where contestants jumped into a huge barrel of gelatin to find the winning key to a new car. During the late 1970s, the park presented brief (15 minute) musical shows every day on the midway stage that advertised various park attractions. The shows featured the "Krazy Kritters" (people in whimsical animal costumes) and consisted of a pre-recorded narration that a “master of ceremonies” critter pretended to speak into a microphone. At particular points in the presentation, the tape machine was programmed to pause after the M.C. critter suggested that the band play a song. The band (also in costumes), whose characters were called Do, Rey, Me, and Fa would play a song. During the summers of 1977 and 1978, the band was a local Rock band called Septer. In 1978, the name of the park was changed to Americana Amusement Park - the Great American Amusement Park. Along with a name change came a $3.5 million, three-year renovation plan to help keep the park a viable alternative to Kings Island. New attractions included a 1200-seat tent featuring performances of the Hanneford Family Circus, a seven character animated band called the Bear Country Jubilee, and the Coca-Cola Great American Thrill Show theater. 1980s The recession in the early 1980s began affecting attendance at the park. As a result, gate admission was reduced from $6.95 to $5.50 in 1982. New attractions that year included a transformation of the Hanneford Circus tent into a platform for Bumper Buggys, a soft-core version of bumper cars. At the end of the 1982 Bill Robinson left the park and was replaced by industry veteran Lenny Gottstein. In May 1983, Food Services Director Frank Silvani died after a lengthy battle with cancer. The highlight of the decade was the addition of the Raging Thunder Log Flume in 1984. The attraction represented the largest investment in the park's 77-year history and helped boost the annual attendance over 500,000. The flume, designed by Ron Berni and built by Barr Engineering of Minnesota, was located in a former bird sanctuary in the old Tombstone Territory section of the park. The area was renamed Logger's Run after the flume was added. In 1985, the park auctioned off the horses from its 1924 PTC #71 carousel. Although some fans were disappointed about the sale, the carousel burned to the ground in an accidental fire in 1988. Over $500,000 in damages were reported, including the loss of the park's 1925 Dodgem ride. In 1987, the Galleon swinging ship was installed in Logger's Run. At the end of the season, park vice president Guy Sutton left to take a position with an industry consulting firm. After the carousel fire, the park purchased a used Galaxi roller coaster from Nobles Funland Amusement Park in Paducah, Kentucky, called The Serpent. Attendance at the park was maintained at 500,000. 1990s On January 8, 1990, an electrical fire broke out in the Bathhouse and Stardust Gardens Ballroom. The result was over $5 million in losses, including a first aid office, arcade, games building, locker rooms and food concessions. Ride parts and cars from the Rock-O-Plane, Flying Scooters, Bumper Buggy and two kiddie rides were destroyed. The park quickly enlisted the assistance of local labor unions to rebuild the area in time for the April opening with payment to come later in the summer. By May, a new 300-seat indoor/outdoor food court, an arcade, a Dodgem' ride and a refurbished Flying Scooter ride reopened on the site of the fire. Meanwhile, the park began experiencing problems with its insurance company regarding its multimillion-dollar claim. To make matters worse, Ron Berni, a longtime fixture at the park and son of owner Howard Berni, had been offered a position at Kentucky Kingdom in Louisville, Kentucky. He reluctantly accepted the offer with the backing of his father. The hiring of local students and senior citizens was always a challenge because of the keen competition of other attractions in the area. To help alleviate that problem, the park entered into an agreement with a Mexican college to hire Mexican students for the summer. The plan quickly fell apart and the park experienced a lot of negative media coverage regarding claims by the students of poor living conditions in their dorms and illegal working conditions. The local unions, who normally booked their picnics at the park, suddenly canceled their lucrative picnic outings due to the allegations and the park began a deep decline in attendance and revenue. By the end of season, attendance reached an all-time low of just under 200,000. The park then learned that its insurance company would only pay $3 million in claims, leaving the park to pick up the remaining $2 million in expenses. In December, the park was forced to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. By Spring 1991, the park was purchased and reopened by Leisure International, a group of former park management. Joe Faggionato, Guy Sutton, Lenny Gottstein and Don Robison took over the park and began the long, hard effort of erasing the previous year's nightmare from customers, including the local unions. In July, Guy Sutton left the park to become the Operations Director at Clemonton Lake in New Jersey. The trio built a petting zoo and opened a new restaurant for the 1992. Their efforts enabled the park to build the attendance back up to just over 330,000. In 1993, the animated Bear Country Jubilee show was sold to the Jungle Jim's International Market in Fairfield, Ohio. No new attractions were added during the year, however, attendance increased to 412,500. During the 1994 and 1995 seasons, Leisure International spent an additional $6 million to upgrade landscaping and infrastructure throughout the park. By 1995, Faggionato, Gottstein and Robison realized that a bigger company with more capital would be needed to continue upgrading the park so Americana was put up for sale. In 1996, Park River Corporation, owners of Coney Island of Cincinnati in Cincinnati, Ohio, purchased Americana for an estimated $3 million. Between 1996 and 1998, over $1 million was spent on upgrading the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, developing a new paint scheme of magenta and teal, introducing a new merchandising line in the gift shop consisting of unique Americana emblazoned clothing, and adding a variety of rides, including a carousel, Ferris wheel, and the Tempest. In 1997, Park River owner Ronald Walker died unexpectedly and family members expressed concern about the future of the park. The park was quietly listed for sale in 1998. In December 1999, informational letters regarding the 2000 Family Funpacks (similar to season passes) were distributed across the area. In a shocking announcement on January 6, 2000, Park River announced the closing of the park for the 2000 season. 2000s On May 24, 2000 Hamilton businessman Jerry Couch purchased the park from Park River Corporation. He said he would change the park's name to "Couch's Americana Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake" out of respect for the park's 77-year-old history. "The job market is tight and I've missed the window of opportunity to hire kids who are getting out of school," he said in a Cincinnati Enquirer interview. "But, we'll be ready, possibly in July." Initial plans called for a year-round facility with Halloween and Christmas activities, construction of a campground, the opening of Couch's Campers Superstore on the property and new food services. In April 2002, former carnival owners, the Pugh Family, established the LeSourdsville Group and was hired to manage the park for the 2002 season. The name of the park was changed to "The Great American Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake." Over $3 million in improvements were made including the addition of 10 new rides leased by the Pugh group. They included a fun house, a swinging pirate ship, a kids bumper car ride, the Zipper, the Music Express and the Tip-Top Teacups Ride. The adult bumper car ride was removed due to mechanical problems. In addition, a $150,000 ride safety inspection system was installed to improve preventive maintenance. When the park opened to the public on June 5, the name of the park was changed once again to "LeSourdsville Lake." A park spokesperson stated that the name change was done because "that's how people remember it." The park operated Thursdays through Sundays. "Saturdays and Sundays have been packed to the point that our parking lot was just about full, which we would estimate to be 8,000 to 10,000 people," said park Marketing Director Mike Mefford. After experiencing a successful summer, the park unexpectedly closed a week prior than planned and announced that it was looking for a new management company to operate the park for 2003. Plans for the upcoming "LeScaresville Lake - a Halloween fright event" was cancelled. The Pugh management team filed for bankruptcy and failed to pay some of the park employees wages due to them. Rides brought in earlier in the year were repossessed after the season ended due to non-payment by the Pugh management group. Rides included the Music Express, the Zipper, the Western Express Train, the Tip Top, the Mini Indy and a fun house. All of the rides were portable and not installed as permanent rides. On January 24, 2003, Couch's LeSourdsville Lake RV Super Center held its grand opening at the park. The park's old dormitory used during the 1990 season, was remodeled and made a part of the new store and showroom. "With the opening of the ....Super Center, we are one step closer to fulfilling our ultimate goal of establishing an RV and amusement park combination." said Couch in a Middletown Journal interview. In April, local media began questioning the status of the park for 2003. After several days passed, the Middletown Journal reported that the park may open for the 2003 season. "There's definitely a possibility that we could open this year. I'm not saying that will happen," said a publicist with Expo Management & Ad Agency in Cincinnati, which was hired to handle marketing for Couch's camper company. A press release stated that several options are being considered for the park, including 1) updating the rides and creating a "more competitive" atmosphere, 2) running the park as is with a new management team and 3) selling the park. Couch filed a lawsuit against the Pugh management group for non-payment of bills and rental fees totaling more than $100,000. The courts dismissed the lawsuit because the management group had filed for bankruptcy. In February 2004, former Peony Park enthusiasts, Carl Jennings announced that he was seeking to purchase the park. A deal could not be reached with Couch. On May 17, 2006, it was announced that most of the rides would be sold and that the park would not open as a traditional amusement park in the future. In 2009, the park's steel roller coaster, The Serpent, received a second life, as it opened in May 2009 under the same name at Kokomo's Family Fun Center in Saginaw, Michigan. The park was featured on the History Channel's Life After People: The Series. The show explored how weathering was eating away at the park and how it will be unrecognizable in 20 years without human maintenance. One of the closed rides, the Screechin' Eagle, was featured in Life After People: The Series and collapsed after 20 years after disappearance of humans. 2010–present In late August 2011, The Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, which stood for over 70 years, was demolished without any public announcement. Couch expressed fear that something "terrible" would happen with the trespassers that regularly visited the park. Parts of the track and trains were sent to the National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives in Plainview, Texas. In early 2015, Jerry Couch retired and closed his Monroe RV Showroom. Buildings and parts of rides in the Americana portion of the park as well as the Fantasy Farm park were left abandoned. In 2017, it was announced that Butler Tech, a county-wide vocational school, purchased 36 acres of the former park for $2.7 million to develop a new campus. (primarily the park's parking lot and the Fantasy Farm Amusement Park property). Couch also donated the land that the park sat on to Monroe, Ohio, for development of a city park and regional bicycle trail. The funding of the community park project, undertaken by the city, was covered by a 0.5-percent earned income tax increase. In mid 2018, all of the parks remaining structures, except for the sky rides station, the former park administrative building, the arches at the main entrance and entrance to the former food court, a large cinder block storage building, and 7 of the former picnic pavilions, were demolished. The construction of Monroe Bicentennial Commons, the public park replacing LeSourdsville Lake, began in April 2021. Rides and attractions References External links Americana LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park Defunct amusement parks in Ohio Buildings and structures in Butler County, Ohio 1922 establishments in Ohio 2002 disestablishments in Ohio Modern ruins
5339890	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGME	KGME	KGME (910 AM) is a commercial radio station in Phoenix, Arizona, featuring a sports format known as "Fox Sports 910." Owned by iHeartMedia, the station's studios are located in Phoenix near Sky Harbor International Airport, and broadcasts with 5,000 watts—directional at night—from a transmitter site at the intersection of 30th and Maryland Avenues in north Phoenix. In addition to a standard analog transmission, KGME is relayed over the second HD Radio subchannel of KESZ and is available online via iHeartRadio. KGME is the third-oldest radio station in Phoenix. It began broadcasting in October 1940 at 1200 kHz (soon reassigned to 1230) as KPHO, the first new station on air in the Valley since KOY and KTAR, both built in the early 1920s. Founded by local insurance salesman M. C. Reese, the station grew with its sale to Phoenix Broadcasting, Inc., in 1943; for several years after the sale, Gene Autry was a minority owner. KPHO became the affiliate of the Blue Network, later ABC, in 1944; moved to 910 kHz and increased power in September 1949; and launched KPHO-TV, the first television station in Arizona, that December. From 1952 to 1972, KPHO was owned by the Meredith Corporation; by the end of Meredith ownership, KPHO was a news-intensive station. After the transaction was delayed by protests and complications, Meredith sold KPHO to Dairyland Associates in 1972. The call letters were changed to KJJJ and the format to country music. KJJJ was one of the Valley's leading stations in the 1970s, though its fortunes declined under several owners in the late 1970s and early 1980s as music listening shifted away from AM and KNIX-FM became the market leader for country music. As a result, in 1985, owners The Broadcast Group changed the format to news/talk as KFYI. The station established itself as the second-rated talk outlet in the market behind KTAR and was a stop in the careers of several notable hosts, including Tom Leykis. KFYI was sold twice in rapid succession in 1998 and 2000. The second sale, to iHeartMedia forerunner Clear Channel Communications, saw the KFYI format and call sign move to 550 kHz, longtime home of KOY, while KGME's sports talk programming migrated to 910. An affiliate of iHeart-owned Fox Sports Radio, the station also airs several local talk shows and is the current home of Arizona State Sun Devils men's ice hockey. However, with the intermittent exception of the Arizona Coyotes, most of Phoenix's major sports franchises continue to be heard on KMVP-FM and/or KTAR. KPHO Establishment Phoenix businessman M. C. Reese, with decades of experience in the insurance industry, applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on June 30, 1938, for permission to build a new radio station on the local channel of 1500 kHz in Phoenix, soon amended to specify 1200 kHz instead. The FCC designated Reese's application for a hearing, initially concerned that granting the station would not be in the public interest, but granted it on January 25, 1940, later also turning down petitions to deny the grant from Phoenix's two existing radio stations, KOY and KTAR. From studios at the corner of 24th Avenue and Buckeye Road, KPHO began broadcasting on October 26, 1940, ramping up to a full 20-hour daily schedule of broadcasting and without the use of any network programs. It was the third station for Phoenix, after KOY and KTAR (both built in the early 1920s), and was one of three newly built radio stations in the state during the year. KPHO, which broadcast hourly news summaries, was also responsible for bringing to Arizona the International News Service newswire, which was shared with KTAR and The Arizona Republic. Five months after going on the air, KPHO moved from 1200 to 1230 kHz as part of NARBA reallocation on March 29, 1941. After slightly less than three years of ownership, Reese agreed to sell KPHO to Phoenix Broadcasting, Inc., for $60,000 in August 1943. The firm consisted of a number of local and out-of-state investors; its president, Rex Schepp, was affiliated with station WIRE in Indianapolis, and movie star Gene Autry was a minority shareholder. The deal received FCC approval and closed in January 1944. That August, KPHO joined the Blue Network (renamed ABC in 1945); the Blue Network had previously shared KTAR with the NBC Red Network, from which it had split. The result was that a number of Blue programs not previously heard in Phoenix were added to KPHO's lineup. Additionally, two Blue Network vice presidents were minority stockholders in Phoenix Broadcasting. The next month, it opened studios in the Hotel Adams. Schepp became the majority owner in 1945. After the war: frequency change and television expansion KPHO applied in 1946 to shift frequencies to 1030 kHz (amended the next year to 910 kHz), where it could increase power from 250 watts to ultimately 5,000. During this time, Phoenix gained another radio station, KOOL (960 AM), which proved to be highly relevant to changes taking place at KPHO. The station went on the air with 5,000 watts in June 1947 from studios in the Hotel Adams, and Autry opted to sell his minority stake at KPHO to buy KOOL. In Tucson, Autry and Charles Garland, who had been KPHO's general manager, owned station KOPO. Meanwhile, a second Phoenix-area radio station, KRUX (1340 AM), also sought the 910 kHz frequency, as did two other applicants proposing entirely new stations; all four applications were placed into comparative hearing. KPHO emerged successful from the hearing in April 1949, winning the right to move to 910; a principal reason for KRUX losing was that it was licensed to Glendale and sought to relocate to Phoenix. The new frequency and facility were activated on September 21, 1949, at 9:10 p.m. The 1230 plant was sold to start a new station, KRIZ, which was approved in 1950. Also in 1949, Schepp bought a stake in Phoenix Television, Inc., a company that held the first-ever construction permit issued for a television station in the state, KTLX. One of KTLX's owners, oil tycoon John B. Mills, then bought 29 percent of KPHO. KTLX changed its call sign to KPHO-TV on October 4 and began broadcasting on December 4 as the state's first TV station. Meredith ownership KPHO radio and television were sold in 1952 for $1.4 million to the Meredith Corporation of Des Moines, Iowa, whose only broadcast holdings at the time consisted of WHEN-TV in Syracuse, New York, and WOW radio and television in Omaha, Nebraska. Loretta Young and Irene Dunne were reported to be interested in the months leading up to the sale, offering $1.25 million, but the owners of KPHO were looking for $2 million at the time, only lowering their price because of the impending arrival of new TV stations into a market they had monopolized since going on the air. Over the course of the 1960s, KPHO gradually morphed into a news-intensive radio station. Evening news programming, begun in 1961, expanded to morning and afternoon drive. The format shift was completed in April 1970 when KPHO changed to an all-news format during the day, as well as talk shows with Pat McMahon and Earl Baldwin at night. However, KPHO became one of the smallest all-news stations by market size in the United States. Even though the local manager contended it was making money, Meredith corporate disagreed about its prospects. In July 1971, the company announced the sale of the station for $1.5 million to Dairyland Associates, a company based in Madison, Wisconsin. The sale included the building in which the radio and TV stations were presently located, as KPHO-TV was building new studios on Black Canyon Highway; despite this, the radio station moved along with KPHO-TV to the building upon completion and would remain there until the sale was completed. Dairyland announced that Ray Odom, who owned KHAT (1480 AM), would serve as the station's manager after the sale. Dairyland's other announcement as to the future of KPHO attracted enough opposition to delay the sale for months: it sought to drop the all-news format and convert to country. Odom had an extensive background in country music; in the mid-1950s, he had put KHEP on the air as the Valley's first country music station, launching country-formatted KMOP in Tucson before returning to Phoenix to start KHAT. The Arizona Democratic Party objected to the loss of a local news source, while Odom had to sell KHAT. He reached a deal with a consortium known as Pioneer Broadcasting Company of Arizona to acquire that station, which would change to all-news programming. However, that application fell through in March 1972 when the company's primary owner, KHAT DJ William P. Ledbetter (known as the "Platter Parson"), acknowledged he had submitted falsified paperwork to the FCC. He had submitted a notarized list of 110 people whom he claimed had pledged to lend $1,000 to finance the purchase; The Arizona Republic contacted 30 of them, none of whom reported ever having made such a pledge. As a result, Odom withdrew his application to sell KHAT. In addition to the Democratic Party petition to deny, the failure of this transaction delayed approval of the KPHO sale because Odom had to sell his interest in KHAT to manage KPHO. The logjam was resolved in June 1972, when Odom found another buyer for KHAT: Marvin Himelstein, who pledged to run the station with an all-news format. At the same time, the Arizona Democratic Party withdrew its opposition to the KPHO sale. The FCC approved the sale in September 1972. KJJJ With the sale, on October 4, 1972, KPHO gave way to KJJJ, which temporarily remained at the KPHO-TV studios until remodeling on the downtown site was completed. At the same time, several of the newsmen and on-air personalities from the all-news KPHO moved to KHAT, which took on the call letters KPHX. Dairyland sold KJJJ to ITC Communications of Arizona in 1977. The buyer was a subsidiary of International Tapetronics Corporation, an Illinois-based manufacturer of tape machines and audio cartridges. Nearly immediately after closing the sale, ITC purchased Glendale-licensed FM station KXTC 92.3. That station had a disco format until March 1980, when it became a country music outlet. KXTC became KJJJ-FM in April 1981. The KJJJ stations were purchased for $6 million in January 1982 by Communications Group Inc. (also The Broadcast Group Inc.), a company of Walter Wolpin and Frederic Weber, whose only other radio property was WCAR in Detroit. The sale came as ITC divested itself of several non-core businesses. Additionally, the stations were struggling at the time. Ratings plummeted, and what once had been one of the top 10 radio stations in Phoenix was quickly declining. KJJJ's share of the metro Phoenix market fell from 6.7 percent in 1976 to 2.3 percent in 1981, and it would sink to 0.8 percent by 1985. Bud Wilkinson, media columnist for The Republic, ascribed the stations' woes to high turnover and competition from KNIX-FM; while AM stations were also losing ground, KJJJ-FM was not performing well, either. The FM was rebranded KEZC "EZ Country" in October 1982, only to revert to KJJJ-FM in 1984 as part of a major revamp of both stations including a morning show simulcast on AM and FM. KFYI With KJJJ reaching new lows in the local ratings, rumors began to circulate by May 1985 that the station would convert to a news/talk format, beginning with the hiring of a sports director and addition of a nightly sports talk show to KJJJ's lineup. These rumors were bolstered by reports of conversations with former employees at KTAR, the market's heritage news/talk outlet, and the sighting of Phoenix TV weatherman Dewey Hopper at the studios. Furthermore, KJJJ had slowly built a second-tier portfolio of sports rights; beyond the sports talk show, the station carried the Arizona Outlaws of the United States Football League and obtained the rights to Arizona Wildcats sports from KOY. After a brief transition period, the format change became official in early July. Renamed KFYI (standing for "for your information"), the new call sign was obtained for approximately $5,000 from its previous user, a station in Oakland, California, that left the air earlier in the year amid financial problems. In addition to Hopper and Moynihan, KFYI also featured a morning show with longtime radio DJ and television voiceover announcer Charlie Van Dyke. The format was a ratings improvement for the station immediately, and KFYI also incubated some hosts that went on to larger markets, including Tom Leykis, who abruptly left WNWS in Miami to work at KFYI months after the station debuted; he gave no notice to his old station, where he feared being cut as the result of an impending merger with another station. He left in 1988, amid a dispute with management, for KFI in Los Angeles but returned via syndication in 1994. During the 1990s, KFYI's talk lineup shifted in a conservative direction. The Rush Limbaugh Show began airing on the station in 1991, and the station built its lineup around Limbaugh and similarly conservative local hosts. Through the decade, KFYI established itself as Phoenix's number-two talk station with credible ratings, though it never quite surpassed KTAR. Chancellor Media filed to buy KFYI and KKFR (the former KJJJ-FM) in 1998 from The Broadcast Group for $90 million. Chancellor assumed operational control in November 1998 under a local marketing agreement while the sale process was completed. Clancy Woods, who was hired to run KFYI, found the station "underdeveloped" and made changes to broaden its appeal beyond conservatives. He hired the moderate Grant Woods, who had recently left his position as state attorney general, to host a daily talk show, and other program changes were made. The addition of University of Arizona football back to the lineup marked the first time since the station began airing Limbaugh that it committed to sports broadcasts, having previously positioned itself as the antithesis to sports-heavy KTAR. While KFYI was being overhauled, Chancellor sold KGME (1360 AM) "The Game", a sports talk station, to Salem Communications. As KNNS, that station had adopted its sports radio format in 1993, shifting from talk; its lineup of program hosts included Mike Golic and Bruce Jacobs. Its programming and call sign then moved to the 550 frequency, with KOY and its nostalgia format replacing classic country KISO at 1230 AM. Chancellor then merged with Capstar Communications later in the year and changed its name to AMFM, Inc. KGME Later that year, Clear Channel Communications, predecessor to iHeartMedia, merged with AMFM. Clear Channel opted to sell four of AMFM's FM stations in Phoenix and retain all of its local AMs, including KGME at 550 and KFYI at 910. When the deal closed in September 2000, Clear Channel immediately moved to swap KFYI and KGME, moving the talk station to 550 and sports to 910. KGME's existing programming remained unchanged, but Clear Channel rebranded the station as Xtra Sports 910, using a moniker that had originated at XETRA serving San Diego and was also being used elsewhere by Clear Channel. Dan Bickley, a columnist for The Republic, hosted mornings on KGME with Mike Jurecki from 2001 to 2013, when he left to join KTAR. Jurecki remained until 2017, when he was dismissed and joined KMVP-FM. On June 11, 2013, KGME rebranded as "Fox Sports 910". Dan Sileo served as a host on the station for one week in 2019, after which he was removed. A report in The Athletic indicated that the Arizona Coyotes, which had recently signed an agreement to move their games to KGME, objected to Sileo's on-air presence based on racist and sexist comments he had previously made at stations in Florida that led him to be fired three times in a span of 20 months. Programming The station's weekday lineup includes seven hours worth of local shows in morning drive time and early afternoons, including Roc & Manuch featuring former NFL quarterback Dan Manucci; Roc & Manuch is externally produced by "On Air Sports Marketing". Late mornings feature Colin Cowherd, while Fox Sports Radio takes up the rest of the broadcast schedule. KGME has not been able to consistently lure away professional teams from their contracts with Bonneville International's cluster, including sports talk leader KMVP-FM. The Arizona Coyotes, largely because of their comparatively low priority to other teams carried by KMVP-FM, have been an intermittent exception. Their games moved to KGME in 2019; the team cited the fact that only 21 minutes a week was spent on the team in KMVP-FM's various local sports talk shows. The agreement lasted two years before the Coyotes opted to return to KMVP-FM. While the rights to major Arizona State Sun Devils sports belong to Bonneville, KGME became the home of ASU men's hockey beginning in 2022, the team's first radio deal. From 2013 to 2020, Fox Sports 910 was the Phoenix affiliate for the University of Arizona Wildcats football and men's basketball radio network. This deal ended in 2020, when the rights moved to KFNX (1100 AM). References External links GME Sports radio stations in the United States Fox Sports Radio stations Radio stations established in 1940 1940 establishments in Arizona IHeartMedia radio stations
5340183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahir%20Shah	Tahir Shah	Tahir Shah (, ; né Sayyid Tahir al-Hashimi (Arabic: سيد طاهر الهاشمي); born 16 November 1966) is a British author, journalist and documentary maker of Afghan-Indian descent. Family Tahir Shah was born into the saadat of Paghman, an ancient and respected family hailing from Afghanistan. Bestowed with further lands and ancestral titles by the British Raj during the Great Game, a number of Shah's more recent ancestors were born in the principality of Sardhana, in northern India – which they ruled as Nawabs. His mother, Cynthia Kabraji, was of Zoroastrian Parsi descent and his father was the Indian Sufi teacher and writer Idries Shah. Both his grandfathers were respected literary figures in their own right: Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah on his father's side, and the Indian poet Fredoon Kabraji, on his mother's side. His elder sister is the documentary filmmaker Saira Shah, and his twin sister is the author Safia Nafisa Shah. Numerous other members of Shah's family have been successful authors, including his aunt Amina Shah, and his Scottish grandmother Elizabeth Louise MacKenzie. Shah is descended from the Afghan warlord and statesman Jan Fishan Khan. In 1995 Tahir Shah married to the India-born graphic designer, Rachana Shah (née Devidayal), with whom he has two children – Ariane Shah and Timur Shah. The marriage ended in 2017, although the two remain close friends. Childhood Shah was born in London and brought up largely in the county of Kent, where his family lived at Langton House, a Georgian mansion in the village of Langton Green near Royal Tunbridge Wells. The property had been owned previously by the family of Robert, Lord Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scout Movement. Shah has described how, as a child, he played in the woods which are said to have first interested Baden-Powell in the outdoors. Shah's father, the writer and thinker Idries Shah, surrounded himself with a diverse coterie of people, most of whom were interested in his published work. They included Nobel Laureate Doris Lessing, poet Robert Graves, American novelists J. D. Salinger and Lisa Alther, psychologist Robert E. Ornstein, as well as the pioneer of radar "Coppy" Laws, the garden designer Russell Page, and the actor Walter Gotell. Shah maintains that much of his education derived from spending time with such a varied group of people. His first appearance on television was in the 1972 BBC documentary about his father, Dream Walkers: One Pair of Eyes, in which Shah, his sisters, and their friends, are seen listening to Idries Shah tell the tale of The Lion Who Saw Himself in the Water. Shah has described how his Latin tutor appeared at the front door "white as a sheet", at having spotted the renowned classicist Robert Graves digging a ditch at the front of Langton House; and how Doris Lessing encouraged him to read folktales and, later, encouraged his enthusiasm for travel. During his childhood, Shah and his sisters would be taken to Morocco for extended periods, where his grandfather lived until his death in November 1969. Described in his book The Caliph's House, the journeys introduced Shah to "a realm straight out of The Arabian Nights." Education Tahir Shah attended Rose Hill Preparatory School in Tunbridge Wells, Kent – where Lord Baden Powell had also been a student. He has described the school as "a throwback to the Victorian age – sadistic and brutal in the extreme." At 13, he was sent to Bryanston School, near Blandford Forum, Dorset. He has written about his inability to keep up, as a result of "profound dyslexia". Aged 17, Shah learnt to fly in Florida, and graduated with an FAA Private Pilot's Licence. He attended university in San Diego, London and Nairobi – where he studied African dictatorships at the United States International University. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in International Relations in 1987. Shah has detailed how his parents planned to steer him towards the diplomatic service, assuming he would not have the ability to be a writer. Accordingly, he was "groomed for the world of diplomacy." He has described how his father strove to teach his children through stories. These included the escapades of Nasrudin, the wise fool of Sufi folklore, as well as tales of Antar and Abla, and the epic treasury that forms The Thousand and One Nights. During their childhood, Shah and his sisters were encouraged to solve problems for themselves. When they wanted money to buy chocolate, their father showed them how to gather seeds from the garden, and sell them from an old pram in the village. From an early age, Shah would be given work by his father including "conducting research, as well as editing and writing texts." His first publication, The Middle East Bedside Book was a collaboration between them. Personal life Priding himself on being unconventional, Shah rails against society for "churning out cookie cutter people who live cookie cutter lives." He maintains that "the easiest way to have an interesting life is to do the opposite of what everyone else is doing." Such methodology was the basis for uprooting his wife Rachana, and his two infant children from a small apartment in London's East End, and relocating to a mansion called "Dar Khalifa", said by locals to be haunted by Jinn, "set squarely in the middle of a Casablanca shantytown." The adventure formed the basis for Shah's book The Caliph's House (2006). Shah has written widely about Casablanca, which he has resided in, and Morocco, and is regarded as an expert on both, as well as on India, and a number of other destinations. His life at Dar Khalifa was widely covered in international media. Writing Tahir Shah is a prolific author of books, documentaries, book introductions, peer reviewed academic articles, and book reviews. Shah's first published book was Cultural Research, written for the London-based Institute for Cultural Research. One of his more notable works is Trail of Feathers, an account of his trip through Peru, Machu Picchu, the Incas and Cusco. Another book, In Search of King Solomon's Mines, searching for undiscovered mines known only in folklore. Other books like In Arabian Nights and Travels with Myself are mostly about the author's journeys through exotic locations. His first traditional travelogue was in 1995 with Beyond the Devil's Teeth, covering a trip through Africa, India and much of Latin America. Shah has written book reviews for The Washington Post, The Guardian, The Spectator, and The Literary Review. As well as writing and film making, Shah writes screen material and co-wrote Journey to Mecca, an IMAX film charting the first journey made by Ibn Battuta to Mecca for the Hajj, in 1325. In addition, he reviews for a selection of other media on both sides of the Atlantic, and writes pieces for the radio, such as The Journey, which was read on BBC Radio 3. In the years before he turned his hand primarily to book writing, Shah wrote a large number of serious reportage-type magazine features, highlighting the lives of the voiceless in society, especially those of women. These included pieces about women on Death Row, widows who cleared mines in Cambodia, the trapped lives of bonded labourers in India, and the women-only police stations in Brazil, known as "Delegacia da Mulher" (Woman's Police Station). He continues to write journalistic pieces, especially aimed at drawing attention to causes he believes deserve public attention. After having published a number of books with traditional publishers, Shah made the move to self publishing in 2011 with his print-on-demand book Travels With Myself, which was published using Lulu.com. He later took his self publishing efforts a step further in 2012 with the release of Timbuctoo and again in 2013 with Scorpion Soup, two limited edition hardcovers that were designed by his wife Rachana. Documentaries Shah has presented several documentaries, all of which have followed the quest theme, which have appeared on National Geographic TV, The History Channel, Channel 4, & Channel 5: The Search for King Solomon's Mines, House of the Tiger King, and Search for the Lost Treasure of Afghanistan. Influences Shah regards family friend Doris Lessing as a key influence, as well as his aunt Amina Shah. Shah himself has written about his fascination with the works of Bruce Chatwin, especially his book The Songlines, as well as with a range of the classic nineteenth century explorers, such as Samuel White Baker, Heinrich Barth and Sir Richard Burton. He had a close friendship with Wilfred Thesiger, whom he considered a mentor and a source of inspiration. Shah's father Idries Shah and English poet Robert Graves were close friends and confidants, and for a number of years, Spike Milligan and Robert Graves had a correspondence. The highlights were later published in a book called Dear Robert, Dear Spike. Shortly after Tahir Shah's birth, in a letter dated 6 February 1967, Robert Graves wrote to Spike Milligan: "I may be over in a few weeks to help two young Afghan Arabs named Tahir Shah Sayid and his twin sister with a name so beautiful that I forget it. He's the nearest to Mahomet in a straight line, of any Arab baby in existence. Isn't Tahir a splendid name." Kabul is locally pronounced to rhyme with 'trouble', not 'a 'bull', and in the book the surname Shah is misspelled as 'Shar'. Literary style Shah's style is one of simple prose and overwhelming humour. He has said that his style of using short blocks of text, with a concluding denouement was influenced by Iron & Silk by Mark Salzman, which he first read in 1988; and that he writes with the intention to educate and inform his readers, while at the same time amusing them. In this capacity, one could liken Shah's work to the literary devise employed in several books by his father, Idries Shah, who used the wise fool Mulla Nasrudin to illustrate deeper ideas in human understanding. Shah avoids "self-congratulatory" literary festivals, although he had appeared as a speaker at a number of them in the past – including at Hay-on-Wye, Wigtown, Shute, Oxford, Deià, Gibraltar, and Vilnius. He writes on a rigid schedule, keeping to a daily target. At any one time he has ‘between 25 and 25 writing projects in development’. Shah's earlier books fell into the travel literature genre, with more recent work being regarded as straight fiction. Most of Shah's work blurs the boundaries between fact and fiction, and Shah himself condemns ‘the way Occidental society draws a rigid line in the sand between one and the other. He champions authors such as Bruce Chatwin and Rory Maclean who have walked a line between the two. Political involvement Imprisonment in Pakistan In July 2005 (a week after the 7 July London bombings) Shah and two colleagues from Caravan Film in London were arrested in Peshawar in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and held without charge in solitary confinement in a torture prison. Much of the time they were handcuffed, stripped virtually naked, and blindfolded. After sixteen days of interrogations in a "fully equipped torture room," Shah and his colleagues were released. The Pakistani government agreed that they had done nothing wrong. Tahir Shah gave an interview which was screened on British TV's Channel 4 News, and published an article in the British Sunday Times about the ordeal. Shah has publicly maintained his affection for Pakistan, despite the rough treatment he and his film crew received at the hands of the Pakistani secret services. The illegal custody earned Shah and his film crew a mention in the United States Department of State's 2005 report on Pakistan's human rights practices. The news story came back into the spotlight in July 2008, when a British MP claimed that the British government had 'outsourced' the torture of British citizens to Pakistani security agencies. East-West bridge Tahir Shah is also a champion of what he calls "the East-West Bridge". In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, Tahir Shah began to devote a great deal of time and energy into establishing and promoting a "cultural bridge" made up by those who, like him, are both from the East and from the West. One example of this work is the Qantara Foundation (from "qantara" meaning "bridge" in Arabic). He has spoken and written on the idea that people such as he have a responsibility to "show the East to the West, and the West to the East," highlighting the common cultural heritage of the two, and working towards a common goal. Shah's greatest interest within the east–west theme is probably the subject of the legacy of science in medieval Islam, and its role in creating a foundation for the Renaissance. He has lectured publicly on the subject and believes strongly in the importance of drawing attention to the polymath poet-scientists from the Golden Age of Islam. Works Travels Journey Through Namibia, Camerapix, 1994, Spectrum Guide to Jordan, Spectrum Guides, 1994, Beyond the Devil's Teeth, Octagon Press, 1995, Sorcerer's Apprentice, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998, Trail of Feathers, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001, In Search of King Solomon's Mines, John Murray, 2002, House of the Tiger King, John Murray, 2004, The Caliph's House, Doubleday, 2006, In Arabian Nights, Bantam, 2008, Travels With Myself: Collected Work, Mosaique, 2011, Novels Timbuctoo, Secretum Mundi, 2012, Eye Spy, Secretum Mundi, 2013, Casablanca Blues, Secretum Mundi, 2013, Paris Syndrome, Secretum Mundi, 2014, Hannibal Fogg and the Supreme Secret of Man, Secretum Mundi, 2018, Jinn Hunter: Book One — The Prism , Secretum Mundi, 2019, Godman, Secretum Mundi, 2020, Jinn Hunter: Book Two — The Jinnslayer, Secretum Mundi, 2020, Midas, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Jinn Hunter: Book Three — The Perplexity, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Humour Travels With Nasrudin, Secretum Mundi, 2019, The Misadventures of the Mystifying Nasrudin, Secretum Mundi, 2021, The Peregrinations of the Perplexing Nasrudin, Secretum Mundi, 2021, The Voyages and Vicissitudes of Nasrudin, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Nasrudin in the Land of Fools, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Teaching stories Scorpion Soup, Secretum Mundi, 2013, The Man who Found Himself, Secretum Mundi, 2021, The Arabian Nights Adventures, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Caravanserai Stories: Ghoul Brothers, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Hourglass, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Imaginist, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Jinnlore, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Jinn's Treasure, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Mellified Man, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Skeleton Island, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, Caravanserai Stories: Wellspring, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Limited edition, The Caravanserai Stories (combined), Secretum Mundi, 2021, Paperback, Daydreams of an Octopus, Secretum Mundi, 2022, When the Sun Forgot to Rise, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Tales Told to a Melon, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Double Six, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Jinn Files, Secretum Mundi, 2022, A Treasury of Tales, Secretum Mundi, 2022, King of the Jinns, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Mouse House, Secretum Mundi, 2022, On Backgammon Time, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Cap of Invisibility, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Destiny Ring, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Forgotten Game, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Hoopoe's Flight, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Paradise Tree, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Wondrous Seed, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Liquid Time, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Cat Dog, Dog Cat, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Dream Soup, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Monkey Puzzle Club, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Pharaoh Code, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Problem Exchange, Secretum Mundi, 2023, An Unexpected Gift, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Princess Pickle's Laugh, Secretum Mundi, 2023, QWERTY, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Renaissance, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Kingdom of Blink, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Man with the Tiger's Head, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Wisdom of Celestine, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Shop That Sold Truth, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Most Foolish of Men, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Fish's Dream, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Man Whose Arms Grew Branches, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Clockmaker Who Travelled Though Time, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Tale of the Rusty Nail, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Unicorn’s Tear, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Singing Serpents, Secretum Mundi, 2023, The Princess of Zilzilam, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Capilongo, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Mittle-Mittle, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Frogland, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Cat, Mouse, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Changing the World, Secretum Mundi, 2023, Anthologies The Anthologies: Africa, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Childhood, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Ceremony, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: City, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Danger, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: East, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Expedition, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Frontier, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Hinterland, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: India, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Jungle, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Morocco, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: People, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Quest, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: South, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Anthologies: Taboo, Secretum Mundi, 2020, The Clockmaker's Box, Secretum Mundi, 2020, Congress With a Crocodile (editor), Secretum Mundi, 2021, A Son of a Son, Volume I (editor), Secretum Mundi, 2021, A Son of a Son, Volume II (editor), Secretum Mundi, 2021, Tahir Shah Fiction Reader, Secretum Mundi, 2021, Tahir Shah Travel Reader, Secretum Mundi, 2021, The Anthologies: Jinns, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Anthologies: Magic, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Anthologies: Teaching Stories, Secretum Mundi, 2022, The Anthologies: Nasrudin, Secretum Mundi, 2022, Screenplays Timbuctoo: Screenplay, Secretum Mundi, 2020, Casablanca Blues: The Screenplay, Secretum Mundi, 2020, On writing The Reason to Write, Secretum Mundi, 2020, Journalism Travels With Myself: Collected Work, Mosaique, 2011, Research The Middle East Bedside Book, Octagon Press, 1991, Cultural Research, (editor) for the London-based Institute for Cultural Research, 1993, Three Essays, Secretum Mundi, 2013, As editor Tale of a Lantern & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Elephant & The Tortoise & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Monkey’s Fiddle & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Ghost of the Violet Well & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Many Wise Fools & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Frog Prince & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Three Lemons & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Twelve-Headed Griffin & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, The Antelope Boy & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Purple Sapphire & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Why the Fish Laughed & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Two Cats & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Three Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Twilight of the Gods & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Son of Seven Queens & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Moon Maiden & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Metamorphosis & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, The Celestial Sisters & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, Tales From The Arabian Nights I, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, East of the Sun, West of the Moon & Other Stories, The Scheherazade Foundation, 2023, As a contributor Revue des Deux Mondes, 2002, With Remarkable Muslims, Eland Books, 2006, The Seventy Great Journeys in History, Thames & Hudson, 2006, Modern Explorers, Thames & Hudson, 2013, The Lonely Planet Travel Anthology, Lonely Planet, 2016, Our Morocco, privately published, 2020, Tales From the Life of Bruce Wannell, Sickle Moon, 2020, Introductions Legends of the Fire Spirits, I. B. Tauris, 2014, Marrakech: The Red City, Eland Books, 2004, Home, Quadrille Publishing, 2006, The Cafe Clock Cookbook, 33-Books, 2010, Seven League Boots, Tauris Parke, 2012, The Flying Carpet, Tauris Parke, 2011, The Glorious Adventure, Tauris Parke, 2012, A Moroccan Journey, International Publishing House, 2009, Louis Vuitton: Morocco, Louis Vuitton, 2017, Interviews See also The Scheherazade Foundation References External links 1966 births Living people English humorists English travel writers English documentary filmmakers English male journalists People educated at Bryanston School Tahir Shah Moroccan storytellers English people of Afghan descent English people of Indian descent English people of Parsi descent English people of Scottish descent Journalists from London British twins British Asian writers 21st-century British novelists English explorers English expatriates in Morocco People associated with The Institute for Cultural Research People from Langton Green
5340460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dancing%20Water%2C%20the%20Singing%20Apple%2C%20and%20the%20Speaking%20Bird	The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird	The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird is a Sicilian fairy tale collected by Giuseppe Pitrè, and translated by Thomas Frederick Crane for his Italian Popular Tales. Joseph Jacobs included a reconstruction of the story in his European Folk and Fairy Tales. The original title is "", for which Crane gives a literal translation of "The Herb-gatherer's Daughters." The story is the prototypical example of Aarne–Thompson–Uther tale-type 707, to which it gives its name. Alternate names for the tale type are The Three Golden Sons, The Three Golden Children, The Bird of Truth, , , or . According to folklorist Stith Thompson, the tale is "one of the eight or ten best known plots in the world". Synopsis The following is a summary of the tale as it was collected by Giuseppe Pitrè and translated by Thomas Frederick Crane. A king walking the streets heard three poor sisters talk. The oldest said that if she married the royal butler, she would give the entire court a drink out of one glass, with water left over. The second said that if she married the keeper of the royal wardrobe, she would dress the entire court in one piece of cloth, and have some left over. The youngest said that if she married the king, she would bear two sons with apples in their hands, and a daughter with a star on her forehead. The next morning, the king ordered the older two sisters to do as they said, and then married them to the butler and the keeper of the royal wardrobe, and the youngest to himself. The queen became pregnant, and the king had to go to war, leaving behind news that he was to hear of the birth of his children. The queen gave birth to the children she had promised, but her sisters, jealous, put three puppies in their place, sent word to the king, and handed over the children to be abandoned. The king ordered that his wife be put in a treadwheel crane. Three fairies saw the abandoned children and gave them a deer to nurse them, a purse full of money, and a ring that changed color when misfortune befell one of them. When they were grown, they left for the city and took a house. Their aunts saw them and were terror-struck. They sent their nurse to visit the daughter and tell her that the house needed the Dancing Water to be perfect and her brothers should get it for her. The oldest son left and found three hermits in turn. The first two could not help him, but the third told him how to retrieve the Dancing Water, and he brought it back to the house. On seeing it, the aunts sent their nurse to tell the girl that the house needed the Singing Apple as well, but the brother got it, as he had the Dancing Water. The third time, they sent him after the Speaking Bird, but as one of the conditions was that he not respond to the bird, and it told him that his aunts were trying to kill him and his mother was in the treadmill, it shocked him into speech, and he was turned to stone. The ring changed colors. His brother came after him, but suffered the same fate. Their sister came after them both, said nothing, and transformed her brother and many other statues back to life. They returned home, and the king saw them and thought that if he did not know his wife had given birth to three puppies, he would think these his children. They invited him to dinner, and the Speaking Bird told the king all that had happened. The king executed the aunts and their nurse and took his wife and children back to the palace. Analysis Tale type The tale is classified in the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index as type ATU 707, "The Three Golden Children". According to Folklore scholar Christine Goldberg, the form the tale type appears "throughout Europe" involves the heroes going on a quest for wondrous items. Richard MacGillivray Dawkins stated that "as a rule there are three quests" and the third item is "almost always ... a magical speaking bird". In other variants, according to scholar Hasan El-Shamy, the quest objects include "the dancing plant, the singing object and the truth-speaking bird". Variations Russian folklorist also noted two different formats to the tale type: the first one, "legs of gold up the knee, arms of silver up to the elbow", and the second one, "the singing tree and the talking bird". The Brother Quests for a Bride In some regional variants, the children are sent for some magical objects, like a mirror, and for a woman of renowned beauty and great powers. This character becomes the male sibling's wife at the end of the story. For instance, in the Typen Turkischer Volksmärchen ("Types of Turkish Foltkales"), by folklorists Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav. Type 707 is known in Turkey as Die Schöne or Güzel ("The Beautiful"). The title refers to the maiden of supernatural beauty that is sought after by the male sibling. Such variants occur in Albania, as in the tales collected by J. G. Von Hahn in his (Leipzig, 1864), in the village of Zagori in Epirus, and by Auguste Dozon in (Paris, 1881). These stories substitute the quest for the items for the search for a fairy named ("Beauty of the Land"), a woman of extraordinary beauty and magical powers. One such tale is present in Robert Elsie's collection of Albanian folktales (Albania's Folktales and Legends): The Youth and the Maiden with Stars on their Foreheads and Crescents on their Breasts. Another version of the story is The Tale of Arab-Zandyq, in which the brother is the hero who gathers the wonderful objects (a magical flower and a mirror) and their owner (Arab-Zandyq), whom he later marries. Arab-Zandyq replaces the bird and, as such, tells the whole truth during her wedding banquet. In an extended version from a Breton source, called , the youngest triplet, a king's son, listens to the helper (an old woman), who reveals herself to be a princess enchanted by her godmother. In a surprise appearance by said godmother, she prophesises her goddaughter shall marry the hero of the tale (the youngest prince), after a war with another country. Another motif that appears in these variants (specially in Middle East and Turkey) is suckling an ogress's breastmilk by the hero. The Sister marries a Prince In an Icelandic variant collected by Jón Árnason and translated in his book Icelandic Legends (1866), with the name (The Story of the Farmer's Three Daughters, or its German translation, ), the quest focus on the search for the bird and omits the other two items. The end is very much the same, with the nameless sister rescuing her brothers Vilhjámr and Sigurdr and a prince from the petrification spell and later marrying him. Another variant where this happy ending occurs is Princesse Belle-Étoile et Prince Chéri, by Mme. D'Aulnoy, where the heroine rescues her cousin, Prince Chéri, and marries him. Another French variant, collected by Henry Carnoy (, or "The tree that sings, the bird that speaks and the water of gold"), has the youngest daughter, the princess, marry an enchanted old man she meets in her journey and who gives her advice on how to obtain the items. In the Armenian variant Théodore, le Danseur, the brother ventures on a quest for the belongings of the eponymous character and, at the conclusion of the tale, this fabled male dancer marries the sister. Alternate Source for the Truth to the King (Father) In the description of the tale type in the international index, the bird the children seek is the one to tell the king the sisters' deceit and to reunite the family. However, in some regional variants, the supernatural maiden whom the brother and the sister seek is responsible for revealing the truth of their birth to the king and to restore the queen to her rightful place. Very rarely, it is one of the children themselves that reveal the aunts' treachery to their father, as seen in the Armenian variants The Twins and Theodore, le Danseur. In a specific Persian version, from Kamani, the Prince (King's son) investigates the mystery of the twins and questions the midwife who helped in the delivery of his children. Distribution Late 19th-century and early 20th-century scholars (Joseph Jacobs, Teófilo Braga, Francis Hindes Groome) had noted that the story was widespread across Europe, the Middle East and India. Portuguese writer Braga noticed its prevalence in Italy, France, Germany, Spain and in Russian and Slavic sources, while Groome listed its incidence in the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and Brazil. Russian comparative mythologist Yuri Berezkin (ru) pointed out that the tale type can be found "from Ireland and Maghreb, to India and Mongolia", in Africa and Siberia. Europe Italy France Iberian Peninsula There are also variants in Romance languages: a Spanish version called Los siete infantes, where there are seven children with stars on their foreheads, and a Portuguese one, As cunhadas do rei (The King's sisters-in-law). Both replace the fantastical elements with Christian imagery: the devil and the Virgin Mary. Portuguese writer, lawyer and teacher published a versified variant from the Madeira Archipelago with the title Los Encantamentos da Grande Fada Maria. Portuguese folklorist Teófilo Braga cited the Madeiran tale as a variant of the Portuguese tales he collected. Folklore researcher Elsie Spicer Eells published a variant from Azores with the title The Listening King: a king likes to disguise himself and go through the streets at night to listen to his subjects' talk. He overhears the three sisters' talk, the youngest wanting to marry him. They do and she gives birth to twin boys with a gold star on the forehead. They are cast in the sea in a basket and found by a miller and his wife. Years later, they find a parrot with green and gold feathers in the royal gardens. Portugal Brazilian folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo suggested that the tale type migrated to Portugal brought by the Arabs. Portuguese folklorist Teófilo Braga published a Portuguese tale from Airão-Minho with the title As cunhadas do rei ("The King's sisters-in-law"): the king, his cook and his butler walk through the streets in disguise to listen to the thoughts of the people. They pass by a veranda where three sisters are standing. The three women notice the men and the elder recognizes the cook, wanting to marry him to eat the best fricassees; the middle one sees the butler and wants to marry him to get to drink the best liquors; the youngest sister wants to marry the king and bear him three boys with a golden star on the front. The youngest sister marries the king and bears him twin boys with the golden stars, and the next year a little girl with a golden star on the front. They are replaced for animals and cast in the water, but are saved by a miller. Years later, their aunts send them for a parrot from a garden, for the tree that drips blood and the "water of a thousand springs". The Virgin Mary appears to instruct the sister on how to get a branch from tree and a jug of the water, and how to rescue her brothers from petrification. Spain United Kingdom and Ireland According to Daniel J. Crowley, British sources point to 92 variants of the tale type. However, he specified that most variants were found in the Irish Folklore Archives, plus some "scattered Scottish and English references". Scottish folklorist John Francis Campbell mentioned the existence of "a Gaelic version" of the French tale Princesse Belle-Étoile, itself a literary variant of type ATU 707. He also remarked that "[the] French story agree[d] with Gaelic stories", since they shared common elements: the wonder children, the three treasures, etc. Ireland Scholarship points to the existence of many variants in Irish folklore. In fact, the tale type shows "wide distribution" in Ireland. However, according to researcher Maxim Fomin, this diffusion is perhaps attributed to a printed edition of The Arabian Nights. One version was published in journal Béaloideas with the title An Triúr Páiste Agus A Dtrí Réalta: a king wants to marry a girl who can jump the highest; the youngest of three sisters fulfills the task and becomes queen. When she gives birth to three royal children, their aunts replace them with animals (a young pig, a cat and a crow). The queen is cast into a river, but survives, and the king marries one of her sisters. The children are found and reared by a sow. When the foster mother is threatened to be killed on orders of the second queen, she gives the royal children three stars, a towel that grants unlimited food and a magical book that reveals the truth of their origin. Another variant has been recorded by Irish folklorist Sean O'Suilleabhain in Folktales of Ireland, under the name The Speckled Bull. In this variant, a prince marries the youngest of two sisters. Her elder sisters replaces the prince's children (two boys), lies that the princess gave birth to animals and casts the boys in a box into the sea, one year after the other. The second child is saved by a fisherman and grows strong. The queen's sister learns of the boy's survival and tries to convince his foster father's wife that the child is a changeling. She kills the boy and buries his body in the garden, from where a tree sprouts. Some time later, the prince's cattle grazed near the tree and a cow eats its fruit. The cow gives birth to a speckled calf that becomes a mighty bull. The queen's sister suspects the bull is the boy and feigns illness to have it killed. The bull escapes by flying to a distant kingdom in the east. The princess of this realm, under a geasa to always wear a veil outdoors lest she marries the first man she sets eyes on, sees the bull and notices it is a king's son. They marry, and the speckled bull, under a geas, chooses to be a bull by day and man by night. The bull regains human form and rescues his mother. In Types of the Irish Folktale (1963), by the same author, he listed a variant titled Uisce an Óir, Crann an Cheoil agus Éan na Scéalaíochta. Scotland As a parallel to the Irish tale An Triúr Páiste Agus A Dtrí Réalta, published in Béaloideas, J. G McKay commented that the motif of the replacement of the newborns for animals occurs "in innumerable Scottish tales.". Researcher Sheila Douglas collected from teller John Stewart, from Perthshire, two variants: The Speaking Bird of Paradise and Cats, Dogs, and Blocks. In both of them, a king and a queen have three children (two boys and a girl), in three consecutive pregnancies, who are taken from them by the housekeeper and abandoned in the woods. Years later, a helpful kind woman tells them about their royal heritage, and advises them to seek the Speaking Bird of Paradise, which will help them reveal the truth to their parents. Wales In a Welsh-Romani variant, Ī Tārnī Čikalī ("The Little Slut"), the protagonist is a Cinderella-like character who is humiliated by her sisters, but triumphs in the end. However, in the second part of the story, she gives birth to three children (a girl first, and two boys later) "girt with golden belts". They children are replaced for animals and taken to the forest. Their mother is accused of imaginary crimes and sentenced to be killed, but the old woman helper (who gave her the slippers) turns her into a sow, and tells her she may be killed and her liver taken by the hunters, by she will prevail in the end. The sow meets the children in the forest. The sow is killed, but, as the old woman prophecizes, her liver gained magical powers and her children use it to suit their needs. A neighbouring king wants the golden belts, but once they are taken from the boys, they become swans in the river. Their sister goes to the liver and wishes for their return to human form, as well as to get her mother back. The magical powers of the liver grant her wishes. Mediterranean Area Greece Albania Malta German linguist Hans Stumme collected a Maltese variant he translated as Sonne und Mond ("Sun and Moon"), in Maltesische Märchen (1904). This tale begins with the ATU 707 (twins born with astronomical motifs/aspects), but the story continues under the ATU 706 tale-type (The Maiden without hands): mother has her hands chopped off and abandoned with her children in the forest. published another Maltese tale titled Sonne und Mond, das tanzende Wasser und der singende Vogel ("Sun and Moon, the dancing water and the singing bird"). In this version, the third sister gives birth to a girl named Sun, and a boy named Moon. Cyprus At least one variant from Cyprus has been published, from the "Folklore Archive of the Cyprus Research Centre". Western and Central Europe In a Lovari Romani variant, the king meets the third sister during a dance at the village, who promised to give birth to a golden boy. They marry. Whenever a child is born to her (two golden boys and a golden girl, in three consecutive births), they are replaced for an animal and cast into the water. The king banishes his wife and orders her to be walled up, her eyes to be put on her forehead and to be spat on by passersby. An elderly fisherman and his wife rescue the children and name them Ējfēlke (Midnight), Hajnalka (Dawn) - for the time of day when the boys were saved - and Julishka for the girl. They discover they are adopted and their foster parents suggest they climb a "cut-glass mountain" for a bird that knows many things, and may reveal the origin of the parentage. At the end of their quest, young Julishka fetches the bird, of a "rusty old" appearance, and brings it home. With the bird's feathers, she and her brothers restore their mother to perfect health and disenchant the bird to human form. Julishka marries the now human bird. Germany In a Sorbian/Wendish (Lausitz) variant, Der Sternprinz ("The Star Prince"), three discharged soldier brothers gather at a tavern to talk about their dreams. The first two dreamt of extraordinary objects: a large magical chain and an inexhaustible purse. The third soldier says he dreamt that if he marries the princess, they will have a son with a golden star on the forehead ("słoćanu gwězdu na cole"). The three men go to the king and the third marries the princess, who gives birth to the promised boy. However, the child is replaced by a dog and thrown in the water, but he is saved by a fisherman. Years later, on a hunt, the Star Prince tries to shoot a white hind, but it says it is the enchanted Queen of Rosenthal. She alerts that his father and uncles are in the dungeon and his mother is to marry another person. She also warns that he must promise not reveal her name. He stops the wedding and releases his uncles. They celebrate their family reunion, during which the Star Prince reveals the Queen's name. She departs and he must go on a quest after her (tale type ATU 400, "The Quest for the Lost Wife"). Belgium Professor Maurits de Meyere listed three variants under the banner "L'oiseau qui parle, l'arbre qui chante et l'eau merveilleuse", attested in Flanders fairy tale collections, in Belgium, all with contamination from other tale types (two with ATU 303, "The Twins or Blood Brothers", and one with tale type ATU 304, "The Dangerous Night-Watch"). A variant titled La fille du marchand was collected by Emile Dantinne from the Huy region ("Vallée du Hoyoux"), in Wallonia. Switzerland In a variant from Surselva, Ils treis lufts or Die drei Köhler ("The Three Charcoal-Burners"), three men meet in a pub to talk about their dreams. The first dreamt that he found seven gold coins under his pillow, and it came true. The second, that he found a golden chain, which also came true. The third, that he had a son with a golden star on the forehead. The king learns of their dreams and is gifted the golden chain. He marries his daughter to the third charcoal burner and she gives birth to the boy with a golden star. However, the queen replaces her grandson with a puppy and throws the child in the river. Hungary Scandinavia Iceland Denmark Sweden Finland Karelia In a Karelian tale, "Девять золотых сыновей" ("Nine Golden Sons"), the third sister promises to give birth to "three times three" children, their arms of gold up to the elbow, the legs of silver up to the knees, a moon on the temples, a sun on the front and stars in their hair. The king overhears their conversation and takes the woman as his wife. On their way, they meet a woman named Syöjätär, who insists to be the future queen's midwife. She gives birth to triplets in three consecutive pregnancies, but Syöjätär replaces them for rats, crows and puppies. The queen saves one of her children and is cast into a sea in a barrel. The remaining son asks his mother to bake bread with her breastmilk to rescue his brothers. In a Karelian tale by Karelian teller , titled "Starina Turkin sultanista" (), the Turkish sultan passes by the house of an old woman and her three daughters, and spies on their conversation, the third sister wants to marry the sultan and give birth to "three golden children". The sultan takes the youngest sister as his wife. When she is ready to give birth to each child (in three consecutive pregnancies), her elder sister comes as her midwife, and replaces the children for animals: the elder, a boy, for a magpie; the second, another boy, for a crow, and the third, a girl, for a chick. Each time, the child is cast in the water in a box, but they are saved by a childless miller and his wife. The sultan orders his wife to be locked inside a stone structure in the churchyard, and to be fed only with water and bread. Years later, after the children grow up, a mysterious old woman comes to the miller's house, compliments the three siblings and bids them seek the bubbling spring, the ringing birch tree and the speaking bird. The elder brothers fail and become marble stones, but the girl, advised by an old man, gets the treasures. The old man reveals they are the sultan's children. Zaonezh'ya Veps people Baltic Region Latvia The work of Latvian folklorist Peteris Šmidts, beginning with Latviešu pasakas un teikas ("Latvian folktales and fables") (1925–1937), records 33 variants of the tale type. Its name in Latvian sources is Trīs brīnuma dēli or Brīnuma dēli. According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, tale type 707, "The Three Golden Children", is known in Latvia as Brīnuma bērni ("Wonderful Children"), comprising 4 different redactions. Its second redaction is the one that follows the siblings' quest for the treasures (a tree that plays music, a bird that speaks and the water of life). Estonia Lithuania The tale type is known in Lithuanian compilations as Trys nepaprasti kūdikiai, Nepaprasti vaikai or Trys auksiniai sûnûs. Lithuanian folklorist Jonas Balys (lt) published in 1936 an analysis of Lithuanian folktales, citing 65 variants available until then. In his tabulation, he noted that the third sister promised children with astronomical birthmarks, and, years later, her children seek a talking bird, a singing tree and the water of life. According to professor , the tale type is reported to register 244 (two hundred and forty-four) Lithuanian variants, under the banner Three Extraordinary Babies, with and without contamination from other tale types. However, only 34 variants in Lithuania contain the quest for the bird that talks and reveals the truth, alongside a singing tree. Jonas Basanavicius collected a few variants in Lithuanian compilations, including the formats The Boys with the Golden Stars and Tale of Tsar Saltan. German professor tabulated and classified two Lithuanian variants, originally collected in German: Goldhärchen und Goldsternchen ("Little Golden-Hair and Little Golden Star"). In both stories, the queen replaces her twin grandchildren (a boy and a girl) for animals. When she learns they survived, she sends them after magical items from a garden of wonders: little bells, a little fish and the bird of truth. Romania Professor Moses Gaster collected and published a Romani tale from Romania, titled Ăl Rakle Summakune ("The Golden Children"). In this tale, the prince is looking for a wife, and sees three sisters on his father's courtyard. The youngest promises to give birth to "two golden children, with silver teeth and golden hair, and two apples in their hands all golden". The sisters beg the midwife to substitute the twins, a boy and a girl, for puppies and throw them in the water. Years later, the midwife sends them for the "Snake's crown", the fairy maiden Ileana Simziana, the Talking Bird and the Singing Tree. The collector noted that the fairy maiden Ileana was the one to rescue the Brother, instead of the Sister. In an Istro-Romanian tale collected by linguist Gustav Weigand and translated as Feciorii cu parul-de-aur ("The Golden-Haired Children"), three women talk just under the emperor's window: the first promises to bear him a son with golden head, the second a son with golden chest and the last to a pair of golden-haired twin boys. The emperor chooses the third woman as his wife and they marry. Later, when the emperor is away at war, the empress gives birth to her promised twins, but her mother-in-law takes the children and throws them in the water in a crate, placing two snakes in their cradle. The twin boys are saved from the river by a miller. As for the empress, after her husband returns from the war and sees the snakes, she escapes to the village and lives by herself. Years later, the twins decide to leave their adoptive father's home and go to the village, where, unknowingly, they take shelter with their mother. Russia and Eastern Europe Slavicist Karel Horálek published an article with an overall analysis of the ATU 707 type in Slavic sources. Further scholarship established subtypes of the AT 707 tale type in the Slavic-speaking world: AT 707A, AT 707B and AT 707C*. Russia Eastern Europe Belarus Ukraine Slovakia Poland Czech Republic Bulgaria Slovenia Serbia Croatia Bosnia North Macedonia Bashkir people According to Russian scholarship, the tale type is also "well-known" in the Bashkir tale corpus. In a Bashkir tale, Санай-батыр ("Sanai Batyr"), Ulmes-Bey Batyr, an old hunter, falls ill during a hunt. His son, Kusun-batyr, journey through the whole "white world" for a cure for his father. He comes near a tree where a nest of vipers is attacking a wolf den. For three nights, Kusun Batyr kills the serpents with his sword and the wolf, as a token of gratitude, leads the youth to three birch trees, where three maidens are weaving with birch leaves and with a bird claw. From these claws three remedies will spring: kumis, spider silk and honey. The wolf explains that a mixture of these three substances will heal his ailing father. The youth also learns that the three maidens wish to marry Kusun Batyr: the first, daughter of Toygonbeya-batyr, promises to make him the most delicious kumis; the second, daughter of Targynbea-batyr, promises to weave very light outfits of a white colour, and the third, daughter of a wise aksaqal (a village elder), promises to give birth to a son stronger that his father (Sanai Batyr). Kusun Batyr gets the remedies, saves his father and marries all three, designing tasks for them: the first wife shall cook, the second shall weave and the third shall bear him the fabled son. The first two wives, jealous of the third, conspire with a witch midwife to replace the boy with a dog and abandon him in the woods. The boy, Sanai Batyr, is rescued by the wolf who helped his father and grandfather and grows to be a fine youth. He goes to the mountains, sees a duck become a maiden and captures her, making her his wife. Despondent, Sanai Batyr wishes to travel and see the whole world, and the wolf gives him the ability to become a wasp. In wasp form, he travels to his father's lands to listen to a caravan of travellers narrate the wondrous sights they have seen. Inspired by the fantastical stories, Sanai Batyr decides to have them in his own yurt. In another Bashkir tale, "Черный щенок" ("The Little Black Dog"), a man named Bai has four wives. He tells them he will go on a long journey and asks them what they will give him when he returns. The first says she will hunt 40 partridges to feed his 100 servants; the second - she will weave boots made of sand; the third will sew gloves made of louse skin, and the fourth says she will give birth to two sons with golden heads, teeth of pearls and silver hair. All four wives fulfill their promises, but the first three wives at first try to kill the children by placing them under cow and horse hooves to be trampled, but they are left unscathed. They decide to cast them into the water and replace them with a little black dog. When Bai returns, he banishes the fourth wife with the little dog to a windowless hut in the woods. In exile, the little dog acquires human speech and helps his "mother", by fetching the wonderful things a traveller tells Bai. At the end of the tale, the little black dog rescues the human children by using four cookies baked with their mother's milk. In a Bashkir tale titled "Конь пустыни" ("The Desert Horse"), a king goes on a hunt and spends the night in a bai's house. While he is asleep, the bai's three daughters admire him and make grand promises if each marries him: the elder sister promises to give birth to a son; the middle sister to a daughter, and the youngest, "white-faced" Aklima, promises twins, a boy and a girl. The king wakes up and decides to have Aklima as his newest wife, despite her father's protests that the elder should marry first. Some time later, the king has to depart for war, and leaves Aklima to his elder wife to be cared for during her labour. Aklima gives birth to twins, who are replaced for puppies and cast in a river by the elder wife. The king returns and, learning of the abnormal birth, orders Aklima to be tied to a post and to be spat on. Meanwhile, the children are rescued by a poor fisherman. After the fisherman dies, the twins leave his house and establish themselves in the forest. The king passes by them one day and tells his first wife about the encounter, who sends an old sorceress to visit the twins. The sorceress tells the female twin about a strange apple tree that exists in a deep forest, in the garden of the genies; a wonderful quray ("курай", in the Russian text) that sings the voices of the ancestors, kept inside a tower by the genies; and finally about the beautiful daughter of the genies who sleeps in a golden cradle. The male twin, with the help of a fiery desert horse, traverses the desert of the end of the world and finds the object at the end of each quest and finally the genie maiden, who marries the male twin. At the end of the tale, the maiden passes by her mother-in-law, gives her an apple from the apple tree to restore her strength, and plays the quray to reveal the whole truth to the king. Gagauz people In a variant collected from the Gagauz people by Russian ethographer , "Три сестры: дѣвушка обѣщавшая царевичу, если онъ возметъ ее замужъ принести сына съ солнцемъ во лбу, а дочь съ мѣсяцемь" ("Three Sisters: the youngest said that, if she were to marry the prince, she would give birth to a son with the sun on the forehead, and a girl with a moon"), the youngest sister gives birth to her promised wonder children, but an evil old witch casts them in the river. The son of the king orders her to be interred to the chest and for everyone who passes by to spit on her. The children, raised by a miller, pass by their mother, who recognizes them. This tale was translated into English as Three Sisters by . In a Gagauz tale titled "Девочка Гюн и мальчик Ай" ("Girl Sun and Boy Moon"), while their father is away grinding the grain, a shepherd's three daughters talks among themselves about marrying the son of the padishah: the elder promises to weave a carper large enough to cover the whole army, and there would still be space left; the middle that she can bake bread enough for the whole army, and there would still be some left; and the youngest promises to bear him twins, a boy with the moon on his forehead ("Ay") and a girl with the sun on the front ("Gyun"). While they are talking, the son of the padishah overhears their conversation and decides to marry the youngest sister. The padishah goes with his son to another country, and she gives birth to her promised twins. The padishah's wife, however, orders a witch to get the twins and cast them in the water, in a box. The box is eventually found by an old couple who raise the twins. Years later, the old witch goes to their house to convince them to seek an apple from Dyunnyaya-Guzel, her mirror and Dyunnyaya-Guzel herself. The boy, Ay, gets the apple and the mirror, but is turned to stone while he goes to get the maiden Dyunnyaya-Guzel. The female twin, Gyun, goes to get Dyunnyaya-Guzel and rescues her brother. The three return home and the twins' father prepares a feast in their honor. On their way there, the twins and Dyunnyaya-Guzel pass by the twins' mother, buried up to the torso, with some thorny branches for people to whip her, and do not whip her. During the feast, Dyunnyaya-Guzel warns the twins to avoid the food. In a Gagauz tale titled "Девица с золотыми волосами и молодец с золотыми зубами" ("The Girl with Golden Hair and the Boy with Golden Teeth"), a padishah's neighbour convinces him to declare not to light any light at night throughout the city. The neighbour himself, however, disobeys the ban, despite being the one to suggest it, and the padishah goes to check on his house. The padishah spies his neighbour's three daughters singing about marrying the padishah's sons: the elder promises to build a large city to house an entire troop; the middle one about preparing honey for the troops, and some would still remain; and the youngest promises that, if she marries his youngest son, she will give birth to a girl with golden hair and a boy with golden teeth. The padishah takes them to his palace and marry them to his sons, and orders them to fulfill their boasts. The elder sisters, however, simply dismiss their boasts, and are imprisoned for this. The youngest fulfills hers and gives birth to her promised children. Her sisters become jealous of her success and wish she could suffer as they did. An old witch takes the children as soon as they are born, replaces them for little animals, and casts them in a box into the river. The box is found by an old couple who have a large herd of horses and a farm. They raise the twins and, on the old man's deathbed, the male twin is advised to find a horse with a star-shaped mark on its head, which will become the boy's companion. Later, they move out to the city. The old witch learns of the twins' survival and convinces the female twin to send her brother on quests: first, for elephant tusks to build walls with; secondly, for bearskins for the roof; thirdly, for flowers from Dyunnyaya-Guzel's garden; lastly, for fresh milk of sea mares, so she can bathe in and be even more beautiful. After the last quest, the old witch prepares a cauldron for the twins to bathe in, but the male twin's horse, knowing it is a trap, advises the boy to let the horse also bathe in the milk (so the animal can protect the twins with its breath). At the end of the tale, the horse tells the male twin their mother is the woman tied in a sack hung upon a tree, and advises the twins on how to draw their grandfather's attention and absolve their mother. Kalmyk people Crimean Tatars According to scholarship, at least 4 variants have been collected from Crimean Tatar sources: Uch Kyz ("Three Girls"), Ak Kavak Kyz or Akkavak Kyz ("The Maid of the Eternal Tree"), Ay man Yildiz and Tuvarchynyn Uch Kyz (Crimean Tatar: "Туварджынынъ уч къызы"; ). In Uch Kyz, the third sister promises twins with uncommon hair color; in Akkavak Kyz, she promises twins, a boy and a girl, more beautiful than the Sun and the moon; in Ay man Yildiz, the male twin is born with a moon on the front and the female one with a star on the forehead; lastly, in Tuvarchynyn Uch Kyz, she gives birth to twins, the boy named Сырма ("Syrma"), and the girl Сырлы ("Syrly"). Kazan Tatars In a tale from the Kazan Tatars, translated into Hungarian with the title Aranyfejű, ezüstkezű ("Golden Heads, Silver Hands"), a padishah's golden bird lands in a garden. Three maidens find the bird and will only return it if the padishah marries all three of them. First, however, he asks them about their skills: the first two focus on skills on weaving and sewing, but the third maiden promises to bear twin boys with golden hair and silver hands. The padishah marries all three; the first two do not deliver on their promises, while the third bears the twins. The boys are taken from her and cast into the water in a box that is found by a poor couple. Years later, one of the twins decides to travel the world and reaches another kingdom. The tale continues as tale type ATU 303, "The Twins or Blood Brothers", with the dragon slaying episode of type ATU 300, "The Dragon slayer". Finally, the tale concludes when the twins return to their father's court and reveal their life story. Dagestan Ossetia Dargin people At least two variants are reported to have been collected from Dargin sources: "Шах и бедная девушка" ("The Shah and the Poor Girl") and "Арц-Издаг" ("Silver Izdag"). In the Dargin tale "Шах и бедная девушка" ("The Shah and the Poor Girl"), collected by M.-Z. Osmanov from a source in Chumli, Kaytagsky District, a shah forbids lighting any candle at night. One night, he decides to check if his subjects are following his orders, and reaches the house of a poor orphan girl working at night. He overhears her muttering to herself that if she marries the shah, she will give birth to a boy with golden hair and a girl with silver hair. On the next two nights, the shah returns to the same house and she still utters the same promise. On hearing this, the shah decides to marry the poor girl and brings her to his palace to be his second wife, since he was already married to a first one. Nine months later, the shah's second wife is ready to give birth to her children, and the shah establishes a code: a red flag is to be hoisted if she bears the wonder children, and a black flag for normal ones. He departs. While he is away, the poor girl gives birth to her promised wonder children, who are replaces for puppies and cast in the water in a box by the shah's first wife. After the shah returns, he is fooled by the first co-wive deception, and orders the poor wife to be sewn in a buffalo's hide and for people to spit on her. Back to the children, they are rescued by a childless miller, who raises them as their own. When the twins are old enough, the female twin fashions handkerchiefs with their metallic hair while the male twin sells them. This earns them enough money to buy a palace next to the shah's. The ruler's first wife notices the children are alive and sends a witch to dispose of them. The witch pays a visit to the twins' palace and convinces the female twin to send her brother, first, for a magical tree beyond seven mountains, and, next, for a wife for himself: a beautiful maiden that lives beyond seven seas. With the help of a talking horse, the male twin gets the tree (located in a garden guarded by dragons and given by their king) and the maiden. After succeeding on both quests, the shah's vizier reveals the co-wife's plot to the shah, who restores the twins' mother as his wife and locks the first one up in the dungeons. In the tale "Арц-Издаг" ("Silver Izdag"), three orphan sisters talk at night: the elder promises to feed the entire village with only a sakh of flour; the middle one promises to sew clothes for the entire village with only half a meter of satin; and the youngest wants to marry the "талхан" ("talkhan") and bear him a boy with golden hair, with the moon shining on one side and the sun on the other. The talkhan takes the youngest sister as his new wife (for he was already married to a previous one). The talkhan's first wife takes the boy as soon as he is born and casts him in the sea in a box, and puts two puppies in his place. The talkhan banishes his second wife. The golden-haired boy survives and is taken by a character named Урха хула аба ("Urha hula aba", "Old Woman of the Sea"). Years later, the boy just happens to meet the talkhan, and the talkhan's first wife realizes her step-son is alive. Thus, she goes to talk to the boy and convinces him to seek a tree with honey sap (or honey-butter tree) that can rejuvenate people, a cat that plays a zurna whose sounds cure whoever hears it, and a beautiful woman named Arts-Izdag, who can petrify her suitors. Caucasus Mountains German linguist Anton Schiefner collected an Avar language tale and published it in his work Awarische Texte. In this tale, Die schöne Jesensulchar ("The Beautiful Jesensulchar"), three sisters talk what they would do if the king chose one of them as his queen, the third promising to give birth to a boy with pearly teeth and a girl with golden locks. They are replaced by a puppy and a kitten and thrown in the water, but a golden-furred doe finds the twins and nurses them. Years later, they are set on a quest for an apple tree that talks with itself and dances when applauded, and a maiden named Jesensulchar as a friend for the Sister. In a tale from the Nogais titled "Повелительница джиннов Сарыгыз" ("Sarygyz, the Sovereign of the Djinni"), the youngest of three princes rides in front of his brothers and stops to rest by a hill. He begins to hear womanly voices coming from uphill, one promising to sew her husband a headband, the second that she can feed an entire nation with an egg, and the third that she will bear a golden-haired girl and a boy with silver eyebrows. The prince wakes up, talks to the girls (who are sisters) and brings them for him and his brothers to marry. The first two fail in fulfilling their boasts, but the youngest gives birth to her promised twins. The jealous sisters bribe the midwife to lock the children in a box and cast it in the sea. A fisherman and his wife find the box with the twins inside and raise them, since they had no children. Years later, the jealous aunts send a midwife to the fisherman's house. The midwife convinces the golden-haired sister to send her brother on quests: first, to get the horns of a spotted ram to make a bed for her; then, to plant a golden tree on the moon's side and a silver tree on the sun's side; thirdly, to get fresh kumiss from a herd of ten mares, and lastly, to get Sarygyz, the mistress of the djinni, as wife for her brother. Sarygyz has petrifying powers, but the male twin (the brother) succeeds in entering her tower and bringing her to their house. Armenia Georgia Adyghe people Azerbaijan Ingush people Abaza people Abkhazian people In a tale from the Abkhazians titled "Младшая дочь князя" ("The Youngest Daughter of the Knyaz"), a knyaz has three daughters and an apple tree with reddened fruits in his garden. He sets a challenge for his daughters' suitors: whoever shoots the apples with an arrow may marry one of his daughters. The son of a neighbouring king tries his luck and shoots an apple. The youngest daughter picks it up from the ground. The prince tries his luck again and shoots the other two fruits. All three sisters introduce themselves to him, who asks them about their skills: the elder two claim to be masters at any skill, while the youngest promises to give birth to a son whose half is of gold and another of silver. The prince marries the youngest. Some time later, he departs to fight in a war and leaves his wife in her sisters' care. Her son is born, but the jealous sisters take the boy and replace him for a puppy, cook him in a cauldron and pour out the liquids in the garden. The prince returns and, seeing the puppy, banishes his wife to the stables. Meanwhile, an aspen tree sprouts on the spot where they poured out the cauldron. The prince fells it down and uses it as beam in his house. His wife gets some splinters of the aspen to make a fire to warm herself. A coal jumps out of the fire and turns into a gold coin. She takes the gold coin and puts it into a chest. Some time later, she hears a voice coming from the chest: it is her son, half of silver and half of gold, now reborn. Mother and son return to the prince to reveal the truth, and he banishes his sisters-in-law. In another Abkhazian tale titled "Как украли детей Багдажва" ("How Bagdazhva's children were stolen"), a man named Bagdazhv likes to travel the world. One day, he hears a mournful song being played in an instrument and follows the sound to its source: three women playing and mourning. Bagdazhv asks the girls what they are doing there; the three girls answer that they are orphans who only have each other. Bagdazhv brings the girls with him to a friend's house. Some time later, Bagdazhv asks the sisters about their skills: the eldest claims she can weave clothes for 10 people with sheep's wool; the second claims she can make a meal with bread and a bottle of vodka; the youngest promises to bear twins, a child of gold and a child of silver. Bagdazhv marries the elder sisters to friends and makes the youngest his wife. While he is away at war, the jealous sisters and a midwife replace the children for animals and cast them in the water. The twins are found by an old shepherd when he is grazing his she-goat, while their mother is banished to a seven-way crossroad. Years later, they grow up "different from anyone in the village". The midwife goes to the twins and persuades the brother to find as his wife the daughter of a prince who can petrify people. He passes the prince's test and marries his daughter. His sister also marries a prince and gives birth to a son. The brother's wife, a woman with all-knowing powers, sends the youth to rescue his mother from the crossroads. Bagdazhv then welcomes the twins and their spouses to a feast and the youth reveals the whole truth. Kabardian people In a tale from the Kabardian people titled "Чудесная гармошка" ("The Magical Garmon"), three brothers hunt in the forest at night and see a light in the distance coming from a cave. They reach the cave and see inside three women. The women explain that they are three sisters from a nearby village who were kidnapped by a man and taken to the cave, but now their captor has died and since then they have lived in the cave. The three brothers decide to marry the three women: the eldest promises to her husband that she will bear twins, a boy and a girl; the middle sister promises her spouse that she will bear a girl with half of her hair made of white gold and the other of red gold; and the youngest sister promises her man that she will bear a son to him, a Nart. Only the eldest gives birth to her promised children, who are "of extraordinary beauty", to the jealousy of her younger sisters. The two sisters take the children and cast them in the water in a box. The box is found by an old couple, while their mother is exiled in the barn. The old couple raises the twins and names the girl Babukh and the boy Cherim. The boy becomes a fine and skilled hunter and the girl grows up to be a beautiful woman. Cherim kills a deer, to the amazement of the hunters (his father and uncles). Cherim is brought to the hunters' house and his mother, from the barn, notices him. The father discovers the truth and punishes the sisters-in-law. Later, a witch, sister to the punished sisters-in-law, goes to the twins' house and tells Babukh about a magical golden garmon between two rocks, and about a magical apple tree that blooms during the day and yields fruit at night, tended by a maid, sister of seven brothers. Cherim obtains the magical garmon, but is captured by the maid's brothers when he tries to get the apple tree. Cherim's "альп" ("alp") returns to their house and advises Babukh to take the garmon with her and ride to the house of the seven brothers to save Cherim. Chechnya In a tale from Chechnya titled "Зависть" ("Envy") or "Золотой мальчик и золотая девочка" ("Golden Boy and Golden Girl"), a mullah and two knyaz live in a village. The first knyaz has three daughters, and the second knyaz wants to marry one of them, so he inquires them about their skills: the elder sister says she can sew garments for 63 people with only a quarter of soft leather (maroquin); the middle one that she can make bread for 63 men with a single dish of flour; and the youngest that she will bear him a golden son and a golden daughter. The second knyaz marries the third sister, to the envy of the elders. After the knyaz leaves, his wife gives birth to a golden son and a golden daughter. The mullah, who feared that the knyaz would become even richer, advises the envious aunts to take the children and replace them for puppies, then to put the twins in a box and cast them in the water. The envious sisters carry out the mullah's plan, but the twins are found by a childless couple. The children grow up and leave their adoptive parents' house. They build a hut for themselves: the boy grazes the sheep in the forest and the girl stays home and prepares the food. The father, the second knyaz, sees the boy, which alerts the envious sisters. They confabulate with the mullah about a plan to get rid of them. The mullah goes to the twins' hut and convinces the sister to seek a golden goat that dances and grazes beyond seven mountains, a wonderful apple tree that never loses its golden apples, and a maiden named Малха-Азани (Malkha-Azani), who lives beyond nine mountains, as wife for her brother. The golden boy goes to Malkha-Azani on his horse and forces her to restore the petrified men near her palace, which she does by taking out her enchanted mirror. Malkha-Azani becomes the male twin's wife and lives with them. One day, the knyaz, their father, tells the two sisters that he will invite the twins for a feast, but he will dig up a hole in the forest and cover it with a carpet. Malkha-Azani warns the twins of the danger and they go to the knyaz's palace through another path. Malkha-Azani and the twins arrive at the palace, but she tells the knyaz they won't join them until the knyaz brings the woman he expelled. Malkha-Azani then explains that the golden twins are his sons. Asia Turkey Israel Middle East Lebanon Syria Palestine Iraq Assyrian people Saudi Arabia Kurdish people Pamir Mountains Iran India Bangladesh At least one variant of tale type 707 is attested in the academic literature of Bangladesh. Tibet Two other Asian versions were recorded by M. Potanine (Grigory Potanin): one from Amdo, in northeast Tibet, from an old "Tangoute" that hailed from Lan-tcheou (in Kan-sou); and a second one that he heard in Ourga (ancient French language name for the city of Ulaanbaatar). The Amdo/Tangut story begins largely the same: two princesses, Ngulyggun ("silver queen") and Kserlyg gun ("golden queen") play the basin game with the king's maid, Yog-tamu-nzo. The princesses lose a silver and a golden basin, the maid returns to the king to inform him, and goes back to the princess with the false story about them being expelled from the kingdom. The maid forces the princesses to exchange places on their way to another realm. They meet a prince; he shoots three arrows to choose his cook and they fall near Kserlyg. On their way to the prince's palace, the maiden Yog-tamu pushes Kserlyg into a lake to drown, forces Ngulyggun into menial service and becomes queen. Ngulyggun, while taking the sheep to graze, receives the visit of her sister's spirit, who gives her bread and food. Yog-tamu discovers this situation and kills Kserlyg's spirit. Ngulyggun gives birth to a half-silver, half-golden child, and Yog-tamu orders the baby to be trampled by sheep, but they scatter. She orders to be trampled by cows and horses, but the baby is spared. Then she orders the baby to be buried in a hole and for it to be filled with manure. A flower sprouts. A sheep eats it and gives birth to a piebald sheep, who talks to its human mother, Ngulyggun. The false queen orders the sheep to be slaughtered and its bones gathered by Ngulyggun. The maiden takes the bones to a cave and, for three times, the bones become a lama. The lama asks his mother to summon the false queen to the cave, where the whole truth is revealed. Northern Asia Mansi people Khanty people In a tale collected by Serafim Keropowitsch Patkanov (de) from the Ostyak (Khanty people) with the title The Story of a Wise Maiden, three princes seek wives for themselves. When walking through a city in the dark of night, they see a light in the distance coming from a house. They get a ladder and peer into the illuminated room. Three sister are talking: the eldest wants to marry the elder prince and bear him two daughters, the middle one the middle prince and bear him a daughter and a son; and the youngest wants to marry the youngest prince, and she shall bear him a daughter and two sons, each of them with shining heavenly stars on the crown on their heads, the sun on the forehead, a moon on the back on the neck, and the youngest son shall have the joints of his right hand and right foot in a golden color. She marries the younger prince and bears the three children. Each time, her sisters take the baby to be eaten by "an upper and a lower shade", but, failing that, replace them for puppies. Their mother is nailed to the church door, while the children are reared in a moos. The sisters learn of this and throw the babies in the water to die, but they are saved by a poor fishing couple. Years later, the siblings, now adults, talk to coming traders, and the girl gives them a dog (the younger brother). When the traders depart and reach another town, the brother-as-dog overhears their conversation about wondrous things: a birch tree with small bells and tambourines that when shaken produces silver, a reindeer stag whose antlers hold tinkling silver bells, and a girl with heavenly stars on the crown of her head, a sun on the forehead and the moon on the back of her neck that lives in an iron house at the end of the world. The two brothers get the first two objects and decide to make the woman the bride of one or the other. The brothers fail to get the maiden from the iron house, but their sister visits her and convinces her to resurrect her brothers. The four return to their adoptive parents' house. Some time later, the girl from the iron house tells them about their birth mother, and goes with the sibling to a dinner with the king. The mother is taken off the church door, clothed and bathed and presented to the dinner. The girl from the iron house tells her to squeeze her breasts, so that her breastmilk flows into the mouths of the siblings, proving their relationship. Yukaghir people In a tale collected by ethnographer Vladimir Jochelson from the Yukaghir people with the title "Сказка о стучащей ягодъ девушки" ("The Tale about the Berry-Picking Women"), a man has two wives. When he goes to a hunt, his elder wife promises to give him new clothes when he returns, while the younger wife promises to give birth to a son with the sun on the forehead, the star on the top of his head, and a moon on the neck. Evenk people In a tale from the Evenk people with the Evenk title "Бэеткэн алтама гэткэчи", translated into Russian by M. Voskobojnikov with the title "Мальчик с золотым затылком" ("The Boy With the Golden Nape"), three Evenk sisters walk with their old mother on the taiga, the elder sister finds a button on the ground, the middle sister finds a feather and the youngest fetches a hunting knife. Suddenly, a raven flies in and asks them which one found the button; the elder sister replies she did and the raven declares she will be the bird's wife. Then, an owl flies in and asks about the feather; the middle sister answers she did, and the owl takes her for its wife. Finally, a young human hunter comes out of the bushes and asks whoever found his hunting knife; the younger sister replies and the hunter takes her as his wife. The three couple then build their yurts next to each other, the elder sisters living with their bird husbands, while their cadette living with her normal human one. One day, the human hunter announces he will go on a hunt, and his wife promises to give birth to a boy with a golden nape when he returns. Before their brother-in-law comes home, the elder sisters decide to humiliate their young by taking their nephew as soon as he is born and casting him in the water, then placing a puppy in the baby's cradle. The human hunter comes home and, seeing the puppy, and not a human baby, becomes enraged. They move out the yurts to another camp; their old mother goes to fetch water, and sees a boy in the river. She tries to talk to him, but he hides back in the water. She later returns to the river margin with a toy bow and arrow to draw the boy to land. The ploy succeeds and the old mother takes the boy to her hut, not knowing it is her grandson. The old woman's daughter sew clothes for the boy and make him a real bow and arrow. One day, the boys goes to hunt in the forest, and sees a woman carrying a heavy bundle of wood. The boy offers to help the woman go to his yurt, but the woman refuses to enter, since she recognizes it as her family's hut. The boy notices the woman's reaction, and her sister come out of the yurt to expel the woman. Soon after, their brother-in-law appears and questions them about the boy. The hunter sees the boy's golden nape and recognizes him as his own son, just as his wife promised, and banishes his sisters-in-law. Altai people In a tale from the Altai people, collected in 1935 and published in 1937 with the Russian title "Боролдой-Мерген" ("Boroldoy-Mergen"), an old man named Укючек ("Ukyuchek") and his wife Байпак ("Baypak") have three daughters. One day, they receive news an evil creature named Almys is coming down from the Altai Mountains to devour the people, and they fear for their three daughters, so they send them to gather berries with bottomless sieves while they stay at home. The girls go and get berries and return home late at night, but do see their parents. Each of them find an object on the ground: a bar, scissors and a horn, and leave home. On the road, they look behind them and notice the Almys is after them, so they throw the objects to create obstacles for their pursuer, as they make their way atop an oak tree. The Almys comes to the oak with an axe and begins to chop it down, until a fox appears and offers to help it. The Almys falls asleep and the fox throws the axe in a river and tells the girls to keep running. The Almys wakes up, gets the axe and runs after the girls. The fox appears before the girls and offers to help them cross a large sea, in exchange for them complimenting it. The fox fulfills her part of the deal, but also carves a boat (with a hole) for the Almys. The Almys tries to cross the lake and sinks. The girls, safe for now, take shelter under a cedar or pine tree, near a hunting party. The girls steal some of the hunting party food and climb a tree. The hunters notice their food was stolen and discover the girls. The maidens beg for the hunter to let them live, and throw their rings as engagement rings for whoever gets them first: the older sister for the elder hunter, the middle one for the middle hunter brother, and the younger sister for the younger hunter. Three marriages are celebrated. Some time later, the men are to go on a hunt, and ask their wives what they can prepare for their return: the elder sister promises to weave 30 pairs of boots with a stripe of hide; the middle sister that she will bake nine bags of tolkana with a single grain, and the youngest she will bear her husband a daughter with golden head and silver body. The hunters leaves for the hunt; the elder sisters fulfill their tasks, but take their niece as soon as she is born and replace her for a blind puppy. The next years, the hunters prepare to leave for another hunt and ask a similar question for their wives: the elder promises to weave 60 coats with a single sheepskin. the middle one will prepare 60 tashaurs with a single cup of milk; and the youngest promises to bear a golden son with silver head. Just like before, the elder sister fulfill their promises, but take their nephew and replace him for a blind kitten. The youngest hunter, tired of her unfulfilled claims, takes her out of the hut, blind one of her eyes, breaks her arms and legs and leaves her to die on the steppes. The girl, however, is still alive, and cries over her lost children. She then sees a mouse eating some sort of herb and becoming healthy again, and repeats the animal's action, restoring her to full health. Living on the healing herbs alone, she wanders through the mountains until she takes shelter with an old man who tells her her children were drowned in the White Sea, but she can save them. The maiden goes to the White Sea and sees two children coming out of the lake. As soon as she approaches them, the children escape back to the water. The next time, the maiden holds the children close to her against the waves of the lake, and rescues them. She proves their parentage by having a jet of milk come out of her breasts into their mouths. They then decide to establish themselves in the mountains, and the siblings, years later, come back to their father's hut to take revenge on their aunts for their deception. The siblings returns to their mother, but find she has died in their absence. They bury her in Mount Temir-Tau. The pair then begin to live alone, and the story explains their names are "Боодой-Кокшин" (Boodoy-Kokshin, the sister) and "Боролдой-Мерген" (Boroldoy-Mergen, the brother). The tale then continues with Boodoy-Kokshin getting fire from a neighbour (the Almys in disguise), and dying by having her blood sucked off by the Almys; and her brother burying her in a casket in the mountains. Then, Boroldoy-Mergen takes his horse Chubarka to another kingdom where he finds three supernatural maidens in the golden palace; later, he pays a visit to his sister's coffin, and the Almys sucks his blood, killing him. Suddenly, the rocks break apart and a stream of reviving water ("water of life") resurrects Boodoy-Kokshin. The girl wakes up and, seeing her dead brother, takes his horse Chubarka to the golden palace to ask for the help of the supernatural maidens. Buryat people Torghut people Central Asia Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Tajikistan Tuva Tofalar people Karakalpak people East Asia Japan China In a tale from the Oroqen people titled Nameless Hunter, a talented hunter, skilled in archery, lives in the Hinggan Mountains. Due to his great skills, many girls are interested in him, but only three maidens end up marrying him. Time passes, and, one day, Nameless Hunter tells his three wives he will go on a hunt, and asks them what they will greet him with on his return. The first wife promises to sew him a new hat; the second wife promises to sew a new fur coat with lace; and the third wife announces she is pregnant and their son will be born when he returns. While their husband is away, the first two wives set a trap for the youngest before she gives birth: they place her on a tall wooden platform for her to fall, but she gives birth to her baby safely. Before their husband returns, the two wives take the baby and throw him in a small lake, and place a puppy in his place. Nameless Hunter comes back and, deceived by the two wives, beats up the Third Wife with a stick and locks her with the puppy. Later, the girl cries so much she loses her sight. She wanders off to the edge of the lake. Her son, rescued from the water by Kindhearted Water Mother, comes out of the lake and meets his mother, who asks him to nurse from her, thus confirming their relationship. When the little boy is 10 years old, he goes back to his father and exposes the trickery of the other wives. Uyghur people In a tale from the Uyghurs titled "Чин Томюр и Махтум-сула" ("Chin Tomyur and Mahtum-sula") or Chin Timur and Mahtumsala, a king has two wives; the younger gives birth to a boy and a girl, but the elder co-wife replaces them for puppies and throws them in the lake. A she-bear raises the children, who are named Chin Tomyur (the boy) and Mahtum-sula (the girl). When they are older, Mahtum-sula stays home while Chin Tomyur goes hunting. One day, the boy orders his sister to never let their fire in the hearth go out. It happens so and Mahtum-sula needs to go to a neighbour to find another source. She meets an old woman who gives her a hot coal and some millet seeds. The seeds make a trail back to the siblings' house that the old woman follows and turns into a seven-headed dragon. Chin Tomyur kills the seven-headed monster and saves his sister. The tale then continues with further adventures. Korea Mongolia Southeast Asia Indonesia Myanmar Philippines Africa North Africa Tunisia Algeria Egypt Morocco Sudan Central Africa West Africa A variant of The child born with a moon on his breast is mentioned by Édouard Jacouttet as hailing from "Gold Coast", an old name for a region on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa: a king named Miga has many wives, who had not born any children. A witch doctor gives a remedy for the wives: all of them give birth to animals, except one, who mothers a son "with a peculiar sign on his forehead", just like his father. This tale was first recorded in 1902 by G. Härtter, from the Ewe people in Togo. In a Senegalese tale, The child with a star on the forehead, originally collected in French by Lilyan Kesteloot and Bassirou Dieng with the title L'enfant qui avait une étoile sur le front, the jealous co-wives replace the chief's son for a bottle, but the boy is rescued by a helpful old woman. She raises him and directs him to meet his father. Hausa language Cape Verde Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons collected some variants from Cape Verde Islands, grouped under the banner of The Envious Sisters. The wonder children appear in four of them. In one, collected in San Anton (sic), the third sister promises three children with gold stars on the forehead; in the second from the same island, a servant of the king gives birth to triplets with gold stars on the forehead. In the main text, provided by Antonio da Graça of San Nicolao (sic), the third sister gives birth to two boys and a girl with a gold star on the forehead, in three consecutive births. In the fourth, collected from Fogo, the boy has a gold star on the forehead, and the girl a golden apple on her hand. In a second set of Cape Verdean variants, the children are replaced for animals and saved by the Old-Woman-of-the-Sea. These tales also lack the quest for the items. East Africa In an East African tale translated into Russian as "Волшебный цветок" ("The Magic Flower"), a poor woman offers her beautiful daughter as the newest wife for the king. The king is taken with her beauty and pays a bride price to the woman, who predicts her daughter will bear seven children to him. The king has had a previous wife, who dislikes the co-wife. While the king is away, the younger wife gives birth to six boys and a girl, who the elder wife replaces for seven stones and casts them adrift in the river. A poor fisherwoman rescues the children and raises them. Years later, the elder wife and the midwife conspire to send the seven siblings on difficult quests, so the midwife comes to the fisherwoman's humble house and tells the girl, Katumbi, about a baby cobra, a lion cub and the magic flower Kisulumbuku ("цветок Кисулумбуку"). Katumbi's six brothers find the objects and the flower, which can speak, tells the king the whole story. Southern Africa Namibia Sotho people Xhosa people Madagascar Réunion In the island of Réunion, a variant was collected from local male storyteller Germain Elizabeth, born in 1895, with the title Kat fler d-roz ("Four Rose Blossoms"). In this variant, three orphan girls express their wishes to marry the king's cook, the king's baker, and the king himself. The king marries the youngest, and, she is to give birth, she is to ring a golden bell for a son, and a silver bell for a girl. She gives birth to two boys and a girl in three consecutive births, but the children are replaces for two puppies and a kitten. An old fairy rescues and raises the children as their foster mother, and she helps them to obtain the treasures: the dancing apple, the singing water, and the bird of truth from the garden where a woman named Four Rose Blossoms lives. Professor Lee Haring also noted that his tale was a "descendant" from Galland's Two Sisters and Grimm's Three Little Birds and, like those tales, also classified as type 707. Mayotte A Maorais variant was collected from teller Afiatu Sufu of Mtsapere in the Shimaore language. In this tale, titled Vovoo mutseha na Rambuu mulagua or La Noix d'Arec qui rit et la Feuille de Bétel qui parle ("The Laughing Areca nut and the Speaking Betel leaf"), a poor girl grows up and becomes ill. Whenever the king passes by her village, she shouts at him to cure her, and in return she will give him seven children, six boys and a girl. The girl pleads him so insistently he cures her. Some months later, the girl loses her grandparents, but marries the king, who already has a previous wife. When she is in labour, the first wife and an old woman act as midwife to the second queen in the delivery, replacing the children for stones. The seven siblings are found by a poor old couple. Years later, the old midwife convinces the youngest sister to send her brothers for the lioness's milk, the laughing Areca nut and the speaking betel leaf. Americas North America United States Professor and folktale collector Genevieve Massignon collected the tale titled Les Trois Sœurs abandonnées, part of a collection of 77 stories obtained from fieldwork from Madawaska, Maine. A few versions have been collected from Mexican-American populations living in U.S. states, such as California and New Mexico, and in the Southwest. In a variant collected around Los Angeles area, there are two sons, one golden-haired and the other silver-haired, and a girl with a star on her forehead, while a second variant mixes type ATU 425A ("Search for The Lost Husband") with type ATU 707. A variant was collected from a Spanish-descent fifteen-year-old named Philomene Gonzalez, from Delacroix Island, Louisiana, in 1941. In this variant, titled Golden Star, a maiden wishes to marry the prince and to have a boy with white and golden hair and with a star on the forehead. She gives birth to this boy and a girl with the same traits the following year. An old woman replaces the children for puppies and throws them in the river, but God rescues them. This version lacks the quest for the items, and concludes when God sends them to a feast with the king. Native Americans In a Chippewa tale collected in 1942 from Delia Oshogay, in Court Oreilles, Oshkikwe's Children, Oshkikwe is the youngest sister who marries the king because she promised to give birth to three children: two boys, and the last a girl with golden hair and a star on her forehead. Her two sisters, the elder named Matchikwewis, become jealous and enraged that they married lowly men and devise a plan: cast the children into the river and replace them for animals, causing the queen to be imprisoned by her husband. The children are rescued and raised by an old couple, then go on a quest for the "golden bird that talked". Anthropologist James Teit collected a tale from the Upper Thompson River Indians titled Spiṓla. A white woman is exiled from home, but meets a lodge where her four brothers lived. She helps them and is blessed with the ability to produce gold with her mouth. A chief's son marries her and she is pregnant. When the husband is called away to a meeting, her step-mother and step-sister help in the delivery. However, they make a hole in the floor, let her sons fall through it and put a cat and a snake in their place. Seeing the animals, the chief's son condemns her to be drowned in the river, but her brothers rescue her. Meanwhile, the boys have been rescued by the woman's favourite dog named Spiṓla. The dog protects and feeds the children. One day, the woman's step-mother gives some poisoned food to the boys and they die. The dog Spiṓla decides to go to the house of the Sun to seek help, and on his way is questioned by three people to find answers to their problems (a la "Three Hairs from the Devil's Beard"). When the dog resurrects the boys, one boy has a shining sun on the forehead, and the other a bright moon. Lastly, Spiṓla decides to find the wise Bird, who "talked all languages, knew the future, and never told a lie". Stith Thompson related this tale to the cycle of "The Bird of Truth". Researchers Darwin Hanna and Mamie Henry collected a Nlaka'pamux tale which they translated as Dog Travels to the Sun. In this tale, a woman declares she will give birth to four children: one with the sun on the forehead, another with a star, a third with the moon, and the last with a lightning. When the times come for the birth of the first child, an old midwife assists in her labour, but she drops the baby through a hole in the floor and replaces them for a kitten. The same thing happens with the other children: they are replaced by a frog, a puppy and a snake by the midwife, who wants the woman's husband to marry her daughter. Seeing that his wife gave birth to animals, he banishes her to the pigsty and marries the midwife's daughter. Meanwhile, a Dog takes the children from under the house and looks after them. The animal decides to look for some medicine by going to the Sun's house, and meets people on the way looking for answers to their plights. Dog reaches the Sun's house and asks him about the medicine for the children; the Sun answers it just has to lick the children with its tongue to restore them, and tells it to bandage their foreheads to hide their astral birthmarks. It happens thus. One day, Dog takes the children to a gathering of people, where their father is also. The man lifts the bandage on one of his children and notices the shining birthmark. Realizing that his first wife did bear the children she promised, he ties the midwife and her daughter to horses to execute them and restores his first wife to her place. New Mexico A variant from Northern New Mexico was collected by José Manuel Espinosa in the 1930s from a twelve-year-old María del Carmen González, who lived in San Ildefonso. The tale was republished by Joe Hayes in 1998 with the title El pájaro que contaba verdades ("The Bird that spoke the Truth"). In this tale, originally titled Los niños perseguidos, a couple have three children: two boys with golden hair and a girl with a star on the forehead. They are kidnapped by an evil witch and left in the canyon to die. The objects they seek are a bird with green feathers, a bottle of holy water and a whistle. A second version from New Mexico was collected by Professor R. D. Jameson, titled The Talking Bird, The Singing Tree, and the Water of Life, first heard by the raconteur in his childhood. In a second version by R. D. Jameson, the princess promises to give birth to twin boys: one golden-haired and one silver-haired. In another variant, first collected in 1930 by Arthur L. Campa in his thesis (El Pájaro Verde; English: "The Green Bird"), the quest is prompted by the siblings's foster mother, in order to ensure a life-long happiness for them. In another variant, titled The Three Treasures, the youngest sister wants to marry the prince and promises to give birth to golden-haired children. She gets her wish and gives birth first to a girl, then to two boys in the following years. Her sisters cast the siblings in the water, but they are saved by the gardener. Canada Mexico A variant was collected from Tepecano people in the state of Jalisco (Mexico) by J. Alden Mason (Spanish: Los niños coronados; English: "The crowned children") and also published in the Journal of American Folklore. A version from Mitla, Oaxaca, in Mexico (The Envious Sisters), was collected by Elsie Clews Parsons and published in the Journal of American Folklore: the siblings quest for "the crystalline water, the tree that sings, and the bird that talks". In a Yucatec Maya variant, Ooxtuul kiktsilo'ob or El Rey y Las Tres Hermanas ("The King and the Three Sisters"), the king marries the youngest sister and the elder ones replace the children for dead animals. Central America Four variants have been collected by Manuel José Andrade, obtained from sources in the Dominican Republic. The tales contain male children as the heroes who perform the quest to learn the truth of their birth. A later study by Hansen listed 12 Dominican variants. The tale type is also present in the folklore of Puerto Rico (amounting to 9 local versions), and of Panama. Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons recorded a tale from Martinica (L'arbre qui chante, l'oiseau qui parle, l'eau qui dort; English: "The singing tree, the talking bird, the sleeping water"), Guadalupe (De l'eau qui dort, l'oiseau dite la vérité; English: "About the water that sleeps, the bird that tells the truth") and Haiti (Poupée caca la: Trois sé [soeurs] la). The version from Guadalupe begins like Snow White (ATU 709), a mother's envy of her daughter's beauty, and continues as ATU 707. Illustrator and writer Pamela Colman Smith published a Jamaican tale titled De Golden Water, De Singin' Tree and De Talkin' Bird. In this tale, three sisters are talking at night on their porch about their marriage wishes: the elder wishes to marry the king's baker to eat cakes; the middle one the king's cook to have nice things to eat, and the youngest the king himself. The king and his councillors are passing nearby and overhear their conversation. The next morning, the king sends for the three sisters and fulfills their marriage wishes, the youngest becoming the queen, to her elder sisters' jealousy. In time, the queen is pregnant and, when the king is away, she gives birth to triplets, two boys and one girl, which the queen's sisters take and cast in the water in a basket. When the king returns and, upon seeing no children, banishes her from the palace to the palace grounds, where people throw dish water at her. Back to the children, the basket stops by a sugar mill, where it is found by the bookkeeper and his wife. The couple raise the children; the brothers grow up, grow crops of corn and cane and become rich, buying a large house for themselves and their sister, who spends time at home. One day, an old woman pays them a visit and compliments the house, but it lacks the "De Golden Water, De Singin' Tree and De Talkin' Bird". The brothers quest for the objects and fail, the girl goes and prevails, rescuing her brothers and taking the objects with her. Douglas Taylor collected a tale from British Honduras (modern day Belize), in the Island Carib language, translated as Tale of a woman's three children, Hero is the eldest sister's name, Juana the intermediate one, Jessie the youngest,-three girls. In this tale, the king's son, the baker's son and the butcher's son pass by the girls' verandah, and the three sisters express their wishes for a husband: Jessie the king's son, Juana the baker's son and Hero the butcher's son. Their mother, Mrs. Willy, goes to the king, who arranges their marriages. Jessie marries the king's son and he becomes king. He announces during an assembly of the people that he shall have three children, two boys and a girl, the girl with a star on the forehead, one of the boys with a moon and the other with a sun. The elder sisters deliver the children, cast them in the water and replace them for a cat, a goat and a dog. The children are saved by a poor couple that lived by the river. After his adoptive father dies, the youngest son dreams that his father told him to seek the world's riches. The youngest goes and fails, his elder brother goes as well and fails, both turning to stone. The elder sibling, the girl, goes after them and captures a talking bird. The bird tells her to get a golden water, a branch of a singing tree and to sprinkle a bit of the water to restore her brothers. Haitian anthropologist Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain collected an Haitian tale from a yardboy from Jacmel, which she titled The Twins Born With a Star. In this tale, two poor girls meet a man, a king, who chooses to marry one of them, leaving the other in poverty. The unmarried girl's relatives tell her she must live with her sister, now that the latter has found a rich man. In time, the queen is pregnant, and her husband, the king, is called to deal with affair in the white men's country. Before he leaves, the queen tells him she will bear him twins with a star. The king leaves and the girl's sister, thinking her elder took her luck, takes the children as soon as they are born, locks them in a case and casts it in the sea, then places two cats near the queen. The king returns home and is told by his sister-in-law the queen gave birth to cats. Enraged, he orders her to be locked up in a room at guarded at all times, then for people to pass by and slap her. Back to the children, who are two young boys, the case are caught in a man's net, who fishes it out of the ocean and rescues the twins to raise. Years later, when they are grown up, they pass by the guards in front of the queen's room and do not slap her, instead they say she gave birth to twins with a star, then make a run for it. This event keeps repeating, until the king himself comes to check on the situation and sends for the children, who repeat their words to the king's face. The king then sends for the twins' adoptive father, the fisherman, who explains he found them in a case and raised them. The king, at last, sees the stars on the twins' foreheads, confirming their story, and punishes his sister-in-law. South America Brazil Brazilian folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo stated that the tale type was brought to Brazil by Portuguese colonization. He also collected a variant from a woman named Benvenuta de Araújo, from Rio Grande do Norte. In this variant, titled A Rainha e as Irmãs ("The Queen and her Sisters"), the youngest marries the king and gives birth to two boys and a girl, all with a golden star. Her sisters replace them with frogs and a servant abandons them under a tree in the forest, but they are saved by a hunter. The siblings quest for the Água-da-Vida ("The Water of Life"). During a supper with the hunter, they invite a poor woman to join them, and she reveals she is the servant. The siblings forgive her and later reconcile with their father. Another Brazilian version was collected by Brazilian literary critic, lawyer and philosopher Silvio Romero, from his native state of Sergipe and published as Os três coroados ("The three crowned ones") in his Contos Populares do Brazil (1894). In this version, the siblings are born each with a little crown on their heads, and their adoptive mother is the heroine. Author Elsie Spicer Eells recorded a very similar Brazilian variant titled The Stone Twins: the queen gives birth to twins, but the queen's jealous sisters cast them in the river. They are saved by a poor fishing couple. Years later, the sisters meet the boys again and give them flowers and fruits that petrify them. The boys' foster mother is advised to seek the abode of the Sun, because he knows many things. The story continues as tale type ATU 461, Three Hairs from the Devil's Beard, wherein the hero or heroine gets asked three questions and the Devil (or the Sun, or Father Know-All in Slavic variants) is wise enough to know the answers. Argentina Chile Colombia Ecuador Bolivia Adaptations Opera The tale seems to have inspired Carlo Gozzi's commedia dell'arte work L'Augellino Belverde ("The Green Bird"). In it, the eponymous green bird keeps company to the imprisoned queen, and tells her he can talk, and he is actually a cursed prince. The fantastic children's grandmother sets them on their quest for the fabulous items: the singing apple and the dancing waters. The tale has also inspired Canadian composer Gilles Tremblay to compose his Opéra Féerie L'eau qui danse, la pomme qui chante et l'oiseau qui dit la vérité (2009). Literature Lithuanian professor Asta Gustaitienė (lt) acknowledges that French-Lithuanian poet Oscar Milosz adapted a traditional Lithuanian variant titled Auksaplaukis ir Auksažvaigždė ("Golden-Hair and Golden Star"), by delving more into the relationships between the characters. British author Alan Garner penned a children's fantasy book titled The Well of the Wind. In his story, twins, a boy and a girl, each with a shining star on the forehead, are found by a fisherman from a box drifting at sea. The fisherman raises them, but wraps a headscarf around each their heads to hide their birthmarks. Years later, after the fisherman dies, the twins live together in his hut. One day, while the boy is away, a witch visits the girl and tells her about "the springs of silver, the acorns of gold and the white bird of perfect feather", which is located in "the Well of the Wind". The boy is petrified when trying to get the bird, but the girl wins and restores her brother. See also Ancilotto, King of Provino Princess Belle-Etoile The Three Little Birds The Bird of Truth The Wicked Sisters The Tale of Tsar Saltan The Water of Life The Pretty Little Calf The Green Bird, an Italian commedia dell'arte by Carlo Gozzi (1765) For a selection of tales that mix the wonder-children motif with the transformation chase of the twins, please refer to: The Boys with the Golden Stars A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers Footnotes References Bibliography Afanasyev, Alexander. Народные Русские Сказки. Vol. 2. Amores, Monstserrat. Catalogo de cuentos folcloricos reelaborados por escritores del siglo XIX. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Departamento de Antropología de España y América. 1997. pp. 118–120. . Ashliman, D. L. A Guide to Folktales in the English Language: Based on the Aarne-Thompson Classification System. Bibliographies and Indexes in World Literature, vol. 11. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1987. . Atiénzar García, Mª del Carmen. Cuentos populares de Chinchilla. España, Albacete: , 2017. pp. 341–343. . . Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's "Types of the folktale". Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930. pp. 81–82. Braga, Teófilo. Contos Tradicionais do Povo Português. Vol. I. Edições Vercial. 1914. pp. 119–120. Bolte, Johannes; Polívka, Jiri. Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- u. hausmärchen der brüder Grimm. Zweiter Band (NR. 61–120). Germany, Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1913. pp. 380–394. . Cuentos tradicionales de León. Vol. I. Tradiciones orales leonesas, 3. Madrid: Seminario Menéndez Pidal, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; [León]: Diputación Provincial de León, 1991. pp. 432–433. Clouston, W. A. Variants and analogues of the tales in Vol. III of Sir R. F. Burton's Supplemental Arabian Nights. 1887. pp. 617–648. Cook, Arthur Bernard. Zeus, A Study in Ancient Religion. Cambridge University Press, 1925. Vol. II, Part I. Appendix F. pp. 1003–1019. Cosquin, Emmanuel. Contes populaires de Lorraine comparés avec les contes des autres provinces de France et des pays étrangers, et précedés d'un essai sur l'origine et la propagation des contes populaires européens. Tome I. Paris: Vieweg. 1887. pp. 190–200. Dawkins, Richard McGillivray. Modern Greek in Asia Minor: A study of the dialects of Siĺli, Cappadocia and Phárasa, with grammar, texts, translations and glossary. London: Cambridge University Press. 1916. p. 271. De Faber, Cecilia Böhl, and Robert M. Fedorchek. "The Bird of Truth". In: Marvels & Tales 16, no. 1 (2002): 73–83. www.jstor.org/stable/41388616. Delarue, Paul et Ténèze, Marie-Louise. Le Conte populaire français. Catalogue raisonné des versions de France et des pays de langue française d'outre-mer Nouvelle édition en un seul volume, Maisonneuve & Larose. 1997 . Derungs, Kurt. AMALIA oder Der Vogel der Wahrheit. Mythen und Märchen aus Rätien im Kulturvergleich. Bündner Monatsblatt Verlag Desertina, 1994. . Goldberg, Christine. "Söhne: Die drei goldenen Söhne (AaTh/ATU 707)" In: Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online: Band 12: Schinden, Schinder – Sublimierung (Encyclopedia of Fairy Tales). Edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016. pp. 830–837. https://www.degruyter.com/database/EMO/entry/emo.12.183/html El-Shamy, Hasan M. Types of the Folktale in the Arab World: A Demographically Oriented Tale-Type Index. xxviii + 1255 pp. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. September 2004. Fomin, Maxim. "East meets West in the Land of Fairies and Leprechauns: Translation, Adaptation, and Dissemination of ATU 707 in the 19th–20th century Ireland". In: ՈՍԿԵ ԴԻՎԱՆ – Հեքիաթագիտական հանդես [Voske Divan – Journal of fairy-tale studies]. 6, 2019, pp. 12–34. Gonzenbach, Laura. Sicilianische Märchen. Mit Anmerkungen Reinhold Köhlers und einer Einleitung herausgegeben von Otto Hartwig. Leipzig: Engelmann. 1870. pp. 206–207. Hahn, Johann Georg von. Griechische und albanesische Märchen. Leipzig: W. Engelmann. 1864. pp. 292–294. Hoogasian-Villa, Susie. 100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1966. pp. 491–495. . Le conte kabyle: étude ethnologique. Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 2003 [1982]. p. 510. . Miller, Elaine K. Mexican Folk Narrative from the Los Angeles Area: Introduction, Notes and Classification. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973. pp. 256–257. . Muhawi, Ibrahim; Kanaana, Sharif. Speak, Bird, Speak Again: Palestinian Arab Folktales. University of California Press, 1989. pp. 337–340. . . Cuentos folklóricos de Chile. Tomo II. Instituto de Investigaciones Folklóricas "Ramón A. Laval". Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1961. pp. 318–319. Pitrè, Giuseppe. Fiabe, Novelli e Racconti Poppolari Siciliani. Volume I. Italia, Palermo: Luigi Pedone Lauriel, Editore. pp. 331–335. Потанин, Г. Н. [Potanin, Grigory N.]. Восточные параллели к некоторым русским сказкам [Eastern parallels to some Russian tales]. In: Этнографическое обозрение n. 1. Янчук Н.А. (ред.), Императорское Общество Любителей Естествознания, Археологии и Этнографии (ИОЛЕАЭ) при Московском Университете. Moskva: 1891. pp. 137–153. Ritter, H., & "Die goldhaarigen Zwillingskinder: Ein libanesisches Märchen aus dem Volksmund". In: Fabula, 10(1). 1969. pp. 86–99. Schiefner, Anton. Awarische Texte. K. Akademie der wissenschaften, 1873. pp. XXI–XXVI (Vorwort). Schönwerth, Franz Xaver von. The Turnip Princess and Other Newly Discovered Fairy Tales. Edited by Erika Eichenseer. Translated by Maria Tatar. Penguin Books, 2015. pp. 71–72. . Сказки и предания алтайских тувинцев [Tales and Legends of the Altaic Tuvans]. СобраС 43 ны Эрикой Таубе. Авторизованный перевод с немецкого Б.Е. Чистовой («Сказки и мифы народов Востока»). Moskva: РАН, 1994. pp. 326. . Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. University of California Press, 1977. . . Lesebuchgeschichten: Erzählstoffe in Schullesebüchern, 1770–1920. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1993. p. 254. Uther, Hans-Jörg. Deutscher Märchenkatalog – Ein Typenverzeichnis. Deutscheland, Münster: Waxmann Verlag GmbH, 2015. p. 161. (e-book) Власов, С. В. (2013). Некоторые Французские И ИталЬянскиЕ Параллели К «Сказке о Царе Салтане» А. С. ПушКИНа Во «Всеобщей Библиотеке Романов» Bibliothèque Universelle des Romans» (Biblioèque Universelle des Romans) (1775–1789) [Some French and Italian Parallels to Pushkin's "Tale of Tsar Saltan" in the Bibliothèque Universelle des Romans (1775–1789)]. Мир русского слова. (3): 67–74. Хэмлет, Т. Ю. (2013). Описание сказочного сюжета 707 Чудесные дети в международных, национальных и региональных указателях сказочных сюжетов: сравнительный анализ. Научный диалог, (5 (17)), 198–219. Хэмлет, Т. Ю. (2013). Описание сказочного сюжета 707 Чудесные дети в международных, национальных и региональных указателях сказочных сюжетов: сравнительный анализ: часть 2. Научный диалог, (10 (22)), 61–75. Хэмлет, Т. Ю. (2014). Описание сказочного сюжета 707 Чудесные дети в международных, национальных и региональных указателях сказочных сюжетов: сравнительный анализ: часть 3. Научный диалог, (4 (28)), 100–114. Zipes, Jack. The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm. New York : W.W. Norton, 2001. pp. 220–305. . [Berezkin, Yuri E.] (2019). «Сказка О Царе Салтане» (Сюжет Aтu 707) И Евразийско-Американские Параллели. In: Антропологический форум, (43), 89–110. The Robber With a Witch's Head: More stories from the great treasury of Sicilian folk and fairy tales collected by Laura Gonzenbach. Translated and edited by Jack Zipes. New York and London: Routledge, 2004. p. 222. . External links Italian fairy tales Fictional kings Fictional queens Twins in fiction Fictional twins Child abandonment Adoption forms and related practices Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement Birds in culture Fictional birds ATU 700-749 Jón Árnason (author) Thomas Frederick Crane
5340649	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritchie%20Blackmore	Ritchie Blackmore	Richard Hugh Blackmore (born 14 April 1945) is an English guitarist and songwriter. He was a founding member of Deep Purple in 1968, playing jam-style hard rock music that mixed guitar riffs and organ sounds. He is prolific in creating guitar riffs and has been known for playing both classically influenced and blues-based solos. During his solo career, Blackmore established the hard rock band Rainbow, which fused baroque music influences and elements of hard rock. Rainbow steadily moved to catchy pop-style mainstream rock. He later formed the traditional folk rock project Blackmore's Night along with his current wife Candice Night, shifting to vocalist-centred sounds. As a member of Deep Purple, Blackmore was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2016. He is cited by publications such as Guitar World and Rolling Stone as one of the greatest and most influential guitar players of all time. Early life Blackmore was born at Allendale Nursing Home in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, as second son to Lewis J. Blackmore and Violet (née Short). The family moved to Heston, Middlesex, when Blackmore was two. He was 11 when he was given his first guitar by his father on certain conditions, including learning how to play properly, so he took classical guitar lessons for one year. In an interview with Sounds magazine in 1979, Blackmore said that he started the guitar because he wanted to be like British musician Tommy Steele, who used to just jump around and play. Blackmore loathed school and hated his teachers. He said he would always get caned for speaking in class, which traumatized him to the point he had difficulty in talking to people in the subsequent years. Blackmore also became disillusioned with education, thinking that if he were to excel in his studies, he would end up being like his teachers. Blackmore left school at age 15 and started work as an apprentice radio mechanic at nearby Heathrow Airport. He took electric guitar lessons from session guitarist Big Jim Sullivan. Career 1960s In 1960 he began to work as a session player for Joe Meek's music productions and performed in several bands. He was initially a member of the instrumental band the Outlaws, who played in both studio recordings and live concerts and like many bands of the era, used other names (such as The Rally Rounders and The Chaps) to secure multiple repeat gigs. Otherwise, in mainly studio recordings, he backed singer Glenda Collins, German-born pop singer Heinz (playing on his top ten hit "Just Like Eddie" and "Beating Of My Heart"), and others. Thereafter, in mainly live concerts, he backed horror-themed singer Screaming Lord Sutch, beat singer Neil Christian, and others. Blackmore joined a band-to-be called Roundabout in late 1967 after receiving an invitation from Chris Curtis while living in Hamburg and arriving at the Curtis flat to be greeted by Curtis’ flatmate, Jon Lord. Curtis originated the concept of the band, but would be forced out before the band fully formed. After the line-up for Roundabout was complete in April 1968, Blackmore is credited with suggesting the new name Deep Purple, as it was his grandmother's favourite song. Deep Purple's early sound leaned on psychedelic and progressive rock, but also included cover versions of 1960s pop songs. This "Mark One" line-up featuring singer Rod Evans and bass player Nick Simper lasted until mid-1969 and produced three studio albums. During this period, organist Jon Lord appeared to be the leader of the band, and wrote much of their original material. 1970s The first studio album from Purple's second line-up, In Rock (1970), signalled a transition in the band's sound from progressive rock to hard rock, with Blackmore and Lord having heard bands such as Vanilla Fudge and albums such as Led Zeppelin II and King Crimson's debut album. This "Mark Two" line-up featuring rock singer Ian Gillan and bassist Roger Glover lasted until mid-1973, producing four studio albums (two of which reached No. 1 in the UK), and one live double album. During this period, the band's songs primarily came out of their jam sessions, so songwriting credits were shared by the five members. Blackmore later stated, "I didn't give a damn about song construction. I just wanted to make as much noise and play as fast and as loud as possible." Guitarist Steve Vai was more complimentary about Blackmore's role in developing song ideas: "He was able to bring blues to rock playing unlike anybody else." The third Deep Purple line-up featured David Coverdale on vocals and Glenn Hughes on bass and vocals. Songwriting was now more fragmented, as opposed to the band compositions from the Mark Two era. This "Mark Three" line-up lasted until mid-1975 and produced two studio albums and one live album . Blackmore quit the band to front a new group, Rainbow. In 1974, Blackmore took cello lessons from Hugh McDowell (of ELO). Blackmore later stated that when playing a different musical instrument, he found it refreshing because there is a sense of adventure not knowing exactly what chord he's playing or what key he is in. Blackmore originally planned to make a solo album, but instead in 1975 formed his own band, Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow, later shortened to Rainbow. Featuring vocalist Ronnie James Dio and his blues rock backing band Elf as studio musicians, this first line-up never performed live. The band's debut album, Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow, was released in 1975. Rainbow was originally thought to be a one-off collaboration, but endured as an ongoing band project with a series of album releases and tours. Rainbow's music was partly inspired by elements of medieval and baroque music since Blackmore started to play cello for musical composition. During this period, Blackmore wrote a crucial part of Dio's basic melodies, particularly on their debut album. Shortly after the first album was recorded, Blackmore recruited new backing musicians to record the second album Rising (1976), and the following live album, On Stage (1977). Rising was originally billed as "Blackmore's Rainbow" in the US. After the next studio album's release and supporting tour in 1978, Dio left Rainbow due to "creative differences" with Blackmore, who desired to move in a more commercial sounding direction. Blackmore continued with Rainbow, and in 1979 the band released a new album titled Down To Earth, which featured R&B singer Graham Bonnet. During song composition, Bonnet says that he wrote his vocal melodies based upon the lyrics of bassist Roger Glover. The album marked the commercialisation of the band's sound and contained their first smash hit with the single "Since You Been Gone" (penned by Russ Ballard). 1980s The next Rainbow album, Difficult to Cure (1981), introduced melodic vocalist Joe Lynn Turner. The instrumental title track from this album was an arrangement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony with additional music. Blackmore once said, "I found the blues too limiting, and classical was too disciplined. I was always stuck in a musical no man's land." The album marked the further commercialisation of the band's sound with Blackmore describing at the time a liking for the AOR band, Foreigner. The music was consciously radio-targeted in a more AOR style, resulting in some degree of alienation with many of Rainbow's earlier fans. Rainbow's next studio album was Straight Between the Eyes (1982) and included the hit single "Stone Cold". It would be followed by the album Bent Out of Shape (1983), which featured the single "Street of Dreams". In 1983, Rainbow were also nominated for a Grammy Award for the Blackmore-penned instrumental ballad track "Anybody There". Rainbow disbanded in 1984. A then-final Rainbow album, Finyl Vinyl, was patched together from live tracks and the B-sides of various singles. In 1984, Blackmore joined a reunion of the former Deep Purple "Mark Two" line-up and recorded new material. This reunion line-up lasted until 1989, producing two studio albums and one live album. Although the reunion's first album Perfect Strangers (1984) saw chart success, the second studio album The House of Blue Light (1987) displayed a sound that was closer to Rainbow's music and did not sell as well. The album's musical style differed from the traditional Purple sound due to Blackmore's Rainbow background, which distinguished him from the other members. 1990s The next Deep Purple line-up recorded one album titled Slaves and Masters (1990), which featured former Rainbow vocalist Joe Lynn Turner. During song composition, Turner wrote his vocal melodies. Subsequently, the "Mark Two" line-up reunited for a second time in late 1992 and produced one studio album, The Battle Rages On.... Overall, the traditional Deep Purple sound returned. During the follow-up promotional tour, Blackmore quit the band for good in November 1993. Prominent guitarist Joe Satriani was brought in to complete the remaining tour dates. Blackmore reformed Rainbow with new members in 1994. This Rainbow line-up, featuring hard rock singer Doogie White, lasted until 1997 and produced one album titled Stranger in Us All in 1995. It was originally intended to be a solo album but due to the record company pressures the record was billed as Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow. Though Doogie White wasn't as distinctive as previous Rainbow singers, the album had a sound dissimilar to any Rainbow of old. This was Rainbow's eighth studio album, made after a gap of 12 years since Bent out of Shape, and is regarded as Blackmore's last hard rock album. A world tour including South America followed. Rainbow was disbanded once again after playing its final concert in 1997. Blackmore later said, "I didn't want to tour very much." Over the years Rainbow went through many personnel changes with no two studio albums featuring the same line-up: Blackmore was the sole constant band member. Rainbow achieved modest success; the band's worldwide sales are estimated at more than 28 million album copies, including 4 million copies sold in the US. In 1995 Blackmore, with his girlfriend Candice Night as vocalist, began working on a more traditional folk rock project, which later became the debut album Shadow of the Moon (1997) for their duo Blackmore's Night. Blackmore once portrayed their artistic characteristics as "Mike Oldfield plus Enya". Blackmore mostly used acoustic guitar, to back Night's delicate vocal melodies, which he often wrote. Night said, "When he sings, he sings only for me, in private". As a result, his musical approach shifted to vocalist-centred sounds, and their recorded output is a mixture of original and cover materials. The band's musical style is heavily inspired by medieval music blended with Night's lyrics, which often feature themes of love and medieval times. The second release, entitled Under a Violet Moon (1999) continued in the same folk-rock style, with Night's vocals remaining a prominent feature of the band's style. The title track's lyrics were partly written by Blackmore. "Violet" was his mother's first name and "Moon" was his grandmother's surname. 2000s–present In subsequent albums, particularly Fires at Midnight (2001) which featured the Bob Dylan song "The Times They Are a Changin'", there was occasionally an increased incorporation of electric guitar into the music, whilst maintaining a basic folk rock direction. A live album, Past Times with Good Company was released in 2002. After the next studio album's release, an official compilation album Beyond the Sunset: The Romantic Collection was released in 2004, featuring music from the four studio albums. A Christmas-themed holiday album, Winter Carols was released in 2006. Through numerous personnel changes, the duo has utilized over 26 backing musicians on their releases. Blackmore sometimes played drums in recording studio. They choose to avoid typical rock concert tours, instead limiting their appearances to small intimate venues. In 2011, Night said, "We have actually turned down a lot of (touring) opportunities." They have released eleven studio albums, with the latest one being Nature's Light in 2021. A re-formed Rainbow performed three European concerts in June 2016. The concert setlists included both Rainbow and Deep Purple material. The band featured metal singer Ronnie Romero, keyboardist Jens Johansson and bassist Bob Nouveau. Equipment During the 1960s, Blackmore played a Gibson ES-335 but from 1970 he mainly played a Fender Stratocaster until he formed Blackmore's Night in 1997. The middle pick-up on his Stratocaster is screwed down and not used. Blackmore occasionally used a Fender Telecaster Thinline during recording sessions. He is also one of the first rock guitarists to use a "scalloped" fretboard which has a "U" shape between the frets. In his soloing, Blackmore combines blues scales and phrasing with dominant minor scales and ideas from European classical music. While playing he would often put the pick in his mouth, playing with his fingers. In the 1970s, Blackmore used a number of different Stratocasters; one of his main guitars was an Olympic white 1974 model with a rosewood fingerboard that was scalloped. Blackmore added a strap lock to the headstock of this guitar as a conversation piece to annoy and confuse people, as it didn't actually do anything. His amplifiers were originally 200-Watt Marshall Major stacks which were modified by Marshall with an additional output stage (generating about 27dB) to make them sound more like Blackmore's favourite Vox AC30 amp cranked to full volume. Since 1994, he has used ENGL tube amps. Effects he used from 1970 to 1997, besides his usual tape echo, included a Hornby Skewes treble booster in the early days. Around late-1973, he experimented with an EMS Synthi Hi Fli guitar synthesizer. He sometimes used a wah-wah pedal and a variable control treble-booster for sustain, and Moog Taurus bass pedals were used in solo parts during concerts. He also had a modified Aiwa TP-1011 tape machine built to supply echo and delay effects; the tape deck was also used as a pre-amp. Other effects that Blackmore used were a Uni-Vibe, a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and an Octave Divider. In the mid-1980s he experimented with Roland guitar synthesizers. A Roland GR-700 was seen on stage as late as 1995–96, later replaced with the GR-50. Blackmore has experimented with many different pick-ups in his Strats. In the early Rainbow era, they were still stock Fender equipment, but later became Dawk-installed over wound, dipped, Fender pick-ups. He has also used Schecter F-500-Ts, Velvet Hammer "Red Rhodes", DiMarzio "HS-2", OBL "Black Label", and Bill Lawrence L-450, XL-250 (bridge), L-250 (neck) pick-ups. In his signature Stratocaster, Seymour Duncan Quarter Pound Flat SSL-4's are used to emulate the Schecter F500ts. Since the early 1990s, he has used Lace Sensor (Gold) "noiseless" pick-ups. Musical influences and tastes Blackmore credits fellow guitarist Eric Clapton's music with helping him develop his own style of vibrato around 1968 or 1969. In 1979, Blackmore said: "I like popular music. I like ABBA very much. But there's so much stigma like, 'you can't do this because you're a heavy band', and I think that's rubbish. You should do what you want ... I think classical music is very good for the soul. A lot of people go 'ah well, classical music is for old fogies' but I was exactly the same. At 16 I didn't want to know about classical music: I'd had it rammed down my throat. But now I feel an obligation to tell the kids 'look, just give classical music a chance' ... the guitar frustrates me a lot because I'm not good enough to play it sometimes so I get mad and throw a moody. Sometimes I feel that what I'm doing is not right, in the sense that the whole rock and roll business has become a farce, like Billy Smart, Jr. Circus, and the only music that ever moves me is very disciplined classical music, which I can't play. But there's a reason I've made money. It's because I believe in what I'm doing, in that I do it my way—I play for myself first, then secondly the audience—I try to put as much as I can in it for them. Lastly I play for musicians and the band, and for critics not at all." Personal life In May 1964, Blackmore married Margit Volkmar (b. 1945) from Germany. They lived in Hamburg during the late 1960s. Their son, Jürgen (b. 1964), played guitar in the touring tribute band Over the Rainbow. Following their divorce, Blackmore married Bärbel, a former dancer from Germany, in September 1969 until their divorce in the early 1970s. As a result, he is a fluent German speaker. For tax reasons, he moved to the US in 1974. Initially he lived in Oxnard, California, with opera singer Shoshana Feinstein for one year. She provided backing vocals on two songs in Rainbow's first album. During this period, he listened to early European classical music and light music a lot, for about three-quarters of his private time. Blackmore once said, "It's hard to relate that to rock. I listen very carefully to the patterns that Bach plays. I like direct, dramatic music." After having an affair with another woman, Christine, Blackmore met Amy Rothman in 1978, and moved to Connecticut. He married Rothman in 1981, but they divorced in 1983. Following the marriage's conclusion, he began a relationship with Tammi Williams. In early 1984 Blackmore met Williams in Chattanooga, Tennessee, where she was working as a hotel employee. In the same year, he purchased his first car, having learned to drive at 39 years of age. Blackmore and then-fashion model Candice Night began living together in 1991. They moved to her native Long Island in 1993. Having been engaged for nearly 15 years, the couple married in 2008. Night said, "he's making me younger and I'm aging him rapidly." Their daughter Autumn was born on 27 May 2010, and their son Rory on 7 February 2012. Blackmore is a heavy drinker and watches German-language television on his satellite dish when he is at home. He has several German friends and a collection of about 2,000 CDs of Renaissance music. Legacy Readers of Guitar World voted two of Blackmore's guitar solos (both recorded with Deep Purple) among the 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of all time – "Highway Star" ranked 19th, and "Lazy" ranked 74th. His solo on "Child in Time" was ranked no. 16 in a 1998 Guitarist magazine readers poll of Top 100 Guitar Solos of All-Time. On 8 April 2016, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of original members of Deep Purple; he did not attend the ceremony. In 1993, musicologist Robert Walser defined him as "the most important musician of the emerging metal/classical fusion". He is credited as a precursor of the so-called "guitar shredders" that emerged in the mid-1980s. Blackmore has been an influence on several 1980s guitarists such as Akira Takasaki, Fredrik Åkesson, Brett Garsed, Janick Gers, Paul Gilbert, Craig Goldy, Scott Henderson, Dave Meniketti, Randy Rhoads, Michael Romeo, Wolf Hoffmann, Billy Corgan, Lita Ford, Brian May, and Yngwie Malmsteen. He was portrayed by Mathew Baynton in the 2009 film Telstar. Discography Session recordings (1960–1968) 1963 The Outlaws – "The Return of the Outlaws" b/w "Texan Spiritual" (Single) 1963 The Outlaws – "That Set The Wild West Free b/w "Hobo"" (Single) 1963 The Outlaws – "Law And Order" b/w "Doo Dah Day" (Single) 1963 Michael Cox – "Don't You Break My Heart" b/w "Hark Is That A Cannon I Hear" (Single) 1963 Michael Cox – "Gee What A Party" b/w "Say That Again" (Single) 1963 Glenda Collins – "I Feel So Good" (the B-side of single) 1963 Glenda Collins – "If You Gotta Pick A Baby" b/w "In The First place" (Single) 1963 Heinz – "Dreams Do Come True" b/w "Been Invited to a Party" (Single) 1963 Heinz – "Just Like Eddie" b/w "Don't You Knock at My Door" (Single) 1963 Heinz – Tribute To Eddie ("Tribute To Eddie"; "Hush – A- Bye – Baby"; "Summertime Blues"; "Come on And Dance"; "20 Flight Rock"; "I Remember") 1963 Heinz – Heinz (EP: "I Get Up In The Morning"; "Talkin' Like A Man"; "That Lucky Old Sun"; "Lonely River") 1963 Heinz – "Country Boy" b/w "Long Tall Jack" (Single) 1963 Heinz – Live It Up (EP: "Live It Up"; "Don't You Understand"; "When Your Loving Goes Wrong") 1963 Houston Wells – "Only The Heartaches" (Single) 1963 Dave Adams – "Like A Bird Without Feathers" (the B-side of single) 1963 Dave Adams – "You Made Me Cry" (the B-side of single) 1963 Jenny Moss – "Hobbies" b/w "Big Boy" (Single) 1963 Geoff Goddard – "Sky Men" b/w "Walk With Me My Angel" (Single) 1963 Pamela Blue – "My Friend Bobby" b/w "Hey There Stranger" (Single) 1963 Gunilla Thorne – "Go on Then" (the B-side of single) 1963 Joe Meek Orchestra – "The Kennedy March" (Single) 1964 The Outlaws – "Keep A Knockin'" b/w "Shake With Me" (Single) 1964 The Outlaws – "The Bike Beat Part 1" b/w "The Bike Beat Part 2" (Single) 1964 Glenda Collins – "Baby It Hurts" b/w "Nice Wasn't It" (Single) 1964 Glenda Collins – "Lollipop" b/w "Evrybody's Got To Fall in Love" (Single) 1964 The Sharades – "Boy Trouble" (the B-side of single) 1964 Andy Cavell – "Tell The Truth" (Single) 1964 Davy Kaye – "A Fool Such As I" (Single) 1964 Houston Wells – "Galway Bay" b/w "Living Alone" (Single) 1964 Houston Wells & The Marksmen – Ramona (EP: "Ramona"; "Girl Down The Street"; "I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now"; "Nobody's Child") 1964 Heinz – "You Were There" b/w "No Matter What They Say" (Single) 1964 Heinz – "Please Little Girl" b/w "For Lovin' Me This Way" (Single) 1964 Heinz – "Questions I Can't Answer" b/w "The Beating Of My Heart" (Single) 1964 Valerie Masters – "Christmas Calling" b/w "He Didn't Fool Me" (Single) 1965 The Outlaws – "Only For You" (the B-side of single) 1965 Michael Cox – Michael Cox in Sweden (EP: "I've Been Thinking"; "Is This Lonesome Old House") 1965 Glenda Collins – "Johnny Loves Me" b/w "Paradise For Two" (Single) 1965 Glenda Collins – "Thou Shalt Not Steal" b/w "Been Invited To A Party" (Single) 1965 Heinz – "Digging My Potatoes" b/w "She Ain't Coming Back" (Single) 1965 Heinz – "Don't Think Twice It's All Right" b/w "Big Fat Spider" (Single) 1965 Heinz – "End Of The World" b/w "You Make Me Feel So Good" (Single) 1965 Heinz – "Heart Full Of Sorrow" b/w "Don't Worry Baby" (Single) 1965 Screaming Lord Sutch – "The Train Kept A Rollin'" b/w "Honey Hush" (Single) 1965 Richie Blackmore Orchestra – "Getaway" b/w "Little Brown Jag" (Single) 1965 The Tornados – "Early Bird" b/w "Stomping Through The Rye" (Single) 1965 Jess Conrad – "It Can Happen To You" (the B-side of single) 1965 The Lancasters – "Satan's Holiday" b/w "Earthshaker" (Single) 1965 The Sessions – "Let Me In" b/w "Bouncing Bass" (Single) 1966 Heinz – "Movin' In" b/w "I'm Not A Bad Guy" (Single) 1966 Ronnie Jones – "My Only Souvenir" b/w "Satisfy My Soul" (Single) 1966 Soul Brothers – "Goodbye Babe, Goodbye" (Single) 1968 Neil Christian & The Crusaders – "My Baby Left Me" b/w "Yakkety Yak" (Single) 1968 Boz – "I Shall Be Released" b/w "Down in the Flood" (Single) 1968 Sundragon – "Five White Horses" (Single) 1968 Sundragon – Green Tambourine ("I Want To Be A Rock'n'roll Star", "Peacock Dress", "Love Minus Zero") 1968 Anan – "Madena" b/w "Standing Still" (Single) Previously unreleased outtakes 1963 Chad Carson – "A Fool in Love"; "Jesse James" 1963 Dave Adams – "It Feels Funny, It Feels Good"; "You Just Can't Do It on Your Own"; "Clean, Clean, Clean"; "The Birds and the Bees"; "Don't Put All Your Eggs in One Basket"; "Oh What A Party"; "Let Me In"; "They're All Up To It"; "Signs And Posters"; "Out Behind The Barn"; "There's Something at the Bottom of the Garden"; "The Bathroom" 1963 Gene Vincent & The Outlaws – "Dance to the Bop"; "High Blood Pressure"; "Baby Blue", "Blue Jean Bop"; "Lotta Lovin'"; "Crazy Beat"; "Rip It Up"; "Frankie & Johnny"; "Another Saturday Night"; "I'm Gonna Catch Me A Rat"; "Long Tall Sally" (Those songs were recorded live) 1963 Jenny Moss – "Please Let It Happen To Me"; "My Boy Comes Marching Home" 1964 Kim Roberts – "Love Can't Wait"; "Mr. Right" 1964 Houston Wells – "We'll Remember You" 1965 The Outlaws – "As Long As I Live" (recorded live) 1965 Glenda Collins – "Sing C' Est La Vie"; "Run To Me"; "Self Portrait" Compilations 1989 Ritchie Blackmore – Rock Profile Vol. 1 1991 Ritchie Blackmore – Rock Profile Vol. 2 1991 The Derek Lawrence Sessions Take 1 1992 The Derek Lawrence Sessions Take 3 1994 Heinz – Dreams Do Come True – The 45's Collection 1994 Ritchie Blackmore – Take It! Sessions 63/68 1995 It's Hard to Believe It: The Amazing World of Joe Meek 1998 Ritchie Blackmore – Anthology Vol.1 1998 Ritchie Blackmore – Anthology Vol.2 2002 Joe Meek – The Alchemist of Pop: Home Made Hits and Rarities 1959–66 2005 Ritchie Blackmore – Getaway – Groups & Sessions 2008 Houston Wells – Then & Now: From Joe Meek To New Zealand Select guest appearances Green Bullfrog (1972) – a one-off session hosted by producer Derek Lawrence, recorded between February and May 1970, and featuring Big Jim Sullivan, Albert Lee and Ritchie Blackmore Screaming Lord Sutch & Heavy Friends – Hands of Jack the Ripper (1972) – recorded live in London in 1970, a one-off concert featuring musicians who had previously worked with Sutch Randy, Pie & Family – Hurry to the City"/"Looking with Eyes of Love (1973) – Blackmore featured on the A-side of the single Adam Faith – I Survive (1974) – Blackmore plays intro on the title track Jack Green – Humanesque (1980) – Blackmore plays on "I Call, No Answer" Rock Aid Armenia (1990) – Blackmore is featured as one of the guest soloists on the 1990 rendition of "Smoke on the Water", re-recorded to raise money to help those affected by the 1988 Armenian earthquake Laurent Voulzy – Caché Derrière (1992) – Blackmore plays solo on "Guitare héraut" Twang! A Tribute To Hank Marvin & The Shadows (1996) – Blackmore plays on "Apache" Sweet – All Right Now (1996) – recorded live in 1976, Blackmore plays on "All Right Now" Pat Boone – In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy (1997) – Blackmore plays on a cover of "Smoke On The Water" along with Dweezil Zappa Geyers Schwarzer Haufen – Live '99 (1999) – Blackmore plays on "Göttliche Devise", a bonus track off the album Geyers Schwarzer Haufen – Historock Lästerzungen (2004) – Blackmore plays on "God's Gospel" William Shatner – Seeking Major Tom (2011) – Blackmore and Candice Night guest on a cover of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" William Shatner – The Blues (2020) - Blackmore and Candice Night guest on a cover of B. B. King's "The Thrill Is Gone" References Further reading External links The Official Blackmore's Night website 1945 births Living people People from Weston-super-Mare People from Heston English rock guitarists English heavy metal guitarists New-age guitarists English folk guitarists English male guitarists English male songwriters Rainbow (rock band) members Blackmore's Night members The Outlaws (band) members Deep Purple members English expatriates in the United States English session musicians Lead guitarists Slide guitarists English expatriates in Germany British mandolinists Hurdy-gurdy players Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages members 20th-century British guitarists 21st-century British guitarists Blues rock musicians
5340721	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Gillan	Ian Gillan	Ian Gillan (born 19 August 1945) is an English singer who is best known as the lead singer and lyricist for the rock band Deep Purple. He is known for his powerful and wide-ranging singing voice. Initially influenced by Elvis Presley, Gillan started and fronted several local bands in the mid-1960s, and eventually joined Episode Six when their original singer left. He first found widespread commercial success after joining Deep Purple in 1969. He resigned from the band in June 1973, having given a lengthy notice period to their managers. After a short time away from the music business, he resumed his music career with solo bands the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan, before a year-long stint as the vocalist for Black Sabbath in 1983. The following year, Deep Purple reformed and two more successful albums followed before he left in 1989. He returned to the group in 1993, and has remained its lead singer ever since. In addition to his main work—performing with Deep Purple and other bands during the 1970s and 1980s—he sang the role of Jesus in the original recording of Andrew Lloyd Webber's rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar (1970), performed in the charity supergroup Rock Aid Armenia, and engaged in a number of business investments and ventures, including a hotel, a motorcycle manufacturer, and music recording facilities at Kingsway Studios. More recently, he has performed solo concerts concurrently with his latter career in Deep Purple, and his work and affinity with Armenia, combined with his continued friendship with Tony Iommi since his brief time in Black Sabbath, has led him to form the supergroup WhoCares with Iommi. His solo career outside of Deep Purple was given a comprehensive overview with the Gillan's Inn box set in 2006. Early life Gillan was born on 19 August 1945 at Chiswick Maternity Hospital in Middlesex. His father, Bill, was a storekeeper at a factory in London, who came from Govan, Glasgow and left school at 13, while his mother, Audrey, came from a family where she was the eldest of four children, who all enjoyed music and singing, and whose father had been an opera singer and amateur pianist. His sister, Pauline, was born in 1948. One of Gillan's earliest musical memories was of his mother playing "Blue Rondo à la Turk" on the piano. He grew up moving between council flats before settling in a three-bedroom semi-detached on a council estate in Cranford, Middlesex. He was fond of animals in his early life, and enjoyed reading Dan Dare comic strips. His parents separated after Audrey discovered Bill had had an affair that started while he was stationed in the army during World War II. Ian began attending Hounslow College and stayed there through his early teenage years. He was influenced by Elvis Presley by hearing his records at home and at the local youth club. Gillan briefly attended Acton County Grammar School (now Acton High School) to take his O Levels but became distracted from studies after leaving the local cinema having watched a Presley film, deciding that he wanted to be a movie actor. He subsequently took a job manufacturing ice machines in Hounslow. Career Early years Gillan's first attempt at a band was called Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners, and consisted of himself on vocals and drums, alongside guitarist Chris Aylmer, who later went on to work with Bruce Dickinson. The band covered songs such as Tommy Roe's "Sheila" and The Shadows' "Apache". He discovered he couldn't sing and play drums at the same time, so settled on the role of lead vocalist, performing regularly at St Dunstan's Hall, the local youth club. He soon switched to another local band who also played at Dunstan's Hall, Ronnie and the Hightones, who renamed themselves as the Javelins after he joined. The band played covers of Sonny Boy Williamson, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard, and were early customers of then-local music shop owner Jim Marshall. The Javelins disbanded in March 1964, with guitarist Gordon Fairminer leaving to join what eventually became the group Sweet. After the Javelins, Gillan joined a soul band, Wainwright's Gentlemen, which included another future Sweet member, drummer Mick Tucker. The band recorded a number of tracks including a cover of The Hollies hit "Ain't That Just Like Me". Although the band played several local popular music venues, they did not find success, so in April 1965, he decided to join Hatch End-based Episode Six. Episode Six Gillan had been contacted by Episode Six's manager Gloria Bristow, who worked for Helmut Gordon, original manager of The Detours, later to become the Who. He replaced original lead singer Andy Ross, who left to get married, and joined keyboardist and singer Sheila Carter, guitarists Graham Carter and Tony Lander, bassist Roger Glover and drummer Harvey Shields. Gillan considers Episode Six to be his first truly professional band, and in their early days they were sponsored and championed by Tony Blackburn, who occasionally accompanied Gillan on stage. Later, as well as performing concerts in the UK, Episode Six also toured Germany and Beirut, and had regular appearances on the BBC Light Programme. During his time with Episode Six, Gillan began writing songs together with Glover, forming an ultimately long-lasting partnership. After a strained tour of Beirut, Shields left the band and was replaced first by John Kerrison, then by Mick Underwood. Underwood had previously played in The Outlaws with Ritchie Blackmore, and it was via him that Ian knew about Deep Purple. By 1969, after having released nine singles, none of which charted in the UK, and finding their style of music too restrictive for him, he decided to leave Episode Six. Deep Purple, 1969–1973 By spring 1969, Deep Purple had had a top 5 US hit with "Hush", but the band, particularly Ritchie Blackmore, Jon Lord and Ian Paice, decided their future lay in hard rock, rather than the psychedelic pop sound of the early band. In June 1969, Blackmore, Lord and Paice went to see Episode Six perform at a pub gig and subsequently offered Gillan the job as new lead singer, asking him if he also knew any good bassists. Since Glover was by this point a reasonably experienced songwriter, he was also recruited. They were both accepted into the band on 16 June 1969, replacing singer Rod Evans and bassist Nick Simper respectively. The old line up of Deep Purple continued to do several concerts until the end of The Book of Taliesyn Tour. Evans and Simper were both fired by managers Tony Edwards and John Colletta after the last show of that tour, which was at the Top Rank Club in Cardiff on 4 July. Gillan made his first onstage appearance with Deep Purple at the Speakeasy in London's West End on 10 July. As the band had only been rehearsing for a few weeks, they relied on older instrumentals such as "Wring That Neck" and "Mandrake Root" to fill in a set. Unsure of what to do, Gillan found a pair of congas onstage, and decided to play them during these instrumental sections. Deep Purple Mk.II continued rehearsing at Hanwell Community Centre. One of Gillan's first contributions to the band during these rehearsals was the vocal melody and lyrics to "Child in Time". At Hanwell, the band wrote what would eventually become most of In Rock during 1969, though they were interrupted in September to perform Lord's Concerto for Group and Orchestra, a one-off performance in September at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Gillan, along with Blackmore, was initially unhappy at having to perform the concerto, and wrote the lyrics to the second movement on the afternoon of the performance on a napkin in an Italian restaurant. Gillan has said he was inspired by Arthur Brown to incorporate screaming into his own style, "He changed my life". In 1970, Gillan received a call from Tim Rice, asking him to perform the part of Jesus on the original 1970 album recording of Jesus Christ Superstar, having been impressed with his performance on "Child in Time". After rehearsing a few times with Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber, he recorded his entire vocal contributions in three hours. He was subsequently offered the lead role in the 1973 film adaptation. Gillan demanded to not only be paid £250,000 for his role in the movie, but also insisted, without the consent of his manager, that the entire band be paid because filming would conflict with a scheduled tour. The producers declined, instead casting Ted Neeley in the Jesus role, and Gillan continued on in the band. After 1971, particularly after the release of Fireball, Gillan started to become disillusioned with the workload of the band, who had not had any holiday since their initial rehearsals at Hanwell. He started drinking, and relationships between him and the rest of the band became strained, particularly with Blackmore. On 6 November 1971, he collapsed with hepatitis while waiting to board a plane in Chicago, cancelling the remainder of a US tour. By December 1972, having recorded Machine Head, Made in Japan and the yet to be released Who Do We Think We Are with Deep Purple, Gillan finally decided the workload had driven him to exhaustion. Unlike some band members, he was unhappy about Made in Japan, and disliked live albums in general. He tended to go into the studio after the rest of the band had recorded and finished the backing tracks, particularly for Who Do We Think We Are, to lay down his vocals separately. He had been continually at loggerheads with Blackmore, disagreeing about music regularly, which culminated in Gillan writing "Smooth Dancer" about him. While on tour in Dayton, Ohio, he sat down and wrote a resignation letter to the band's managers, stating he intended to leave the band, effective from 30 June 1973. After Deep Purple After his departure from Deep Purple, Gillan retired from performing to pursue various unsuccessful business ventures. These included a £300,000 investment in a hotel near Oxford. A second was the Mantis Motor Cycles project, which suffered from the collapse of the British motorcycle industry in the mid-1970s, culminating in Gillan being forced to file for liquidation. A more successful opportunity, however, came with his investment in Kingsway Studios in 1974. This led to a live performance at the Butterfly Ball on 16 October 1975, replacing Ronnie James Dio at the last minute. Ian Gillan Band In 1975, Gillan formed the Ian Gillan Band with guitarist Ray Fenwick, keyboardist Mike Moran, quickly replaced with Mickey Lee Soule and then Colin Towns on keyboards, Mark Nauseef on drums and John Gustafson on bass. Their first album, Child in Time, was released in July 1976, followed by Clear Air Turbulence in April 1977 and Scarabus in October. The sound of the band had a distinct jazz-rock aspect which, although interesting to Gillan, proved commercially unsuccessful, particularly since punk rock was popular at the time. Gillan Gillan then formed a new band, simply called Gillan, retaining Towns (who would co-write most of the material), and adding guitarist Steve Byrd, bassist John McCoy and drummer Pete Barnacle. Byrd and Barnacle were quickly replaced by Bernie Tormé and by former Episode Six bandmate Mick Underwood, after Gillan saw Torme playing with his punk trio. This band had a more high-powered hard rock sound, and the release of Mr. Universe in October 1979 saw Ian Gillan back in the UK charts although the independent record company the album came out on – Acrobat Records – folded soon after the album was released, prompting a contract with Richard Branson's Virgin Records. In Christmas 1979 Gillan was visited by Blackmore, who offered him the position of lead vocalist in Rainbow. Gillan declined due to the smaller workload the band had compared to his own. However, the pair did jam together for three nights at Marquee Club – the first time the two men had shared a stage since 1973. Gillan continued releasing Glory Road in 1980, which resulted in the band making the first of several appearances on Top of the Pops. He considered the album to be his best work since Machine Head nearly a decade earlier. Following subsequent album Future Shock, Torme left following disagreements over the band’s finances and after missing an appearance on Top of the Pops. He was replaced by Janick Gers. Tormé later sued Gillan for music royalties and won. Gers appeared on the band's next two albums, Double Trouble and Magic. In 1982 Ian Gillan announced the band would fold, as he needed to rest his damaged vocal cords. The rest of the band Gillan, particularly McCoy and Towns, were not happy at the sudden disbanding of the group so soon after the success of Magic. Black Sabbath In 1983, manager Don Arden invited Gillan to join Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler and Bill Ward – founding members of Black Sabbath – in a supergroup. Although the band had reservations, on 6 April 1983, it was formally announced that Gillan had replaced Ronnie James Dio in Sabbath. The group recorded Born Again at the Manor Studios in Oxfordshire. Ward recalled that he "didn't particularly like some of the lyrics that Ian was bringing forward and putting into the songs. Not because Ian doesn't write good lyrics or anything like that; I think Ian is an excellent performer, great singer and often at times I think his lyrics can be quite brilliant. But I just have a personal difference in what I like to hear in the way of lyrics, and so I felt terribly disconnected." Citing health problems, Ward decided not to accompany the others during the subsequent tour, and was replaced by Bev Bevan. Gillan was required to learn Sabbath's old repertoire, but had difficulty remembering the words. His solution was to write the lyrics on a perspex folder and put it on the stage floor, turning the pages with his feet. Unfortunately dry ice on stage made it impossible to read the words, resulting in the audience catching glimpses of him peering over the microphone to sing a few lines and then disappearing below the dry ice to read the next set. Along with material from Born Again and older Sabbath numbers, the band regularly played Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water" as an encore. Gillan decided that he could not have a long-term role as Sabbath's singer and quit after a second North American tour. "We did an album and world tour and I loved every minute of it," he reflected. "It was the longest party I'd ever been to." Reunion of Deep Purple, 1984–89 and 1992–present After the disappointment of Black Sabbath, Gillan joined a reunited Deep Purple in April 1984, announcing their comeback on Tommy Vance's radio show. The reformed band rehearsed in Stowe, Vermont and recorded the album Perfect Strangers which was followed by a highly successful world tour. Another studio album with this formation, The House of Blue Light followed in 1987 but Gillan was concerned with the final results, stating "There's something missing in the overall album. I can't feel the spirit of the band." This was followed by the live album Nobody's Perfect in 1988. The live album also featured a studio re-recording of the 1968 hit "Hush" with Gillan on vocals, to commemorate Deep Purple's 20th anniversary. (The original 1968 release had been sung by Rod Evans). Gillan later remarked that the album was "the embodiment of all the things wrong with Purple." In contrast to his experiences with Deep Purple in the 1970s, Gillan felt frustrated that the band were no longer working enough. To fulfill his contract with Virgin, he formed a side project with Glover, writing and recording songs which didn't fit Purple's established hard rock style, which resulted in the album Accidentally on Purpose. By 1989, tensions between Gillan and Blackmore had resurfaced, due to the former's greater enthusiasm for touring and differences over the music – the song "Mitzi Dupree" on The House of Blue Light is the original demo as Blackmore refused to re-record it. This culminated in Blackmore calling a rehearsal session without Gillan. After an acrimonious argument Glover told Gillan, "Ian you've gone too far this time," and he was fired. Gillan, meanwhile, formed a new version of Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners with keyboardist Mark Buckle, bassist Keith Mulholland, drummer Louis Rosenthal and guitarists Harry Shaw and Steve Morris. The band toured regularly through 1989, and recorded the album Naked Thunder. Gillan later expressed dissatisfaction with the album, calling it "rather hum-de-dum". During this time, Gillan also made an appearance on a re-recording of "Smoke on the Water" with Rock Aid Armenia, consisting of himself with Bryan Adams, Tony Iommi, David Gilmour, Roger Taylor, Brian May, Bruce Dickinson and Paul Rodgers as a charity record for aid relief in Armenia following the then-recent earthquake. He continued to tour with his solo band, albeit with several line-up changes throughout Europe, the US and Russia. At the urging of Glover, Lord and Paice, who wanted him in the fold for the band's 25th anniversary tour, Gillan rejoined Deep Purple in 1992 to record the album The Battle Rages On. Gillan was unhappy with working on the album, as it had already been partially completed with Joe Lynn Turner, and he was only required to write replacement lyrics and vocal melodies, which, unsurprisingly, drew criticism from Blackmore. Blackmore left Deep Purple after the European tour promoting the album in 1993. Gillan and Blackmore subsequently repaired their relationship with each other. Gillan was especially enthusiastic about carrying on after Blackmore's departure, and after a brief stint with Joe Satriani, Deep Purple recruited Dixie Dregs/Kansas guitarist Steve Morse. He was keen to make changes to the live set immediately, adding the then-seldom played "Maybe I'm a Leo" (named after Gillan's birth sign) and "When a Blind Man Cries" – the latter becoming a mainstay in the band's setlist ever since. He said that their first album with Morse, Purpendicular, "was a such important record for Deep Purple that without that [other records] couldn't have been possible." He has remained Purple's lead singer, though the band has found more success touring than with producing records. Gillan pays particular interest to the lyrics in Deep Purple and considers it his prime composing role within the band. Discussing the importance of lyrics, he said "Words have to sound good. They have to sound like an instrument, they have to have the right percussive value." He described the words of 2003's Bananas as "politics mostly." Later solo activity Though Gillan has kept touring with Deep Purple regularly since 1994, he has found time to commit to other projects. On 31 March 2006 Gillan appeared at the Tommy Vance tribute concert in London. He was accompanied by Roger Glover, Steve Morris, Dean Howard, Michael Lee Jackson, Harry James, Sim Jones and Richard Cottle. In April 2006 Gillan released a CD/multimedia project to document his 44-year career called Gillan's Inn. Tony Iommi, Jeff Healey, Joe Satriani, Dean Howard, as well as current and former members of Deep Purple such as Jon Lord, Roger Glover, Ian Paice, Don Airey and Steve Morse are featured on this 2006 CD and DVD. The project, produced by Nick Blagona, includes a re-recorded selection of his Deep Purple, Black Sabbath and solo tracks. At the same time as Gillan's Inn, Gillan announced that his solo albums with the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan from the 1970s and 1980s would be re-issued late in 2006 and early 2007 through Demon Records. Gillan performed the vocals in the song Eternity from the 2006 video game Blue Dragon, composed by Nobuo Uematsu. Ian Gillan sang on two songs off the Jon Lord & Hoochie Coochie Men studio album, Danger. White Men Dancing, released in late 2007. On 2 April 2007 Gillan released a DVD Highway Star – A Journey in Rock. The DVD has 6 hours of footage including documentaries and music clips. This was followed in February 2008 by a double live album on Edel Records, Live in Anaheim that features Gillan and Deep Purple classic songs and several rarities. A companion DVD was released in May 2008. On 3 May 2008 Ian Gillan performed at the Jeff Healey memorial concert in Toronto, Canada. He had previously played live with Healey in Toronto in February 2005. He released a studio album entitled One Eye to Morocco in March 2009. In the 2010s, Gillan performed occasionally with orchestras in Europe, including rearrangements of Deep Purple songs. WhoCares Gillan has expressed particular fondness for Armenia and has maintained popularity there since Rock Aid Armenia in 1989, which has led to him forming the supergroup WhoCares as a side-project to Deep Purple. On 2 October 2009, in honour of the 20th anniversary of Rock Aid Armenia, Gillan together with Tony Iommi, Geoff Downes, and the project organiser Jon Dee were received by the Prime Minister of Armenia who awarded them with the republic's Orders of Honour. On 26 and 27 March 2010, in Yerevan, Gillan performed with State Philharmonic Orchestra of Armenia. At a press conference in Yerevan on 27 March, Gillan said he considers Armenia his spiritual motherland. In 2010, Ian Gillan met Tony Iommi, Nicko McBrain and Jon Lord, Mikko Lindström from HIM and Jason Newsted at a studio in London to finish recording a song called "Out of my Mind", which was released the following year. This is for the benefit of the music school to be built in Gyumri, Armenia – a project Ian Gillan has been working on with others since his 1990 solo concerts in Yerevan. On the flight back from Armenia in 2011, after each receiving the Armenian Presidential medal of Honour, Gillan and Iommi decided to form the side project WhoCares for ad hoc recordings (and possible performances) dedicated to raising money for specific causes. On 20 September 2013 Ian Gillan participated in the opening of the Octet Music School in Gyumri. The Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America named Ian Gillan as its 2014 "Friend of the Armenians" and presented him the award at the 112th Diocesan Assembly in New York City. Non-musical side projects In 2010 Ian Gillan hosted a documentary about the Polish composer and pianist Fryderyk Chopin in Poland directed by Jerzy Szkamruk. Chopin's Story is about the rise of the composer and documents his Polish years. The film has won several international awards, including the Best Documentary award at Tourfilm International Festival in Florianopolis, Brazil. It was aired on the Polish channel Discovery Historia on 21 June 2011. It was subsequently released on DVD. Personal life Gillan was in a relationship with Zoe Dean from 1969 to 1978. They had known each other since his time in Episode Six. In 1984, Gillan married his girlfriend Bron (1955 - 19 November 2022), to whom he had dedicated "Keep It Warm" from Black Sabbath's 1983 album Born Again. They have twice since renewed their marriage vows. Their daughter Grace Gillan is also working as a singer for the band Papa LeGal. Gillan lives near Lyme Regis, Dorset and has a home in southern Portugal. Gillan supports Queens Park Rangers and is a cricket fan. His surname is sometimes misspelled as "Gillian". Gillan himself made light of this in the lyrics to "MTV", a track from Deep Purple's 2005 album Rapture of the Deep, when he sang about "Mr. Grover 'n' Mr Gillian". Selected discography Jesus Christ Superstar (1970) By Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. With Murray Head, Yvonne Elliman, John Gustafson, and musicians such as Neil Hubbard, Henry McCullough, J. Peter Robinson, Karl Jenkins and John Marshall. with Deep Purple Concerto for Group and Orchestra (1969) Deep Purple in Rock (1970) Fireball (1971) Machine Head (1972) Made in Japan (1972) Who Do We Think We Are (1973) Perfect Strangers (1984) The House of Blue Light (1987) The Battle Rages On (1993) Purpendicular (1996) Abandon (1998) Bananas (2003) Rapture of the Deep (2005) Now What?! (2013) Infinite (2017) Whoosh! (2020) Turning to Crime (2021) with Black Sabbath Born Again (1983) with The Javelins Sole Agency and Representation (1994) Ian Gillan and the Javelins (2018) with Ian Gillan Band & Gillan Child in Time (1976) Clear Air Turbulence (1977) Scarabus (1977) Live at the Budokan (1977/1983) Gillan (1978) Mr. Universe (1979) Glory Road (1980) Future Shock (1981) Double Trouble (live) (1981) Magic (1982) Solo Accidentally on Purpose (1988, with Roger Glover) Naked Thunder (1990) Toolbox (1991) Dreamcatcher (1997) Gillan's Inn (2006) Live in Anaheim (2008) One Eye to Morocco (2009) with WhoCares (also known as Ian Gillan, Tony Iommi & Friends) Ian Gillan & Tony Iommi: WhoCares (2012) Rock Aid Armenia (1990) : With Bryan Adams, Bruce Dickinson, Paul Rodgers, Geoff Beauchamp, Keith Emerson, Geoff Downes, Brian May, David Gilmour, Ritchie Blackmore, Alex Lifeson, Chris Squire and Roger Taylor Timeline References Citations Sources Further reading Candy Horizon (1980) – a book of poems written by Gillan. Smoke This!: The Warblings, Rants, Philosophies, and Musings from the Singer of Deep Purple (2006) External links Authorised links from Gillan.com Official site for the Gillan's Inn Project 1945 births Living people English autobiographers English rock singers English heavy metal singers English male singer-songwriters English singer-songwriters British harmonica players People from Hounslow Deep Purple members Black Sabbath members Island Records artists English people of Scottish descent People educated at Acton County Grammar School English expatriates in Portugal EMI Records artists Conga players Gillan (band) members Episode Six members Ian Gillan Band members 20th-century English male singers 20th-century English singers 21st-century English male singers 21st-century English singers Blues rock musicians
5340861	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s%20Guardado	Andrés Guardado	José Andrés Guardado Hernández (; born 28 September 1986) is a Mexican professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for La Liga club Real Betis. Popularly known as Principito (Spanish for Little Prince), Guardado came through the youth ranks at Atlas, making his professional debut in 2005 before signing with Spain's Deportivo two years later, where he spent five seasons. In 2012 he joined Valencia, with brief loan stints at Bayer Leverkusen and PSV, before permanently joining the latter club in 2015 and winning two Eredivisie titles. He returned to Spain two years later with Real Betis, where he has since made over 205 appearances. A Mexican international since 2005, Guardado represented the country in five World Cups, four Gold Cups – winning the 2011, 2015 and 2019 tournaments – two Copa Américas and two Confederations Cups. He is the most-capped player in the history of the national team with 179 appearances, and joint tenth on the all-time scorer list with 28 goals. Club career Atlas Born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, to Andrés Manuel and Teresa (née Hernández), Guardado began playing professionally for local side Atlas, joining the team's youth system at the age of seven and going on to appear in two full Primera División seasons. He made his league debut on 20 August 2005, in a 3–2 home win against C.F. Pachuca, and on 15 October, scored his first goal against Tigres UANL in a 2–1 away victory. At the end of the tournament, he was voted best rookie. On 19 August 2006, Guardado scored his first professional brace against Club América in a 2–0 home victory, both of them being long-range shots from outside the box. His performances in his second season led him to win back-to-back (Apertura and Clausura) awards for best full-back. In the summer of 2006, press speculation linked Guardado to several Serie A teams as well as Real Madrid, but Deportivo de La Coruña moved quickly and made an offer of €7 million for 75% of his rights. An offer was accepted and the transfer was finalised on 7 July 2007, making him the most expensive ever Mexican player at the time; Atlas retained a 25% sell-on-fee as long as it held the remaining 25% of his rights. Guardado played his final match at the Estadio Jalisco in a friendly against the Argentine champions San Lorenzo de Almagro, featuring 30 minutes. At half-time, he was awarded the club's highest honor, the Athletic Excellence Award. Deportivo Guardado was officially introduced on 24 July 2007, with the Spanish team giving him the number 18 shirt. He made his La Liga debut on 26 August in a 3–0 home loss to UD Almería and on 16 September scored his first goal against Real Betis, attacking a long throw-in at the back post, in which his attempt was described as "karate style" finish, in a 1–0 victory. He finished his first season with 26 games and five goals as Depor finished in ninth position, eventually qualifying to the UEFA Intertoto Cup – and the subsequent UEFA Cup, where he scored in a 3–0 group stage home win over Feyenoord; he was voted by fans as the best player. Halfway through his second year, fans chose Guardado as the best player of 2008. Coach Miguel Ángel Lotina stated that he was a key player for Deportivo, and admired his talent and character. He solidified himself as first choice, providing several assists and being charged with set pieces; he was also hampered by several injuries, however. On 20 September 2010, Guardado scored a brace within seven minutes of each other, both penalties, in a 2–2 draw against Getafe CF. On 15 May 2011, he made his 100th La Liga appearance in a scoreless draw at FC Barcelona, the third Mexican to achieve this feat behind Rafael Márquez and Hugo Sánchez. He only managed to take part in 20 matches in 2010–11, and the Galicians were relegated to Segunda División after 20 years. In January 2012, Guardado was voted by fans as the best player of the previous year. On 27 March 2012 he confirmed that he would leave the Estadio Riazor on 30 June, and contributed career-bests of 11 goals and 12 assists as his team returned to the top level as champions. At the end of the campaign he was again voted by fans as best player, and was also named the competition's best attacking midfielder; additionally, he eventually surpassed Juan Carlos Valerón as the highest provider of assists. Valencia On 28 May 2012, Guardado signed a four-year contract with Valencia CF. He made his debut on 19 August, playing 66 minutes in a 1–1 away draw against Real Madrid; two days later, following his five-year residence in the country, he attained his Spanish citizenship. His debut appearance in the UEFA Champions League took place on 12 September, in a 2–1 group stage loss at eventual winners Bayern Munich. During his first season he featured regularly at left-back, mainly due to the serious injury of Jérémy Mathieu. Guardado scored his first goal for the Che on 12 May 2013, contributing to a 4–0 rout at Rayo Vallecano, and he featured mostly in the backline the following months. On 30 January 2014, Bundesliga club Bayer 04 Leverkusen announced that they had signed him on loan for the rest of the season, with an option to buy afterwards. He made his debut on 2 February in a 1–0 loss against 1. FC Kaiserslautern for the DFB-Pokal, playing as a left wing-back. Guardado's playing time at both the Mestalla Stadium and the BayArena was hampered by injuries and loss of form. PSV Eindhoven For 2014–15, still owned by Valencia, Guardado joined PSV Eindhoven, who had previously attempted purchasing him in 2007. He made his Eredivisie debut on 31 August 2014 against Vitesse Arnhem at Philips Stadion. He managed to wear the captain's armband within his first months, won the Player of the Month award for November, and on 7 March of the following year he scored his first goal for his new club, contributing to a 3–0 away victory over Go Ahead Eagles. On 15 March 2015, prior to the match against FC Groningen and amidst rumours of a transfer to AFC Ajax, PSV fans displayed a Mexican flag tifo and a banner in Spanish which read "Andrés Guardado, our Golden Mexican Eagle. He has to stay in PSV Eindhoven. Our house is your house, Andrés". On 27 March, PSV announced that they had reached a deal with Valencia over a permanent transfer, for an undisclosed fee and three years. On 18 April 2015, with three matches to spare, the team won the league championship after a 4–1 win over SC Heerenveen, with Guardado playing the full 90 minutes. At the end of his first season, his impressive performances led him to be named player of the year by Dutch magazines Algemeen Dagblad and Voetbal International; his displays also led to his inclusion in that year's FIFA Ballon d'Or longlist. At the start of the following campaign, Guardado came on as a 74th-minute substitute in the Johan Cruyff Shield match against Groningen, winning 3–0. He contributed 25 appearances to help the side successfully defend their title, finishing with nine assists as the team's second-highest provider. He played a pivotal part as they qualified to the Champions League round of 16 for the first time since the 2006–07 edition, and was also listed on Football Oranje's team of the season. On 31 July 2016, Guardado was in the starting eleven against Feyenoord, who were defeated 1–0 in the Johan Cruyff Shield. On 14 May 2017, he made his 100th competitive appearance for the club in a 4–1 victory over PEC Zwolle. Real Betis Despite rumors linking him to a possible move to Atlanta United and Los Angeles FC of the Major League Soccer, it was announced on 27 July 2017 that Spanish club Real Betis had signed Guardado for a reported €2.3 million on a three-year deal. The following month he was named their co-captain, and on 20 August he made his competitive debut, playing all 90 minutes in a 2–0 loss to Barcelona. He scored his first goal on 25 November, in a 2–2 home draw against Girona FC. In December 2019, the 33-year-old Guardado renewed his contract until 2022. On 4 July 2020 he made his 100th official appearance for the Andalusians, captaining the side in their 1–1 league draw to RC Celta de Vigo and becoming the first Mexican to reach that mark for three European clubs in the process. On 11 July, he picked up a hamstring injury in a 1–0 league loss to Atlético Madrid, causing him to miss the rest of the season. Following an absence as a result of the hamstring injury, Guardado played his first match of the 2020–21 season against Valencia on 3 October, coming on as a stoppage time substitute in a 2–0 away league victory, marking it as his 14th season in Europe and becoming the Mexican with most seasons in Europe, surpassing Hugo Sánchez's record of 13. On 17 January 2021, after recovering for nearly two weeks from COVID-19, Guardado returned to the field, coming on as a second-half substitute in the Copa del Rey round of 32 match against Sporting de Gijón, winning 2–0. On 11 January 2022, following his appearance in the league match against Rayo Vallecano, Guardado became the Mexican player with the most games in Europe with 496, surpassing the record held by Hugo Sánchez. He reached the 500 game mark on 13 February in the 4–2 victory over Levante. The following month, it was announced that the 35-year-old Guardado had extended his contract with Real Betis for one more season. On 23 April, in the Spanish Cup final against Valencia, Guardado came on as a substitute in extra time in a 1–1 draw that went into penalties, successfully converting his shot as his team won the cup. International career Guardado made his first appearance for Mexico in a friendly match against Hungary on 14 December 2005, four months after his first-team debut with Atlas. He was then called up to represent his country at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, where he appeared in the 2–1 loss to Argentina in the round of 16, starting as a shifting attacking midfielder/wing-back alongside Ramón Morales but was replaced by Gonzalo Pineda after picking up an injury in the second half; after the departure of manager Ricardo La Volpe, his replacement Hugo Sánchez kept the player in his squad. Guardado's first game under the new manager was an exhibition game against the United States on 7 February 2007, where he came on as a substitute in a 0–2 defeat. On 28 February, in a friendly with Venezuela, he scored his first international goal in Mexico's 3–1 victory. In the final of the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup, Guardado scored the opening goal against the United States. During the second half he collided head-on with Jonathan Spector while both attempted to head the ball, but recovered to play the rest of the match, which ended in a 2–1 loss; he was listed as an Honorable Mention for the competition's All-Tournament Team. He also participated in that year's Copa América, scoring the third goal against Uruguay in the third-place match. Javier Aguirre included Guardado in the roster for the 2010 World Cup. He assisted Rafael Márquez in the opening game of the World Cup against hosts South Africa, in a 1–1 draw. An expected starter, he lacked playing time and appeared in three out of four games, in another last-16 exit at the hands of Argentina. In May 2011, Guardado was called up by José Manuel de la Torre for the 2011 Gold Cup. He scored his first brace with the national team during that tournament, in a 4–1 win over Costa Rica on 12 June. He found the net again in the final in a 4–2 victory over the United States, as Mexico retained the trophy. Guardado made the squad for the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in Brazil. As El Tri failed to progress from the group stage, he played all three matches. On 5 March 2014, Guardado made his 100th appearance for Mexico in a friendly with Nigeria. Selected by Miguel Herrera for the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, he started all the games as a left midfielder, and scored in the last group phase fixture, a 3–1 win against Croatia. Mexico faced the Netherlands in the round of 16, being controversially eliminated after succumbing to a 2–1 defeat. Following the end of the tournament, Herrera declared that Guardado would captain the following September friendlies with Chile and Bolivia, in instances when actual captain Rafael Márquez was absent. At the 2015 Gold Cup, Guardado's first tournament as captain, he scored six times en route to the title; the first being a first-half effort in a 6–0 demolition of Cuba in the group stage, the second in a 4–4 draw against Trinidad and Tobago, and his third via penalty kick in the last minute of stoppage time in the 1–0 quarter-final victory against Costa Rica. In the semi-finals with Panama, he scored twice from the penalty spot to help El Tri come from behind and win 2–1 and, in the decisive match against Jamaica, scored the opener in an eventual 3–1 victory, becoming the first player to score in three Gold Cup finals, and subsequently won the Golden Ball Award as the tournament's best player. He was also called up by then interim-manager Ricardo Ferretti for the subsequent CONCACAF Cup – a play-off match to determine CONCACAF's entry into the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup – against the United States, which Mexico won 3–2. Picked for the Copa América Centenario squad by Juan Carlos Osorio, Guardado provided a cross in the opening fixture against Uruguay that led to an own goal in an eventual 3–1 victory, but was also sent off for two bookable offences. He took part in a further two games, including the team's 7–0 quarter-final defeat to Chile. Guardado also made the final list for the 2017 Confederations Cup in Russia, where he appeared as captain in the group stage fixtures against Portugal and Russia, picking up a yellow card on both occasions and thus missing the semi-final match against Germany. He returned to the lineup in the third-place playoff, a 2–1 loss to Portugal. Following an injury scare that required medical intervention that was picked up while playing with Betis, Guardado was selected in the final 23-man squad for the 2018 World Cup, his first as captain. In the first match, he played 74 minutes in a 1–0 defeat of Germany, going on to take part in all the fixtures including the round of 16 loss with Brazil. Following their elimination, it was reported by Mexican sports newspaper Récord that he had played through the tournament with a muscle injury. Guardado was called up by Gerardo Martino to participate in the 2019 Gold Cup. In the second group match against Canada, he replaced the injured Érick Gutiérrez at the 37th minute and scored twice, helping to a 3–1 win and being named Player of the match. He broke various CONCACAF-based records at the end of that stage, among them the most-capped Mexican player in the Gold Cup and the only from the country to score in four editions of the CONCACAF Gold Cup, eventually winning the competition and being included in the Best XI. In November 2022, Guardado was included in Mexico's 26-man squad for the World Cup. In a friendly match against Sweden prior to the World Cup, Guardado made his 178th appearance for Mexico as a half-time substitute, and became the most capped player in the history of the national side, surpassing Claudio Suárez. On 16 May 2023, Guardado officially announced his decision to retire from the national team. Style of play Guardado started his career as a winger at Atlas, occasionally playing as a left-back. He was mainly deployed in the former position at Deportivo by Miguel Ángel Lotina, and changed to the latter after moving to Valencia. When played as a winger, he was an incisive and quick footballer, known to play deep into the field, take on defenders one-on-one and provide accurate crosses, managing to score for both club and country. In 2014, under Miguel Herrera's improvisation, Guardado began to play as a defensive midfielder for the national team. At PSV, manager Phillip Cocu facilitated his positional change as injuries hampered his speed, as the latter began to operate as a central midfielder with box-to-box and deep-lying playmaker qualities; he later took on more defensive duties. A creative player with excellent vision, Guardado is also a technically proficient player known for establishing the tempo of his team. He also has good passing and dribbling skills, also being proficient at free kicks, penalties and holding up the ball. He also possesses a powerful and accurate shot from distance, and is also capable of aiding his team defensively due to his work rate and stamina; additionally, he was described as playing closer to the "Iberian midfielder archetype," focused on possession in the center of the field, winning the ball back with smart positioning instead of tackles and then pushing it forward. Guardado has cited his compatriot and national teammate Rafael Márquez as an influence in his playing style and leadership. Personal life Guardado married fellow Guadalajara native Briana Morales in December 2006. Five years later, they divorced. Guardado is an "honorary associate" of the Asociación Mexicana de Futbolistas (Mexican Footballers Association), created in October 2017. An association that its main goal is, according to him, to "create a dialogue with league, federation and club authorities" with the domestic footballers. Much of Guardado's first year at Betis' Estadio Benito Villamarín was captured in the Amazon Prime television documentary series Six Dreams, in which he was one of the stars. On 1 January 2021, it was reported that Guardado tested positive for COVID-19. By 13 January, he recovered. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Mexico's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Guardado goal. Honours Deportivo La Coruña Segunda División: 2011–12 UEFA Intertoto Cup: 2008 PSV Eredivisie: 2014–15, 2015–16 Johan Cruyff Shield: 2015, 2016 Betis Copa del Rey: 2021–22 Mexico CONCACAF Gold Cup: 2011, 2015, 2019 CONCACAF Cup: 2015 Individual Mexican Primera División Best Rookie: Apertura 2005 Mexican Primera División Best Full-back: Apertura 2006, Clausura 2007 Deportivo de La Coruña Fan's Player of the Year: 2008, 2011 Deportivo de La Coruña Fan's Player of the Season: 2007–08, 2011–12 Segunda División Best Attacking Midfielder: 2011–12 Eredivisie Player of the Month: November 2014 AD Eredivisie Player of the Year: 2014–15 VI Eredivisie Player of the Year: 2014–15 Football Oranje Team of the Season: 2015–16 CONCACAF Best XI: 2015, 2016, 2018 CONCACAF Gold Cup Golden Ball: 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup Best XI: 2019; Honorable Mention: 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup Best Goal: 2011 (third place) IFFHS CONCACAF Men's Team of the Decade: 2011–2020 IFFHS CONCACAF Men's Team of All Time: 2021 See also List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps References External links Profile at the Real Betis website 1986 births Living people Footballers from Guadalajara, Jalisco Mexican men's footballers Men's association football midfielders Men's association football wingers Men's association football utility players Liga MX players Atlas F.C. footballers La Liga players Segunda División players Deportivo de La Coruña players Valencia CF players Real Betis players Bundesliga players Bayer 04 Leverkusen players Eredivisie players PSV Eindhoven players Mexico men's international footballers 2006 FIFA World Cup players 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup players 2007 Copa América players 2010 FIFA World Cup players 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup players 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2014 FIFA World Cup players 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup players Copa América Centenario players 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2018 FIFA World Cup players 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup players CONCACAF Gold Cup-winning players FIFA Men's Century Club Mexican expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Expatriate men's footballers in Germany Expatriate men's footballers in the Netherlands Mexican expatriate sportspeople in Spain Mexican expatriate sportspeople in Germany Mexican expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands 2022 FIFA World Cup players
5341022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6sem%20Sultan	Kösem Sultan	Kösem Sultan (; 1589 – 2 September 1651), also known as Mahpeyker Sultan (; ), was Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Empire as the chief consort and legal wife of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I, Valide Sultan as the mother of sultans Murad IV and Ibrahim, and () Valide Sultan as the grandmother of Sultan Mehmed IV. She became one of the most powerful and influential women in Ottoman history, as well as a central figure during the period known as the Sultanate of Women. Kösem Sultan’s stature and influence were facilitated by her astute grasp of Ottoman politics and the large number of children she bore. One of her sons and grandson required her regency early in their reigns, and her daughters’ marriages to prominent statesmen provided her with allies in government. She exerted considerable influence over Sultan Ahmed, and it's probable that her efforts on keeping his half-brother Mustafa—who later became Mustafa I—alive contributed to the transition from a system of succession based on primogeniture to one based on agnatic seniority. Kösem Sultan was virtual head of government as regent to Murad IV (r. 1623–1640) and Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687), during which she gained notoriety and affection among her subjects, wielded unrivaled political authority, and shaped the foreign and domestic policies of the empire. Despite the turmoil and instability that marked her early years as regent, she managed to keep the state institutions and the government running. She initially advocated pro-Venetian policies; however, this changed. During the growing tensions between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice in the 1640s, she and her allies were blamed for pressuring Ibrahim to launch a largely unsuccessful naval assault on the Venetian-controlled island of Crete. She had to contend with a Venetian blockade of the Dardanelles, which culminated in the naval Battle of Focchies in 1649, as well as merchant uprisings sparked by a financial crisis in the years that followed. Some historians questioned her intents and motivations for espousing the Janissaries' cause throughout her three decades of power and claimed that she had amassed a great fortune through illegitimate means. She did, however, make great use of the funds she amassed from her estates and income by funding philanthropic endeavors and building projects that served as tangible manifestations of the dynasty's concern for its subjects. She was posthumously referred to by the names: "Vālide-i Muazzama" (magnificent mother), "Vālide-i Maḳtūle" (murdered mother), and "Vālide-i Şehīde" (martyred mother). Background Kösem is generally said to be of Greek origin, the daughter of a Greek Orthodox priest on the island of Tinos whose maiden name was Anastasia. In 1604, at the age of 14 or 15, she was kidnapped by Ottoman raiders and bought as a slave in Bosnia by the beylerbey (governor-general) of the Bosnia Eyalet. She was tall, slender, and appealing woman due to the whiteness of her complexion and the deep brown of her eyes. Her beauty and intelligence were noticed by the kızlar ağa of Sultan Ahmed I's court, who sent her to Constantinople to join a group of other slave girls marked by their striking appearance or intelligence to be trained in the harem of Sultan Ahmed I as an imperial court lady. In the harem, she was taught religion, theology, mathematics, embroidery, singing, music and literature. Ahmed was captivated by her beauty and intelligence, and in 1605, she became his haseki. According to the Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle, upon her conversion to Islam, her name was changed to Mahpeyker. After her marriage to Ahmed, he renamed her to Kösem, meaning "leader of the herd,” implying her political intelligence and leadership, but it might also mean "hairless,” in allusion to her smooth and hairless skin. Kösem rose to prominence early in Ahmed's reign as part of a series of changes to the hierarchy of the Imperial Harem. Safiye Sultan, Ahmed's once-powerful grandmother and manager of the harem, was deprived of her power and banished to the Old Palace (Eski Sarayı) in January 1604, and Handan Sultan, Ahmed's mother and valide sultan, died in November of the following year. These two vacancies allowed her to rise to the top of the Imperial Harem hierarchy. Haseki Sultan Ahmed favoured Kösem above all his concubines, lavishing on her the finest jewels and a stipend of 1,000 aspers a day. In the early years of their marriage, she bore Ahmed four daughters: Ayşe Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Hanzade Sultan and Gevherhan Sultan. As the mother of several princesses, she had the right to arrange suitable dynastic marriages for them. In 1612, Ayşe Sultan, the eldest child of Kösem, was consequently married to the Grand Vizier Nasuh Pasha at the age of seven, while Gevherhan Sultan was married to Öküz Kara Mehmed Pasha at the age of five. The Venetian ambassador Simon Contarini, bailo between 1609 and 1612, mentions Kösem in his report in 1612 and portrays her as: George Sandys, an English traveller who visited Constantinople in the early 1610s, believed that she was "a witch beyond beauty". He claimed that the sultan had a "passionate" love for Kösem, emphasizing that this was the result of witchcraft. Sandys went on to characterise her as a woman with "a delicate and at the same time shy nature." Abolition of fratricide Contemporary observers noted Kösem's interest in the succession after the arrival of her first-born son Murad in 1612, and it is possible that the modification of the pattern of succession to the throne from a system of primogeniture to one based on agnatic seniority owed something to her efforts. Since fratricide was a common practice, she feared that if the throne went to one of the sultan's sons, it would go to the eldest, Osman, whose mother, Mahfiruz Hatun, may have been regarded by Kösem as a rival intent on lobbying in favor of her own son. She feared that Mahfiruz would compel Osman to execute her sons—Murad, Süleyman, Kasım and Ibrahim—if he succeeded his father, so she made efforts to keep Ahmed’s half-brother-in-law Mustafa safe from execution. Simon Contarini reported in the same year that Kösem "lobbied to spare Mustafa the fate of fratricide with the ulterior goal of saving her own son from the same fate." Thus, by letting the brother of the sultan live, the "queen" was trying to make sure that Mustafa, if he happens to become sultan, would spare the life of her sons. Contarini does not mention the name Kösem but talks about a "queen" (regina). Moreover, Kösem was able to use her close alliance with Mustafa Agha, the Agha of the Janissaries, and his client Grand Vizier Nasuh Pasha to wield influence over the sultan. Contarini also reported that the sultan ordered a woman to be beaten for having irritated Kösem; this woman may have been Mahfiruz herself. The latter would later be banished to the Old Palace (Eski Sarayı), probably in the mid-1610s. After that incident, Kösem and her stepson Osman grew fond of each other. She used to let him join her in carriage rides, where he showed himself to the crowd when she made excursions into Constantinople. The reports of the Venetian bailos note that on these excursions, Osman enjoyed throwing handful of coins to the passers-by who flocked to see the young prince, while his stepmother Kösem remained concealed behind a curtain. However, in 1616, the Venetian ambassador Bertuccio Valier reported that the sultan did not allow Osman to converse with Kösem. His motive perhaps, as Valier speculated, was fear that the princes' security was threatened by Kösem's well-known ambitions for her own sons. The Grand Vizier Nasuh Pasha, Kösem's son-in-law as the spouse of her daughter, Ayşe Sultan, was executed on the orders of Ahmed in 1614, Kösem herself tried to stop her husband from taking such action, but to no avail. Thus, she lost an important ally in the government. From that point on, she concentrated her efforts on keeping Mustafa alive. Kösem's influence over the sultan increased in the following years, and it is said that she acted as one of his advisers. Reporting from 1616 claims that Kösem was the most valuable ally to be had in Constantinople because of her sway over the sultan. Valier also claimed that her pro-Venetian policy and contributions to Venice's good standing must be appropriately rewarded by the republic. The bailos noted that Ahmed was deeply devoted to Kösem. However, she refrained from involving herself constantly in serious issues as the sultan refused to be overshadowed by his wife. According to Valier in 1616: Contarini also noted that Kösem "restrains herself with great wisdom from speaking [to the sultan] too frequently of serious matters and affairs of state." Throughout her career as haseki sultan, she was accused of trying to protect her own position and influence "rather than that of the sultan or of the dynasty". Ahmed's reign is noteworthy for marking the first breach in the Ottoman tradition of royal fratricide; henceforth Ottoman sultans would no longer systematically execute their brothers upon accession to the throne. For the first time since the establishment of the Ottoman state, the throne passed not from father to son, but from brother to brother. Death of Ahmed I On Ahmed's early death from typhus and gastric bleeding on 22 November 1617, Kösem became the head of a faction that successfully supported his half-brother Mustafa's accession to the throne, probably out of concern for her sons' life, should their older half-brother, Osman, become sultan. She probably preferred to see Mustafa become sultan as he was less likely to see her sons as a threat. Reign of Mustafa I As only the second sultan (after Ahmed I) to ascend the throne with no prior experience of government, Sultan Mustafa I proved feeble and incompetent. He had spent his entire early life in the harem, learning only what the eunuchs and women could teach him, and constantly fearing execution at the hands of the ruling sultans, with several palace officials, particularly the Chief Black Eunuch Mustafa Ağa, nourishing these fears to control him. Eventually, Mustafa Ağa spread stories that he was insane and secured his deposition on 26 February 1618, just 96 days after he ascended the throne. He was replaced by Osman, the eldest son of Sultan Ahmed I and his deceased mother Mahfiruz Hatun. Reign of Osman II Sultan Osman's first act as sultan was to take power away from Mustafa's supporters, as well as those who had secured his accession and planned to rule over him. As a result, Kösem and her eight children and entourage were banished to the Old Palace (Eski Sarayı). Nevertheless, Kösem was able to maintain her haseki status and daily stipend of 1,000 aspers during her retirement. While at the Old Palace, she had the opportunity to meet Safiye Sultan. In 1619, Osman acted against Ottoman convention by paying Kösem a three-day visit at the Old Palace and taking part in her festivities, thus showing his particular affection for her. He also gave Kösem the income from eight villages to the north-west of Athens; she then incorporated them into her waqf, which provided services to pilgrims traveling from Damascus to Mecca. Kösem may have cultivated this relationship hoping to use her influence over Osman to persuade him to spare her sons. His uncle Mustafa was kept alive, as were Osman's younger half-brothers, protected by Kösem, who were at this time not old enough to pose a threat to Osman's regime. However, even if their relation continued, it did not yield results for the young sultan, whose greatest weakness was not having a valide sultan to lobby on his behalf. He also felt uneasy with Kösem's involvement in state issues. In 1622, sensing that Osman might still execute Mustafa and his younger brothers, the eunuch corps and the palace soldiery planned a counter-strike, backed by Mustafa's mother, Halime Sultan, and Kösem, who wanted her own children to ascend to the throne. Storming into the harem, they freed Mustafa from confinement in the Kafes. As for Osman, aged only seventeen, he was imprisoned in Yedikule, then strangled by members of the Janissary corps on 20 May 1622, largely through the efforts of Halime. Second reign of Mustafa I In place of Osman, the weak and incompetent Mustafa was restored to the throne with the support of Kösem. While power initially went to Kösem and his mother, the Janissaries and others who had carried out the revolt then reacted violently to the regicide of Osman and killed all those whom they considered responsible while at the same time attempting to protect the remaining sons of Ahmed against the efforts of Halime to eliminate them to protect her son. In an effort to build her own position, Kösem secured the appointment as grand vizier of Mere Hüseyin Pasha, an Albanian man who presented himself as a reformer, promising to move against the assassins. However, Hüseyin Pasha used the situation to his own advantage, raiding the state treasury for his own benefit under the pretext of punishing those responsible for the regicide of Osman. During the closing months of Mustafa's second reign, he ordered the execution of everyone involved in Osman's death, including Kösem's sons. But before his orders could be carried out, both Kösem and the eunuch corps intervened and deposed him once more. Kösem eventually reached an agreement with the viziers to install her son Murad as sultan. Mustafa would go on to spend the rest of his life in the Kafes. Valide Sultan Reign of Murad IV Kösem entered the Topkapı Palace with a grandiose ceremonial procession in front of which a thousand dervishes were marching with prayers to celebrate her forthcoming. She was once again thrust into the political arena when her son ascended to the throne on 10 September 1623 as Sultan Murad IV. Since he was a minor, she was appointed not only as valide sultan but also as official regent (naib-i-sultanat). In 1623, the Ottoman court sent a letter to the Republic of Venice, formally announcing Murad's ascension to the throne. The letter, which formally addressed Kösem, wrote: "Her Majesty the Sultana Valide [...] for the late Sultan Ahmed, whom Allah took with him, was a very important person and he loved her so much that he honoured her by marrying her." The letter further indicates that Kösem would rule in her son's name: "We have great hope and faith in the valide sultan, who - among all women enjoying the position - is distinguished by maturity and virtue of character." Shortly after Murad's enthronement, a Venetian ambassadorial message remarked on Kösem's political experience: A month before the Venetian despatch, the English envoy Thomas Roe predicted that the new sultan would be "gouemed by his mother, who gouemed his father, a man of spirit and witt." As per Ottoman tradition, Murad had all his brothers confined in the Kafes, a part of the Imperial Harem where the palace eunuchs kept possible successors to the throne under a form of house-arrest and constant surveillance. As regent, Kösem effectively ran the empire through her son, Murad, attending and arranging divan (cabinet) sessions from behind a curtain. She was in charge of appointing political figures and overseeing the state's administration, which allowed her to establish connections with statesmen, judges, and other court figures. She would meet with foreign ambassadors from other countries to discuss international treaties. The leading viziers wrote letters directly to her and, in response, Kösem used her kira to compose letters to the viziers. Kösem seemed to have distinct expectations about her role when she first became regent. According to the Turkish historian Özlem Kumrular: In 1623, Kemankeş Kara Ali Pasha was appointed grand vizier. His worst blunder was permitting the Safavid Shah Abbas to capture Baghdad and Erivan in 1624, and then hiding the news from Kösem and Murad, who was twelve years old at the time. Already displeased, Kösem immediately deposed him and had him strangled with the support of the Chief Black Eunuch Mustafa Ağa. He was replaced as grand vizier by Çerkes Mehmed Pasha. Political life Foreign enemies and powerful local notables saw Kösem's rise as an opportunity to undermine the Ottoman state's power and authority. During the early years of Murad's reign, Kösem had to deal with the loss of Baghdad and Erivan during the Ottoman–Safavid War; the rebellion of tribes in Lebanon; the Abaza rebellion in northern Anatolia; the wavering allegiances of governors in Egypt and other provinces; the assertion of independence by the Barbary states; a revolt by the Tatars in Crimea; and raids by marauding Cossacks on the Black Sea coast. Cossack incursions into the Ottoman Empire were common throughout the early 17th century, disrupting the security of the Black Sea and forcing the Ottomans to consider reinforcing the Bosphorus, especially after the Cossack incursion of 1624. On behalf of her son, Kösem ordered the construction of two fortresses near the mouth of the Bosphorus, one in Anadolukavağı and the other in Rumelikavağı. The fortresses were erected in a single year.<ref>Dörter, "A Future for the Upper Bosphorus", 129; Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi: 1. Kitap: İstanbul Topkapı Sarayı Bağdat 304 Yazmasının Transkripsiyonu-Dizini, prep. by Orhan Şaik Gökyay (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 1996) p. 197, "258. Fasıl ... Murâd Hân asrında bu boğazdan içeri küffâr-ı âk Kazak girüp Yeniköy ve Tarabya kasabası ve Büyükdere'yi ve Sarıyâr kasabaların nehb [ü] gâret etdüği Murâd Hân-ı Râbie mün'akis olup tîz cümle a'yân-ı dîvân ile meşveret edüp ve vezîri Kapudan Receb Paşa'nın ve Kuzu Alî Ağa'nın re'y [ü] tedbîrleri ile bu boğazın ağzında iki tarafa birer Kilidü'l-Bahr-i Siyâh kal'aları inşâ olunması fermân-ı şehriyârî sâdır olup sene (---) şehrinde mübâşeret edüp bir senede iki kal'a-i hısn-ı hasîn ve sedd-i metîn kal'ateyn tamâmeyn oldular."</ref> During her regency, Kösem ably restored the state's finances after a period of severe inflation. She also helped stabilise the government by melting down much of the palace gold and silver to pay the Janissaries. When the grand vizier, who was campaigning against the Safavids to recapture Baghdad, ran out of food for the army, he turned to Kösem for assistance. In one letter, she responded to his request, writing: "You say that attention must be paid to provisions for the campaign. If it were up to me, it would have been taken care of long ago. There is no shortcoming on either my or my son's part." In another, she sent good news: "You wrote about the provisions. If I were able to, I would procure and dispatch them immediately. I am doing everything I can, my son likewise. God willing, it is intended that this Friday ten million aspers will be forwarded to Üsküdar, if all goes well. The rest of the provisions have been loaded onto ships." Bayram Pasha, the governor of Egypt and Kösem's son-in-law, wrote to the her on a number of issues and she communicated the contents of his letters to the Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha along with her own thoughts. Among the problems discussed were delays in the provision of gunpowder, the troublesome situation in the Yemen, and shortfalls in the province's revenue (in 1625, Egypt sent only half of its normal revenue because of the ravages of a plague known in Egyptian annals as "the plague of Bayram Pasha"). The extent of the cooperation between Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha and Kösem is suggested by her frank comment: "You really give me a headache. But I give you an awful headache too. How many times have I asked myself. 'I wonder if he's getting sick of me'? 'But what else can we do?" In 1625, Murad, who was already critical of his mother's foreign policy, objected to her proposed truce between the Ottoman Empire and Spain. According to a Venetian dispatch of 1625, "the Imperialists and Spaniards declared that the matter was progressing favourably, being actively assisted by the Sultan's mother." A year later, the Venetian ambassador reported that the sultan, "with a prudence beyond his years", was opposed to the truce, as were most leading statesmen except the admiral Recep Pasha and Bayram Pasha, governor of Egypt. He noted that the Spanish "base their hopes on these two and the Sultan's mother and sister." The ambassador was probably aware of the fact that Recep Pasha was married to Gevherhan Sultan and Bayram Pasha to Hanzade Sultan, both of whom were Kösem's daughters. Hans Ludwig von Kuefstein (1582-1656), who led a grand embassy to the Sublime Porte in the late 1620s, describes his negotiations with the kaymakam (a high official of an Ottoman district) in reference to the vast influence of his wife and her mother: "With her and the mother anything can be done and arranged." Nevertheless, the treaty was recalled on the sultan's orders. Kösem is also known to have corresponded directly with Nur Jahan, the chief wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. Imperial princesses were often involved in serial marriages during the century after Suleiman the Magnificent, thereby allowing the Imperial family to establish a network of alliances with the most powerful pashas. Kösem, in particular, used her daughters to help keep her in power for nearly half a century. As she wrote to the Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha in 1626, a few months before he became her daughter Ayşe Sultan's third husband: Rejecting an offer of marriage into the imperial family was tantamount to treason, so statesmen could hardly decline a proposed match. Kösem also paired off numerous other women in the Imperial household with men whose standing would be beneficial to her. She also allied herself strategically with the Janissaries. A letter to the Grand Vizier Damad Hilal Pasha, dated 1627, reveals Kösem's concern about two troublesome matters: the security of Yemen, which would break free of Ottoman control in 1636, and the chronic problem of making salary payments, especially to the Janissaries, the frequently unruly Ottoman infantry. The letter also mentions her anxiety about Murad's health and her frustration over her lack of direct control over important decisions: Another letter expresses her wish that the young sultan should be advised and chastised by the Grand Vizier Hüsrev Pasha, if not by Kösem herself. It also implies that Kösem was getting information about events outside the palace from Murad rather than directly: Enraged by his mother's excessive support for the governor of Egypt, Murad moved to break Kösem's ties with her son-in-law Admiral Hüseyin Pasha, the husband of her daughter Fatima, by forcing the dissolution of the marriage. Hüseyin Pasha had benefited from the protection of both the Chief Black Eunuch Mustafa Ağa and Kösem. Murad's move against him may have stemmed from a wish to break free from the influence of his inner palace advisers and exercise authority over the government's most influential officers. Kösem is said to have tried to satisfy her son with a gift of ornately dressed horses and a banquet of ten thousand aspers but Murad was trying hard to keep his mother away from politics, and his actions suggest that he was disturbed by her great influence. Post-regency In May 1632, during an uprising in Constantinople, the Janissaries stormed the palace and killed the Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha, among others. Perhaps in response to this, as well as fearing that he would suffer the same fate as his elder half-brother Osman II, Murad decided not to allow anyone else to interfere in his administration of the empire, and ordered his mother to sever her contacts with his statesmen, threatening her with exile from the capital if she did not comply. This brought Kösem's nine-year term of office as regent to an end. Having taken power for himself, he immediately sought to replace the men loyal to his mother. He then tried to put an end to the corruption that had grown during the reigns of previous sultans, and that had gone unchecked while his mother was ruling through proxy. Despite being removed from the seat of power, Kösem continued to run some governmental affairs on behalf of the sultan, since he trusted her to look after his interests during his absences from the capital. She also remained in direct correspondence with him and with Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha. In 1634, Murad's execution of the kadi (judge) of Iznik for a minor offence sparked outrage amongst Constantinople's religious hierarchy. When Kösem learned that the Şeyhülislam Ahizade Hüseyin Efendi was allegedly plotting to overthrow the sultan, she sent word to Murad to return to the capital immediately. Ahizade Hüseyin Efendi was strangled before proof of his innocence could reach the sultan. It was the first time of a Şeyhülislam had been put to death in the history of the Ottoman state. By 1635, the Anatolian countryside had been devastated by the Abaza rebellion and state oppression, resulting in a mass influx of refugees to the capital. Murad responded by ordering the refugees to return to their destroyed homes or face execution, but eventually relented at the insistence of his mother. In 1637, Angelo Alessandri, secretary to Venetian envoy Pietro Foscarini, characterised her as follows: In 1638, following the recapture of Baghdad from the Safavids, Kösem was a key figure in the celebrations surrounding her son Murad's triumphal return to Constantinople. Retracing her path after leaving Constantinople to welcome Murad in İzmit, two days' journey from the city, she rode in a carriage draped with gold fabric, its wheels studded, and its spokes coated in gold, preceded by viziers and high-ranking religious authorities on gorgeously caparisoned horses. Twelve additional carriages followed her own, most likely transporting members of the Imperial Harem. Kösem's principal effort in protecting the dynasty appears to have been dissuading the sultan from executing all his brothers toward the end of his reign. The princes Bayezid (her stepson) and Süleyman (her biological son) were executed during the celebrations over the victory at Erivan (1635) and Kasım, the heir apparent to the throne, was executed during the Baghdad campaign in 1638. One source states that Mustafa was also executed at Murad's command on 20 January 1639. Reign of Ibrahim Of Kösem's last surviving sons, the mentally unstable Ibrahim, lived in fear of being the next of his brothers to be executed by Murad. On his deathbed in 1640, Murad told his mother of his disdain for his brother Ibrahim, saying that it would be better for the dynasty to end rather than continue with an heir who was insane. Ibrahim's life was only saved by the intercession of his mother Kösem, who argued that he was 'too mad to be a threat'. She thereby saved the Ottoman dynasty from probable annihilation. Following Murad's death from cirrhosis at the age of 27, Ibrahim was the sole surviving prince of the dynasty. When the Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha asked him to assume the sultanate, Ibrahim suspected Murad was still alive and plotting to trap him. It took the combined persuasion of Kösem and the grand vizier to make him accept the throne. For instance, Kösem ordered his brother's corpse to be displayed before him and even threatened Ibrahim with 'strangulation, not inauguration' if he refused to be crowned sultan. Alvise Contarini, who was sent by the Venetian government to Constantinople on the occasion of Ibrahim's accession, presented letters of congratulation addressed to Kösem to Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha for delivery. However, the grand vizier, Kösem's rival for control of the weak Ibrahim, did not forward the letters, "as if scorning them", reported Contarini who also wrote that the grand vizier "told me that the queen mothers of the Ottomans are slaves of the Grand Signor like all others, not partners or heads of government, like those in Christian countries." With the accession of Ibrahim, Kösem once again became politically active as his principal advisor. However, she enjoyed a less compatible relationship with the Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha than she had with the grand viziers of Murad's early reign. Now entering her fourth decade of political involvement, Kösem was a shrewd and experienced politician. The competition between them was reported by the Venetian ambassador Alvise Contarini: Ibrahim's sexual impotency was assessed psychologically, and his mother summoned a number of hodjas to treat him, but all of whom were unsuccessful. In a desperate attempt, Kösem then invited the alleged sorcerer Cinci Hoca (Jinji Hojā) to the palace, after informing her that he had inherited certain 'magic formulas.' After supposedly curing Ibrahim's impotency by offering him a cocktail of aphrodisiacs, pornography and seductive females, the sultan rewarded the hoca with a chief justiceship, the second highest ulama position, an appointment which was one of numerous examples of the overturning of authority and procedure at court. Kösem tried to remedy the situation by encouraging Ibrahim to distract himself with beautiful concubines supplied to her from the slave market by a confidant named Pezevenk, or the Pimp. This allowed her to gain power and rule in his name as well as to ensure the dynasty's survival. Bobovi, a royal page from Poland who served in the palace from 1638 until 1657, wrote, "It is almost always from among the Sultan Valide's slaves that the sultan chooses his mistresses. For it is only she who has the interest of the loves of her son at her heart. She always searches for beautiful girls to be presented to him." Cretan War The Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha and Kösem continued to direct the affairs of government throughout the first four years of Ibrahim's reign. The rivalry between them grew stronger as time went on, and early in 1644, Kösem allied herself with Cinci Hoca, and together, they persuaded Ibrahim to have Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha executed.Ayhan Buz : Osmanlı Sadrazamları, Neden Yayınları, İstanbul, 2009 p 96 From that point on, she concentrated her efforts on increasing the pay of the Janissaries. However, the treasury had run out of money in 1645 when it came time to pay them. Kösem tried to get financial assistance from Cinci Hoca, the sultan's chief treasurer, but he declined. She later explained this situation to the Janissaries, writing to them: "I want to distribute your service pay but Cinci Hoca does not allow me", causing the Janissaries to consider Cinci Hoca as an enemy, causing the Janissaries to murder him. Due to the shortfall in the Imperial funds, Kösem and her allies urged Ibrahim to launch a naval assault on the Venetian-controlled island of Crete, Venice's largest and wealthiest overseas possession. The campaign, however, was largely unsuccessful, and the venture further drained the treasury. Palace feud Şivekar Sultan, a former slave of Kösem, was an Armenian woman from the Bosphorus village of Arnavutkoy, who is said to have weighed nearly 330 pounds. According to Rycaut, Ibrahim became so infatuated with her that he was unable to deny her anything, which led to her downfall because she incurred the wrath of Kösem: "By these particulars the Queen Mother becoming jealous, one day inviting her to Dinner, caused her to be Strangled, and persuaded Ibrahim that she died suddenly of a violent Sickness, at which the poor Man was greatly afflicted.' She then informed the distraught Ibrahim that Şivekar Sultan 'had died suddenly of a powerful illness." However, other sources suggest that Şivekar Sultan was exiled to Egypt or Chios after Ibrahim's death in 1648. Her fall was a clear sign that Kösem, like others, despised Ibrahim's concubines' excessive influence over political matters. Kösem is also known to have had a strict policy for the eunuchs in the harem, which denied them any influence in the running of the state. Moreover, she quickly got rid of the female lovers of these eunuchs; some of whom were manumitted while others were sent to be sold in the slave market. Ibrahim allegedly tried to rape a concubine who spurned him and threatened to stab him with a dagger if he persisted. Their struggle was overheard by Kösem, who reprimanded Ibrahim and allowed the woman to escape the harem. Meanwhile, Ibrahim's favourites had grown envious of Kösem, encouraging her son to rebel against her. Thus, Ibrahim rejected his mother's authority, so Kösem decided to withdraw from the harem to live in a summer house outside Topkapı Palace and then in a house in an Imperial garden in Eyüp. After Kösem's departure, and in another assault on palace protocol, Ibrahim began humiliating his sisters Ayşe, Fatma, and Hanzade, as well as his niece Kaya, subordinating them to his concubines, to whom he gave their land and jewels. He also forced his sisters and niece to work as maids for his wife Hümaşah Sultan. This infuriated Kösem, who turned against Ibrahim. Deposition of Ibrahim Alarmed by Ibrahim's erratic behaviour, in September 1647, the Grand Vizier Salih Pasha and Şeyülislam Abdürrahim Efendi plotted to depose him. The Şeyülislam deferred to Kösem in the matter of her son's deposition, informing her that all of the statesmen were in favour and that they were prepared to swear allegiance to Ibrahim's son, Mehmed, the eldest prince. But Kösem hesitated, either out of maternal instinct or for fear of losing her own political position. Instead she begged the co-conspirators to leave her son on the throne but under the guardianship of the grand vizier. Made aware of the attempt to topple him, Ibrahim had the Grand Vizier Salih Pasha executed. Initially, Ibrahim planned to have his mother, whom he suspected of being part of the conspiracy, exiled to the island of Rhodes, However, such indignity was resisted by one of his hasekis and instead Kösem was exiled to the Iskender Çelebi garden in Florya. According to Naima: By 1647, heavy taxes, bungled wars, and a Venetian blockade of the Dardanelles that brought the Ottoman capital to the brink of starvation, caused discontent to boil over. In 1648, when the Janissaries and ulama rebelled against Ibrahim, he lost his temper and fled into the arms of his mother, whom he had unwillingly permitted back into the harem in exchange for his protection. The rebels demanded the dethronement of Ibrahim and the enthronement of his eldest son, Mehmed. The Agha of the Janissaries, who were also going to demand the resignation of the unpopular Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha, warned her to take great care to safeguard the princes. The chronicler Kâtip Çelebi reports that Kösem attended a conference with leading viziers, clergy and others about the impending action. At the anteroom of the third gate, she was draped from head to toe in black silk, while a black eunuch waved a large fan beside her. The Agha of the Janissaries addressed her: Kösem tried to blame the viziers and clergy for leading Ibrahim astray throughout his eight-year reign. She also upbraided the rebels for agreeing to whatever Ibrahim had desired, stating: Emphasising the need for dynastic allegiance, she went on to ask the clergy: "Wasn't every single one of you raised up through the benevolence of the Ottoman dynasty?" They replied with an imperative drawn from holy law (sharia): "a mentally ill person cannot lead the ummah (the community of Muslim believers.)" At one point the ulama addressed Kösem as umm al-mu'minin, "mother of the [Muslim] believers." This honorific title, given to the wives of the Prophet Muhammad by Qur'anic revelation, allowed her to extend her maternal function as guardian beyond her son and the dynasty to the Ottoman Empire as a whole. Hanifezade, an Ottoman judge, appealed to her not as a mother but as a stateswoman: In one last effort, Kösem said, "All this is the doing of wicked ministers. They shall be removed; and only good and wise men shall be set in their stead." "What will that avail?" replied Hanifezade, "Has not the Sultan put to death good and gallant men who served him, such as were Mustafa Pasha and Yusuf Pasha, the conqueror of Canea?" "But how," urged Kösem, "is it possible to place a child of seven years upon the throne?" Hanefizade answered: "In the opinion of our wise men of the law, a madman ought not to reign, whatever be his age; but rather let a child, that is gifted with reason, be upon the throne. If the sovereign be a rational being, though an infant, a wise Vizier may restore order to the world; but a grown-up Sultan, who is without sense, ruins all things by murder, by abomination, by corruption, and prodigality." They debated for hours until the soldiers lost patience and demanded that if she did not surrender the prince they would storm the harem and forcibly take him. After assenting to their setting up the emerald throne before the gate, Kösem ‘tucked up her skirts in fury’ and went inside to get the prince. Some time later, with ‘apparent distress and hatred in her face’ she brought the boy out, who was dressed and prepared for his enthronement, asking, ‘Is this what you want?’ In exchange, the Janissaries promised not to murder Ibrahim, but merely return him to the confinement of the Kafes. Kösem wrote to the Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha: "In the end he will leave neither you nor me alive. We will lose control of the government. The whole society is in ruins. Have him removed from the throne immediately."Shepard, Edward. History of the Ottoman Turks: from the beginning of their empire, p. 17 On 8 August 1648, Ibrahim was dethroned and imprisoned in Topkapı Palace. Büyük Valide Sultan Reign of Mehmed IV When some government official insisted that Mehmed be sent to be enthroned and receive the Janissaries' and sipahis' (cavalryman) oath of allegiance at the Blue Mosque, Kösem demanded that they instead come to the palace, pointing out that no sultan had ever been enthroned in a mosque before. Her purpose was undoubtedly in part to force the situation so that she could have some influence over the outcome.Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire p.55-103 Ten days after Ibrahim's dethronement, one of the first imperial decrees issued in the name of the child sultan declared that Ibrahim, living under house arrest, was stirring insurrection with the assistance of his loyal followers, including harem eunuchs and palace guards, some of whom wished to reenthrone him. The newly appointed Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha asked the Şeyhülislam Abdürrahim Efendi for a fatwā sanctioning Ibrahim's execution which was granted, with the message: "If there are two caliphs, kill one of them." Kösem, weeping while praying before the mantle of the Prophet Muhammad, responded to the decision by asking, “Who gave this man the evil eye?” She also articulated the fact that only she could make the final decision whether the sultan lived or died: "They said my son Ibrahim was not suitable for the sultanate. I said 'depose him.' They said his presence is harmful, I said 'let him be removed', then I said 'let him be executed.' If anyone is under my protection, it is my son." The extent in which Kösem was involved in Ibrahim's execution has always been a source of debate. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, an Austrian historian, believes that, to the extent that she was involved, it was motivated by concerns for the Ottoman state. Nevertheless, she was forced to give her consent to Ibrahim's execution. As officials watched from a palace window, Ibrahim was strangled on 18 August 1648. His death was the second regicide in the history of the Ottoman state. According to Ottoman customs, the mother of the deceased sultan would retire to the OId Palace and give up her office upon the accession of a new sultan. Kösem herself requested to retire from politics, but her request was denied by the political and religious leaders who deposed Ibrahim, forcing her to reconsider her decision and continue her career as Sultan Mehmed IV's regent because she had more expertise and knowledge of the state’s running than Mehmed's own twenty-one-year-old mother, Turhan Sultan. According to Abdülaziz Efendi, then the chief justice of Rumeli and a central figure in the dynastic upheavals of the time, it was considered prudent to appoint the more experienced female as regent in contravention of tradition: Thus Kösem was reinstated as regent by Mehmed's council and was entrusted with his training and guardianship. Rivalry with Turhan Sultan Mehmed's mother, Turhan Sultan, was presented to Kösem as a gift from Kör Süleyman Pasha, the Khan of Crimea, when she was around 12 years old, so it was presumably Kösem who offered Turhan to Ibrahim as a concubine.Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe, p. 35 The post of valide sultan and regent should have gone to Turhan when her son Mehmed became sultan, but she was passed over because of her youth and inexperience. Turhan must also have resented the stipend of 2000 aspers that she received in comparison with Kösem's 3000 aspers and so she began to assert what she saw to be her rightful authority. According to English historian Paul Rycaut: "The two queens were exasperated highly against each other, one to maintain the authority of her son and the other her own." In 1649, Kösem promoted herself to the non-existent rank of büyük ("elder") valide sultan. Historians have recorded that Kösem would usually sit in the palace lodge with her grandson Mehmed, handing down decisions. She would also sit beside the sultan, concealed behind a curtain, if his presence was needed at the divan. In one instance, she scolded a vizier in an abrasive tone: "Have I made you vizier to spend your time in gardens and vineyards: Devote yourself to the affairs of the empire and let me hear no more of your deportments!" Battle of Focchies aftermath Kösem and the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha grew in enmity after Mehmed's accession to the throne. The grand vizier appears to have regarded himself as regent as well as "temporary ruler." According to Naima, the grand vizier was misled by "certain would-be doctors of religion" who quoted legal texts to the effect that the guardian of a minor sultan was entitled to exercise sovereignty prerogatives; as a result, he resented Kösem's control over the government, hoping that he, rather than the sultan's grandmother, would act as regent. He once bragged: "The soldiers of this exalted state respect only the honour of inherited nobility." His misogynistic ally, Şeyhülislam Abdülaziz Efendi, favored the logic of ‘reasonable and legal’ proposals of ‘rational men’ to the ‘anger and wrath’ of the valide sultan. The Şeyülislam overestimated the value of the valide sultan's favor. He assessed certain palace expenses, and when he encountered Kösem, he did not think twice to utter nasty comments to her. The mother of Mehmed, Turhan Sultan, was still an inexperienced woman, therefore Abdülaziz Efendi's attempt to have Kösem relocated to the Old Palace was unsuccessful. Despite failing, he did not hesitate to take chances in the future as he fought against the rule of women in the palace. According to the French historian Alphonse de Lamartine, in May 1649, following the defeat of the Ottomans in the Battle of Focchies, Kösem presided over the divan from behind a curtain, with the young sultan present. The Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha expressed disappointment at the difficult circumstances to the sultan, but in a speech, Mehmed said to the grand vizier, "Go, you are not worthy of being grand vizier; give back the seal of the state. And you," he added, handing the seal to Kara Murat Pasha, the Agha of the Janissaries, "take it; I will see what you can do." Then, the Şeyülislam Abdülaziz Efendi turned to the sultan and asked, "My dear, who taught you that, at your age?" This insolence made Kösem's anger boil over and she listed the former grand vizier's shortcomings, including his alleged plans to assassinate her: In Naima's words, Abdülaziz Efendi "drowned in the sea of mortification." Kösem gave the newly appointed Grand Vizier Murat Pasha orders to have Mehmed Pasha and his allies executed. According to Finkel, Kösem "continued to be the ruling personality... tutoring him [Kara Murat Pasha] in the decisions handed down." Merchant rebellions In 1650, Constantinople's merchants rose in rebellion. The treasury was once again empty, and traders were obliged to accept faulty coins in place of good ones to pay the Janissaries. They retaliated by closing their shops and taking to the streets, demanding the dismissal of Grand Vizier Murat Pasha, the Agha of the Janissaries, as well as the execution of Janissary commanders. A large gathering of 15,000 artisans and merchants marched to Şeyülislam Abdülaziz Efendi's residence, weeping and ripping their garments, and complaining that their protests had gone unheard, that they had been subjected to harmful impositions such as heavy monthly taxes, and that they feared debtors' prison. The Şeyülislam sympathised with their plight and intended to ask the sultan to "cancel evil innovations", but instead he was encircled and forced to accompany them to the palace. To give them credibility, they put the reluctant Şeyülislam on horseback at the front. The Hippodrome was packed with 20,000 men. They entered the Hagia Sophia compound, hoping to meet the sultan there, but were instead admitted to the palace, marching as far as the Gate of Felicity and passing on to voice their grievances. Kösem arrived in a fury, demanding, "Why did you not turn back these people, instead bringing them to the palace?" The Şeyülislam claimed, "We did not bring them, they brought us." The sultan then asked what was causing the uproar and advised the Şeyülislam to return the next day when the merchants would submit their grievances to him, but they responded, "We will not take a step backward until we receive what we deserve." Relying on the advice of his grandmother, the sultan then asked to meet Grand Vizier Murat Pasha. However, Murat Pasha preferred to return his seal of office rather than appear in front of him. Claiming that the room where they were meeting was claustrophobic, Kösem stepped outside and gave Melek Ahmed Pasha, the spouse of her granddaughter Kaya Sultan, the seal of office. On 5 August 1650, Melek Ahmed Pasha was appointed grand vizier, but his term of office was cut short a year later because of his incompetence in dealing with another uprising of the merchants. Kösem proposed that former Grand Vizier Murat Pasha replace Melek Ahmed Pasha, but the elderly Siyavuş Pasha, who was favoured by Turhan Sultan was instead appointed. Palace coup The late 17th-century author Dervish Abdullah Efendi claimed that the Chief Black Eunuch Süleyman Ağa deliberately turned Kösem and her daughter-in-law, Turhan, against each other: "A black eunuch called Uzun Süleyman [said to Kösem], "My lady, the Junior Mother [Turhan] covets your wealth. You should guard yourself well, because she is determined to kill you one night. I have experienced your kindness previously, and for this reason, I have told you", and he began to cry. When [Kösem] asked, "What is the remedy for this?" he answered, "We have all agreed to depose Sultan Mehmed and enthrone [Prince] Suleiman. They are both your [grandsons]. This treachery must be stopped immediately." He then went to Turhan and told her, "Soon they are going to kill all your black eunuchs and imprison you, for I have learned that the Senior Mother's eunuchs have agreed to depose Sultan Mehmed and enthrone [Prince] Suleiman." Political figures who resented Kösem's alliance with the Janissaries encouraged Turhan to resist the regent's monopoly of power and patronage, and she began to plot against Kösem. Courtiers then took sides: The Janissaries, under the command of Şahin Ağa, who was rumored to be in a love affair with Kösem, remained loyal to her, while most of the harem and the palace eunuchs, the Chief Black Eunuch Süleyman Ağa and the Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha, favoured Turhan. According to Naima, once Kösem realised this, she began to plot to dethrone Mehmed and replace him with his younger half-brother, Suleiman whose mother, Aşub Sultan, she thought a more complaisant rival; her plan to swap one child sultan for another was primarily geared towards eliminating Turhan. Naima further notes that Kösem secretly asked the palace guards to leave the gates open so that Janissaries could sneak in and kill Turhan. She also allegedly gave two bottles of poisoned sherbet to Üveys Ağa, the head helva (sweets) maker in the palace kitchen, to give to the child sultan and promised to promote him if he succeeded in poisoning the child sultan. The day before the plot was due to be carried out, however, one of Kösem's slaves, Meleki Hatun, betrayed it to the Chief Black Eunuch Süleyman Ağa. Wojciech Bobowski's book Saray-ı Enderun' (Life at the Ottoman Court) depicted the organisation and daily life of the Ottoman Court. He wrote some observations on Kösem's attempt to poison Sultan Mehmed IV in 1651: Süleyman Ağa promptly invited the Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha to the palace and told him that Kösem was usually in bed at that time, being entertained by 'her Eunuchs, and Favourites, with Musick, Singing, and other unusual delights'. Süleyman Ağa and the sultan's eunuchs then attempted to force their way into Kösem's quarters after consultation with the grand vizier. According to a report from 1675, Kösem's entourage initially repulsed them: Süleyman Ağa and his accomplices moved so silently and rapidly that most of the palace remained asleep. They also shared a sign language so that no one could hear their voices. Meanwhile, they summoned their forces to secure the palace against the Janissaries. The men went to Turhan's quarters and told her of the conspiracy to poison the child sultan, after which she begged Süleyman Ağa to protect him. A procession from Turhan's quarters along with Süleyman Ağa's group then marched to the throne room and placed Mehmed on the throne. The guards awakened their sleeping comrades along with forty of their officers who asked what they could do to show their loyalty. Süleyman Ağa responded: Kösem was accused of being the instigator of the plot against the sultan, and his chief ministers urged that she be executed, preferably with the sultan's consent. The Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha said to the sultan: "My sultan, the will of god is that you consign your grandmother into the hands of justice, if you would have these mutinies appeased; a little mischief is better than a great one; there is no other remedy; god willing, the end shall be prosperous." The sultan then summoned a mufti, who decreed that the 'Old Queen' should be strangled "but neither cut with a sword nor bruised with blows", Kösem's death warrant was signed by the trembling hand of the child sultan. Assassination On the 16th day of Ramadan, the night of 2 September 1651, the Chief Black Eunuch Süleyman Ağa and his armed men, consisting of over 120 armed black and white eunuchs, descended on the palace in support of the sultan, proceeded to Kösem's quarters, which was guarded by over 300 armed Janissaries and loyal black eunuchs. Süleyman Ağa and his men managed to kill some of the guards, while the majority fled. Hearing the commotion, Kösem thought the Janissaries had arrived, so she called out from behind the door, "Have they come?" Süleyman Ağa replied, “Yes, they have come,” hoping to deceive her. However, Kösem recognised his voice and began stuffing her precious jewels into her pockets and fled along the Golden Way and through the Court of the Black Eunuchs to the Dome with Closets, probably hoping to escape from the palace through the Carriage Gate.Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von. "Histoire de l'Empire ottoman, depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours. Tome 11 / par J." 1835-1843. pp. 280 The gate was locked, so she crept into a small cabinet, hoping that Turhan's eunuchs would pass her by and that the Janissaries would come to her rescue. Süleyman Ağa men broke into her chamber but the only person they found there was an elderly woman who served as Kösem's buffoon and who was armed with a pistol, which she pointed at them while they asked her where Kösem had gone. The woman replied "I am the valide sultan", but Süleyman Ağa cried "It is not she", and pushed her aside. Eventually Kösem was betrayed to a halberdier by a piece of her dress that protruded from under the cabinet door. Dragged out by one of her assailants, she told him, "O brave man, be not cruel unto me", while tossing gold coins onto the floor as a distraction. One of the men then held her down, while they seized her garments, jewellery, bracelets, garters and other valuables. Her earrings, two chestnut-sized diamonds with a ruby beneath each diamond that had been given to her by her husband Ahmed, were torn apart by an Albanian man called Bostanci Ali Ağa; their estimated worth was thought to equal Egypt's entire annual income.Rycaut, Paul. "The Present State of the Ottoman Empire", p.20 Rycaut also mentioned the theft of a beautiful locket engraved with the names of her late sons Murad and Ibrahim. Kösem was then dragged by her feet to the gateway leading from the harem into the Third Court, where Süleyman Ağa ordered his men to kill her. A group of four men, all of them young and inexperienced, then strangled her with a piece of cord ripped from the curtains. While the others drew the cord, one assassin climbed on her back and squeezed her neck although he stopped when Kösem bit his thumb. In retaliation, he struck her forehead, perhaps causing her to fall unconscious. Then, assuming she was dead, they screamed out, 'She is dead, she is dead!' and went to notify the sultan and his mother. Once they were out of sight, she lifted herself up again, presumably hoping to escape through a secret passageway, but as soon as her disappearance was noticed, the assassins were called back again and she was caught.According to Rycaut, the assassins then applied the cord for the second time, although the Ottoman renegade Bobovi, relying on an informant in the harem, claimed that she was strangled with her own hair. She is said to have struggled so much that blood from her ears and nose soiled the murderer's clothes. Once she had breathed her last, her body was dragged outside and shown to the Janissaries, before being moved into a room in the corridor of the Kuşhâne Kapısı (Aviary Gate). The next morning, Kösem's body was taken from Topkapı Palace to the Old Palace (Eski Sarayı) to be washed. Rycaut described the funeral of the woman he referred to as the 'Queen': "The Black Eunuchs immediately took up the Corpse, and in a reverent manner laid it stretched forth in the Royal Mosch; which about 400 of the Queens Slaves encompassing round about with howlings and lamentations, tearing the hair from their heads after their barbarous fashion, moved compassion in all the Court." She was buried without ceremony in the mausoleum of her late husband Ahmed I. Her slaves were also taken to the Old Palace and eventually married to suitable Muslims with dowry money taken from her estate. Her vast estates and tax farms in Anatolia and Rumelia and other places, her jewellery, precious stones and twenty boxes of gold coins that she had hidden in the Büyük Valide Han near the Grand Bazaar were all confiscated by the treasury. Aftermath After Kösem's murder, the Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha suggested that the Sacred Standard of Muhammad be displayed above the main gate of Topkapı Palace (it was usually taken out at the start of campaigns against Christian or Shi'i powers). To implement a levy of all able-bodied men for the public defence, the grand vizier ordered criers to pass through the streets of Constantinople shouting, "Whoever is a Muslim, let him rally around the banner of the religion. Those who do not come are rendered infidels and they are divorced from their [Muslim] wives." The morning after the murder of Kösem, a huge crowd is said to have gathered in front of the gates of Topkapı Palace, where they blamed the Janissaries for her murder and swore to avenge it. The people of Constantinople spontaneously observed three days of mourning while the city's mosques and markets were closed for three days. At the Topkapı Palace, it started a tradition of lighting candles "for her soul" every night, and this tradition continued until the palace was closed in the 19th century. The Agha of the Janissaries Şahin Ağa urged his troops to avenge Kösem's murder, saying, "We only want the Valide's expiation!" "Are you then the heir, the son, or the husband of the Valide?" a voice replied. The long silence with which this was met confirmed that the Janissaries did not agree with their commander. Şahin Ağa would later be abandoned by his men, after which he and the other rebel leaders were hunted down and executed.Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von. "Histoire de l'Empire ottoman, depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours. Tome 11 / par J." 1835-1843. pp. 282 Contemporary Ottoman chroniclers did not welcome Kösem's murder and recorded it as an injustice committed against a woman of great accomplishments and stature, and a harbinger of greater social disorder. Evliya Çelebi, a famous Ottoman traveler, writer and admirer of Kösem, described the murder: "The mother of the world, wife of Sultan Ahmed (I); mother of Murad (IV), and Ibrahim; the Grand Kösem Valide—was strangled by the Chief Black Eunuch Div Süleyman Agha. He did it by twisting her braids around her neck. So that gracious benefactress was martyred. When the Istanbul populace heard of this, they closed the mosques and the bazaars for three days and nights. There was a huge commotion. Several hundred people were put to death, secretly and publicly, and Istanbul was in a tumult." Dervish Abdullah Efendi, a late 17th century writer, recalled: "Those black infidel eunuchs martyred the Senior Mother [Kösem], Mother of the Believers"—a term usually reserved for the wives of the Prophet Muhammad—"and plundered most of her jewels." While lauding her charity, Naima also criticised Kösem for her greed and political interference. As regards the events leading up to her murder, he stated: "It was divine wisdom that the respected valide, philanthropic and regal as she was, was martyred for the sake of those unjust oppressions." Although Naima felt some regret over her death he also blamed it on the corrupt Janissary aghas and other officials who enjoyed her patronage. In other words, he implicitly supported Sultan Mehmed IV's decision to order her murder and the punishment of her political faction. Kaya Sultan, Sultan Murad IV's daughter and Kösem's paternal granddaughter, condemned the Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha's apparent role in her grandmother's assassination: The assassination of this powerful, widely respected, and widely feared woman provoked a political crisis. The first phase involved the execution of Kösem's Janissary supporters while in the second, public outrage over the purge prompted Turhan's new administration to dismiss the Grand Vizier Siyavuş Pasha and Şeyhülislam Abdülaziz Efendi who had carried out the executions. Charities Kösem's philanthropic career is notable for the many charitable acts she undertook. According to the Turkish historian Muzaffer Ozgules, her chief concern was to avoid public censure. Every year in the Islamic month of Rajab she would leave the palace in disguise to arrange the release of imprisoned debtors and other offenders (excluding murderers) by paying their debts or compensation for their crimes. She was also known for seeking out poor orphan girls and endowing them with a mahr, a home and furnishings; women of all religious persuasions, across both Christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire, bequeathed money to provide dowries for poor women, including special funds for noble girls whose families had fallen on hard times. She also visited hospitals, mosques, and schools to boost her popularity, and established soup kitchens capable of feeding nearly all of Constantinople's starving people. In Egypt, she also financed irrigation works from the Nile into Cairo. According to Naima, "She would free her slave women after two or three years of service, and would arrange marriages with retired officers of the court or suitable persons from outside, giving the women dowries and jewels and several purses of money according to their talents and station, and ensuring that their husbands had suitable positions. She looked after these former slaves by giving them an annual stipend, and on the religious festivals and holy days she would give them purses of money." Her pages, who were entrusted with guarding her apartment, only worked for five days a week. In 1640 she paid for the construction of the Çinili Mosque (Tiled Mosque), copiously decorated with the tiles that gave it its name, and the nearby school in Üsküdar. The construction of this modest complex was probably an attempt to boost the popularity of her sons at a time when the Ottoman dynasty faced extinction, with no heir apparent to inherit the throne. She also paid for fountains in Anadolukavağı, Yenikapı, Beşiktaş and Eyüp, as well as other fountains outside the capital, and converted the madrasa of Özdemiroğlu Osman Pasha into a mosque with a grand fountain beside it. Additionally in 1651 she funded the construction of the Büyük Valide Han in Constantinople, which was used to provide accommodation for foreign traders, store goods and merchandise, house artisan workshops, and provide business offices (an urban legend claims that she hid most of her precious jewels in the depths of one of its towers). Following the capture of Rethymno in Crete in 1646, one of its many converted churches was renamed the Valide Sultan Mosque in Ortakapı in her honour, making her the first Ottoman noblewoman whose name was given to one of a conquered city's converted religious structures. As a devout Muslim, she also established a foundation to provide pilgrims on the Hajj with water, assist the poor and have the Quran read. Wealth Kösem accumulated a massive fortune through Iltizām (tax farming), owning and leasing commercial buildings, and investing extensively in diverse economic activities. In his memoirs, Karaçelebizade Abdülaziz Efendi, a prominent member of the ulama, described a meeting of the imperial council at which the subject of crown lands held by royal women was being discussed. When it was reported that Kösem held lands whose annual income was three hundred thousand kuruş, Karaçelebizade protested, "A valide with so much land is unheard of!" He also contended that those who opposed him only did so out of enmity toward him or because they were recipients of the valide sultan's largesse. The historian Şarih ül-Menarzade argued that Kösem's extensive charities were also misconceived since they were financed from her immense personal fortune, viewing her wealth as an abuse of the empire's fiscal management, especially at a time when the treasury was in dire straits, the peasantry impoverished, and the military unpaid. A century later, however, the historian Naima defended Kösem from such criticisms, arguing that, had her substantial fortune remained in the treasury, it might have been squandered rather than spent for the benefit of the populace. Critics of Kösem also recorded the depredations of her "violent tax collectors", who, in an effort to increase their own take, were responsible for her huge income. Naima relayed the criticism of Şarih ül-Menarzade: "The valide sultan's stewards... collected incalculable amounts of money. The peasants of the Ottoman domains suffered much violence and disaster on account of the excessive taxes, but because of their fear of the stewards, they were unable to inform the valide sultan or anyone else of their situation." Besides the annual taxes that she collected from Lesbos, Euboea, Zile, Menemen, Gaza, Kilis and other places, she operated farms in Cyprus, Rumelia and other locations in Anatolia. The port city of Volos was also her property. When the Cretan War broke out in 1645, the Venetian bailo of Constantinople reported that the valide sultan was highly benevolent while also being extremely wealthy. Upon her death in 1651, her chambers were looted, and it was reported that twenty boxes loaded with gold coins were discovered in the Büyük Valide Han. In 1664, the profit on Kösem's cash investments accounted for nearly two-thirds of the revenue of the endowment established for Safiye Sultan's Karamanlu mosque. In fact, her riches and business transactions were so broad that her agents also became very wealthy and enjoyed popular esteem. When recording the death of Kösem in his history, Naima commented of her steward: "The afore-mentioned Behram Kethiida enjoyed great prestige and distinction and wealth. As the manager of all the affairs of the valide sultan and the pious institutions she had established, and as an extremely trustworthy man, he acquired a great deal of wealth and property. But his children and his grandchildren did not maintain the high stature he had enjoyed, and his wealth and property were squandered." Her wealth was so vast and spread across so many different enterprises that, according to Naima, it took fifty years for the state treasury to confiscate it all. Legacy Despite her notoriety as a woman who showed no mercy or compassion for the sake of government and power, Kösem was known among Ottoman citizens for her charitable work, which succeeded in securing the image that she desired. The chronogram that appears on the gate of the Çinili Mosque's courtyard reads: Among her contemporaries the writer Michel Baudier depicted her as a female politician "enjoying authority" while the merchant and traveler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier described her as "a woman very wise and well-versed in state affairs." In 1649, Johann Georg Metzger (1623-1698), secretary to Austrian ambassador Johann Rudolf Schmid zum Schwarzenhorn, expressed inferior masculinity through the alleged dominant behavior of Kösem. According to Metzger, Kösem is "a fraudulent person, who dominates the whole empire." Both Alphonse de Lamartine and Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall praised her charitable works, with Hammer describing her as: "A magnanimous, high minded queenly woman, of high spirit and noble heart, but with a mania for power. She, the mother of the greatest tyrant Murad IV, and the greatest wastrel, Ibrahim I, the Greek Kosem who was named Moonfigure because of beauty, through the commanding glance of four emperors—her husband, two sons, and her grandson—was revered more in history than Agrippina, Nero's mother, through her kindness, her desire for power and the tragic finish in Osman history of a female Caesar." In the introduction to the English translation of the novel Histoire d'Osman premier du nom, XIXe empereur des Turcs, et de l'impératrice Aphendina Ashada by Madame de Gomez in 1736, describing the life of Osman II, Kösem is said to have been "one of the most active in politics and enterprising women of her time, which she achieved by insidious intrigues from ambitious motives." Children In popular culture Genç Osman ve Sultan Murat Han (1962) movie, starring Muhterem Nur as Kösem Sultan IV. Murat (1980) TV series, starring Ayten Gökçer as Kösem Sultan Istanbul Kanatlarımın Altında (Istanbul Under my Wings, 1996) movie, starring Zuhal Olcay as Kösem Sultan Ankara Theatre (2013–2014 season) Özlem Ersönmez as Kösem Sultan. Mahpeyker: Kösem Sultan (2010), starring Damla Sönmez (as young Kösem) and Selda Alkor (as old Kösem) Tims Production produced a follow-up to the smash-hit historical-fiction television Muhteşem Yüzyıl (Magnificent Century), entitled Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem, starring Anastasia Tsilimpiou as the young Kösem and Beren Saat as the adult Kösem in season one. In season two, the middle-aged Kösem was portrayed by Nurgül Yeşilçay. Three Thousand Years of Longing'' (2022), featuring Zerrin Tekindor as Kösem Sultan Gallery See also Ottoman dynasty Ottoman family tree List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans Büyük Valide Han Ahmed I Sultanate of Women Notes Bibliography References 1580s births 1651 deaths Converts to Islam from Eastern Orthodoxy People from Tinos Valide sultan 17th-century consorts of Ottoman sultans 17th-century women rulers Slaves from the Ottoman Empire Greek slaves from the Ottoman Empire People from the Ottoman Empire of Greek descent Murdered royalty Former Greek Orthodox Christians Female regents Sultanate of Women 17th-century slaves 17th-century regents
5341065	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20de%20l%27Ours	Jean de l'Ours	Jean de l'Ours () or John the Bear, John of the Bear, John-of-the-Bear, John Bear, is the leading character in the French folktale Jean de l'Ours classed as Type 301B in the Aarne–Thompson system; it can also denote any tale of this type. Some typical elements are that the hero is born half-bear, half-human; he obtains a weapon, usually a heavy iron cane, and on his journey; he bands up with two or three companions. At a castle the hero defeats an adversary, pursues him to a hole, discovers an underworld, and rescues three princesses. The companions abandon him in the hole, taking the princesses for themselves. The hero escapes, finds the companions and gets rid of them. He marries the most beautiful princess of the three, but not before going through certain ordeal(s) by the king. The character is said to be one of "the most popular tale-types in Hispanic and Francophone tradition". Numerous variants exist in France, often retaining the name Jean de l'Ours or something similar for the hero. Some of the analogues in Europe that retain the names corresponding to "John" are: Jan de l'Ors (); Joan de l'Ós ( or ); Juan del Oso, Juan el Oso, Juanito el Oso, Juanillo el Oso (, ); Giovanni dell'Orso (), Iann he vaz houarn (Breton); (Russian). The tale has also propagated to the New World, with examples from French Canada, Mexico, etc. Physical appearance Several French versions explicitly comment on Jean de l'ours being covered with body hair on his entire body. One Gascon version, Jan l'Oursét adds that he had "a large head just like a bear's, except for its shape". The hero is human from the waist up and bear from the waist down in one Mexican version (Juan el Oso) as well as the Russian tale "" (or "Ivanko the Bear's son"). For comparison, in the Avar tale "Bear's Ear", the protagonist has ears like a bear. Jean de l'Ours is a beautiful abandoned child raised by a mother bear in 's version (1885). Along the same vein, Jean de l'Ours was a beautiful foundling adopted by a widow according to Carnoy in another version (1885, illustrated by ), but this, except for an altered telling of the boy's origin, is by and large identical to the tale given earlier by Hippolyte Babou (1862): In both texts he is depicted as an angel-faced, blue-eyed boy who wears a bearskin around his loins, has a lush mane like Samson's falling from head to chest, and carries a poplar sapling as a staff. The artist's depiction by Jean-Claude Pertuzé in his Le conte de Jean de l'ours (1988) depicts Jean with rounded bear's ears attached high on his head. Tale type "John the Bear" is categorized as Type 301 or "Three Stolen Princesses" type. Type 301 is also sometimes termed the "Bear' son" type, although "Bear's Son Tale" in general practice is a looser term that encompasses both 301 and 650A types. The tale is classed more narrowly as type 301 B, and the whole group dubbed the "Jean de l'ours" type, especially in the French folkloristics community, whereas 301B is often called the "Strong man and his Companions" type in English-language circles. And analogues of "Jean de l'ours" often get admixed with elements of another but very similar tale type, Strong John (AT 650). The Juan Oso tales as analyzed by the Spanish-language folklorists are described in similar vein, with certain differences. Juan Oso tales have disseminated widely to the New World, and fall widely into types 301A, 301B, 301C, or 301D. And they exhibit mixing not only with the AT 650 mentioned above, but also with Type 513 A, "Six Go through the Whole World". Type 513 A is marked by the presence of "extraordinary helpers". Cosquin believed these were an outside element introduced from other tales; and Clive Claudel attributed such helpers to Thompson's tale type 513 A. Bertram Colgrave on the other hand believed certain companions ("treeman", "mountain man", "stone man", etc.) should be regarded as native to Juan Oso tales, whereas generic companions (such as "the runner") are "strictly speaking" foreign to the tale group. It has been suggested that tale types ATU 301 and Jean de l'Ours, ATU 650 ("Strong Hans"), ATU 302 ("Devil's Heart in the Egg") and ATU 554 ("The Grateful Animals") may have once comprised a single narrative, but, with time, the original story fragmented into different tale types. French versions Soldiers' version A key example of type 301 B noted by French scholars such as Paul Delarue or is the version told by soldiers, and first published by Vidal et Delmart in 1833. No regional localization was given for the version. It was designated version 1 by Delarue, who gave a summary of it. It has also been translated into English as the tale of "The Story of John-of-the-Bear". Birth and childhood A woodcutter's wife looking for wood is abducted by the bear, and gives birth to a child by this bear. The child walks at four months, speaks and runs at one year, and soon even rattles the stone with which the bear plugs the cave. The boy lifts the stone at age 5 or 6, and he and his mother escape. At school, his hairiness earns him the nickname "Jean de l'Ours" from other schoolchildren. He retaliates with violence, the schoolmaster demands his parents punish him, he drops out, and enters apprenticeship under a blacksmith. His cane and companions He leaves the blacksmith, and as compensation, obtains an iron cane weighing 800 pounds in the shaft and 200 pounds more at the pommel. He obtains two companions, Tord-Chêne ("Twistoak") and Tranche-Montagne ("Cutmountain"). Inside the haunted castle Jean's party lodge at a castle, without sign of human presence, but with tables and beds prepared, and meals (and other wished-for items) that would appear as if by magic. They decide to go hunting, leaving one behind to sound the lunch bell. Tranche remains at the castle on the first turn, but a size-changing "little giant (petit géant)" descends from the chimney and beats him terribly with a stick. He blames a fall going down to the cellar for being unable to signal. Next day, another companion meets the same fate, and offers a different excuse. Jean defeats the little giant by striking him before he had the chance to grow large, and the enemy flees inside a well. Descent and visit to the Underworld They investigate the well, taking turns being lowered down riding a basket tied to a rope. Only Jean de l'Ours has courage to reach bottom. There John meets his informant, an old woman. She reveals the adversary to be a giant who abducted three princesses from Spain. Each princess is guarded separately: in a steel castle by 2 tigers, a silver castle by 4 leopards, and a gold castle by 6 lions as large as elephants. The old woman also provides a jar of ointment to cure wounds. Jean defeats the beasts and rescues the princesses. Each princess is prettier than the last. He finds them asleep, and uses increasingly gentler means to awaken them. The hero receives from the princesses a steel, a silver, and a golden ball, respectively. The hero's climb out The companions betray Jean and let go of the rope pulling him up. He falls and suffers a bruised body and broken legs, which the ointment cures. Jean gains advice from the old woman on how to escape the Underworld, and is lifted out riding a giant eagle, which requires feeding each time it squawks. Near the end he runs out of meat, and he flays some flesh from his own thigh, but this too heals using the jar of salve. The return to the princesses Jean reaches Madrid. His two former companions have claimed credit for saving the princesses, and the eldest is ordered to choose one of them to marry, but she is granted a stay for a year and a day. Meanwhile, they collect all the Marseilles soap in the kingdom to scrub the two men clean. The hero arrives and rolls his three balls, so the eldest knows to warn the king about their true savior. The king owns another set of the three balls, and declares marriage of his daughters to anyone who could replicate them. The hero succeeds by bringing the three balls he owns, and marries the eldest. The two treacherous companions are hanged on the high gallows. Cosquin's version A version from Lorraine was printed by Emmanuel Cosquin in 1886 (listed as Delarue's version 9). Its English translation appeared in Stith Thompson's One Hundred Favorite Folktales (1968). The plotline is quite similar to the soldier's version summarized above, with numerous differences in detail, which will be noted: The hero's mother was already pregnant before being captured by bear, but still born half-human, half-bear; given the John the Bear name as a child; apprentices under three blacksmiths, cane is 500 pounds. Three companions: Jean de la Meule ('John of the Mill') playing quoits (original: palets) with a millstone, Appuie-Montagne ('Hold-up-Mountain') and Tord-Chêne ('Oak-Twister'). Here it is a giant (not a size-shifting being) who attacks whichever companion is staying at the castle on his turn (i.e., whoever is keeping house while the others hunt; this is chosen by lot). Two companions blame kitchen smoke for their failure. John destroys the giant, splitting it in two with a cane. He discovers the underworld by knocking on the floor with the cane; He descends hanging on a rope; at the bottom, hero's informant is a fairy (fée); hero destroys little devils in two rooms before reaching a chamber of three princesses; companions release rope carrying the hero. The hero's escape from Underworld is up to a point by the "path leading to the ground above" formula, but unique in that the fairy warns him not to look back at the little light behind (lest the light vanish and make him unable to see anything). Hero after regains princesses from companions yet sends them home — this is also an unusual pattern; John refuses invitation to kingdom at that point, and only after princesses have forgotten about him, enters kingdom on his own volition. Formulaic test of replicating three balls is solved by balls hero obtained from princesses, but in this version, each is specifically an ornate ball made with pearls, diamonds and emeralds. Other versions Origins of the hero Jean de l'Ours in most cases is the child of a mother and a bear. However, in some versions his origins are less clearly defined, i.e. his mother is already pregnant before being captured, and then gives birth to him, though he is nevertheless born a half-bear, half-human (Cosquin's version above). Professor Michael Meraklis cited that the episode of a lion or bear stealing a human woman and the hero born of this "living arrangement" must preserve "the original form of the tale", since it harks back to the ancient and primitive notion that humans and animals could freely interact in a mythical shared past. In the same vein, by analysing Central Asian, Caucasian and Siberian variants of the animal-born hero, Russian scholarship concluded that the bear represents a totem or ancestor figure and the encounter of the human (a married woman or a married man) with the animal happens in the forest, a locus for the totem/ancestor. In addition, Karelian scholarship recognizes that the animal as an abductor of women shows very ancient character - a possible totemic remembrance - and the bear appears the most in Russian, Karelian, Vepsian and Ingrian variants of tale type 650A, "Ivan, The Bear's Ear". By comparing Romanian variants of type 301 to international tales, French philologist Jean Boutière, in his doctoral thesis, surmised that "much more often (especially in the West)", the hero is born of a union between a woman and a bear, but elsewhere, "notably in the East", the hero is the son of a mare, a she-donkey or even of a cow. On the other hand, ethnologue saw two different types of the Bear's Son narrative: one Eurasian, which follows the usual narrative very closely, and an American (Indigenous), "belong[ing] ... to British Columbia, the adjacent Yukon and southern Alaska", also known as The Girl Who Married the Bear or The Bear Mother. The weapon of the hero His cane weighs from 500 pounds (e.g. Cosquin's two full versions) ranging to 10,000 pounds (Carnoy ed.) in a version from Provence. Provence is where not the standard French but Provençal is the traditional language spoken, and the cane's weight of 10,000 pounds matches the 100 quintals given in an actual Provençal text published by Nelli, The cane's weight can even be 100,000 pounds, in a cognate tale from Brittany called "Yves of the iron stick", but this tale gives no bear-associated origins for the hero, and belongs in a group characterized by Delarue as being in the "periphery", to be distinguished from the main group of French tales that includes the representative example (Soldiers' version). There are other examples where the hero is "John Iron-Stick", named after his cane (e.g., Jean Bâton de Fer, from a manuscript collection of tales from Nièvres,) but this tale also lacks the bear-origins opening. From Brittany, there is also Jean au bâton de fer, where the hero is in the mother's womb for 3 years. as well as a version given in both translation and in the Breton language original, Jean a la Bar de Fer aka Iann he vaz houarn. Other times, the cane is not iron, but an oak trunk of an equally imposing size. The companions of the hero The strong hero meets two (or more) equally strong companions in his travels: a man whose name is related to a type of tree ("Pine-twister") and another with abilities related to rock or stone ("Cliff-breaker"). According to Romanian scholar Petru Caraman (ro), in variants from Eastern Europe and from Slavic languages, they may be known as "Dughina", "Dubyna", "Vernidub", "Vertodub" or "Vyrvidub", and "Goryńa", "Vernigora", "Vertogor" or "Valigora". The pair of heroic brothers Waligora and Wydrzudab, from Polish legend, also belong to the same semantic field. In Western Europe, they correspond to French heroes "Tord-Chêne" and "Appuie-Montagne" (or "Liebois" and "Tranchemontagne") and German "Baumdreher" and "Steinzerreiber". English scholar A. H. Wratislaw translated Vertogor as ‘Overturn-hill’ and Vertodub as ‘Overturn-oak’. Fellow British scholar William Ralston Shedden-Ralston translated Vertodub as "Tree-extractor" and Vertogor as "Mountain leveller" - both derived from Russian vertyet’, 'to twirl'; dub, 'tree' or 'oak', and gora, 'mountain'. He also compared Vertodub to German Baumdreher (or Holzkrummacher) and Vertogor to his counterpart Steinzerreiber (or Felsenkripperer). These characters also exist in Romance languages variants. George Calinescu indicated two counterparts in Romanian tales: Sfarma-Piâtra and Strimba-Lemne. In Portuguese, they are known as "Arrinca-pinheiros" ("Tears-out-pines") and "Abaixa-montes" ("Smashes-hills"). In tales from Bashkirs, the central character (a supernaturally powerful man) meets two or more companions: a man named Tau-Batyr (or Gora-Batyr, from Russian gora, 'mountain'), strong enough to move mountains, and another called Urman-Batyr or Imyan-Batyr (or Les-Batyr, from Russian les, 'forest'), strong enough to carry oak trees. The perils of the castle The hero's adversary at the "haunted" castle is typically a dwarf (or little man) who might be capable of becoming a giant, or just a giant, or it may be the devil in some instances. In the underworld, hordes of devils (or a devil) as enemies are a commonplace, but the devil(s) can be the hero's informant or both. After tabulating the variants he collected in the Philippines for a general overview of the narrative, professor Dean Fansler noted that the event of the hero fighting the dwarf or devil who beat his companions "occur[red] in nearly all the folk-tales of the 'John the Bear' type". Rescue of the princesses in the underworld Folklorist William Bernard McCarthy, who published many variants of the tale type collected from American storytellers, noted that in all versions the rescue of the princesses from the underworld seemed to be a central part of the story. Likewise, Robert Barakat emphasized that the tale type AT 301 can be decomposed into 6 episodes, two of which "the stolen princesses" (episode nr. 3) and "the rescue of the maidens" (episode nr. 4). Further adventures in the underworld In many variants, the hero is alerted by the princesses or discovers by himself two animals (goats or rams), one of a white color and the other of a black color. The white animal can take him to the surface, the black one will lead him further into the underworld. Either because he forgets this piece of information, or he is desperate to find an exit, he climbs onto the black animal and descends further into the strange underground realm. Often, it leads him to another kingdom, where a dragon has blocked all water sources and demands as ransom the sacrifice of a maiden (tale type ATU 300, "The Dragonslayer"). French comparativist Emmanuel Cosquin noted, in a monograph, the occurrence of the black and white animals in Greek, Turkish, Armenian tales, and in a story told by Hanna Diyab in 1709 to Antoine Galland. He noted that the event of the escape flight on the giant bird occurred as the closing episode of the second underworld. Professor Michael Meraklis remarked that this episode is "usual" in Greek variants, and also happens "in many Anatolian versions". This episode also appears in "some Jewish versions", which is confirmed by scholar Heda Jason's analysis of the Jewish Oriental tale corpus. Further studies by professors and Joseph Szövérffy indicate that this narrative also appears in Eastern Europe and Asia. A geographical analysis by Joseph Szövérffy pointed that this incident appears in Balkanic, Turkish and Caucasian variants. In addition, a pattern of migration seems to indicate that this motif spread from the Balkans in one route and into North Africa from another. Lastly, professor Szövérffy defended the idea that this motif was distinct enough from the other types that merited its own classification as AaTh 301C. Georgian scholarship also registers the combination of types 301A and 301B with type 300: the hero defeats the dragon (translated as veshapi) and takes a journey on a griffin-like bird (translated as paskunji) back to the upper world. Comparativist limits the incidence of the two rams motif around the Mediterranean area, "but not beyond the Maghreb, the Middle Volga and Pamir." Scholar Jiří Polívka listed other occurrences of the motif across European tales. Professor Raluca Nicolae interpreted this occurrence as alternance of a night and day cycle. Escape from the Underworld: the flight on the eagle's back The escape frequently involves a ride on the back of a giant bird, usually an eagle (as in the Soldier's version), sometimes a Roc. Versions also exist where the bird is a legendary avian creature, such as the Persian Simurgh, the Azeri Zumrud, the Turkish Zümrütü Anka, the Arabian bird Anqa, the Georgian Paskunji or a griffin. In American variants of the tale type, the hero is carried on the wings of a buzzard. In the tale types AaTh 301, AaTh 301A and AaTh 301B, the hero, in the underworld, rescues the bird chicks of a tree nest and their father, in gratitude, takes him back to the surface. According to professor Nemanja Radulović, "this episode can be considered as the stable part of these tale-types". In that regard, professor Amar Annus suggests that both motifs ("the slaying of a dragon and the hero’s journey on an eagle’s back") were combined into "one coherent narrative" that "may have existed orally in ancient Mesopotamia". On his way to the upper/surface world, the hero is advised by the eagle to bring him huge amounts of meat and drink to feed it on the arduous journey back. Eventually, the hero runs out of meat to feed his avian saviour and decides to rip pieces of his own flesh, to give the eagle energy to finish the journey. According to Hungarian scholarship, the motif of a hero feeding parts of his own flesh to the animal that transports him to the upper world is "found in the entire folk tale repertoire of Eurasia", in connection to the tale type ATU 301, "The Three Stolen Princesses". In regards to the journey on the eagle's back, folklorist scholarship recognizes its similarities with the tale of Etana helping an eagle, a tale type later classified as ATU 537, "The Eagle as helper: hero carried on the wings of a helpful eagle". In her analysis of Armenian tale The Son of the Gray Horse, Professor Susie Hoogasian-Villa cited two Romani variants, one from Bukovina, where the hero of unusual birth is carried by the eagle, and one Welsh, where a dwarf takes the hero to the surface world. Mythologist Mircea Eliade pointed that the motif can also be found in Siberian shamanism, and tales from Siberian folklore attest the transport of the hero by the eagle or another bird species from the depths of Hell to the world's surface. The geographical distribution of tale type ATU 301 with the presence of this motif seems to be spread along "Europe, large parts of Central Asia and the Middle East, China (Miao), Canada and South America". In the same vein, Bernard Sergent suggested that the motif of a hero feeding parts of his own flesh to the eagle he uses to escape the underworld may actually show considerable antiquity. He suggested this motif, numbered B322.1 in Stith Thompson's Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, is the most ancient part of the tale type, being traceable to the Paleolithic. Fate of the unfaithful companions The ungrateful companions suffer various fates: either disappear, are punished, or forgiven depending on the version. Pyrenees Versions of the tale found in the Pyrenees region, across languages. These include for example "Joan de l'Ors" in Occitan, from the Aude province, in the French Pyrenees, Joan de l'Os in Catalan on the Spanish side, and examples in Basque. noted in his study of Jean de l'ours that there were parallels between the birth origins of the hero and the various bear festivals in the Pyrenees region, held during Candlemas or Carnival seasons. Violet Alford also noted that the tale of Jean de l'Ours showed "[a] more primitive compelling mountain form (Pyrenees and Alps) in which it is possible to distinguish some connection with the traditional bear cult of the Pyrenees." A bolder claim has been made that Jean de l'ours episodes are reenacted in these festivals. In some legends, the Pic du Midi d'Ossau is the head of John the Bear. In the Pyrenees, 'Jean' is sometimes regarded as an Anglicized corruption of "people" (gens) or "giants" (géants), an assumption which works well in French, but not in the various other languages and dialects of the region. Occitan The tale type AT 301B is said to be one of the most widespread tales (plus repándu) in the Occitaine. Indeed, French scholarship points that it is the region where most versions have been found so far. An Occitan version Jan de l'Ours, collected by in Sougraigne, Aude was published by René Nelli, alongside his side-by-side French translation. Nelli may have preferred the orthography "Joan de L'Ors", or at least that was the spelling he used when he was alerting his pending publication. Fabre and J. Lacroix also published a recitation of the tale by a conteuse from Aude (Louise Cassagneau). The 19th century writer Valère Bernard had worked the Joan de l'Orso character throughout his prodigious work la Légenda d'Esclarmonda, and there was a building on that icon, so that in the eyes of some Joan de l'Orso may have appeared as "the hero par excellence of the Pays d'Oc". Other Provence tales Some tales from Provence were published in standard French. In Hippolyte Babou's version (1862), considered to be an arranged piece of work to a large degree, the hero goes to the Holy Land region into Palestine on his bearskin, and faces off with an archdemon who rides a shark. (Likewise in the version close to it printed by , with illustrations by Édouard François Zier). also published a version in which a mother who had no food due to famine exposed her infant in the woods, but the child was raised by a mother bear that lost one of its cubs. The plotline is somewhat elaborate. A slaying of dragons rescues three princesses, Pomme d'or, Pomme d'argent, Pomme de cuivre ("Golden-Apple", "Silver-Apple", "Copper-Apple"). Although this is enough number of brides for Jean's party, the betrayal of the cut cord still ensues. Pomme d'or refuses marriage to a traitor, and wishes to wed Jean. So the two companions consult a witch on a way to murder Jean and Pomme d'or. An evil spirit with the black beard who enters into the betrayers' service is defeated and killed by Pomme d'or's guardian spirit, whom she summons by biting into her gold apple. The two companions are punished by the guardian spirit, but afterwards forgiven by Jean. Basque The corresponding character is denoted Juan Artz , Hachko, or Xan Artz in Basque country. One Basque version of the tale is Juan Artz, edited by Resurrección María de Azkue accompanied by Spanish translation. The name Juan Artz denotes "Juan Bear", where is the word for "bear". The story begins by stating "They say that Juan was raised by a she-bear in the mountains because his mother had no breast". This pattern where not a male but female bear is involved, and suckles the infant, is given by Delarue as one of the alternative origins for hero in the tale group, but it is not exhibited in many examples in his list. This motif of a she-bear raising the hero is paralleled by Orson in Valentine and Orson, a tale widely read in roman bleue (chapbook) form in the early modern period. In the tale given by Jean Barbier, (; "Hachko and his two companions"), instead of a bear, it is the Basa-Jaun (, ) who kidnaps the girl in the forest and carries her to an underground dwelling. But Barbier's version which makes this substitution has been suspected of being an interpolation of a modern date, most probably by Barbier himself, in a study by N. Zaïkak. According to the hypothesis, Barbier based his tale on 's version, l'Ourson or Le fils d'ours ("bear cub" or "bear's son"; ) published in 1878 and 1882. This version was taken down from a native of Mendive in Basse-Navarre. Spain Aurelio Espinosa, Sr. published three versions of Juan el Oso from Spain in his Cuentos Populares Españoles: Juanito el Oso (from Blacos, Soria in Castile and León and another from Tudanca, Santander) and Juanillo el Oso (from Villaluenga, Toledo). Versions found in Spain are marked by the motif of the devil's ear, or Lucifer's ear, which are present in Espinosa's versions named above. When the hero cuts the ear off the diabolical adversary, he has gained mastery over him, and thereafter, the hero can summon the devil by biting on the ear, and command him at his disposal. In one tale the hero encounters a duende (a sort of goblin) who severs his own ear and gives it to Juanito. In some versions, "Lucifer's Ear" becomes the title of the tale. This motif also occurs widely in various versions from Latin America and Spanish-speaking populace in the United States (§Versions in the Americas). In Juanito el Oso (Blacos version above), the bear's son has a massive ball weighing 100 arrobas (2500 lbs.) made for him, to be used as weapon. His companions are Arrancapinos y Hace sogas "Uproots-Pinetrees-and-Makes-Ropes") and Allana cerros con Culo ("Flattens-Hills-with-Buttocks"). Espinosa published more versions in Cuentos populares de Castilla y León: Juanillo el Oso and Juan Os from Peñafiel, Valladolid. And a variant, called El Hijo Burra ("Donkey's son") from Roa, Burgos. Spanish scholarship has called attention to a similar being from Valencian folklore: the strong Esclafamuntanyes (ca), also described in some versions as the son of a bear and a human woman. Versions in the Americas There are cognate tales found in various parts of the Spanish-speaking Americas. Espinosa, Sr. collected 33 tales published in his Cuentos Populares Españoles. Mexican versions Variants of the story have been collected among the Mexican population of the United States, and in Mexico (in Chihuahua, Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mitla, Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Chiapas—Chamula, and Zinacantán). American folklorist Robert A. Barakat published in English translation his collected versions "of North Mexico". These included a tale (entitled Juan el oso) collected in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, as well as tales from natives of that city residing in the United States: a version entitled Juan Oso collected in El Paso, Texas, in 1964, and a fragmentary Juan de la burra (John of the Donkey). Frank Goodwyn had also published in 1953 a complete Juan de la burra (collected in Chicago). Here, it can be seen that not only is the animal transposed to a female donkey, it is not the hero's parent, but only his wetnurse which allowed the abandoned child to suckle. It thus resembles the tale of El Hijo Burra ("Donkey's son") of Spain. The hero's helpers in the El Paso version were Aplanacerros (Mountain Breaker) and Tumbapinos (Pine Twister), reminiscent of names in the French version, whereas in the Juan de la burra, they were Carguín Cargón (the Carrier), Soplín Soplón (the Sigher), Oidín Oidón (the Hearer), exactly as found in Fernán Caballero's La oreja de Lucifer, which is indeed a story classified as Type 301B, but one whose protagonist has no connection to a bear or any substituted animal. In Mexican versions, the machete or a machete weighing 24 kilograms has displaced the massive cane in French versions. There is also a version with an "iron weapon" with which he severs the devil's ear. International distribution According to Stith Thompson's study, the tale is found "over the whole of Europe" ("specially well known in the Baltic and in Russia"), in the Near East, North Africa and in the Americas (brought by the French and the Spanish). Europe The tale type is said to be found "in all the Indo-European language groups of Europe", as well in the Finno-Ugric family (e. g., in Finnish, Estonian and Sami languages) and in Basque. In the same vein, critic Walter Puchner, in Enzyklopädie des Märchens, remarked that type AaTh 301B is "more typical" of Western, Central and Northern Europe. It has been noted that "the story of the underground journey and the three princesses ... is ubiquitous in the Hispanic tradition", where the strong hero travels to the underworld realm with his companions with fantastical powers. Professor Susie Hoogasian-Villa claimed that the tale-type "The World Below" is "one typical Armenian folktale": the hero rescues three princesses in the underworld realm, is abandoned by his companions and hitches a ride on the eagle's back in order to return to the surface. According to Professor Bronislava Kerbelytė, the tale type AT 301B is reported to register 240 Lithuanian variants, under the banner The Mighty Man and the Fellow Travellers, with and without contamination from other tale types. In a Georgian variant, Asphurtzela ("hundred leaves"), a mother's daughter is captured by a devi and forciby married to it. Her three sons are also captured by the devi. Years later, the woman gives birth to a boy named Asphurtzela, who matures very rapidly and develops great strength. He goes to another village and rescues his siblings. Later, in his travels, he meets a "clod-swallower" and a "hare-catcher" with millstones tied to both feet. The trio sets up camp and cook their food, but three devi insist to eat it. His friends relent and let the devi eat their food, but Asphurtzela kills the devi and follow its severed head to a hole, where three princesses are being held captive. The usual narrative follows, but the avian helper of the hero in this version is a griffin, after the hero helped its young. Eastern Europe and Asia On the other hand, professor Jack Haney stated that the types AT 301A and 301B, "The Three Underground Tsardoms", are very popular in "the East Slavic world", and its combination with tale type AT 650A, "Strong Hans", is "very common in the Urals". Professor Dean Fansler collected nine variants from the Philippines archipelago and based on their similarities to tabulate a general overview of the narrative. He also noted that the variants he collected were connected to "two well-known European cycles of folk-tales, - 'Strong Hans' and 'John the Bear'". Professor Bertram Colgrave also stated that variants have been found in Indian languages. Similarly, Chinese folklorist and scholar collected some 62 variants of the tale type AT 301 from China and adjacent countries. He also remarked that Chinese scholarship had already noted their resemblance to European folktales by the early 20th century. One variant from a Daghur source was collected, containing the ursine-born hero, the betrayal by his companions (two ghosts from a haunted house), the rescue of a maiden in a cave and the journey back to the surface on a bird. Middle East German scholar stated that the tale type AT 301 "The Three Stolen Princesses", showed "particular prominence" in the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East regions. The tale type is also said to be popular in Iraq. Americas The tale, in the Americas, is claimed to be widespread in Andean tradition ("relato panandino") and purportedly belongs to an ancient indigenous tradition, although variants exist in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina and Central America.<ref>Robin, Valérie (1997). "El cura y sus hijos osos o el recorrido civilizador de los hijos de una cura y una osa". In: Boletín del Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos. Número especial: “Tradición Oral y mitologías andinas”. Lima, 1997, Tomo 26, Nº 3. </ref> Variants of the tale type have been collected from the oral tale repertoire of many Native American populations, such as the Maliseet, the Shoshone, the Assiniboine and the Chilcotin (Tsilhqotʼin). Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons recorded three variants, one from Martinique and two from Guadeloupe, that mix type AT 650A (the mishaps of the hero's childhood) with type AT 301B (rescue of princesses in the underworld and flight on eagle). Literary variants Scholarship recognizes the Spanish rhyming story Las Princesas Encantadas as belonging to ATU 301 tale type. In this story, a king locks his three daughter in a tower (instead of an underground prison) and the hero, after he is betrayed by his brothers, escapes the tower with the help of a magical flying horse. The story continues as another tale type: ATU 314, "Goldener" (prince works in menial position in another king's palace). Parallels It has been suggested that the tale of John the Bear may be connected to the legend of Georgian hero Amirani and character Sbadilòn, the hero of an Italian fairy tale. Sbadilòn Sbadilòn, or Giovanni Sbadilòn Senzaterra, is the protagonist of a Mantua tale collected from an old female storyteller in the 1970s. Sbadilón carries a spade and meets two strong companions: Tagliaboschi, son of a charcoal burner ("carbonaio") and Darfino Ammazzacinquecento ("Darfino Crushes-Five-Hundred"). By lifting a marble tombstone, Sbadilón descends to an underworld realm (possibly Hell), kills five evil wizards and rescues a princess. In this story, the betrayal of the companions does not occur; instead, he willingly decides to stay underground, until an eagle bites his flesh and carries him back to the surface. Conon Scholarship on the tale type indicates similarities between the narrative and a tale by Greek writer Conon. In this story, two shepherds find a pot of honey in a cave. One descends the hole in a basket, sends the pot of honey to his companion. However, one betrays the other, leaving him to die in the pit. The other shepherd has a vision that god Apollo instructs the man to hurt his own flesh to attract vultures. The ploy works and the vultures carry the shepherd to their nest at the foothill.Szövérffy, Joseph. "From Beowulf to the Arabian Nights". In: Midwest Folklore 6, no. 2 (1956): 113. Accessed May 27, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4317575. Ancient Greece Paul Delarue also listed as ancient parallels to the bear-born hero a myth about Polyphonte and her twin sons Agrius and Oreius, born of a male bear, and a version where Arcesius, grandfather to Odysseus, was sired by human Cephalus and a she-bear. Torec Professor Joseph Szövérffy drew attention to another possible parallel to the tale type: in an episode of the medieval (13th century) romance Torec, chevalier Melions descends to a cave to rescue his beloved and two other maidens, captured by a dwarf. After he sends them through a rope to his two companions, they betray him and leave him stranded in the cave. With the help of animals (a horse, two dogs and two hawks), he returns to the surface.Besamusca, Bart. "The damsel of Montesclare in the Middle Dutch Lancelot Compilation". In: Claassens, G.H.M., en D.F. Johnson (red.). King Arthur in the medieval Low Countries. Leuven, 2000. pp. 94-96. Er Töštük Turkish folklorist Pertev Naili Boratav noted that Kyrgyz epic Er Töštük contains several similarities to types 301A and 301B: after an encounter with the dangerous witch Želmoğuz, Er Töštük falls into the Underworld. Down there, he disguises himself with a scurvy appearance and marries a local princess. His father-in-law sends Er Töštük and his brothers-in-law on some errands, including finding the magical colts of the Spotted Mare that were stolen. On this quest, Er Töštük rescues the children of the Giant Eagle from the Dragon. Some time later, he has to return to the surface, and the Giant Eagle, in gratitude for his previous good deed, takes him and his wife back to his realm. John Bear in literature In 1868, Prosper Merimee published Lokis, a new telling of a mysterious marriage Count, which appears to be born from the rape of his mother, and probably by a bear, these elements are gradually revealed, until the epilogue where the animal instincts of the character come to the fore. This news is written following a trip Merimee did in Lithuania and the Baltic countries where the story (or legend) was underway. In 1990, Alina Reyes evokes the myth in her second novel, Lucie au Long Cours. In 2011, the novel by Philippe Jaenada "Woman and Bear" explicitly refers to the tale. See also For tales about wild men and strong heroes: The Adventures of Massang (Kalmyk folktale) Bear's Son Tale Basajaun Fehérlófia (Hungarian folk tale) The Son of a Horse (Chinese folktale) Son of the White Mare, Hungarian animated film Valentine and Orson Waligóra and Wyrwidąb ("Mountain Beater" and "Oak Tearer"), legendary Polish heroes Gorynya, Dubynya and Usynya, Slavic giants (ru) Wild men For other tales about rescuing princesses in the underworld: Dawn, Midnight and Twilight Prâslea the Brave and the Golden Apples The Gnome (fairy tale) The Story of Bensurdatu The Norka Jihaguk daejeok toechi seolhwaExplanatory notes References Citations Bibliography ―texts (France - Langues d'oïl) (Delarue's 9) (Delarue's 1) ―(France-Provence/Occitan) (Delarue's 66) (Delarue's 71.) (Gascon) (Delarue's 67.) (Delarue's 65.) ―(Catalan) ―(Spain) ; republished Spanish Fairy Tales, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & co., 1920 ―(Basque) ―(Italy) ―(Mexican versions) ―(English Canada) (Acadian Tales and Mrs. Laura McNeil, West Pubnico, N. S.) ―secondary sources (Contents of 1968 and 1969a) Further reading Decourt, Nadine. "Les Quatre saisons de Léon et Jean de l’Ours : entre conte et film d’animation, questions de transmission et de réception". In: Textes et contextes 8 (2013). Fourtané, Nicole. "La conception du héros dans les contes hispaniques et dans ceux des Andes péruviennes: le cas de Juan [el] Oso". In: América: Cahiers du CRICCAL, n°13, 1993. Les frontières culturelles en Amérique latine (deuxième série) pp. 39–56. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ameri.1993.1133]; www.persee.fr/doc/ameri_0982-9237_1993_num_13_1_1133 Hernández Fernández, Ángel. “El cuento del fortachón en el folklore y la literatura”. In: Culturas Populares. Revista Electrónica 2 (mayo-agosto 2006). http://www.culturaspopulares.org/textos2/articulos/hernandezf1.htm; . Liégeois, Catherine. "Miklos fils de jument: état d'une recherche". In: Littérature orale: paroles vivantes et mouvantes. Martin, Jean-Baptiste (dir.); Decourt, Nadine (dir.). Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon, 2003. pp. 281–295. . DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/books.pul.11735. McDowell, John H. "The True Lineage of “Juan Oso”." Journal of Folklore Research'' 46, no. 3 (2009): 325–49. doi:10.2979/jfr.2009.46.3.325. External links French folklore French legendary creatures Legendary French people Mythological human hybrids Mythological bears Roc (mythology) ATU 300-399
5341408	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language%20politics	Language politics	Language politics is the way language and linguistic differences between peoples are dealt with in the political arena. This could manifest as government recognition, as well as how language is treated in official capacities. The topic covers many related issues. As such, this page serves as a central resource for multiple articles relating to the topic of language and politics. Below are some categories dealing with the overlap between language and politics, along with examples and links to other relevant pages. Language planning and policy Language planning refers to concerted efforts to influence how and why languages are used in a community. It is usually associated with governmental policies which largely involve status planning, corpus planning and acquisition planning. There are often much interaction between the three areas. Status planning involves giving a language or languages a certain standing against other languages and is often associated with language prestige and language function. Corpus planning often involves linguistic prescription as decisions are made in graphization, standardization and modernization of a language. Acquisition planning fundamentally involves language policies to promote language learning. Status planning Legal status of a language as an official language in a country, state, or other jurisdiction. This generally means that all official documents affecting a country or region are published in the official language(s), but not in those that are not. Evidence in a court of law may also be expected to be presented in an official language. In countries where there are more than one main language, there are often political implications in decisions that are seen to promote one group of speakers over another, and this is often referred to as language politics. An example of a country with this type of language politics is Belgium. In countries where there is one main language, immigrants seeking full citizenship may be expected to have a degree of fluency in that language ('language politics' then being a reference to the debate over the appropriateness of this). This has been a feature of Australian politics. At various times minority languages have either been promoted or banned in schools, as politicians have either sought to promote a minority language with an aim of strengthening the cultural identity of its speakers, or ban its use (either in teaching, or on occasion an entire ban on its use), with an aim of promoting a national identity based on the majority language. An example of recent promotion of a minority language is the promotion of Welsh or Leonese by the Leonese City Council and an example of official discouragement of a minority language is of Breton. Language politics also sometimes relate to dialect, where speakers of a particular dialect are perceived to speak a more culturally 'advanced' or 'correct' form of the language. Politicians may therefore try to use that dialect rather than their own when in the public eye. Alternatively, at times those speaking the dialect perceived as more 'correct' may try to use another dialect when in the public eye to be seen as a 'man/woman of the people'. Corpus planning Corpus planning consists of three traditionally recognised forms: graphization, standardization and modernization. Graphization involves the development of written scripts and orthography of languages. Standardization involves giving a selected variety of a language precedence over the other varieties as the "standard" form for others to emulate. Modernization often involves expanding the lexicon of a language as a result of language shift over time. To promote national identity, what are strictly dialects of the same language may be promoted as separate languages to promote a sense of national identity (examples include Danish and Norwegian, and Serbian and Croatian – the latter two also use different scripts for what is linguistically the same language – Cyrillic for Serbian and roman script for Croatian). Whether or not something is a language can also involve language politics, for instance, Macedonian. On the contrary, to unify the country, China worked towards a common national language with a standard written script (see: Standard Chinese). The efforts started as early as 1912 after the establishment of the Republic of China. Initial efforts tried to create a language that was phonologically hybridised from the existing languages but they later on settled on pronunciations based on the Beijing variety of Mandarin. Nonetheless, there were still influence from the other Chinese varieties in this standard language. All other language varieties are officially known as 方言 fāngyán which directly translates to regional speech or more well known as Chinese dialects despite being mutually unintelligible. However, the different speakers communicate via a common written script known as a unified Chinese script. After the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China continued the efforts of a common national language, renaming the standard language from 国语 guóyǔ ("national language") to 普通话 pǔtōnghuà ("common speech") in 1955. 'Political correctness' describes the situation where language forms must be used (or not used) to comply with national (or group) ideology Co-existence of competing spelling systems for the same language, associated with different political camps. Examples: Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters Simplification of Russian orthography; proposals for such a reform were viewed as subversive in the late years of the Russian Empire and were implemented by the Bolsheviks in 1918, after which the "old orthography" became associated with the White movement. The two spelling systems for the Belarusian language, one of which is associated with the country's political opposition. Language is also utilised in political matters to unify, organise and criticise in order to unify a political group. The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet preserved in Transnistria. Acquisition planning (language in education) Acquisition planning often manifests in education policies after the status and corpus planning policies have been introduced. These policies can take in the form of compulsory language education programmes, enforcing a specific language of instruction in schools or development of educational materials. In some countries, mainstream education is offered in one language: English in the United States, Italian in Italy, Russian in Russia, just to name a few. In some countries, mainstream education provide education in several languages. This is especially common in countries with more than one official languages. Some countries promote multilingualism in their policies: bilingual policy in Singapore, three-language formula in India, just to name a few. Linguistic discrimination Linguistic discrimination, or linguicism, refers to unequal treatment of speakers of different languages or language varieties. It can be observed with regard to spoken language, where speakers may be discriminated against based on their regional dialect, their sociolect, their accent, or their vocabulary. In terms of language planning, linguistic discrimination can occur at different stages, such as the choice of one or more official languages, choosing the language of instruction, the availability of essential services such as health care in minority languages, and the protection or lack thereof of minority languages and dialects. In the United States, speakers of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) often experience linguistic discrimination. A study, published in 1982, of attitudes towards AAVE at Martin Luther King Junior Elementary school in Ann Arbor, Michigan, revealed that black students who primarily spoke AAVE received less help from their teachers in comparison to their white peers. One social worker observed that these AAVE-speaking students faced a significant linguistic barrier to academic achievement and success in the predominantly White American society at that time. This is one example of a larger controversy surrounding African-American Vernacular English in education. Colonialism Colonialism is a significant context in which linguistic discrimination takes place. When territories were colonized for the purpose of settlement buildling, indigenous languages became gravely endangered because the native speaker groups were either destroyed by war and disease, or had undergone a partial language shift to speak their master's language. In exploitation colonies however, colonizers would usually only teach their language to a select group of locals. In postcolonial states like India, it was observed that the difference in language education had widened the socioeconomic class divide. Thus, access to education, social mobility, and economic opportunities were deprived of the locals who had not learnt the colonial language of before. Approximately 1.35 billion people in the world now speak English, with about 360 million native English speakers. As of 2015, more than 75% of all scientific papers were published in English. English is also the most commonly studied foreign language in the world. This global prevalence of English can be attributed to many developments that have occurred in recent history, namely, the expansion of the British Empire, which has resulted in the establishment of English as an official language in at least 75 countries. David Crystal gives a detailed explanation about the spread of English worldwide in Chapter 9 of A History of the English Language (ed. Richard M. Hogg). Robert Phillipson has posited this is an example of linguistic imperialism. However, this notion is contested in the field of applied linguistics. Linguistic Imperialism Linguistic imperialism refers to the dominance of one language over another on a national (and sometimes international) scale as a result of language policy and planning. According to Robert Phillipson, it is a variant of linguicism and is enacted through systemic changes and language attitudes, resulting in unfair treatment of non-dominant language groups. This form of discrimination works in ways similar to racism, sexism, and classism, on a national administrative scale. As an example, a case study on the usage of Irish Sign Language (ISL) in Ireland revealed unfair treatment of a deaf community in Ireland. The study observed the enforcement of English over ISL in the educational system, as well as the prohibition of ISL among deaf children who were deemed capable enough to learn oral language (oralism). The study also highlighted anti-ISL language attitudes among school officials, unequal pay of ISL teachers, unequal status given to ISL in the education system, and the systemic marginalisation of ISL users. Efforts to elevate the usage of English over ISL also entailed the teaching of Manually Coded English (MCE) to deaf students, a signed language based on the grammatical structure of English. Unfortunately, MCE and other manually coded languages are often difficult and slow to use for communication among signers. Despite this, such language policies have influenced members of the deaf community (especially older members) to internalise the belief that ISL is inferior to spoken language. Names and politics Critical toponymies Toponymy is the study of place names (from Ancient Greek: τόπος / tópos, 'place', and ὄνομα / onoma, 'name'). According to Lawrence D. Berg and Jani Vuolteenaho, traditional research into place names has focused more on describing their origins in an empirical way. However, they note that there are 'power relations inherent in geographical naming', because to have the power to name something is to have the 'power of "making places"'. Their book, Critical Toponymies, is, according to them, the 'first interdisciplinary collection published in English that tackles explicitly place naming as "a political practice par excellence of power over space"', and gathers research from various scholars about the politics inherent in the naming of places. Choice of language As an example, the powers-that-were in Norway began strictly regulating Sámi place names in the 1870s, replacing them with Norwegian names in official documents, even suggesting that if no Norwegian name had yet been made for a certain place, a Norwegian translation of the name ought to be used on maps. This 'toponymic silence' gave the impression that Norwegians had settled in places where the Sámi historically lived; and the silence lives on till the present—Norwegians may believe that Sámi place names which have not been recorded on maps etc. are not in common use (even though they are); alternatively, since Sámi names for natural features have remained but not names for settlements, Norwegians may believe that Sámi people only reside in otherwise uninhabited areas. Now, even though Sámi place names can be restored to official status, they must still be proven to actually be in use among the community. This is not the case for Norwegian names, which will remain official even if few people in the locality use that name. With these observations, it can be concluded that the Sámi have not received full 'decolonisation' yet - the colonisation being in the Norwegian power to rename Sámi places. Choice of pronunciation In places where native names have been reclaimed in writing, there is a secondary issue of pronunciation. With reference to New Zealand, Robin Kearns and Lawrence Berg note that how a place name is pronounced also has a political meaning. Letters to the editors of New Zealand newspapers sometimes complain about newscasters' choice to pronounce place names in a more Māori-like way. Even if Lake Taupo maintains an ostensibly Māori-derived name, some argued against a Member of Parliament telling others to read it 'toe-po' ([ˈtoʊpɔː]; see Taupo). Kearns and Berg note that the written forms of Māori place names give no hints as to how they should be pronounced, and so even some Māori speakers might not know the 'true' pronunciation. These people might not be trying to make any political statement by reading the names their own way. Even so, their utterance of the name becomes situated in a wider political context of 'a resurgence of Maori cultural forms, and increasing calls for self-determination', which 'presents a threatening and uncertain environment for members of the status quo'. In this way, language in the form of place names becomes part of politics - part of the 'contest over the symbolic ownership of place' in New Zealand. Cross-state conflicts Even across states, agreement on a single name is difficult. This can apply to places which a state does not own: for example, see the Sea of Japan naming dispute or the Persian Gulf naming dispute. Mapmakers often acquiesce by creating two versions of the same map, but with the names of geographical features swapped out depending on which state the maps are sold in. Notably, Greece objected to the use of the name 'Macedonia' by the then newly-independent Republic of Macedonia. According to Naftalie Kadmon, the Greek government was worried that '[c]laims of the South Yugoslavians to the name Macedonia might in time lead to political demands towards Greece, and finally to military aggression.' The case was escalated to the UN and it was decided that the new state would be referred to as Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). The naming dispute was resolved in 2019, with the latter being renamed to North Macedonia. These conflicts between states regarding names still nevertheless indicate a conflict over ownership or belonging. For example, the Bay of Piran between Croatia and Slovenia began being referred to by Croatian official sources as the Bay of Savudrija (Savudrijska vala) around the early 2000s. In both cases, the names of the bay are taken from towns (Piran is in Slovenia, and Savudrija is in Croatia). This recent Croatian insistence on a new name linked to Croatia 'represents a transfer of the identity of the bay elsewhere - to another place far from Piran', and stakes 'Croatia's ownership of this part of the bay'. Recognition of importance of names The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) set up the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names (UNCSGN). The UNCSGN has three main objectives: 'encourage national and international geographical names standardization; 'promote the international dissemination of nationally standardized geographical names information; and 'adopt single romanization systems for the conversion of each non-Roman writing system to the Roman alphabet.' The UNCSGN occurs every five years, and the UNGEGN 'meets between the Conferences to follow up the implementation of resolutions adopted by the Conferences and to ensure continuity of activities between Conferences'. Other names The politics applied to naming places can also applies to naming ethnic groups. For example, it is generally offensive to use words which are considered by some to have negative implications (pejorative exonyms) to describe a group of people: e.g. 'Gypsies' (or even more negatively, 'Gypos') instead of 'Romani', or indeed using the term 'Gypsies' to cover Traveller peoples as well as Romani people. As another example, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy writes that although they have been 'called the Iroquois Confederacy by the French, and the League of Five Nations by the English, the confederacy is properly called the Haudenosaunee Confederacy meaning People of the long house.' The rejection of the exonym 'Iroqouis' (which is still the name used in, for example, the Wikipedia page) is inherent in the statement that the confederacy (and the people) are properly called 'Haudenosaunee'. References See also Language policy Linguistic rights Concepts in language policy Politics by region Linguistic controversies
5341987	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax%20policy	Tax policy	Tax policy refers to the guidelines and principles established by a government for the imposition and collection of taxes. It encompasses both microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects, with the former focusing on issues of fairness and efficiency in tax collection, and the latter focusing on the overall quantity of taxes to be collected and its impact on economic activity. The tax framework of a country is considered a crucial instrument for influencing the country's economy. Tax policies have significant implications for specific groups within an economy, such as households, firms, and banks. These policies are often intended to promote economic growth; however, there is significant debate among economists about the most effective ways to achieve this. Taxation is both a political and economic issue, with political leaders often using tax policy to advance their agendas through various tax reforms, such as changes to tax rates, definitions of taxable income, and the creation of new taxes. Specific groups, such as small business owners, farmers, and retired individuals, can often exert political pressure to reduce their share of the tax burden. The tax code is often complex and includes rules that benefit certain groups of taxpayers while shifting more of the burden to others. Main reasons for taxation There are some main reasons why government needs to collect taxes: Market failure - mainly to discourage purchases of that product (any tax creates a disincentive, so consumers will reduce their purchases and seek alternatives). Taxes can create incentives promoting desirable behavior and disincentives for unwanted behavior. Taxes can change consumers' behavior and thus influence the market outcome. For example, in presence of externalities, an —omnipotent and ethical policymaker ≠would want to change the market outcome to reach the social optimum (otherwise there would be a deadweight loss of externality). In such a case, policymakers would implement excise taxes, carbon tax etc. To generate revenue. Taxation is the most important source of government revenue. Governments can use tax revenue to provide public services such as social security, health care, national defense, and education. Changing the distribution of income and wealth. Taxation provides a means to redistribute economic resources toward those with low income or special needs (tax revenue can be used for transfer payments such as welfare benefits). Philosophy Policymakers debate the nature of the tax structure they plan to implement (i.e., how progressive or regressive) and how these taxes might affect individuals and businesses (i.e., tax incidence). The reason for this focus is economic efficiency; as advisor to the Stuart King of England Richard Petty had noted "The government does not want to kill the goose that lays the golden egg". Paradigmatic efficient taxes are those that are either non-distortionary or lump sum. However, economists define distortion only according to the substitution effect, because anything that does not change relative prices is non-distortionary. One must also consider the income effect, which for tax policy purposes often needs to be assumed to cancel out in the aggregate. The efficiency loss is depicted on the demand curve and supply curve diagrams as the area inside Harberger's Triangle. National Insurance in the United Kingdom and Social Security in the United States are forms of social welfare funded outside their national income tax systems, paid for through worker contributions, something labeled a stealth tax by critics. Administration The implementation of tax policy has always been a complex business. For example, in pre-revolutionary colonial America, the argument "No taxation without representation" resulted from the tax policy of the British Crown, which taxed the settlers but offered no say in their government. A more recent American example is President George H. W. Bush's famous tax policy quote, "Read my lips: no new taxes." Efficient tax administration is key to encouraging businesses to become formally registered, thereby expanding the tax base and revenues. On the other hand, an unfair tax administration can harm the tax system and reduce the government legitimacy. In many developing countries, the failure to improve tax administration while introducing new tax systems has led to widespread tax evasion and lower tax revenues. It is important to keep tax rules clear and simple to encourage compliance, as high tax evasion is associated with complicated tax systems. As the tax administration ecosystem evolves with the introduction of new analytical tools, digital information flows are increasing. Consequently, tax administration is operating in a way that increases incentives for compliant taxpayers.<ref></</ref> Operating costs of tax policy Modern taxation systems have the capacity to impose a heavy burden on taxpayers, and particularly on small businesses taxpayers. That burden typically consists of three elements. Firstly, there are the taxes themselves. Secondly, there are the efficiency costs (variously referred to as deadweight losses or excess burden), the third types of costs are compliance costs of taxation, and finally, there are the administrative costs (sometimes referred to as operating costs) of the tax system. Administrative costs can be described as costs incurred by (mainly) public sector agents in order to administer the tax-benefit system. The relationship between administrative and compliance costs of taxation is not always clear at a first glance. Sometimes, there might be an inverse relationship between them, which is a phenomenon called "The administrative-costs compliance-costs trade-off." An example of this inverse relationship might be an implementation of a self-assessment system in taxation. However, This trade-off principle is not always the reality, as it is, for example, possible to reduce both types of costs through some sort of simplification of the tax system or an increase in compliance costs might occur as a result of administrative inefficiency. These types of costs together are called operating costs of taxation. When implementing some new parts of tax policy or reorganizing it, policymakers always have to consider the weight of administrative costs and compliance costs of taxation. There are two main types of administrative costs: Direct administrative costs Indirect administrative costs Direct administrative costs Direct administrative costs are on the government side (the burden is borne by the government). "It is not immediately obvious, exactly, which activities should be attributed to the operation of the … system" (p. 19). Administrative costs are mainly connected to running the tax collection office - it includes salaries of staff, costs of legislative enactment relating to the tax system, judicial costs of administration of the tax dispute system, and many more. Indirect administrative costs Indirect administrative costs are on the side of taxpayers (the burden is borne by the government). Tax compliance costs are those costs "incurred by taxpayers, or third parties such as businesses, in meeting the requirements laid upon them in complying with a given structure and level of tax" (Sandford, Godwin and Hardwick, 1989, p. 10). Indirect administrative costs are mainly connected to the costs of complying with tax requirements - it includes the costs of labour/time consumed in completion of tax activities, filling out forms, record keeping, the fees paid to professional tax advisers, transfer pricing and many more. Compliance costs Tax compliance costs are the costs "incurred by taxpayers, or third parties such as businesses, in meeting the requirements laid upon them in complying with a given structure and level of tax". There is no consensus about what should and should not be included under the definition of compliance costs. However, there is a possibility to define some indisputable examples of costs, that are directly connected to the compliance of individual taxpayers. These examples include the costs of labor and time required for the completion of tax activities, such as acquiring the necessary knowledge to operate within the tax system properly, or compiling and creating all documents needed. More examples include the cost of purchasing professional assistance for the completion of tax activities, or other expenses connected to tax activities, such as purchasing software and hardware. Other types of compliance costs, such as the negative psychological effects on taxpayers as a result of the attempts to comply with the current tax policy, or many types of social costs, are very intangible, and it is, therefore, hard to quantify them, even though the effect of their existence is visible. Equity vs. Efficiency An equity-efficiency tradeoff appears when there is some kind of conflict between maximizing the equity and maximizing economic efficiency. The trade-off between equity and efficiency is at the heart of many discussions of tax policy. Two questions are debated. First, there is disagreement about the nature of the trade-off . To reduce inequality, how much efficiency do we have to give up? Second, there is a disagreement about the relative value to be attributed to the reduction in inequality compared to the reduction in efficiency. Some people claim that inequality is the central problem of society, and society should simply minimize the extent of inequality, regardless of the consequences to efficiency. Others claim that efficiency is the central issue. These disagreements relate to social choices between equity and efficiency. Equity Equity can be divided into two main groups: horizontal equity and vertical equity. Vertical equity Vertical equity is a method of taxation based on the principle that the higher the income of an individual is the higher is the personal income tax liability (i.e. as your income goes up, you pay more). Vertical equity is often more achievable than horizontal equity, because horizontal equity is harder to implement - it is not easy to define and it can be undermined by loopholes and deductions. Since this method take into consideration the ability to pay of taxpayers, nowadays it is one of the most accepted taxation methods by various countries around the world. The ability to pay principle, says that the amount of a tax a person pays has to be dependent on the burden the tax will create with regard to the wealth of an individual. Vertical equity operates on the principal of people with higher incomes paying more taxes, through progressive tax rates. In progressive taxation, the amount of taxes paid increases with income. In this tax system people are divided in tax brackets, each tax bracket has a different tax rate, with high income brackets paying more taxes. With this taxation system, the effective tax rates increase with income. Furthermore, another possibility is the proportional tax method in which the income is charged at a single rate regardless of income. This taxation method is also known as flat taxes. Horizontal equity The basic principle of horizontal equity is based on the concept of distributive justice, in which taxpayers should pay the same level of income tax in proportion to their respective income groups. Most important, but more costly is to define income groups, knowing that each individual consumes and saves in different ways, making it very hard for tax policymakers. Horizontal equity requires a tax system that it does not give preference to certain individuals or companies. It makes sure that we don't have discrimination on the grounds. Horizontal equity is a constant topic of tax policy discussions and in many countries it is a cause of several exemptions, deductions and special provisions. Efficiency Efficiency for economists is equal to the concept of Pareto efficiency. Pareto efficiency means the situation of resource allocation where the concept of 'net' is dominant. In other word, basically we need to make someone worse in order to make others better under this efficiency. To seek for the efficiency, it is necessary to build the decentralized market mechanism. And to build that mechanism, tax system is often seen as an obstacle. Here, we need to think about the balance between efficiency and equity. And the best point of this balance is called 'Pareto improvement'. This is the ideal answer to reply for the question of which policies should be implemented. Social Choice The choices or decision of government are one of social choices. Social choice consists of two elements: Individual level and societal level. For the individual level, each individual builds their preference and has their utility following the budget's constraint. This can form an indifference curve. And we can say that the points which are on this curve are matched to pareto efficiency. In the society's level, the curve are created by seeing the participants as group A and group B. Here, the curve are an inversely proportional relationship which is a very common style in the Pareto efficiency's curve. In this curve, when group A's utility will get down, group B's utility will get increased.(There are other curves in other ways: Utilitarian way and Rawlsian way). When attempting to implement economic policies and projects, the measurement of the net benefits of different groups are needed and to consider that the project/policy is the Pareto improvement. Under social choice if the project/policy has net positive gains and reduces measured inequality, it should be taken. If net positivity can not be clearly determined, other factors are utilised: The compensation principle, the inverse proportional of measures of efficiency and equality, and the weighted benefits approach. The inverse proportional of measures of efficiency and equality is the judgement based on the contemplation of efficiency and equality. The weighted benefits approach is focused on the total amount of utility. The compensation principle is based on the willingness to pay the tax. If people are motivated to pay, there is a growth in consumer surplus. In this principle, when the willingness to pay is more than the cost to do so (Including if there is a cost imbalance for individuals) the projects/policies should be taken. The compensation principle can overcome the difficulty of taxation due to the intervening efficiency. Tax policy in the European union Main principles and objectives No unified tax policy the EU Commission stated the belief that "there is no need for an across the board harmonization of Member States' tax systems.". Member states are to take full control of which tax system they want to impose, as long as they respect the rules of the EU. There is a possibility for tax field action of the EU under the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality, and also under the assumption that the member state in question was not able to provide an effective solution, therefore there is need for support in terms of coordination for example. Removing obstacles As a part of the EU's objective to empower its citizens to play a full part in the market, the organization announced in 2020 that the objective is to ensure that tax rules do not discourage individuals from benefiting from the internal market. The Communication "Removing cross-border tax obstacles for EU citizens" outlines the most serious tax problems that EU citizens face in cross-border situations, such as discrimination, and double taxation. Tax policy of developing countries The tax policies of different countries differ in many ways. Besides that, there are some patterns that we can observe among various groups of countries with the same characteristics. An example of this would be the low level and utility of taxes in developing countries. "Low-income countries typically collect taxes of between 10 to 20 percent of GDP, while the average for high-income countries is more like 40 percent." Problems faced by tax policymakers in developing countries There are several challenges that tax policymakers in developing countries have to face and that make it difficult for each of these developing countries to introduce effective and equitable tax systems, tackle inequality and corruption or increase their development level. As a result of this, developing countries often use tax policies that are not very effective in terms of generating tax revenue, therefore not allocating the country the funds needed for improvement. Unclear incomes As many people in developing countries are often paid wages based on the time they spend at work (volatile value), and many are paid in cash which lowers the government's ability to track such money-flows, it is difficult to keep record of any reliable data on income and wealth distribution in the country. This leads to a situation in which the policymakers are unable to create statistic or models that would allow them to propose changes to the current tax system (mainly income taxes in this case) in the country, that would improve the situation (mainly the efficiency vs. equity trade-off). Unclear spendings Similarly to the problem regarding unclear incomes, a big part of the spending in developing countries is done in such a way that does not lead to extensive spending reports being supplies to the government. This lack of information is supported by the fact that just like in the case of incomes, most spending is done in cash which is, again, more difficult to keep record of. In this situation, policymakers are deprived of the ability to analyse spending statistics in their country and thus they are not able to produce changes to the tax system (mainly the sales taxes) in their country. Limitations on taxing imports "With regard to taxes on imports, lowering these taxes will lead to more competition from foreign enterprises. While reducing protection of domestic industries from this foreign competition is an inevitable consequence, or even the objective, of a trade liberalization program, reduced budgetary revenue would be an unwelcome by-product of the program." Limitations of used taxes Despite the problems in keeping track of many economic activities in developing countries, naturally, various taxes are in effect in these countries. These generate revenue but there are certain limitations to these taxes which make them not as effective as they could be. Personal income tax The personal income tax in developing countries commonly have some rate of progressivity, meaning grouping individuals into various groups based on their income and then imposing different rates of the personal income tax on each group. The limitations which often make this kind of tax ineffective in developing countries are several various exemptions in the parts of individual's income that are taxable as well as setting off the borders between different tax brackets. These make it often more favourable for an individual to establish a business and therefore pay (lower) corporate income tax rather than personal income tax. But even without this, reaching the highest tax bracket (with the highest marginal tax rate) as an individual often requires incomes so high that only a small number of people in the country reach it. Corporate income tax Similarly to the case of the personal income tax, there are various rates of the corporate income tax based mainly on the sector that the company generates revenue in. This allows the corporations to take actions which allow them to pay lower taxes and effectively practice tax avoidance. Value added tax As much as the VAT is an effective tool to generate revenue for the government, there are some setbacks to the implementation of the VAT in developing countries. One is that there are certain goods and services which are not included in the VAT list and therefore "reduce the benefits from introducing the VAT in the first place." Another one is introducing various VAT rates for different goods and services. This usually leads to a higher popularity of the tax policy and can even increase the revenue of the tax but the administrative cost of such a measure can outweigh said benefits, especially in the case of developing countries. Possible improvements for developing countries The path to an improved tax systems in developing countries is a long and a demanding one, but it can be done. There are several aspects of the current tax systems that should be changed in order to make the situation and at the tax revenue of the county better. These include changes in the attitude towards foreign investment in the country. This money-flow and its taxation in one of the main sources of revenue for many developing countries. This should be changed, but at the same time, the measures used should not make it less beneficial for foreign investors to bring their money to the country. Another problem that needs to be tackled is the personal income tax. This is a tax with a large potential but it is one which currently only brings a small portion of money to the government's budget in many developing countries. A capital-gains and capital-transfers taxes implementations are another ways of improving the state of the tax systems in developing countries. There is a document made by the OECD designed in order to assist developing countries in transforming and improving their tax systems. In this document, OECD not only offers suggestions for improvement but also guarantees assistance with certain measures. OECD assistance in health taxes "The OECD can support countries in improving the design of their health taxes - including on tobacco, alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages - to improve the health of the population and raise revenues. The OECD can also help with implementing any necessary accompanying changes to the tax system that will increase the role of health taxes in financing healthcare systems." See also Tax incidence Tax law Tax policy References
5342188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian%20battleship%20S%C3%A3o%20Paulo	Brazilian battleship São Paulo	São Paulo was a dreadnought battleship of the Brazilian Navy. It was the second of two ships in the , and was named after the state and city of São Paulo. The British company Vickers constructed São Paulo, launching it on 19 April 1909. The ship was commissioned into the Brazilian Navy on 12 July 1910. Soon after, it was involved in the Revolt of the Lash (Revolta de Chibata), in which crews on four Brazilian warships mutinied over poor pay and harsh punishments for even minor offenses. After entering the First World War, Brazil offered to send São Paulo and its sister to Britain for service with the Grand Fleet, but Britain declined since both vessels were in poor condition and lacked the latest fire control technology. In June 1918, Brazil sent São Paulo to the United States for a full refit that was not completed until 7 January 1920, well after the war had ended. On 6 July 1922, São Paulo fired its guns in anger for the first time when it attacked a fort that had been taken during the Copacabana Fort revolt. Two years later, mutineers took control of the ship and sailed it to Montevideo in Uruguay, where they obtained asylum. In the 1930s, São Paulo was passed over for modernization due to its poor condition—it could only reach a top speed of , less than half its design speed. For the rest of its career, the ship was reduced to a reserve coastal defense role. When Brazil entered the Second World War, São Paulo sailed to Recife and remained there as the port's main defense for the duration of the war. Stricken in 1947, the dreadnought remained as a training vessel until 1951, when it was taken under tow to be scrapped in the United Kingdom. The tow lines broke during a strong gale on 6 November, when the ships were north of the Azores, and São Paulo was lost. Background Beginning in the late 1880s, Brazil's navy fell into obsolescence, a situation exacerbated by an 1889 coup d'état, which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II, and an 1893 civil war. Despite having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile, by the end of the 19th century Brazil was lagging behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage. At the turn of the 20th century, soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought prosperity to the Brazilian economy. The government of Brazil used some of the extra money from this economic growth to finance a naval building program in 1904, which authorized the construction of a large number of warships, including three battleships. The minister of the navy, Admiral Júlio César de Noronha, signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for three battleships on 23 July 1906. The new dreadnought battleship design, which debuted in December 1906 with the completion of the namesake ship, rendered the Brazilian ships, and all other existing capital ships, obsolete. The money authorized for naval expansion was redirected by the new Minister of the Navy, Rear Admiral Alexandrino Fario de Alencar, to building two dreadnoughts, with plans for a third dreadnought after the first was completed, two scout cruisers (which became the ), ten destroyers (the ), and three submarines. The three battleships on which construction had just begun were scrapped beginning on 7 January 1907, and the design of the new dreadnoughts was approved by the Brazilians on 20 February 1907. In South America, the ships came as a shock and kindled a naval arms race among Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. The 1902 treaty between the latter two was canceled upon the Brazilian dreadnought order so both could be free to build their own dreadnoughts. , the lead ship, was laid down by Armstrong on 17 April 1907, while São Paulo followed thirteen days later at Vickers. The news shocked Brazil's neighbors, especially Argentina, whose Minister of Foreign Affairs remarked that either Minas Geraes or São Paulo could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets. In addition, Brazil's order meant that they had laid down a dreadnought before many of the other major maritime powers, such as Germany, France or Russia, and the two ships made Brazil the third country to have dreadnoughts under construction, behind the United Kingdom and the United States. Newspapers and journals around the world, particularly in Britain and Germany, speculated that Brazil was acting as a proxy for a naval power which would take possession of the two dreadnoughts soon after completion, as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such powerful warships. Despite this, the United States actively attempted to court Brazil as an ally; caught up in the spirit, U.S. naval journals began using terms like "Pan Americanism" and "Hemispheric Cooperation". Early career São Paulo was christened by Régis de Oliveira, the wife of Brazil's minister to Great Britain, and launched at Barrow-in-Furness on 19 April 1909 with many South American diplomats and naval officers in attendance. The ship was commissioned on 12 July, and after fitting-out and sea trials, it left Greenock on 16 September 1910. Shortly thereafter, it stopped in Cherbourg, France, to embark the Brazilian President Hermes Rodrigues da Fonseca. Departing on the 27th, São Paulo sailed to Lisbon, Portugal, where Fonseca was a guest of Portugal's King Manuel II. Soon after they arrived the 5 October 1910 revolution began, which caused the fall of the Portuguese monarchy. Although the president offered political asylum to the king and his family, the offer was refused. A rumor that the king was on board, circulated by newspapers and reported to the Brazilian legation in Paris, led revolutionaries to attempt to search the ship, but they were denied permission. They also asked for Brazil to land marines "to help in the maintenance of order", but this request was also denied. São Paulo left Lisbon on 7 October for Rio de Janeiro, and docked there on 25 October. Revolt of the Lash Soon after São Paulos arrival, a major rebellion known as the Revolt of the Lash, or Revolta da Chibata, broke out on four of the newest ships in the Brazilian Navy. The initial spark was provided on 16 November 1910 when Afro-Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination. Many Afro-Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves, or were former slaves freed under the Lei Áurea (abolition) but forced to enter the navy. They had been planning a revolt for some time, and Menezes became the catalyst. Further preparations were needed, so the rebellion was delayed until 22 November. The crewmen of Minas Geraes, São Paulo, the twelve-year-old , and the new quickly took their vessels with only a minimum of bloodshed: two officers on Minas Geraes and one each on São Paulo and Bahia were killed. The ships were well-supplied with foodstuffs, ammunition, and coal, and the only demand of mutineers—led by João Cândido Felisberto—was the abolition of "slavery as practiced by the Brazilian Navy". They objected to low pay, long hours, inadequate training, and punishments including bolo (being struck on the hand with a ferrule) and the use of whips or lashes (chibata), which eventually became a symbol of the revolt. By the 23rd, the National Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a general amnesty for the sailors. Senator Ruy Barbosa, long an opponent of slavery, lent a large amount of support, and the measure unanimously passed the Federal Senate on 24 November. The measure was then sent to the Chamber of Deputies. Humiliated by the revolt, naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to amnesty, so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships. The officers believed such an action was necessary to restore the service's honor. The rebels, believing an attack was imminent, sailed their ships out of Guanabara Bay and spent the night of 23–24 November at sea, only returning during daylight. Late on the 24th, the President ordered the naval officers to attack the mutineers. Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiser , Bahias sister ship with ten 4.7-inch guns. They planned to attack on the morning of the 25th, when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay. When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared passage in the Chamber of Deputies, the order was rescinded. After the bill passed 125–23 and the president signed it into law, the mutineers stood down on the 26th. During the revolt, the ships were noted by many observers to be well handled, despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion. João Cândido Felisberto ordered all liquor thrown overboard, and discipline on the ships was recognized as exemplary. The 4.7-inch guns were often used for shots over the city, but the 12-inch guns were not, which led to a suspicion among the naval officers that the rebels were incapable of using the weapons. Later research and interviews indicate that Minas Geraes guns were fully operational, and while São Paulos could not be turned after salt water contaminated the hydraulic system, British engineers still on board the ship after the voyage from the United Kingdom were working on the problem. Still, historians have never ascertained how well the mutineers could handle the ships. First World War The Brazilian government declared that the country would be neutral in the First World War on 4 August 1914. The sinking of Brazilian merchant ships by German U-boats led them to revoke their neutrality, then declare war on 26 October 1917. By this time, São Paulo was no longer one of the world's most powerful battleships. Despite an identified need for more modern fire control, it had not been fitted with any of the advances in that technology that had appeared since its construction, and it was in poor condition. For these reasons the Royal Navy declined a Brazilian offer to send it and Minas Geraes to serve with the Grand Fleet. In an attempt to bring the battleship up to international standards, Brazil sent São Paulo to the United States in June 1918 to receive a full refit. Soon after it departed the naval base in Rio de Janeiro, fourteen of the eighteen boilers powering the dreadnought broke down. The American battleship , which was in the area after transporting the body of the late Uruguayan Minister to the United States to Montevideo, rendered assistance in the form of temporary repairs after the ships put in at Bahia. Escorted by Nebraska and another American ship, , São Paulo made it to the New York Naval Yard after a 42-day journey. Major refit and the 1920s São Paulo underwent a refit in New York, beginning on 7 August 1918 and completing on 7 January 1920. Many of its crewmen were assigned to American warships during this time for training. It received Sperry fire control equipment and Bausch and Lomb range-finders for the two superfiring turrets fore and aft. A vertical armor bulkhead was fitted inside all six main turrets, and the secondary battery of casemate guns was reduced from twenty-two to twelve guns. A few modern AA guns were fitted as well: two 3"/50 caliber guns from Bethlehem Steel were added on the aft superstructure, 37 mm guns were added near each turret, and 3 pounders were removed from the top of turrets. After the refit was completed, São Paulo picked up ammunition in Gravesend and sailed to Cuba for firing trials. Seven members of the United States' Bureau of Standards traveled with the ship from New York and observed the operations, which were conducted in the Gulf of Guacanayabo. After dropping the Americans off in Guantánamo Bay, São Paulo returned home in early 1920. August 1920 saw the dreadnought sailing to Belgium, where King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth were embarked on 1 September to bring them to Brazil. After bringing the royals home, São Paulo traveled to Portugal to bring the remains of the former emperor Pedro II and his wife, Teresa Cristina, back to Brazil. In 1922, São Paulo and Minas Geraes helped to put down the first of the Tenente revolts. Soldiers seized Fort Copacabana in Rio de Janeiro on 5 July, but no other men joined them. As a result, some men deserted the rebels, and by the next morning only 200 people remained in the fort. São Paulo bombarded the fort, firing five salvos and obtained at least two hits; the fort surrendered half an hour later. The Brazilian Navy's official history reports that one of the hits opened a hole ten meters deep. Crewmen aboard São Paulo rebelled on 4 November 1924, when First Lieutenant Hercolino Cascardo, seven second lieutenants and 260 others commandeered the ship. After the boilers were fired, São Paulos mutineers attempted to entice the crews of Minas Geraes and the other ships nearby to join. They were only able to sway the crew of one old torpedo boat to the cause. The battleship's crew, angry that Minas Geraes would not join them, fired a six-pounder at Minas Geraes that wounded a cook. The mutineers then sailed out of Rio de Janeiro's harbor, where the forts at Santa Cruz and Copacabana engaged her, damaging São Paulos fire control system and funnel. The forts stopped firing soon after the battleship returned fire due to concern over possible civilian casualties. The crewmen aboard São Paulo attempted to join revolutionaries in Rio Grande do Sul, but when they found that the rebel forces had moved inland, they set course for Montevideo, Uruguay. They arrived on 10 November, where the rebellious members of the crew disembarked and were granted asylum, and Minas Geraes, which had been pursuing São Paulo, escorted the wayward ship home to Rio de Janeiro, arriving on the 21st. Late career In the 1930s, Brazil decided to modernize both São Paulo and Minas Geraes. São Paulos dilapidated state made this uneconomic; at the time it could sail at a maximum of , less than half its design speed. As a result, while Minas Geraes was thoroughly refitted from 1931 to 1938 in the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard, São Paulo was employed as a coast-defense ship, a role in which it remained for the rest of its service life. During the 1932 Constitutionalist Revolution, it acted as the flagship of a naval blockade of Santos. After repairs in 1934 and 1935, the ship returned to lead three naval training exercises. In the same year, accompanied by the Brazilian cruisers and , the Argentine battleships and , six Argentine cruisers, and a group of destroyers, São Paulo carried the Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas up the River Plate to Buenos Aires to meet with the presidents of Argentina and Uruguay. In 1936, the crew of São Paulo, as well as s crew, played in the Liga Carioca de Football's Open Tournament, a cup where many amateur teams had the chance to play the likes of Flamengo and Fluminense. As in the First World War, Brazil stayed neutral during the opening years of the Second World War, until U-boat attacks drove the country to declare war on Germany and Italy on 21 August 1942. The age and condition of São Paulo relegated it to the role of harbor defense ship; it set sail for Recife on 23 November 1942 escorted by American destroyers and , and served as the main defense of the port for the war, only returning to Rio de Janeiro in 1945. Stricken from the naval register on 2 August 1947, the ship remained as a training vessel until August 1951, when it was sold to the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain for breaking up at a cost of 18,810,000 cruzeiros. Sinking After preparing from 5 to 18 September 1951, São Paulo was given an eight-man caretaker crew and taken under tow by two tugs, Dexterous and Bustler, departing Rio de Janeiro on 20 September 1951 for a final voyage to the scrappers. When north of the Azores in early November, the flotilla ran into heavy storm seas.N At 17:30 UTC on 4 or 6 November, the sea state caused São Paulo to pull sharply to starboard and fall into the trough between high waves. The action dragged the tugs astern and toward each other. To avoid a collision, Dexterous severed its cable and steered away, as had been previously agreed; however, the battleship's weight fell so heavily and abruptly onto Bustlers towing winch that it could not take in the slack—the tow cable became fouled in the tug's propeller and parted. The now drifting São Paulos port (red) navigation light was visible for several minutes before it disappeared. American B-17 Flying Fortress bombers and British planes were launched to scout the Atlantic for the missing ship; it was reported, incorrectly, as found on 15 November. The search was ended on 10 December without finding São Paulo or its crew. On 14 October 1954, the Board of Trade in London released its report on the circumstances and causes for the loss of the ship. The Board concluded that once both tow cables had parted, the São Paulo would have foundered or capsized within the hour, very near its last sighted position. The Board determined that the São Paulo sank at about 17:45 on 4 November 1951, at position . Footnotes Endnotes References "Brazil." Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers 20, no. 3 (1909): 833–836. . . Campbell, N.J.M. "Germany." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 134–189. "E São Paulo." Navios De Guerra Brasileiros. Last modified 24 February 2008. English, Adrian J. Armed Forces of Latin America. London: Jane's Publishing Inc., 1984. . . Gardiner, Robert and Randal Gray, eds. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1985. . . Lind, Wallace L. "Professional Notes." Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute 46, no. 3 (1920): 437–486. Livermore, Seward W. "Battleship Diplomacy in South America: 1905–1925." The Journal of Modern History 16, no. 1 (1944): 31–44. . . . Martins, João Roberto, Filho. "Colossos do mares [Colossuses of the Seas]." Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional 3, no. 27 (2007): 74–77. . . Morgan, Zachary R. "The Revolt of the Lash, 1910." In Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective, edited by Christopher M. Bell and Bruce A. Elleman, 32–53. Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2003. . . Poggio, Guilherme. "Um encouraçado contra o forte: 2ª Parte [A Battleship against the Strong: Part 2]." n.d. Poder Naval Online. Last modified 12 April 2009. Ribeiro, Paulo de Oliveira. "Os Dreadnoughts da Marinha do Brasil: Minas Geraes e São Paulo [The Dreadnoughts of the Brazilian Navy]." Poder Naval Online. Last modified 8 June 2008. "São Paulo I." Serviço de Documentação da Marinha – Histórico de Navios. Diretoria do Patrimônio Histórico e Documentação da Marinha, Departamento de História Marítima. Accessed 27 January 2015. Scheina, Robert L. "Brazil." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 403–407. ———. Latin America: A Naval History 1810–1987. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987. . . ———. Latin America's Wars. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2003. . . Topliss, David. "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts, 1904–1914." Warship International 25, no. 3 (1988): 240–289. . . United States Department of Commerce. Reports of the Department of Commerce. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921. . Villiers, Alan. Posted Missing: The Story of Ships Lost Without a Trace in Recent Years. New York, Charles Scribner%27s Sons, 1956. Ch. 5: The Battleship Sao Paulo, p. 79-100. Whitley, M.J. Battleships of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998. . . Further reading External links The Brazilian Battleships (Extensive engineering/technical details) 1909 ships Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness Maritime incidents in 1951 Minas Geraes-class battleships Missing ships Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean Vickers Warships lost with all hands
5342191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discernment%20of%20Spirits	Discernment of Spirits	Discernment of spirits is a term used in Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Charismatic (Evangelist) Christian theology to judge the influence of various spiritual agents on a person's morality. These agents are: from within the human soul itself, known as concupiscence (considered evil) Divine Grace (considered good) Angels (considered good) Devils (considered evil) Discernment of spirits is considered necessary to discern the cause of a given impulse. Although some people are regarded as having a special gift to discern the causes of an impulse intuitively, most people are held to require study and reflection, and possibly the direction of others, in the discernment of spirits. Judgment of discernment can be made in two ways. The first is by a charism or spiritual gift, held as divinely granted to certain individuals for the discerning of spirits by intuition (1 Corinthians 12:10). The second way to discern spirits is by reflection and theological study. This second method is by acquired human knowledge; however, it is always gained "with the assistance of grace, by the reading of the Holy Bible, of works on theology and asceticism, of autobiographies, and the correspondence of the most distinguished ascetics". Orthodox views Paul the Apostle mentions the gift of discerning of spirits in 1 Corinthians 12:10. John Chrysostom, in his interpretation of this passage, says that these words mean the ability to tell who is spiritual and who is not, who is a prophet and who is not, as Paul wrote at the time of many false prophets. Ephrem the Syrian, in the interpretation of the same passage, stated that the gift of discerning of spirits is good management of the church. In everyday life, the most often needed kind of discernment of spirits is discernment of thoughts (if the person analyzes their thoughts at all). Besides thoughts, discernment of spirits can be applied to the judgment of such phenomena as dreams, visions, miracles, prophecies, and other supernatural gifts. In an ideal case, the main tool of discernment could be the person's conscience; however, in the Orthodox view, that relates only to the people of holy life. Hilarion of Optina writes: "To the question of yours, whether your conscience can accurately show you your errors, I will answer this way - you should not trust your conscience much, because it has not yet been cleansed as it should". Because of this perversion of the conscience, basic discernment of good and evil is helped through reading of the Bible and its interpretation from the Holy Fathers. Further discernment is described in such books as Philokalia (a collection of writings of Holy Fathers), The Ladder of Divine Ascent by John Climacus, and "Letters" by Barsanuphius and John the Prophet. Theophan the Recluse writes: "whoever wants to know more precisely what the discernment of thoughts is, let him read the book of answers of Barsanuphius and John, the clairvoyant recluses. Concerning every deed, the thoughts can double and triple - what should be done? If a passionate thought appeared as it is in comparison with a passionless one, then it would be easy to determine; but usually with someone who has begun to pay attention to himself, passionate thoughts are not in their form, but always under specious cover. Therefore, there is always a danger of acting as if for good, and yet it will be out of passion. In the mentioned book all sorts of cases are discussed by the enlightened mind of the clairvoyant elders; it presents a detailed science of how to guess the fate of God's truth in this regard". In another place: "read [the writings of] Macarius the Great and especially the Ladder where it is said a lot about discernment of thoughts." According to John of Damascus, the virtue of discernment "is greater than any other virtue; and is the queen and crown of all the virtues". The key to discernment is humility, as well as its two manifestations: consulting with others and praying about every decision a person could take: "Discrimination is born of humility. On its possessor it confers spiritual insight, as both Moses and St John Climacus say: such a man foresees the hidden designs of the enemy and foils them before they are put into operation. It is as David states: 'And my eyes looked down upon my enemies' (Ps. 14:7. LXX).[...] If you have not received this gift you should not think, say or do anything without consulting others about it, and without a basis of firm faith and pure prayer. Without such faith and such prayer you will never truly achieve discrimination". John Cassian writes in "Conferences" that discernment "is only secured by true humility. And of this humility the first proof is given by reserving everything (not only what you do but also what you think), for the scrutiny of the elders, so as not to trust at all in your own judgment but to acquiesce in their decisions in all points, and to acknowledge what ought to be considered good or bad by their traditions". Also it is important that "all extremes are equally harmful". The Bible confirms the importance of counsel: "Ask your father and he will tell you, your elders, and they will explain to you" (Deuteronomy 32:7); "Where there is strife, there is pride, but wisdom is found in those who take advice" (Proverbs 13:10); "Plans fail for lack of counsel, but with many advisers they succeed" (Proverbs 15:22); "Plans are established by seeking advice; so if you wage war, obtain guidance" (Proverbs 20:18); "Surely you need guidance to wage war, and victory is won through many advisers" (Proverbs 24:6); "Gold and silver provide security, but good advice is better" (Sirach 40:25); "If you find someone with understanding, get up early to call on him; wear out his doorstep with your visits" (Sirach 6:36). John Climacus devoted large chapter of his book to discernment, namely Step 26. In particular, he writes that "those who wish to learn the will of the Lord must first mortify their own will. Then, having prayed to God with faith and honest simplicity, and having asked the fathers or even the brothers with humility of heart and no thought of doubt, they should accept their advice as from the mouth of God, even if their advice be contrary to their own view, and even if those consulted are not very spiritual. For God is not unjust, and will not lead astray souls who with faith and innocence humbly submit to the advice and judgment of their neighbour. Even if those who were asked were brute beasts, yet He who speaks is the Immaterial and Invisible One. Those who allow themselves to be guided by this rule without having any doubts are filled with great humility. For if someone expounded his problems on a harp,(Cf. Psalm 48, 4) how much better, do you think, can a rational mind and reasonable soul teach than an inanimate object"; "some of those who were seeking the will of God laid aside all attachments; they submitted to the Lord their own thought about this or that inclination of the soul, I mean whether to perform an action or to resist it; they submitted their mind stripped of its own will to Him, offering fervent prayer for a set number of days. In this way they attained to a knowledge of His will, either through the spiritual Mind spiritually communicating with their mind or through the complete disappearance from their soul of their cherished intention. Others on account of the trouble and distractions which attended their undertaking concluded that these disturbances came from God, according to him who said: We wanted to come to you time and again but Satan hindered us. (Thess 2.18) Others, on the contrary, recognized that their action was pleasing to God from its unexpected success, declaring: God co-operates with everyone who deliberately chooses to do good. He who has obtained God within him through illumination, both in actions requiring haste and in actions allowing of delay, is assured of His will by the second way, only without a definite period of time". Athanasius of Crete comments on the last phrase that when discerning God's will, the ones who have God in them do not look at the obstacles but look at the God's help in the matter. Also, "in all our actions, the intention must be sought from the Lord, whether in those that require haste or in those that require to be postponed. For all actions free from attachment and from all impurity will be imputed to us for good if they have been done especially for the Lord’s sake and not for anyone else, even though these deeds are not entirely good". Peter of Damascus writes that "everything, however, demands discrimination if it is to be used for the good; without discrimination we are ignorant of the true nature of things"; "one needs to acquire discrimination, either through the humility given by God or through questioning those who possess the gifts of discrimination"; "it is excellent to seek advice about everything, but only from those with experience. It is dangerous to ask questions the inexperienced, because they do not possess discrimination". Nilus of Sora thought that the most important and a great achievement in the spiritual warfare is to find an undeluded mentor. Regarding discernment of subtle thoughts he says, following Nilus of Sinai and Hesychius of Jerusalem, that one should cut out all thoughts, both good and evil: the ascetic should keep the mind "deaf and dumb" and keep the heart free of any thought, even if it seemed good; because, from experience, passionate thoughts follow dispassionate ones. Gregory of Sinai says that "You can tell that a person is undeluded when his actions and judgment are founded on the testimony of divine Scripture, and when he is humble in whatever he has to give his mind to". "If you are presumptuous and follow your own counsel you will readily fall victim to delusion. That is why a hesychast must always keep to the royal (middle) road. For excess in anything easily leads to conceit, and conceit induces self-delusion." Also Gregory gives an important sign of demonic action: "The Holy Fathers teach that whatever enters the heart, whether sensory or spiritual, if the heart doubts and refuses to accept it, is not from God but is sent by the enemy. […] What is of God comes of itself, says St. Isaac, without your knowing even the time of its coming." Seraphim of Sarov says about reading the Bible that "When a man provides his soul with the word of God, then he is granted the understanding of what is good and what is evil". There is a connection between true dispassion and true discrimination: "The mark of dispassion is true discrimination; for one who has attained the state of dispassion does all things with discrimination and according to measure and rule". "Without dispassion, however, you cannot achieve the beauty of discrimination". There are some distinct properties of true and false spirituality: "the devil cannot bring about love either for God or for one's neighbor, or gentleness, or humility, or joy, or peace, or equilibrium in one's thoughts, or hatred of the world, or spiritual repose, or desire for celestial things; nor can he quell passions and sensual pleasure. These things are clearly the workings of grace. For the fruits of the Spirit are love, joy, peace, and so on (cf. Gal. 5:22), while the devil is most apt and powerful in promoting vanity and haughtiness". Abba Dorotheos says that "in every task you are given, even one that is extremely necessary and demands diligence, I do not wish that you should do anything with arguments or disturbances; but be sure that every work that you do, be it great or small, as we have said, is one eighth of what is sought. But to preserve one's state of soul, even at the expense of not doing the work at all, is three parts and a half". Theophan the Recluse writes: "if the thought does not have anything bad neither in itself nor in the consequences, one still should not immediately accept it, but have patience not to become reckless. Some people waited for 5 years and did not execute the thought. The main law is: not to trust own mind and heart and verify every thought with the director. The violation of this rule always was and is the reason of great falls and delusions." Barsanuphius the Great writes in "Letters" that in order to become spiritual and be able to discern, the person should put away not only sins but natural desires as well (Letter 124). That is, the very topic is for the ones with high measures. Otherwise, there is a danger of being ridiculed and deceived by the demons. Only after such preface, Barsanuphius writes: "do nothing without counsel"(Cf. Sir 32.19) even if it appears to be good to you; for the light of the demons is later revealed as darkness. If, then, you hear or think or see something, with the slightest turmoil in your heart, then learn that this comes from the demons". In other words (in Letter 21), "every thought that does not previously possess the calmness of humility is not according to God but is clearly a form of righteousness coming from the left hand. For our Lord comes with calmness, whereas all that comes from the adversary occurs with turmoil and the commotion of wrath; indeed, if they seem to put on "sheep's clothing," you should know that "inwardly, they are ravenous wolves." (Mt 7.15) So they are manifested by their turmoil. For it is said: "You shall know them by their fruits." (Mt 7.16)". When there is nobody to ask, Barsanuphius advises to pray 3 times (for 3 days in a row or, in case of emergency, 3 times in one day (Cf. Mt 26.44)) about every deed we want to know about whether it is from God or from the demons, and observe where the heart inclines, even to the slightest degree. Note that Letter 21 (where Barsanuphius tells how to discern a thought without counsel) was written to abba John who was preparing for hermitic life. That is, discernment without counsel is allowed by Barsanuphius when absolutely necessary because hermits visit people rarely. In another place (Letter 265 of abba Dorotheos) Barsanuphius writes that he prays that God granted abba Dorotheos the gift of discernment, but without heart labor no one gets it (in the Russian translation, it is translated as "pain" or "trouble" instead of "labor"). Divine help and demonic "help" When someone prays to God, his prayer is executed and he receives "help", but at this moment, he feels pride, that is a sign of demonic origin of this "help". Barsanuphius says: "when you have been praying and feel that your prayer has been heard, if indeed you are elated, it is clear that yon have neither prayed according to God nor have you received the help of God, but rather the feeling that worked in you was from the demons so that your heart might be elated. For whenever assistance comes from God, the soul is never elated; instead, it is always humbled. The soul will be amazed at how the great mercy of God condescends to show mercy on sinners, who are unworthy and who always irritate him. And that soul offers exceeding thanks to his glorious and ineffable goodness; for he has not handed us what accords with our sins, but rather, in his great forbearance, he shows long-suffering and mercy. And so the soul is no longer elated, but [only trembles] and gives glory." Discernment of night dreams Similar to discernment of thoughts, confusion and turmoil after a night dream is the sign of its demonic origin. Theophan the Recluse writes in a letter: "your night dream should not be trusted already because it confused you." Joseph the Hesychast also writes in a letter about disturbance after demonic dreams: "however, one must be cautious and discerning here, too, my child, and must not believe in dreams, but must recognize whether they are from God or from the demons. But since not everyone has this discernment, one should not believe in them at all. However, dreams from God can be recognized. Sometimes one sees them in deep sleep, other times in a light sleep, as if sleeping but not really sleeping and for a short duration. And when he wakes up, he is full of joy, and his mind meditates on them, and they bring him theoria. For years and years he brings them to mind, and they are unforgettable. On the contrary, dreams from the demons fill the soul with disturbance. When one wakes up and the mind tries to recall them, he is filled with fear, and his heart does not accept them. But even during sleep as he sees them, they are not stationary, but they change into forms and shapes, into places and ways, into actions and movements. From these changes and the disturbance and the unpleasantness, you are able to recognize where they are from. There are also other things proceeding from the imagination and from overeating, but it is not necessary to point them out." Upon examination of own dreams, one can make a conclusion about personal spiritual state. Maximus the Confessor writes: "once the soul starts to feel its own good health, the images in its dreams are also calm and free from passion." Niketas Stethatos writes: "If your soul hankers after pleasure and material things, you will dream about acquiring possessions and having money, about the female figure and sexual intercourse - all of which leads to the soiling and defilement of soul and body. If you are haunted by images of greed and avarice, you will see money everywhere, will get hold of it, and will make more money by lending it out at interest and storing the proceeds in the bank, and you will be condemned for your callousness. If you are hottempered and vicious, images of poisonous snakes and wild beasts will plague you and overwhelm you with terror. If you are fall of self-esteem, you will dream of popular acclaim and mass-meetings, government posts and high office; and even when awake you will imagine that these things, which as yet you lack, are already yours, or soon will be. If you are proud and pretentious, you will see yourself being carried along in a splendid coach and even sometimes airborne, while everyone trembles at your great power. Similarly, if you are devoted to God, diligent in the practice of the virtues, scrupulous in the struggle for holiness and with a soul purged of material preoccupations, you will see in sleep the outcome of events and awe-inspiring visions will be disclosed to you. When you wake from sleep you will always find yourself praying with compunction and in a peaceful state of soul and body, and there will be tears on your cheeks, and on your lips words addressed to God." Ambrose of Optina says that it is better not to believe night dreams at all: if one will believe dreams, he can go completely mad. Properties of true miracles Cleopa Ilie writes in his book On dreams and visions that true miracles must: be worthy of the name of God and must be contained in the Holy Scriptures and Holy Tradition; be accomplished by the means by which the Savior and His saints performed miracles; not deny each other and do not oppose one to the other; not contradict the Scripture and Sacred Tradition; have the salvation of the human soul as the goal; provide benefit for and promote spiritual life, not death and sin. The one who performs true miracles must: tell only the truth, lead a blameless life and not pursue personal interests and selfish goals; correct the morals of those who see a miracle and give these people the confidence and power of the Spirit of God; testify of the work of God's Providence. Three renunciations Holy Fathers write that it is impossible to receive the gift of discernment without "three renunciations": separation from the world, inner fight with passions, acquisition of prayer and deep spiritual knowledge. Evagrius writes: "it is impossible to receive knowledge without having made the first, second, and third renunciation[s]. The first renunciation is to voluntarily leave all worldly things for the knowledge of God; the second is the casting aside of evil which occurs through the grace of Christ our Savior and the zeal of the human person; the third renunciation is separation from ignorance concerning those things that are naturally manifested to people in accordance with their state." Other Fathers specify the renunciations differently, but this is not a contradiction but a supplement. John Cassian writes: "The first is that by which as far as the body is concerned we make light of all the wealth and goods of this world; the second, that by which we reject the fashions and vices and former affections of soul and flesh; the third, that by which we detach our soul from all present and visible things, and contemplate only things to come, and set our heart on what is invisible." John Climacus writes: "no one can enter crowned into the heavenly bridechamber without first making the three renunciations. He has to turn away from worldly concerns, from men, from family; he must cut selfishness away; and thirdly, he must rebuff the vanity that follows obedience." Cases of right and wrong discernment When something demonic is accepted as Divine, i.e. when there is an error in discernment of spirits, this may result in spiritual delusion because the latter by the definition of Ignatius (Brianchaninov) is "man’s assimilation of falsehood which he accepts as truth". The degree of delusion is the degree of such assimilation. There are many stories in the lives of the saints when people were deceived by false visions of the demons in the form of Lord Jesus and Angels (2 Cor 11:14). For example, Nicetas of Novgorod. In the early life, he was deluded by an "angel" as if being sent to help him after he recklessly attempted the feat of seclusion. Due to lack of humility and discernment, Nicetas took this appearance for a true Angel and obeyed him. The "angel" started to pray instead of Nicetas and told him only to read books and give advice to people visiting him and not to pray. He started to prophesy for the visitors and became a known seer. Instead, the elders of the monastery had enough discernment and noticed that in conversations, the recluse cited only the Old Testament and never the New Testament. So they understand that Nicetas was in delusion. They cast the "angel" away and gradually Nicetas got healed, gained humility and later was made a bishop. Symeon the Stylite was deluded by demons who showed him a chariot wanting to take him to Heaven as it was with Prophet Elias. Due to lack of discernment, Symeon decided to enter the chariot. But before, he made the sign of the Cross and the chariot disappeared. When Pachomius the Great was living in solitude, the Devil appeared in front of him as "Christ" and said: "Greetings, Pachomius, I am Christ paying you a visit, my faithful friend." But Pachomius was in turmoil and had confusing thoughts. Using discernment, he understood the delusion and rejected the vision: "Devil, depart from me, cursed are you and your visions and your insidious arts. You have no place among the servants of God." More cases are described in the article about Prelest. Ignatian view (Roman Catholic) For Ignatius of Loyola, there are two signs to judge: evil spirits act on the imagination and the senses, and the good spirit, upon reason and conscience. Then, they can be judged by their mode of action and by the end they seek. The discernment of spirits is part of everyone's spiritual journey. No one who is trying to make spiritual progress should attempt to do so alone – a spiritual director is required. A director assists a Christian in examining the motives, desires, consolations, and desolations in one's life. Objectively, one can know what is right from looking at the Ten Commandments and the Seven Deadly Sins in a thorough examination of conscience. However the broader picture of one's life is often not so clear. A Christian should, according to Ignatius, share everything with a director who can see things objectively, without being swayed by the emotions or passion. Discerning whether the good spirit (the influence of God, the church, one's soul) or the bad spirit (the influence of Satan, the world, the flesh) is at work requires calm, rational reflection. The good spirit brings us to peaceful, joyful decisions. The bad spirit often brings one to make quick, emotional, conflicted decisions. A spiritual director can assist both by personal experience, listening with care, and giving an objective analysis. Ignatius lays out his 23 rules for the discernment of spirits in his Spiritual Exercises for those who direct others through retreats. Pentecostal and Charismatic view Discernment of spirits is particularly important among Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians because of their emphasis on the operation of all the spiritual gifts within their churches. It becomes necessary then to be able to determine whether the exercise of a spiritual gift (such as prophecy or an interpretation of tongues) comes from the Holy Spirit, an evil spirit, or merely the human spirit. They believe that every Christian is able to judge and responsible for judging whether such an occurrence is helpful and edifying to the church; however, they also believe that there are those individuals who have been given the spiritual gift of discerning of spirits by the power of the Holy Spirit. It is important to note that the discerning of spirits does not involve the judging of people. The gift of discerning of spirits is also believed to be necessary in distinguishing demonic possession from mental or physical illness. This is important in the actual practice of deliverance, otherwise known as exorcism or the casting out of demons, which was part of the Great Commission that Jesus gave his disciples and, in the Charismatic view, future generations of believers. According to the late Albert Taylor, in "Ministering Below the Surface – a practical guide to Inner Healing and Deliverance", discerning of spirits can also be learnt. Additionally, many Charismatics and those in Pentecostal churches believe that the gift of discernment of spirits allows certain individuals to see spirits. The story about Elisha and the host of angels (cf. 2 Kings 6:15-17) is given as an example along with many other modern examples in the Book 'School of the Seers' by Dr. Jonathan Welton. See also Demonology Obsession (Spiritism) Prelest Psychometry (paranormal) References External links Catholic Encyclopedia "Discernment of Spirits" Rules for the Discerning of Spirits: A Brief Summary of the Church's Traditional Teaching Catholic theology and doctrine Catholic spirituality Spiritual gifts Eastern Orthodox theology
5342362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%E2%80%931960%20in%20Western%20fashion	1945–1960 in Western fashion	Fashion in the years following World War II is characterized by the resurgence of haute couture after the austerity of the war years. Square shoulders and short skirts were replaced by the soft femininity of Christian Dior's "New Look" silhouette, with its sweeping longer skirts, fitted waist, and rounded shoulders, which in turn gave way to an unfitted, structural look in the later 1950s. General trends Return of fashion By 1947, the Paris fashion houses had reopened, and once again Paris resumed its position as the arbiter of high fashion. The "orderly, rhythmic evolution of fashion change" had been disrupted by the war, and a new direction was long overdue. The padded shoulder, tubular, boxy line, and short skirt (that had been around since before the war and was identified with uniforms) was gone. A succession of style trends led by Christian Dior and Cristóbal Balenciaga defined the changing silhouette of women's clothes through the 1950s. Television joined fashion magazines and movies in disseminating clothing styles. The new silhouette had narrow shoulders, a cinched waist, bust emphasis, and longer skirts, often with wider hems. Beginnings of Asian fashion During the early 1950s, designers in the decolonised Third World sought to create an identity distinct from European fashion. Urban professionals in Asia and the Middle East, for example, might wear Western style suits with indigenous headgear such as the Astrakhan, fez or keffiyeh. In India, the traditional Sherwani was adapted into the Nehru collar business suit, while women frequently wore sarees in the workplace. Meanwhile, the Red Chinese developed the unisex Mao Suit in green, blue and grey to promote socialist values of equality. Due to their minimalist, modern design, both types of suit would later be adopted by mod and British invasion trendsetters during the 1960s and 70s, especially The Beatles and The Monkees. Casual clothing and teenage style One result of the Post-World War II economic expansion was a flood of synthetic fabrics and easy-care processes. "Drip-dry" nylon, orlon and dacron, which could retain heat-set pleats after washing, became immensely popular. Acrylic, polyester, triacetate and spandex were all introduced in the 1950s. During the 1940s nylon stockings were an incredibly popular product as they were a lightweight alternative to silk and wool stockings. For the duration of WW2 the Du Pont company produced nylon exclusively for the war effort. At the end of 1945 the demand for nylon stockings was so great that Nylon riots ensued at stores selling the products. Social changes went hand-in-hand with new economic realities, and one result was that many young people who would have become wage-earners early in their teens before the war now remained at home and dependent upon their parents through high school and beyond, establishing the notion of the teenage years as a separate stage of development. Teens and college students adopted skirts and sweaters as a virtual uniform, and the American fashion industry began to target teenagers as a specialized market segment in the 1940s. In the United Kingdom, the Teddy boys of the post-war period created the "first truly independent fashions for young people", favouring an exaggerated version of the Edwardian-flavoured British fashion with skinny ties and narrow, tight trousers worn short enough to show off garish socks. In North America, greasers had a similar social position. Previously, teenagers dressed similarly to their parents, but now a rebellious and different youth style was being developed. Young adults returning to college under the G.I. Bill adopted an unpretentious, functional wardrobe, and continued to wear blue jeans with shirts and pullovers for general informal wear after leaving school. Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase "Beat Generation" in 1948, generalizing from his social circle to characterize the underground, anti-conformist youth gathering in New York at that time. The term "beatnik" was coined by Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle in 1958, and the stereotypical "beat" look of sunglasses, berets, black turtlenecks, and unadorned dark clothing provided another fashion alternative for youths of both sexes, encouraged by the marketing specialists of Madison Avenue. Womenswear New Look Revolution On 12 February 1947 at 10.30 a.m. Christian Dior, aged 42, presented his first collection at 30 Avenue Montaigne, which was strewn with flowers by Lachaume. The Editor-in-Chief of Harper's Bazaar, Carmel Snow, strongly believed in the couturier's talent, which she had already noted in 1937 with the Café Anglais model that he designed for Robert Piguet. At the end of the fashion show, she exclaimed, "It's quite a revolution, dear Christian! Your dresses have such a new look!" A correspondent from Reuters seized upon the slogan and quickly wrote it on a note that he threw from the balcony to a courier posted on Avenue Montaigne. The news reached the United States even before the rest of France, where the press had been on strike for a month. With his revolutionary New Look, Christian Dior wrote a new chapter in the history of fashion. Furthermore, in order to write it, he literally constructed it with his own hands. The designer had to hammer away at a Stockman mannequin that was too tough and unyielding to bear the preparatory canvases of his visionary wardrobe, says his friend Suzanna Luling: "And so, with big, nervous blows of the hammer, he gave the mannequin the same form of the ideal woman for the fashion that he was to launch." His aim was clear; his hand did not tremble. "I wanted my dresses to be 'constructed', moulded on the curves of the female body whose contours they would stylise. I accentuated the waist, the volume of the hips, emphasised the bust, In order to give my designs more hold, I had nearly all the fabrics lined with percale or taffeta, renewing a tradition that had long been abandoned." Thus, on 12 February 1947 at 10.30 a.m., the announcer introduced "numéro un, number one". The first outfit was worn by Marie-Thérese and opened the show during which the audience saw 90 different creations file past, belonging to two principal lines: En Huit and Corolle. Bettina Ballard, Fashion Editor at Vogue, had returned to New York a few months earlier after 15 years spent covering French fashion from Paris: "We have witnessed a revolution in fashion at the same time as a revolution in the way of showing fashion." The "softness" of the New Look was deceptive; the curved jacket peplum shaped over a high, rounded, curved shoulders, and full skirt of Dior's clothes relied on an inner construction of new interlining materials to shape the silhouette. This silhouette was drastically changed from its previous more masculine, stiff, triangular shape to a much more feminine form. Throughout the post-war period, a tailored, feminine look was prized and accessories such as gloves and pearls were popular. Tailored suits had fitted jackets with peplums, usually worn with a long, narrow pencil skirt. Day dresses had fitted bodices and full skirts, with jewel or low-cut necklines or Peter Pan collars. Shirtdresses, with a shirt-like bodice, were popular, as were halter-top sundresses. Skirts were narrow or very full, held out with petticoats; poodle skirts were a brief fad. Evening dresses were ankle-length (called "ballerina length"). Cocktail dresses, "smarter than a day dress but not as formal as a dinner or evening dress" were worn for early-evening parties. Short shrugs and bolero jackets, often made to match low-cut dresses, were worn. Meanwhile, in Israel, simple Biblical sandals, blue cotton shirts and utilitarian, khaki military-inspired dress remained popular choices for many women due to ongoing economic austerity and the need to feel prepared for war. Intimate apparel Christian Dior's 'New Look' collection in 1947 brought a revolution to the fashionable silhouette of the 1950s. Dior's nostalgic femininity of round shoulders, full skirts, padded hips and tiny waists replaced the boxy style of the wartime period at WWII. The trend of hourglass silhouette brought by the popularity of Dior guaranteed the market for intimate apparel. Although intimate apparels are usually hidden by outerwear, intimate apparel is especially emblematic for the contradictory beauty in the 1950s as the silhouette was created depends on the type of foundation garments worn. Foundation garments became essential items to maintain the curvy silhouette, especially waspies, girdles and horsehair padding. For example, the sales of corsets doubled in the decade 1948-58 (Haye, 1996 p. 187). Dior's 'New Look' collection brought back the boned intimate apparels for women, even the young one, in order to create the feminised silhouettes that embrace feminity. Symington Corset Company of Market Harborough was one of the famous intimate apparel producers in the 1950s as they are the official producer of Dior's corselettes and girdles. "All the girdles were produced to the same design, in either black or white. The sugar-pink cotton velvet trimming was a particular feature of the range, and some were woven with Christian Dior's initials in the elastic panels on the side..." (Lynn, 2010, p. 106). A brand new 'Bri-Nylon' fabric was introduced by the British Nylon Spinners. This fabric was popular fabric to be applied on intimate apparel in the 1950s because it was one of the first easy-to-launder and drip-dry fabric. There was a full corset advertisement in 1959 shows the popularity of 'Bri-Nylon' and the design of the corselet in the 1950s. 'This exquisite Dior corselet features jacquard elastic net with the down-stretch back panel of stain elastic. The enchanting front panel is in Bri-Nylon lace and marquisette highlighted with criss-cross bands of narrow velvet ribbon. It has side fastening - partly hook and eye with zipping extension. The very light boning is covered with velveteen.' (Warren, 2001, p. 30 ) From the above advertisement, it is not hard to find that the corselets in the 1950s were constructed in details with boning, panels, different fabrics in different elasticity. While the corselets reshaping the women's body with tiny waists and big hips, a new shape of bra called 'cathedral bra' was introduced and became popular in the 1950s. It is called 'cathedral bra' because there would be pointed arches created by the bones over the breasts when the bra is worn. The bones also separate and define the shape of the breasts by pressing them into a pointed or bullet shape. Therefore, 'cathedral bra' was also called the bullet bra. This brassiere design was popularised by actresses like Patti Page, Marilyn Monroe, and Lana Turner, who was nicknamed the "Sweater Girl." Although this brassiere design was designed for wearing strapless cocktail dresses and evening gowns and became popular during the 1950s, the market for this design was short-lived because it was 'likely to slip down or need adjustment throughout the evening' (Lynn, 2010, p. 152). However, another brassiere design re-entered the market and grew popularity during the 1950s which even influenced the modern intimate design. Underwire bras were first introduced to the market in the 1930s, however, it was forced to quit the market because the steel supply was restricted in the 1940s for WWII. Underwire brassiere design re-entered the market as it helped to uplift the shapes of the breasts to form the trendy curvy silhouette with big busts in the 1950s. Made with nylon, elastic nylon net and steel underwires, the underwire bras helped to create fashionable high, pert bosoms. Underwire bras are still dominating items in the modern intimate apparel industry. Clothes for the space age From the mid-1950s, a new unfitted style of clothing appeared as an alternative to the tight waist and full skirt associated with the New Look. Vogue Magazine called the knitted chemise the "T-shirt dress." Paris designers began to transform this popular fashion into haute couture. Spanish designer Balenciaga had shown unfitted suits in Paris as early as 1951 and unfitted dresses from 1954. In 1958, Yves Saint Laurent, Dior's protégé and successor, debuted the "Trapeze Line," adding novel dimension to the chemise dress. These dresses featured a shaped bodice with sloping shoulders and a high waist, but the signature shape resulted from a flaring bodice, creating a waistless line from bodice to knees. These styles only slowly gained acceptance by the wider public. Coco Chanel made a comeback in 1954 and an important look of the latter 1950s was the Chanel suit, with a braid-trimmed cardigan-style jacket and A-line skirt. By 1957, most suits featured lightly fitted jackets reaching just below the waist and shorter, narrower skirts. Balenciaga's clothes featured few seams and plain necklines, and following his lead chemise dresses without waist seams, either straight and unfitted or in a princess style with a slight A-line, became popular. The sleeveless, princess-line dress was called a skimmer. A more fitted version was called a sheath dress. Sportswear New York had become an American design center during the war, and remained so, especially for sportswear, in the post-war period. Women who had worn trousers on war service refused to abandon these practical garments which suited the informal aspects of the post-war lifestyle. By 1955, tight fitting drainpipe jeans became popular among American women. Casual sportswear was also an increasingly large component of women's wardrobes, especially the white T-shirts popularized by Brigitte Bardot and Sandra Milo between 1957 and 1963. Casual skirts were narrow or very full. In the 1950s, pants became very narrow, and were worn ankle-length. Pants cropped to mid-calf were houseboy pants; shorter pants, to below the knee, were called pedal-pushers. Shorts were very short in the early 1950s, and mid-thigh length Bermuda shorts appeared around 1954 and remained fashionable through the remainder of the decade. Loose printed or knit tops were fashionable with pants or shorts. They also wore bikinis to sport training. Swimsuits, including the Gottex brand popular in Israel and America, were one- or two-piece; some had loose bottoms like shorts with short skirts. High waisted Bikinis appeared in Europe and the South Pacific islands, but were not commonly worn in mainland America until the late 1950s. Hats and hairstyles Hair was worn short and curled with the New Look, and hats were essential for all but the most casual occasions. Wide-brimmed "saucer hats" were shown with the earliest New Look suits, but smaller hats soon predominated. Very short cropped hairstyles were fashionable in the early 1950s. By mid-decade hats were worn less frequently, especially as fuller hairstyles like the short, curly poodle cut and later bouffant and beehive became fashionable. "Beat" girls wore their hair long and straight, and teenagers adopted the ponytail, short or long. Maternity wear In the 1950s, Lucille Ball was the first woman to show her pregnancy on TV. The television show I Love Lucy brought new attention to maternity wear. Most of the maternity dresses were two pieces with loose tops and narrow skirts. Stretch panels accommodated for the woman's growing figure. The baby boom of the 1940s to the 1950s also caused focus on maternity wear. Even international designers such as Givenchy and Norman Hartnell created maternity wear clothing lines. Despite the new emphasis on maternity wear in the 1950s maternity wear fashions were still being photographed on non-pregnant women for advertisements. On September 29, 1959, the maternity panty was patented which provided expansion in the vertical direction of the abdomen. The front panel of this maternity undergarment was composed of a high degree of elasticity so in extreme stretched conditions, the woman could still feel comfortable. Style gallery 1945–1950 Dutch dress patterns, foreshadowing the New Look fashions, 1946 Promotional picture of Michele Morgan for The Chase, 1946 Promotional poster of Rita Hayworth as Gilda, 1946 Models wearing evening dresses designed by Dorothy O'Hara, Orry-Kelly, Al Teitelbaum and Howard Greer, 1947 Berlin street fashion, 1948 Actress Probable unidentified young actress in Cannes, 1948 Tea length patchwork skirt by Tina Leser, 1948 Argentine women in Mar del Plata, 1948 Teacher in Raleigh, USA in 1949 Argentine First Lady Eva Perón wearing a custom Christian Dior evening dress, 1949. Dutch model wearing the New Look style, 1949 Style gallery 1950–1954 Argentine fashion photograph by Boleslaw Senderowicz, . Wide-legged trousers with cuffs (turn-ups) are shown with a short-sleeved, fitted sweater, Germany, 1952. Two-piece swimsuit, 1952. Fashion in vacation in Hungary 1952. Actress Audrey Hepburn, 1953. Actress Lucille Ball in cropped houseboy pants at a press conference, Los Angeles, 1953. Fashion illustration of a "corselette", showing the pointed bust and curvy hipline of 1953. Actresses Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell wear halter-top summer dresses, Hollywood, 1953. Actress Martha Hyer's hair is worn in a short and curly poodle cut in this publicity photo for Sabrina, 1954. Style gallery 1954–1960 First Lady Mamie Eisenhower in bright blue day dress, 1954. Actress Diahann Carroll wears a full-skirted dress with a small Peter Pan collar, 1955. Fashion in summer in Florida 1955. Singer Patti Page wearing a "bullet bra" brassiere design in 1955. Actress Marilyn Monroe in The Prince and the Showgirl wears a fitted sheath dress with a sweetheart neckline, 1957. Short hair style, 1958 Summer dresses of 1958 are sleeveless with high, wide "boat" necklines, Dresden. Suit and pillbox hat in an Argentine fashion spread from 1958. Princess Alexandra in a Princess Ballgown styled evening dress, 1959. Newspaper photo of "Miss Beatnik" contestants in Venice, California, 1959. Women wearing swimsuits in vacation in Hungary 1960. Summer dress in Hungary 1960. Menswear Suits Immediately after the war, men's suits were broad-shouldered and often double-breasted. As wartime restrictions on fabric eased, trousers became fuller, and were usually styled with cuffs (turn-ups). In America, Esquire introduced the "Bold Look", with wide shoulders, broad lapels, and an emphasis on bold, coordinated accessories. In Britain, clothing rationing remained in place until 1949. Demobilised soldiers were provided with a suit by the government, usually in blue or grey chalkstripes. Savile Row, the traditional home of bespoke or custom tailoring, had been heavily damaged in the Blitz and was slow to recover. In 1950, Harper's Bazaar proclaimed the "Return of the Beau". Savile Row introduced the "New Edwardian Look", featuring a slightly flared jacket, natural shoulders, and an overall narrower cut, worn with a curly-brimmed bowler hat and a long slender overcoat with velvet collar and cuffs. This was the style commandeered by the Teddy Boys, who added bright socks and a bootlace necktie, achieving a "dizzy combination of Edwardian dandy and American gangster." The horrified tailors of Savile Row dropped the overtly Edwardian touches, but the style of business suits continued to move away from the broad English drape cut, and single-breasted two-piece suits with narrower lines and less padding in the shoulders became fashionable everywhere. Dark charcoal gray was the usual color, and the era of the gray flannel suit was born. By the later 1950s, a new Continental style of suit appeared from the fashion houses of Italy, with sharper shoulders, lighter fabrics, shorter, fitted jackets and narrower lapels. Sports and leisurewear Sport coats generally followed the lines of suit coats. Tartan plaids were fashionable in the early 1950s, and later plaids and checks of all types were worn, as were corduroy jackets with leather buttons and car coats. 49er jackets, originally worn by hunters, miners and lumberjacks, were a popular cold weather coat in America and Canada, and would later be adopted by the teenage surfer subculture. On the West Coast many men, including Howard Hughes and Ricky from I Love Lucy, favoured two color gabardine Hollywood jackets with belts and Old West inspired detailing, often in black, white, cream, beige, burgundy, air force blue, mint green, sky blue, chocolate brown, dusky pink, or grey tweed cloth. Khaki-colored pants, called chinos, were worn for casual occasions. Bermuda shorts, often in madras plaid, appeared in mid-decade and were worn with knee socks. Hawaiian shirts, worn untucked from suspenders, also became widely popular during this era. This summer fashion of the Hawaiian or Carioca shirt became particularly popular in America, with even President Truman being photographed wearing a marine flora shirt. Knit shirts and sweaters of various kinds were popular throughout the period. Some young men wore tight trousers or jeans, leather jackets, and white tee shirts. Hats and hairstyles Men's hair fashion favoured the wet look, achieved by the use of products such as Brylcreem. Young men often grew their hair out and, with pomade or other hair treatments, coiffed their hair into pompadours. Accessories Browline glasses were commonly worn by men during the 1950s and early 1960s. Style gallery 1945–1949 Style gallery 1950–1960 Youth fashion Hepcats During and after the war, oversized zoot suits were worn by rebellious teenagers, hep cats, and gang members, especially African-Americans, Italian-Americans, Cholos a.k.a. pachucos, and Chicanos. Suit coats were long and double breasted, and pants were high waisted and very baggy. The look was completed with a large pocketwatch chain, black and white spectator shoes, a wide brimmed fedora, and a brightly colored silk kipper tie. Greasers From the late 1940s until the mid-1960s, many Irish-American and Italian-American teenagers were involved with hot rodding, custom cars, and chopper bikes. American greasers, Japanese Bosozoku, Swedish Raggare and Aussie Bodgies based their look on the clothing worn by mechanics and fighter pilots, including a black Schott Perfecto leather jacket, blue jean jacket or canvas work jacket, black or white T shirt, button up short sleeve shirts with the sleeves rolled up several times sometimes having a flannel or other types of patterns, and blue Levi's 501 usually worn with either a large or small cuff at the hem, along with Engineer boots, Converse All Stars, penny loafers or other types of dress shoes, and cowboy boots. The British equivalent, known as the Ton-up Boys, dressed similarly but rode lightweight cafe racer Triumph and BSA bikes. Some girls wore jeans and leather jackets like the men, but most wore more typical college attire such as poodle skirts, petticoats, cardigan sweaters, and saddle shoes with bobby socks. Teds During the early 1950s, Britain's own rockabilly subculture appropriated the then fashionable Edwardian revivalist fashion due to its resemblance to the clothing worn by Old West gamblers and the zoot suits seen in gangster films. A typical Teddy Boy outfit included a red or sky blue drape jacket with velvet shawl collar, drainpipe trousers, brocade waistcoat, bolo tie, and winklepickers or brothel creepers. Teddy Girls, known as Judies, often wore long circle skirts, capri pants, espadrilles, cameo brooches and coolie hats. Ivy League The early to mid 1950s also witnessed the Ivy League look among young, wealthy high school and college students in the Eastern United States. Due to the GI Bill, more men were able to go to college and aspired to imitate both the wardrobe and the athletic pursuits of the long-established upper class students. Typical hairstyles included the crew cut, Harvard clip, and regular haircut, and common accessories included cardigan sweaters, sweater vests, Nantucket reds, khaki chino pants, white Oxford shirts, Tootal or Brooks Brothers ties, Ascot neckties, tartan, grey tweed cloth or flannel sportcoats, and seersucker blazers in the South. Known as Squares, Socs, and Jocks, this subculture underwent a revival in the 1980s as the preppy look. Beatniks In the early to mid 1950s, the precursor to the 1960s hippies emerged in New York. Black roll neck sweaters, sandals, sunglasses, striped shirts, horn rimmed glasses, and berets were popular among Beatniks of both sexes, and men often wore beards. The Russian equivalent of the Beatnik, known as Stilyagi (style hunters), wore thick soled shoes, brightly colored socks, and exaggerated American style clothing in imitation of Western film actors and modern jazz musicians. Children's wear Due to the baby boom, there was a high demand for clothing for children. Children's clothing began to be made to a higher quality, and some even adopted trends popular with teenagers; many boys started wearing jeans to Elementary school. Many girls' and young women's dresses were styled after those of the older women. Originally everyday workwear in the Southwestern US, Western clothing comprising jeans, Stetson and checked shirt was worn by many young boys during the 1950s in imitation of singing cowboys like Gene Autry and Roy Rogers. A craze for coonskin caps and fringed shirts coincided with the release of Davy Crockett by Disney during the mid-1950s. Hairstyles and cosmetics See Hairstyles in the 1950s. See also Ducktail Hubert de Givenchy Jean Dessès Guy Laroche Roger Vivier Charles James (designer) Hardy Amies Grace Kelly Babe Paley Notes References Brockman, Helen. The Theory of Fashion Design, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965, , Cumming, Valerie, C. W. Cunnington and P. E. Cunnington. The Dictionary of Fashion History, Berg, 2010, Samek, Susan M. "Uniformly Feminine: the "Working Chic" of Mainbocher." Dress 20 (1993): p. 33–41. Tortora, Phyllis G. and Keith Eubank. Survey of Historic Costume. 2nd Edition, 1994. Fairchild Publications. Tortora, Phyllis G. and Keith Eubank. Survey of Historic Costume. 4th Edition, 2005. Fairchild Publications. Walker, Richard: The Savile Row Story, Prion, 1988, External links Patent to the Maternity Panty Dresses by Christian Dior, Indianapolis Museum of Art Children's clothing from the 1950s Examples of French fashion illustration Vintage Photos - art, life and fashion in the 20th Century. Madame Grès, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains a good deal of material on fashion from this period 1940s fashion 1950s fashion
5342569	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naousa%2C%20Imathia	Naousa, Imathia	Naousa (, historically Νάουσσα - Naoussa; ), officially The Heroic City of Naousa is a city in the Imathia regional unit of Central Macedonia, Greece with a population of 21,139 (2016). It is located at the foot of the Vermio Mountains. According to the 2011 census its population was 20,176 inhabitants. The wider municipality, after the administrative reform of the Kallikratis plan, had a population of 32,470 inhabitants. Since 1955, by royal decree, it has been designated as a heroic city for the struggle and sacrifices of the inhabitants in 1822, during the Greek War of Independence. An industrial center since the 19th century, for most of the 20th century the history of Naousa was closely intertwined with that of the Lanaras family, local industrialists who, at the height of their influence, employed almost half of Naousa's population in their textile factories. The Lanaras family built hospitals, social centers etc. while streets of Naousa were named after family members. In the 1990s and 2000s however, most of the local factories closed, leaving Naousa with a serious (and still unresolved) unemployment problem. The Arapitsa of Naoussa is one of the few rivers in Greece that has a feminine name; the river that has gone down in history for the great sacrifice of the city's women in April 1822, who preferred that they and their children fall into its water rather than into the hands of the Turks. At the site of the women's sacrifice, in the Stoubanoi area next to the Arapitsa river, there is a monument. Etymology Naousa was formerly also known as Niausta. A more likely possibility is its establishment as "Nea Augusta" by the Romans, with "Niausta" and finally "Naousa" being a corruption of it[10]. Another folk etymology considers the name "Naousa" to be a transformation of the verb "nao", i.e. to flow or float (hence also nautical), to a noun. In the Middle Ages, when the city was under the rule of Serbian rulers, it had the name Njeguš(Serb. Његуш, Njeguš). Municipality The municipality Naousa was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units: Anthemia Eirinoupoli Naousa The municipality has an area of 425.491 km2, the municipal unit 300.891 km2. Province The province of Naousa () was one of the provinces of Imathia. It had the same territory as the present municipality. It was abolished in 2006. History No ancient settlement has been identified in the current location where Naoussa is built. From the ancient history of the area it is stated that its inhabitants were Bryges, a Thracian tribe better known in history as Phrygians, who settled all over Imathia around the 12th century BC. The area, according to Herodotus, was where the fertile Gardens of King Midas were situated. Bryges would later be expelled from the area by Macedonian tribes and settle in Chalkidiki. Residential facilities dating back to the Bronze Age have been investigated in recent decades in the wider lowland area. Later findings from the Archaic era to the Hellenistic period have been excavated at the sites of Kopanos, Hariessa, and Lefkadia, which lead to the conclusion of the existence of an important city, and perhaps the town of Mieza or Meza mentioned in a Delphi dedication, with the site of ancient School of Aristotle. In 168 BC, after the Battle of Pydna, the area fell into the hands of the Romans, who later in the current position of the city established the colony of Nova Augusta. The name changed through the centuries to Niagusta, Niaousta and Niaousa, until it became today's Naousa. It was known as "Ağustos" during Ottoman rule. In Naoussa a significant time gap was observed regarding the settlement of the region with an organized form of state. In the late Roman period and the years that followed the ancient settlements began to decline. The resettlement, according to local tradition as well as indirect historical evidence, is placed in the 14th century (1385-86), shortly after the occupation of Veria by the Turks (around 1383-87). At that time anarchy prevailed in the region as disorderly units of ghazis made frequent raids and occupied, often for a short time, Macedonian cities and regions. Frightened residents of the area took refuge, among other places, in the borders of the present-day city of Naoussa, in its forests and mountain refuges and contributed to the repopulation of the area. The local prefect Siah Lianis granted important privileges to its Christian inhabitants. The location where the city is built today was ideal, as the entire plain lay at the feet of the inhabitants who could easily see impending dangers. After the complete conquest of Macedonia by the Ottomans, the region fell into the hands of Gazi Ahmed Evrenos, one of the most active generals of Sultan Murad I, to whom turkish tradition attributes the capture of almost every important city in Macedonia. Here he established a waqf which his descendants preserved in Giannitsa. The Greek population in the region enjoyed important privileges from the beginning, thanks to the intervention of Valide Hanum Sultana (Mara Brankovic, daughter of the Serbian ruler Đurađ Branković and wife of Murad II). Naoussa was a Christian city from the beginning (apart from the Qadi (judge) and the Voivode (commander) there were no other Ottomans in the city), with self-government rights, its own garrison and important tax privileges, which allowed the rapid concentration of population and the development of handicrafts (weaponry, goldsmithing, weaving, etc.). As early as the 17th century there was an urban center with about a thousand houses and economic influence in the region of central Macedonia and beyond (due to its position on the caravan route that connected the southern Balkan markets). Evliya Çelebi mentions that it was mainly inhabited by Greeks during his visit in the 17th century. Until the beginning of the 18th century little is known about the city. The first important information refers to an uprising in 1705 when a Turkish official went to the area with the order to recruit young men for the janissary battalions. The residents refused to hand over their children and killed the official and two of his companions. Led by the armatole Zisis Karademos and his two sons, about 100 people raised the flag of rebellion and inflicted blows on the conquerors. However a detachment of 800 Turks managed to surround the rebels and finally kill Karadimos in battle. His two sons were arrested and sentenced to death. The uprising of the Naoussaians in 1705 was one of the most important of the subjugated Hellenism and the reason to stop devshirme in the Greek area. In 1772 Naoussa was one of the centers of a conspiratorial movement for a rebellion, instigated by Sotirios Lefkadios, an agent of Russia. The bishops of Edessa, Berea, Campania, Platamonos, Servia and Kozani, Petra Olympos and others met in Naoussa and Kozani and they decided to form military corps with the help of the armatoles. The fate of the conspiracy is not known, but at that time (after 1770) the Turks, fearing an attack by the Russian fleet, committed many atrocities against the Greeks. This situation ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) by which the Turks were forced to grant many privileges to the Greeks. At the beginning of the 18th century it was famous the work of the Naoussaian scholar and theologian Anastasios Michail. Despite this parenthesis Naoussa continued to develop at a rapid pace. In a century the population almost doubled and it gained a reputation for both its wines and its educational activities. It thus attracted the interest of the ambitious Ali Pasha of Ioannina who, with sieges and treachery, tried to annex it between 1795 and 1804. In 1804 the armatole Vassilios Romfeis with his deputy Anastasios Karatasos, after a five-month struggle, were forced to abandon the city, which was occupied by Ali Pasha until 1812 when he abandoned it by order of the sultan. But the calm lasted only a few years. In February 1822 Naoussa, despite its prosperity, took part in the Greek War of Independence. On that day a solemn declaration of the Revolution was made in the Cathedral of the town with praise, swearing, revolutionary chants and the raising of the flags on the towers and gates of the city.[23] Military operations led by Zafeirakis Theodosiou and Anastasios Karatasos, with the aim of creating a free revolutionary regime in the region, led to the siege of the city by the troops of the Governor of Thessaloniki Mehmet Emin Pasha, known as Ebu Lubut (the batter). Abdul Abud, the Pasha of Thessaloniki, arrived on 14 March at the head of a 16,000 strong force and 12 cannons. The Greeks defended Naousa with a force of 4,000 under Anastasios Karatasos, Dimitrios Karatasos, Aggelis Gatsos, Karamitsos and Philippos, the son of Zafeirakis Theodosiou, under the overall command of Zafeirakis Theodosiou and Anastasios Karatasos. The Turks attempted to take the town of Naousa on 16 March, and again on 18 and 19 March, without success. On 24 March the Turks began a bombardment of the city walls that lasted for several days. After requests for the town's surrender were dismissed by the Greeks, the Turks charged the Gate of St George on Good Friday, 31 March. The Turkish attack failed but on 6 April, after receiving fresh reinforcements of some 3,000 men, the Turkish army finally overcame the Greek resistance and entered the city. The destruction of the city, looting, massacres and persecutions of the population followed. Several women preferred to kill themselves by falling with their children into the foamy waters of the Arapitsa waterfall in "Stubanos" in order not to fall into the hands of the Turks. According to official Ottoman documents 409 Naoussians were killed, 33 left the city and 198 were pardoned, all mostly men. Over 400 women and children were sold as slaves. The properties of the dead and fugitives (655 houses) and the church (226 houses) were confiscated. The fall and massacre of Naousa marked the end of the Greek Revolution in Central Macedonia. A notable survivor of the incident was Greek American refugee Gregory Anthony Perdicaris.After this event the city lost its privileges for the next few years. Many Naoussians continued the struggle in the Greek War of Independence in Southern Greece. distinguished Nausian fighters were the centurion Lazaros (Lazos) Georgiou, the officers (Grade VII) Dimitrios Angelopoulos, Konstantinos Karamesinas and Philippos Karamesinas, the defenders of Hydra Konstantinos Yiannis and Nikolaos Toufexis, the fellow competitor of Anastasios Karatasos Georgios Theodosiou, the subordinate officers Constantine Athanasiou and Ioannis Michael and Emmanuel Pipas (born 1800), Anastasios (Tassios) Emmanuel (born 1805), Angelos Ioannou (born 1797), Dimitrios Konstantinou (born 1801) and George Costa (born 1804). Naoussa was represented by proxy Vaios Georgiou in the Fourth National Assembly at Argos in 1829 and in the 4th repeated National Assembly at Megara in 1831. Only in 1849 a form of self-government and relative autonomy was allowed again with the election of a ruler. From 1868 the lords were allowed to become mayors of the city, a title that was for the next years continuously in Christian hands. The mayor could officially decide on the commons and had armed bodyguards. Despite the devastation Naoussa recovered quickly. The 198 Naussians who were pardoned belonged to the wealthiest families. In addition to the fields they also had 43 workshops and 4 large spinning mills. They were the basis for economic development, especially in the manufacture of wool. Christian families moved to Naoussa, while the authorities also favoured the settlement of Muslim families to avoid new excursions. 70 Muslim families responded to the call. In the last years of Ottoman rule Naoussa experienced commercial and industrial prosperity. The development started mainly with the reforms in the Ottoman Empire. During the Tanzimat period, among other, religious minorities gained equal rights with Muslims and equality provided more certainty in matters of property. Around 20 families formed the basis of economic prosperity for years to come. Through marriages many of them also shared in other families' businesses. In 1874-1875 the "Loggou-Kirtsi-Turpalis" textile factory was founded in Naoussa, probably the first industry in the Balkans in the modern sense of the term. Industrialists have benefited from the international drop in the price of cotton, cheap water as energy and low wages and thus were able to compete satisfactorily cotton imports from abroad. Other industrial textile units followed in the following years and until the beginning of the 20th century. At the same time the Bulgarian woolen producers, who had been strong in the market until then, no longer satisfied the needs of the Ottoman army in terms of quality and thus gradually lost the market of the Empire. The new factories of Naoussa took advantage of the opportunity and the Hatzilazarou factory in particular was unable to satisfy the army's increased demand for woollens. During the Macedonian Struggle (1904-1908) Naoussa was an important center against the action of the Bulgarian komitadjis. Greek rebel bodies were supported by the city with most important chieftains Epaminondas Garnetas and Ioannis Simanikas. The Macedonian Struggle was the starting point of the victorious liberation wars of the period 1912-1913, known in historiography as Balkan Wars. Naoussa was freed from Ottoman rule on October 17, 1912. At the time of liberation Naoussa was an industrial city and its population was 9,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, of which around 20% were workers (mostly single women). The city had in 1912 three textile factories with 14,200 looms. Another 3 textile factories with 26,500 looms in Edessa and Thessaloniki were entirely owned by Naousians. Naoussa thus controled at that time 6 of the 10 textile units of Macedonia which in turn had half the production units of the entire Ottoman Empire. 90% of the workers in the mechanized wool processing units were controlled by Naoussians. In the same year the town also had 3 large and dozens of small mills, 3 carpentry plants and dozens of presses, silk mills and smaller wool processing industries. Economic growth continued unabated even with the city as part of the Greek state. New industrial units were established, agriculture was modernized with systematic tree cultivation and foreign trade took leaps. The city's population experienced a significant increase when large numbers of Anatolia refugees were settled in Naoussa, following the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) and the subsequent Treaty of Lausanne. During the German Occupation Naoussians actively participated in the Greek resistance. The large volume of workers that existed in the city had become a pre-war recruiting ground for KKE. At the same time the mountainous massifs around Naoussa made it possible to organize rebel groups. So (communist) ELAS, which did not tolerate other organizations, established its headquarters and reception centers for recruits in the surrounding mountains. At the same time the civil conflict for the control of the resistance movement begun. In mid-September 1944 ELAS liberated Naoussa. In May 1945 there were big strikes of the labor movement. In the Civil War that followed the Occupation the city suffered frequent guerrilla attacks. In August 1946 the city was attacked for three days by large groups of rebels. In October of the same year the city was hit again by a force of 400 communists. A large part of Naoussa, which had about 12,000 inhabitants, was burned. At the end of January 1949 the city was occupied by ELAS for two or three days, it was set on fire and many residents, especially young women, were forcibly kidnapped. At the same time most of the prominent citizens were executed including the Mayor of the city. Several of the forcibly recruited will met their death a few days later, as they were thrown naked and on the front line at the Battle of Florina (12.02.49). In June 1949 Naoussa was attacked again and 300 inhabitants became hostages. However the Air Force attacked the retreating rebels who eventually released the abductees. After the end of the Civil War Naoussa was reborn from its ashes. Destroyed factories were rebuilt, thousands of workers found work again and the burned-out manor center was rebuilt. From the 1950s until today flokates (woolen carpets) have been produced in Naoussa. At the same time in the field of agriculture,new dynamic crops contributed to the further development of the city and the rich forest wealth of Vermio was properly utilized. Geography Naousa is located in Northwestern Imathia, 22 kilometers north of Veroia and 90 kilometers west of Thessaloniki, the biggest city in Northern Greece. The city lies on the eastern foothills of Vermio Mountains, one of the biggest mountain ranges in Greece, and west to the plain of Kambania (or Giannitsa). Naousa is today the largest forest-owning municipality in the country being also surrounded by orchards, producing peaches, apples, cherries and other fruits, while the jam brand name Naousa is well-known all over Greece. Naousa is also known for its parks (Municipal Park, Park of Saint Nicholas etc.) and for its ski resorts (3-5 Pigadia and Seli). Due to its location, altitude can raise by as much as 150m between the lowest and highest parts of the city, and it reaches nearly 550m in the Saint Nicholas' Park . Naousa is also home of one of the three female named Greek rivers, Arapitsa, together with Neda in Peloponnese and Erkyna in Livadeia. Climate Naousa has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) in the Köppen climate classification but due to its inland location and elevation, is more continental (and less Mediterranean) than that found in most Greek cities. It is heavily influenced by the mountains which rise rapidly up to the west, and by the plain of Kambania to the east. On one hand, the mountains shelter the area from cold winds blowing from the north and west down the Balkan Peninsula and also from hot southwest winds, creating a non-extreme microclimate. On the other they create föhn winds, which draw in cool, damp air from the Aegean coast. The annual precipitation of Naousa is typically lower than in western Greece, but it is one of the highest in the Macedonia region, measuring around 710 mm per year. Winters can be cold and Vermio mountains are home to two of the most famous skiing resorts in Greece, Seli and 3-5 Pigadia. In the city, snowfall is not uncommon (snow falls at an average of 10–15 days per year) and measurable amounts of snow can remain on the ground for several days. Typically, downtown Naousa experiences milder winter temperatures than the suburbs where temperatures can drop many degrees below zero. Recent years have been a lot warmer and the 2007 European heat wave saw Naousa reaching 40 °C for the first time in recent memory, with an absolute maximum of 41.3 °C in July 25. On January 8, 2017, temperature dropped to -10.5 °C, which is a 10-year low. Economy The wider area of Naoussa is famous for its wine production. The Naoussa red wine of the same name has received many awards in the country and abroad. It was one of the first wines in Greece to be released and bottled. The name of the special variety of this wine is xinomavro, which is a Designation of Origin of Superior Quality (D.O.P.A.), and with special characteristics and taste that are formed using the "blank de noir" method. The wider plain area of Naoussa produces high quality peaches, apples and cherries and they are available in domestic and international markets. Architecture The hallmark of the city is the Clock Tower, commonly known as "Roloi", located in front of the Town Hall. It is a donation of the industrialist Georgios Anastasiou Kirtsis, it was built in 1895 with ashlar and is 25 meters high. It retains its original mechanism. There are thoughts of making it accessible for visitors, allowing views of the city. A new trademark tends to be the Obelisk that is placed in the central square of the city, it was built in 2000 and completed in 2002. It is 11 meters high. The city has no old churches as they were all burned in the Holocaust of the city by the Turks in 1822. The exception is the small Church of the John the Baptist (Prodromou), which was miraculously saved. The oldest churches (Saint George and Panagia) date from the 19th century and are three-aisled basilicas. Even older churches destroyed in 1822 were replaced by later ones. The traditional Macedonian-style buildings that exist in Naoussa usually occupy quite a large volume and are two-storey with an inner courtyard. They are made of tufa, adobe and wood. Unfortunately, few of them survive today. They are concentrated in various districts/neighborhoods of the city: While in "Pouliana" and "Batania" there are the largest, urban buildings, in "Alonia" the smaller folk houses dominate. Among the individual buildings worthy of mention are the "Galakeia" and "Sefertzio" schools and the "Lappio" Gymnasium which were named after the names of their donors. The city is scattered with industrial buildings that were used during the 19th and 20th centuries mainly as extile factories. From the 1990s onwards, the factories gradually ceased to operate, as a result of the global crisis in the textile industry. Thus, empty trunks were left in the city to remind of its rich Industrial past. Already, several of these buildings have fallen to the Municipality, which is beginning to change their use, such as one that houses the Department of Technology Management of the University of Macedonia, while others are being turned into Museums and multi-cultural spaces. Transport Naoussa is served by Naousa railway station on the Thessaloniki-Florina railway. Inaugurated in 1894, it connects the city with Thessaloniki and the rest of Northern Greece. Since 2009 it is served by the suburban services to Thessaloniki and Edessa. Sights and Activities Museums Historical and Folklore Museum: It has exhibits of the cultural heritage of Naoussa and the surrounding areas. Among the exhibits are local costumes of the town and the region, textiles, looms, weapons and jewelry. It is located at St. Dimitriou 10. Wine and Vine Museum: It is located at 17 Hatzimalousi Street, in the house of Yiannis Boutaris, founder of the company of the same name. It is a traditional neoclassical building from 1908, which was also the first winery of the city. In the museum the visitor can learn about the history and the process of wine production in the area and about all the necessary objects related to wine. Vlach Folklore Museum: It has exhibits from the life of Naoussa΄s Vlachs. Among other things one will see looms, flokates and uniforms. It is located at 23 Sofroniou Street. Euxinos Pontian Club of Naoussa: Here the visitor will find a large library containing almost 1,000 books from the Library of Argyroupolis in the Black Sea Region which the refugees brought from there in 1923. Originally there were around 5,000, but many were destroyed by the collapse of the building where they were originally housed, others were distributed and others were stolen. An attempt is now being made to save the remaining books by copying them into modern electronic media, studying and preserving them. Simanika Collection: This is a private collection of classical music donated to the Municipality. The collection includes many records, CDs, cassettes and videotapes. Parks Naoussa is surrounded by a lot of greenery and has several parks. The municipal park, which was created in the 1950s, has an area of approximately 30 acres, is one of the most important inner-city parks in Greece, with a commanding view of the plain of Imathia, the landscaped flower garden and a lake of approximately 1.5 acres that hosts fish, ducks and swans. In 2021 the municipal park officially joined as a full member of the European Route of Historic Gardens of the Council of Europe (ERHG). The most famous grove is that of Agios Nikolaos. Agios Nikolaos At a distance of only three kilometers from the center of the city, the sources of the Arapitsa river are located among dense vegetation of plane trees. Arapitsa supplies water to the city and irrigates the fertile estates of the entire region. The local vegetation also includes wild native boxwood, linden and oak trees. The location provides organized sports areas such as volleyball, basketball, tennis, football courts as well as a state-of-the-art indoor swimming pool of Olympic dimensions. There are also guest services facilities with hotels and restaurants. Ski resorts At a distance of 17 kilometers from the city, the ski centers of Seli and that of 3-5 Pigadia are located, which are two of the best known ski centers of Central Macedonia. In fact the Seli ski center is the first organized ski center in the country and is located in the village of Kato Vermio, one of the highest villages in Greece. The ski center of 3-5 Pigadia is newer than that of Seli and belongs administratively to the Municipality of the Heroic City of Naoussa. It is a modern ski center at an altitude of 1,430 - 2,005 meters with ski slopes of every difficulty degree and endurance roads. It is the first ski center to have an artificial snow system in Greece. Archaeological sites The School of Aristotle in the Nymphaeum of Mieza (It is located in the "Isvoria" location of Naoussa). It is a landscape rich in water and vegetation where the Nymphaeum, the Sanctuary of the nymphs, is located. The first signs of use of the area go back to the Iron Age, but after the middle of the 4th century BC the site was transformed into a school and here the philosopher Aristotle taught the young Alexander philosophy, ethics, arts and mathematics. Between two natural caves the rock was carved vertically, an ionic colonnade was added and a C-shaped covered gallery was created. In the Archaeological Museum of Veria there are tiles and clay tiles from the roof of the gallery. The ancient theater of Miesza of Hellenistic period (2nd century BC). It was discovered by chance in 1992. It had a capacity of around 1,500-2,000 spectators. Excavations continue near the theater where the market of Miesza is located). The great Macedonian tomb "of Judgment" (Early 3rd century BC. Monumental two-chambered Macedonian tomb with a two-story facade and four paintings with scenes of the Judgment of the dead in Hades. Probably tomb of Peucestas, general of Alexander the Great, from Miesza). The Macedonian tomb of Lyson and Callicles (Around 200 BC. A small two-chambered Macedonian tomb with a simple facade and colorful paintings. It contains the bones and ashes of four generations of a high-ranking military family and was named after two of the dead) . The Macedonian tomb of the Anthemians (3rd century BC. Two-chamber vaulted Macedonian tomb). The Macedonian Tomb of Kinch (Around 310-290 BC. A small two-chambered Macedonian tomb with a simple facade. The painted decoration of the interior is no longer preserved. It was named after the Danish archaeologist Kinch who excavated it at the end of the 19th century). Sports Skiing club EOS Naousas is the oldest of the city's sporting clubs, having been founded in 1932. Naoussa also hosts the clubs Naoussa F.C., which played at First National Division of Greece for one year (season 1993–94) and EGS Zafeirakis Naousas () that competes at volleyball, handball and basketball. The name refers to the Greek prokritos Zafeirakis Theodosiou () (1772–1822). International relations Twin towns — Sister cities Naousa, Imathia is twinned with: Missolonghi, Greece Naousa, Paros, Greece Faches-Thumesnil, France (1992) Asenovgrad, Bulgaria (1994) Zgorzelec, Poland (1998) Notable people Anastasios Michail (17th century-1722), theologian Zisis Karademos (17th century-1705), armatole, led a rebellion Anastasios Karatasos (1764–1830), armatole Vassilios Romfeis (1773-?), klepht Gregory Anthony Perdicaris (1810-1883), first U.S. Consul to Greece, Author Zafeirakis Theodosiou (18th century-1822), political leader Lappas bros (19th century), merchants and benefactors of the city Ioannis Simanikas, (late 19th century-?), chieftain of the Macedonian Struggle. Grigorios Longos, textile industrialist Eleni Tsaligopoulou (1963-), Greek singer Konstantinos Prousalis (1980-), Greek volleyball player Sophia Ralli (1988-), Alpine skier, 3-time Olympian, Greece's flag bearer at the 2018 Winter Olympic Games Apostolos Giannou (1990-), Greek-Australian footballer Gallery See also List of settlements in Imathia Folklore Museum of the Lyceum of Hellenic Women Wine and Vine Museum Mieza (Macedonia) References Populated places in Imathia Municipalities of Central Macedonia Aromanian settlements in Greece Wine regions of Greece Provinces of Greece Roman towns and cities in Greece
5342601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate%20Monument%20in%20Louisville	Confederate Monument in Louisville	The Confederate Monument in Louisville is a 70-foot-tall monument formerly adjacent to and surrounded by the University of Louisville Belknap Campus in Louisville, Kentucky, United States. Relocation of the monument to Brandenburg, Kentucky, along the town's riverfront began November 2016, and was completed in mid-December. The granite and bronze structure was erected in 1895 by the Muldoon Monument Company with funds raised by the Kentucky Woman's Confederate Monument Association. The monument commemorates the sacrifice of Confederate veterans who died in the American Civil War. As with many monuments to the Confederacy, some community activists, such as Louisville's late Reverend Louis Coleman, had called for the removal of the monument from such a prominent location due to an association with the history of civil rights abuses against African-Americans. In the past, both the city and university opposed such proposals. In 2002, the university announced an effort to add civil rights monuments in the vicinity of the Louisville location as part of a redevelopment called "Freedom Park". Two million dollars of funding, principally for the park, was secured in late 2008. In late April 2016, officials in Louisville announced intention to remove the monument to another location. Subsequently, a Jefferson County Circuit Court Judge signed a temporary restraining order filed by the Kentucky Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans but dissolved the restraining order at a later hearing in May 2016. On November 15, 2016, the Office of the Mayor in Louisville stated the monument would be dismantled and moved to Brandenburg, Kentucky. This was following input from the Louisville Commission on Public Art which held an open meeting earlier in July and received public suggestions. The town of Brandenburg performed a dedication ceremony following relocation in May, 2017. History The idea for the monument was first conceived in the basement of the Walnut Street Baptist Church in May 1887 during discussion concerning the decoration of graves at Cave Hill Cemetery. By early June 1887, the first permanent officers and representatives from the state were selected and letters of support were read. Michael Muldoon, of the Louisville monument company, enclosed a photo of a Baltimore monument and advised in his letter only granite and bronze would stand the test of time. Nelly Marshall McAfee, author, poet, and daughter of Humphrey Marshall, expressed her regret at not being able to attend: In an 1890 act of incorporation, the association's sole purpose was to erect a monument to the memory of soldiers of the Confederacy in or near the city of Louisville. From conception to completion, the Kentucky Woman's Confederate Monument Association grew from 17 to over 250 members led by Susan Marshall Preston Hepburn as the association president. Hepburn, sister of William Preston and sister-in-law of Albert Sidney Johnston, had previously served as President of the Ladies Aid Society of the Masonic Widows and Orphans Home. While a large share of association members were from the Louisville area, women from across the state of Kentucky participated in an organization of 11 districts. As an example, in 1889, it was reported over 40 women in Henderson, including Miss Mary Towles Sasseen, had organized in support. Sasseen, a school teacher, was an early advocate for Mother's Day. A marble arch over 3rd Street, dedicated to the "Unknown Confederate Dead", was an early monument proposal. Later the depression of 1893 appeared to slow funding. Examples of fund raising efforts included a performance of Ben Hur with over 100 performers in 1891, performance of the Toy Symphony in 1890, and river excursions on the Columbia. After the years of picnics, auctions, canvassing, dances, and other inducements, the monument was completed in summer 1895 at a cost of $12,000. However the association continued to hold fund raisers over a year after the dedication to pay off the outstanding debt to the Muldoon Monument Company. A lecture in November 1895 by Henry Watterson, editor of The Courier-Journal, netted over $700 for the late purpose. At the close of the 19th century, the surviving members of the monument association continued efforts as members of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Hepburn requested the women not organize into a chapter until the remaining monument debt was paid off. Fifty members of the monument association organized the Albert Sydney Johnston Chapter #120 of the U.D.C. in 1897. Hepburn died shortly afterwards. By 1900, the women had raised funds for the construction of a stone fence and lamps around the monument, and that fall the Louisville city councilmen were arguing whether the cost to light the lanterns should be paid from private or city funds. In 1901, the remaining balance was donated towards the construction of another project. Yandell controversy In early August 1894, the Board of Public Works gave permission to the association to erect the monument on 3rd Street and began preparations to the site. Over 20 design submissions were accepted as the result of a public notice. The monument association executive committee, in a unanimous vote, initially chose the monument and sculpture design of Enid Yandell and William J. Dodd, the architect, as the best of an ostensibly blind competition in September 1894. When informed of the selection, the larger association rejected the design. The Confederate Veteran magazine had earlier reported on Yandell's efforts in November 1893: Yandell's proposed design was a female allegorical figure described as martial 'Fame' rising 75 feet high on a base of white limestone, a pedestal of gray granite, and a column of red granite with five 15-foot high bronze candelabras surrounding the perimeter. Association member concerns included Yandell's youth, the accusation that Yandell's friends and family within the association had influenced the executive committee vote, a belief the design should have included a soldier, and skepticism of the total construction expense and monument stability. As a result of the controversy, a larger vote was conducted of association members and Muldoon's design polled 2–1 over Yandell's submission. Yandell and Dodd, on the recommendation of an architecture committee, expressed willingness to replace the limestone base with granite while admitting the design adjustment would eliminate any profit. Dedication After a seven-month delay to fully prepare the site, the cornerstone was laid on May 25, 1895. Within the cornerstone, in a copper box, association members placed historical items including a mourning scarf, newspapers, poem and photographs, memoirs, Confederate currency, a Bible and a cigar of Jefferson Davis. Afterwards approximately 5,000 attended the decoration of graves at Cave Hill cemetery. The dedication was on July 30, 1895, in time to coincide with the 29th Grand Army of the Republic annual reunion later in September. The occasion began at 3 P.M. with a parade which started on Broadway passing down 3rd street to the monument and included 200 ex-Confederate soldiers following the band from the Industrial School of Reform. The only Confederate flag at the occasion was battle worn from the war and unfurled at the end of the event. Mayor Henry S. Tyler accepted the monument on behalf of the city. Basil W. Duke gave the oration, reportedly interrupted repeatedly by applause, in front of a large crowd gathered at the grounds of the School of Reform. Raleigh monument and Judge Thompson Muldoon constructed a similar monument, using original sculptures of Ferdinand Freiherr von Miller, in 1895 at the State Capitol grounds in Raleigh, North Carolina. Constructed at a cost of $25,000, this monument was paid from a state appropriation rather than private donations. The utilization of the same statue design significantly reduced the cost of construction in Louisville. Research published in 1956 by Justus Bier, at the time Chair of the Department of Fine Arts at the University of Louisville, suggests one or both of the two lateral figures of both monuments were modeled by von Miller from photographs of W. R. Dicks, a Raleigh, North Carolina Confederate veteran. One of the uniforms was thought modeled from another Raleigh veteran, Thomas P. Devereux. The model for the infantryman of both monuments was believed to have been a photograph of Judge Reginald H Thompson of Louisville. A Grand Master of Kentucky Masons, and Confederate veteran, Judge Thompson founded the Kentucky Children's Home and Newsboy's Home and Night School. He also took an active role with the Industrial School of Reform located across the street from the monument as well as the Masonic Widows and Orphans Home. During his funeral procession in 1899, those of all social classes and children from orphanages across the city of Louisville lined the streets to pay their respects. At the time of the dedication, it was reported that Judge Thompson's wife, Elizabeth, was chair of the association auxiliary committee. The Courier-Journal, in May 1895, wistfully described the top figure: J. M. Arnold who served with Thompson in the war for four years wrote in 1910 of his gallantry in the war and of his funeral: 20th century proposals During the 1920s and 1940s, there were proposals to move the monument to nearby Triangle Park (Stansbury Park) as a solution for traffic congestion and accidents, until public sentiment and city officials saved it. In 1921, Mayor George Weissinger Smith and the U.D.C. opposed the removal briefly advocated by the chairman of the Board of Public Works. Later, Louisville Mayor Charles P. Farnsley, a fighter for civil rights, and camp commander of the local Sons of Confederate Veterans, stood guard in front of the monument with a musket and made a public announcement on his wishes to keep the monument where it was. At a Rotary Club meeting in 1949, Farnsley was asked of the legal impediment to moving the monument to Triangle Park. Farnsley quipped, "I'm the only hindrance, and I'm not legal." In 1954, the monument faced a more serious effort from Mayor Andrew Broaddus, grandson of one of the women of the monument association, to relocate the structure as a part of a $19 million citywide traffic project. By 1956, the mayor and the city compromised and agreed to reduce the area around the monument from a 48-foot diameter circle to a smaller elliptic plot to ease the traffic quandary and avoid moving the monument. The work, completed in 1957 at a cost of $140,000, closed off the Shipp Street entrance and directed local traffic from 3rd and 2nd Streets across Brandeis Avenue. Freedom Park The area presently occupied by the nearby University of Louisville was purchased in 1850 by the city for use as an underutilized cemetery. In 1859, the city transferred the land to the House of Refuge, an orphanage and reform school, also known as the Industrial School of Reform after 1886. As the first buildings neared completion, the Civil War broke out and the Union Army commandeered the buildings as hospitals until 1865. The University of Louisville purchased the property in 1923. The chapel of the House of Refuge was converted to The Belknap Playhouse by the university by 1925. In 1980, the Playhouse was rebuilt across the street at the north end of a triangle of land which includes the Confederate monument to the south. In 2002, plans were conceived to integrate the monument and the Playhouse into the larger Freedom Park, with trees transplanted from Civil War battlefields. Meanwhile, a small street nearby then known as Confederate Place was renamed Unity Place. The street name change was requested by student leaders as early as 1989. January 2005, before the park development was funded, community activist Rev. Louis Coleman submitted a letter to Mayor Jerry Abramson advocating removal of the monument. On November 17, 2008, funding was approved, with the Kentucky state government using $1.6 million of federal funds and the university spending $403,000. Louisville sculptor Ed Hamilton was selected to create a civil rights monument to balance the Confederate Monument; Hamilton had already created an Abraham Lincoln memorial statue in Louisville. In 2002, the late J. Blaine Hudson, at the time Chair of the Pan-African Studies Department at the University of Louisville, explained: In September 2015, the park's name was changed to Charles H. Parrish Jr. Freedom Park. The name reflects the contributions of Dr. Parrish (1899–1989) as the University of Louisville's first African-American educator and Chair of the Sociology Department. At present, the park contains series of black granite obelisks detailing the history of Louisville as well as panels to commemorate the lives of community civil rights leaders. Controversy in 2016 At a press conference, on April 29, 2016, the Mayor of Louisville Greg Fischer and University President James R. Ramsey explained their intention to immediately remove the monument and place it into storage where it would receive cleaning. They stated the monument would be reconstructed at a new location but the location had not yet been determined. On May 2, 2016, a Jefferson County Circuit Court Judge signed a temporary restraining order filed by the Kentucky Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans along with several private individuals. The next day, the Jefferson County Attorney, representing the Mayor, asked for more time to prepare a defense for the intended monument removal. The court granted an extension to May 25, 2016. The plaintiffs contended that Mayor Fischer, by attempting removal of the monument, was violating state and federal preservation law. On May 5, 2016, the attorney for the plaintiffs amended the complaint arguing the monument does not belong to the City of Louisville nor the university. The revised complaint contended the monument belongs to the State of Kentucky as it is a part of the transportation right of way. At a hearing on May 25, 2016, citing lack of evidence to issue an injunction, the Circuit Court Judge dissolved the temporary restraining order. The City of Louisville agreed to hold the removal until the Judge completed her written ruling. Judge Judith McDonald-Burkman dismissed the lawsuit on June 20, 2016, allowing the city to remove the monument. In her ruling, the judge agreed there was no title or other document establishing legal ownership of the monument, but that the plaintiff's arguments were not sufficient. Subsequently, Mayor Fischer stated no work would proceed until the city art commission had met and chosen a new site. In July 2016, the Louisville Commission on Public Art met with the public to discuss options of where to move the monument. Suggestions to the commission included a river front park in Brandenburg, Perryville Battlefield State Historic Site, and a site in Paducah owned by the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Brandenburg, Kentucky On November 15, 2016, Mayor Fischer announced the monument would be moved to Brandenburg, located 44 miles west of Louisville along the Ohio River in Meade County, Kentucky. Sarah Lindgren, the public art administrator for Louisville, said the time capsule, thought located within the monument, would be loaned to the Filson Historical Society for an exhibit if it was found. Dismantlement of the monument began November 19, 2016, and the time capsule was located two days later, and found to be in a poor state of preservation. The monument was scheduled to be moved to Brandenburg the week of November 28, 2016. The University of Louisville Foundation estimated the cost of moving the monument at roughly $400,000. $350,000 was estimated as contributed by the Foundation, with $50,000 from the City of Louisville, and with the town of Brandenburg contributing an initial $10,000 for the new foundation. Messer Construction was tasked with the construction effort. The Mayor of Brandenburg, Ronnie Joyner, said the patina on the statues would not be removed. This decision was estimated to save about $7,400 in cost to the Foundation. The work to relocate the monument to Brandenburg was completed on December 12, 2016. A monument rededication ceremony was performed on May 29, 2017, with approximately 400 in attendance. The new location for the Confederate Monument is immediately west of the Riverfront Park at the terminus of Main Street in Brandenburg. The foundation is resting on St. Louis Limestone. East of the monument is a state historical marker where Gen John Hunt Morgan and his men crossed into Indiana in July 1863. The state marker is an entry for a historical walking trail along the Ohio River. Figures commemorating Native American settlement of the region, the Underground Railroad and additional information panels regarding Morgan's crossing are located along the trail. The park is the site for a biennial Civil War reenactment of the Great Raid of 1863. In June 2020 there were protests of the monument around the time of the George Floyd protests. People largely from outside of the town (Motorcycle groups with lower rockers saying Virginia or Tennessee) came to defend the monument after a rumor of a protest regarding it started. Although protestors did show up, there was no formal application for a protest, or support from the Black Lives Matter organization. The attendees there to defend the monument were largely armed with rifles. Some attendees wore confederate regalia or flew Confederate battle flags, even the flag of the fictional Kekistan. Historic status A 2002 act of the General Assembly created the Kentucky Military Heritage Commission. The Commission oversees the protection of monuments and memorials in their registry. The Confederate monument is currently listed as a potential site. The monument was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 17, 1997, one of sixty-one different Civil War-related sites in Kentucky so honored on the same day. Four other monuments are in Louisville/Jefferson County. The 32nd Indiana Monument and the Union Monument in Louisville were both in Cave Hill Cemetery, although the first is now at Louisville's Frazier History Museum to preserve it. John B. Castleman Monument is on Cherokee Circle in the Highlands, a block from Bardstown Road. The other, Confederate Martyrs Monument in Jeffersontown, is in Jeffersontown City Cemetery in Jeffersontown, Kentucky. In supplemental material collected for the 1997 nomination, Joseph E. Brent of the Kentucky Heritage Council argued Gaines Foster's three phases of the Lost Cause does not fit well with the Kentucky experience. Brent suggests two periods divided by the 19th and 20th centuries. Brent paraphrases the NRHP guidelines for eligibility to say that monuments moved out of their integrity of location, e.g. a monument moved from a cemetery to a public space, are not eligible for inclusion in the registry. Description At 70-foot-tall, the Louisville Confederate Monument is the second largest in the state of Kentucky and one of the most ornate. The monument was previously located at the intersection of 2nd and 3rd Streets, immediately south of West Brandeis Avenue in Louisville. It is built of granite, constructed by the Muldoon Monument Company, and includes three bronze Confederate soldiers designed by the sculptor Ferdinand von Miller II of Munich, Germany. The infantryman located at the top of the column is 95-inches-tall and in a relaxed position with his rifle. The figure was facing north in the Louisville location. The two side figures near the base of the monument are 70-inches-tall. The east side artillerist is holding a ramrod with swab, and the west side cavalryman holds a partially unsheathed sword. "Our Confederate Dead, 1861–1865" and "Tribute to the Rank and File of the Armies of the South" are inscribed on the north and south face respectively. On the north face is a bronze medallion of the Seal of the Confederate States. At the top of the column are raised relief crossed swords on all four sides. Above the side figures on the east and west and on the south side are stylized raised relief lettering "CSA". The structure weighs about 140,000 pounds. The monument base had a diameter of 48 feet in the early 20th century. A National Register of Historic Places nomination from 1990 describes four elaborate lamp standards that were placed at compass points as a part of a stone fence that once encircled the monument. In an early mention, the monument committee in 1897 proposed to write Frederick Law Olmsted, the park architect, to draw up plans for the structure. Early 20th century reports claim the perimeter lamps were designed by Louisville sculptor Enid Yandell. By 1921, the perimeter of the monument had suffered considerable damage from automobile accidents and the original lamps were changed out after two were knocked down. Both the fence and lamps were removed for traffic considerations in 1957. A 1991 Louisville public art survey estimated cost of repairs to the monument between $20,000-$50,000 dollars including repair of the deteriorating bronze portions. The length of the sheath belonging to the cavalryman at the Raleigh site indicates contemporary damage to the Louisville cast. Bessie Laub, art critic for The Courier-Journal in 1917, summarized the Confederate Monument in Louisville at the time: The monument was used widely in advertisements for the Muldoon Monument Company. The company is still operating today as Muldoon Memorials. Monument images See also John B. Castleman Monument Union Monument in Louisville 32nd Indiana Monument List of American Civil War monuments in Kentucky Louisville, Kentucky, in the American Civil War History of Louisville, Kentucky List of Confederate monuments and memorials Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials References External links Vintage Postcards depicting the Monument Drawing, circa 1900, of Industrial School of Reform with monument in foreground Video: Press Conference, April 29, 2016 Video: Freedom Park renaming, Sep, 2015 Photograph of Judge Reginald H Thompson, model for infantryman (top figure) on monument Photograph of monument, published circa 1906 Civil War Monuments of Kentucky MPS Confederate States of America monuments and memorials in Kentucky Louisville, Kentucky, in the American Civil War National Register of Historic Places in Louisville, Kentucky University of Louisville Former buildings and structures in Louisville, Kentucky Outdoor sculptures in Kentucky 1895 sculptures Bronze sculptures in Kentucky Statues in Kentucky 1895 establishments in Kentucky Sculptures of men in Kentucky Removed Confederate States of America monuments and memorials Relocated buildings and structures in Kentucky National Register of Historic Places in Meade County, Kentucky
5342788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iravan	Iravan	Iravan also known as Iravat and Iravant, is a minor character from the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The son of Pandava prince Arjuna (one of the main heroes of the Mahabharata) and the Naga princess Ulupi, Iravan is the central deity of the cult of Kuttantavar (Kuttandavar) which is also the name commonly given to him in that tradition—and plays a major role in the sect of Draupadi. Both these sects are of Tamil origin, from a region of the country where he is worshipped as a village deity and is known as Aravan. He is also a patron god of well-known transgender communities called Alis (also Aravani in Tamil, and Hijra throughout South Asia). The Mahabharata portrays Iravan as dying a heroic death in the 18-day Kurukshetra War (Mahabharata war), the epic's main subject. However, the South Indian traditions have a supplementary practice of honouring Aravan's self-sacrifice to the goddess Kali to ensure her favour and the victory of the Pandavas in the war. The Kuttantavar tradition focuses on one of the three boons granted to Aravan by the god Krishna in honour of this self-sacrifice. Aravan requested that he be married before his death. Krishna satisfied this boon in his female form, Mohini. In Koovagam (கூவாகம்), Tamil Nadu, this incident is re-enacted in an 18-day festival, first by a ceremonial marriage of Aravan to Alis and male villagers (who have taken vows to Aravan) and then by their widowhood after ritual re-enactment of Aravan's sacrifice. The Draupadi tradition emphasizes another boon: Krishna allows Aravan to witness the entire duration of the Mahabharata war through the eyes of his severed head. In another 18-day festival, the ceremonial head of Aravan is hoisted on a post to witness the ritual re-enactment of the Mahabharata war. The head of Aravan is a common motif in Draupadi temples. Often it is a portable wooden head; sometimes it even has its own shrine in the temple complex or is placed on the corners of temple roofs as a guardian against spirits. Aravan is worshipped in the form of his severed head and is believed to cure disease and induce pregnancy in childless women. Iravan is also known in Indonesia (where his name is spelled Irawan). An independent set of traditions have developed around Irawan on the main island of Java where, for example, he loses his association with the Naga. Separate Javanese traditions present a dramatic marriage of Irawan to Titisari, daughter of Krishna, and a death resulting from a case of mistaken identity. These stories are told through the medium of traditional Javanese theatre (Wayang), especially in shadow-puppet plays known as Wayang Kulit. Etymology and other names According to the Monier Williams Sanskrit–English Dictionary (1899), the name Iravan (, ), also spelt Irawan, is formed from the root Iravat (इरावत्, ), also spelt Irawat. In turn, the root Iravat is derived from Irā (इरा)—closely linked with Iḍā (इडा)—meaning "possessing food", "endowed with provisions" or, by extension, "comfortable" (as used in the Mahabharata and the Rig and Atharva vedic scriptures). Alf Hiltebeitel, George Washington University professor of religion, suggests that the Sanskrit name Iravan or Iravant is derived from Iḍā-vant, "one who possessed Iḍā". The French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau describes religious use of the word Iḍā as reference to an "oblatory substance consumed by the participants from which comes all fecundity of the sacrifice". Based on this definition, Biardeau concludes that Iravant means sacrificial victim in the Mahabharata. Iḍā is also used elsewhere to denote a substance that Devas (demi-gods) and Asuras (demons) vie for. Iravan is generally known as Aravan (, Aravāṇ), also spelt as Aravaan in South India. He is revered as a deity in two southern Indian Hindu cults: the Kuttantavar cult (dedicated solely to Aravan), and the cult of Draupadi (Aravan's stepmother and Arjuna's wife). In his own cult, Aravan is also known as Kuttantavar (கூத்தாண்டவர்), originating from the legend of Kuttantavar killing the demon Kuttacuran. This name is sometimes spelled as Kuttandar, Khoothandavar or Koothandavar. The South Indian, Tamil name, Aravan, is popularly believed to be derived from the word aravam (அரவம்) (snake). Aravan's association with snakes is also apparent in his iconography. Iconography Aravan is always worshipped in temples in the form of his severed head. He is usually depicted with a moustache, pronounced eyes and large ears. Typically, he also wears a conical crown, a Vaishnava tilak mark on his forehead and earrings. Aravan is often depicted with a cobra hood over his crown, cobra heads sprouting through the crown, or a snake emerging from behind the crown. Even the chief Koovagam icon features a serpent on Aravan's crown asserting his mother Ulupis naga lineage. Another distinctive feature of Aravan's iconography is the presence of demonic canine teeth. Although the central Koovagam icon does not feature such demonic teeth, they are a regular feature of most Draupadi cult images, where Aravan's demonic features are emphasized. Aravan-head icons are either painted or unpainted portable ones for processions; they are housed together in the temples of his shrines. Koovagam, Kothadai, Kothattai and Pillaiyarkuppam have icons painted with a red face and multi-coloured ornamentation. Unpainted black stone images of the Aravan-head are seen in Kothattai, Madhukarai and Pillaiyarkuppam. Some paintings also depict the sacrifice of Aravan. In these scenes, he is often depicted bowing to Kali, while his head is about to be severed; or, as in one Sowcarpet painting, a self-decapitated Aravan holds both a sword and his own severed head, offering the latter to the goddess. Historical development Iravan first appears as a minor character in the Mahabharata as the son of Arjuna, the chief hero of the epic. The background to the Mahabharata infers a date that is "after the very early Vedic period" and before "the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.", so "somewhere in the eighth or ninth century". It is generally agreed, however, that "Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style." The earliest surviving components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest external references to the epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's 4th-century grammar manual Ashtadhyayi (4:2:56). It is estimated that the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a "final form" by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century CE). The editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata commented: "It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach on the basis of the manuscript material available." Iravan is also mentioned, as the son of Arjuna and Ulupi, in passing references in two Puranas ("sacred texts") known as the Vishnu Purana (4:20:12)—also with a text history from the late Vedic through the Gupta periods—and the Bhagavata Purana (9:22:32)—traditionally dated to the Vedic period but dated by modern scholars to the 9th or 10th century CE. Although the original Sanskrit version of the Mahabharata records Iravan's (Sanskrit name) death during the 18-day Mahabharata war, the Tamil versions discuss Aravan's (Tamil name) ritual self-sacrifice to Kali before the war. Hiltebeitel relates this to the South Indian glorification of "heroic" self-mutilation and self-decapitation before a goddess. He takes particular note of a scene towards the end of a puranic text, Devi Mahatmyam, in interpreting old Tamil sculptures depicting a warrior king spilling his own blood, as in the Purana, in adoration of a goddess of victory. In the Tamil sculptures, the goddess is Korravai, who became associated with Durga and hence Kali. He also finds parallels in the Telugu legend of the sacrifice of Barbarika—another Mahabharata character—and its variants in Rajasthan (see also: Khatushyamji), Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal, Kurukshetra, Bundelkhand and Orissa. Most notable among the similarities between Aravan and Barbarika is the boon to witness the entire duration of the Mahabharata war—through the eyes of the severed head, despite the sacrifice. The first account of Aravan's sacrifice is found in Parata Venpa—the earliest surviving Tamil version of the Mahabharata—by Peruntevanar (9th century). The tale is later retold by Villiputuralvar in his 14th-century Makaparatam and by Nallapillai in the 18th century. The legend is also mentioned in the text Khoothanvar Sthala Purana, associated with the shrine of Kuttantavar. Another source of Aravan traditions is the folk-theatre of Tamil Nadu, called koothu. Aravan Kalappali (or Aravan Kalabali), "Aravan's Battlefield Sacrifice", is a popular theme of the traditional Terukuttu ("street theatre"). Aravan Kalappali tells the story of Aravan's pre-battle self-sacrifice to the goddess Kali to win her support, guaranteeing victory for the Pandavas (Arjuna and his brothers) in the Mahabharata war. Aravan Kalappali is staged annually in the villages of Melattur, Kodukizhi and Yervadi, according to various forms of the koothu folk-theatre. In Karambai, Aravan Kalappali is performed as part of the cult of Draupadi, on the 18th day of an annual festival (April–May), to please the goddess. In modern interpretations, Aravan's head symbolizes not only self-sacrifice but also regeneration and continuity, because of his ability to see the war after his sacrifice. For example, Iramacamippulavar's Merkolvilakka Kkatai Akaravaricai (1963)—which narrates the tale of Aravan—ends with the conclusion that Aravan continues to live on as a folk hero in Tamil Nadu, because he embodies "the ideal of self-sacrifice". Aravan is considered to be a representation of the cost of war; he evokes the "countless innocent" reluctantly sent by their mothers "to be consumed by the insatiable Goddess of War". Indologist David Shulman, on the other hand, considers Aravan's sacrifice to be a reworking of the serpent sacrifice in the Tamil epic tradition. Mahabharata While the marriage of Iravan's parents is mentioned in the first book of the Mahabharata, Adi Parva (the Book of Beginnings), both the birth and death of Iravan are mentioned later, in the sixth book, Bhishma Parva (the Book of Bhishma). In this sixth book of the epic, Arjuna, the third Pandava brother, is exiled from Indraprastha (the capital city of the Pandava kingdom) to go on a 12-year pilgrimage as a penance for violating the terms of his marriage to Draupadi, the Pandava brothers' common wife. Arjuna reaches the north-east region of present-day India and falls in love with Ulupi, a widowed Naga princess. The two get married and have a son named Iravan; later, Arjuna proceeds with his pilgrimage, leaving Iravan and Ulupi behind in Nagaloka, the abode of the Nagas. Iravan is described as being born parakshetre, literally "in a region belonging to another person", interpreted by Hiltebeitel as "upon the wife of another". Iravan grew up in Nagaloka, protected by his mother, but was rejected by his maternal uncle because of the latter's hatred of Arjuna. After reaching maturity, Iravan, hoping to be reunited with his father, departs for Indraloka, the abode of the god Indra, who is also Arjuna's father. Upon meeting his adult son, Arjuna requests his assistance in the Kurukshetra War. Thus Iravan finally reaches the battlefield of Kurukshetra to assist his father and Pandavas against their cousins and opponents, the Kauravas and slays many enemy warriors. On the first day of war, Iravan fights a duel with Srutayush, a Kshatriya king who had been a daitya (demon) called Krodhavasa in a prior incarnation. Srutayush is later killed by Arjuna. On the seventh day of war, Iravan also defeats Vinda and Anuvinda, the princes of Avanti, who are later killed by Arjuna. On the eighth day of the war, Iravan combats the princes of Gandhara, sons of king Suvala, and the younger brothers of Shakuni, the treacherous maternal uncle of the Kauravas. The brothers Gaya, Gavaksha, Vrishava, Charmavat, Arjava, and Suka attack Iravan, supported by the whole Kaurava army, but Iravan's army of Nagas slay all the soldiers, leaving the Gandhara princes for Iravan. Iravan, then gets down from his chariot and slays five of the Gandhara princes in a sword fight; Vrishava alone escapes death. Agitated by this reversal, the eldest Kaurava, Duryodhana, orders the rakshasa (giant) Alamvusha (or Alambusha), son of Rishyasringa, to kill Iravan. This time Alambusha, as well as Iravan, uses illusion in combat. Alambusha attacks Iravan with a bow, but Iravan counters, breaking Alambusha's bow and slicing the giant into several pieces. Alambusha's body, however, reconstitutes itself. Then Iravan assumes the form of the serpent Shesha (Ananta), and his serpent army surrounds him to protect him. Alambusha counters this by assuming the form of Garuda (the eagle-man), the eternal foe of the serpents, and devours the serpent army. Ultimately, Alambusha kills Iravan by cutting off his head, though Iravan is later avenged when Ghatotkacha, his cousin, finally kills Alambusha during the night war on the fourteenth day. Tamil traditions Selection as sacrificial victim The earliest source of Tamil traditions regarding Aravan is found in Peruntevanar's Parata Venpa, a 9th-century Tamil version of the Mahabharata. One of the features of this work is its reference to a rite it calls kalappali ("sacrifice to the battlefield"), a term found only in Tamil versions of the Mahabharata. This is a ritual performed before battle to ensure victory. In Peruntevanar's narrative, just before the Mahabharata war, Duryodhana—the leader of the Kauravas and opponent of the Pandavas—learns from the Pandava's expert astrologer, Sahadeva, that the day of the new moon, indeed the very next day, would be the most auspicious time for a kalappali. Consequently, Duryodhana approaches and convinces Aravan to be the sacrificial victim for the kalappali. The god Krishna, who is a close friend of and advisor to the Pandavas, hears of Duryodhana's plan, and devises one of his own, to ensure that Aravan will give himself as a sacrifice on behalf of the Pandavas rather than the Kauravas. Krishna first discusses the issue with Yudhishthira (Dharma or Dharmaraja), the eldest of the Pandavas, recommending the sacrifice to Kali as a part of an ayudha-puja ("worship of the weapons"). Krishna establishes that there are four candidates most suited to being offered as the victim: Shalya, who is on the side of Kauravas; Arjuna, the commander of the Pandavas; Aravan; and Krishna himself. From this shortlist, Krishna finally narrows the best choice down to Aravan. Aravan agrees to undergo the kalappali on behalf of the Pandavas but mentions his prior commitment to Duryodhana. Later Tamil sources provide variants to Peruntevanar's version. In Villiputuralvar's 14th-century version, Krishna first offers himself as the sacrificial victim, but Aravan volunteers to replace him. There is no mention of Duryodhana in this version of the legend. In other accounts, Aravan is sacrificed in order to counteract the Kauravas' sacrifice of a white elephant. In the traditions of the village of Neppattur, in the Thanjavur district, Aravan is described as being so strong that he could slay all the Duryodhanas at once, thus preventing any war from happening. So Krishna prescribes the human sacrifice of Aravan in order that "the greater sacrifice of the war can take place". In terukkuttu performances, at the time of Aravan's sacrifice, he is often compared to Puru and Bhishma, characters in the Mahabharata who gave up their youth and sexual fulfilment for the sake of their respective fathers, Yayati and Santanu. In the drama, after acquiring Aravan's approval, Krishna approaches Aravan's mother, Ulupi—Nagakanni or Nakakanni ("Serpent maiden") in Tamil, for her consent. At first she strongly opposes her son's proposed sacrifice but finally relents when Aravan appeals to her, explaining that he belongs to Kali alone. Finally, in all versions of the tale, Krishna tricks the gods Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the Moon) to co-ordinate their movements so that the day of the new moon will fall one day earlier—the current day. This allows Aravan to make the initial sacrifice of flesh on behalf of the Pandavas, only making the rest-offering on behalf of Duryodhana the following day, yet fulfilling his promise to Duryodhana by doing so. Three boons In Parata Venpa, Aravan asks Krishna to grant him the boon of a heroic death on the battlefield at the hands of a great hero. Although Parata Venpa mentions only one boon, the overall Tamil tradition preserves a total of three distinct boons associated with Aravan. The single boon of Parata Venpa, according to Hiltebeitel, indicates an early (9th-century) effort to harmonize the Tamil tradition of Aravan's pre-battle sacrifice with the original Sanskrit account of his death during the battle at the hands of Alambusha (Alampucan in Tamil). In both the Kuttantavar and Draupadi cults, Aravan is believed to have been granted a second boon—to see the entire 18-day war. A second boon is indeed found in Villiputuralvar's 14th-century version of the Mahabharata. In this version, Aravan is granted boons of watching the battle for a "few days" and of dying gloriously after killing many enemies, though Villiputuralvar does not actually specify whether Aravan's head survives to see the complete battle after his bodily death on the eighth day. The third boon is found only in the folk rituals. This third boon provides for Aravan to be married before the sacrifice, entitling him to the right of cremation and funerary offerings (bachelors were buried). However, no woman wanted to marry Aravan, fearing the inevitable doom of widowhood (see also sati). In the Kuttantavar cult version, Krishna solves this dilemma by taking on his female form, Mohini the enchantress, marrying Aravan, and spending that night with him. The Koovagam version additionally relates Krishna's mourning as a widow after Aravan's sacrifice the next day, after which he returns to his original masculine form for the duration of the war. The terukuttu performance presents a stylised wedding ceremony followed by Mohini's abrupt departure, which is taken to signify that the marriage is unconsummated. Another version, popular with trans people, cites the reason behind Aravan's wish to be "coital bliss" and tells explicitly about consummation of the marriage. This third marriage boon is not, however, uniform across all the folk traditions. In other legends, Krishna arranges some other pre-war marriages. In Thanjavur, the marriage of Aravan and Mohini is unknown; instead it depicts Aravan as married to Paravanacciyal, the daughter of Krishna's younger cousin-brother Satyaki. Hiltebeitel theorizes that both the first (heroic-death) and third (marriage) boons originated with the Kuttantavar cult, while the second boon originated with the Draupadi cult. The Kuttantavar cult ritualizes both the heroic death and the marriage ceremony—enacted by Alis (officially, "eunuchs" in Tamil Nadu). Whereas, in the Draupadi cult it is the clay head of Aravan, fixed on a posta and witnessing the re-enactment of the 18-day war, that is prominently ritualized. Additionally, Draupadi-cult texts from Thajavur concentrate only on this second boon, omitting the other two. The pre-battle sacrifice is incompatible with the first and second boons, but the cults have their own explanations. The self-sacrifice prior to the war is incompatible with dying a heroic death during the war and both are incompatible with living to see the full duration of the war. The Kuttantavar cult resolves the first dilemma, holding that Aravan's body reconfigured itself after the sacrifice and that Aravan went on to die a heroic death on the eighth day of the war. The Kuttantavar cult are not overly concerned about the second boon of Aravan's continued observation of the war. On the other hand, the Draupadi cult are not overly concerned about the first boon of the heroic death; they resolve the second dilemma, regarding Aravan's continued observation of the war, holding that Aravan was able to watch the entire war through the eyes of his severed head. A third view harmonizes all the boons, holding that Aravan's body reconstituted after the sacrifice; he then fought heroically until being decapitated on the eighth day, observing the remainder of the war through the eyes of his severed head. In any case, the pre-battle sacrifice is the common element in the Tamil traditions. After Aravan requested and was granted his boons, he was ready for the sacrifice. He proceeds to the Kurukshetra battlefield. While Yudhishthira is worshipping Kali in his "hall of weapons", Aravan removes his epaulettes and chest plate. He then cuts his body into 32 pieces—one cut for each of his 32 bodily perfections—which are offered by Yudhishthira to Kali. In a terukuttu performance, this is depicted by covering the actor playing Aravan with a white cloth from the neck down. It is also believed that Aravan's spirit may possess the actor at this point. Sometimes a chicken is sacrificed on stage in a terukuttu performance to signify the sacrifice. In Villiputuralvar's retelling, an elephant is sacrificed to the goddess, complementing Aravan's own self-sacrifice. Aravan, after being stripped of his flesh, has only his head and skeleton remaining. Krishna advises him to pray to the Naga, Adi-Shesha, his grandfather, and father of Ulupi. Adi-Shesha coils himself around Aravan, becomes his flesh and restores his body. To fulfil the second boon, Krishna orchestrates the heroic death by making one of the enemy strong enough to defeat the mighty Aravan. Krishna selects Alambusha. Then, depending on the version of the story, Krishna either advises Alambusha to assume the form of Garuda via a heavenly voice, or he sends the true Garuda to assist Alambusha. At the sight of Garuda—his perennial "eagle" adversary—Shesha uncoils in fear, leaving Aravan unprotected and leading ultimately to Alambusha beheading the weakened Aravan. Aravan to Kuttantavar A traditional story local to Koovagam describes how Aravan came to be known as Kuttantavar. After the war, while the Pandavas are boasting about vanquishing the Kauravas, Krishna asks Aravan—the sole witness of the entire war, "who was truly responsible for winning this war?" Aravan replies that he saw two things: Krishna's discus decapitating the enemy, and his conch shell collecting their blood. This reply is understood to give all the credit for the victory to Krishna. Aravan's opinion enrages the proud and quick-tempered Bhima, whose influence in deciding the outcome of the battle is covered at great length in the Mahabharata. However, before Bhima can wound Aravan, Krishna orders Aravan's head to be dropped in the river Caraparika, where he assumes the form of a child, and is eventually found by the king of Chandragiri, a city on the river bank. The child cries "Kuva Kuva", when picked up by the king, who therefore names the location Kuvakkam (Koovagam). The king also names the child Carapalan ("reed-child"). The tradition goes on to relate that Carapalan grew up, going on to kill the demon Kuttacuran, who had wounded his adopted father in battle. Draupadi—identified in this tradition with the Supreme Goddess—blesses Carapalan with the new name Kuttantavar—the slayer of Kuttacuran—and grants him a temple in Koovagam. There are variants within this tradition. Some versions give the credit for finding the child to Queen Kirupanci of Chandragiri. Others omit mention of the king of Chandragiri altogether, and omit reference to the Koovagam temple. Instead they focus on the demon Kuttacuran and an apparently impossible boon granted to him that he will be killed by a person having only a head and who was born from water. Vishnu, incarnated as Krishna, informs the gods that Aravan will kill this demon. With this in mind, the head of Aravan is consigned to the river and is transformed into a child called Kuttan ("born from water"), who kills the demon. Worship Following and temples Hiltebeitel argues that the Kuttantavar cult might represent the original Tamil tradition regarding Aravan, however it is no longer the only tradition that venerates Aravan. The Draupadi cult has developed traditions and rituals of its own. Most Kuttantavar devotees reside in the Tamil Nadu districts of Cuddalore, Thiruvannamalai, Vellore and Villupuram. Draupadi's devotees have also spread across these districts, as well as into the Kanchipuram (former Chingleput) district. Her temples can also be seen in the Thanjavur district and beyond, to the southern districts of the states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The temples of Kuttantavar are fewer than the Draupadi temples and are restricted to a belt running from the Cuddalore and Villupuram districts through to Coimbatore. Thirty-two of these temples are particularly prominent; Koovagam is the foremost. The 32 temples are: Coimbatore district Singanallur (Cinkanallur, Singanallur-Neelikonampalyam) Kancappalli Kumaramankalam Kurichi Annur Tutiyalur (Thudiyalur) Cuddalore District Kotthattai Puvanakiri Tevanampattanam Tiruvetkalam Erode district Kalarikiyam Salem district Palaiyacuramankalam Panaimatal Pelur Tetavur Thiruvannamalai district Cerppapattu Kilvanampati Tevanur Vedanthavadi - www.vedanthavadi.com Viranantal Vellore District Colavaram Otukkattur Pulimetu Putur Vellayampati Villupuram District Konalur Koovagam (Kuvakkam) Pennaivalam Tailapuram Puducherry Union territory Madukarai Pillaiyarkuppam Varichikudy, Karaikal The severed head of Aravan is a common motif in Draupadi's temples. Often it is a portable wooden head; sometimes this even has its own shrine in the temple complex. Icons of Aravan's head are also often placed on the corners and edges of Draupadi temple roofs. As a pey or bhuta (spirit), Aravan acts as a guardian against other spirits, for the temple itself, and also for the Patukalam ceremony. Patukalam, in the Draupadi cult, is the symbolic ground on which the Mahabharata war is ritually re-enacted. In the taluks of Thajavur, Kumbhakonam and Pattukkotai, Aravan's head is enshrined permanently in a mandapa or within a temple niche. The largest known Aravan head is found at the Hajiyar Teru temple in Kumbhakonam. Kuttantavar tradition Aravan is known as Kuttantavar in the cult which bears his name, and in which he is the chief deity. His main temple is in Koovagam, Tamil Nadu. Here, the marriage of Aravan and Mohini, Krishna's female form, and her widowhood and mourning, after Aravan's sacrifice, forms the central theme of an 18-day annual festival either side of the night of the full moon in the Tamil month of Cittirai (April–May). The day of the full moon is the central day of the festival, when Aravan's sacrifice is ritually re-enacted. Aravanis, who call themselves Alis in this geographic area, take part in the Koovagam festival by re-enacting the marriage of Aravan and Mohini. The Aravanis participate in similar Kuttantavar festivals, of smaller scale, in other villages like Tevanampattanam, Tiruvetkalam, Adivarahanattum— north-west of Chidambaram—and Kotthatai (all in Tamil Nadu) and also in Pillaiyarkuppam, in Puducherry. Although local Aravanis have been part of this festival for many years, since the 1960s, a large number of Aravanis have come to the festival from further afield: from throughout Tamil Nadu, from the whole of India, and even from as far away as Singapore. About 25,000 Transgender followers, including the Aravanis, visit the festival. Francis's account of 1906 records men dressed as women, from Vanniyar and other castes, becoming part of the festival—a "popular feast , but there is no explicit mention of Aravanis. It also records that the ritual marriage of the men to Kuttantavar and their widowhood occurred on the last day of the festival, unlike the present form of the festival, which has the marriage ceremony on the 14th day, and the widowhood ceremony on the 16th day. During the first six days of the Kuttantavar festival, Aravan's head (cami) is "danced" around the streets of Kuvagam, with music and fireworks accompanying it. Each household offers a puja (a kind of devotional ceremony) to Aravan, with lamp-waving, coconut-offerings and other rituals. Traditionally, goats and chickens are sacrificed. On the 13th day, Aravan's "soul" is ritually transferred from his head to a pot, and the head is repainted. On the evening of the 14th day, a high post is erected on a processional chariot. The post will support Aravan's head and body later in the festival. After the post-setting ceremony (kampam niruttatal), young and middle-aged men (farmers and traders from Koovagam and surrounding villages) who have vowed to marry Aravan purchase thalis—the traditional mark of a married woman, in this case a pendant with a piece of turmeric at its centre. The priest, representing Aravan, ties the thalis around their necks in the inner sanctum of the temple. Even married men and men afflicted with diseases, all dressed as women, are described as ritually "marrying" Aravan in the festival, to please the deity. The Aravanis arrive in increasing numbers from the 14th through the 16th day. Late on the 15th night, they dance with the flower-crown (karakam) of Aravan, which is believed to possess his power. After this dance, the priest marries the Aravanis to Aravan through the traditional thali-tying ceremony. The Aravanis then conduct sex work, symbolic of consummating their ritual marriage. A "night of wild revelry and sexual promiscuity" follows for the Aravanis. However, the villagers who married Aravan are not described as having sex in any of the accounts. While Aravanis wear women's clothes and jewellery, villagers marrying Aravan on account of wish-fulfilment vows made to him retain their ordinary men's clothes. Early on the 16th day, the "soul" of Aravan is transferred back to his repainted head and the cuvami tirukkan tirattal ("opening of the god's holy eyes") ceremony is performed with painting of the pupils. The head is then paraded around the village on a portable platform called a ketayam. The ketayam is accompanied by two other platform-chariots, one holding the chest plate and epaulettes of Aravan—without which the festival is considered incomplete; the other carries his flower-crown. The ceremony ends with a sacrificial offering of roosters. Aravan's head is fixed on the post, with his large epaulettes and chest plate fixed to his body, which is made of straw and surrounded by a garland. The image is then paraded across the village in preparation for his kalappali and ritual re-enactment of his death on the eighth day of the war. At noon his chariot turns north, a symbolic gesture representing his kalappali and then he is turned to face the ceremonial Kurukshetra battlefield, symbolizing his entry onto the battlefield to die at the hands of Alambusha. On arrival in Kurukshetra, the garlands are removed, indicating the removal of his flesh and his defeat on the eighth day of war. Returning from the battlefield, the chariot turns towards the location prepared for the ceremonial mourning rituals, the "weeping ground" (alukalam). The "widowed" Aravanis, with their hair dishevelled, lament the death of their "husband" as he performs the kalappali. The garlands from Aravan's image are thrown at devotees one by one, symbolizing his gradual loss of vitality. At this "weeping ground", the Aravanis mourn Aravan's death by breaking their bangles, beating their breasts and discarding their bridal finery, like the legendary Mohini-Krishna. They cut their thalis, which are flung at a post erected for the ceremony (vellikkal). After bathing, they put on white saris as a mark of their widowhood. The Aravanis bear these signs of widowhood for a month before re-adorning themselves with bangles and coloured saris again. At mid-afternoon, as the chariot reaches alukalam, Aravan is stripped to his skeletal straw body. Most Aravanis have left and men wedded to Aravan also break their thalis and bangles and perform all the rites of widowhood (the vellikkal rites) before the image of Aravan. Meanwhile, a paratiyar (Mahabharata-reciter) tells the story of the culmination of the war, symbolic of Aravan fulfilling his wish of seeing the war. Hiltebeitel suggests that while the Aravanis weep for Aravan's kalappali, the villagers weep for the death of an ancestor, as life leaves Aravan's head at the end of the war. Also at the alukalam, a symbolic sacrifice of cooked "blood rice" is distributed in honour of the deceased Aravan. This rice is believed to make childless women conceive. After the death rites at dusk, the chariot is now considered a "house of death", and the lifeless head is removed from the frame of its skeletal body, then covered by a cloth, and finally paraded around the village as though at a funeral. The head is taken to the temple of Kali, where is it "revived". In a ceremony called vitaiyatti ("the return dance"), the head is once more danced around the village, right up until early morning on the 17th day. On the 18th and final day, the head is decorated and paraded around the village a final time. In the evening, the pujari ("priest") as Yudhishthira (Dharmaraja) crowns Aravan's head in a coronation ceremony held in the inner sanctum of his temple. In Coimbatore district, Aravan Thiruvizha (The festival of Aravan) is celebrated in seven places in Coimbatore city such as Vellalore, Thudiyalur, Kurichi, Singanallur, Annur, Vadavalli and Kattampatti. The festival at Singanallur, celebrated in the Tamil month of Karthigai, is the largest of the seven festivals. It is termed as "Saathi Nallinakka Thiruvizha" involving the share of over eight communities. The festival is celebrated in the month of Thai in Annur, Thudiyalur in the month of Purattasi, Kurichi in the month of Aiipasi, Kattampatti in the month of Thai and Vadavalli in the month of Panguni. Draupadi cult rituals Devotees of Draupadi commemorate the Mahabharata war by conducting an annual festival known as patukalam. This festival usually begins with a kuttu ("drama") re-enacting Draupadi's wedding. During the festival, the actor playing the part of Draupadi (and other women participating in the public ceremonies) lament the death of Aravan and the other heroes of the war. There is some variation in the length of the patukalam festival and in the day allocated to performing the kuttu of "Aravan's sacrifice" (kalappali), but wherever the ritual kalappali is performed, that place is declared to be, symbolically, the battlefield of Kurukshetra. In Irunkal, Tamil Nadu, this kuttu is usually performed 16 days before "patukalam day", the last day of an 18-day festival. In Singapore, however, the kuttu is performed on the day of the new moon in the Tamil month of Purattaci (September–October). In shorter 10- to 12-day festivals, the kuttu and ritualisation of Aravan's kalappali are performed on the concluding night of the festival, as can be observed in Bangalore and in and around Chennai—at Sowcarpet, Alantur and Punamalli. There is also variation in how Aravan is represented in the festivities. While permanent wooden Aravan heads are used in temples in Chennai and Puducherry, in rural areas the head and body of Aravan are made of clay; both are destroyed at the end of the festival. At Tindivanam, a headless clay and bamboo body of Aravan is modelled, showing him in a heroic position, kneeling on his left knee and holding a bow. A clay head is then ceremoniously fixed, making the effigy about tall. The officiating priest first takes a sword, striking pieces from the head. Then, a pumpkin is sliced into 32 pieces, symbolizing 32 pieces of Aravan's sacrificed body. Next, Aravan is fed his own "blood", represented by the blood of goat, sacrificed to Aravan beforehand. Aravan's body from the neck downwards is then covered with a bloodstained white cloth. Finally, blood-soaked rice is sprinkled on Aravan's face. Devotees, as in the Kuttantavar cult, believe eating this rice from Aravan's face, recovered after the ceremony, can induce pregnancy. In Cattiram Karuppur, near Kumbhakonam, a statue of Aravan is constructed horizontally and placed on the ground. Aravan's story is then re-enacted; one of the actors, believed to be possessed by Kali, kills a rooster over the statue's neck, symbolizing the sacrifice. Again, blood-soaked rice is distributed to devotees, especially childless women. Similar rituals associated with a symbolic sacrifice and blood-soaked rice are performed in Melaccari, Alantur, Punamalli and Villupuram. At Alantur and Punamalli, a goat is sacrificed, in Cuddalore, Patirikkuppam and Villupuram, a cock is sacrificed. In the districts of Cuddalore, Thanjavur and Villupuram, Aravan's head is hoisted to an elevated position to watch over the patukalam and the symbolic re-enactment of the Mahabharata war. Javanese traditions The Indonesian island of Java, run by the Srivijaya dynasty of Sumatra from the 7th century, partly practised Hinduism. This included transmission and adoption of the Mahabharata traditions. "The earliest evidence of the penetration of the Sanskrit epics into rural areas is found in the Sangsang copper plate inscription issued in the name of King Balitung in AD 907." A "rendering of the Mahābhārata (IAST original) into Javanese was undertaken under the patronage of King Dharmawangśa Tĕguh (AD 990–1016)", culminating in "a recital of the Wirāṭaparwa for 'one month minus one evening'—commencing on 14 October and ending on 12 November 996." This first translation into Javanese was "abbreviated" and in "prose". However, East Javanese poets later started producing native metered kakawin, expanding on themes from the parvas ("books" or "chapters") of the Mahabharata, and freely importing these into Javanese settings. Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder commented: "These men and women with their Indian names are essentially Javanese, acting like Javanese, thinking like Javanese and living in a Javanese environment." The stories of Iravan, usually spelled Irawan in Java, along with others from the Javanese version of the Mahabharata, are told in traditional Javanese theatre (wayang), as well as shadow-puppet plays known as wayang kulit. As in India, Irawan is described as a son of Ardjuna (Arjuna) and Ulupi. While in India, Irawan's mother Ulupi is a Naga (serpent), in Javanese legends she is the daughter of the sage Kanwa (Jayawilapa in puppetry) of the Yasarata hermitage. Irawan is born and brought up in the hermitage under the care of his mother and grandfather, away from his father. Irawan and his stepbrother Abhimanju (Abhimanyu) or Angkawijaya are the protagonists of more than 40 lakons ("scenes", "dramas" or "plays") set in the Amarta Period, the era of the Pandawas (Pandavas). In these lakons, Irawan is depicted as a lijepan character—"a small, extremely refined, controlled character, whose manner is modest". In the wayang kulit, he is referred to as a bambang ("refined knight"), depicted with a white face and dubbed with a light, floating voice. Irawan is also described as determined and calm. Irawan Rabi A popular lakon named Irawan Rabi ("Irawan's wedding") tells about the love of Irawan and Titisari, a daughter of Kresna (Krishna). While Titisari is engaged to Irawan, Baladewa (Baladeva), Kresna's brother and an ally of the Kurawas (Kauravas), wants her to marry Lesmana Mandrakumara, the son of Durjudana (Duryodhana), initiating a dramatic conflict. The conflict that ensues ends up being three-sided, among the Pandawas, Kurawas and the ogre-kingdom, whose evil ogre-king Barandjana plans to kidnap Titisari. The confusion that follows results in the outwitting and humiliation of the Kurawas. Siti Sendari, the eldest daughter of Kresna and the estranged wife of Abhimanju, takes advantage of the situation and schemes to bring Irawan and Titisari together, while also mending her relationships with her husband. Though officially Irawan and Titisari are the hero and heroine of the lakon, in reality they are mere spectators, not the movers, in the play. Brandon describes Irawan as a minor character. Irawan is also depicted as unassertive and manipulated by others, which is common in South Asian theatre. Another lakon called Serat Lampahan Pregiwa Pregiwati also relates a tale about the love of Irawan and Titisari. Serat Gambiranom In a lakon called Serat Gambiranom, written in macapat verse by Mangkunegara IV's court poet R. M. Ng. Wiryakusuma in 1883, and embellished by anonymous later poets, Irawan becomes the king of Ngrancang Kencana and earns the title Prabu Gambiranom. Yet another lakon, Irawan Maling, discusses a duel between Irawan and Angkawijaya. Irawan(an)taka The kakawin text Irawan(an)taka ("Death of Irawan"), also known as Parthawijaya ("Arjuna's Victory"), describes Irawan's death in the Bharatayuddha (Mahabharata war). At the beginning of the Bharatayuddha, Irawan advances to the battlefield along with his brothers. Together, they kill many Kurawas. Later, the demon (ditya) Kalasrenggi encounters Irawan. Kalasrenggi, whose father was killed by Ardjuna, mistakes Irawan for Ardjuna because of the similarity of their appearance and kills him. Arjuna then kills Kalasrenggi to avenge Irawan's death. The death of Irawan is placed at the very beginning of the war in the Javanese version of the Mahabharata. The puppetry version of the story places this encounter between Irawan and Kalasrenggi even before Irawan's meeting with his father, ahead of the Bharatayuddha. Notes References Reviewed by Alf Hiltebeitel in Indo-Iranian Journal 43 (2000): 161–169. available at Further reading External links Koovagam festival BBC coverage of the Koovagam festival Characters in the Mahabharata Nāgas Aravan Transgender topics and religion Regional Hindu gods Hindu folk deities LGBT and Hinduism
5342829	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20AFL%20season	1990 AFL season	The 1990 AFL season was the 94th season of the Australian Football League (AFL) and the first under this name, having been known as the Victorian Football League until 1989. It was the highest level senior Australian rules football competition and administrative body in Victoria; and, as it featured clubs from New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia, it was the de facto highest level senior competition in Australia. The season featured fourteen clubs, ran from 31 March until 6 October, and comprised a 22-game home-and-away season followed by a finals series featuring the top five clubs. The premiership was won by the Collingwood Football Club for the 14th time, after it defeated by 48 points in the 1990 AFL Grand Final. Club leadership Foster's Cup defeated 17.10 (112) to 10.16 (76) in the final. Home-and-away season Round 1 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.15 (99) \|\|\|\| 15.14 (104) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 22,427 \|\|Saturday 31, March \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.21 (141) \|\|\|\| 8.12 (60) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 18,960 \|\|Saturday 31, March \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.11 (77) \|\|\|\| 28.24 (192) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 41,694 \|\|Saturday, 31 March \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.17 (89) \|\|\|\| 22.10 (142) \|\|MCG\|\| 23,191 \|\|Saturday, 31 March \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 19.19 (133) \|\|\|\| 10.14 (74) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 11,814 \|\|Saturday, 31 March \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.16 (100) \|\|\|\| 8.6 (54) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 25,342 \|\|Sunday, 1 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.15 (81) \|\|\|\| 22.12 (144) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 28,553 \|\| Sunday, 1 April Round 2 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.14 (68) \|\|\|\| 32.17 (209) \|\|MCG\|\| 18,105 \|\|Friday, 6 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.9 (87) \|\|\|\| 19.8 (122) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 44,906 \|\|Saturday, 7 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.20 (98) \|\|\|\| 8.11 (59) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 6,838 \|\|Saturday, 7 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.20 (128) \|\|\|\| 13.13 (91) \|\|MCG\|\| 29,024 \|\|Saturday, 7 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.19 (127) \|\|\|\| 10.9 (69) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 23,161 \|\|Saturday, 7 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 24.15 (159) \|\|\|\| 14.13 (97) \|\|MCG\|\| 55,311 \|\|Sunday, 8 April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.18 (78) \|\|\|\| 20.20 (140) \|\|SCG\|\| 11,051 \|\|Sunday, 8 April Round 3 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.10 (76) \|\|\|\| 14.8 (92) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 53,065 \|\|Saturday 14, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 7.17 (59) \|\|\|\| 18.14 (122) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 14,842 \|\|Saturday 14, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.21 (111) \|\|\|\| 10.21 (81) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 11,698 \|\|Saturday 14, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.11 (95) \|\|\|\| 17.11 (113) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 8,683 \|\|Sunday 15, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.8 (128) \|\|\|\| 12.21 (93) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 27,839 \|\|Monday 16, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.14 (122) \|\|\|\| 14.11 (95) \|\|MCG\|\| 59,894 \|\|Monday 16, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 22.18 (150) \|\|\|\| 11.11 (77) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 23,031 \|\|Monday 16, April Round 4 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.18 (120) \|\|\|\| 10.10 (70) \|\|WACA Ground\|\| 28,568 \|\|Friday 20, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.12 (96) \|\|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 17,948 \|\|Saturday 21, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 6.13 (49) \|\|\|\| 18.19 (127) \|\|MCG\|\| 17,975 \|\|Saturday 21, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.10 (64) \|\|\|\| 13.11 (89) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 13,671 \|\|Saturday 21, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.12 (120) \|\|\|\| 5.8 (38) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 8,649 \|\|Saturday 21, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.22 (112) \|\|\|\| 20.23 (143) \|\|MCG\|\| 28,512 \|\|Sunday 22, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.19 (97) \|\|\|\| 19.17 (131) \|\|SCG\|\| 11,472 \|\|Sunday 22, April Round 5 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.16 (76) \|\|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 24,960 \|\|Wednesday 25, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 21.17 (143) \|\|\|\| 9.10 (64) \|\|MCG\|\| 23,078 \|\|Wednesday 25, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.13 (91) \|\|\|\| 12.20 (92) \|\|MCG\|\| 67,893 \|\|Saturday 28, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.15 (81) \|\|\|\| 12.17 (89) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 42,097 \|\|Saturday 28, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.12 (108) \|\|\|\| 10.18 (78) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 13,144 \|\|Saturday 28, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 8.13 (61) \|\|\|\| 19.11 (125) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 9,381 \|\|Saturday 28, April \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 19.14 (128) \|\|\|\| 10.7 (67) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 25,683 \|\|Sunday 29, April Round 6 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.14 (68) \|\|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|MCG\|\| 17,229 \|\|Friday 4, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.13 (133) \|\|\|\| 14.19 (103) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 17,555 \|\|Saturday 5, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.15 (75) \|\|\|\| 15.11 (101) \|\|MCG\|\| 63,218 \|\|Saturday 5, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.10 (82) \|\|\|\| 5.20 (50) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 13,610 \|\|Saturday 5, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 23.13 (151) \|\|\|\| 12.8 (80) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 18,426 \|\|Saturday 5, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.14 (104) \|\|\|\| 14.17 (101) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 30,895 \|\|Saturday 5, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.14 (98) \|\|\|\| 12.21 (93) \|\|SCG\|\| 10,155 \|\|Sunday 6, May Round 7 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.8 (116) \|\|\|\| 9.7 (61) \|\|MCG\|\| 32,269 \|\|Friday 11, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.13 (91) \|\|\|\| 17.9 (111) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 22,198 \|\|Saturday 12, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.14 (92) \|\|\|\| 13.16 (94) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 48,099 \|\|Saturday 12, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.13 (121) \|\|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 14,524 \|\|Saturday 12, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.13 (85) \|\|\|\| 12.15 (87) \|\|MCG\|\| 16,155 \|\|Saturday 12, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.28 (82) \|\|\|\| 13.18 (96) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 21,181 \|\|Sunday 13, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.12 (96) \|\|\|\| 13.10 (88) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 7,226 \|\|Sunday 13, May Round 8 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.17 (107) \|\|\|\| 13.20 (98) \|\|SCG\|\| 8,960 \|\|Friday 18, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.18 (126) \|\|\|\| 9.5 (59) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 36,370 \|\|Saturday 19, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.21 (75) \|\|\|\| 17.18 (120) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 16,530 \|\|Saturday 19, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.13 (133) \|\|\|\| 11.14 (80) \|\|MCG\|\| 26,376 \|\|Saturday 19, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.22 (94) \|\|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 22,351 \|\|Saturday 19, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|\|\| 14.13 (97) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 25,255 \|\|Sunday 20, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.26 (122) \|\|\|\| 9.9 (63) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 20,457 \|\|Sunday 20, May Round 9 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.15 (123) \|\|\|\| 11.16 (82) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 19,052 \|\|Saturday 26, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 26.20 (176) \|\|\|\| 14.12 (96) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 22,232 \|\|Saturday 26, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.16 (124) \|\|\|\| 17.11 (113) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 21,251 \|\|Saturday 26, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.8 (92) \|\|\|\| 7.6 (48) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 39,701 \|\|Saturday 26, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 8.8 (56) \|\|\|\| 19.11 (125) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 6,628 \|\|Saturday 26, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.16 (112) \|\|\|\| 13.15 (93) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 21,323 \|\|Sunday 27, May \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.19 (139) \|\|\|\| 9.6 (60) \|\|MCG\|\| 19,465 \|\|Sunday 27, May Round 10 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.16 (118) \|\|\|\| 13.12 (90) \|\|MCG\|\| 9,377 \|\|Friday 1, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.18 (108) \|\|\|\| 13.7 (85) \|\|MCG\|\| 31,648 \|\|Saturday 2, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.14 (110) \|\|\|\| 9.4 (58) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 49,655 \|\|Saturday 2, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|\|\| 13.11 (89) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 11,329 \|\|Saturday 2, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 21.22 (148) \|\|\|\| 10.11 (71) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 14,099 \|\|Saturday 2, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.8 (74) \|\|\|\| 25.14 (164) \|\|SCG\|\| 12,551 \|\|Sunday 3, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.12 (96) \|\|\|\| 13.16 (94) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 26,073 \|\|Sunday 3, June Round 11 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.9 (99) \|\|\|\| 8.12 (60) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 19,427 \|\|Saturday 9, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.14 (104) \|\|\|\| 16.16 (112) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 47,572 \|\|Saturday 9, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 19.18 (132) \|\|\|\| 11.17 (83) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 11,848 \|\|Saturday 9, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.13 (73) \|\|\|\| 15.17 (107) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 12,339 \|\|Sunday 10, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.9 (99) \|\|\|\| 13.15 (93) \|\|MCG\|\| 59,782 \|\|Monday 11, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|\|\| 15.10 (100) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 13,271 \|\|Monday 11, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.6 (96) \|\|\|\| 12.10 (82) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 29,698 \|\|Monday 11, June Round 12 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.9 (105) \|\|\|\| 12.10 (82) \|\|WACA\|\| 28,094 \|\|Friday 15, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 24.14 (158) \|\|\|\| 11.23 (89) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 11,738 \|\|Saturday 16, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.16 (88) \|\|\|\| 14.15 (99) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 53,917 \|\|Saturday 16, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.16 (124) \|\|\|\| 13.16 (94) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 16,311 \|\|Saturday 16, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.20 (128) \|\|\|\| 16.12 (108) \|\|MCG\|\| 31,180 \|\|Saturday 16, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.11 (71) \|\|\|\| 17.14 (116) \|\|SCG\|\| 6,136 \|\|Sunday 17, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.8 (68) \|\|\|\| 15.11 (101) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 17,828 \|\|Sunday 17, June Round 13 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.15 (123) \|\|\|\| 13.26 (104) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 29,571 \|\|Saturday 23, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.15 (99) \|\|\|\| 20.12 (132) \|\|MCG\|\| 38,511 \|\|Saturday 23, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 7.13 (55) \|\|\|\| 15.19 (109) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 10,105 \|\|Saturday 23, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.17 (101) \|\|\|\| 5.12 (42) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 31,447 \|\|Saturday 30, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.13 (73) \|\|\|\| 14.7 (91) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 22,388 \|\|Saturday 30, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.23 (131) \|\|\|\| 5.11 (41) \|\|MCG\|\| 10,721 \|\|Saturday 30, June \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 20.8 (128) \|\|\|\| 13.13 (91) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 20,133 \|\|Sunday 1, July Round 14 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 22.21 (153) \|\|\|\| 10.11 (71) \|\|MCG\|\| 11,438 \|\|Friday 6, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.12 (102) \|\|\|\| 11.10 (76) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 23,596 \|\|Saturday 7, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.7 (61) \|\|\|\| 20.24 (144) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 13,339 \|\|Saturday 7, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|\|\| 12.13 (85) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 28,202 \|\|Saturday 7, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.10 (118) \|\|\|\| 7.8 (50) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 30,211 \|\|Saturday 7, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.13 (73) \|\|\|\| 31.14 (200) \|\|MCG\|\| 19,272 \|\|Saturday 7, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.12 (90) \|\|\|\| 25.12 (162) \|\|SCG\|\| 10,555 \|\|Sunday 8, July Round 15 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.12 (108) \|\|\|\| 14.6 (90) \|\|WACA\|\| 20,474 \|\|Friday 13, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.11 (113) \|\|\|\| 8.11 (59) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 76,390 \|\|Saturday 14, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.7 (67) \|\|\|\| 21.16 (142) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 25,159 \|\|Saturday 14, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.10 (112) \|\|\|\| 13.18 (96) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 13,184 \|\|Saturday 14, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.11 (113) \|\|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 18,265 \|\|Saturday 14, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 22.12 (144) \|\|\|\| 15.10 (100) \|\|MCG\|\| 21,426 \|\|Saturday 14, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.9 (111) \|\|\|\| 9.8 (62) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 7,347 \|\|Sunday 15, July Round 16 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.13 (109) \|\|\|\| 9.12 (66) \|\|WACA\|\| 20,296 \|\|Friday 20, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 19.9 (123) \|\|\|\| 15.18 (108) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 25,235 \|\|Saturday 21, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.16 (106) \|\|\|\| 17.12 (114) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 19,945 \|\|Saturday 21, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.6 (108) \|\|\|\| 12.9 (81) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 13,335 \|\|Saturday 21, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.8 (68) \|\|\|\| 25.9 (159) \|\|MCG\|\| 25,532 \|\|Saturday 21, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 19.9 (123) \|\|\|\| 21.21 (147) \|\|SCG\|\| 11,722 \|\|Sunday 22, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.12 (90) \|\|\|\| 7.12 (54) \|\|MCG\|\| 8,310 \|\|Sunday 22, July Round 17 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.11 (101) \|\|\|\| 20.12 (132) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 18,712 \|\|Saturday 28, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.17 (125) \|\|\|\| 6.10 (46) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 24,436 \|\|Saturday 28, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.19 (109) \|\|\|\| 12.18 (90) \|\|MCG\|\| 20,222 \|\|Saturday 28, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.8 (110) \|\|\|\| 20.11 (131) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 18,018 \|\|Saturday 28, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 22.16 (148) \|\|\|\| 10.13 (73) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 19,108 \|\|Saturday 28, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.12 (96) \|\|\|\| 12.21 (93) \|\|MCG\|\| 52,724 \|\|Sunday 29, July \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.11 (95) \|\|\|\| 16.14 (110) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 8,768 \|\|Sunday 29, July Round 18 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.14 (98) \|\|\|\| 15.18 (108) \|\|MCG\|\| 44,627 \|\|Friday 3, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.21 (117) \|\|\|\| 7.7 (49) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 28,301 \|\|Saturday 4, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.8 (92) \|\|\|\| 13.16 (94) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 21,796 \|\|Saturday 4, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.17 (113) \|\|\|\| 10.15 (75) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 8,949 \|\|Saturday 4, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.13 (73) \|\|\|\| 9.6 (60) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 10,890 \|\|Saturday 4, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 9.13 (67) \|\|\|\| 15.6 (96) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 22,142 \|\|Sunday 5, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 10.8 (68) \|\|\|\| 12.11 (83) \|\|SCG\|\| 6,970 \|\|Sunday 5, August Round 19 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.16 (88) \|\|\|\| 17.21 (123) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 10,482 \|\|Saturday 11, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.17 (119) \|\|\|\| 13.5 (83) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 27,612 \|\|Saturday 11, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 27.11 (173) \|\|\|\| 15.16 (106) \|\|MCG\|\| 16,719 \|\|Saturday 11, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 25.13 (163) \|\|\|\| 14.13 (97) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 8,180 \|\|Saturday 11, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.11 (89) \|\|\|\| 7.13 (55) \|\|MCG\|\| 21,094 \|\|Sunday 12, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.6 (84) \|\|\|\| 11.12 (78) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 65,293 \|\|Sunday 12, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 22.21 (153) \|\|\|\| 16.9 (105) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 22,939 \|\|Sunday 12, August Round 20 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 11.20 (86) \|\|\|\| 7.13 (55) \|\|SCG\|\| 5,272 \|\|Friday 17, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.11 (107) \|\|\|\| 12.15 (87) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 25,455 \|\|Saturday 18, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 26.7 (163) \|\|\|\| 12.8 (80) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 53,982 \|\|Saturday 18, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.15 (117) \|\|\|\| 18.8 (116) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 13,712 \|\|Saturday 18, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.16 (88) \|\|\|\| 17.13 (115) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 16,087 \|\|Saturday 18, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 14.10 (94) \|\|\|\| 24.14 (158) \|\|MCG\|\| 16,984 \|\|Saturday 18, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.13 (103) \|\|\|\| 21.13 (139) \|\|Subiaco Oval\|\| 35,623 \|\|Sunday 19, August Round 21 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 27.17 (179) \|\|\|\| 12.15 (87) \|\|MCG\|\| 18,079 \|\|Friday 24, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.14 (116) \|\|\|\| 12.13 (85) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 23,200 \|\|Saturday 25, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.16 (118) \|\|\|\| 4.8 (32) \|\|Victoria Park\|\| 21,008 \|\|Saturday 25, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.14 (104) \|\|\|\| 11.14 (80) \|\|Windy Hill\|\| 17,258 \|\|Saturday 25, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.18 (90) \|\|\|\| 14.8 (92) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 13,109 \|\|Saturday 25, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 7.8 (50) \|\|\|\| 12.14 (86) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 15,342 \|\|Saturday 25, August \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 8.11 (59) \|\|\|\| 14.16 (100) \|\|Carrara Stadium\|\| 7,286 \|\|Sunday 26, August Round 22 \|- style="background:#ccf;" \| Home team \| Home team score \| Away team \| Away team score \| Ground \| Crowd \| Date \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 18.17 (125) \|\|\|\| 16.17 (113) \|\|Princes Park\|\| 14,168 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 8.19 (67) \|\|\|\| 23.18 (156) \|\|Waverley Park\|\| 43,044 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 13.15 (93) \|\|\|\| 19.14 (128) \|\|Moorabbin Oval\|\| 26,661 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 16.21 (117) \|\|\|\| 15.6 (96) \|\|Whitten Oval\|\| 11,371 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 12.11 (83) \|\|\|\| 14.6 (90) \|\|Kardinia Park\|\| 16,312 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 17.14 (116) \|\|\|\| 15.14 (104) \|\|MCG\|\| 57,247 \|\|Saturday 1, September \|- style="background:#fff;" \|\|\| 15.19 (109) \|\|\|\| 20.19 (139) \|\|SCG\|\| 7,180 \|\|Sunday 2, September The St Kilda-Essendon game was the only one in which all 4 Daniher brothers (Anthony, Terry, Neale, and Chris) played in the same match. Ladder \|- style=background:#FFFFBB \| 1 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 17 \|\| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 2526 \|\| 1815 \|\| 139.2 \|\| 68 \|- style=background:#FFFFBB \| 2 \|\| align=left \| (P) \|\| 22 \|\| 16 \|\| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 2376 \|\| 1825 \|\| 130.2 \|\| 64 \|- style=background:#FFFFBB \| 3 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 16 \|\| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 2274 \|\| 1920 \|\| 118.4 \|\| 64 \|- style=background:#FFFFBB \| 4 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 16 \|\| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 2339 \|\| 2066 \|\| 113.2 \|\| 64 \|- style=background:#FFFFBB \| 5 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 14 \|\| 8 \|\| 0 \|\| 2414 \|\| 2002 \|\| 120.6 \|\| 56 \|- \| 6 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 12 \|\| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 2519 \|\| 2210 \|\| 114.0 \|\| 48 \|- \| 7 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 12 \|\| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 2016 \|\| 2031 \|\| 99.3 \|\| 48 \|- \| 8 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 0 \|\| 2277 \|\| 2187 \|\| 104.1 \|\| 44 \|- \| 9 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 9 \|\| 13 \|\| 0 \|\| 2328 \|\| 2313 \|\| 100.6 \|\| 36 \|- \| 10 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 8 \|\| 14 \|\| 0 \|\| 2248 \|\| 2398 \|\| 93.7 \|\| 32 \|- \| 11 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 7 \|\| 15 \|\| 0 \|\| 1988 \|\| 2530 \|\| 78.6 \|\| 28 \|- \| 12 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 7 \|\| 15 \|\| 0 \|\| 1874 \|\| 2389 \|\| 78.4 \|\| 28 \|- \| 13 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 5 \|\| 17 \|\| 0 \|\| 1904 \|\| 2704 \|\| 70.4 \|\| 20 \|- \| 14 \|\| align=left \| \|\| 22 \|\| 4 \|\| 18 \|\| 0 \|\| 1733 \|\| 2426 \|\| 71.4 \|\| 16 \|} Rules for classification: 1. premiership points; 2. percentage; 3. points forAverage score: 100.1Source: AFL Tables Finals series Finals week 1 Finals week 2 Preliminary final Grand final Season notes The Victorian Football League (VFL) was renamed and re-badged, with a new logo), as the Australian Football League in 1990. VFL Park was re-designated as Waverley Park, although it took about two or three years for football commentators and sporting editors to relinquish the usage of the old name for the ground. Prior to the season, it was announced that and – both in serious financial difficulty – would be merging to form a single club known as the Fitzroy Bulldogs, which was to have commenced in the AFL in 1990. Less than three weeks after the announcement, a successful grass-roots campaign by Footscray supporters restored their club to a position of financial viability, and the merger was cancelled. Five minutes into the third quarter of the Round 1 game between Geelong and Hawthorn, the Cats led the Hawks 10.6 (66) to 9.11 (65): Hawthorn then outscored Geelong 19.13 (127) to 1.5 (11) in the rest of the game to win by 115 points. Under the AFL rules at the time, the drawn qualifying final between and was replayed on the following weekend. This meant that minor premier was given a second consecutive bye week, giving them three weeks between games: Essendon ultimately reached the Grand Final through the preliminary final, but they were soundly beaten in both the second Semi-final and Grand Final, to which many laid partial blame upon the extended layoff. Additionally, the one-week delay caused scheduling issues for venues and hotels, as a large number of league and corporate events related to the finals, and particularly in the week of the Grand Final, had to be rescheduled: the extent of this was unprecedented, as the number and scale of such events had increased significantly since the last drawn early weeks finals match, the 1972 Second Semi-final. The AFL introduced the provision to play extra time in drawn finals matches, except the Grand Final, in future years to prevent any repeat of these logistical problems, with extra time being implemented in the Grand Final in 2016. The Port Adelaide Football Club from the South Australian National Football League made a bid to join the AFL; the application was rejected, with a composite SANFL team, christened the "Adelaide Crows", being admitted to the AFL competition in the 1991 season. Port Adelaide would ultimately enter the competition in 1997. The Brisbane-Melbourne game in round 5 was the 10,000th VFL/AFL match. North Melbourne won the Under 19's premiership. North Melbourne 16.12 (108) defeated Melbourne 5.14 (44) in the Grand Final, held as a curtain-raiser to the reserves grand final on 6 October at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Carlton won the reserves premiership. Carlton 14.14 (98) defeated Melbourne 11.15 (81) in the Grand Final, held as a curtain-raiser to the seniors grand final on 6 October at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Awards The Brownlow Medal was awarded to Tony Liberatore of . The Coleman Medal was awarded to John Longmire of North Melbourne. The Norm Smith Medal was awarded to Tony Shaw of Collingwood The Leigh Matthews Trophy was awarded to Darren Millane of Collingwood The Wooden Spoon was "awarded" to Brisbane The Under 19's Grand Final was won by North Melbourne against Melbourne The Reserves Grand Final was won by Carlton against Melbourne The Seniors Grand Final was won by Collingwood against Essendon References Stephen Rodgers: Every Game Ever Played VFL/AFL Results 1897–1991 3rd Edition 1992. Penguin Books Australia . Sources 1990 AFL season at AFL Tables 1990 AFL season at Australian Football 1990 Australian Football League season Australian Football League seasons AFL season
5343460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland%2C%20Columbus%20and%20Cincinnati%20Railroad	Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad	The Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad (CC&C) was a railroad that ran from Cleveland to Columbus in the U.S. state of Ohio in the United States. Chartered in 1836, it was moribund for the first 10 years of its existence. Its charter was revived and amended in 1845, and construction on the line began in November 1847. Construction was completed and the line opened for regular business in February 1851. The CC&C absorbed a small bankrupt railroad in 1861, and in May 1868 merged with the Bellefontaine Railway to form the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis Railway. First charter and failure to build Early proposals The first railroad from Lake Erie to Columbus was proposed in 1831. Intended to run from Sandusky on the lake south to Dayton, with a branch to Columbus, no action was taken on this project. On February 8, 1832, the Ohio General Assembly granted a charter to the Columbus, Marion, and Sandusky Railroad. This line was authorized to have its terminus in Columbus and run through the towns of Delaware, Marion, and Upper Sandusky before connecting with the Mad River and Lake Erie Railroad. No construction ever began on this railroad, either. First charter of the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad The Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad (CC&C) was chartered by the state of Ohio on March 14, 1836, and authorized to construct a railroad from Cleveland to Cincinnati, passing through the cities of Columbus and Wilmington. The charter required that construction begin within three years, and that the road be completed no later than 10 years after the start of construction. The incorporators of the new CC&C included John A. Bryan and others from Franklin County, as well as investors from Clark, Clinton, Cuyahoga, Delaware, Greene, Hamilton, Holmes, Knox, Lorain, Madison, Medina, Richland, and Wayne counties, met to plan the railroad. Fundraising failed, no construction occurred, and the charter lapsed. Revived charter and fund-raising Revival of the charter In 1844, John W. Allen, Philo Scoville, and five other Cleveland business and civic leaders sought to revive the CC&C charter. They succeeded in persuading the Ohio General Assembly to do so on March 12, 1845. The new charter specified that the railroad must construct a line between Cleveland and Columbus, and was permitted (but not required) to build a line from Columbus to Cincinnati. The railroad also had the right to connect to any other railroad in the state. A group of railroad investors met in Columbus on May 1, 1845, to discuss the organization of the railroad. This group included William Dennison Jr., Lincoln Goodale, and Joseph Ridgway of Franklin County, and Irad Kelley, brother of Alfred Kelley, from Cuyahoga County. A temporary board of directors was elected, which included William Dennison Jr., Truman P. Handy, and Samuel Medary. The board agreed to open the corporate books and begin selling stock on June 3. Shares worth more than $25,000 ($ in dollars) were sold, allowing the company to be organized under the terms of its charter. The board determined that, with the Columbus and Xenia Railroad soon to begin construction from Columbus to Cincinnati, the CC&C should not attempt to build a line from Cleveland to Cincinnati. Constructing the line from Cleveland only to Columbus was considered more feasible. An early estimate pegged the cost of construction at $1.5 million ($ in dollars). The first permanent board of directors of the CC&C was elected on October 11, 1845. The board consisted of Samuel Medary, Robert E. Neil, William Neil, and William Starling Sullivant of Columbus and John W. Allen, Richard Hilliard, Henry B. Payne, Peter M. Waddell, and John M. Woolsey of Cleveland. Allen was elected president by the board, and William Neil the treasurer. Albert G. Lawrence, a non-board member, was elected secretary. Clevelanders predominated on the board because it was assumed that construction would begin in that city. The remainder of the board was from Columbus. By not picking board members from points between the two cities, the board hoped to avoid any appearance of a conflict of interest in choosing the route. Survey and failure to raise funds A survey party began examining possible routes for the railroad at the end of October 1845, and by November 15 a second survey group was in the field as well. The board of directors settled on a route in August 1846, although it admitted that there were no funds to begin construction. President Allen then claimed in November 1846 that the company not only had enough money to begin construction on the first of track but that work would also begin on December 1, 1846. The CC&C attempted to sell stock to raise the necessary funds to begin construction. Shares worth $50,000 ($ in dollars) were sold by January 1847, far below expectations. The officers of the railroad told the board on April 3 that they could not raise funds anywhere in the state. The company resurveyed and restudied the proposed route with an eye toward cutting costs. The CC&C had so little funds on hand that by April 15 it was $3,913 ($ in dollars) in debt. The railroad and its backers publicly admitted the project was likely dead. The city of Cleveland donated $200,000 ($ in dollars) worth of city bonds to the railroad in April 1847 to help save it, but the company found that market conditions were so poor the bonds could not be sold. The board put any further expenditures on indefinite hold in May. Appointment of Alfred Kelley Financier Edmund Dwight, representing the wealthy Dwight family of Massachusetts and New York, visited the city in August 1847. The Dwights and Kelleys had invested in a bank in Cleveland, and the Dwights were strongly interested in Ohio railroads. Edmund Dwight told the board that improved investor confidence was needed to raise funds, and this required that the board seek a new leader who could ensure the efficient and timely construction of a well-built railroad. Allen resigned the presidency, and the board elected Alfred Kelley and Leonard Case Jr. to the board of directors. Kelley was appointed president on August 13. Kelly was well known throughout the state as the "father of the Ohio and Erie Canal", and was one of the most dominant commercial, financial, and political people in Ohio in the first half of the 1800s. He was also one of the ablest bankers and financiers in the state. Kelley immediately began speaking with his colleagues in the banking and finance fields, and by early September 1847 indicated to the board that a favorable response had been found among investors in New York City. Kelley ordered of the line, beginning at Cleveland, to begin construction as a test of new construction methods and railroad technology. To ensure that the new charter did not lapse, on September 30, 1847, Kelley and other members of the board of directors went to Cleveland's Scranton Flats and ceremoniously filled a wheelbarrow with earth to symbolize the start of construction. The company hired an old man to work five days a week, continuously digging this trench, in order to prove to the state that construction was "ongoing". The railroad announced in late November 1847 that of line from Cleveland to Berea would be built. This contract was let to J.A. Ackley and Leander Ransom on December 1, although it is unclear how much (if any) of this track was constructed. Kelley also began to raise substantial funds. He began his tenure as president by urging the board of directors (composed of wealthy Ohioans) to show faith in the business by purchasing company bonds. By September 15, 1847, the board had invested $100,000 ($ in dollars) in the CC&C. Board member Leonard Case later invested an additional $500,000 ($ in dollars). Kelley was a former resident of Cleveland, and promoted the railroad heavily in that city. By April 15, 1848, investors in Cleveland had purchased $100,000 ($ in dollars) in company bonds, with pledges to purchase another $100,000 when the company asked. Kelley delivered a rousing one-hour speech in Cleveland in early August 1848, after which another $73,000 ($ in dollars) in stock was sold. Construction of the line Resurvey and construction report Kelley, who had extensive experience with route surveying and knew the topography of the state extremely well, ordered the routes resurveyed again, a process which began in October 1847 and ended about the end of January 1848. Engineers Frederick Harbach and John Childe issued a new report to the board of directors on August 19, 1848. They confirmed that the two most-favored routes in 1846 were still the best, although several changes were identified which greatly improved them both. The engineers' preferred route (known as the Western Route), began in Cleveland and was long, with a ruling gradient of just 0.28 percent. The proposed temporary southern terminus of the line would be in Columbus, where the CC&C would connect with the Columbus & Xenia Railroad. The estimated cost of construction and equipment was $2.567 million ($ in dollars). These costs included the construction of 13 fuel-and-water way stations, the construction of a passenger and freight depot in Cleveland, the construction of a roundhouse with locomotive and rolling stock repair shops in Cleveland, the construction of a roundhouse in Columbus, and enough equipment to run two passenger trains and one to three freight trains a day between Cleveland and Columbus. The track gauge was set to . Beginning of construction On September 29, 1848, the railroad announced that it would build the line as a single project. This was different from the approach most railroads took at the time. It was more common for a company to raise only enough funds to construct one segment of the road, and then open operations on that segment before beginning the fundraising needed to work on the next segment. Sometimes years could pass between the construction of segments. The CC&C, however, decided to grade, construct the track bed, and lay rail over the entire length of the line in one intense burst of activity. The contract for construction was awarded to the firm of Stone, Harbach, and Witt on November 1. Harbach was one of the two engineers who had resurveyed the line in late 1847 and early 1848. Amasa Stone had worked with Harbach and another railroad engineer, Stillman Witt, while building railroad bridges in New England. Kelley knew Stone well from his visits selling bonds back east. Kelley reached out to Stone, Harbach, and Witt, and asked them to build the railroad. Stone, Harbach, and Witt formed a company in late 1848 to do so, and agreed to take a portion of their pay in the form of railroad stock. Kelley personally traveled to the United Kingdom in 1848 where he contracted with Sir John Guest & Co. of Wales for T rails weighing . The of rail purchased was sufficient to lay half the road. By the end of March 1849, the company had also signed contracts to purchase locomotives and rolling stock. By the middle of May 1849, more than 1,000 men were at work grading the CC&C line and rail for the track had arrived in Quebec from the United Kingdom, awaiting shipment across Lake Erie to Cleveland. The city of Cleveland purchased $200,000 in railroad stock on May 27, 1849. Work was progressing so swiftly that railroad officials told the press in early June that as much as of the line might be operation by January 1, 1850. The rails did not arrive in Cleveland until July 1849, however, and this significantly delayed completion of the first portion of track. As expected, construction began in Cleveland and moved south. Bath Street was regraded and lowered about in order to reduce the grade between Lake Street and the Lake Erie shore. By May 1849, the track bed had been constructed across Scranton Flats and two-thirds of the rail laid. The company was ready to begin grading of the line on the east side of the river as well as erection of the roundhouse. The company was also at work constructing three bridges in the city. The first of these was an iron bridge carrying the main line over the Ohio & Erie Canal. The second was a wooden bridge carrying the main line over the Cuyahoga River. This bridge connected the Scranton Flats with the east bank of the river at Canal and Vineyard Streets (now Canal Street and Lockwood Drive). The third was a wooden bridge carrying a spur of the main line over the Cuyahoga River. This bridge connected the Scranton Flats with the Columbus Peninsula at Columbus Road and Leonard Street. During June 1849, work also began on a large engine house on the south end of the Columbus Peninsula, near the Columbus Road Bridge. This facility was constructed by the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Company, which had entered into an agreement with the CC&C to build and operate a locomotive repair shop for the railroad. The railroad also erected a temporary depot adjacent to the New England Hotel at corner of Superior and Merwin Streets. It purchased the Bethel Church building adjacent to the hotel (on the square bordered by Superior, Vineyard, and James Streets) for use as an engine house. Some 3,000 to 4,000 men were at work on the line at the end of July, completing the grading, constructing the track bed, and beginning to lay rail. With the cost of the main line appearing to hold steady at $2.5 million ($ in dollars), Kelley personally went to New York City and sold another $400,000 ($ in dollars) in bonds to keep the work going. He sold another $100,000 ($ in dollars) in bonds to Ohio investors the same month. Opening of the first track The first of CC&C track, between Cleveland and Wellington, Ohio, opened about September 1, 1849. The northern terminus of the road was at a depot on the shore of Lake Erie at E. River and Bath Streets. Between St. Clair and Vineyard Streets, the road ran along the east side of Spring Street, which was widened by to accommodate the tracks. It crossed the Ohio & Erie Canal and the Cuyahoga River to reach the Scranton Flats. The locomotive repair shops were located at the south end of Columbus Road on the Columbus Peninsula. The line traveled south through the flats, and ascended the heights by following the valley of Walworth Run. On September 13, 1849, the railroad leased from the city of Cleveland land on the shore of Lake Erie. This land was bordered by Bath Street (now Front Street) on the south, W. 9th Street in the east, and the Cuyahoga River in the west, and extended north to the lake. The railroad intended to use the area as the terminus of the main line, and to put a coal yard, dock, freight depot, passenger station, and warehouse there. On November 1, Clevelanders welcomed the first locomotive ever to visit the city. Built by the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Company of Cleveland, the , $7,000 ($ in dollars) locomotive pulled a work train of several flatcars for use in building the line. The roundhouse in Cleveland at the foot of Water Street (now W. 9th Street). and another of track opened in November 1849. Passenger cars began arriving in December from the Springfield Car and Engine Co. of Springfield, Massachusetts. By the end of the year, the railroad had received of rails. Completing the line Alfred Kelley was reelected president of the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad in January 1850. By this time, the company had graded two-thirds of the line between Wellington and Columbus, and all grading was expected to be finished by December 1. The company anticipated laying track on the line beginning in the spring, after track bed construction was finished. A train carrying Kelley and several board members toured the completed of track in mid-March 1850, and another of track were laid by the end of April. Another of rail arrived in the first week of May. The railroad began operations between Cleveland and Wellington on May 16, 1850. The first train carried three freight cars. Passenger service to Wellington opened on May 27. With the company in need of more rail, Kelley traveled to New York City in late May, where he sold enough bonds to pay for the necessary iron. By the end of May, three-quarters of the line was graded and half the line's bridges erected. Track was laid on about of the road, pushing the line past Wellington. Kelley traveled to the United Kingdom, returning in mid-June having purchased another of rail. By this time, a second locomotive (again built by the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Co.) had gone into operation on the line between Cleveland and Wellington, and a third locomotive (built by the Lowell Machine Shop in Lowell, Massachusetts) was due for delivery. With the addition of the third engine, the company began running twice-daily passenger trains between Cleveland and Wellington on July 10, 1850. By late August, the railroad was south of Wellington. The CC&C reached Shelby, Ohio, on November 12, 1850, about 10 days later than expected. Freight and passenger service began the following day. Shelby gave the CC&C connections to the Mansfield and Sandusky City Railroad (which opened in 1846) and the Mansfield and Newark Railroad. The CC&C received another of rail by the close of 1850, with only of track left to lay as of early December. With less track to complete, layoffs left just 250 men at work on the line. Production of rolling stock was at its peak, with the railroad receiving two locomotives and 20 cars per month. Although winter weather was hindering work, the road had just of track left to lay by the end of the year, and work crews were laying of track each day. The railroad received another of rail in 1851. By mid-January of that year, only of track remained incomplete, and the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace works had delivered its sixth locomotive to the CC&C. Bad weather delayed additional work, and only of track were laid by January 31. An additional to of track were laid by February 12, with this track being laid from Columbus northward. With all bridges now complete, the incomplete track lay south of the town of Cardington to a point east of Delaware. Improved weather allowed work crews to lay track more quickly in early February, so that only of track were unfinished by February 16. The final spike The Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad was completed on February 18, 1851. At 7 A.M. on February 18, Alfred Kelley and a party consisting of the railroad's directors, Columbus mayor Lorenzo English, and a number of other business and civic leaders departed on a special northbound train from Columbus. Kelley and Mayor English each laid a final rail on the line. Kelley drove the last spike at noon. The party then reboarded the train and, after a salutary cannonade, proceeded to Cleveland. The train gave three whistles as it entered the city, which was returned by a three-cannon salute. Celebratory excursion train The CC&C began freight and passenger operations on February 21, 1851. To celebrate the event, Kelley invited Ohio Governor Reuben Wood, the entire Ohio General Assembly, the mayors and city councils of Cincinnati and Columbus, and numerous other local politicians and business leaders to travel at the railroad's expense on a four-day excursion trip from Columbus to Cleveland and back. The excursion train and its 425 passengers left Columbus on February 21 shortly after 8 A.M., its departure announced by a single cannon shot. The train stopped for lunch in Shelby, where officials of the Mad River and Lake Erie Railroad and the Mansfield and Sandusky City Railroad as well as elected leaders of towns and villages along these railroads boarded the train. The train reached Cleveland at dusk, welcomed by a cannon shot. At 10 A.M. on February 22, three companies of Cleveland militia and the entire city fire department paraded in front of the excursionists, who were seated on a grandstand erected on Cleveland's Public Square. Governor Wood, Cleveland mayor William Case, Cincinnati politician George E. Pugh, Cleveland politician Samuel Starkweather, Ohio state senator Henry B. Payne, and Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad (C&P) president Cyrus Prentiss all spoke. Alfred Kelley was introduced, but did not speak. After the event, the excursionists boarded a C&P train and traveled to Hudson, Ohio, where they were served dinner. The C&P train left Hudson at 9 P.M., and Cleveland firefighters welcomed the travelers back to Cleveland with a torchlight parade. The excursion train left Cleveland for Columbus at 8 A.M. on February 24, its departure saluted by another cannon shot. The train stopped in Shelby for lunch, after which the officials of Mad River and Lake Erie and the Mansfield and Sandusky City railroads, as well as elected leaders of towns and villages along these lines, left the train. The excursionists were treated to yet another dinner after the train reached Columbus. The completion of the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad created the first direct rail link between Cleveland and Cincinnati. Operational history of the line Early operations At the beginning of 1851, the CC&C began to erect a permanent passenger depot at its terminus on Bath Street. The building was not large enough to serve all passengers, so through passengers used the Bath Street station and passengers terminating their travels in Cleveland continued to use the temporary depot next to the New England Hotel. The Bath Street depot opened on May 29, 1851. Although it was initially used only by the CC&C, the depot had been constructed as a cooperative effort by the CC&C, C&P, and the Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula Railroad (CP&A). In March, the CC&C began work on a spur to serve the town of Delaware and connect the line with the Springfield, Mt. Vernon, and Pittsburg Railroad. This spur, known as the "Delaware Curves", was completed in 1853. Amasa Stone was appointed superintendent of the road on April 7, 1851, and initiated thrice-daily express train passenger service on April 16. In August 1851, the railroad began building a pier which extended into Lake Erie and a warehouse erected on the pier. By this time, the CC&C had 11 locomotives in freight and passenger operation on the line each day. On December 1, 1852, the CC&C entered into a contract with the CP&A under which the CC&C would operate both railroads as a single line. This contract was superseded by a new agreement on April 1, 1855, which merely gave each railroad trackage rights on the other's line. Expansion: 1853 to 1860 Collaboration between the CC&C and CP&A extended to more than just a depot. The CP&A's line initially did not extend west of E. 33rd Street in Cleveland. That railroad relied on the CC&C for repair facilities for its locomotives and cars. In the summer of 1853, the CP&A extended its Cleveland tracks to the Bath Street station. That year the two railroads jointly erected and operated a car repair shop northwest of the intersection of Lake Street (now Lakeside Avenue) and Alba Street (later known as Depot Street, now E. 26th Street). The construction of passenger rolling stock began at these shops in late 1853. The two railroads also began sharing locomotives. The two roads jointly owned 89 locomotives in September 1853, with another nine on order from the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Co. and the Taunton Locomotive Manufacturing Company. More than half the locomotives owned by the CC&C and CP&A were built by the Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Co. To accommodate the need for locomotive construction and maintenance, the firm rapidly expanded its works on Columbus Road beginning in August 1852. Business "boomed", with the company making two locomotives a month there. The CC&C made other improvements and changes in 1853 as well. Business on the line was so good that the CC&C began to double-track its line. By the end of the year, it double-tracked the entire between Cleveland and Grafton. The railroad also began construction of several new piers into Lake Erie, and the erection of a new freight depot on Front Street (formerly Bath Street). Having extensively filled in some of the lake east of its facilities, the railroad began grading this area in October 1855 in order to begin construction of a new engine house and machine shop. On July 1, 1853, the CC&C signed an agreement with the C&X and Little Miami Railroad (which connected Cincinnati to Springfield), which gave the CC&C trackage rights on both lines as well as through service. Double-tracking of the railroad continued in 1854 and 1855. The CC&C added of double-track between Galion and Crestline in 1854, and of second track completed between Crestline and Greenwich in 1855. About this time, the CC&C also invested heavily in the bonds of the Columbus, Piqua and Indiana Railroad, a line connecting Columbus and Union City, Ohio, via Urbana, Piqua, and Covington. The CC&C entered into a working consolidation with the Indianapolis, Pittsburgh and Cleveland Railroad (IP&C) of Indiana on April 1, 1856. This railroad was chartered in 1848 and completed in 1851. It extended from Indianapolis, Indiana, northwest to Madison and Muncie before heading due east to the border of Ohio. Its terminus was in the border towns of Union City, Indiana/Union City, Ohio. A sister railroad, the Bellefontaine and Indiana Railroad (B&I), was chartered in 1848 and was completed in July 1853. This road ran northeast from Union City through Sidney, Bellefontaine, and Marion to Crestline, where it connected with the CC&C. The B&I had entered into a joint operating agreement IP&C on March 14, 1856, and the CC&C's working consolidation gave it access to the important industrial and agricultural heart of Indiana. The CC&C entered into another trackage rights contract in July 1856. Under this agreement, the Cleveland and Toledo Railroad agreed to pay the CC&C $86,000 ($ in dollars) annually for 20 years. In return the C&T gained trackage rights over the CC&C line between Grafton and Cleveland. The CC&C also leased its engine house at Superior and Vineyard to the C&T the following September. The company made a number of other operating changes in 1856 as well. It repaired the ice-damaged freight bridge over the Cuyahoga River in February, and in early November the railroad agreed to change its fixed-span bridges into draw span bridges. Conversion of the CC&C freight bridge was complete by November 15, and work on the main line bridge commenced shortly thereafter. Mergers: 1860 to 1868 By 1861, the CC&C had added miles of double track to its main line, leaving just of single track. The railroad had also added of siding, and owned 22 locomotives, 74 flatcars, 297 freight cars, 93 livestock cars, and 31 passenger cars. On January 1, 1862, the CC&C purchased a portion of the bankrupt Springfield, Mt. Vernon, and Pittsburgh Railroad from its creditors. This added another of track between the towns of Delaware and Springfield, Ohio. The CC&C opened a new freight depot on Merwin Street in Cleveland in January 1863. Two months later, it opened a new engine house and machine shop on Merwin Street. These latter improvements cost $80,000 ($ in dollars). On April 29, 1865, the locomotive CC&C Nashville pulled Abraham Lincoln's funeral train from Cleveland to Columbus. The CC&C had also provided one of the nine cars that made up the train. The train had left Erie, Pennsylvania, pulled by the locomotive William Case, owned by the Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula Railroad. The CP&A locomotive Idaho traveled 10 minutes ahead, acting as a "pilot train" to ensure there were no problems on the track. The William Case arrived in Cleveland on April 28 at precisely 7 A.M. The CC&C's Nashville departed for Columbus just after midnight on April 29. The CC&C locomotive Louisville acted as the pilot train in front of the funeral cortege, also traveling 10 minutes ahead. The Nashville arrived in Columbus at 7:30 AM. The funeral train left Columbus at 8 P.M. on April 29, pulled by a locomotive from the Columbus and Indianapolis Central Railroad. A merger in 1864 intertwined the CC&C with the Bellefontaine railroads. The CC&C had invested heavily in Bellefontaine and Indiana Railroad (B&I) bonds. Then, on September 27, 1864, the Ohio-based B&I and the Indiana-based IP&C merged to form the Bellefontaine Railway. On May 16, 1868, the CC&C merged with the Bellefontaine Railway to form the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis Railway. The Bellefontaine Railway added miles of main track ( in Ohio) to the merged railroad. The merger brought of siding into the new railroad as well. At the time of the merger, The CC&C was one of the few financially successful railroads in Ohio. U.S. and Ohio Supreme Court cases From time to time between 1848 and 1900, the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad and its successors deposited rubble and earth on the shore of Lake Erie. Over time, the railroad reclaimed of land between W. 9th Street and the Cuyahoga River. The railroad built coal docks, a rail yard, and warehouses on this reclaimed land. Other railroads with lakeshore properties did the same. In 1893, the city of Cleveland sued the Cleveland & Pittsburgh Railroad, the CC&C, and other railways in state court, arguing that this reclaimed land belonged to city. It also sought to break the lease with the CC&C for the original Front Street property and seize the land for its own use. The case was heard by the Circuit Court of Cuyahoga County, but was removed to the U.S. Circuit Court for the Northern District of Ohio. The federal court held in the city's favor. In July 1906, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit found that the case had been removed in error and remanded the case back to the state courts. The Circuit Court of Cuyahoga County heard the case again, and ruled against the city in 1909. The case, now known as Cleveland & Pittsburg Railway Company v. City of Cleveland, went to the Supreme Court of Ohio, which split 3-to-3 on October 22, 1912, and did not overturn the circuit court's ruling. The railroad appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which in found no grounds for federal jurisdiction. The city of Cleveland, in possession of the land, now sought to prevent the CC&C and other railroads from continuing to reclaim land in Lake Erie. The state of Ohio successfully intervened, taking the lead in the case in order to protect its rights. The Circuit Court of Cuyahoga County found in the railroads' favor, however. The city appealed to the Court of Appeals for Cuyahoga County, which affirmed the judgment of the circuit court. The city appealed to the Supreme Court of Ohio. In February 1916, the high court held in that state law was silent on the matter of a leaseholder improving their riparian property by reclaiming land, and therefore upheld the judgment of the circuit court. In response to the ruling in State of Ohio v. Cleveland & Pittsburgh Railway Company, the Ohio General Assembly enacted the Fleming Act in 1917. This legislation made the common law public trust doctrine part of Ohio statutory law. It also clarified that the state held title to reclaimed land under the public trust doctrine. Description of the line The headquarters of the CC&C were in Cleveland, Ohio. As constructed, the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad had of main track. The line had 20 stations, which included a main (freight and passenger) station in Cleveland. Beginning in Columbus, the 19 stations along the line included Worthington, Delaware, Ashley, Cardington, Gilead Station (near Edison), Galion, Crestline, Shelby, Mansfield, Salem (at Shiloh), Greenwich, New London, Rochester, Wellington Station (at what is now Wellington), La Grange Station (at what is now LaGrange), Grafton, Olmstead (now Olmsted Falls), Berea, Rockport (then in Rockport Township, the Bellaire–Puritas neighborhood of Cleveland). The station in Columbus was co-owned by the CC&C and the C&X. There were only nine bridges on the main line. Seven of these were originally constructed of wood, and the other two of iron. The total cost of original construction of the main line was about $3 million ($ in dollars). The 1862 purchase of a portion of the Springfield, Mt. Vernon, and Pittsburgh Railroad added a single-track branch to the CC&C. This track ran southwest from the town of Delaware to Springfield, a town then located about northwest of Dayton. References Notes Citations Bibliography Companies affiliated with the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway Defunct Ohio railroads Predecessors of the New York Central Railroad Railway companies established in 1836 Railway companies disestablished in 1868 4 ft 10 in gauge railways in the United States 1836 establishments in Ohio Rail transportation in Cleveland
5343488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle%20and%20motorcycle%20dynamics	Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics	Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics is the science of the motion of bicycles and motorcycles and their components, due to the forces acting on them. Dynamics falls under a branch of physics known as classical mechanics. Bike motions of interest include balancing, steering, braking, accelerating, suspension activation, and vibration. The study of these motions began in the late 19th century and continues today. Bicycles and motorcycles are both single-track vehicles and so their motions have many fundamental attributes in common and are fundamentally different from and more difficult to study than other wheeled vehicles such as dicycles, tricycles, and quadracycles. As with unicycles, bikes lack lateral stability when stationary, and under most circumstances can only remain upright when moving forward. Experimentation and mathematical analysis have shown that a bike stays upright when it is steered to keep its center of mass over its wheels. This steering is usually supplied by a rider, or in certain circumstances, by the bike itself. Several factors, including geometry, mass distribution, and gyroscopic effect all contribute in varying degrees to this self-stability, but long-standing hypotheses and claims that any single effect, such as gyroscopic or trail, is solely responsible for the stabilizing force have been discredited. While remaining upright may be the primary goal of beginning riders, a bike must lean in order to maintain balance in a turn: the higher the speed or smaller the turn radius, the more lean is required. This balances the roll torque about the wheel contact patches generated by centrifugal force due to the turn with that of the gravitational force. This lean is usually produced by a momentary steering in the opposite direction, called countersteering. Countersteering skill is usually acquired by motor learning and executed via procedural memory rather than by conscious thought. Unlike other wheeled vehicles, the primary control input on bikes is steering torque, not position. Although longitudinally stable when stationary, bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration. When braking, depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground, and if the front brake is applied hard enough, bikes can either: skid the front wheel which may or not result in a crash; or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel. A similar situation is possible while accelerating, but with respect to the rear wheel. History The history of the study of bike dynamics is nearly as old as the bicycle itself. It includes contributions from famous scientists such as Rankine, Appell, and Whipple. In the early 19th century Karl von Drais, credited with inventing the two-wheeled vehicle variously called the laufmaschine, velocipede, draisine, and dandy horse, showed that a rider could balance his device by steering the front wheel. In 1869, Rankine published an article in The Engineer repeating von Drais' assertion that balance is maintained by steering in the direction of a lean. In 1897, the French Academy of Sciences made understanding bicycle dynamics the goal of its Prix Fourneyron competition. Thus, by the end of the 19th century, Carlo Bourlet, Emmanuel Carvallo, and Francis Whipple had showed with rigid-body dynamics that some safety bicycles could actually balance themselves if moving at the right speed. Bourlet won the Prix Fourneyron, and Whipple won the Cambridge University Smith Prize. It is not clear to whom should go the credit for tilting the steering axis from the vertical which helps make this possible. In 1970, David E. H. Jones published an article in Physics Today showing that gyroscopic effects are not necessary for a person to balance a bicycle. Since 1971, when he identified and named the wobble, weave and capsize modes, Robin Sharp has written regularly about the behavior of motorcycles and bicycles. While at Imperial College, London, he worked with David Limebeer and Simos Evangelou. In the early 1970s, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL, later Calspan Corporation in Buffalo, NY USA) was sponsored by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others to study and simulate bicycle and motorcycle dynamics. Portions of this work have now been released to the public and scans of over 30 detailed reports have been posted at this TU Delft Bicycle Dynamics site. Since the 1990s, Cossalter, et al., have been researching motorcycle dynamics at the University of Padova. Their research, both experimental and numerical, has covered weave, wobble, chatter, simulators, vehicle modelling, tire modelling, handling, and minimum lap time maneuvering. In 2007, Meijaard, et al., published the canonical linearized equations of motion, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A, along with verification by two different methods. These equations assumed the tires to roll without slip, that is to say, to go where they point, and the rider to be rigidly attached to the rear frame of the bicycle. In 2011, Kooijman, et al., published an article in Science showing that neither gyroscopic effects nor so-called caster effects due to trail are necessary for a bike to balance itself. They designed a two-mass-skate bicycle that the equations of motion predict is self-stable even with negative trail, the front wheel contacts the ground in front of the steering axis, and with counter-rotating wheels to cancel any gyroscopic effects. Then they constructed a physical model to validate that prediction. This may require some of the details provided below about steering geometry or stability to be re-evaluated. Bicycle dynamics was named 26 of Discovers 100 top stories of 2011. In 2013, Eddy Merckx Cycles was awarded over €150,000 with Ghent University to examine bicycle stability. Forces If the bike and rider are considered to be a single system, the forces that act on that system and its components can be roughly divided into two groups: internal and external. The external forces are due to gravity, inertia, contact with the ground, and contact with the atmosphere. The internal forces are caused by the rider and by interaction between components. External forces As with all masses, gravity pulls the rider and all the bike components toward the earth. At each tire contact patch there are ground reaction forces with both horizontal and vertical components. The vertical components mostly counteract the force of gravity, but also vary with braking and accelerating. For details, see the section on longitudinal stability below. The horizontal components, due to friction between the wheels and the ground, including rolling resistance, are in response to propulsive forces, braking forces, and turning forces. Aerodynamic forces due to the atmosphere are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. At normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. At faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. Turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. These may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. Gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. They are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. Internal forces Internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. In addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism (front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. Friction exists between any parts that move against each other: in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. In addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non-rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. Some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. On bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. Motions Motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry: lateral; and those in the central plane of symmetry: longitudinal or vertical. Lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. Motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. Motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. An uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self-stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. Conversely, a bike is longitudinally stable when stationary and can be longitudinally unstable when undergoing sufficient acceleration or deceleration. Lateral dynamics Of the two, lateral dynamics has proven to be the more complicated, requiring three-dimensional, multibody dynamic analysis with at least two generalized coordinates to analyze. At a minimum, two coupled, second-order differential equations are required to capture the principal motions. Exact solutions are not possible, and numerical methods must be used instead. Competing theories of how bikes balance can still be found in print and online. On the other hand, as shown in later sections, much longitudinal dynamic analysis can be accomplished simply with planar kinetics and just one coordinate. Balance When discussing bike balance, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between "stability", "self-stability", and "controllability". Recent research suggests that "rider-controlled stability of bicycles is indeed related to their self-stability." A bike remains upright when it is steered so that the ground reaction forces exactly balance all the other internal and external forces it experiences, such as gravitational if leaning, inertial or centrifugal if in a turn, gyroscopic if being steered, and aerodynamic if in a crosswind. Steering may be supplied by a rider or, under certain circumstances, by the bike itself. This self-stability is generated by a combination of several effects that depend on the geometry, mass distribution, and forward speed of the bike. Tires, suspension, steering damping, and frame flex can also influence it, especially in motorcycles. Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged. If the steering of a bike is locked, it becomes virtually impossible to balance while riding. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic effect of rotating bike wheels is cancelled by adding counter-rotating wheels, it is still easy to balance while riding. One other way that a bike can be balanced, with or without locked steering, is by applying appropriate torques between the bike and rider similar to the way a gymnast can swing up from hanging straight down on uneven parallel bars, a person can start swinging on a swing from rest by pumping their legs, or a double inverted pendulum can be controlled with an actuator only at the elbow. Forward speed The rider applies torque to the handlebars in order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At high speeds, small steering angles quickly move the ground contact points laterally; at low speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds. As self-stability typically occurs at speeds above a certain threshold, going faster increases the chances that a bike is contributing to its own stability. Center of mass location The farther forward (closer to front wheel) the center of mass of the combined bike and rider, the less the front wheel has to move laterally in order to maintain balance. Conversely, the farther back (closer to the rear wheel) the center of mass is located, the more front wheel lateral movement or bike forward motion is required to regain balance. This can be noticeable on long-wheelbase recumbents, choppers, and wheelie bikes. It can also be a challenge for touring bikes that carry a heavy load of gear over or even behind the rear wheel. Mass over the rear wheel can be more easily controlled if it is lower than mass over the front wheel. A bike is also an example of an inverted pendulum. Just as a broomstick is more easily balanced in the hand than a pencil, a tall bike (with a high center of mass) can be easier to balance when ridden than a low one because the tall bike's lean rate (rate at which its angle of lean increases as it begins to fall over) will be slower. However, a rider can have the opposite impression of a bike when it is stationary. A top-heavy bike can require more effort to keep upright, when stopped in traffic for example, than a bike which is just as tall but with a lower center of mass. This is an example of a vertical second-class lever. A small force at the end of the lever, the seat or handlebars at the top of the bike, more easily moves a large mass if the mass is closer to the fulcrum, where the tires touch the ground. This is why touring cyclists are advised to carry loads low on a bike, and panniers hang down on either side of front and rear racks. Trail A factor that influences how easy or difficult a bike will be to ride is trail, the distance by which the front wheel ground contact point trails behind the steering axis ground contact point. The steering axis is the axis about which the entire steering mechanism (fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) pivots. In traditional bike designs, with a steering axis tilted back from the vertical, positive trail tends to steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean, independent of forward speed. This can be simulated by pushing a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side. In a lean, gravity provides this force. The dynamics of a moving bike are more complicated, however, and other factors can contribute to or detract from this effect. Trail is a function of head angle, fork offset or rake, and wheel size. Their relationship can be described by this formula: where is wheel radius, is the head angle measured clock-wise from the horizontal and is the fork offset or rake. Trail can be increased by increasing the wheel size, decreasing the head angle, or decreasing the fork rake. The more trail a traditional bike has, the more stable it feels, although too much trail can make a bike feel difficult to steer. Bikes with negative trail (where the contact patch is in front of where the steering axis intersects the ground), while still rideable, are reported to feel very unstable. Normally, road racing bicycles have more trail than touring bikes but less than mountain bikes. Mountain bikes are designed with less-vertical head angles than road bikes so as to have greater trail and hence improved stability for descents. Touring bikes are built with small trail to allow the rider to control a bike weighed down with baggage. As a consequence, an unloaded touring bike can feel unstable. In bicycles, fork rake, often a curve in the fork blades forward of the steering axis, is used to diminish trail. Bikes with negative trail exist, such as the Python Lowracer, and are rideable, and an experimental bike with negative trail has been shown to be self-stable. In motorcycles, rake refers to the head angle instead, and offset created by the triple tree is used to diminish trail. A small survey by Whitt and Wilson found: touring bicycles with head angles between 72° and 73° and trail between 43 mm and 60 mm racing bicycles with head angles between 73° and 74° and trail between 28 mm and 45 mm track bicycles with head angles of 75° and trail between 23.5 mm and 37 mm. However, these ranges are not hard and fast. For example, LeMond Racing Cycles offers both with forks that have 45 mm of offset or rake and the same size wheels: a 2006 Tete de Course, designed for road racing, with a head angle that varies from 71¼° to 74°, depending on frame size, and thus trail that varies from 51.5 mm to 69 mm. a 2007 Filmore, designed for the track, with a head angle that varies from 72½° to 74°, depending on frame size, and thus trail that varies from 51.5 mm to 61 mm. The amount of trail a particular bike has may vary with time for several reasons. On bikes with front suspension, especially telescopic forks, compressing the front suspension, due to heavy braking for example, can steepen the steering axis angle and reduce trail. Trail also varies with lean angle, and steering angle, usually decreasing from a maximum when the bike is straight upright and steered straight ahead. Trail can decrease to zero with sufficiently large lean and steer angles, which can alter how stable a bike feels. Finally, even the profile of the front tire can influence how trail varies as the bike is leaned and steered. A measurement similar to trail, called either mechanical trail, normal trail, or true trail, is the perpendicular distance from the steering axis to the centroid of the front wheel contact patch. Wheelbase A factor that influences the directional stability of a bike is wheelbase, the horizontal distance between the ground contact points of the front and rear wheels. For a given displacement of the front wheel, due to some disturbance, the angle of the resulting path from the original is inversely proportional to wheelbase. Also, the radius of curvature for a given steer angle and lean angle is proportional to the wheelbase. Finally, the wheelbase increases when the bike is leaned and steered. In the extreme, when the lean angle is 90°, and the bike is steered in the direction of that lean, the wheelbase is increased by the radius of the front and rear wheels. Steering mechanism mass distribution Another factor that can also contribute to the self-stability of traditional bike designs is the distribution of mass in the steering mechanism, which includes the front wheel, the fork, and the handlebar. If the center of mass for the steering mechanism is in front of the steering axis, then the pull of gravity will also cause the front wheel to steer in the direction of a lean. This can be seen by leaning a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side independent of any interaction with the ground. Additional parameters, such as the fore-to-aft position of the center of mass and the elevation of the center of mass also contribute to the dynamic behavior of a bike. Gyroscopic effects The role of the gyroscopic effect in most bike designs is to help steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean. This phenomenon is called precession, and the rate at which an object precesses is inversely proportional to its rate of spin. The slower a front wheel spins, the faster it will precess when the bike leans, and vice versa. The rear wheel is prevented from precessing as the front wheel does by friction of the tires on the ground, and so continues to lean as though it were not spinning at all. Hence gyroscopic forces do not provide any resistance to tipping. At low forward speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, contributing to an uncontrolled bike's tendency to oversteer, start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, contributing to an uncontrolled bike's tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for most riders to counteract. Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self-stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled. Another contribution of gyroscopic effects is a roll moment generated by the front wheel during countersteering. For example, steering left causes a moment to the right. The moment is small compared to the moment generated by the out-tracking front wheel, but begins as soon as the rider applies torque to the handlebars and so can be helpful in motorcycle racing. For more detail, see the section countersteering, below, and the countersteering article. Self-stability Between the two unstable regimes mentioned in the previous section, and influenced by all the factors described above that contribute to balance (trail, mass distribution, gyroscopic effects, etc.), there may be a range of forward speeds for a given bike design at which these effects steer an uncontrolled bike upright. It has been proven that neither gyroscopic effects nor positive trail are sufficient by themselves or necessary for self-stability, although they certainly can enhance hands-free control. However, even without self-stability a bike may be ridden by steering it to keep it over its wheels. Note that the effects mentioned above that would combine to produce self-stability may be overwhelmed by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables. This video shows a riderless bicycle exhibiting self-stability. Longitudinal acceleration Longitudinal acceleration has been shown to have a large and complex effect on lateral dynamics. In one study, positive acceleration eliminates self stability, and negative acceleration (deceleration) changes the speeds of self stability. Turning In order for a bike to turn, that is, change its direction of forward travel, the front wheel must aim approximately in the desired direction, as with any front-wheel steered vehicle. Friction between the wheels and the ground then generates the centripetal acceleration necessary to alter the course from straight ahead as a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. The radius of the turn of an upright (not leaning) bike can be roughly approximated, for small steering angles, by: where is the approximate radius, is the wheelbase, is the steer angle, and is the caster angle of the steering axis. Leaning However, unlike other wheeled vehicles, bikes must also lean during a turn to balance the relevant forces: gravitational, inertial, frictional, and ground support. The angle of lean, θ, can easily be calculated using the laws of circular motion: where v is the forward speed, r is the radius of the turn and g is the acceleration of gravity. This is in the idealized case. A slight increase in the lean angle may be required on motorcycles to compensate for the width of modern tires at the same forward speed and turn radius. It can also be seen however that this simple 2-dimensional model, essentially an inverted pendulum on a turntable, predicts that the steady-state turn is unstable. If the bike is displaced slightly downwards from its equilibrium lean angle, the torque of gravity increases, that of centrifugal force decreases and the displacement gets amplified. A more-sophisticated model that allows a wheel to steer, adjust the path, and counter the torque of gravity, is necessary to capture the self-stability observed in real bikes. For example, a bike in a 10 m (33 ft) radius steady-state turn at 10 m/s (36 km/h, 22 mph) must be at an angle of 45.6°. A rider can lean with respect to the bike in order to keep either the torso or the bike more or less upright if desired. The angle that matters is the one between the horizontal plane and the plane defined by the tire contacts and the location of the center of mass of bike and rider. This lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle. The resulting radius can be roughly approximated (within 2% of exact value) by: where is the approximate radius, is the wheelbase, is the lean angle, is the steering angle, and is the caster angle of the steering axis. As a bike leans, the tires' contact patches move farther to the side causing wear. The portions at either edge of a motorcycle tire that remain unworn by leaning into turns is sometimes referred to as . The finite width of the tires alters the actual lean angle of the rear frame from the ideal lean angle described above. The actual lean angle between the frame and the vertical must increase with tire width and decrease with center of mass height. Bikes with fat tires and low center of mass must lean more than bikes with skinnier tires or higher centers of mass to negotiate the same turn at the same speed. The increase in lean angle due to a tire thickness of 2t can be calculated as where φ is the ideal lean angle, and h is the height of the center of mass. For example, a motorcycle with a 12 inch wide rear tire will have t = 6 inches. If the combined bike and rider center of mass is at a height of 26 inches, then a 25° lean must be increased by 7.28°: a nearly 30% increase. If the tires are only 6 inches wide, then the lean angle increase is only 3.16°, just under half. It has been shown that the couple created by gravity and the ground reaction forces is necessary for a bicycle to turn at all. On a custom built bicycle with spring-loaded outriggers that exactly cancel this couple, so that the bicycle and rider may assume any lean angle when traveling in a straight line, riders find it impossible to make a turn. As soon as the wheels deviate from a straight path, the bicycle and rider begin to lean in the opposite direction, and the only way to right them is to steer back onto the straight path. Countersteering In order to initiate a turn and the necessary lean in the direction of that turn, a bike must momentarily steer in the opposite direction. This is often referred to as countersteering. With the front wheel now at a finite angle to the direction of motion, a lateral force is developed at the contact patch of the tire. This force creates a torque around the longitudinal (roll) axis of the bike, and this torque causes the bike to lean away from the initially steered direction and toward the direction of the desired turn. Where there is no external influence, such as an opportune side wind to create the force necessary to lean the bike, countersteering is necessary to initiate a rapid turn. While the initial steer torque and steer angle are both opposite the desired turn direction, this may not be the case to maintain a steady-state turn. The sustained steer angle is usually in the same direction as the turn, but may remain opposite to the direction of the turn, especially at high speeds. The sustained steer torque required to maintain that steer angle is usually opposite the turn direction. The actual magnitude and orientation of both the sustained steer angle and sustained steer torque of a particular bike in a particular turn depend on forward speed, bike geometry, tire properties, and combined bike and rider mass distribution. Once in a turn, the radius can only be changed with an appropriate change in lean angle, and this can be accomplished by additional countersteering out of the turn to increase lean and decrease radius, then into the turn to decrease lean and increase radius. To exit the turn, the bike must again countersteer, momentarily steering more into the turn in order to decrease the radius, thus increasing inertial forces, and thereby decreasing the angle of lean. Steady-state turning Once a turn is established, the torque that must be applied to the steering mechanism in order to maintain a constant radius at a constant forward speed depends on the forward speed and the geometry and mass distribution of the bike. At speeds below the capsize speed, described below in the section on Eigenvalues and also called the inversion speed, the self-stability of the bike will cause it to tend to steer into the turn, righting itself and exiting the turn, unless a torque is applied in the opposite direction of the turn. At speeds above the capsize speed, the capsize instability will cause it to tend to steer out of the turn, increasing the lean, unless a torque is applied in the direction of the turn. At the capsize speed no input steering torque is necessary to maintain the steady-state turn. Steering angle Several effects influence the steering angle, the angle at which the front assembly is rotated about the steering axis, necessary to maintain a steady-state turn. Some of these are unique to single-track vehicles, while others are also experienced by automobiles. Some of these may be mentioned elsewhere in this article, and they are repeated here, though not necessarily in order of importance, so that they may be found in one place. First, the actual kinematic steering angle, the angle projected onto the road plane to which the front assembly is rotated is a function of the steering angle and the steering axis angle: where is the kinematic steering angle, is the steering angle, and is the caster angle of the steering axis. Second, the lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle. The resulting radius can be roughly approximated (within 2% of exact value) by: where is the approximate radius, is the wheelbase, is the lean angle, is the steering angle, and is the caster angle of the steering axis. Third, because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. When understeering, the steering angle must be greater, and when oversteering, the steering angle must be less than it would be if the slip angles were equal to maintain a given turn radius. Some authors even use the term counter-steering to refer to the need on some bikes under some conditions to steer in the opposite direction of the turn (negative steering angle) to maintain control in response to significant rear wheel slippage. Fourth, camber thrust contributes to the centripetal force necessary to cause the bike to deviate from a straight path, along with cornering force due to the slip angle, and can be the largest contributor. Camber thrust contributes to the ability of bikes to negotiate a turn with the same radius as automobiles but with a smaller steering angle. When a bike is steered and leaned in the same direction, the camber angle of the front tire is greater than that of the rear and so can generate more camber thrust, all else being equal. No hands While countersteering is usually initiated by applying torque directly to the handlebars, on lighter vehicles such as bicycles, it can also be accomplished by shifting the rider's weight. If the rider leans to the right relative to the bike, the bike leans to the left to conserve angular momentum, and the combined center of mass remains nearly in the same vertical plane. This leftward lean of the bike, called counter lean by some authors, will cause it to steer to the left and initiate a right-hand turn as if the rider had countersteered to the left by applying a torque directly to the handlebars. This technique may be complicated by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables. The combined center of mass does move slightly to the left when the rider leans to the right relative to the bike, and the bike leans to the left in response. The action, in space, would have the tires move right, but this is prevented by friction between the tires and the ground, and thus pushes the combined center of mass left. This is a small effect, however, as evidenced by the difficulty most people have in balancing a bike by this method alone. Gyroscopic effects As mentioned above in the section on balance, one effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession. The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel, its spin rate (forward motion), the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars, and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical. For a sample motorcycle moving at 22 m/s (50 mph) that has a front wheel with a moment of inertia of 0.6 kg·m2, turning the front wheel one degree in half a second generates a roll moment of 3.5 N·m. In comparison, the lateral force on the front tire as it tracks out from under the motorcycle reaches a maximum of 50 N. This, acting on the 0.6 m (2 ft) height of the center of mass, generates a roll moment of 30 N·m. While the moment from gyroscopic forces is only 12% of this, it can play a significant part because it begins to act as soon as the rider applies the torque, instead of building up more slowly as the wheel out-tracks. This can be especially helpful in motorcycle racing. Two-wheel steering Because of theoretical benefits, such as a tighter turning radius at low speed, attempts have been made to construct motorcycles with two-wheel steering. One working prototype by Ian Drysdale in Australia is reported to "work very well." Issues in the design include whether to provide active control of the rear wheel or let it swing freely. In the case of active control, the control algorithm needs to decide between steering with or in the opposite direction of the front wheel, when, and how much. One implementation of two-wheel steering, the Sideways bike, lets the rider control the steering of both wheels directly. Another, the Swing Bike, had the second steering axis in front of the seat so that it could also be controlled by the handlebars. Milton W. Raymond built a long low two-wheel steering bicycle, called "X-2", with various steering mechanisms to control the two wheels independently. Steering motions included "balance", in which both wheels move together to steer the tire contacts under the center of mass; and "true circle", in which the wheels steer equally in opposite directions and thus steering the bicycle without substantially changing the lateral position of the tire contacts relative to the center of mass. X-2 was also able to go "crabwise" with the wheels parallel but out of line with the frame, for instance with the front wheel near the roadway center line and rear wheel near the curb. "Balance" steering allowed easy balancing despite long wheelbase and low center of mass, but no self-balancing ("no hands") configuration was discovered. True circle, as expected, was essentially impossible to balance, as steering does not correct for misalignment of the tire patch and center of mass. Crabwise cycling at angles tested up to about 45° did not show a tendency to fall over, even under braking. X-2 is mentioned in passing in Whitt and Wilson's Bicycling Science 2nd edition. Rear-wheel steering Because of the theoretical benefits, especially a simplified front-wheel drive mechanism, attempts have been made to construct a rideable rear-wheel steering bike. The Bendix Company built a rear-wheel steering bicycle, and the U.S. Department of Transportation commissioned the construction of a rear-wheel steering motorcycle: both proved to be unrideable. Rainbow Trainers, Inc. in Alton, Illinois, offered US$5,000 to the first person "who can successfully ride the rear-steered bicycle, Rear Steered Bicycle I". One documented example of someone successfully riding a rear-wheel steering bicycle is that of L. H. Laiterman at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on a specially designed recumbent bike. The difficulty is that turning left, accomplished by turning the rear wheel to the right, initially moves the center of mass to the right, and vice versa. This complicates the task of compensating for leans induced by the environment. Examination of the eigenvalues for bicycles with common geometries and mass distributions shows that when moving in reverse, so as to have rear-wheel steering, they are inherently unstable. This does not mean they are unridable, but that the effort to control them is higher. Other, purpose-built designs have been published, however, that do not suffer this problem. Center steering Between the extremes of bicycles with classical front-wheel steering and those with strictly rear-wheel steering is a class of bikes with a pivot point somewhere between the two, referred to as center-steering, and similar to articulated steering. An early implementation of the concept was the Phantom bicycle in the early 1870s promoted as a safer alternative to the penny-farthing. This design allows for simple front-wheel drive and current implementations appear to be quite stable, even rideable no-hands, as many photographs illustrate. These designs, such as the Python Lowracer, a recumbent, usually have very lax head angles (40° to 65°) and positive or even negative trail. The builder of a bike with negative trail states that steering the bike from straight ahead forces the seat (and thus the rider) to rise slightly and this offsets the destabilizing effect of the negative trail. Reverse steering Bicycles have been constructed, for investigation and demonstration purposes, with the steering reversed so that turning the handlebars to the left causes the front wheel to turn to the right, and vica versa. It is possible to ride such a bicycle, but it has been found that riders experienced with normal bicycles find it very difficult to learn, if they can manage it at all. Tiller effect Tiller effect is the expression used to describe how handlebars that extend far behind the steering axis (head tube) act like a tiller on a boat, in that one moves the bars to the right in order to turn the front wheel to the left, and vice versa. This situation is commonly found on cruiser bicycles, some recumbents, and some motorcycles. It can be troublesome when it limits the ability to steer because of interference or the limits of arm reach. Tires Tires have a large influence over bike handling, especially on motorcycles, but also on bicycles. Tires influence bike dynamics in two distinct ways: finite crown radius and force generation. Increase the crown radius of the front tire has been shown to decrease the size or eliminate self stability. Increasing the crown radius of the rear tire has the opposite effect, but to a lesser degree. Tires generate the lateral forces necessary for steering and balance through a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. Tire inflation pressures have also been found to be important variables in the behavior of a motorcycle at high speeds. Because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. Of the two, understeer, in which the front wheel slides more than the rear wheel, is more dangerous since front wheel steering is critical for maintaining balance. Also, because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque, and when in a turn, can experience some side slipping as they roll, they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch. One torque generated by a tire, called the self aligning torque, is caused by asymmetries in the side-slip along the length of the contact patch. The resultant force of this side-slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch, a distance described as the pneumatic trail, and so creates a torque on the tire. Since the direction of the side-slip is towards the outside of the turn, the force on the tire is towards the center of the turn. Therefore, this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the side-slip, away from the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to increase the radius of the turn. Another torque is produced by the finite width of the contact patch and the lean of the tire in a turn. The portion of the contact patch towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward, with respect to the wheel's hub, faster than the rest of the contact patch, because of its greater radius from the hub. By the same reasoning, the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly. So the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions, generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius. The combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel, and its direction is a function of the side-slip angle of the tire, the angle between the actual path of the tire and the direction it is pointing, and the camber angle of the tire (the angle that the tire leans from the vertical). The result of this torque is often the suppression of the inversion speed predicted by rigid wheel models described above in the section on steady-state turning. High side A highsider, highside, or high side is a type of bike motion which is caused by a rear wheel gaining traction when it is not facing in the direction of travel, usually after slipping sideways in a curve. This can occur under heavy braking, acceleration, a varying road surface, or suspension activation, especially due to interaction with the drive train. It can take the form of a single slip-then-flip or a series of violent oscillations. Maneuverability and handling Bike maneuverability and handling is difficult to quantify for several reasons. The geometry of a bike, especially the steering axis angle makes kinematic analysis complicated. Under many conditions, bikes are inherently unstable and must always be under rider control. Finally, the rider's skill has a large influence on the bike's performance in any maneuver. Bike designs tend to consist of a trade-off between maneuverability and stability. Rider control inputs The primary control input that the rider can make is to apply a torque directly to the steering mechanism via the handlebars. Because of the bike's own dynamics, due to steering geometry and gyroscopic effects, direct position control over steering angle has been found to be problematic. A secondary control input that the rider can make is to lean the upper torso relative to the bike. As mentioned above, the effectiveness of rider lean varies inversely with the mass of the bike. On heavy bikes, such as motorcycles, rider lean mostly alters the ground clearance requirements in a turn, improves the view of the road, and improves the bike system dynamics in a very low-frequency passive manner. In motorcycle racing, leaning the torso, moving the body, and projecting a knee to the inside of the turn relative to the bike can also cause an aerodynamic yawing moment that facilitates entering and rounding the turn. Differences from automobiles The need to keep a bike upright to avoid injury to the rider and damage to the vehicle even limits the type of maneuverability testing that is commonly performed. For example, while automobile enthusiast publications often perform and quote skidpad results, motorcycle publications do not. The need to "set up" for a turn, lean the bike to the appropriate angle, means that the rider must see further ahead than is necessary for a typical car at the same speed, and this need increases more than in proportion to the speed. Rating schemes Several schemes have been devised to rate the handling of bikes, particularly motorcycles. The roll index is the ratio between steering torque and roll or lean angle. The acceleration index is the ratio between steering torque and lateral or centripetal acceleration. The steering ratio is the ratio between the theoretical turning radius based on ideal tire behavior and the actual turning radius. Values less than one, where the front wheel side slip is greater than the rear wheel side slip, are described as under-steering; equal to one as neutral steering; and greater than one as over-steering. Values less than zero, in which the front wheel must be turned opposite the direction of the curve due to much greater rear wheel side slip than front wheel have been described as counter-steering. Riders tend to prefer neutral or slight over-steering. Car drivers tend to prefer under-steering. The Koch index is the ratio between peak steering torque and the product of peak lean rate and forward speed. Large, touring motorcycles tend to have a high Koch index, sport motorcycles tend to have a medium Koch index, and scooters tend to have a low Koch index. It is easier to maneuver light scooters than heavy motorcycles. Lateral motion theory Although its equations of motion can be linearized, a bike is a nonlinear system. The variable(s) to be solved for cannot be written as a linear sum of independent components, i.e. its behavior is not expressible as a sum of the behaviors of its descriptors. Generally, nonlinear systems are difficult to solve and are much less understandable than linear systems. In the idealized case, in which friction and any flexing is ignored, a bike is a conservative system. Damping, however, can still be demonstrated: under the right circumstances, side-to-side oscillations will decrease with time. Energy added with a sideways jolt to a bike running straight and upright (demonstrating self-stability) is converted into increased forward speed, not lost, as the oscillations die out. A bike is a nonholonomic system because its outcome is path-dependent. In order to know its exact configuration, especially location, it is necessary to know not only the configuration of its parts, but also their histories: how they have moved over time. This complicates mathematical analysis. Finally, in the language of control theory, a bike exhibits non-minimum phase behavior. It turns in the direction opposite of how it is initially steered, as described above in the section on countersteering Degrees of freedom The number of degrees of freedom of a bike depends on the particular model being used. The simplest model that captures the key dynamic features, called the "Whipple model" after Francis Whipple who first developed the equations for it, has four rigid bodies with knife edge wheels rolling without slip on a flat smooth surface, and has 7 degrees of freedom (configuration variables required to completely describe the location and orientation of all 4 bodies): x coordinate of rear wheel contact point y coordinate of rear wheel contact point orientation angle of rear frame (yaw) rotation angle of rear wheel rotation angle of front wheel lean angle of rear frame (roll) steering angle between rear frame and front end Adding complexity to the model, such as rider movement, suspension movement, tire compliance, or frame flex, adds degrees of freedom. While the rear frame does pitch with leaning and steering, the pitch angle is completely constrained by the requirement for both wheels to remain on the ground, and so can be calculated geometrically from the other seven variables. If the location of the bike and the rotation of the wheels are ignored, the first five degrees of freedom can also be ignored, and the bike can be described by just two variables: lean angle and steer angle. Equations of motion The equations of motion of an idealized bike, consisting of a rigid frame, a rigid fork, two knife-edged, rigid wheels, all connected with frictionless bearings and rolling without friction or slip on a smooth horizontal surface and operating at or near the upright and straight-ahead, unstable equilibrium can be represented by a single fourth-order linearized ordinary differential equation or two coupled second-order differential equations, the lean equation and the steer equation where is the lean angle of the rear assembly, is the steer angle of the front assembly relative to the rear assembly and and are the moments (torques) applied at the rear assembly and the steering axis, respectively. For the analysis of an uncontrolled bike, both are taken to be zero. These can be represented in matrix form as where is the symmetrical mass matrix which contains terms that include only the mass and geometry of the bike, is the so-called damping matrix, even though an idealized bike has no dissipation, which contains terms that include the forward speed and is asymmetric, is the so-called stiffness matrix which contains terms that include the gravitational constant and and is symmetric in and asymmetric in , is a vector of lean angle and steer angle, and is a vector of external forces, the moments mentioned above. In this idealized and linearized model, there are many geometric parameters (wheelbase, head angle, mass of each body, wheel radius, etc.), but only four significant variables: lean angle, lean rate, steer angle, and steer rate. These equations have been verified by comparison with multiple numeric models derived completely independently. The equations show that the bicycle is like an inverted pendulum with the lateral position of its support controlled by terms representing roll acceleration, roll velocity and roll displacement to steering torque feedback. The roll acceleration term is normally of the wrong sign for self-stabilization and can be expected to be important mainly in respect of wobble oscillations. The roll velocity feedback is of the correct sign, is gyroscopic in nature, being proportional to speed, and is dominated by the front wheel contribution. The roll displacement term is the most important one and is mainly controlled by trail, steering rake and the offset of the front frame mass center from the steering axis. All the terms involve complex combinations of bicycle design parameters and sometimes the speed. The limitations of the benchmark bicycle are considered and extensions to the treatments of tires, frames and riders, and their implications, are included. Optimal rider controls for stabilization and path-following control are also discussed. Eigenvalues It is possible to calculate eigenvalues, one for each of the four state variables (lean angle, lean rate, steer angle, and steer rate), from the linearized equations in order to analyze the normal modes and self-stability of a particular bike design. In the plot to the right, eigenvalues of one particular bicycle are calculated for forward speeds of 0–10 m/s (22 mph). When the real parts of all eigenvalues (shown in dark blue) are negative, the bike is self-stable. When the imaginary parts of any eigenvalues (shown in cyan) are non-zero, the bike exhibits oscillation. The eigenvalues are point symmetric about the origin and so any bike design with a self-stable region in forward speeds will not be self-stable going backwards at the same speed. There are three forward speeds that can be identified in the plot to the right at which the motion of the bike changes qualitatively: The forward speed at which oscillations begin, at about 1 m/s (2.2 mph) in this example, sometimes called the double root speed due to there being a repeated root to the characteristic polynomial (two of the four eigenvalues have exactly the same value). Below this speed, the bike simply falls over as an inverted pendulum does. The forward speed at which oscillations do not increase, where the weave mode eigenvalues switch from positive to negative in a Hopf bifurcation at about 5.3 m/s (12 mph) in this example, is called the weave speed. Below this speed, oscillations increase until the uncontrolled bike falls over. Above this speed, oscillations eventually die out. The forward speed at which non-oscillatory leaning increases, where the capsize mode eigenvalues switch from negative to positive in a pitchfork bifurcation at about 8 m/s (18 mph) in this example, is called the capsize speed. Above this speed, this non-oscillating lean eventually causes the uncontrolled bike to fall over. Between these last two speeds, if they both exist, is a range of forward speeds at which the particular bike design is self-stable. In the case of the bike whose eigenvalues are shown here, the self-stable range is 5.3–8.0 m/s (12–18 mph). The fourth eigenvalue, which is usually stable (very negative), represents the castoring behavior of the front wheel, as it tends to turn towards the direction in which the bike is traveling. Note that this idealized model does not exhibit the wobble or shimmy and rear wobble instabilities described above. They are seen in models that incorporate tire interaction with the ground or other degrees of freedom. Experimentation with real bikes has so far confirmed the weave mode predicted by the eigenvalues. It was found that tire slip and frame flex are not important for the lateral dynamics of the bicycle in the speed range up to 6 m/s. The idealized bike model used to calculate the eigenvalues shown here does not incorporate any of the torques that real tires can generate, and so tire interaction with the pavement cannot prevent the capsize mode from becoming unstable at high speeds, as Wilson and Cossalter suggest happens in the real world. Modes Bikes, as complex mechanisms, have a variety of modes: fundamental ways that they can move. These modes can be stable or unstable, depending on the bike parameters and its forward speed. In this context, "stable" means that an uncontrolled bike will continue rolling forward without falling over as long as forward speed is maintained. Conversely, "unstable" means that an uncontrolled bike will eventually fall over, even if forward speed is maintained. The modes can be differentiated by the speed at which they switch stability and the relative phases of leaning and steering as the bike experiences that mode. Any bike motion consists of a combination of various amounts of the possible modes, and there are three main modes that a bike can experience: capsize, weave, and wobble. A lesser known mode is rear wobble, and it is usually stable. Capsize Capsize is the word used to describe a bike falling over without oscillation. During capsize, an uncontrolled front wheel usually steers in the direction of lean, but never enough to stop the increasing lean, until a very high lean angle is reached, at which point the steering may turn in the opposite direction. A capsize can happen very slowly if the bike is moving forward rapidly. Because the capsize instability is so slow, on the order of seconds, it is easy for the rider to control, and is actually used by the rider to initiate the lean necessary for a turn. For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, capsize is stable at low speeds, and becomes less stable as speed increases until it is no longer stable. However, on many bikes, tire interaction with the pavement is sufficient to prevent capsize from becoming unstable at high speeds. Weave Weave is the word used to describe a slow (0–4 Hz) oscillation between leaning left and steering right, and vice versa. The entire bike is affected with significant changes in steering angle, lean angle (roll), and heading angle (yaw). The steering is 180° out of phase with the heading and 90° out of phase with the leaning. This AVI movie shows weave. For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, weave is unstable at low speeds, and becomes less pronounced as speed increases until it is no longer unstable. While the amplitude may decrease, the frequency actually increases with speed. Wobble or shimmy Wobble, shimmy, tank-slapper, speed wobble, and death wobble are all words and phrases used to describe a rapid (4–10 Hz) oscillation of primarily just the front end (front wheel, fork, and handlebars). Also involved is the yawing of the rear frame which may contribute to the wobble when too flexible. This instability occurs mostly at high speed and is similar to that experienced by shopping cart wheels, airplane landing gear, and automobile front wheels. While wobble or shimmy can be easily remedied by adjusting speed, position, or grip on the handlebar, it can be fatal if left uncontrolled. Wobble or shimmy begins when some otherwise minor irregularity, such as fork asymmetry, accelerates the wheel to one side. The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity, and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated. If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure occurs. The oscillation frequency can be changed by changing the forward speed, making the bike stiffer or lighter, or increasing the stiffness of the steering, of which the rider is a main component. Rear wobble The term rear wobble is used to describe a mode of oscillation in which lean angle (roll) and heading angle (yaw) are almost in phase and both 180° out of phase with steer angle. The rate of this oscillation is moderate with a maximum of about 6.5 Hz. Rear wobble is heavily damped and falls off quickly as bike speed increases. Design criteria The effect that the design parameters of a bike have on these modes can be investigated by examining the eigenvalues of the linearized equations of motion. For more details on the equations of motion and eigenvalues, see the section on the equations of motion above. Some general conclusions that have been drawn are described here. The lateral and torsional stiffness of the rear frame and the wheel spindle affects wobble-mode damping substantially. Long wheelbase and trail and a flat steering-head angle have been found to increase weave-mode damping. Lateral distortion can be countered by locating the front fork torsional axis as low as possible. Cornering weave tendencies are amplified by degraded damping of the rear suspension. Cornering, camber stiffnesses and relaxation length of the rear tire make the largest contribution to weave damping. The same parameters of the front tire have a lesser effect. Rear loading also amplifies cornering weave tendencies. Rear load assemblies with appropriate stiffness and damping, however, were successful in damping out weave and wobble oscillations. One study has shown theoretically that, while a bike leaned in a turn, road undulations can excite the weave mode at high speed or the wobble mode at low speed if either of their frequencies match the vehicle speed and other parameters. Excitation of the wobble mode can be mitigated by an effective steering damper and excitation of the weave mode is worse for light riders than for heavy riders. Riding on treadmills and rollers Riding on a treadmill is theoretically identical to riding on stationary pavement, and physical testing has confirmed this. Treadmills have been developed specifically for indoor bicycle training. Riding on rollers is still under investigation. Other hypotheses Although bicycles and motorcycles can appear to be simple mechanisms with only four major moving parts (frame, fork, and two wheels), these parts are arranged in a way that makes them complicated to analyze. While it is an observable fact that bikes can be ridden even when the gyroscopic effects of their wheels are canceled out, the hypothesis that the gyroscopic effects of the wheels are what keep a bike upright is common in print and online. Examples in print: "Angular momentum and motorcycle counter-steering: A discussion and demonstration", A. J. Cox, Am. J. Phys. 66, 1018–1021 ~1998 "The motorcycle as a gyroscope", J. Higbie, Am. J. Phys. 42, 701–702 The Physics of Everyday Phenomena, W. T. Griffith, McGraw–Hill, New York, 1998, pp. 149–150. The Way Things Work., Macaulay, Houghton-Mifflin, New York, NY, 1989 Longitudinal dynamics Bikes may experience a variety of longitudinal forces and motions. On most bikes, when the front wheel is turned to one side or the other, the entire rear frame pitches forward slightly, depending on the steering axis angle and the amount of trail. On bikes with suspensions, either front, rear, or both, trim is used to describe the geometric configuration of the bike, especially in response to forces of braking, accelerating, turning, drive train, and aerodynamic drag. The load borne by the two wheels varies not only with center of mass location, which in turn varies with the number of passengers, the amount of luggage, and the location of passengers and luggage, but also with acceleration and deceleration. This phenomenon is known as load transfer or weight transfer, depending on the author, and provides challenges and opportunities to both riders and designers. For example, motorcycle racers can use it to increase the friction available to the front tire when cornering, and attempts to reduce front suspension compression during heavy braking has spawned several motorcycle fork designs. The net aerodynamic drag forces may be considered to act at a single point, called the center of pressure. At high speeds, this will create a net moment about the rear driving wheel and result in a net transfer of load from the front wheel to the rear wheel. Also, depending on the shape of the bike and the shape of any fairing that might be installed, aerodynamic lift may be present that either increases or further reduces the load on the front wheel. Stability Though longitudinally stable when stationary, a bike may become longitudinally unstable under sufficient acceleration or deceleration, and Euler's second law can be used to analyze the ground reaction forces generated. For example, the normal (vertical) ground reaction forces at the wheels for a bike with a wheelbase and a center of mass at height and at a distance in front of the rear wheel hub, and for simplicity, with both wheels locked, can be expressed as: for the rear wheel and for the front wheel. The frictional (horizontal) forces are simply for the rear wheel and for the front wheel, where is the coefficient of friction, is the total mass of the bike and rider, and is the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, if which occurs if the center of mass is anywhere above or in front of a line extending back from the front wheel contact patch and inclined at the angle above the horizontal, then the normal force of the rear wheel will be zero (at which point the equation no longer applies) and the bike will begin to flip or loop forward over the front wheel. On the other hand, if the center of mass height is behind or below the line, such as on most tandem bicycles or long-wheel-base recumbent bicycles, as well as cars, it is less likely that the front wheel can generate enough braking force to flip the bike. This means they can decelerate up to nearly the limit of adhesion of the tires to the road, which could reach 0.8 g if the coefficient of friction is 0.8, which is 40% more than an upright bicycle under even the best conditions. Bicycling Science author David Gordon Wilson points out that this puts upright bicyclists at particular risk of causing a rear-end collision if they tailgate cars. Similarly, powerful motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel to lift the front wheel off the ground in a maneuver called a wheelie. A line similar to the one described above to analyze braking performance can be drawn from the rear wheel contact patch to predict if a wheelie is possible given the available friction, the center of mass location, and sufficient power. This can also happen on bicycles, although there is much less power available, if the center of mass is back or up far enough or the rider lurches back when applying power to the pedals. Of course, the angle of the terrain can influence all of the calculations above. All else remaining equal, the risk of pitching over the front end is reduced when riding up hill and increased when riding down hill. The possibility of performing a wheelie increases when riding up hill, and is a major factor in motorcycle hillclimbing competitions. Braking according to ground conditions When braking, the rider in motion is seeking to change the speed of the combined mass m of rider plus bike. This is a negative acceleration a in the line of travel. F=ma, the acceleration a causes an inertial forward force F on mass m. The braking a is from an initial speed u to a final speed v, over a length of time t. The equation u - v = at implies that the greater the acceleration the shorter the time needed to change speed. The stopping distance s is also shortest when acceleration a is at the highest possible value compatible with road conditions: the equation s = ut + 1/2 at2 makes s low when a is high and t is low. How much braking force to apply to each wheel depends both on ground conditions and on the balance of weight on the wheels at each instant in time. The total braking force cannot exceed the gravity force on the rider and bike times the coefficient of friction μ of the tire on the ground. mgμ >= Ff + Fr. A skid occurs if the ratio of either Ff over Nf or Fr over Nr is greater than μ, with a rear wheel skid having less of a negative impact on lateral stability. When braking, the inertial force ma in the line of travel, not being co-linear with f, tends to rotate m about f. This tendency to rotate, an overturning moment, is resisted by a moment from mg. Taking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time: When there is no braking, mass m is typically above the bottom bracket, about 2/3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels, with Nr thus greater than Nf. In constant light braking, whether because an emergency stop is not required or because poor ground conditions prevent heavy braking, much weight still rests on the rear wheel, meaning that Nr is still large and Fr can contribute towards a. As braking a increases, Nr and Fr decrease because the moment mah increases with a. At maximum constant a, clockwise and anti-clockwise moments are equal, at which point Nr = 0. Any greater Ff initiates a stoppie. Other factors: Downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of mg closer to f. To try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep m as far back as possible. When braking is increasing the center of mass m may move forward relative to the front wheel, as the rider moves forward relative to the bike, and, if the bike has suspension on the front wheel, the front forks compress under load, changing the bike geometry. This all puts extra load on the front wheel. At the end of a brake maneuver, as the rider comes to a halt, the suspension decompresses and pushes the rider back. Values for μ vary greatly depending on a number of factors: The material that the ground or road surface is made of. Whether the ground is wet or dry. The temperature of the tyre and ground. The smoothness or roughness of the ground. The firmness or looseness of the ground. The speed of the vehicle, with friction reducing above 30 mph (50 km/h). Whether friction is rolling or sliding, with sliding friction at least 10% below peak rolling friction. Braking Most of the braking force of standard upright bikes comes from the front wheel. As the analysis above shows, if the brakes themselves are strong enough, the rear wheel is easy to skid, while the front wheel often can generate enough stopping force to flip the rider and bike over the front wheel. This is called a stoppie if the rear wheel is lifted but the bike does not flip, or an endo (abbreviated form of end-over-end) if the bike flips. On long or low bikes, however, such as cruiser motorcycles and recumbent bicycles, the front tire will skid instead, possibly causing a loss of balance. Assuming no loss of balance, it is possible to calculate optimum braking performance depending on the bike's geometry, the location of center of gravity of bike and rider, and the maximum coefficient of friction. In the case of a front suspension, especially telescoping fork tubes, the increase in downward force on the front wheel during braking may cause the suspension to compress and the front end to lower. This is known as brake diving. A riding technique that takes advantage of how braking increases the downward force on the front wheel is known as trail braking. Front wheel braking The limiting factors on the maximum deceleration in front wheel braking are: the maximum, limiting value of static friction between the tire and the ground, often between 0.5 and 0.8 for rubber on dry asphalt, the kinetic friction between the brake pads and the rim or disk, and pitching or looping (of bike and rider) over the front wheel. For an upright bicycle on dry asphalt with excellent brakes, pitching will probably be the limiting factor. The combined center of mass of a typical upright bicycle and rider will be about back from the front wheel contact patch and above, allowing a maximum deceleration of 0.5 g (5 m/s2 or 16 ft/s2). If the rider modulates the brakes properly, however, pitching can be avoided. If the rider moves his weight back and down, even larger decelerations are possible. Front brakes on many inexpensive bikes are not strong enough so, on the road, they are the limiting factor. Cheap cantilever brakes, especially with "power modulators", and Raleigh-style side-pull brakes severely restrict the stopping force. In wet conditions they are even less effective. Front wheel slides are more common off-road. Mud, water, and loose stones reduce the friction between the tire and trail, although knobby tires can mitigate this effect by grabbing the surface irregularities. Front wheel slides are also common on corners, whether on road or off. Centripetal acceleration adds to the forces on the tire-ground contact, and when the friction force is exceeded the wheel slides. Rear-wheel braking The rear brake of an upright bicycle can only produce about 0.25 g (≈2.5 m/s2) deceleration at best, because of the decrease in normal force at the rear wheel as described above. All such bikes with only rear braking are subject to this limitation: for example, bikes with only a coaster brake, and fixed-gear bikes with no other braking mechanism. There are, however, situations that may warrant rear wheel braking Slippery surfaces or bumpy surfaces. Under front wheel braking, the lower coefficient of friction may cause the front wheel to skid which often results in a loss of balance. Front flat tire. Braking a wheel with a flat tire can cause the tire to come off the rim which greatly reduces friction and, in the case of a front wheel, result in a loss of balance. To deliberately induce a rear wheel skid to induce oversteer and achieve a smaller turn radius on tight turns. Front brake failure. Recumbent bicycles. Long-wheelbase recumbents require a good rear brake as the CG is near the rear wheel. Braking technique Expert opinion varies from "use both levers equally at first" to "the fastest that you can stop any bike of normal wheelbase is to apply the front brake so hard that the rear wheel is just about to lift off the ground," depending on road conditions, rider skill level, and desired fraction of maximum possible deceleration. Suspension Bikes may have only front, only rear, full suspension or no suspension that operate primarily in the central plane of symmetry; though with some consideration given to lateral compliance. The goals of a bike suspension are to reduce vibration experienced by the rider, maintain wheel contact with the ground, reduce the loss of momentum when riding over an object, reduce impact forces caused by jumps or drops and maintain vehicle trim. The primary suspension parameters are stiffness, damping, sprung and unsprung mass, and tire characteristics. Besides irregularities in the terrain, brake, acceleration, and drive-train forces can also activate the suspension as described above. Examples include bob and pedal feedback on bicycles, the shaft effect on motorcycles, and squat and brake dive on both. Vibration The study of vibrations in bikes includes its causes, such as engine balance, wheel balance, ground surface, and aerodynamics; its transmission and absorption; and its effects on the bike, the rider, and safety. An important factor in any vibration analysis is a comparison of the natural frequencies of the system with the possible driving frequencies of the vibration sources. A close match means mechanical resonance that can result in large amplitudes. A challenge in vibration damping is to create compliance in certain directions (vertically) without sacrificing frame rigidity needed for power transmission and handling (torsionally). Another issue with vibration for the bike is the possibility of failure due to material fatigue Effects of vibration on riders include discomfort, loss of efficiency, Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome, a secondary form Raynaud's disease, and whole body vibration. Vibrating instruments may be inaccurate or difficult to read. In bicycles The primary cause of vibrations in a properly functioning bicycle is the surface over which it rolls. In addition to pneumatic tires and traditional bicycle suspensions, a variety of techniques have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider. These include materials, such as carbon fiber, either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork, seatpost, or handlebars; tube shapes, such as curved seat stays;, gel handlebar grips and saddles and special inserts, such as Zertz by Specialized, and Buzzkills by Bontrager. In motorcycles In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine mounts, and tire weights. The problems that vibration causes have also spawned an industry of after-market parts and systems designed to reduce it. Add-ons include handlebar weights, isolated foot pegs, and engine counterweights. At high speeds, motorcycles and their riders may also experience aerodynamic flutter or buffeting. This can be abated by changing the air flow over key parts, such as the windshield. Experimentation A variety of experiments have been performed in order to verify or disprove various hypotheses about bike dynamics. David Jones built several bikes in a search for an unrideable configuration. Richard Klein built several bikes to confirm Jones' findings. Richard Klein also built a "Torque Wrench Bike" and a "Rocket Bike" to investigate steering torques and their effects. Keith Code built a motorcycle with fixed handlebars to investigate the effects of rider motion and position on steering. Schwab and Kooijman have performed measurements with an instrumented bike. Hubbard and Moore have performed measurements with an instrumented bike. See also Bicycle and motorcycle geometry Bicycle fork Bicycle performance Bicycle tire Camber angle Camber thrust Caster angle Cornering force Countersteering Highsider Lowsider Motorcycle fork Parallel parking problem Slip angle Speed wobble Stoppie Trail braking Wheelie Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling References Further reading 'An Introduction to Bicycle Geometry and Handling', Karl Anderson 'What keeps the bicycle upright?' by Jobst Brandt 'Report on Stability of the Dahon Bicycle' by John Forester External links Videos: Video of riderless bicycle demonstrating self-stability Why bicycles do not fall: Arend Schwab at TEDx Delft 2012 Wobble movie (AVI) Weave movie (AVI) Wobble Crash (Flash) Video on Science Friday Research centers: Bicycle Dynamics at Delft University of Technology Bicycle Mechanics at Cornell University Bicycle Science at the University of Illinois Motorcycle Dynamics at the University of Padova Control and Power Research Group at Imperial College Bicycle dynamics, control and handling at UC Davis Bicycle and Motorcycle Engineering Research Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Conferences: Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2010: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, Delft University of Technology, Oct 20–22, 2010 Single Track Vehicle Dynamics at DSCC 2012: two sessions at the ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Conference in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, October 17–19, 2012 Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2013 : Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, Nihon University, Nov 11–13, 2013 Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2016: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Sept 21–23, 2016 Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2019: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, University of Padova, Sept, 9–11, 2019 Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics Conference: Summary page Control theory Cycling Dynamics (mechanics)
5344275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Rassinier	Paul Rassinier	Paul Rassinier (18 March 1906 – 28 July 1967) was a political activist and writer who is viewed as "the father of Holocaust denial". He was also a member of the French resistance who survived Buchenwald and Mittelbau-Dora concentration camps. A journalist and editor, he wrote hundreds of articles on political and economic subjects. Early life Rassinier was born on 18 March 1906 in Bermont in the Territoire de Belfort, into a politically active family. During World War I Paul's father Joseph, a farmer and a veteran of the French colonial army in Tonkin (present day Vietnam) was mobilized, but was put into a military prison for his pacifist attitudes, something his son Paul never forgot. After the war, his family favored the post-war socialist revolutions, and he joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in 1922. He secured a post as a teacher at the École Valdoie, and in 1933, he became a Professor of History and Geography at the College d'Enseignement General at Belfort. In 1927, he served in the French Army in Morocco, where his pacifist views were reinforced by the brutal colonialist repression and military corruption he witnessed. He later described how "We became deadened to scandalous scenes of torture, which had no reason to envy those of the Middle Ages, and saw the apparatus of dictatorship not retreating, but even advancing in the face of an assassination!" Upon his demobilization, he returned to his teaching post and his political activism. It is also around this time that he became a member of War Resisters' International. Pre-war political activities Rassinier moved up to become the Party Secretary of the PCF in the Department of Belfort. In 1932, Lucien Carre, the Communist Youth Secretary of Belfort, was arrested, and a leftist coalition made up of several organizations, including the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (The SFIO), held protest rallies and demonstrations. Rassinier supported Henri Jacob's effort to enlist the middle-class parties, and for this and other acts "betraying the interests of the working class", both Jacob and Rassinier were expelled from the Communist Party in 1932. Jacob had been slated to be the Communist candidate as deputy for the Canton of Belfort. After his expulsion, he still ran for office and won, which encouraged him, Paul Rassinier, and other alienated Communists to form a separate party, The Independent Communist Federation Of The East. Formed in 1932, Rassinier was the Party Secretary, Jacob the Assistant Secretary. Rassinier was also the editor of the Party newspaper, The Worker. Neither the party nor the paper became popular, and both were dissolved in 1934. The 6 February 1934 crisis seemed to create new opportunities for the worker's movement, and around this time Rassinier joined the SFIO. He became Secretary of Federation SFIO for the Territory of Belfort, and revived a moribund newspaper, Germinal, to serve as the party organ. He also ran for office several times, without success. Adopting the ideology of Marceau Pivert, he was a prolific author, denouncing the arms race, advocating the revision of the Treaty of Versailles, demanding more workers rights and supporting a pacifist ideology that would not be restricted to France, but become Pan-European. As war clouds gathered, Rassinier wrote articles condemning Nazism and Fascism, describing their foreign policy as "a policy of gangsters", with warnings that neither Italy nor Germany could be trusted to respect their promises. But when the Munich Agreement was signed in 1938, Rassinier was one of many Frenchman who would describe himself as "an inhabitant of Munich". Echoing the words of former Prime Minister Léon Blum, his support of the Accords was "without much pride, it is true, but without any shame", since he regarded war as the greatest catastrophe, and didn't believe "that even Mussolini after Ethiopia, even Hitler who makes blood run in the company of Spain, will risk such a madness". He received condemnation for his pacifist stance, but replied that while it's easy to be a fair-weather pacifist, a true commitment to peace is something done both in and out of season and he expressed his disappointment that so few Socialists were "on this side of the barricade". In August 1939, after the Nazi-Soviet Pact, Rassinier was arrested by French counter-intelligence, who suspected that his newspaper was receiving Nazi funding. Thanks to the intervention of Paul Faure and the SFIO, he was released a few days later, and when France was invaded in May 1940, he reported to his militia unit, where he and his comrades spent weeks in the barracks waiting for orders that never came. After France was overrun, he resumed teaching in Belfort. Wartime years Many of the "Socialists of Munich" joined in collaboration, but not Rassinier. In June 1941, with the invasion of the Soviet Union, resistance in France came alive and Rassinier first joined up with The Volunteers Of Freedom, a Republican-Socialist coalition; and then with the Resistance group Liberation, organized in the north of France by Henri Ribière. Rassinier became the director of Libération Nord for the territories of Alsace and Belfort. Like others in various nations who were members of War Resisters' International, he practiced non-violent resistance to the Nazi German occupation, both because of his pacifism and his fear that reprisals would fall on innocent people. Rassinier, using an expression common at the time, did not feel comfortable "to play with the skin of others". Using his publishing contacts, he printed false identity papers, and helped establish an underground railroad from Belfort to the Swiss town of Basel, smuggling resistance fighters, political refugees and persecuted Jews to safety. In 1986, testimony of resistance member Yves Allain revealed that Rassinier had also worked closely with BURGUNDY, an escape network set up by the Special Operations Executive to smuggle shot-down Allied pilots back home through Switzerland. Rassinier wrote articles for the Vichy-friendly newspaper Le Rouge et le Bleu (The Red and the Blue), then, along with J.L. Bruch, Pierre Cochery and Albert Tschann helped found The Fourth Republic, an underground paper that advocated resistance and tried to lay a post-war foundation for France, so "that all those who will survive the war together can and must rebuild peace together, and thus save the country from a civil war." The Fourth Republic demanded that Germany was to be held accountable for the crimes of Nazism, but the contribution of the Treaty of Versailles would not be ignored, nor would Germany and Italy be held unilaterally responsible for starting the war. BBC broadcasts from both London and Algiers congratulated the founding of the paper, and broadcast some excerpts, though by the time the only wartime edition came out Rassinier was already under arrest. The local Communist resistance groups of the Front National (FN) were hostile to Rassinier's idea of non-violent resistance and were enraged when Rassinier published leaflets condemning Soviet Communism equally with the National Socialism of Hitler. After several warnings, the Communists condemned him to death. Rassinier's life was saved when in reaction to attacks on Germans at a local pharmacy and coffee house, both German and Vichy French police launched a series of raids that led to several arrests, one of them a person with a forged identity card. He broke under interrogation and revealed how he had obtained it, and on 30 October 1943 Rassinier was arrested in his classroom by agents of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), his arrest observed by a Liberation-North agent who was delivering forged identity and ration cards to him. His wife and two-year-old son were also arrested, but released a few days later. For eleven days, Rassinier was interrogated, the beatings involved leading to a broken jaw, crushed hand and ruptured kidney. Rassinier was then deported to Germany, enduring a three-day rail transport that ended on 30 January 1944 at Buchenwald concentration camp. After three weeks in quarantine, he became prisoner number 44364 and was transported to Dora, where V1 and V2 rockets were built in tunnels. Work conditions were terrible. Hunger, disease, overwork, exhaustion and physical abuse by the SS and the corrupt mafia of the Häftlingsführung (camp lower administration made of prisoners themselves; see "Prisoner functionary") resulted in a catastrophic death rate. In his first book Crossing the Line, he says several factors contributed to his survival. Beginning in April 1944, his wife mailed him food parcels, though this stopped in November. His friendship with his Block Chief resulted in his parcel being delivered directly to him without first being plundered by the prisoner government. For a time, he landed a cushy job in "Schwung" (a position somewhere between orderly and manservant) to the SS Oberscharführer commanding the guard dog company, and got the opportunity to observe the SS at close range. Also, partly as a result of his interrogation, he came down with nephritis, and spent no less than two hundred and fifty days of his imprisonment in the Revier (infirmary). On 7 April 1945 he was evacuated from Dora on what became a death train, endlessly traveling the German rail network from one bombed-out destination to another, with no food, water, or shelter. After several days, as the train rounded a bend and in spite of his terrible physical condition, he jumped off and thanks to the angle, escaped the SS gunfire. American soldiers rescued him the next day. He returned to France in June 1945 and was awarded the Ribbon of Resistance (but not the Rosette as he claimed). He claimed that he was awarded the Vermilion Medal of the French Recognition but there is no trace of it in the Journal Officiel's lists (Nadine Fresco, Fabrication d'un antisémite, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 1999, p. 760, n. 178). He was also classified as 95 percent an invalid (later to be revised to 105 percent). He returned to his teaching post, but because of his physical condition, was prematurely retired in 1950. Post-war political activities In 1945, Rassinier resumed his positions as head of the Belfort Federation SFIO and editor of The Fourth Republic. He ran for office, and in June 1946 was elected as the substitute for Rene Naegelen, Belfort's Deputy to the National Assembly. Naegelen did relinquish the post, and for two months Rassinier served in the National Assembly of France, only to be beaten in the next election by Pierre Dreyfus-Schmidt, an old rival. His wife Jeanne had a dim view of his future in politics, and he never again ran for office. He continued with other political activities, such as working with André Breton, Albert Camus, Jean Cocteau, Jean Giono, Lanza del Vasto and Father Robert Treno in agitating for the rights of conscientious objectors. 1949–1967: The author By 1948, Paul Rassinier had been a history teacher for over twenty-two years, and was distressed to read stories about the concentration camps and deportations that he claimed were not true. He was also appalled at the unilateral condemnation of Nazi Germany for crimes against humanity that from his experience in Morocco he did not consider unique, and claimed to fear that nationalistic hatreds and bitterness would divide Europe. As he explained it in The Lie of Ulysses: one day I realized that a false picture of the German camps had been created and that the problem of the concentration camps was a universal one, not just one that could be disposed of by placing it on the doorstep of the National Socialists. The deportees—many of whom were Communists—had been largely responsible for leading international political thinking to such an erroneous conclusion. I suddenly felt that by remaining silent I was an accomplice to a dangerous influence. Rassinier's first book, Crossing the Line (1949), an account of his experience in Buchenwald, was an immediate critical and commercial success, one reviewer describing it as "the first testimony coldly and calmly written against the demands of resentment, idiotic hatred or chauvinism". The Trade Union of Journalists and Writers also praised it, and it was recommended reading by the SFIO. It is notable for its criticism of the prisoner government. Rassinier claims that effective resistance was found only among the Russian prisoners, and that many brutalities in the camp were committed not by the SS, but by the mainly Communist prisoners who took over the Häftlingsführung and ran the internal affairs of the camps for their own benefit. Rassinier blamed the high death rate at the two camps he saw on their corruption. His second book, The Lie of Ulysses: A Glance at the Literature of Concentration Camp Inmates (1950) caused controversy. Rassinier examined what he considered to be representative accounts of the camps. He criticized exaggerations and denounced authors, such as Eugen Kogon, who in L'Enfer Organisé (1947) claimed that the Buchenwald prisoner government's main objective was "to keep a nucleus of prisoners against the SS" Rassinier asserts that this nucleus of prisoners were only looking out for themselves, and further claims that the Communists were trying to save their own skins after the war, saying that: "by taking by storm the bar of the witnesses and with extreme shouting, they avoided the dock". He also describes his visits to Dachau and Mauthausen, noting that in both places, he got contradictory stories on how the gas chambers were supposed to have worked, and for the first time expresses his doubts on the existence of gas chambers and a Nazi policy of extermination. The book created a scandal, and on 2 November 1950 was even attacked on the floor of the French National Assembly. More because of the foreword by Albert Paraz than for the content of the book, both Rassinier and Paraz were sued for slander by various organizations. After a see-saw round of trials and appeals, both Rassinier and Paraz were acquitted, and an expanded edition of The Lie of Ulysses was published in 1955, which sold well. However, the uproar led to complaints from members of the SFIO, and on 9 April 1951 Rassinier was expelled from the party "in spite of the respect which his person imposes", as the expulsion document noted. A rehabilitation effort by Marceau Pivert was rejected. Rassinier spent the rest of the 1950s advocating socialism and pacifism. He wrote articles for Defense of Man and The Way of Peace, condemning the wars in Indochina and Algeria, along with French post-war financial policy. He also wrote for the libertarian newsletter Contre-Courant and the bulletin of the anarchist SIA (Solidarité International Anti-Fasciste), as well as many other publications. In 1953, he published The Speech of the Last Chance – An Introductory Essay to the Doctrines of Peace, describing the ideology of pacifism, and in 1955 Parliament in the Hands of the Banks, a condemnation of capitalism and French financial policy. His 1960 essay The Equivocal Revolutionary was his only theoretical work, a metaphysical and dialectical examination of revolutionary thought applied in the second part to a socialist analysis of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. It was serialized in several papers, and a mildly successful book version was published in 1961. Also in 1961, he returned to his earlier themes with Ulysses Betrayed By His Own, an anthology of the speeches he gave during a twelve-city lecture tour of Germany built around a third edition of The Lie. This tour had been sponsored by Karl-Heinz Priester, a former SS officer and propagandist for Joseph Goebbels (and once a U.S. intelligence asset). Priester was one of the organizers of the right-wing Deutsche Reichspartei, and this, along with his increasing association with right-wing activists such as Maurice Bardèche led to him being denounced as an anti-semite by people such as Olga Wormser-Migot, who stated that Rassinier "belongs to the spiritual family of Louis-Ferdinand Céline", a writer often criticized as anti-semitic. In 1962, after the Jerusalem trial, Rassinier published The True Eichmann Trial or The Incorrigible Victors, a condemnation of the Nuremberg Trials and Adolf Eichmann trials, and in an expanded second edition, of the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, from which he had been forcibly excluded by the West German government. At the end of the expanded edition, he argued that continuing war crimes trials were part of a Zionist and Communist strategy to divide and demoralize Europe. Further denunciations of Rassinier came in the press, such as when journalist Bernard Lecache described him as an "agent of the Nazi Internationale". It was in 1964, with The Drama of the European Jews, that Rassinier came to the conclusion that there was never a policy of extermination by Nazi Germany. He criticized Raul Hilberg's book The Destruction of the European Jews (1961), again critiqued witness testimony, and questioned the technical feasibility of the claimed methods of extermination. His critique of Doctor At Auschwitz by Miklós Nyiszli was partially confirmed twenty-five years later by the forensic historian Jean-Claude Pressac. He cited the Zionist book L'Etat d'Israel (1930) by Kadmi Cohen to again assert that Zionist and Jewish organizations were conspiring to use Nazi crimes to extort money to fund themselves and the State of Israel. Part II of the book contained a statistical study intended as a reply to those of Leon Poliakov and Hilberg. Rassinier claimed an advantage by using as his starting point the 1934 study The Jews in the Modern World by Arthur Ruppin. Pierre Vidal-Naquet, a frequent critic of Rassinier's who had exchanged correspondence with him, criticized this in 1980 in A Paper Eichmann - Anatomy of a Lie. The Drama generated little interest and languished in obscurity until 1977, when Georges Wellers, editor of the magazine Le Monde Juif, dissected the book in the first attempt at a detailed rebuttal of any of Rassinier's writings. Wellers lists errors, omissions and misquotes by Rassinier, some of them egregious. At one point in the essay, Wellers condemned Rassinier's arguments as "a model of hypocrisy and the outrageous deceit typical of all the procedures currently employed by Rassinier." Also in 1964, in the course of a libel lawsuit brought by the French communist Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier, it was revealed that Rassinier had written articles in the far-right magazine Rivarol under the nom de plume Jean-Paul Bermont, and he was forced to terminate many of his anarchist contacts. In 1965, Rassinier published his last successful book. Rolf Hochhuth's 1963 play Der Stellvertreter. Ein christliches Trauerspiel (The Deputy: A Christian Tragedy) had been performed in several languages and many countries. Rassinier was a declared atheist, but was outraged by Hochhuth's thesis that Pope Pius XII stood silently by while the Jews of Europe were exterminated, and saw in the play only an incitement to divide Europe by religious hostility (anti-Catholicism) and xenophobia. He traveled to Rome, and was given access to the Vatican archives. Operation Vicar was a defense of Pope Pius XII that called into question the motives of Pius' Protestant and socialist critics. Rassinier demonstrated that Catholic opposition to Hitler compared favorably with Protestant support of him, and drew attention to Pope Pius' pre-war condemnations of Nazism (e.g. Mit brennender Sorge) and efforts for peace, which brought Rassinier praise from the Vatican. From 1965 to 1967, Rassinier continued to write, and his last series of articles, "A Third World War for Oil" were published in Défense de l'Occident from July through August 1967. In his final book, Those Responsible For The Second World War, Rassinier tries to establish the responsibility of the Jews for the outbreak of the war. The father of Holocaust denial During the early 1960s, Rassinier corresponded with the American revisionist historian Harry Elmer Barnes, who arranged for the translation of four of Rassinier's books. Barnes would posthumously publish a favorable short review of Rassinier's book The Drama of the European Jews, entitled Zionist Fraud for the American Mercury. In 1977, these were collectively published by Noontide Press under the title Debunking The Genocide Myth. While some of Rassinier's books had been reviewed before in the United States, for most of the English speaking world this was their first introduction to Rassinier's writings. Besides Barnes, whose critical writings of the origins of the First World War were admired by Rassinier, another of his influences was Jean Norton Cru and his titanic 1929 study: Witnesses: Tests, Analysis and Criticism of the Memories of Combatants Published in French from 1915 to 1928. In The Lie of Ulysses, Rassinier claims Cru's book gave him the tools he needed to evaluate witness testimony. Final years Rassinier's lifelong dream was to write the history of Florence during the age of Machiavelli, but he did not live to realize it. His kidneys had been badly damaged from his torture at the hands of the SS and his fifteen months in Buchenwald and Dora, and he never recovered. He was an invalid for the last twenty-two years of his life, with hypertension so bad that it was dangerous for him to stand up. He died on 28 July 1967 in the Parisian suburb of Asnieres, while working on yet more books, The History of the State of Israel and a book version of A Third World War for Oil. Works Crossing the Line: The Human Truth, 1949 The Lie of Ulysses: A Glance at the Literature of Concentration Camp Inmates, 1950 The Speech of the Last Chance: An Introductory Essay to the Doctrines of Peace, 1953 Candasse or the Eighth Capital Sin, A History Over Time (Rassinier's autobiography), 1955 Parliament in the Hands of the Banks, 1955 Ulysses Betrayed By His Own, 1961 The Equivocal Revolutionary, 1961 The True Eichmann Trial or the Incorrigible Victors, 1962 The Drama of the European Jews, 1964 Operation Vicar. The Role of Pius XII Before History, 1965 Those Responsible for the Second World War. 1967 References Nadine Fresco, Fabrication d'un antisémite, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 1999 Valérie Igounet, Histoire du négationnisme en France, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 2000. Stéphanie Courouble Share (préf. Pascal Ory), Les idées fausses ne meurent jamais : le négationnisme, histoire d'un réseau international, Paris, Le Bord de l'eau, coll. « Judaïsme », 2021, 530 p. (). André Sellier, A History of the Dora Camp: The Untold Story of the Nazi Slave Labor Camp That Secretly Manufactured V-2 Rockets, Ivan R. Dee, 2003 Samuel Moyn, A Holocaust Controversy: The Treblinka Affair in Postwar France, Brandeis University Press, 2005 Jean Maitron The Biographical Dictionary of the French Labor Movement History of the Combat Units of the Resistance (1940–44) by the Historical Service of the Land Army Henri Roques (French negationist), The Confessions of Kurt Gerstein, Institute for Historical Review, 1989 Jean Plantin (French negationist), Paul Rassinier: Socialist, Pacifist and Revisionist; also the source of various articles written by Rassinier in various publications as cited by Plantin 1906 births 1967 deaths People from the Territoire de Belfort French Holocaust deniers French atheists French pacifists French trade unionists Buchenwald concentration camp survivors Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp survivors Communist members of the French Resistance French Section of the Workers' International politicians French male non-fiction writers 20th-century French journalists 20th-century French male writers French Army personnel of World War II
5344719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetch%21%20with%20Ruff%20Ruffman	Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman	Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman (sometimes shortened as Fetch!) is an American live-action/animated television series that aired on PBS Kids Go! and is largely targeted toward children ages 6–10. It is a reality-game show that is hosted by an animated anthropomorphic dog named Ruff Ruffman who dispenses challenges to the show's real-life contestants. The series ran for five seasons and 100 episodes from May 29, 2006, to November 4, 2010, on PBS, with 30 contestants in that time. Although a sixth season was planned, with auditions taking place in January 2010, WGBH announced on June 14, 2010, that due to lack of funding, the series would end. In June 2008, the series received its first Emmy for Best Original Song for its theme. Synopsis Fetch! is a reality-based game show where young contestants (ages 10–14) take on various challenges to gain points. During these challenges, the contestants must complete a variety of tasks assigned to them ahead of time (and on the fly) by Ruff and surrogates, depending on the situation. There is also an educational component, as contestants often must learn something (i.e. Astronomy, Puzzles, Carpentry, Engineering, Food Science, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, etc.) in order to complete the task. Not all contestants leave the studio each episode to complete tasks. "As determined by the Fetch 3000" (according to Ruff), the contestants who remain behind in the studio participate in the "Half-Time Quiz Show", in which Ruff asks them up to ten questions with the limited time based on the activities of the contestants out on challenges. Out on challenges, contestants will have the potential to earn up to 100 points. The contestants in the studio will have a chance to win a maximum of 50 in the "Half-Time Quiz Show". The show has a Fetch Fairness Guarantee; that every contestant will "compete for the same number of points" through thirteen challenges and six "Half-time Quiz Shows" before the final episode. Additionally, Ruff assigns "Bone-us" points (usually 5 or 10, but sometimes 15 or 20) to the stand-out contestants. On rare occasions, there is the possibility to earn more than 100 points (outside of any bonuses). The record for most points earned in one episode was 125, by Brian, Noah, and Khalil in episode 5, season 1. In Season 4, contestants are able to have 1/2 points (i.e. 515 points). At the end of the season, a final point tally is conducted, with the winner of the tally being declared winner of that season to win the "Grand Prize" and will get a poster and put it on the Fetch Wall of Fame. Prizes are not always desirable, and sometimes the prize holder winds up with a "booby prize"; for example, in "Good Dancing and Bad Breath", Anna and Brian had to dance a waltz in the studio. During the first season, the contestant had the choice of keeping the prize or giving it to a fellow contestant. During the remaining four seasons, there are two unknown prizes between which the winner chooses. The chosen prize may be "mailed" to the mailbox in Studio G, although occasionally large prizes are hidden elsewhere on the set. In the seventh episode of Season 2, Rosario gave his prize to Nina. In the 15th episode of season 4, Sterling returned his prize to the mailbox. Cultural references and guest stars Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman contains a considerable number of direct cultural references for a PBS Kids show, which makes up a large chunk of the series's comedic style. In the season 2 premiere, when Nina does a rather sloppy job at making chocolate candy, Ruff remarks that it is the "Jackson Pollock candy." In the following episode, Ruff mentions that he likes REO Speedwagon. In Season 3, Episode 13, when Sam and Harsha throw sacks in a pail, Ruff makes a comment saying, "I feel like Shaq in the free throw line", making a reference to Shaquille O' Neal. In season 4, Episode 14, when Talia found a horseshoe crab while working on a shrimp boat, a horrified Ruff exclaimed, "Looks like Darth Vader's face with a billion legs coming out of it!" In Episode 17 of the same season, Talia was starstruck when she discovered that she was holding Roger Federer's tennis racket. In Episode 15 of Season 2, when the scuba instructors arrived at the beach, Ruff claimed that they were "faster than Batman" and that he "hoped [Batman] was watching the show". In Episode 14 of Season 5, when Rubye and Marc learned skydiving signs, Ruff remarked that one of the signs looked like "one of Beyoncé's dance moves." In Season 2, Episode 4, when Rosario voiced Ruff for the first time, Ruff remarked: "Is that Ruff Ruffman or Marge Simpson?" In Season 4, Episode 16, when Ruff called Isaac, who was dressed as an old lady, he accidentally called him Mrs. Doubtfire and then corrects himself and says Mrs. Issacson. In Season 5, Episode 18, when Joe explained to the FETCHers, he told Michelle about the book she read. Michelle said: "I believe that was Green Eggs and Ham." The show also had some guest stars. In episode 6 of season 1, Aaron Carter and the contestants all appeared in his new music video. In episode 10 of season 1, Anna and Noah must earn some quick cash by building a lemonade stand with the help of master carpenter Norm Abram. In season 2, episode 2, Ruff sends Madi and Willie to meet the Blue Man Group. In episode 4 of season 2, Bridget and Rosario met puppeteer John Kennedy posing as Bernie the Pig. In Season 3, Episode 4, Sam meets Senator Ted Kennedy. In season 5, episode 4, Crush the sea turtle from the movie Finding Nemo makes an appearance via Ruff's Fetch 3000. Andrew Stanton reprises his role as Crush here. In episode 2 of season 4, the host of Design Squad Nathan Ball appeared in a pole vault challenge. In episode 17 of season 4, Gary Sohmers, an appraiser for 13 seasons of Antiques Roadshow, made his appearance challenging two of the contestants to explore Brimfield Antiques and Collectibles Show in Brimfield, Massachusetts. Episodes Cast members Characters Main Ruff Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is the host and main character of the show. Ruff does not like cats though his boss, Blossom, is an exception. Ruff thinks that dogs are superior to them in most ways. Blossom, whose full name is Princess Blossom Pepperdoodle Von Yum Yum, is a black cat. Blossom never speaks even though Ruff repeats what she says to help the audience clarify what she isn't saying. At the beginning of Season 2, she was Ruff's intern, but was later promoted to being his boss in Season 3. Ruff did not enjoy Blossom's company at first, but in the later seasons forms a close bond with her. Chet, a brown mouse, is Ruff's intern. First appearing in Season 3's second episode "When Home is a House of Cards", Chet replaces Blossom when she is promoted to supervisor. He also does not speak and does not seem to have any eyes or limbs, resembling a computer mouse. He is capable of doing feats that would normally be considered impossible, such as completing an obstacle course in seconds and building a jet engine that runs solely on expired liver and pineapple biscuit shakes. Henry is Ruff's boss, never seen but occasionally calling Ruff on the "Henry Hotline". Henry provides Ruff with the show's budget and oversees Ruff's spending. Murray is one of Ruff's cousins, who runs the behind-the-scenes technical work and is constantly blamed for minor problems on the show. Unlike the other animated animals, Murray is portrayed by a real basset hound and sometimes appears in the kids' challenges. He stopped appearing at the start of Season 4. Tank replaced Murray in Season Four. He is a real bulldog who wears a FETCH! shirt and earmuffs. Though it does not seem like it at first, Tank has proven to be a reliable worker. Supporting Grandma Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff and Scruff's grandmother who speaks with a Jewish accent. She loves Ruff but can be very critical at times. Like her son and daughter-in-law, Wink and Dinah Ruffman, she too was a game show host/spy in her youth. Scruff Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff's identical (but evil) twin brother, distinguished from his brother by a five-o'clock shadow. As seasons went by, Scruff became less and less evil and sought to redeem himself and his family name. This likely stems after his girlfriend Petunia Fidolopolus framed Grandma Ruffman for trying to break Scruff out of prison. Ruffael Ruffmanowitz (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff's great-great-great-great-great-great grandfather and an inventor. Great Uncle McRuffmantosh (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff's great-uncle who has a beard and has an exaggerated Scottish accent. He is a scholar with a PHD and is usually on the show for historical challenges. Spot Spotnik is Ruff's rival. He is tan with brown spots. Ruff sometimes sees him as his old friend but Spot Spotnik is shown to be a devious dog in order to come out on top. He even once tricked Ruff into thinking that Fetch was canceled just so he can be Charlene’s date to a dance. Charlene is the poodle next door and love interest of both Ruff and Spot. She does not reciprocate any feelings towards either dog. Helga von Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff's cousin, a fashion designer from Germany. Glen Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff and Scruff's nephew. He wears dental braces and is obsessed with magic and fantasy. He is also Ruff’s resident technical genius and usually fixes the Fetch 3000 in exchange for the Fetchers completing a challenge crafted by Glen. Gerry Geranium (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Grandma Ruffman's pet parrot who Ruff sometimes looks after. In seasons 4 and 5, he explains to Ruff that his parents are alive and aids him in finding them. Blackmuzzle Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is the most feared canine pirate of the seven seas. He appeared at the end of "Arrgh - All Me Eggs Are Cracked!" for pledging the show with his own loot. He also appeared in "Season Four is Canceled" to attack Ruff's doghouse boat because he was bored and Ruff refused to give him Gerry to replace a frog on his shoulder. He told Ruff that he recently acquired the internet so that he does not have to shout from his ship; in response Ruff told him to visit his website, which he does so, allowing Ruff, Blossom, and Chet to lose him. In a voicemail he tells Ruff to be an oceanographer and help him navigate the sea. Bluff Ruffman (voiced by Jim Conroy) is Ruff’s wealthy cousin who is an expert at Go Fish and is known for trying to get Ruff to do him favors such as looking after wild animals claiming that they were bunnies and hamsters. He is also a bit of a conman as he once tricked Ruff into promoting his beef jerky by tricking Ruff into thinking he had an Egyptian curse. Roxy Ruffman is Ruff's sister. She is mentioned in "Feeling Sheepish Ruff?" when Ruff looks after her sheep. Although not stated, it is implied that she is Glen’s mother. Harriet Hackensack (voiced by Jim Conroy) is the new Australian owner of Ruff's network company which she has recently bought at the start of Season 4. She dislikes Murray for stealing her valuable sled Rosebud Wink and Dinah Ruffman are Ruff's "long-lost" parents who gave the FETCHers instructions on how to get off Game Show Island. It is revealed in Season 5's finale that they are spies. Tom and Trixie (voiced by Jim Conroy) are Ruff's rivals who are the hosts of Go Get It!, a ripoff of FETCH!. They were actually Ruff's parents, who were working undercover. Production Fetch! (an acronym for "Fabulously Entertaining TV with a Canine Host") was produced at WGBH Studios in Boston. Seasons were filmed about a year before they aired. Season 4 was the first season to be filmed in High Definition (HD) in 2009. The challenges were filmed mostly in Boston (as well as other areas in the US state of Massachusetts) and various other parts of the USA, depending on the challenges, during summertime when the children are out of school. The challenges, which were out on the field, are cut documentary-style, very similar to network reality TV shows. After the FETCHers finished filming the challenges, contestants acted in-studio, with the voice of Ruff. Jim Conroy traveled to Boston from New York for the two weeks they spent shooting in the studio. The fourth camera simply captured Conroy doing his lines as Ruff in the audio booth. The kids heard him in the studio and he heard their reactions in his headphones. Ruff's lines were the only lines that were scripted out, though he would sometimes ad-lib an answer to a question or comment from a FETCHer. Once the lines were recorded, the show went into editing, where the challenges were sorted into the show order. Then they were sent to Jim Conroy in New York City, to voice the dialog for Ruff's animation. Once that was complete, it was sent back to WGBH where editors placed audio clips of the animated characters. Once all of this was done, the episode was sent to Global Mechanic to animate the show. One out of the four editors had an off-set four-week system in place where one of them was ready to send a cut of a new episode to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada every Friday. It took about six months to complete one season of the show. Due to a lack of funding, WGBH announced that Fetch! would be canceled at the end of its fifth season even though casting had been completed for a sixth. Studio G set Studio G is the studio for Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman. Three segments of the show take place in the studiothe intro, half-time quiz show, and "Triumph Tally". In season 1, the contestants recognized that Studio G looked like a garage and asked Ruff why. This really annoyed Ruff, who told them it was not a garage but "Studio G". Over the course of the show's five seasons, the studio changed. For season 1 and 2, the studio remained relatively unaltered, but sizable changes were made to the studio for season 3. The television through which the contestants communicate with Ruff was changed to a more current flat-screen TV, and Ruff's owner parked her car, a dusty Volkswagen Karmann Ghia, in the studio. A flamingo and trees as well as a "Studio G" sign and a "wall of fame" displaying past Fetch! contestant season winners were added to the studio in season 2. In season 4, a new remote control mailbox was placed on the TV Screen, which popped out when a challenge was in the mailbox. Season 5's major renovation occurred during the season finaleit became the Go Get It! studio (Studio P), and was a remodeled version of the Studio G set with new carpeting and pink chairs. Auditions To audition for the program, potential contestants were required to be between the ages of 10 and 14 by the first day of shooting, and be able to live in the greater Boston area over the summer, during school vacations, and a few weekends during the school year. FETCHers needed to be filmed without missing school. Auditions were handled by Maura Tighe Casting. Cancellation The show had auditions for their sixth season in January 2010, but on June 14, 2010, due to lack of funding, WGBH Boston announced that Season 5 will be the final season. On June 27, 2010, Jim Conroy (the voice of Ruff) made the official announcement at the Daytime Emmy Awards ceremony. On his Facebook page, he said, "It's such an impossible task going up against Sesame Street, Cyberchase, and The Electric Company. So you have to consider the nomination as a win. Can't complain. PBS gave us 100 episodes and 5 seasons. Many good shows never saw that kind of time." Fetch! aired its fifth and final season in October 2010, with the final episode date being November 4, 2010. After the series ended, reruns aired on selected PBS stations until August 31, 2014. A few years later, the PBS Kids channel launched, and reruns returned to broadcast on January 16, 2017 through November 20, 2018. Spinoffs Ruff Ruffman: Humble Media Genius Later, in May 2014, a new spin-off was announced, called Ruff Ruffman: Humble Media Genius. This spin-off debuted in Fall 2014 and features short animations of Ruff Ruffman, focusing on internet safety. Episodes: "Texting and You!" (November 2014) "Photos and You!" (November 2014) "Searching and You!" (November 2014) "Technology and You!" (November 2014) "Technology and You! Bonus Video: Chicken Island" (January 2015) "Hang Up and Drive!" (July 2015) "Hang Up and Drive! Bonus Video: Just Drive!" (July 2015) "Privacy and You!" (January 2016) "Privacy and You!: Deleted Scene" (January 2016) "The Internet and Chet" (March 2016) "Say! Cheese?" (May 2016) "Getting the Most From the Internet" (June 2016) "An Orange Dog Goes Green" (January 2017) The Ruff Ruffman Show On July 30, 2017, PBS Kids and WGBH announced that Ruff Ruffman along with his two assistants Blossom and Chet will be making a comeback in a new digital series called The Ruff Ruffman Show, where they answer questions from real kids, take on challenges and learns the value of perseverance—all while modeling science inquiry skills. The digital series premiered on September 28, 2017. Team Hamster! On December 15, 2020, a web series called Team Hamster! premiered. It is a spin-off focusing on Ruff Ruffman's hamsters - Sadie, Mateo, and Tasha. The series also ties-in with games on the PBS KIDS website. Cancelled spinoff: Spyhounds WGBH and Global Mechanic had announced plans to produce a spin-off of Fetch! based on the online game Spyhounds. It would feature Ruff, Blossom, and Chet having a new career as super-spies, and Ruff is in way over his head. Luckily, he has much help: five clever kids, a purple poodle named Trixie, and millions of kids online. The spinoff plans were announced but were later canceled. Fetchtok On July 21, 2022, WGBH and Jim Conroy released FetchTok, a TikTok-based challenge where Ruff (voiced again by Conroy) asks viewers to record themselves performing his challenges and posting them on the app. Reception Critical response The show was an instant hit with audiences and received critical acclaim. The New York Times praised the series, writing "The show’s creators have written in all the sarcasm and amazingness of a more sophisticated and harder-edged show, but not in a way that condones such behavior. There’s a kind of genius to the setup." Larisa Wiseman of Common Sense Media gave the series four out of five stars, saying this entertaining PBS series combines the comedy of a cartoon, the challenge of a game show, and the best of reality TV. Awards and accolades Fetch! has received numerous awards over the years. APEX 2009: Grand Award for The Ruff Guide to Science U.S. International Film and Video Festival 2009: "Certificate for Creative Excellence" in the Children's Programming category 2009 Daytime Emmy Nominations: Outstanding Children's Series, Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series, Outstanding Achievement in Main Title and Graphic Design iParenting Media Award 2009: Winner – Television "2009 Best Products" Parents' Choice Awards 2009: Silver Honor Winner: TV show WorldFest Houston 2009: Gold Remi Award "TV Series – Family/Children" WorldFest Houston 2009: Platinum Remi Award "TV Series – Family/Children" MITX Award 2008: Winner – Best Kids, 'Tweens and Teens site 2008 Daytime Emmy Award: Outstanding Original Song – Children's And Animation – Fetch! Theme Song 2008 Daytime Emmy Nominations: Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series, Outstanding Original Song – Children's And Animation – Fetch! Theme Song, Outstanding Achievement in Single Camera Editing U.S. International Film and Video Festival 2008: First Place "Gold Camera Award" in the Children's Programming category Clarion Award 2008 Competition: Winner – Television Special Audience Program Parents' Choice Awards 2008: Silver Honor Winner: Web site, Recommended Award Winner: TV show WorldFest Houston: Gold Remi Award for "TV Series – Family/Children" iParenting Media Award 2008: Winner – Television "2008 Best Products" PRIX JEUNESSE 2008 Festival: Runner-Up Fourth Place – Ages 7–11 Non-Fiction New York Festival International 2008: Bronze World Medal in Youth programs 2007 Daytime Emmy Nominations: Performer in an Animated Series, Original Song – Fetch! Theme Song U.S. International Film and Video Festival 2007: Second Place "Silver Screen Award" in the Children's Programming category Clarion Award 2007 Competition: Winner – Television Special Audience Program Parents' Choice Awards: 2007 Gold Award Winner WorldFest Houston: Bronze Remi Award for "TV Series – Family/Children" References External links Discovery Kids Asia 2000s American animated television series 2010s American animated television series 2000s American children's comedy television series 2010s American children's comedy television series 2000s American children's game shows 2010s American children's game shows 2000s American comedy game shows 2010s American comedy game shows 2000s American reality television series 2010s American reality television series 2006 American television series debuts 2010 American television series endings American children's animated comedy television series American children's animated game shows American children's animated education television series American children's reality television series American flash animated television series American television series with live action and animation Animated television series about dogs English-language television shows PBS Kids shows PBS original programming Television series about children Television series about teenagers Television series by WGBH Television shows set in Boston Elementary school television series Middle school television series Mathematics education television series Science education television series
5345650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Bill%20of%20Rights%20Act%201990	New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990	The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (sometimes known by its acronym, NZBORA or simply BORA) is a statute of the Parliament of New Zealand part of New Zealand's uncodified constitution that sets out the rights and fundamental freedoms of anyone subject to New Zealand law as a bill of rights, and imposes a legal requirement on the attorney-general to provide a report to parliament whenever a bill is inconsistent with the bill of rights. The High Court of New Zealand in Taylor v Attorney-General issued an unprecedented declaration that the restriction on prisoners voting rights was a limit on their right to vote in genuine periodic elections, and that it had not been unjustified under NZBORA. On appeal, the Supreme Court later confirmed that senior courts had jurisdiction to make such a declaration, and in 2022 a law was passed to establish procedures to allow and require the New Zealand Government a reporting and response mechanism to inconsistency declarations. History In 1985, Minister of Justice Geoffrey Palmer tabled in Parliament a document titled A Bill of Rights for New Zealand: A White Paper. The paper proposed a number of controversial features, which sparked widespread debate: The Bill of Rights was to become entrenched law so that it could not be amended or repealed without a 75% majority vote in the House of Representatives or a simple majority in a public referendum; The Bill of Rights was to therefore have status as supreme law, thereby causing some erosion to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty; The Treaty of Waitangi was to be wholly incorporated within the Bill of Rights thus elevating the Treaty's status to that of supreme law; The Judiciary would have the power to invalidate any Act of Parliament, common law rule or official action which was contrary to the Bill of Rights. The Bill then went to the Justice and Law Reform Select Committee, which recommended that New Zealand was "not yet ready" for a Bill of Rights in the form proposed by the White Paper. The Committee recommended that the Bill of Rights be introduced as an ordinary statute, which would not have the status of superior or entrenched law. In its current form, the Bill of Rights is similar to the Canadian Bill of Rights, passed in 1960. The Act does create an atmospheric change in New Zealand law in that it provides judges the means to "interpret around" other acts to ensure enlarged liberty interests. The Bill of Rights has a liberty-maximising clause much like the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and this provides many opportunities for creative interpretation in favour of liberties and rights. Application of the Bill of Rights The Act applies only to acts done by the three branches of government (the legislature, executive and judiciary) of New Zealand, or by any person or body in the "performance of any public function, power, or duty" imposed by the law. In section 4 of the Act, it explicitly denies the Bill of Rights any supremacy over other legislation. The section states that Courts looking at cases under the Act cannot implicitly repeal or revoke, or make invalid or ineffective, or decline to apply any provision of any statute made by parliament, whether before or after the Act was passed because it is inconsistent with any provision of this Bill of Rights. However, in contrast, where another Act can be interpreted that is consistent with the bill of rights, the courts are obliged to use the most consistent interpretation through section 6 of NZBORA. Further, in section 5, one of the core provisions in the Act allows for 'justified limitations' on the rights guaranteed throughout the bill of rights. It says that the rights are "subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society", which is the same wording as in Canada's Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Reports of the attorney-general Under section 7 of the bill of rights, the attorney-general legally required to draw to the attention of parliament the introduction of any bill that is inconsistent with the bill of rights. The Ministry of Justice, which prepares this advice for the attorney-general, requires a minimum of two weeks to review the draft legislation. Civil and Political Rights Part II of the Act covers a broad range of Civil and Political Rights. Life and the Security of the Person As part of the right to life and security of the person, the Act guarantees everyone: The right not to be deprived of life except in accordance with fundamental justice (Section 8) The right not to be subjected to torture or to cruel, degrading, or disproportionately severe treatment or punishment (Section 9) The right not to be subjected to medical or scientific experimentation without consent (Section 10) The right to refuse to undergo any medical treatment except in the case of involuntary commitment (Section 11) Democratic and Civil Rights Electoral Rights The Act sets out the electoral rights of New Zealanders. The Act guarantees that every New Zealand citizen who is of or over the age of 18 years has: The right to vote in elections of members of Parliament, which shall be held by equal suffrage and by secret ballot (Section 12(a)) Has the right to become a member of the House of Representatives (Section 12(b)) Furthermore, the Act guarantees everyone: Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion The right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion, and belief, including the right to adopt and hold opinions without interference (Section 13) Freedom of expression The right to freedom of expression, including the freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and opinions of any kind in any form (Section 14) Religion and Belief The right to manifest that person's religion or belief in worship, observance, practice, or teaching, either individually or in community with others, and either in public or in private (Section 15) Assembly The right of peaceful assembly (Section 16) Association The right to freedom of association (Section 17) Movement The right to freedom of movement and residence in New Zealand. (Section 18(1)) The Act guarantees to every New Zealand citizen: The right to enter New Zealand (Section 18(2)) The Act guarantees everyone: The right to leave New Zealand (Section 18(3)) The Act also (Section 18(4)) ensures that non-New Zealand citizens lawfully in New Zealand shall not be required to leave except under a decision taken on grounds prescribed by law. Non-Discrimination and Minority Rights Section 19 of the Act guarantees freedom from discrimination, on the grounds of discrimination set out in the Human Rights Act 1993. Section 20 provides protection for the culture, religion, and language of individuals who belong to ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. Search, Arrest, and Detention The Act guarantees everyone: The right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure, whether of the person, property, or correspondence, or otherwise (Section 21) The right not to be arbitrarily arrested or detained (Section 22) Everyone who is arrested or who is detained has the right to: Be informed at the time of the arrest or detention of the reason for it; and Consult and instruct a lawyer without delay and to be informed of that right; and Have the validity of the arrest or detention determined without delay by way of habeas corpus and to be released if the arrest or detention is not lawful. Everyone who is arrested for an offence has the right to be charged promptly or to be released. Everyone who is arrested or detained for any offence or suspected offence shall have the right to: Refrain from making any statement and to be informed of that right. Everyone deprived of liberty has the right to be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the person (Section 23). Criminal Justice The Act requires that everyone who is charged with an offence: Shall be informed promptly and in detail of the nature and cause of the charge; and Shall be released on reasonable terms and conditions unless there is just cause for continued detention; and Shall have the right to consult and instruct a lawyer; and Shall have the right to adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence; and Shall have the right, except in the case of an offence under military law tried before a military tribunal, to the benefit of a trial by jury when the penalty for the offence is or includes imprisonment for more than 3 months; and Shall have the right to receive legal assistance without cost if the interests of justice so require and the person does not have sufficient means to provide for that assistance; and Shall have the right to have the free assistance of an interpreter if the person cannot understand or speak the language used in court. (Section 24) Fair Trial Everyone who is charged with an offence has the minimum right: To a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial court; To be tried without undue delay; To be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law; Not to be compelled to be a witness or to confess guilt; To be present at the trial and to present a defence; To examine the witnesses for the prosecution and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses for the defence under the same conditions as the prosecution; If convicted of an offence in respect of which the penalty has been varied between the commission of the offence and sentencing, to the benefit of the lesser penalty; If convicted of the offence, to appeal according to the law to a higher court against the conviction or against the sentence or against both: In the case of a child, to be dealt with in a manner that takes account of the child's age (Section 25) Double Jeopardy Section 26 covers instances of double jeopardy. The Act holds that: No one shall be liable to conviction of any offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute an offence by such person under the law of New Zealand at the time it occurred. No one who has been finally acquitted or convicted of, or pardoned for, an offence shall be tried or punished for it again. Natural justice Section 27 of the Act guarantees everyone the right to the observance of the principles of natural justice by any tribunal or other public authority which has the power to make a determination in respect of that person's rights, obligations, or interests protected or recognised by law. Every person also has the right to bring civil proceedings against, and to defend civil proceedings brought by, the Crown, and to have those proceedings heard, according to law, in the same way as civil proceedings between individuals. Important court cases A large number of cases have been heard under the Act since it was passed in 1990, mostly pertaining to rights around arrest and detention. In 1993, the Court of Appeal held in the Flickinger v Crown Colony of Hong Kong case that section 66 of the Judicature Act 1908, which denied the right of appeal in extradition cases such as this one, was to be interpreted in light of section six of the Act. Nonetheless, the Court held in this case the bill of rights had not been breached, and the appellant, Flickinger, had to return to Hong Kong to face charges. In 1994, the Court of Appeal heard Simpson v Attorney-General (also known as Baigent's case), the plaintiffs represented by leading human rights barrister Antony Shaw alleged that police officers had persisted in bad faith with the search of the late Mrs Baigent's house when they knew that her property had been mistakenly named in a search warrant issued for a drug dealers' house. The plaintiffs sued on the grounds the police breached section 21 of the Bill of Rights Act which provides for the right to be secure against unreasonable search and arrest. In the case, four out of five of the Court of Appeal's benches held that the fact that the bill of rights did not include a specific remedies section did not mean parliament did not intend to compensate for breaches of the Act, and that for the case the bill of rights had to be interpreted in light of New Zealand's obligations under the ICCPR. They further held that the courts could award remedies for breaches of the bill of right and determined the liability of breaches of the bill of rights fell on the Crown. In 2003, Paul Hopkinson, a Wellington schoolteacher, burned the Flag of New Zealand as part of a protest in Parliament grounds at the New Zealand Government's hosting of the Prime Minister of Australia, against the background of Australia's support of the United States in its war in Iraq. Hopkinson was initially convicted in Hopkinson v Police under Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 of destroying a New Zealand flag with intent to dishonour it but appealed against his conviction. On appeal, his conviction was overturned on the grounds that the law had to be read consistently with the right to freedom of expression under the Bill of Rights. This meant that his actions were not unlawful because the word dishonour in the Flags, Emblems and Names Protection Act had many shades of meaning and, when the least restrictive meaning of that word was adopted, Hopkinson's actions did not meet that standard. This somewhat unusual result was due in part to the fact that the Bill of Rights does not overrule other laws. Remedies under the Bill of Rights Act 1990 The Bill of Rights Act 1990 does not provide express remedies for when one of the rights contained in the Act has been breached. Despite this, the Court of Appeal has held on several occasions that it has the jurisdiction to develop remedies as it sees fit. The focus of Bill of Rights Act remedies is to provide vindication in such a way that upholds the importance of the right, rather than invokes punishment for its breach. As such, court decisions can often include a combination of remedies in order for the breached right to be properly vindicated. Exclusion of evidence A common remedy to the Bill of Rights Act 1990 is that the evidence obtained through breaching a right is inadmissible in court. This initially developed in the courts as a presumption of exclusion but was subsequently lessened to a balancing exercise where various factors are weighed up to determine the admissibility of evidence tainted by a breach of the Bill of Rights Act 1990. This remedy is now reflected in section 30 of the Evidence Act 2006. Reduction in sentence A reduction in sentence can be granted as a remedy in cases where s25(b) of the Bill of Rights Act 1990 has been breached: the right to be tried without undue delay. In Williams v R [2009] NZSC 41, the Supreme Court held that a reduction in sentence was a more appropriate remedy than a stay of proceedings, except for extremely minor offending. Costs The regular rule that costs will follow the event is not always the case under the Bill of Rights Act 1990. In some cases, the court can reduce costs for claims under the Act that were worthy, even if they were ultimately unsuccessful. Compensation In Simpson v Attorney-General (Baigent’s Case) (1994) 1 HRNZ 42, the Court of Appeal awarded compensation under the Bill of Rights Act 1990. This was a new remedy under the Act. In this case, the plaintiffs were seeking damages for a search warrant executed on their place of residence that was obtained on the basis of incorrect information. The police were informed that the warrant was based on false information, but they continued with the search nonetheless. The Court of Appeal held that the Court had an inherent jurisdiction to develop remedies under the Bill of Rights Act 1990, and that compensation was an appropriate remedy in this case. Cooke P stated that the court would “fail in our duty if we did not give an effective remedy to a person whose legislatively affirmed rights have been infringed.” The Court of Appeal thus held that there is a public law action available against the Crown for a breach of the Bill of Rights Act 1990. It is likely to only be available to those who do not attain a suitable alternative remedy for a breach of the Act. Compensation under NZBORA is discretionary and the Supreme Court of New Zealand has emphasised that it is just one of many public law remedies and that non-monetary remedies will often be more appropriate. Indeed, there are relatively few examples of where compensation for violations of NZBORA have been awarded. In Udompun v Attorney General, Glazebrook J of the Court of Appeal stated that monetary compensation will not be awarded where a more suitable remedy exists. Most significantly, in Taunoa v Attorney-General the Supreme Court of New Zealand awarded compensatory damages for breaches of NZBORA by the Department of Corrections’ Behaviour Management Regime. Exemplary damages It is often cited that exemplary damages are an inappropriate remedy under the Act, because the focus should be on compensation rather than punishment. Exemplary damages were awarded in Archbold v Attorney-General [2003] NZAR 563, but William Young J qualified this remedy by stating that he would alternatively have awarded the same amount as public law compensation for the breach. Whether a court can award exemplary damages for a public claim of a breach of the Bill of Rights Act 1990 is therefore uncertain. Declaration of inconsistency A declaration of inconsistency is a remedy in the form of a formal declaration by a court of law that legislation is inconsistent with a right contained in the Bill of Rights Act 1990. It was first made available as a remedy following the litigation in Taylor v Attorney-General [2015] 3 NZLR. The first suggestion that a declaration of inconsistency could be available was in 1992. Following this, Temese v Police (1992) C CRNZ 425 and Quilter v Attorney-General (1998) 1 NZLR 153 both suggested that it could be available in the appropriate case, but fell short of making a declaration. In Moonen v Film and Literature Board of Review [2000] 2 NZLR 9, Tipping J stated that the courts had a duty to indicate when legislation was inconsistent with the Bill of Rights Act 1990, but it was unclear whether he meant a formal declaration of inconsistency or a mere indication of inconsistency contained within the judgment. In R v Poumako [2000] 2 NZLR 695, Thomas J dissented by making a formal declaration of inconsistency. It followed in Zaoui v Attorney-General [2005] 1 NZLR 577 that the Court held that Moonen and Poumako had established a jurisdiction for courts to issue a formal declaration of inconsistency. However, in R v Hansen [2007] NZSC 7, while the Court of Appeal established that courts could inquire into the consistency of legislation with the Bill of Rights Act 1990, they did not make a formal declaration of inconsistency. In July 2015, Heath J at the High Court of Auckland in Taylor v Attorney-General issued a formal declaration of inconsistency that an electoral law amendment introduced by the Fifth National Government that removed the ability of inmates voting rights (section 80(1)(d) Electoral Act 1993) was an unjustified limitation under section 12(a) of the bill of rights, which prescribes voting rights to all citizens aged 18 years and over. This was the first declaration of inconsistency in New Zealand. This was appealed to the Court of Appeal by the Attorney-General who argued that the Court had no jurisdiction to issue a declaration of inconsistency unless it was expressly authorised by legislation, the Court of Appeal called this a “bold argument” and said that “inconsistency between statutes is a question of interpretation...and it lies within the province of the courts." Furthermore Speaker of the House David Carter in the case challenged the use of parliamentary proceedings in the High Court decision and argued that this was a breach of parliamentary privilege. In its ruling, concluded that no breach of parliamentary privilege occurred and that senior courts had the jurisdiction to make a declaration of inconsistency. This was then further appealed by the Attorrney-General to the Supreme Court which dismissed the appeal and upheld the judgment by the Court of Appeal. As such, declarations of inconsistency are an available remedy under the Bill of Rights Act 1990. On 29 August 2022, the New Zealand Bill of Rights (Declarations of Inconsistency) Amendment Act 2022 received Royal assent and commenced on the same day. The amendment act introduced a legal requirement for the Attorney-General to notify parliament when a declaration of inconsistency is made, and further that the responsible Minister must present a report to parliament that details the government's response to the declaration. On 21 November 2022, the Supreme Court in Make It 16 Incorporated v Attorney-General affirmed the jurisdiction confirmed by the court in Attorney-General v Taylor and noted the passing of the amendment act. Other remedies Several other remedies were suggested to be available in R v Taylor (1996) 14 CRNZ 426. These included a reduction in the penalty, police disciplinary proceedings, criminal prosecution, a declaration, or future-looking relief. Other remedies have included special jury directions, and orders that witness testimony be disregarded. It can often depend on the nature of the right breached as to what remedy will be appropriate to vindicate that breach. The future of bill of rights remedies Article 2(3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires parties to the treaty to ensure that any person whose rights and freedoms have been breached to have an effective remedy. It is often argued by New Zealand academics that the lack of express remedies in the Bill of Rights Act does not meet this requirement. One such express remedy is a judicial power to strike down legislation that is inconsistent with the Bill of Rights Act 1990. This is similar to the powers of the Court under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It is an ongoing conversation amongst legal academics in New Zealand as to whether there should be an entrenched constitutional bill of rights that gives the court the power to strike down inconsistent legislation. This would provide a remedy to breaches of the Bill of Rights Act 1990 as the courts could uphold the right, rather than finding it to be subservient to the contradictory legislation under s4. The UN Human Rights Committee criticised New Zealand for the lack of court power to strike down legislation inconsistent with the Bill of Rights Act 1990. They equated this lack of power with a lack of human rights protection. Geoffrey Palmer and Andrew Butler published a book in 2016 entitled A Constitution for Aotearoa New Zealand that laid out a proposed entrenched bill of rights, including a judicial power of strike down. This was intended to start a conversation in New Zealand as to whether entrenching their bill of rights in a constitution was the way forward. The resistance to an entrenched bill of rights in New Zealand is partly because the country is currently governed by parliamentary sovereignty. Giving the courts the power to strike down Parliament’s legislation would be contrary to the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy. There is also resistance because the protection of human rights is not regarded as the courts’ responsibility, but instead seen as requiring involvement by all branches of government. See also Constitution of New Zealand New Zealand Human Rights Commission References External links New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 Ministry of Justice pamphlet on the Bill of Rights (PDF) Public Address: A Clayton's Bill of Rights New Zealand Herald: Bill of Rights unlikely to grow up A Constitution for Aotearoa New Zealand Constitution of New Zealand National human rights instruments Statutes of New Zealand 1990 in New Zealand law Human rights in New Zealand
5346610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jow-Ga%20kung%20fu	Jow-Ga kung fu	Jow Ga Kung Fu (Chinese: 周家) (or Jow Ga Kuen, Zhou Jia Chuan, or other forms of romanisation) () is a form of Kung Fu. It was founded by Jow Lung who was born in 1891, on the eleventh day of the third lunar month (April 16, 1891) in Sa Fu Village of the Canton Province, and died in 1919. His father was Jow Fong Hoy and his mother’s maiden name was Li. At the time of its inception, this particular style of Kung Fu was labeled as having the head of Hung Gar, the tail of Choy Gar and the patterns of the tiger and leopard, or simply Hung Tao Choy Mei. It was so labeled because the essential techniques incorporated the muscular and mighty movements of Hung Gar and the swift footwork and complex kicking of Choy Gar, making it a very effective form of self defense with emphasis on simultaneous attack and defense. History Jow Ga is a system of traditional Kung Fu that was developed from three Shaolin systems; namely, Hung Ga, Choy Gar and Northern Shaolin Kung Fu. (Ga means: family) Jow Ga is known as Hung Tao Choy Mei because the system incorporated Hung Ga Kung Fu's powerful upper body techniques and Choy Ga Kung Fu's swift footwork and complex kicking techniques from Northern Shaolin Kung Fu. Hung Ga Kung Fu is a southern style that was developed for close to medium range defense. This style emphasizes low stances and is especially known for its low horse stance. Kicks are generally low and hand techniques are powerful and direct using the strong stances to deliver formidable blows, namely, a tremendous thrust punch. This style also includes the five animal techniques of the leopard, dragon, tiger, crane and snake. This style primarily uses the tiger and crane, hard and soft animal techniques from its Shaolin origins. Hung means to stand tall with integrity. Choy Gar Kung Fu is also a southern style emphasizes long reaching hands and wide horse stances. The "hang fist", "throw punch", "upper cuts", "hammer back fist", "downward whipping punch" and "jab punch" are some typical and effective techniques of the system. This system is an aggressive system that emphasizes long range techniques and blitz attacks. The power is generated from the hips in a rotating fashion. Elusive footwork is also prominent in this system as are grappling, throwing, high and low kicks. Intercepting and jamming are favorite techniques employed. Northern Shaolin Kung Fu originated from the Shaolin temple that resided in Northern China before its destruction. The present system of Northern Shaolin Kung Fu specializes in long range fighting techniques. This system maintains that kicks are more effective than hand movements because the legs are longer than the arms thereby keeping the opponent further away. Low stances are not emphasized as they reduce mobility. This style requires constant mobility to be effective. Jow Ga utilizes these three systems combined into one. To defend one would use strong low stances and hold ground or may rely upon evasion tactics. To attack the Jow Ga practitioner can rely on Choy Gar long reaching arm techniuques combined with Northern Shaolin Kung Fu kicks and mobility. This system is suitable for all body types and can tailored to each individual. The student can master techniques most suited to him/her. This style requires hard work and discipline and is physically demanding. There are over twenty traditional hand forms, including tiger-crane, tiger-leopard, and the famous five animal form. Training includes an internal breathing form called Iron Wire Fist, which is used to strengthen muscles, organs and bones. Additionally, there are over eighteen weapons sets including batons, the staff, spear, three sectional staff, wind sword, whip chain and double edge straight sword. Straight sword is the most revered and respected because its use demands a total knowledge of fluidity to master. The founder of the system was Jow Lung. Jow Lung was born during 1891 in Hsin-Hui Sheng Sha Fu village in the Canton Province of China. Jow Lung starting learning Hung Gar at an early age from his uncle, Jow Hung Hei; who is a student of Wong Kei Ying. Jow Lung's training began with basic stances and stepping. Regardless of age, those who practice Hung Gar suffer the most from basic stance and step training. Jow Lung never complained about the training and his uncle took a special liking to him. One day Jow Hung told Jow Lung that he didn't think he would live much longer due to symptoms of an old illness. Jow Hung told Jow Lung that he knew a unique set of Pa Kua Staff techniques that he wanted to pass on to Jow Lung before he died. Uncle Hung told Jow Lung that his Kung Fu technique had come to the point that if he learned the Pa Kua Staff techniques, he would be one of the best in the martial arts field. Within one month, Jow Lung learned the Pa Kua Staff techniques. Shortly after Jow Lung learned the Pa Kua Staff techniques, his Uncle Jow Hung died. After the death of his uncle, Jow Lung followed Master Choy Gar Gung / Choy Kau (Chi Ching Tsai Kong) and learned Choy Ga Kung Fu. It took Jow Lung only a few years to master the Choy Ga Kung Fu because of his basics in Hung Gar Kung Fu. At the age of 18, Jow Lung had a difficult time finding a job in his hometown through the introduction of his townspeople, so he traveled to Malaysia (Singapore and Malaysia were one country at that time). In 1910, Jow Lung and many others went to find work as miners in Kuala Lumpur. The bosses, who were described as gangsters, would often beat the workers. One day Jow Lung got into a fight with one of his bosses and fatally wounded him. Jow Lung fled to the mountains and found a temple named "Gi Leu" ("Kek Lok Si" in some accounts). Because he hadn't eaten for many days and was exhausted, he asked an apprentice at the temple for help. The master of the temple Chian Yi, agreed to provide shelter for Jow Lung in the temple. Chian knew that Jow Lung had a natural talent for Kung Fu from the moment he saw him. Chian Yi taught Jow Lung Northern Shaolin Kung Fu and medicine. One day Master Chian Yi called Jow Lung and told him, "I have passed on to you the Northern Shaolin martial arts and medicine, and now your skills are good enough to hold a special place in the martial arts field." Master Chian Yi then ordered Jow Lung to leave the temple. When Jow Lung went back to Kuala Lumpur, he felt like centuries had gone by, but he never stopped practicing Kung Fu. From continuous practice, Jow Lung realized the uniqueness of the three styles of Kung Fu he learned and decided to combine them into one, thereby developing Jow Ga Kung Fu. Jow Lung felt that he would not be able to spread his family's Kung Fu in Kuala Lumpur, so he went back to his hometown in China. Beginnings in southern China Jow Lung 周龍 began his martial arts training with the local town master Zou Geng 邹耕. Jow Lung 周龍 also had an uncle named Jow Hung Hei 周雄喜, a top fighter in Sun Wui county & a student of Wong Fei Hung's father Wong Kay Ying. He taught Jow Lung and his brothers Jow Hip, Jow Biu, Jow Hoy and Jow Tin "Nam Siu Lam Hung Gar". Jow Hung Hei recognized Jow Lung as his best student due to his hard work. Due to the return of a chronic illness, Jow Hung Hei would teach him the remaining techniques and the Pa Kua staff fighting techniques. Only a month later Jow Hung Hei died. The death of his uncle did not stop Jow Lung from continuing his studies learning Kung Fu. He traveled to Siu Hing County to become the student of Choy Gau Gung 蔡九公 who taught the Choy Gar 蔡家 Kung Fu style. Constantly exploring the strong points of each style with his brothers (Hung Ga's Steady Power & Penetrating Strikes and Choy Ga's Fast Changes & Fluid Footwork), they came up with the name "Hung Tao Choy Mei (Hung's Head & Choy's Tail) 洪頭蔡尾". Jow Lung's travels in Southeast Asia Due to family hardships, Jow Lung (age 19) left home (first to Singapore then to Malaysia) to find work. While there, he was involved in a fight that fatally wounded a gangster. On the verge of collapse from exhaustion and starvation he sought refuge at a Monastery. Abbot Chian Yi (Hong Yi) being most sympathetic to his plight allowed him to stay. After several months of keen observation, the Abbot had no doubt as to Jow Lung’s character and began teaching him Bak Siu Lam (Northern Shaolin Kung Fu) Kung Fu that he learned in Henan Province. Also some elements of Ng Ying Kung Fu (Chinese: 五形功夫) or Five Animal Kung Fu. The Abbot encouraged Jow Lung to combine all 3 of the Kung Fu systems he had mastered into a single style. He stayed in the monastery for over three years before achieving this goal. After returning home Jow Lung instructed his brothers on the new style. Acceptance in Canton and death of Jow Lung In 1915 General Lee Fook Lam of Canton needed a chief trainer for his army. He issued an open invitation for anyone interested to compete in an elimination tournament. Out of 100 applicants only Jow Lung had defeated all his opponents and was then appointed to the position. Jow Lung sent for his brothers to assist with the training of the soldiers. In four years they taught and steadily refined the teaching methods and material into a new system which they decided to call it "Jow Ga Style". Due to the system’s effectiveness and the fame of their fighting abilities, the brothers were honored with the title "Five Tigers of Jow Ga" (周龍五虎傳). Sadly, in 1919 Jow Lung, due to exhaustion from teaching and promoting the Jow Ga Style, died at the age of only 29 from pneumonia. New leadership and continued growth After the death of Jow Lung the family met and elected Jow Biu to assume leadership of the system. Jow Biu resigned his position with the army and began promoting the Jow Ga system of Kung Fu. Within one year he had established 14 Jow Ga schools throughout China and within a few years the number had grown to more than eighty. In 1936 the first school was established in Kowloon, Hong Kong. The Hong Kong school produced several notable masters. Among them, Chan Man Cheung, Lui Chu Shek, Wong Kun Leung, Lee Ngau and many others. Jow Tin and Jow Hip also came down to Hong Kong to teach, many of their disciples are still teaching in Hong Kong. Hand forms Primary (core Jow Ga forms) Siu Fook Fu Kuen - Small Tiger (小伏虎拳)The oldest and foundational form of Jow-Ga, teaching the primary fundamental techniques that are essential in order to master the system. Almost all the stances and the majority of techniques are contained here. Hung Gar origins are obvious. Dai Fook Fu Kuen - Big Tiger (大伏虎拳)An advanced form used to practise strong stances. Usually a number of movements are done in one stance before moving. The first part (the longer part of the form) trains some Chi Kung and also the Kiu (Bridge, 橋) representing Hung Gar. The second part of the form is much shorter and consists of rapid movements, representing Choy Gar. . This form emphasizes the gist of the style known as "Hung Tao, Choy Mei". Chai Jong Kuen - Wooden Post Fist (柴樁拳)One of the more powerful forms, distinctly known for its constant power movements and its utilisation of the shadowless kick. It favours the use of the leopard technique (or leopard fist; a flatter fist, utilising the knuckles to strike the softer areas of the body), and incorporates some Chi Kung exercises in the opening sequence. Note, this form is often confused with the Siu Hung Kuen/Small Red Fist form listed below. Between the two, this form is longer and contains more techniques that are more aggressive offensively. Man Gee Kuen - 10,000 Fist (萬字拳)A form that literally is "The head of Hung, and tail of Choy". This form starts off at a slower pace with many Hung Gar movements, as the form progress the pace speeds up because of the use of rapid stance-changing as in Choy Gar. It is quite a long form and trains some Chi Kung and endurance as well. It also has the "Bill Gwa Jon" (標掛撞) technique, which is 3 movements performed consecutively. Fu Pao Kuen - Tiger Leopard (虎豹拳)Usually the last form to learn and the most famous. It teaches many advanced fighting combinations. There is one ground technique which closely resembles a kneebar done on a standing opponent. Secondary (not found in all Jow Gar lineages) Say Ping Kuen - Four-Level Fist (四平拳)Also known as Four-Square, this basic set is sometimes taught before the Small Tiger because it is shorter. Teaches many of the basics of Jow-Ga (including some techniques not included in the Small Tiger). Consisting of between 60-70 moves of mostly Hung Gar origin including the fundamental branch binding hand sequence. Also is the first basic form to include (in some lineages) a jumping kick. Lohan Kuen - Arhat Fist (羅漢拳)Lohan is a mythical figure in Chinese Buddhism, and many Chinese martial arts have a form dedicated to such a being. It is characterized by large powerful movements. It is also a form that emphasizes the use of "Chong Chui" (Rushing Fist, 羅漢洗面), and also introduces the "Lohan washing his face" which is actually 3 techniques (Cup Chui, Com Chui, and Jon Chui) done consecutively. This form was created by Jow Biu after he came to Hong Kong. Fa Kuen - Flower Fist (花拳)A mix and match form, supposedly created during an impromptu performance given by Jow Biu at a banquet. Thus at the start of the form it looks like a mix of movements from several forms. Ying Jow Kuen - Eagle Claw Fist (鷹爪拳)This form teaches swift movements and quick attacks, characterized by 3 consecutive clawing movements and a fourth claw movement on the ground after a flying kick. Kwok Gee Kuen - China/Country Fist (國字拳)An advanced form which is quite long and incorporates almost all of the Jow-Ga systems primary techniques. It has a distinct Northern Shaolin Kung Fu kicking technique in the end. Sup Gee Kuen - 10 Character Fist (十字拳) Lok Kwok Chung Kuen - 6 Cornered Seed Fist (六隅子拳) Siu Hung Kuen - Small Hung Fist (小洪拳) A form that normally follows Small Tiger and Flower Fist in some lineages, this form is a short form that focuses on hard chi, and works on precise strikes, quick stance changes, and adapting from low to high positions. Note, this form is often confused with the Chai Jong Kuen form listed above. Between the two, this form is shorter and contains few techniques. Dai Hung Kuen - Big Hung Fist (大洪拳) Dan Gong Fook Fu Kuen - Single Crouching Tiger Fist (單弓伏虎拳) Seung Gong Fook Fu Kuen - Double Crouching Tiger Fist (雙弓伏虎拳) Fu Hok Seung Ying Kuen - Tiger Crane Double Shape Fist (虎鶴雙形) Sher Ying Bat Gua Zheung - Snake Shape 8 Diagram Palm (蛇形八卦掌) Siu Ng Ying Kuen - Small Five Animal Fist (五形拳) Dai Ng Ying Kuen - Big Five Animal Fist (大五形拳) Being an ever-evolving style, the Jow Gar system is always growing in material like a library or university. One thing all Jow Gar schools have in common is their focus on martial virtue seen in their distinctive bow that is executed before any performance. Weapon forms The Jow Ga system contains all the primary weapons found in Southern and Northern Styles. The following list is divided by the weapon, and the forms that utilise said weapon. Note all terms are based on the Cantonese pronunciation. Daan Tau Gwun - Single Headed Stick (單頭棍) Jung Baat Gwa Gwun - Middle 8 Trigram Pole (中八卦棍) Seung Tau Gwun - Double Headed Staff (雙頭棍) Daan Dou - Single Sabre (單刀) Fu Mei Daan Dou - Tiger Tail Single Sabre (虎尾單刀) Daan Tau Cheung - Single Headed Spear (單頭槍) Mui Fa Cheung - Plum Flower Spear (梅花槍) Seung Tau Cheung - Double Headed Spear (雙頭槍) Seung Dou - Double Sabre (雙刀) Sup Gee Mui Fa Seung Dou - Cross Patterned Plum Flower Double Sabre (十字梅花雙刀) Bau Jong Seung Dou/Wu Dip Seung Dou - Elbow-Guarding Knives/Butterfly Double Knives (保踭雙刀/蝴蝶雙刀) Dai Dou - Bladed Polearms (大刀) Kwan Dou - General Kwan's Polearm (關刀) Gau Wan Dai Dou - 9 Ring Big Halberd (九環大刀) Choi Yeung Dai Dou - General Choi Big Halberd Daai Pa - Cudgels (大巴) Dai Fu Pa - Big Tiger Lance/Trident (大虎巴) Fut Ga Dai Pa - Buddhist Family Big Lance/Trident (佛家大巴) Sae Mao - Snake Lance (蛇矛) Fong Tien Gik - Heaven Splitting Lance (分天戈) Daan Gim - Single Sword (單劍) Jik Mei Gim - Swallow Tail Sword (燕尾刀) Daan Bin - Single Whip Chain (單鞭) Lung Mei Bin - Dragon Tail Whip (龍尾鞭) Seung Bin - Double Whip Chains (雙鞭) Mui Fa Seung Yun Bin - Double Plum Blossom Whip Chains (梅花雙軟鞭) Sam Jit Gwan - 3 Section Staff (三節棍) Form No. 1 (套路一號) Form No. 2 (套路二號) Note: Found in the Dean Chin lineage and is derived from the Eagle Claw system. Seung Pei Sao - Double Daggers (雙匕首) Chor Tau - Farmer's Hoe (鋤頭) Gau Chi Dai Pa - 9 Toothed Big Lance/Rake (九齒大巴) Ma Kiu Dun - Horse Bridge Bench (馬橋櫈) Lung Wan Sin - Dragon Cloud Fan (龍雲扇) Weapon forms vary from lineage to lineage; some have many more different weapon sets. Jow Ga is most famous for its double-sabres ("梅花雙刀"), so much so that it is used in the standard Jow Ga Logo "double-sabre" underneath the Jow character ("周") written inside a five petaled plum flower. Two-man sets Siu Fook Fu Deoi Chaak - Small Controlling Tiger Two-Man Set (小伏虎對折) Man Gee Kuen Deoi Chaak - 10,000 Fist Two-Man Set (萬字拳對折) Daan Tau Gwan Deoi Chaak - Single-Headed Staff Two-Man Set (單頭棍對拆) Seung Tau Gwan Deoi Chaak - Double-Headed Staff Two-Man Set (雙頭棍對拆) Daan Dou Deoi Cheung - Saber vs. Spear Two-Man Set (單刀對槍) Seung Doa Deoi Cheung - Double Sabre Two-Man Set (雙刀對槍) Daai Dou Deoi Cheung - Halberd vs. Spear Two-Man Set (大刀對槍) Seung Bei Sau Deoi Cheung - Double Daggers vs. Spear Two-Man Set (雙匕首對槍對折) Dani Fu Pa Deoi Darn Dou - Tiger Lance/Trident vs. Single Sabre with Shield (大虎巴對單刀) Bau Jong Dou Deoi Cheung - Elbow-Guarding Knives (Butterfly Knives) vs. Spear (保踭刀對槍) Lion dance The Jow Ga Style is famous for its lion dance. Their participation can be seen in numerous performances at various important ceremonies, primarily Chinese New Year, weddings, and government functions. The style has also become the traditional drumming style of many Vietnamese Lion dance groups, which is mistakenly called "trống Phật Sơn" (Foshan drumming) in Vietnam, because Jow Ga and Foshan (佛山) are two completely different Lion dance styles. In Vietnam Jow Ga is famous among both the Cantonese and Teochew people. References Chinese martial arts
5346734	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game	2009 NBA All-Star Game	The 2009 NBA All-Star Game was an exhibition basketball game that was played on February 15, 2009, during the National Basketball Association's (NBA) 2008–09 season. It was the 58th edition of the NBA All-Star Game, and was played at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona, home of the Phoenix Suns. The Western Conference defeated the Eastern Conference, 146–119. The West's Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal were named joint winners of the All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award. This was the third time that Phoenix had hosted the All-Star Game; the city had previously hosted the event in 1975 and 1995. Phoenix was awarded the All-Star Game in an announcement by commissioner David Stern on November 8, 2007. The other reported contenders for the 2009 contest were Air Canada Centre at Toronto, Madison Square Garden at New York City, Oracle Arena at Oakland and Bradley Center at Milwaukee. The All-Star Weekend began on Friday, February 13, 2009 with the Celebrity Game and the Rookie Challenge, a game between the league's best rookies and second-year players. On Saturday, the event continued with the All-Star Saturday Night, which featured the Shooting Stars Competition, Skills Challenge, Three-Point Shootout and Slam Dunk Contest. The H–O–R–S–E Competition was first introduced and was played before the All-Star Saturday Night. The third D-League All-Star Game and the second D-League Dream Factory Friday Night, the latter of which was modeled after the NBA All-Star Saturday Night, also took place during the All-Star Weekend. The D-League Dream Factory Friday Night was held on Friday and the D-League All-Star Game was held on Saturday. In the Rookie Challenge, the Sophomores defeated the Rookies, with Sophomores' Kevin Durant named as the game MVP. In the All-Star Saturday Night events, Nate Robinson won his second Slam Dunk Contest while Daequan Cook and Derrick Rose won the Three-Point Shootout and Skills Challenge respectively. Team Detroit won their second Shootings Stars Competition, beating the home team, Team Phoenix in the final round. Kevin Durant also took home another trophy by winning the inaugural H–O–R–S–E Competition. All-Star Game Coaches The coaches for the All-Star game are the head coaches who currently lead the teams with the best winning percentage in their conference through the Sunday two weeks before the All-Star game. The head coaches from the previous year, Doc Rivers and Byron Scott were not eligible for selection. The coach for the Western Conference team was Los Angeles Lakers head coach Phil Jackson. This was the fourth time Jackson was selected to be an All-Star coach, after previously selected in 1992, 1996 and 2000. The Lakers entered the All-Star break with 42–10 record, the best winning percentage in the Western Conference and in the league. The coach for the Eastern Conference team was Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown. This was the first time Brown was selected to be an All-Star coach. He became only the second Cavaliers coach to lead an All-Star team, after Lenny Wilkens in 1989. The Cavaliers entered the All-Star break with 40–11 record, the second best winning percentage in the Eastern Conference, behind Doc Rivers' Boston Celtics. Players The rosters for the All-Star Game is chosen in two ways. The starters were chosen via a fan ballot. Two guards, two forwards and one center who receive the highest vote were named the All-Star starters. The reserves were chosen by votes among the NBA head coaches in their respective conferences. The coaches were not permitted to vote for their own players. The reserves consists of two guards, two forwards, one center and two players regardless of position. If a player is unable to participate due to injury, the commissioner will select a replacement. Dwight Howard of the Orlando Magic topped the All-Star Ballots with 3,150,181 votes, which earned him a starting position in the Eastern Conference team. He became the first player to get more than 3 million votes from the fans. LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, Kevin Garnett and Allen Iverson completed the Eastern Conference starting position. The Eastern Conference reserves includes 4 first-time selections, Danny Granger, Devin Harris, Jameer Nelson and Mo Williams, who was named as a replacement for the injured Chris Bosh. Jameer Nelson was unable to participate due to injury and Ray Allen was named to replace him. Both Boston Celtics and Orlando Magic were represented by three players on the roster. The Western Conference leading vote-getter was Kobe Bryant with 2,805,397 votes. Yao Ming, Tim Duncan, Amar'e Stoudemire and Chris Paul completed the Western Conference starting position. The Western Conference roster includes five international players in Yao Ming (China), Tim Duncan (U.S. Virgin Islands), Pau Gasol (Spain), Dirk Nowitzki (Germany) and Tony Parker (France). Shaquille O'Neal returned to the All-Star game after one-year absence with his 15th selection, the second most selections in NBA history, behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar with 19 All-Star selections. This also marked the first time O'Neal and Bryant were in the same team since their much publicized feud. Bryant and O'Neal also reunited with coach Phil Jackson. The three of them won three successive NBA championship together with the Los Angeles Lakers in early 2000s. Four teams, Los Angeles Lakers, Phoenix Suns, New Orleans Hornets, and San Antonio Spurs, had two representations at the All-Star Game with Bryant/Gasol, Stoudemire/O'Neal, Paul/West, and Duncan/Parker. Roster Jameer Nelson and Chris Bosh were unable to participate due to injury. Ray Allen was named as a replacement for Jameer Nelson. Mo Williams was named as a replacement for Chris Bosh. Although the NBA listed Chris Bosh as a forward in the All-Star ballot, he was selected as a reserve center by the head coaches. Game Phoenix Suns' Shaquille O'Neal marked his return to the NBA All-Star Game after one-year absence with an unusual entry to the game. O'Neal, the last reserve called during the player introduction, came out with a white mask and began dancing with the dance group JabbaWockeeZ before finally opening his mask and joining the rest of the players on the court. O'Neal and previous year's regular season MVP Kobe Bryant led the West to a 146–119 victory and were named co-MVPs. This was the third All-Star Game MVP award for both players. The East led 20–10 early in the game before West coach, Phil Jackson decided to send O'Neal to the court. With O'Neal and Bryant on the court for the first time since 2004 NBA Finals, the West embarked on a 19–0 run to take the lead. The West continued to extend the lead in the second half and finally won the game by 27 points. Bryant finished with 27 points while Chris Paul added a game high 14 assists. Previous year's All-Star Game MVP LeBron James led the East with 20 points, but was unable to prevent the loss. Guest performances Five-time Grammy Award-winning singer and songwriter John Legend and 17-time Latin Grammy winner Juanes performed during the halftime. Both singers collaborated in the extended version of Legend's song "If You're Out There", a song about hope and inspiration. The extended version includes Spanish lyrics which was sung by Juanes. A special taped message from the United States President, Barack Obama, also aired during the halftime. In the message, President Obama encouraged people to do more public service for the community. A ring ceremony to honor the gold medalists at the 2008 Olympics was also held during the halftime. Six members of USA men's national basketball team, Chris Bosh, Kobe Bryant, Dwight Howard, LeBron James, Chris Paul and Dwyane Wade, and two members of USA women's national basketball team, Lisa Leslie and Tina Thompson were awarded with their ring at the ceremony. The national anthem of both the United States and Canada were sung before the game. Arizona native and American Idol winner Jordin Sparks sang U.S. national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". The Canadian national anthem, "O Canada" were sung by Tamia, Canadian singer who is also the wife of Phoenix Suns player Grant Hill. The pre-game introduction included a dance performance by the America's Best Dance Crew winner, the Jabbawockeez. Grammy-nominated singer Chris Brown was originally scheduled to appear during the pre-game introductions. He, however, withdrew from the performance due to an ongoing domestic violence case against him. Other musical guests during the All-Star Weekend were singers Corbin Bleu and Kevin Rudolf. Bleu performed "Moments That Matter" at the halftime of the Rookie Challenge on Friday while Rudolf performed "Let It Rock" during the NBA All-Star Saturday Night. All-Star Weekend Rookie Challenge The T-Mobile Rookie Challenge featured a team of standout first-year players ('Rookies') against a team of standout second-year players ('Sophomores'). The game was divided into two twenty-minute halves, similar to college basketball. The participating players were chosen by voting among the league's assistant coaches. The Rookies team includes the first overall draft pick in 2008 NBA draft, Derrick Rose. The rest of the Rookies team consists of five of the top ten pick in the 2008 Draft and three players from the 2007 NBA draft who were in their first NBA season. The three players are the first overall draft pick Greg Oden and two Spanish players Rudy Fernández and Marc Gasol. The Sophomores team features four players from the previous Rookie Challenge game which are Kevin Durant, Jeff Green, Al Horford and Luis Scola. The head coaches for the Rookies and Sophomores teams were the lead assistants from the 2009 NBA All-Star Game coaching staffs, Kurt Rambis from the Los Angeles Lakers and John Kuester from the Cleveland Cavaliers. For the first time in the game's history, two active NBA players were selected as leading assistant coach. Two All-Star starters Dwyane Wade and Dwight Howard were selected as the assistant coaches for the Rookies and Sophomores team respectively. This year, the first ever EA Sports Jersey Creator Contest was held to design the jerseys for both the rookie and the sophomore team. The contest called for the participants to come up with a computer-generated jersey design that would replace the individual team jerseys worn by the players during the Rookie Challenge. Of 12,000 participants, 18-year-old Tim Ahmed, a freshman at Baruch College, won the contest. Ahmed won a free trip to Phoenix and a chance to meet players. This marks the first time that a fan-designed uniform has ever been worn during an NBA game or NBA event. The Sophomores wore fan-designed white jerseys and the Rookies wore fan-designed purple jerseys in the game. Unable to participate due to injury. The Sophomores won the game 122–116 with Sophomore Kevin Durant named as the Rookie Challenge MVP. Durant scored a record 46 points in the game, breaking Amar'e Stoudemire's 36-point record from 2004. The Rookies led by 3 at halftime, but then Durant took over, scoring 30 of his 46 points in the second half as the Sophomores outscored the Rookies by 6 points to win the game. The game marked the seventh consecutive loss for the Rookies team. Slam Dunk Contest The Sprite Slam Dunk Contest was contested by defending champion Dwight Howard, 2006 champion Nate Robinson, 2005 contestant J. R. Smith and rookie Rudy Fernández. Fernández won the online voting on NBA.com to determine the fourth contestants, beating fellow rookies Joe Alexander and Russell Westbrook. This was the first time a dunk contestant was chosen by the fans. Fernández also became the first ever international player to participate in the contest. Smith was named as a late replacement for Rudy Gay, who was forced to withdraw from the contest due to injury. Each contestant performed two slam dunks in each round. The two best contestants in the first round, as rated by the panel of judges, advanced to the final round, where the winner was determined by fan voting. The panel of judges for this year contest consists of five former Phoenix Suns players, the inaugural Slam Dunk champion Larry Nance, 1992 champion Cedric Ceballos, 1987 All-Star Game MVP Tom Chambers and three-time All-Stars, Kevin Johnson and Dan Majerle. Dwight Howard began his title defence with two 50-point dunks to advance to the final round with a perfect score. One of his dunks employed a 12-foot high hoop. Howard also used a prop phone booth to change into his Superman cape before completing the dunk on the 12-foot hoop. Nate Robinson also advanced to the final round with 87 points, beating Smith and Fernández who had 85 and 84 points respectively. In the final round, Robinson changed his uniform into the New York Knicks' green uniform originally designed for Saint Patrick's Day. The green uniform symbolized Kryptonite, a fictional substance known to have detrimental effects on Superman. The Krypto-Nate vs. Superman theme continued when Robinson, in his final dunk, used a green basketball and leaped over the 6'11" Howard who wore his Superman cape. Robinson ended up with 52% of fan vote to win his second dunk title. He joined Michael Jordan, Dominique Wilkins, Harold Miner and Jason Richardson as the only two-time winners of the contest. Unable to participate due to injury. J. R. Smith was named as a replacement for Rudy Gay. Three-Point Shootout The Foot Locker Three-Point Shootout was contested by six players. Two-time winner Jason Kapono returned to defend his title along with two former contestants, Rashard Lewis and Mike Bibby. They were joined by three first-time contestants, Daequan Cook, Danny Granger and Roger Mason. In this contest, contestants attempt to make as many three-point field goals as possible from five shooting stations behind the three-point arc in one minute. Players begin shooting from one corner of the court, and move from station to station along the three-point arc until they reach the other corner. Each station has four standard balls, worth one point each, and one specially colored "money ball", worth two points. Cook won the first round with 18 points as he advanced to the final round along with Lewis and Kapono. The second round was a tight contest between Cook and Lewis, both tied at 15 points, and Kapono, with 14. Because of the tied score, Cook and Lewis played an extra tiebreaker round. Cook went on to beat his first round score with 19 points, while Lewis finished with 7 points. Skills Challenge The PlayStation Skills Challenge was contested by four players. Derrick Rose, the first overall draft pick in 2008 NBA draft, was joined by three All-Star guards, Devin Harris, Jameer Nelson and Tony Parker. However, Nelson was injured and was subsequently replaced by All-Star Mo Williams. In this contest, the contestants have to complete an "obstacle course" consisting of dribbling, passing and shooting stations. A contestant who finish the course with the fastest time wins the contest. All contestants must comply with basic NBA ball-handling rules while completing the course. Rose led all the contestants with 33.3 seconds in the first round, 3.3 seconds ahead of Harris. Williams was eliminated after recording 37.5 seconds, 4.2 seconds behind the lead. Parker was eliminated with the slowest time in the Skills Challenge history with 50.8 seconds. He previously held the slowest time of 45.5 points during the 2003 competition. In the second round, Harris went first and finished the course with 39.6 seconds, 3.1 seconds worse than his previous attempt. Rose went on to win the contest by recording a 35.3 seconds time while finishing the course with a dunk. Rose also became the first rookie winner of the Skills Challenge competition. Unable to participate due to injury. Mo Williams was named as a replacement for Jameer Nelson. Shooting Stars Competition The Haier Shooting Stars Competition was competed between four teams of three players, with each team representing a city which has both NBA and WNBA teams. Each team consisted of one current NBA player, one current WNBA player, and one NBA legend. Team San Antonio, the defending champion, was joined by the inaugural champion, Team Los Angeles, 2005 champion, Team Phoenix and 2007 champion, Team Detroit. In this competition, each team must make six shots from six shooting locations of increasing difficulties. The team who makes all six shots with the fastest time wins the competition. In the first round, the defending champion, Team San Antonio was eliminated along with Team Los Angeles. Both teams took over 15 shots from the half court location to score. Team Detroit and Team Phoenix both advanced to the final round. Team Phoenix recorded the fastest completion time in the first round with 53.3 seconds, six seconds faster than Team Detroit. In the final round, Team Detroit made the first five shots in 13 attempts and used only 7 attempts to make the half court shot with a time of 58.4 seconds. Team Phoenix responded by making their first five shots in a single attempt each. However, they needed 22 attempts to make the half-court shot, finishing with a time of 1 minute and 19 seconds. Team Detroit won their second Shooting Stars title, joining Team San Antonio as the only two-time winners of the competition. Detroit Pistons legend and Detroit Shock head coach, Bill Laimbeer also became the first person to win the Shooting Stars Competition twice; he won his first title with Team Detroit in 2007. H–O–R–S–E Competition On February 5, 2009, TNT announced the addition of H–O–R–S–E to its All-Star Weekend coverage. The competition was held outdoors on a half-sized court during the special Inside the NBA show prior to the All-Star Saturday Night events. The objective of this competition is to accrue as few of the five letters as possible. A player is given a letter every time they fail to duplicate the shot of another player. Each player was given 24 seconds to make or duplicate the shot (dunking was prohibited). Each player who fails to duplicate five shots was eliminated from the competition. An NBA referee was assigned to rule whether the shot was done properly. The inaugural H–O–R–S–E Competition was sponsored by American auto insurance company GEICO and hence the word G–E–I–C–O was used in replacement of H–O–R–S–E. Three NBA players, Kevin Durant, Joe Johnson and O. J. Mayo were selected to compete in the H–O–R–S–E competition. Johnson was the first to be eliminated, having failed to duplicate Mayo's shot from the free-throw line. Durant then made a series of three-point shots to eliminate Mayo to win the inaugural H–O–R–S–E Competition. Celebrity Game The 2009 McDonald's NBA All-Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 13 at the Phoenix Convention Center. A total of 16 celebrities took part in the game, including several former NBA players. Basketball Hall of Famers Magic Johnson and Julius Erving, who combined for 23 NBA All-Star appearances, served as coaches for the celebrity teams. NBA legends, Dominique Wilkins and Clyde Drexler, were joined by former players, Dan Majerle and Rick Fox, in the celebrity team roster. WNBA stars Lisa Leslie and Kara Lawson also participated in the game along with four Harlem Globetrotters players. Previous year's MVP, Terrell Owens scored a game-high 17 points and led the East Sunrisers to a 60–57 victory over the West Sunsetters. Owens, an American football star for Dallas Cowboys, was also named as the Celebrity Game MVP for the second successive year. The game was marked by a surprise appearance by another Hall of Famer Nancy Lieberman in the middle of the game, where she joined and played with the East Sunrisers. ESPN play-by-play commentator Mike Breen also made a surprise appearance as the referee for the game. D-League All-Star D-League All-Star Game Twenty of the NBA Development League's top players were selected to the D-League All-Star Game rosters by a combination of fan balloting on the official D-League website and voting by the 16 head coaches of D-League teams. The selections were divided up into two teams, the Red Team and the Blue Team, by members of the NBA and NBA D-League's Basketball Operations staff. Players who have been selected by coaches and fans must be on an active roster of a D-League team. Iowa Energy head coach Nick Nurse and Austin Toros head coach Quin Snyder were selected as the coach for the Red Team and the Blue Team respectively. Both coaches earned the honor by securing the best records in the D-League through January 27. Unable to participate due to a recall by the San Antonio Spurs. Unable to participate due to injury. Unable to participate due to a call-up to the Charlotte Bobcats. Named as replacement for the unavailable players. In the third annual D-League All-Star Game, the Red Team defeated the Blue team 113–103. The Red Team trailed by 8 points at the half, but managed to outscore the Blue Team 70–52 in the second half to secure the win. Dakota's guard Blake Ahearn scored 13 points and dished 13 assists while Iowa's center Courtney Sims scored 15 points and grabbed 8 rebounds. Both players were named Co-MVPs of the D-League All-Star Game. D-League Dream Factory Friday Night Slam Dunk Contest James White won the second annual D-League Slam Dunk Contest, beating Keith Clark in the final round with a perfect score of 100. Defending champion Brent Petway was unable to repeat his last year's performance and was eliminated in the first round along with Othyus Jeffers. Three-Point Shootout Blake Ahearn won the second annual D-League Three-Point Shootout, beating Ernest Scott in the final round by a score of 22–19. Ahearn scored four of the five money balls in the last stations. For the first time, the last station consists of five "money balls", instead of four standard balls and one "money ball". Gary Forbes and Trey Johnson were eliminated in the first round. H–O–R–S–E Competition Will Conroy won the second annual D-League H–O–R–S–E Competition, beating the defending champion Lance Allred with a through-the-legs-off-the-backboard lay-up. Broadcast Turner Broadcasting Network (TNT) broadcast the All-Star Game for the sixth straight year in the United States while The Sports Network (TSN) broadcast the All-Star Game in Canada. TNT also broadcast the Rookie Challenge and the All-Star Saturday Night events. The Celebrity Game was broadcast by ESPN and the D-League All-Star events were broadcast by NBA TV. International Aside from TNT and TSN in United States and Canada, the following television channels also broadcast the All-Star game all around the world. Africa: Canal+ Horizons, ESPN Africa : TPA : Silverbird TV Asia-Pacific: ESPN Asia : ESPN Australia : CCTV-5, Guangdong TV, Shanghai TV : ESPN Hong Kong, TVB HD Jade, TVB Pearl : ESPN India : JakTV : J Sports, NHK BS-1, NHK Digital Hivision, NBA League Pass (SKY PerfectTV! : ShowSports : ESPN Malaysia : C/S 9, Basketball TV : Star Sports Taiwan : MBC-ESPN Europe : Telesport : AR TV : Be 1, Prime Sport 1 : OBN TV : TV7 : Alfa TV : Nova Sport : dk4 : Urheilu+Kanava : Canal+, Orange Sport : ZDF : ET1 : Sport 1 : Stöð 2 Sport : SKY Sport 2, SKY Sport HD : LTV 7 : Alfa TV : Melita Sports 1 : Sport1, Sport1 HD : Canal+ Sport, Orange Sport : Sport TV 1, Sport TV HD : Boom Sport One : NTV Plus Sport, NTV Plus HD : Sport TV : Canal+, Canal+ Deportes, Cuatro : NTV, NTV Spor : Five Latin America: ESPN Latin America, DirecTV South America : Canal 7 : ESPN Brasil : CVM : Cadena 3 : Cable Onda : CMD : SCCN : Sport Plus References External links NBA.com: All-Star 2009 NBA All-Star 2009 – NBA – ESPN National Basketball Association All-Star Game All-Star Game NBA All-Star Game, 2009 NBA All-Star
5347230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial%20classification%20of%20Indian%20Americans	Racial classification of Indian Americans	The racial classification of Indian Americans has varied over the years and across institutions. Originally, neither the courts nor the census bureau classified Indian Americans as a race because there were only negligible numbers of Indian immigrants in the United States. Early Indian Americans were often denied their civil rights, leading to close affiliations with African Americans. For most of America's early history, the government only recognized two racial classifications, white or colored. Due to immigration laws of the time, those deemed colored were often stripped of their American citizenship or denied the ability to become citizens. For these reasons, various South Asians in America took the government to court to try and be considered white instead of colored. After advocacy from the Indian American community, the racial category of Asian Indian was finally introduced on the 1980 Census. Initial perceptions Among one of the first recorded Indian in America was a mixed-race girl born to an Indian father and an Irish American mother in 1680 in Maryland. Due to her Indian American father being classified as "Negro", she was classified as a mulatto and later sold into slavery. Court records from the 1700s indicate a number of "East Indians" were held as slaves in Maryland and Delaware. Upon freedom, they are said to have blended into the free African American population - considered mulattoes within the African American community. Three brothers from modern day "India or Pakistan" received their freedom in 1710 and married into a Native American tribe in Virgina. The present-day Nansemond people trace their lineage to this intermarriage. The earliest Indian immigrants into the United States were called "Hindus" even though the majority of them were Sikhs. Court clerks classified these early immigrants from the Punjab region as being "black", "white", or "brown" based on their skin color for the purpose of marriage licenses. In addition to being racialized by their color, they were also racialized as being "foreigners". The perception of Indian Americans as foreigners sometimes helped provide for better treatment, especially in states where de jure segregation was in place. As opposed to being seen as black, in some states Indians were seen as outside of the traditional American racial spectrum, and consequently freed from the encumbrances that system entailed. By the mid-1950s, those who remained settled in the then vibrant black neighborhoods of Tremé in New Orleans, Black Bottom in Detroit, West Baltimore, and Harlem in New York. Many started families with Creoles, Puerto Ricans, and African Americans. An example is Indian-born Hucheshwar Gurusidha Mudgal, who became a prominent journalist in Harlem's African American community. Punjabi Sikhs in California found a closer camaraderie with Mexicans, resulting in a unique mixed-race community in the Yuba City area - the Punjabi Mexican Americans. Identity Self-identification Indian independence movement fighter Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wrote of the Indian racial identity in America as being Black. After spending years studying and living with African-American families, Chattopadhyay wrote Indians in America should form ties with African Americans, believing they share a common ancestry and a common struggle for independence. Following the George Floyd protests of the 2020s, some segments of the American-born South Asian community have renewed calls for camaraderie with African Americans. However, South Asians often try to distance themselves from African-Americans and Hispanics. Even though South Asians "insist on being called 'brown', the plea of Indian immigrants not to be called black is what is most audible". This is due to considerable anti-blackness and anti-Hispanic prejudice in some segments of the South Asian population. This prejudice is often accompanied by a fear of being mistaken for Black or Hispanic, described as "an almost paranoid response to even being thought of as black". Some South Asian Americans have identified themselves as being 'Brown Asians' or 'Brown South Asians', while others, like Nikki Haley, a former governor of South Carolina and of Indian descent, identified as 'white' on her voter registration card in 2001. Dick Harpootlian, chairman of the South Carolina Democrats, stated “Haley has been appearing on television interviews where she calls herself a minority—when it suits her... When she registers to vote she says she is white. She has developed a pattern of saying whatever is beneficial to her at the moment.” While some Asian Americans (including South Asian descendants) may not identify with the "Asian American" label at all, due to the terms association with East Asian Americans. As such, the 'Brown Asian' label sees some usage to further differentiate South and Southeast Asian Americans from those of East Asian descent. The official classification of South Asian as part of the "Asian American" racial category represents an agreement of convenience for South Asians on where they fit on the black-white racial spectrum in the United States, as American society is largely dominated by only a "white" and "black" racial and skin color classification system. Depending on the social and legal context, some Indian Americans may identify as either "white" or "black". South Asian Americans and other types of Asian Americans mutually feel that there exists "profound racial difference" between themselves and the other Asian ethnic group. Furthermore, "Working-class or state school-educated second generation Indian Americans do not see a natural alliance or unity with other Asian American groups." Many South Asian Americans have noted that their perceived differences in cultural, religious and racial/physical appearance with other Asian American ethnic groups has often lead them to being excluded in Asian American studies, narratives and media representations. Identification by others In 1989, the East–West Center published a research paper about Indian Americans that said that Americans find identifying South Asians by race and color to be difficult. The paper said that a 1978 survey of Americans asked the question, "Would you classify most people from India as being white, black, or something else?" The paper said that 38% of respondents classified most people from India as "other," 23% classified them as "brown," 15% classified them as "black," 13% did not know how to classify them, and 11% classified them as "white." In 2000, a series of interviews of second-generation Asian American college student leaders found that most of the interviewees who did not include Indian Americans as Asian Americans did not express a clear reason that was more than perceived difference in physical appearance and culture. Indian Americans have often been misidentified as being of Arabs or Middle Eastern origin, particularly after the September 11 attacks. Assaults against turban-wearing Sikhs have become common since 9/11, due to Sikh turbans resembling the turban that Osama Bin Laden often wore in pictures. After her win in 2013, Miss America winner Nina Davuluri was taunted online and called an "Arab" and a "terrorist" due to this misconception among the American public. In 2015, Sureshbhai Patel was described by a suspicious caller as a "skinny black guy" before he was beaten and severely injured by Alabama police officers. The 2017 book, Indians In America, stated that Indians and other South Asians are a part of Asian Americans, yet apart from Asian Americans. While they are admitted among Asian Americans, they are not acknowledged among Asian Americans. According to this book, other Asian Americans characterize Indians and other South Asians to be "ambiguously nonwhite." Some have attributed the general exclusion of South Asian Americans from the Asian American label due to the term being synonymous with people of East Asian origin. In 2019, it was noted that there were several presidential candidates of Asian American or Pacific Islander origin, including Andrew Yang and Kamala Harris, who are of Taiwanese and Indian descent respectively. Frequently described by the media and campaigning himself as 'the' Asian American candidate, Yang stated that his "Asian-ness [is] kind of obvious in a way that might not be true of Kamala or even Tulsi... That's not a choice. It's just a fairly evident reality." U.S. courts Throughout much of the early 20th century, it was necessary for immigrants to be considered white in order to receive U.S. citizenship. U.S. courts classified Indians as both white and non-white through a number of cases. In 1909, Bhicaji Balsara became the first Indian to gain U.S. citizenship. As a Parsi, he was ruled to be "the purest of Aryan type" and "as distinct from Hindus as are the English who dwell in India". Thirty years later, the same Circuit Court to accept Balsara ruled that Rustom Dadabhoy Wadia, another Parsi from Bombay, was colored and therefore not eligible to receive U.S. citizenship. Thind case and attempted revocations of citizenship In 1923, the Supreme Court decided in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind that while Indians were classified as Caucasians by anthropologists, people of Indian descent were not white by common American definition, and thus not eligible to citizenship. The court conceded that, while Thind was a high caste Hindu born in the northern Punjab region and classified by certain scientific authorities as of the Aryan race, he was not "White" since the word Aryan "has to do with linguistic and not necessarily with physical characteristics" and since "the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences" between Indians and White Americans. The court also clarified that the decision did not reflect or imply anything related to racial superiority or inferiority, but merely an observable difference. At the time, this decision began the process of retroactively stripping Indians of citizenship and land rights. The ruling also placated the Asiatic Exclusion League demands, spurned by growing outrage at the Hindoo Invasion alongside the pre-existing outrage at the Yellow Peril. As they became classified as colored, Indian Americans were not only denied American citizenship, but also banned by anti-miscegenation laws from marrying White Americans in the states of Arizona, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia. Following the Thind case, the Bureau of Naturalization began action to strip Thind and other Indian-Americans of their citizenship, arguing it had been "illegally procured". However, these efforts were forced to end by the government's loss in court in the case against Thind's own lawyer, a Californian named Sakharam Ganesh Pandit. By the time Pandit's case came to trial in 1926, forty-two of sixty-nine citizenships granted to Indians had been revoked. Pandit, a skilled lawyer, argued that under the doctrine of equitable estoppel, he would be irreversibly harmed by the revocation of his American citizenship, which he had reasonably relied upon - he would become stateless, lose his property and law license, and his wife would lose her citizenship as well. Judge Paul McCormick, the initial trial judge, ruled in Pandit's favor, accepting his arguments wholeheartedly. In 1927, the Ninth Circuit upheld McCormick's ruling under the doctrine of res judicata. As a result of Pandit's case, the US government subsequently dropped its other denaturalization cases against Indian Americans. In 1935, Thind relied on his status as a veteran of the United States military during World War I to petition for naturalization through the State of New York under the Nye-Lea Act, which made World War I veterans eligible for naturalization regardless of race. The government objected his latest petition, but Thind was finally granted American citizenship; yet the Government attempted to revoke it after nearly two decades from his first petition for naturalization. After World War II In 1946, Congress, beginning to recognize that India would soon be independent, passed a new law that allowed Indians to become citizens, while also establishing an immigration quota. As David E. Bernstein explains in the book Classified, The Untold Story of Racial Classification in America, by the early 1970s most federal agencies identified Indian Americans as part of the white group, partly because they were deemed to be a "successful" immigrant group not in need of minority status. When the Office of Management and Budget announced proposed official racial classifications in 1976, Asian Indians were put into the white category. However, a small Indian American group based in New York City got wind of this, and successfully lobbied the government to put South Asians into the Asian American/Pacific Islander classification. Not all Indian Americans agreed with this change, but no other organized group found out about it until the classification was final and official. In 1993, Dale Sandhu, an East Indian whose origin is from the Punjab, took his former employer, Lockheed, to court on grounds of wrongful dismissal due to racial grounds. Lockheed attempted to counter Sandhu's claims by stating he is Caucasian, so he cannot allege discrimination based on race. In 1993, the California Superior Court Judge overseeing the case initially accepted Lockheed's view. However in 1994, the California Sixth District Court of Appeals reversed the 1993 decision for Dale Sandhu. Lockheed argued that the "common popular understanding that there are three major human races — Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid." The Court of Appeals denied this 19th century classification of race, stating that Indian people are a distinct ethnic group of their own. According to United States Census, "Asian Indian" is considered one of the distinct 15 races. The Court of Appeals affirmed that Sandhu was subject to discriminatory hostility, based on being a member of a distinct racial group. The Court of Appeals said that Sandhu could make a claim of racial discrimination under FEHA within the jurisdiction of the Court. In 2015, in Dhar v. New York City Department of Transportation, Dhar, a former employee and a Christian Bangladeshi, alleged a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, based on his race, religion, and national origin. He alleged that his former supervisor, a Hindu Gujarati, illegally favored other Hindu Indian/Gujarati employees. The court dismissed the claim. U.S. census Official classification The U.S. Census Bureau has changed over the years its own classification of Indians. In the 1930 and 1940 censuses, "Hindu" was listed as a racial category. Following India's independence in 1947, the U.S. Census categorized individuals with Indian heritage, including Sikhs, as belonging to the "Other Race" category in both the 1950 and 1960 censuses, designating them as either "Asiatic Indian" or "Hindu." In 1975, the Ad Hoc Committee on Racial and Ethnic Definitions of the Federal Interagency Committee on Education made a report. The report describes how, as it was deliberating on how to classify groups for the 1970 U.S. census, South Asians presented a problem for the Ad Hoc Committee. The report presented the classification problem as how to classify South Asians, as there had been little discussion surronding their unique ethnic identity. While some anthropologists classified them as Caucasian, they were non-white, from Asia and could be subject to some discrimination in the United States. Unsure of their status, the Ad Hoc Committee failed to designate South Asians as a minority category, and any respondants were classified as White Americans in the 1970 U.S. census. Upon learning of the Ad Hoc Committee's decision, the Association of Indians in America (AIA) mobilized to seek better representation. Indian American groups, through their own petitioning, successfully changed their racial classification to Asian in the 1970s to have themselves included in state and federal Asian racial categories to benefit from affirmative action. Specifically, starting in the mid-1970s, the AIA made the argument that since Indian Americans were minorities and thus entitled to the benefits of affirmative action, Indian Americans should have "minority" group status. Without their request to be designated as minorities, Indian Americans may not have been recognized as a unique ethnic group by the U.S government. In 1977, the Office of Management and Budget accepted the AIA's petition to have the "Asian Indian" category included in the census Due to the efforts of the AIA leaders, a new census category, "Asian Indian," was introduced for the 1980 U.S. census. In 1977, there were so few Indian Americans that the racial change of Indian Americans from White Americans to Asian American attracted little attention. In 1989, the East–West Center published a research paper about Indian Americans that said that the term, "Asian Indian," one of the fourteen "Races" in the 1980 US Census, is an "artificial census category and not a meaningful racial, ethnic, or ancestral designation." Self-identification In the US census, Indians display the highest likelihood of selecting the 'African-American or black' category, while Sri Lankans followed by Pakistanis are most likely to describe themselves as 'white'. The 1990 US census classified write-in responses of "Aryan" as white even though write-in responses of "Indo-Aryan" were counted as Asian, and it also classified write-in responses of "Parsi" under Iranian American, who are classified as "White" along with Arab Americans and other Middle Eastern Americans. The Asian American Institute proposed that the 2000 U.S. Census make a new Middle Easterner racial category and the Punjabi from Pakistan wanted Pakistani Americans to be included in it. Some Indian Americans who were unfamiliar with the ethnonymic conventions used in the United States, mistakenly indicated that they were "American Indian" as their race in the 1990 U.S. census, apparently unaware that this term is used in the United States to refer to Native Americans (Amerindians). See also Asian immigration to the United States Indian Americans A. K. Mozumdar Judicial aspects of race in the United States References Indian-American history Race in the United States Asian-American issues
5347444	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Ming%20of%20Song	Emperor Ming of Song	Emperor Ming of Liu Song ((劉)宋明帝; 9 December 439 – 10 May 472), personal name Liu Yu (劉彧), courtesy name Xiubing (休炳), childhood name Rongqi (榮期), was an emperor of the Chinese Liu Song dynasty. He became emperor after his violent and impulsive nephew Liu Ziye was assassinated in 465, as he was regarded as more lenient and open-minded at first. However, he soon turned cruel and suspicious as well after becoming emperor, and during his reign, his nephews and brothers were nearly all slaughtered on his orders. This greatly weakened the Liu Song dynasty and contributing to its fall in 479, just seven years after his death. Background Liu Yu was born in 439, as Emperor Wen's 11th son. His mother Consort Shen Rongji () was a low-ranked imperial consort with the title Meiren (). For reasons unknown, Wen once wanted to put her to death, but she convinced him that killing her would offend the spirit of his deceased wife, Empress Yuan Qigui, and she was spared. In 448, Liu Yu was created the Prince of Huaiyang. In 452, his title was changed to Prince of Xiangdong. Consort Shen died in 453, the same year that Emperor Wen was assassinated by his crown prince Liu Shao, who took over as emperor and subsequently put a number of his brothers, including Liu Yu, under house arrest, but Liu Yu and the other brothers were released when another older brother, Liu Jun the Prince of Wuling, defeated and killed Liu Shao and took the throne himself (as Emperor Xiaowu). Emperor Xiaowu posthumously honored Liu Yu's mother Consort Shen as Princess Dowager of Xiangdong, and Emperor Xiaowu's mother Empress Dowager Lu Huinan took over the duties of raising Liu Yu to adulthood. As he grew, as was customary for Liu Song imperial princes, he was rotated through governorships of commanderies and provinces. Liu Yu was regarded as a kind and open-minded man, with substantial literary abilities. He was also said to be grossly overweight. During Emperor Qianfei's reign In 464, Emperor Xiaowu died, and was succeeded by his son Emperor Qianfei. Emperor Qianfei was impulsive and violent, and he, after discovering and brutally suppressing a plot to depose him in favor of his granduncle Liu Yigong () the Prince of Jiangxia, suspected his uncles as well, and had them returned to the capital and confined. Of his uncles, he particularly suspected Liu Yu, Liu Xiuren () the Prince of Jian'an, and Liu Xiuyou () the Prince of Shanyang, since they were the oldest. (Another even older uncle, Liu Hui () the Prince of Donghai, was considered so unintelligent that Emperor Qianfei did not view him as much of a threat.) Because these three princes were all overweight, he had them put in cages and weighed as pigs would, and because Liu Yu was the heaviest, he called Liu Yu the Prince of Pigs, Liu Xiuren the Prince of Murderers, and Liu Xiuyou the Prince of Thieves. He often humiliated Liu Yu by putting him in stables and feeding him the way that pigs would be fed. He often wanted to kill Liu Yu, Liu Xiuren, and Liu Xiuyiu, but each time Liu Xiuren flattered him and caused him to change his mind. In one particular incident, he tied Liu Yu up like how a pig would be tied up, and had him delivered to the kitchen, stating, "Today is pig-killing day." Liu Xiuren, however, stated, "This is not the pig-killing day." He angrily asked Liu Xiuren why that was the case, and Liu Xiuren stated, "After your son is born, then kill the pig and take out his entrails!" Emperor Qianfei liked Liu Xiuren's joke and did not kill Liu Yu. In winter 465, around the time that Emperor Qianfei created his second wife, Lady Lu, empress, the palace eunuchs were of insufficient number to prepare for the ceremony, so Emperor Qianfei had the eunuchs from the princes' mansions conscripted to help, and Liu Yu had his own eunuch, Qian Lansheng (), observe Emperor Qianfei's actions and report to him. Meanwhile, some attendants of Emperor Qianfei were plotting to kill him, and when he was carrying out a ghost-shooting ceremony (after dreaming of the spirit of a lady in waiting that he had killed), the attendant Shou Jizhi () killed him. (Traditional historians generally hint that Liu Yu was involved in the plot, but not having conclusive evidence, they did not state so conclusively.) With support from the officials and particularly with his brother Liu Xiuren as a major advocate, Liu Yu was declared emperor (as Emperor Ming). Early reign: victory over Liu Zixun and loss of northern provinces Emperor Ming posthumously honored his mother Consort Shen as Empress Dowager Xuan but, because he was raised by Emperor Xiaowu's mother Grand Empress Dowager Lu, he continued to honor her as empress dowager. He also tried to pacify the empire by promoting the various officials, his brothers, and some of his nephews. (However, he forced Emperor Qianfei's oldest younger brother Liu Zishang () the Prince of Yuzhang, and his sister Liu Chuyu the Princess Kuaiji, both born also of Empress Wang Xianyuan and both of whom participated in his ill-fated governance, to commit suicide.) He created his wife Princess Wang Zhenfeng empress. One of the nephews that he tried to promote, Liu Zixun the Prince of Jin'an, whose chief of staff Deng Wan () had just prior to Emperor Qianfei's death declared a rebellion against Emperor Qianfei, refused, and instead declared a rebellion against Emperor Ming, in association with Yuan Yi () the governor of Yong Province (雍州, modern northwestern Hubei and southwestern Henan) and Liu Zisui's chief of staff Xun Bianzhi (). They accused Emperor Ming of being an usurper and having unduly killed Liu Zishang. Jing Province (荊州, modern central and western Hubei) and Kuaiji Commandery (the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay), governed by Liu Zixun's brothers Liu Zixu () the Prince of Linhai and Liu Zifang () the Prince of Xunyang, also quickly rose in support. In spring 466, Deng Wan, claiming to have received a secret edict from Liu Zixun's grandmother Empress Dowager Lu Huinan, declared Liu Zixun emperor. Upon the declaration, nearly the entire empire declared for Liu Zixun, with Emperor Ming only in control of the region immediately around the capital Jiankang. However, Liu Zixun's generals proceeded slowly, believing that Jiankang would collapse on its own due to the lack of food supply. Emperor Ming's general Wu Xi () was quickly able to advance east and capture Liu Zifang, taking the commanderies around Kuaiji that had declared for Liu Zixun and securing a food supply. The troops of Liu Zixun and Emperor Ming stalemated for months in the Chaohu region, until Emperor Ming's general Zhang Xingshi () built a defense post at Qianxi (錢溪, in modern Chizhou, Anhui), upstream from Liu Zixun's main troops commanded by Yuan Yi and Liu Hu (), cutting off their food supplies. As Liu Hu then tried to capture Qianxi to reopen food routes, he was defeated by Zhang and Shen Youzhi, and Liu Hu and Yuan then fled, with their troops collapsing. Liu Hu fled back to Xunyang, but then left under guise that he was going to set up perimeter defenses while instead fleeing. Xunyang was left without a defense, and Deng Wan contemplated killing Liu Zixun to save himself, but instead was killed by another staff member Zhang Yue (). Shen then arrived and executed Liu Zixun, ending his rival claim. However, Emperor Ming then grew arrogant in light of his victory. Instead of his initial policy of pardoning those who had declared for Liu Zixun, he began to deal with those who had not surrendered by this point harshly. In particular, at Liu Xiuren's suggestion, he put to death all of the still living sons of Emperor Xiaowu, accusing them (the oldest of whom was 10) of treason, along with several other officials whom he suspected of covertly supporting Liu Zixun, including Empress Dowager Lu's nephews. (Empress Dowager Lu herself had died during the war under suspicious circumstances. A rumor that the Nan Shi found reliable but indicated was not conclusively proven indicated that she had been secretly pleased about Liu Zixun's rebellion, and had tried to poison Emperor Ming so that Liu Zixun could be successful, but Emperor Ming, realizing her intent, poisoned her instead.) Late in 466, Emperor Ming created his oldest son, Liu Yu (different character than his own name), crown prince. Emperor Ming's reprisals brought an immediate heavy toll for Liu Song. When Xue Andu () the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui), who had earlier declared for Liu Zixun, tried to surrender to him, Emperor Ming, instead of just pardoning Xue, sent a force toward Xue's defense post at Pengcheng, Xue became fearful that Emperor Ming had no intent of pardoning him. (Indeed, Emperor Ming did not, and was intending to lead Xue into resisting, and then wiping him out.) Instead of simply resisting, however, Xue surrendered Xu Province to rival Northern Wei. He was joined in this action by Bi Zhongjing () the governor of Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong), Shen Wenxiu () the governor of Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong), and Cui Daogu () the governor of Ji Province (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong), although Shen and Cui soon changed their allegiance back to Emperor Ming. Northern Wei forces quickly joined Xue's, and they took up defense position against the attacking forces sent by Emperor Ming, commanded by the generals Zhang Yong () and Shen Youzhi. With Liu Song forces unable to siege Pengcheng effectively, Zhang and Shen Youzhi were forced to withdraw in spring 467, and on their retreat, Northern Wei forces commanded by Yuchi Yuan () sandwiched them with Xue, leading to a major rout. Against Shen Youzhi's protestations, Emperor Ming ordered him to attack Pengcheng again in fall 467, and Yuchi again defeated Shen Youzhi, ending Emperor Ming's efforts at recapturing Xu and Yan Provinces. With Ji and Qing Provinces now completely isolated from the rest of Liu Song, they could not be supplied with fresh troops, and the Northern Wei general Murong Baiyao () forced Cui's surrender in spring 468 and captured Shen Wenxiu's defense post at Dongyang (東陽, in modern Weifang, Shandong), annexing those provinces for Northern Wei. (While Pengcheng would temporarily be taken by Emperor Wu of Liang, the rest of the territory was lost to Southern Dynasties forever.) Emperor Ming also began to be suspicious of his brothers, and in 469, when a plot to make Liu Hui emperor was discovered, Emperor Ming had his brother demoted and then forced him to commit suicide. He also became displeased at the increasing authorities of Liu Xiuren, and Liu Xiuren, realizing that he was being suspected, surrendered part of his authorities but could not regain Emperor Ming's trust. Late reign Meanwhile, Emperor Ming's own conduct also began to decay. For example, in 470, he ordered officials and governors to offer him gifts, and when Sun Fengbo () the governor of Shixing Commandery (始興, roughly modern Shaoguan, Guangdong) only offered guqin and books, and not the treasures that Emperor Ming was hoping for, he sent poison to Sun to order him to commit suicide, although he soon retracted that order. Also on one occasion, he held an imperial feast inside the palace, and ordered his ladies in waiting to strip for the guests. Empress Wang, embarrassed, covered her eyes with a fan. In anger, Emperor Ming said, "Your household is so naïve and unaware of the world. Today everyone is trying to have fun, so why are you covering your eyes?" She responded, "There are many ways to have fun. What kind of a scene is it for aunts and sisters to gather to watch naked ladies in waiting and laugh about it? The fun that our household has is different." He became angrier and chased her away. Historical accounts, written during the succeeding Southern Qi Dynasty, indicate that Emperor Ming was impotent, and that although he had 12 sons, those were the results of his having seized his brothers' pregnant concubines and kept the children if they bore males, or his having had his concubines have sexual relations with others. (However, the fact that Empress Wang had two daughters, although no sons, may argue against such allegations, because it appeared rather unlikely that Emperor Ming would do this over female children—indeed, the allegations stated that he would only do this if his brothers' concubines bore males—or that the morally upright Empress Wang would engage in sexual relations with others, thus suggesting that the allegations were made to delegitimize Emperor Ming's sons Emperor Houfei and Emperor Shun vis-à-vis Southern Qi.) In addition, Emperor Ming was said to be suspicious, jealous, cruel, and violent. In addition, he was also superstitious, and his officials and attendants were forced to observe a number of taboos in both language and acts. Whoever violated these taboos would be executed, often in cruel manners, including having their hearts cut open or their entrails pulled out. In 471, Emperor Ming grew ill, and as Crown Prince Yu was only eight, he was fearful that his brothers would seize the throne, and therefore turned against them. His first target was Liu Xiuyou the Prince of Jinping, who was considered arrogant and violent and often offended Emperor Ming. Emperor Ming therefore, when he was out on a hunt with Liu Xiuyou, found an opportunity to have his guards push Liu Xiuyou off his horse and then pounded to death. When this news reached his youngest brother, Liu Xiuruo () the Prince of Baling, the governor of Jing Province, Liu Xiuruo's staff members suggest that he start a rebellion, particularly in light of orders for him to return to Jiankang and then take up Liu Xiuyou's old post at governor of South Xu Province (南徐州, modern western central Jiangsu), but the cautious Liu Xiuruo did not rebel, but instead reported to South Xu. Meanwhile, because the public believed that Liu Xiuren would become regent if Emperor Ming died, the mid-level officials were all trying to ingratiate themselves with Liu Xiuren and his staff, drawing Emperor Ming's anger and suspicion, and he forced Liu Xiuren to commit suicide. He then summoned Liu Xiuruo back to Jiankang and forced him to commit suicide as well. The only brother who was spared with Liu Xiufan () the Prince of Guiyang, who was considered to be unvirtuous and incompetent, and therefore not viewed as a threat. Emperor Ming's suspicions soon turned to other officials as well. In order to test the attitude of Xiao Daocheng the governor of South Yan Province (南兗州, modern eastern central Jiangsu), he had his strategist Wu Xi deliver a pot of wine to Xiao. Xiao, believing that wine was poisoned, was about to flee to Northern Wei, when Wu revealed that the wine was not poisonous and that Emperor Ming was merely trying to test him, and Wu drank some of the wine first to show Xiao. Xiao then drank the wine, and Wu returned to the capital and vouched for Xiao's loyalty, but his leaking of the non-poisonous nature of the wine was soon revealed. Emperor Ming, who was already suspicious of Wu's abilities, forced him to commit suicide. In fear, Empress Wang's brother Wang Jingwen (), the commander of the armed forces, tried to resign. Emperor Ming would not let him do so, and then, suspecting that Wang would take power after Emperor Ming's death, forced Wang to commit suicide in spring 472. Emperor Ming himself died in summer 472, and was succeeded by Crown Prince Yu (as Emperor Houfei). Family Consorts and Issue: Empress Minggong, of the Wang clan of Langya (; 436–479), personal name Zhenfeng () Princess Jinling (), personal name Bosi () Princess Jian'an (), personal name Boyuan () Guifei, of the Chen clan (), personal name Miaodeng () Liu Yu, Prince Cangwu (; 463–477), first son Zhaohua, of the Chen clan (), personal name Farong () Liu Zhun, Emperor Shun (; 467–479), third son Xiuhua, of the Du clan () Liu Hui, Prince Suiyang (; 471–479), tenth son Xiuyi, of the Xie clan () Liu Faliang, Prince Dezhi (), second son Liu Xie, Prince Jinxi (; 470–479), sixth son Xiurong, of the Zheng clan (; d. 474) Liu Zhijing, Prince Dongping (; d. 470), fifth son Jieyu, of the Xu clan () Fourth son Liu Ji, Prince Jiangxia (; 470–479), eighth son Meiren, of the Quan clan () Liu You, Prince Shaolingshang (; 470–479), seventh son Liu Xi, Prince Shijian (; 471–479), 12th son Liangren, of the Xu clan () Liu Zan, Prince Wuling (; 470–479), ninth son Liu Song, Prince Xinxing (; 471–479), 11th son Unknown Princess Yangxian () Married Wang Jian of Langya (; 452–489) in 469 Ancestry References Liu Song emperors 439 births 472 deaths Liu Song Buddhists Chinese Buddhist monarchs 5th-century Chinese monarchs Burials in Nanjing
5347506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games%20for%20Windows%20%E2%80%93%20Live	Games for Windows – Live	Games for Windows – Live or GFWL (trademarked as Games for Windows – LIVE) was an online gaming service used by Games for Windows–branded PC titles that enables Windows PCs to connect to Microsoft's Live service. Users, each with a unique Gamertag (the Microsoft username service for gaming that began on Xbox Live), are able to play online, keep track of their friends' status, send and receive messages, gain and keep track of Achievements and associated Gamerscore, voice chat across platforms (removed in 2010), and more. Some games allow for cross-platform play, such as Shadowrun, putting Windows players against Xbox 360 players. The service was open to third-party developers, but they had to meet certain Technical Certification Requirements (TCRs), which included (but were not limited to): game ratings, total number of Gamerscore points, content, game profiles, and Live connectivity. Games for Windows – Live games also had to meet standard Games for Windows (games that do not have Live support) TCRs. The same developer support infrastructure as the Xbox 360 was also available. Assistance to developers was provided through the Microsoft XNA Developer Connection. The successor to Games for Windows is now Microsoft Store for PC which allows players on the computer to use the Xbox network functions and play various Xbox games without having a console. History The first Games for Windows – Live-enabled title was Shadowrun, which launched simultaneously on Windows Vista and Xbox 360 on May 29, 2007, and was also the first LIVE title to offer cross-platform play between Windows Vista and Xbox 360 on the Live service. Another game that was released is Halo 2 for Windows Vista, which was launched to the public on May 31, 2007. The game supports all the standard Live features (such as achievements, voice chat, messages, etc.), but does not offer cross-platform play with Xbox players. Sega, Eidos, and THQ have signed on to include Games for Windows – Live in their upcoming games. Epic Games also included this service in their game engine Unreal Engine 3. Universe at War: Earth Assault from Sega and Lost Planet: Colonies Edition from Capcom include cross-platform play between Xbox 360 and Windows over Live. On July 22, 2008, Microsoft's Chris Satchell, CTO of the company's Entertainment devices division, announced that Games For Windows – Live would be free to developers. Previously, select publishers and developers used the system and had to pay for it. Also, all Games For Windows – Live features were now free for gamers, such as matchmaking and cross-platform play. Satchell added that the move was a "way to improve Windows gaming". As well as free multiplayer, Microsoft reduced the technical requirements for those developers looking to utilize Live such as removing playlist servers, and allowing studios to use the Microsoft matchmaking servers instead. The new Marketplace was made available for Games for Windows – Live on December 5, 2008. Microsoft also released the newly designed User Interface, on November 12, 2008. On January 7, 2010, it was announced at CES that the upcoming Xbox Game Room would be made available on both the Xbox Live and Games for Windows Live services. However, games purchased with 240 Microsoft Points will only be playable on one of the platforms; either Xbox 360 or PC. A dual-platform license will cost 400 Microsoft Points. As the Game Room will be available to Gold and Silver Xbox members, the service will be free to use on Games for Windows Live. Arcade games will feature achievements and online leaderboards. Microsoft revealed on May 21, 2010, that Fable III would be released on Windows as well as the Xbox 360, and would feature Games for Windows – Live. The downloadable version will be a Games on Demand exclusive. On August 17, 2010, Microsoft unveiled two new games at Gamescom 2010 that will use Games for Windows – LIVE, Age of Empires Online and Microsoft Flight. Age of Empires will be free-to-play through LIVE. On September 24, 2010, Microsoft Game Studios' general manager Dave Luehmann said in an interview the studio's renewed focus will start with three big titles—Fable III, Age of Empires Online and Microsoft Flight—which will use Games for Windows – LIVE. Luehmann reassured PC gamers that more big titles were on the way, however the studio plans to test new ideas. On September 13, 2011, Major Nelson confirmed what Microsoft is bringing Xbox Live to Windows 8, being called Xbox Live on Windows. On March 26, 2012, Microsoft Studios announced the arrival of Age of Empires Online on Steam. Age of Empires Online was released on Steam on March 27, 2012. On April 3, 2012, Microsoft Flight was released on Steam. Microsoft Studios release Insanely Twisted Shadow Planet on April 17, 2012, and Toy Soldiers on April 27, 2012, in Games for Windows – LIVE. On April 17, 2012, Microsoft said that they continued to support the Games for Windows platform, to the rumors of the discontinuation of Games for Windows – LIVE in favor of Xbox Live on Windows. On April 13, 2012, Microsoft Studios release Iron Brigade, and is the first Microsoft Studios title available only on Steam. On August 31, 2012, Gotham City Impostors became free-to-play and dropped Games for Windows – LIVE in favor of Steamworks. On October 10, 2012, the Steam version of Toy Soldiers was updated to fully use Steamworks, although it still gives the option to use the original service. On October 16, 2012, Mark of the Ninja was the first title of Microsoft Studios to use Steamworks exclusively, instead of GfWL. On October 25, 2012, Deadlight became the second title of Microsoft Studios to use Steamworks exclusively. On November 28, 2012, Ace Combat: Assault Horizon became the first (and only) retail Games for Windows – LIVE title announced for 2013. On January 31, 2013, Microsoft Studios said that they "have nothing to share on the future of Games for Windows Live". On March 7, 2013, Microsoft Studios announced Age of Empires II: HD Edition + The Conquerors would be released exclusively on Steam. On April 3, 2013, Ms. Splosion Man was released by Microsoft Studios on both platforms. On August 9, 2013, Microsoft announced the removal of one of the most criticized limitations for the LIVE platform, the inability of simultaneously logging in on both the Xbox One and Games for Windows LIVE. On August 16, 2013, Microsoft announced that the Xbox.com PC Marketplace was going to be closed on August 22 alongside the Xbox 360 update that retired Microsoft Points in favour of local currency purchases. The service would otherwise continue to operate normally. In August 2013, a since-deleted support article for Age of Empires Online announced that the Games for Windows – Live service would be discontinued on July 1, 2014. Microsoft issued a statement in June 2014 denying they were closing Games for Windows Live, stating "We remain committed to investing in PC gaming in the years ahead, and look forward to sharing more in the future". After the initial August 2013 support article, some game publishers announced that they would be removing GFWL from their games, but in most cases this did not happen until several years later or at all. Microsoft closed Games for Windows LIVE on August 15, 2013: "As part of the upcoming Xbox 360 system update, Microsoft Points will be retired, and the Xbox.com PC marketplace will be closed as of August 22, 2013. We encourage you to spend your Microsoft Points balance prior to this change". The download of the client software is still available, and the servers are still online. Games for Windows Live has since been practically replaced with the Microsoft Store for Windows 10 & 11 (and supported now-discontinued Windows Phone). In 2020, Microsoft removed the Games for Windows – LIVE download page and the Windows Live Sign-in Assistant was removed from their servers and therefore the online Games for Windows – LIVE installer fails to install. As of 2023, users are unable to login to Games for Windows Live through either the GWFL Marketplace. The in-game overlay, however, still works fully on all games already owned either digitally or retail, with long login times ranging from 1-5 minutes. Features Achievements earned during gameplay. Gamerscores amounting the total of a user's achievement points. Reputation voted by other users preferring or avoiding the user. Rep defaults to five stars over time after the user has been preferred by at least one other user. Friends list displaying the user's chosen friends of up to 100. Recent players list displaying the last 50 players the user has met. Complaint system allowing users to file reports of other users that have broken Live Terms of Use. Games for Windows Marketplace offered Games on Demand, downloadable content, music and movies until its closure in 2013. Public and private chat via Voice and text. The voice feature worked between Xbox 360 and Windows until 2010, when Microsoft updated the voice codec for Xbox Live. Games, such as Shadowrun, now only support the text portion of this feature. Multiplayer gameplay via Games for Windows – Live. Matchmaking depending on the user's cumulative gamerscore, rep, location, language and gamer zone. Family settings controlling younger users' exposure to other users. Game Room virtual arcade space offering a library of classic retro games. Cross-platform gameplay with Xbox 360 User information Gamertag A Gamertag is the universal name for a player's username on Games for Windows – Live, as well as Xbox Live, Zune, and XNA Creators Club. A Gamertag used online must be unique and can be up to 15 characters in length, including numbers, letters, and spaces. A player's Gamertag account status can be checked using a variety of online tools, which is useful especially when looking for a new Gamertag, or confirming that a Gamertag exists. Using a valid Gamertag, any player can be located and messaged from within Live. There are also several websites which allow users of Gamertags to upload photos and information about themselves. Gamerscore The Gamerscore (G) is an achievements system that measures the number of achievement points accumulated by a user with a Live profile. These Achievement points are awarded for the completion of game-specific challenges, such as beating a level or amassing a specified number of wins against other players in online matches. All regular disc-based games must have 1,000 Gamerscore points in the base game; the title can ship with fewer than 1,000 points, but anything added later must be free. Game developers also have the option of adding up to 250 points via downloadable content every three months after the first year of release (for a total of 1,750 points). On May 26, 2007, Halo 2 was the first Games for Windows – Live title to feature Achievements, which counted towards a player's Gamerscore. Gamercard The Gamercard is an information panel used to summarize a user's Live profile. The pieces of information on a Gamercard include: the user's Gamertag (in front a silver or gold bar), reputation, Gamerscore, Gamer Zone and recently played games. TrueSkill TrueSkill is a ranking and matchmaking system premiering in the Live services. Developed at Microsoft Research Cambridge (United Kingdom), the TrueSkill ranking system is now used in many titles for Games for Windows – Live. It uses a mathematical model of uncertainty to address weaknesses in existing ranking systems such as Elo. For example, a new player joining million-player leagues can be ranked correctly in fewer than 20 games. It can predict the probability of each game outcome, which enhances competitive matchmaking, making it possible to assemble skill-balanced teams from a group of players with different abilities. When matchmaking, the system attempts to match individuals based on their estimated skill level. If two individuals are competing head-to-head and have the same estimated skill level with low estimate uncertainty, they should each have roughly a 50% chance of winning a match. In this way, the system attempts to make every match as competitive as possible. In order to prevent abuse of the system, the majority of ranked games have relatively limited options for matchmaking. By design, players cannot easily play with their friends in ranked games. However, these countermeasures have failed due to techniques such as alternate account(s) and system flaws where each system has its own individual trueskill rating. To provide less competitive games, the system supports unranked Player Matches, which allow individuals of any skill level to be paired (often including "guests" on an account). Such matches do not contribute to the TrueSkill rating. User interface The user interface or "Guide" was changed from earlier versions (made to match the Xbox 360's original appearance) to a new appearance. The guide includes messaging (text and voice), friends list, recent players, private chat, and personal settings. The current version of the in-game Live client is version 3.5.0088.0, released on May 6, 2011. It is available for Windows XP (Service Pack 2 and above), Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10 operating systems. Version 3.0 added extended information about progress and some bugfixes. The client also auto-updates when users are logged-on to a Live-aware game. Marketplace The Games for Windows Marketplace client was officially released on December 4, 2009. It initially launched with demos and trailers of games available on the Live service. Full titles were later added in the form of Games on Demand. With version 3.0 of the Games for Windows – Live service, an in-game marketplace was included; in addition to new account management tools, such as the ability to change a Gamertag for 800 Microsoft Points. The in-game marketplace enables users to purchase DLC without exiting, as it installs the content directly from within the game. On July 22, 2011, Microsoft announced that they would be scrapping the newly revamped Games for Windows Marketplace website and merged the content with the Xbox website. The Games for Windows client, which was another way for users to purchase games, was also reduced to simply opening up the Windows section of Xbox.com. On August 15, 2013, Microsoft announced that the marketplace would be closed on August 22 of the same year. The marketplace became non-functional in 2018 with purchased games no longer displaying and instead presenting an error saying "There was an error retrieving your purchase history. Please sign out and try again later" despite existing purchases being supposed to still be available to download. The Games for Windows Live Marketplace client stopped logging in completely in 2022 due to TLS 1.0 and 1.1 connections being no longer permitted for Xbox Live accounts to login and therefore presents a connection error when launching the program. The marketplace however, was already non-functional since 2018. Games on Demand On December 15, 2009, Microsoft launched Games on Demand, a digital distribution service offering titles such as Resident Evil 5 and Battlestations: Pacific. Also available are arcade games such as a free version of Microsoft Tinker, a former exclusive to Windows Vista Ultimate, as well as World of Goo and Osmos. Some titles bought on Games on Demand include Server Side Authentication. This is a Games for Windows – Live 3.0 feature that automatically ties the game to your Windows Live ID and the Gamertag associated to it. These games have no activation limits and can be re-installed multiple times. The majority of the other titles on the service use a SecuROM DRM that lets the user activate the game up to five times each month on any hardware. On June 8, 2010, some games which were previously not Games for Windows titles were added for download. Microsoft had claimed that new titles would be added every week and that there would be over 100 games by the end of 2010. On October 22, 2010, Microsoft announced a revamp of Games On Demand under the new branding Games for Windows Marketplace. However, this was met with low expectations from reviewers, considering the history of Games for Windows Live on PC. On July 22, 2011, less than a year after the revamp, Microsoft announced that it would merge the Games for Windows Marketplace into the Xbox website. Availability As of February 10, 2015 Games for Windows – Live is available in 42 countries/territories. Users in other countries can access Live by creating a Gamertag using an address from a supported country, although no technical support is available outside of the supported countries. Since Games for Windows – Live is based on the Xbox Live service, availability is exactly identical to the regional availability of Xbox Live. The Marketplace is not available for all of these regions. Controversies After the official announcement of Games for Windows – Live, many PC gamers were upset with Microsoft's move to charge PC gamers a fee of $49.99 to use the service. Many PC gamers felt this move was unfair, as playing online and many of the other services GFWL offered has, for the most part, always been free on the PC. Microsoft later began offering the service free of charge, after many complaints from PC gamers were made. After the announcement that the PC release of Dark Souls would use Games for Windows – Live, fans started up a petition to have the game released without the service attached. The online petition gained over 20,000 signatures in under a week, reflecting a notable public dislike of the service among PC gamers. The game would move to Steamworks in 2014. Many Grand Theft Auto IV users who bought their game via Steam had trouble activating CD-keys in-game via the integrated Games for Windows – Live client. In January 2020, the game was removed from sale on Steam, with Rockstar Games stating "With Microsoft no longer supporting Games For Windows Live, it is no longer possible to generate the additional keys needed to continue selling the current version of the game." The next month, Rockstar announced that on March 19, 2020, that an updated version of GTA IV named 'Grand Theft Auto IV: The Complete Edition' without Games for Windows Live would replace the previous version. The online leaderboards and multiplayer were removed as they relied on GFWL services to function. The Rockstar Games Launcher is now required to launch the game, which acts as a replacement for the DRM and achievements features of GFWL. See also Games for Windows List of Games for Windows titles List of Games for Windows – Live titles Windows Games on Demand List of Xbox Live games on Windows 10 Live Anywhere References Digital rights management systems Multiplayer video game services Online video game services Online-only retailers of video games Windows games Xbox network
5347668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Pitt%20Provincial%20Park	Fort Pitt Provincial Park	Fort Pitt Provincial Park is a provincial park in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. Fort Pitt was built in 1829 by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and was a trading post on the North Saskatchewan River in Rupert's Land. It was built at the direction of Chief Factor John Rowand, previously of Fort Edmonton, to trade for bison hides, meat and pemmican. Pemmican, dried buffalo meat, was required as provisions for HBC's northern trading posts. In the 1870s the abundance of buffalo in the area had been severely diminished through the overhunting necessary to meet the growing demand from the HBC for both furs and pemmican. One academic journal states "with the disappearance of the buffalo, pork had replaced pemmican altogether", showing the drastic effects of the HBC on the local buffalo population. Fort Pitt was built where the territories of the Cree, Assiniboine, and Blackfoot converged. It was located on a large bend in the river just east of the present day Alberta–Saskatchewan border and was the major post between Fort Edmonton and Fort Carlton. In 1876, it was one of the locations for signing Treaty 6. It was the scene of the Battle of Fort Pitt during the North-West Rebellion of 1885. The site was designated a national historic site of Canada in 1954. In 1986, approximately of land surrounding the remains of the fort was designated as Fort Pitt Provincial Park by the government of Saskatchewan. History of Fort Pitt Fort Pitt (1829–1890) was a prairie trading post of the HBC on the North Saskatchewan River about east of the present-day Alberta border. It was on the north bank of the river on a flat above a bluff. It traded mainly in pemmican and buffalo robes with the Blackfoot, Cree, and some Métis. There was a fair amount of agriculture and horse-rearing. It was named after Thomas Pitt, a member of the HBC governing board from 1810 to 1832. Bison and the establishment of Fort Pitt In 1690, Henry Kelsey from the HBC became the first European to walk the prairies of Rupert's Land and see the abundance of bison. For thousands of years dating back to the Western Archaic and the Avonlea Periods, First Nations have stalked, hunted, and followed the migration of bison along the prairies. Prior to European contact with North America, the bison was the most numerous of all grazing animals. Estimates of their numbers are only speculative, but may have ranged from 30,000,000 to 75,000,000. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the production of pemmican on the plains had become an industrial-scale operation. For many years, prairie bison also provided pelts, hides, and other food. In the early 1800s, various fur-trading companies began strategically placing numerous trading posts on the maze of northern waterways. The Saskatchewan River provided access to the south-western area of Rupert's Land and to the Sturgeon-Weir River, which led to the Churchill River. These vast water highways spanned the future province from east to west. In 1830, Fort Pitt was established on the North Saskatchewan River by the HBC in what was at its time known as the heart of buffalo country. The fort was built by Chief Factor John Rowand to meet the provisions necessary for the HBC, such as buffalo meat, hides, and pemmican. The fort was established in September 1829 by HBC company clerk Patrick Small, the son of North West Company (NWC) partner Patrick Small, the brother-in-law of David Thompson and John MacDonald and the son-in-law of David Hughes. During the first winter Small and his men lived in tents, and building was not completed until spring 1831. It was closed in 1832 for fear of attack by surrounding Cree and Blackfoot, though it reopened in fall 1833. In 1843, John Rowand, the son of John Rowand of Fort Edmonton, became master. In 1854, the elder Rowand, on his way to retirement, visited his son. While attempting to break up a fight between two voyageurs, he had a heart attack and died. Artist Paul Kane visited the fort in 1848. Depletion of bison In 1873, the bison market came to an abrupt end when Fort Pitt, once one of the most reliable sources of provisions in the Saskatchewan District, all but collapsed. The demands of numerous HBC and NWC trading companies along Saskatchewan waterways in the 1800s significantly depleted the once well established bison population. With completion of the US Union Pacific Railroad in 1869, between 1868 and 1881 an estimated 31,000,000 bison were killed, mostly as a result of trade in bison hide and sport hunting in the United States. Despite every exertion being made by the officer in charge of the post, who sent staff to follow up and traffic wherever Indians or buffalo could be found, parties returned from the South Branch territories empty handed. After the bison were gone, almost five-sixths of the provisions brought to the post had to come from the hands of independent parties who were forced to travel staggering distances to obtain such resources. Purchases of these crucial resources soon became "a heavy expense" on the post. Meanwhile, the rest of the upper Saskatchewan posts were still able to meet the demands of the HBC. The economic and social impact the depletion of bison left on Indigenous tribes was devastating. Impact on Indigenous peoples After the disappearance of bison in the lands surrounding Fort Pitt, Indigenous peoples attempted agriculture to provide food for their families. Their initial farming attempts failed because when choosing reserve land, chiefs had shown a decided preference for rolling, heavily wooded terrain that was better suited for traditional pursuits such as hunting and gathering than raising crops. Government authorities attributed this sorry outcome to "Indian idleness" rather than environmental circumstances. The agricultural aid promised in treaties such as implements, animals, and seeds was also slow in coming and inadequate. The government of Canada expected the Indian adoption of agriculture to be an overnight success on the Indian reserves and was more concerned with saving money than providing necessary assistance. As the trade and resources dwindled surrounding Fort Pitt, the federal government came to resent its existing treaty obligations. In particular, they came to resent the cost of feeding starving Indians and balked at assuming additional duties. Many even questioned why money should be spent on keeping a dying race alive. Canadian government officials adopted a "submit or starve" technique in an attempt to force Indigenous people into forfeiting rights, signing treaties, and moving onto reserves. Big Bear resisted signing the treaty, then moved his band onto a reserve near Fort Pitt. Smallpox The emergence of smallpox had devastating consequences on Fort Pitt and the surrounding area. The plague of illness further taxed the already diminished recourses at Fort Pitt. The depletion of the buffalo, a fundamental food source, paired with lack of knowledge surrounding the smallpox virus directly correlated to the 100 Cree lives lost in 1869-1870. The 100 dead Cree was the second-highest death toll due to smallpox of any recorded Cree population during this time. While these are recorded numbers some estimates are provided that the smallpox virus may have claimed the lives of half of all Cree. Some sources estimate upwards of 10,000 deaths were caused by the virus. "More than 100 infected Cree, forbidden from entering the fort, died outside the stockade. The dead laid for days until hungry wolves came from the forest and fought over the rotting bodies. Some sick Natives thought that if they could give the sickness back to the Canadians at Fort Pitt where it had come from they could stop the suffering themselves. So they hung around the fort, put their scarred faces against the pump handles and spat on the door knobs." While smallpox had devastating effects on the population surrounding Fort Pitt its effects failed to penetrate the walls of the fort to any great extent. The Journal of the American Medical Association states that as few as three people were infected inside the fort itself. The author of the article said "I can only attribute this to the fact that Mr. John Sinclair had taken precaution early in the previous summer to vaccinate all of the persons residing there." Fort Pitt provided hope to the many infected making the journey to seek aid at the fort. Many Cree set up temporary settlements in the surrounding area in hopes that the fort would be able to provide aid to the ill. The large congregation of Cree surrounding Fort Pitt may have been one of the reasons that accounts of death due to smallpox were so high in the surrounding areas. Tension with the Blackfoot As the relationship between Fort Pitt and the Cree began to grow, so did the tension between the Members of Fort Pitt and the Blackfoot. The Blackfoot's deemed any allies of the Cree to be enemies of the Blackfoot and thus open to exploitation and attack. "The Blackfoot considered the Hudson's Bay Company to be in league with the Cree, so their relationship with the traders became tenuous. In 1863 the Blackfoot began to raid Fort Pitt itself." The fact that "Many Crees had intermarried with Hudson's Bay Company employees and were so friendly with them that the Blackfoot began to see the traders as their enemies as well." Increased trading with the Woods and Plains Cree created fear amongst the HBC traders at Fort Pitt. The HBC worried that trading with the Cree would open the Cree as well as Fort Pitt itself up to raids by the Blackfoot. "The arrival of the Cree caused fear at the post that they would attract Blackfoot raiders and a possible attack on the post. Fort Pitt at the time was understaffed, both staff and the local Métis being away hunting on the plains or with the boat brigade." The Blackfoot made many attempts to intercept trading parties en route to the fort, as well as making raid attempts on the fort itself. Big Bear Big Bear's presence and position within the Plains Cree was a defining factor in the relationship that Fort Pitt shared with the Cree nation. Big Bear was often described as an advocate for the peaceful negotiations between the Indigenous populations and the European settlers. Big Bear's presence in the area would have helped facilitate a less hostile environment, and would have been a significant factor in how the Plains Cree acted during the rebellion of 1885. "Despite their impoverished state and stinging sense of disillusionment and betrayal, Indians had made a solemn vow during the treaty negotiations to live in peace and were not prepared to break this pledge and plunge the region into war. Instead Big Bear and other senior Cree chiefs patiently sought a peaceful resolution to their grievances." The compassion that Big Bear showed for the value of human life is made evident by treatment of the HBC members at Fort Pitt during the Cree takeover in 1885. "The absorption of the people of Fort Pitt into the camp, and of other people gathered from the surrounding countryside suggest that Big Bear and the other Woods Cree leaders saw this as essential in order to protect those whose lives might be in danger. Their goal was to keep them out of harm's way, not do harm to them. The great number of 'captives' or 'prisoners' had opted for the protection of the Cree camp upon the advice of aboriginal friends or leaders. This was difficult for the general non-Aboriginal public to comprehend." Many Fort Pitt inhabitants were so comfortable with the relationship between them and the Cree they would walk uncontested into the Cree camps even after the hostilities that took place at the fort. Big Bear and 14 band members stood trial in Regina for their participation in the events of 1885 including the capturing of Fort Pitt. Even though Big Bear not only did not participate in the violence but was an advocate against it, he was still accused of treason for not abandoning the Plains Cree at the onset of the violence. He was ultimately convicted of treason and served three years at the Stony Mountain Penitentiary. Chief Sweet Grass Even though Big Bear was a more powerful and recognized leader within the Crees and Saskatchewan area, Chief Sweet Grass played a large role in the securing of Treaty 6, as well as a leading role in dealing with the government. Due to Big Bear's predisposed bad reputation with McDougall, Alexander Morris had arrived to begin negotiations with a predetermined favouritism towards Chief Sweet Grass. Despite Chief Sweet Grass's holding only 25 lodges compared to Big Bear's 65, Sweet Grass was still seen as desirable because of the government belief in his ability to sway his fellow council members into signing. To try to secure his people's safety and well-being moving forward with the treaty, Chief Sweet Grass addressed the governors present as such: Chief Sweet Grass' legacy remains as the prime negotiator in the meetings for the signing of Treaty 6 before being integrated into Canadian society. Sweet Grass converted to Christianity in 1870, being baptized into Catholicism with the name Abraham. He later was shot dead by his brother, using the pistol given to him for signing the treaty. The Sweet Grass Reserve is established in Battleford, Saskatchewan. Treaty 6 Before the introduction of Treaty 6 into land stretching into what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta, several numbered treaties had appeared as the Canadian government pushed west to open the land for settlers. Due to a lack of provincial boundaries set in place before several of the numbered treaties existing, there is an overlap in treaty / provincial lines. As situations got worse in Manitoba for the Métis and other Indigenous populations, they headed further west to salvage what they could of the diminishing buffalo population. In turn, as they settled in the District of Saskatchewan, it put even greater pressure on the population there. Therefore, this left the Indigenous people of Fort Pitt, and other surrounding areas, no other options other than to seek an agreement with the Canadian government in the form of a treaty to protect their interests. The main inhabitants of the land at the time consisted of Cree, with some Assiniboine, Saulteaux, and Chipewyan, although the main intention of the treaty was focused on the Cree people. Treaty 6 was noted as one of the only treaties in which provisions such as medical treatment as well as relief in case of national disease or famine. Despite Chief Big Bear's resentment towards the signing of the treaty, due to his belief that it was unfair towards its people, it went on to be signed without him. The negotiations began on 5 September 1876. In exchange for their land, they were given horses, wagons, farming equipment, as well as the promise of aid mentioned above. During the initial negotiations, Morris and company had declared that the people of Fort Pitt will be given the same treaty terms presented at Fort Carlton. After Morris was given permission to establish the terms of the treaty to the Indigenous council, they met in council to debate and discuss the rest of the day. Days after initial negotiations had begun, the commissioners arrived to gather the final decision. Cree Chief Sweet Grass came forward from the council to accept the terms given to them by the government, but also a plea to keep the Indigenous population alive and prosperous, stating "When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper." The treaty had consisted of annual cash payments to chiefs and their band members, ranging from $5 to $25, reserve lands, schools on the reserves, as well as farming equipment and tools such as wagons, horses, livestock, twine, and ammunition. Wandering Spirit Wandering Spirit was a war chief in the Plains Cree under the leadership of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit's personality and ideals varied from Big Bear in many ways, he was more susceptible to the use of violence instead of the peaceful negotiations preferred by Big Bear. Wandering Spirit "had initiated the killing of nine White and half-breed men on 2 April at Frog Lake." This act of defiance against Big Bear and his peaceful negotiations was a turning point in the Plains Cree's history. The war chiefs soon took control of the Plains Cree "ending Big Bear's peaceful ten-year struggle to obtain better conditions for his people." One of Wandering Spirit's first movements after the Frog Lake Massacre was to proceed south-east to the HBC trading post at Fort Pitt, where Wandering Spirit demanded the post be surrendered by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) guarding it. In return for a peaceful surrender the NWMP were allowed to leave unharmed. Wandering Spirit gave the employees of HBC and their families the choice of leaving with the police or surrendering to the Cree. All of the HBC employees chose to surrender instead of leave Fort Pitt with the police. Wandering Spirit ordered his men to raid the fort, filling wagons full of food clothes and supplies. The Cree then returned to Frog Lake with 44 hostages from Fort Pitt. Most of the hostages were placed under the control of the Woods Cree at Frog Lake. In May 1885, Fort Pitt was once again visited by Wandering Spirit and Big Bear's Cree. By this time, the Cree Camp had grown to an estimated 300 men, 700 women and children, as well as containing hostages, dogs, and horses. The Cree once again took the resources form the fort, this time departing to Frenchman Butte. Upon the departure the Cree set fire to many of the buildings at Fort Pitt. This was one of the most aggressive and destructive actions that were directed directly at Fort Pitt itself. While Wandering Spirit showed more aggression than Big Bear he often still tried to avoid violence. The fact that he gave the option of surrender and departure to the NWMP at Fort Pitt emphasized that while he was not opposed to violence it was not his desired outcome. There is some debate about whether the release of the NWMP was Wandering Spirit's idea or due to the intervention of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit was not opposed to the presence of the HBC in the North-West Territories; however, he strongly opposed the government. The police force at Fort Pitt was his target in May 1885, not the many traders and their families who worked for the HBC. Hostilities were never expressed towards the traders or their families, and they were welcomed into the Cree camps. Wandering Spirit eventually surrendered with other members of the Cree at Fort Pitt, where he and other Cree were accused of their crimes and murders of 1885. Francis Jeffery Dickens In 1883, 25 NWMP were sent to Fort Pitt under the command of Francis Dickens, the son of the novelist Charles Dickens. Dickens arrived "Several days late and was met by a large camp of Indians, many of them dissatisfied because they had not received their promised agriculture equipment." At this time, Fort Pitt was seeing an increase in the number of dissatisfied Plains Cree in the surrounding area. The lack of resources and growing tensions throughout the prairies were influential factors in the 1885 rebellion. Soon after the violence broke out at Duck Lake, John Rae requested that Dickens track and ensure that Big Bear's Cree had remained in the Fort Pitt area. There was a growing fear that an increasing number of Cree would join the Métis and pose an even greater threat. After losing control of Fort Pitt, Dickens and his men retreated to the safety of Battleford, effectively ending Dickens active duty with the NWMP. Dickens was employed as a justice of the peace and presided over some of the preliminary hearings for the rebels. In 1886, he left the employment of government and moved to the United States with the intentions of completing a lecture tour. Dickens died on 11 June of a suspected heart attack before the tour began. W.J. McLean – Fort Pitt supervisor during uprising W.J. McLean was a chief trader who was responsible for the supervision of Fort Pitt beginning in 1884. He had previously served twenty years with the company at various locations. His wife Helen was born at Fort Dunvegan and was partly of aboriginal ancestry. There were eight McLean children, and in the spring of 1885 Helen McLean was expecting another child. The three eldest McLean sisters, Amelia, Eliza, and Kitty, were all well educated, having attended school at Red River, but they could also ride, shoot, and were fluent in Cree and Saulteaux. Following the Massacre at Frog Lake, Fort Pitt's population dramatically increased as people from surrounding districts sought protection there, some with the assistance of Aboriginal associates. There were 23 NWMP stationed at the fort under the command of Francis Dickens. These included many police members who were evacuated from Frog Lake. On 14 April, when Big Bear and his Plains Cree party assembled on the banks overlooking the fort, they specifically asked to speak to McLean, who was on friendly terms with these people and believed that he did not have to fear for himself or his family. Lengthy discussions lasted two days; however, violence broke out when the Cree thought themselves to be under attack. In statements made later, McLean never hesitated to lay the blame for this on the poor judgment of Inspector Dickens, who, the day before, sent out two NWMP and one civilian to gather information on the whereabouts of Aboriginal groups. Their sudden appearance led the Cree to believe that they were under attack. Three Crees were killed during the confrontation along with one of the NWMP members. During this event, all the inhabitants of Fort Pitt except the remaining NWMP, agreed to evacuate the fort, and become part of Big Bear's camp. North-West Rebellion There was a great deal of unease surrounding the European settlers and the Indigenous population during the mid-1880s. Fort Pitt was no exception. There are, however, examples given that suggest that the relationship between the European settlers, and the Cree were different than the relations of the time in other areas. There was a great deal of violence in the areas surrounding Fort Pitt; however, this was not necessarily the case within the fort itself. Many accounts of the violence state that it was a "settling of personal scores" and many of the land owners in the surrounding area were targeted due to their past relationships with the Indigenous population. This resentment and anger was not directed at the European settlers as a whole but, rather specific members of the population, as well as government. Some historians state that "many of the killings were the settling of personal scores." They also reference situations such as Bill Waiser, where in his book A World We Have Lost: Saskatchewan Before 1905 he provides some insight into the events at Fort Pitt. The author provides evidence that the relationship between the NWMP at Fort Pitt and the Cree was not as hostile as often thought. Daschuk also states that "police officers at Fort Pitt we spared in recognition of their humanity" further suggesting that the relationships may not have been as resentful as other areas. The only loss of European life at the hands of the Cree during the capture of Fort Pitt came when the search party sent out by Dickens accidentally rode their horses through a Cree camp. The surprised Cree engaged in a brief fire fight fearing that this was an attack by the NWMP. In the attack, David Cowan was fatally wounded, and Constable Lawrence Loasby was wounded but managed to escape only to be captured a short time later. A third NWMP officer was captured but not injured. This is one of the events that influenced Dickens to initiate his retreat, leaving the fort vacant of NWMP and surrendering to the Cree's occupation of the fort with minimal resistance. There were also three Cree who lost their lives in this brief battle. Dickens was also persuaded by the threat that the Cree may simply set the fort on fire instead of attack it. On 17 April 1885, the members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation effectively took control of Fort Pitt and successfully negotiated the evacuation of the NWMP. The members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation successfully maintained control of Fort Pitt until 2 July 1885 when they surrendered to the NWMP. After the police force was dispatched from the fort the remaining men, women, and children were given the choice to either leave the fort or stay as "hostages" the majority chose to stay. By most recorded accounts, they were treated with relative dignity and respect. This further promotes the idea put forth by Waiser that this movement on Fort Pitt was not intended as an act of pure aggression, but one created out of the necessity to feed themselves and gain adequate supplies. During the second sacking of Fort Pitt on 9 April, the Cree under the orders of Wandering Spirit raided the remaining resources and set fire to the fort, destroying all but one of the service buildings. On 26 May, a mounted column arrived at Fort Pitt to see the remains still smouldering in the aftermath of the Cree raid. The members of the column were "sobered by the discovery of the body of Constable David Cowan, his heart removed and placed on a nearby pole." Fort Pitt's location and the fact that it was situated at the divergence of many trails led the column to reclaiming it setting up headquarters. The actions of the Cree warriors at Fort Pitt as well as other locations such as Frog lake during the Rebellion of 1885 were contributing factors in the government's creation of the Alberta Field Force on 20 April 1885. The Alberta Field Force consisted of one thousand men, and was tasked with ending the rebellion and returning peace to the land. They marched unimpeded from Calgary east meeting their first significant resistance upon arrival in the Fort Pitt region. The Alberta Field Force encountered and interrupted a group of Cree performing a thirst dance, in which the Cree were searching for spiritual guidance. This was happening at the base of Frenchman Butte. This encounter and the violent outbreak afterwards would be described as "one of the most indecisive skirmishes during the tragedy of 1885." Frenchman Butte is located north-west of Fort Pitt, and it is a significant historical site for the role it played in the Battle of Batoche. It was at this location that the Alberta Field Force marched upon the some of Big Bear's Cree while they were participating in a thirst dance after leaving Fort Pitt. The Alberta Field Forces interruption of the thirst dance lead to the retreat of the Cree to the rifle pits throughout the plains. "Big Bear's soldiers installed themselves in deep rifle pits above the surrounding plains." The short Battle of Frenchman's Butte occurred, but soon after it began, the Canadian Militia realized that Big Bear's men had the superior tactical position, and they were forced to retreat to the safety of Fort Pitt, while Big Bear's men retreated in the opposite direction startled by the firepower of the Alberta Field Force. Post North-West Rebellion history The next September, the fort was rebuilt by Angus McKay. In 1887, a branch post was built at Onion Lake about to the north-west. In 1890, everything was moved to Onion Lake, and Fort Pitt was closed. In 1944, Fort Pitt was sold to a local rancher, Robert Henry Hougham (1889-1960), with the intent to cultivate the land for agricultural purposes. On the commencement of land cultivation, Hougham discovered shallow graves located in close proximity to the remains of the original fort. It is unknown at this time the specifics surrounding the remains as many of the tombstones and other identifying landmarks were destroyed during the fires and rebellion in 1885. Hougham reconstructed one of the early structures and worked the land for 16 years until his death in 1960. He was buried on the property near a stone cairn that had been erected at the site in 1954. In 1954, Fort Pitt was designated a national historic site of Canada. According to the Parks Canada Directory of Federal Heritage Designations, the significance of Fort Pitt to Canadian heritage is "the Hudson's Bay Company built the post to trade in buffalo hides, meat and pemmican; It was the site of the signing of Treaty No. 6 in 1876; and, it was burned during the 1885 rebellion by Big Bear's followers after the police had withdrawn to Battleford." Fort Pitt Provincial Park In 1986, approximately of land surrounding the remains of Fort Pitt was designated as a provincial park by the government of Saskatchewan. Fort Pitt Provincial Park is located several kilometres east of Harlan, and roughly north-west of Hewitt Landing, in western Saskatchewan. It is accessed off Highway 797. The historical site itself consists of the architectural remains of two of the forts that were located in the area. They have been partially excavated and presented for interpretive purposes. The outlines of the first two forts are also visible, as well as one reconstructed building designed in accordance with the second fort. In the park, there is access to the archaeological remains of two forts, the North Saskatchewan River, and a picnic area. It also features geotracking as a recreational activity. The park is a museum and a provincial heritage property. See also Battle of Frenchman's Butte List of protected areas of Saskatchewan Tourism in Saskatchewan History of Saskatchewan References External links Fort Pitt National Historic Site of Canada Fort Pitt Provincial Park Pitt Frenchman Butte No. 501, Saskatchewan Hudson's Bay Company forts Provincial parks of Saskatchewan National Historic Sites in Saskatchewan Military history of Saskatchewan North Saskatchewan River 1830 establishments in the British Empire
5347856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20of%20the%20Confederation	War of the Confederation	The War of the Confederation () was a military confrontation waged by the United Restoration Army, the alliance of the land and naval forces of Chile and the Restoration Army of Peru, formed in 1836 by Peruvian soldiers opposed to the confederation, and the Argentine Confederation against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation between 1836 and 1839. As a result of the Salaverry-Santa Cruz War, the Peru-Bolivia Confederation was created by General Andrés de Santa Cruz, which caused a power struggle in southern South America, with Chile and the Argentine Confederation, as both distrusted this new and powerful political entity, seeing their geopolitical interests threatened. After some incidents, Chile and the Argentine Confederation declared war on the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, although both waged war separately. Chile since 1836 carried out the war with Peruvian dissidents who were enemies of Santa Cruz. During the war, one of Santa Cruz's subordinates, General Luis José de Orbegoso, rebelled against him in 1838 to restore Peru with a new government. However, by not allying with Chile, he ended up being defeated by Chilean forces. On the other hand, the Argentine Confederation did not achieve any significant advance between 1837 and 1838, paralyzing its war front and losing some territories north of Jujuy, not withstanding the importance for the Rosas government of the war against Bolivia as an instrument of political cohesion at the level of the Argentine Confederation, Rosas had enemies and problems on many fronts, among which it is worth mentioning the intrigues of the unitary emigrants in the Banda Oriental (Uruguay) and Chile, and the problem posed to the commercial interests of Buenos Aires by the conflict with France, which would soon lead to the French blockade of the Río de la Plata. Due to the presence of these multiple conflicts, Rosas could not divert his attention or his resources in the war he had decided against Bolivia. Finally, Chilean-Peruvian forces of the so-called Restorative Army led by General Manuel Bulnes, obtain a decisive victory in the battle of Yungay in 1839 while Andrés de Santa Cruz had been overthrown from the post of President of Bolivia by general José Miguel de Velasco who betrayed him before knowing the result of the battle. At the same time the general José Ballivián leaving the battlefield and mutinied in La Paz along with Bolivian reserve battalions. Also Colonel Guilarte, who had 700 soldiers in command, had abandoned his position and deserted without firing any shots. This battle caused the dissolution of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the exile of Santa Cruz, the restoration of Peru and Bolivia, among other consequences. Historians have proposed different long-lasting effects of the war including the consolidation of the ideas of Peruvian and Chilean nationality. Background The creation in 1836 of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz caused great alarm in the neighbouring countries. The potential power of this confederation aroused the opposition of Argentina and, above all, Chile, due not only to its size but also to the perceived threat that such a rich state signified for the area. Diego Portales, arguably the most important Chilean statesman of the 19th century, who at the time was the power behind president José Joaquín Prieto Vial, was very concerned that the new Confederacy would break the regional balance of power and even be a threat to Chilean independence, and so became immediately its enemy. But that was just one of the reasons behind the war. On a deeper level, both countries were in a heated competition for the control of the commercial routes on the Pacific; and for the Chileans especially, whose relations with independent Peru had already been strained by economic problems centering on the rivalry between their ports of Callao and Valparaíso. For the North-Peruvian landowners also, the Confederacy was viewed as a most serious threat to their economic interests. Tariff War The direct conflict between the two countries started with a simple tariff disagreement. In January 1835, Gen. Felipe Salaverry, by then president of Peru, signed a Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Chile. When President Salaverry was replaced by General Luis Orbegoso in Peru, the treaty was declared null and void on February 14, 1836. In the meantime, the Confederacy was already taking form. In order to force Chile to renegotiate, Peru raised its tariff on Chilean wheat from 12 cents to 3 pesos - an increase of 2,400%. Chile responded by raising the tariffs on Peruvian sugar by the same amount. The hostilities started to grow until the Mexican minister (ambassador) to Chile offered to mediate in the conflict. Open conflict was averted for the time being. Freire Expedition After the victory of the conservative party in the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830, former Chilean president General Ramón Freire y Serrano was exiled to Lima. He managed to obtain a small subsidy from the Confederate government to equip a frigate and try to wrestle power from the Prieto administration. The adventure was a quick failure. The sloop Orbegoso was captured by the frigate Monteagudo on July 28, 1836, and became part of the Chilean fleet. In the meantime, Freire who had managed to capture the city of Ancud was defeated and captured himself, being sent this time to the prison-island of Robinson Crusoe. Later he was exiled to Australia. Escalation Raid on Callao The Freire Expedition had a secondary result. Portales decided to take the offensive and staged a surprise raid to prevent further interference by the Confederate government in Chilean internal affairs. He gave command of the small Chilean fleet to the Spanish sailor Victorino Garrido and ordered him to raid the Confederate fleet that was stationed in the port of Callao. Garrido, who arrived with the brigantine Aquiles on a goodwill visit, staged a silent attack on the night of August 21, 1836, managing to capture 3 confederate ships: the Santa Cruz, Arequipeño and Peruviana. Chilean declaration of war Instead of immediately going to war, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz tried to negotiate with Chile. The Chilean Congress sent Mariano Egaña as plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty based on several points: the payments of the outstanding international debts owed by Peru to Chile, the limitation of the outstanding armies, commercial agreements, compensation to Chile for the Freire Expedition, and the dissolution of the Confederation. Santa Cruz agreed to everything but the dissolution. Chile responded by declaring war on December 28, 1836. The international situation was not favorable to the Chilean interests. Marshal Santa Cruz and the Confederation had been diplomatically recognized by the principal world powers with interests in the region (Great Britain, France and the United States), while the possible Chilean allies (Argentina and Ecuador) had decided to remain neutral in the conflict. Argentine declaration of war Nonetheless, the involvement of Marshal Santa Cruz in Argentina's internal affairs by his continued support to the opponents of caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas, moved this country to also declare war on May 9, 1837, in support of the northern province of Tucumán, which was threatened by Santa Cruz's forces. France supported Santa Cruz's war effort by imposing a naval blockade over Buenos Aires, an ill-fated attempt to remove Rosas from power. Also, France took advantage of the Uruguayan Civil War and the Argentine Civil Wars, supporting Fructuoso Rivera and Juan Lavalle against Manuel Oribe and Rosas. In a letter that he sent to Governor Heredia on January 10, 1837, Rosas acknowledged that he was not in a position to confront General Santa Cruz: "On how to make effective the remedy of force in circumstances such as these, in which the Republic does not have, nor can it suddenly organize, a line army capable of imposing fear and respect on President Santa Cruz, HE Sr. Governor of the province of Tucumán as protector of those of Salta, Jujuy and Catamarca, is the one who must take the direction, agreeing with the respective Governors of the said Provinces, since the undersigned placed at an immense distance from them, without practical knowledge of the territory in which it must operate, nor the elements of action it can count on to make President Santa Cruz enter into his duty, is not in a position to present an operations plan, without exposing himself to making major mistakes". Even though Chile and Argentina were acting against the same perceived threat, both countries went to war independently, due to the intense dislike between Portales and Rosas, and both countries continued to act separately throughout the whole course of the conflict. In 1837 Santa Cruz's forces defeated an Argentine army sent to topple him. If, as Rosas himself claimed, the forces of the Argentine Confederation were not in a position to sustain operations in the North against the Bolivian armies, why was Rosas determined to war against the government of Santa Cruz? The obvious answer is that the Governor of Buenos Aires calculated that the Chilean forces were far superior to those of Santa Cruz, and that the alliance with the Chilean government would destroy the nest of anti-riot conspirators that Bolivia had become. For Chile, the war against the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was decisive: commercial supremacy and the balance of power in the Pacific were discussed. For the Argentine Confederation, on the other hand, this war was more important for internal politics than economic and strategic. The economic damages suffered by the Rosas government because of Santa Cruz were relatively limited, the main one being the 40% tax on overseas merchandise brought into Bolivia from the Argentine provinces. These economic damages did not in themselves justify a war and in principle could be resolved peacefully. If Rosas finally decided in favor of the war, it was because of his implications against his internal enemies, and also because the eventual defeat of Santa Cruz would perhaps allow him to demand the restitution of the province of Tarija. But the latter concerned more the Northern provinces than Rosas himself and the Litoral provinces. Finally, and as a consequence of these considerations, Rosas resolved that it would be the northern provinces that, in defense of their immediate interests, would bear the brunt of the warlike actions. Assassination of Portales The Chilean government, in order to bolster its sagging standing with public opinion (which was opposed to a war they did not understand), imposed martial law and asked for (and obtained) extraordinary legislative powers from Congress. Early in 1837 a Court Martial Law was approved and given jurisdiction over all citizens for the duration of the war. The opposition to the Prieto administration immediately accused Portales of tyranny, and started a heated press campaign against him personally and the unpopular war in general. Political and public opposition to war immediately affected the army, fresh still from the purges of the civil war of 1829-1830. On June 4, 1837, Coronel José Antonio Vidaurre, commander of the "Maipo" regiment, captured and imprisoned Portales while he was reviewing troops at the army barracks in Quillota. Vidaurre immediately proceeded to attack Valparaíso on the mistaken belief that public opinion opposed to the war would support him and topple the government. Rear Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada, in charge of the defense, defeated him right outside the port at the Battle of Baron. Captain Santiago Florín, who was in charge of Portales, had him shot when he heard of the news, on June 6, 1837. Most of the conspirators were subsequently captured and executed. This murder, which was perceived as having been orchestrated by Marshal Santa Cruz, turned the tide of Chilean public opinion against the Confederation. The government later had martial law revoked nationwide and the country rallied behind the government. The war became a holy cause, and Portales its martyr. First Campaign Confederate Naval Campaign The first stage of the war was fought at sea. Both sides tried to take control of it from the very beginning. The Confederate fleet was composed of the Socabaya, Confederación and Congreso and it put out to sea in November 1837. They first attacked the Juan Fernández garrison, which they captured, liberating the prisoners there. Then they attacked the ports of Talcahuano, San Antonio, Huasco and Caldera. Chilean Expedition In the meantime, the Chilean government was preparing an expedition to put a quick end to the conflict. In September 1837 it sent a fleet carrying a Chilean expeditionary force of approximately 2,800 troops under the command of Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada. The Chilean army landed at Islay in southern Peru in October, 1837, occupying the city of Arequipa after a long and arduous march, during which the Chileans were decimated by disease. But the invading army failed to find the local support that they had been led to believe they would encounter against the Confederate government. While Admiral Blanco Encalada was immersed in never-ending negotiations with the local leaders, Marshal Santa Cruz quietly surrounded the city with his army and effectively blockaded the invading army inside. Treaty of Paucarpata Surrounded and out-manoeuvered, and following an encounter at Paucarpata with an army under the command of Santa Cruz, Admiral Blanco Encalada was forced to sign a peace treaty. The Treaty of Paucarpata was signed on November 17, 1837, and agreed to the devolution of all captured ships by Chile, the restoration of commercial relations between both nations, the withdrawal of all Chilean troops from Confederate territories and the payment by the Confederacy of the former Peruvian foreign debts with Chile. The Chilean troops were reembarked. When Admiral Blanco Encalada returned rather ignominiously to Valparaíso with the fleet and the army in December, 1837, the scandal was gigantic. The Chilean government and the Chilean public opinion repudiated the treaty in indignation. Admiral Blanco Encalada as was thrown into jail and tried for high treason, together with his advisor Antonio José de Irisarri, who had refused to even return to Chile. Both were eventually acquitted, though Irisarri never returned. Naval Battle of Islay After the treaty of Paucarpata had been repudiated, the Chilean government again dispatched its fleet, composed of 5 ships (Aquiles and Arequipeño, the corvettes Libertad and Valparaíso and the Chilean frigate Monteagudo) under the command of Roberto Simpson, to disrupt Peruvian commerce. On January 12, 1838, they met a Confederate squadron near the Peruvian port of Islay, on what is known as the Naval Battle of Islay. The Confederate squadron was conformed by the Socabaya, Junín and Fundador under the command of commander Juan José Panizo. Simpson attacked but Panizo managed to hold him off for several hours until able to escape under the cover of darkness. Both sides claimed victory, but the result was mostly a stalemate that did not affect the course of the war. Second Campaign - Chilean Army By mid-1838 Chile had obtained naval superiority and dispatched General Manuel Bulnes Prieto heading a Chilean army. Battle of Portada de Guías Although their advance was delayed by harassment from small groups of Confederate forces, the Chileans were finally able to lay siege to Lima. The first encounter between the two armies was the Battle of Portada de Guías which took place right outside the city of Lima on August 21, 1838. The Chilean army, under the command of General Bulnes, defeated the Confederate garrison loyal to General Orbegoso. The Chilean force occupied Lima at the end of October, 1838 but abandoned it on November 3 on hearing of the approach of a large Bolivian army under General Santa Cruz. The Chileans withdrew by land and sea toward Huacho. In the meantime, the principal citizens had met and called an open congress that proclaimed General Gamarra as Provisional President of Peru. Naval Battle of Casma On January 12, 1839, both fleets met in a naval battle at Casma, where the French corsairs fighting on the Confederate side were defeated by Admiral Simpson's Chilean fleet. On that day the Chilean fleet, which was protecting the transports used to mobilize the invading Chilean army, were attacked in the port of Casma by the Confederate fleet, composed of the Esmond, Mexicana, Arequipeño and Peru, under the command of French sailor Jean Blanchet. The battle lasted for several hours until the final repulse of the Confederate fleet. During the battle Blanchet was killed and the Confederate ship Arequipeño was sunk, but not before the Chilean fleet had been badly battered. Nonetheless, the resounding defeat of the Confederate fleet at Casma by the smaller Chilean squadron left Chile in absolute control of the southeastern Pacific. Battle of Buin Meanwhile, Santa Cruz failed to exploit the Chilean retreat fully, despite successes in several small skirmishes culminating in the first direct encounter between the bulk of both armies around the bridge of Buin on January 6, 1839. Santa Cruz' vanguard engaged Bulnes' rearguard at the margins of the Santa River, under a heavy storm. The battle ended in a draw, as Bulnes resumed their march north, and Santa Cruz continued to pursue them. Battle of Yungay Marshal Santa Cruz occupied the town of Yungay with the intention to cut the provisions and to strangle the Chilean Expedition. After Buin, Santa Cruz was trying to finish off the Chilean Expedition in order to stabilize the internal situation in the country and to avoid any more uprisings against him. Here is where the boldness of General Bulnes could be observed, when instead of retiring and looking for a more suitable position, turned around against Santa Cruz ready to attack. The Battle of Yungay took place on January 20, 1839. In this battle, the Confederates, under the command of Marshal Santa Cruz, waited for Bulnes' offensive well defended on the Pan de Azúcar and Punyán hills, near the town of Yungay, and the rest were deployed over the Ancash River bank. The battle started very early on the morning and finished late in the evening. The Chileans first took the Punyán and Pan de Azúcar hills, and later attacked the bulk of the Confederates on the river. In the end, Bulnes crushed Santa Cruz' army. The Confederates had over 2,400 casualties (mostly dead) and more than 1,600 soldiers were made prisoners, while the Chilean army had about 1,300 dead and 400 injured. After the battle, General Manuel Bulnes was proclaimed as Grand Marshal of Ancash by General Gamarra. Aftermath General Bulnes again assumed the initiative. After the crushing defeat on the Confederate armies at Yungay on January 20, the Chileans commenced a second push southward, occupying Lima for the second time in April. Santa Cruz had already fled to Ecuador, and both the war and the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation now came to an end. On August 25, 1839, General Agustín Gamarra after assuming as president of Peru, officially declared the dissolution of the Confederation and of the North and South-Peruvian Republics, and the merging of these states back into one to be called again Peru. The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil, in Ecuador, then to Chile and finally to Europe, where he died. The Chilean troops left on October 19, 1839, after having achieved the goal of dissolving the Confederation and affirmed General Gamarra as President of Peru. Nonetheless, General Gamarra decided to pursue the war against Bolivia on his own. He was not against the idea of merging Peru and Bolivia into one political unity, but against the idea of this union being led by Bolivia. He invaded this country, but the Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingaví on November 20, 1841, where General Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace in 1842, putting a final end to the war. See also Chincha Islands War Peru–Bolivian Confederation War of the Pacific Notes References Bibliography History of South America Wars involving Argentina Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Chile Wars involving Peru 1830s conflicts Conflicts in 1836 Conflicts in 1837 Conflicts in 1838 1836 in Bolivia 1836 in Peru 1830s in Bolivia
5348091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalkeeper%20%28association%20football%29	Goalkeeper (association football)	A goalkeeper (sometimes written as goal-keeper, abbreviated as GK, keeper, keeps, or goalie) is a position in association football. It is the most specialised position in the sport. The goalkeeper's main role is to stop the opposing team from scoring (putting the ball over the goal-line of the goal). This is accomplished by having the goalkeeper move into the trajectory of the ball to either catch it or direct it further from the vicinity of the goal line. Within the penalty area goalkeepers are allowed to use their hands, giving them (outside throw-ins) the sole rights on the field to handle the ball. The goalkeeper is indicated by wearing a different coloured kit from their teammates and opposition. The back-pass rule is a rule that disallows handling passes back to keepers from teammates in most cases. Goalkeepers usually perform goal kicks, and also give commands to their defence during corner kicks, direct and indirect free kicks, and marking. Goalkeepers play an important role in directing on field strategy as they have an unrestricted view of the entire pitch, giving them a unique perspective on play development. The goalkeeper is the only mandatory position of a team. If they are injured or sent off, another player must take their place. In order to replace a goalkeeper who is sent off, a team usually brings on a substitute keeper in place of an outfield player and play the rest of the match with nine outfield players. If a team does not have a substitute goalkeeper, or they have already used all of their permitted substitutions for the match, an outfield player has to take the dismissed goalkeeper's place and wear the goalkeeper shirt. Because the position requires different skills from the outfielders, goalkeepers train separately from their teammates and often work with a goalkeeping coach to develop their play. While outfielders typically must be in good cardiovascular shape to play up to 90 minutes in a match, a goalkeeper must be able to move quick and have fast feet for little bursts. During a match, goalkeepers may get a lot of action, usually in brief intervals, until their teammates can clear the ball out of the zone. During practice, goalkeepers focus heavily on footwork and being able to get up quickly after a save is made. It is important that a goalkeeper is able to get set, meaning feet shoulder width apart and on their toes, before the next shot comes their way, so they are able to react and make the save. As with all players, goalkeepers may wear any squad number, but the number 1 is almost always reserved for a team's first-choice goalkeeper. History Association football, like many sports, has experienced many changes in tactics resulting in the generation and elimination of different positions. Goalkeeper is the only position that is certain to have existed since the codification of the sport. Even in the early days of organised football, when systems were limited or non-existent and the main idea was for all players to attack and defend, teams had a designated member to play as the goalkeeper. The earliest account of football teams with player positions comes from Richard Mulcaster in 1581 and does not specify goalkeepers. The earliest specific reference to keeping goal comes from Cornish Hurling in 1602. According to Carew: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foot asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelve score off, other twayne in like distance, which they term their Goals. One of these is appointed by lots, to the one side, and the other to his adverse party. There is assigned for their guard, a couple of their best stopping Hurlers." Other references to scoring goals begin in English literature in the early 17th century; for example, in John Day's play The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed ; published 1659): "I'll play a gole at camp-ball" (an extremely violent variety of football, popular in East Anglia). Similarly, in a 1613 poem, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe". It seems inevitable that wherever a game has evolved goals, some form of goalkeeping must also be developed. David Wedderburn refers to what has been translated from Latin as to "keep goal" in 1633, though this does not necessarily imply a fixed goalkeeper position. The word "goal-keeper" is used in the novel Tom Brown's School Days (published in 1857, but set in the 1830s). The author is here referring to an early form of rugby football: The word "goal-keeper" appeared in the Sheffield Rules of 1867, but the term did not refer to a designated player, but rather to "that player on the defending side who for the time being is nearest to his own goal". The goal-keeper, thus defined, did not enjoy any special handling privileges. The FA's first Laws of the Game of 1863 did not make any special provision for a goalkeeper, with any player being allowed to catch or knock-on the ball. Handling the ball was completely forbidden (for all players) in 1870. The next year, 1871, the laws were amended to introduce the goalkeeper and specify that the keeper was allowed to handle the ball "for the protection of his goal". The restrictions on the ability of the goalkeeper to handle the ball were changed several times in subsequent revisions of the laws: 1871: the keeper may handle the ball only "for the protection of his goal". 1873: the keeper may not "carry" the ball. 1883: the keeper may not carry the ball for more than two steps. 1887: the keeper may not handle the ball in the opposition's half. 1901: the keeper may handle the ball for any purpose (not only in defence of the goal). 1912: the keeper may handle the ball only in the penalty area. 1931: the keeper may take up to four steps (rather than two) while carrying the ball. 1992: the keeper may not handle the ball after it has been deliberately kicked to him/her by a team-mate. 1997: the keeper may not handle the ball for more than six seconds. Initially, goalkeepers typically played between the goalposts and had limited mobility, except when trying to save opposition shots. Throughout the years, the role of the goalkeeper has evolved, due to the changes in systems of play, to become more active. The goalkeeper is the only player in association football allowed to use their hands to control the ball (other than when restarting play with a throw-in). During the 1935–36 English football season, young Sunderland AFC goalkeeper of the team, Jimmy Thorpe, died as a result of a kick in the head and chest after he had picked up the ball following a backpass in a game against Chelsea at Roker Park. He continued to take part until the match finished, but collapsed at home afterwards and died in hospital four days later from diabetes mellitus and heart failure "accelerated by the rough usage of the opposing team". The tragic end to Thorpe's career led to a change in the rules, where players were no longer allowed to raise their foot to a goalkeeper when he had control of the ball in his arms. Due to several time-wasting techniques which were used by goalkeepers, such as bouncing the ball on the ground or throwing it in the air and then catching it again, in the 1960s, the Laws of the game were revised further, and the goalkeeper was given a maximum of four steps to travel while holding, bouncing or throwing the ball in the air and catching it again, without having to release it into play. The FIFA Board later also devised an anti-parrying rule, saying that such deliberate parrying for the purpose of evading the Law was to be regarded also as holding the ball. In 1992, the International Football Association Board made changes in the laws of the game that affected goalkeepers – notably the back-pass rule, which prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball when receiving a deliberate pass from a teammate that is made with their feet. This rule change was made to discourage time-wasting and overly defensive play after the 1990 FIFA World Cup which was described as exceedingly dull, rife with back-passing and goalkeepers holding the ball. Also, goalkeepers would frequently drop the ball and dribble it around, only to pick it up again once opponents came closer to put them under pressure, a typical time-wasting technique. Therefore, another rule was introduced at the same time as the back-pass rule. This rule prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball again once the ball released for play; an offence results in an indirect free kick to the opposition. Furthermore, any player negating the spirit of the new rule would be likely to be cautioned for unsporting behaviour and punished by an indirect free-kick. On 1 July 1997, FIFA decided to extend the back-pass rule by applying it also to throw-ins from defenders to their own goalkeeper; in order to prevent further time-wasting, FIFA also established that if a goalkeeper holds the ball for more than five or six seconds the referee must adjudge this as time-wasting and award an indirect free-kick to the opposing team, although in practice the "six second rule" is rarely enforced on a literal 6 second count from the moment they control the ball as written in the laws, and instead when enforced it is often after a longer timeframe involving the goal keeper faking throws, kicks or running around the penalty area. An example of this rule in a high profile match was at the London 2012 Summer Olympics Women's Football semi-final game between the United States and Canada. With Canada in front 3–2 late in the game, their goalkeeper Erin McLeod grabbed the ball from a corner kick then held onto it for 10 seconds despite being warned by the referee not to waste time. The indirect free kick resulted in a penalty being called for a handball offence, which was scored to make it 3–3 and take the game to extra time, where the United States won the game 4–3. Laws of the Game and general play The position of goalkeeper is the only position in the game which is technically distinct from the others in the course of normal play. The Laws of the Game distinguish the goalkeeper from the other players in several ways, most significantly exempting them from the prohibition on handling the ball, though only within their own penalty area. Once a goalkeeper has control of the ball in their hands, opponents are not permitted to challenge them. Goalkeepers have a specialized role as the sole defender against a penalty kick. Goalkeepers are required to wear distinct colors from other players, and are permitted to wear caps and tracksuit bottoms. The Laws mandate that one player on the team must be designated as the goalkeeper at all times, meaning that if a goalkeeper is sent off or injured and unable to continue, another player must assume the goalkeeper position. The Laws allow for teams to change the player designated as goalkeeper at stoppages in play, but in practice this is rarely exercised. The Laws place no restrictions on a goalkeeper leaving their penalty area and acting as an ordinary player, though generally goalkeepers stay close to their goals throughout matches. Goalkeepers routinely perform extension dives. To execute this, they push off the ground with the foot nearest to the ball, launching themselves into a horizontal position. At this point, the ball may be caught or parried away from the goal. In the latter case, a good goalkeeper will attempt to ensure that the rebound cannot be taken by a player of the opposing team, although this is not always possible. Because goalkeepers can spend the majority of a match without much action they need very good concentration in the event of the opposition going on the attack at any one time. Goalkeepers also need good 'anticipation' meaning they can 'read' where the ball is going to go and react by moving before the ball is kicked or headed and quickly decide whenever to catch, punch or palm the ball. Responsibilities The tactical responsibilities of goalkeepers include: To keep goal by physically blocking attempted shots with any part of their body. The keeper is permitted to play the ball anywhere on the field, but may not handle the ball using hands or outstretched arms outside of their penalty area. To organise the team's defenders during defensive set pieces such as free kicks and corners. In the case of free kicks, this includes picking the numbers and the organisation of a defensive player "wall". The wall serves to provide a physical barrier to the incoming ball, but some goalkeepers position their walls in certain positions to tempt kick-takers to certain types of shots. Occasionally, goalkeepers may opt to dispense with the wall. Some goalkeepers are also entrusted with the responsibility of picking markers while defending at set pieces. To pick out crosses and attempted long passes either by collecting them in flight or punching them clear if heavily challenged by opposing strikers. Although goalkeepers have special privileges, including the ability to handle the ball in the penalty area, they are otherwise subject to the same rules as any other player. The goalkeeper is allowed to go upfront and scored goals, but are not permitted to handle a ball, because that would be considered a foul. If the opposing team shoots, the goalkeeper is responsible to block the ball with any part of their body while inside the penalty area, they are allowed to go in front and tackle/block the shot. However, in penalties, the goalkeeper have to stand on the line of the goal, in order to save the ball, if the goalkeeper go in front of the line while a penalty is kicked, the penalty will be retaken. In free kicks, the goalkeeper is responsible to save the ball no matter where he stands. Playmaking and attack Goalkeepers are not required to stay in the penalty area; they may get involved in play anywhere on the pitch, and it is common for them to act as an additional defender (or 'sweeper') during certain passages of the game. Goalkeepers with a long throwing range or accurate long-distance kicks may be able to quickly create attacking positions for a team and generate goal-scoring chances from defensive situations, a tactic known as the long ball. Sweeper-keeper Gyula Grosics from the Hungary "Golden Team" of the 1950s was thought to be the first goalkeeper to play as the 'sweeper-keeper'. Tommy Lawrence has also been credited with revolutionising the role of the goalkeeper by effectively acting as an 11th outfield player. The rushing playing style used by Liverpool legend Bruce Grobbelaar seen during the 1980s–90s makes him one of the original sweeper-keepers of the modern era. René Higuita was another who became known for his unorthodox, skillful but sometimes reckless techniques. Manuel Neuer has been described as a sweeper-keeper due to his speed and unique style of play which occasionally includes him acting as a sweeper for his team by rushing off his line to anticipate opposing forwards who have beaten the offside trap. With his excellent ball control and distribution, which enables him to start plays from the back, he has said he could play in the German third division as a centre-back if he wanted to. Hugo Lloris of Tottenham Hotspur and France and former goalkeepers Fabien Barthez and Edwin van der Sar, have also been described as sweeper-keepers, while Claudio Bravo and Ederson Moraes have even been described as playmakers in the media. Other players who have been labelled "sweeper-keepers" in the media include Marc-Andre Ter Stegen of FC Barcelona and Germany, Spanish former goalkeeper Víctor Valdés, and former Soviet keeper Lev Yashin, the latter of whom is often cited by pundits as one of the goalkeepers who pioneered the role of the sweeper-keeper. Sweeper-keepers have been popularised by managers who usually employ tactics inspired by total football, such as Johan Cruyff and Pep Guardiola, for example, and are chosen not only for their shot-stopping and goalkeeping abilities, but also due to their skill with the ball at their feet, their ability to pick out passes and contribute to the build-up play of their team, and their speed when rushing out of the penalty area to anticipate opponents, which enables their team to maintain a high defensive line. It is not without risk, as a goalkeeper being so far from the penalty area can lead to spectacular long range lob goals if they or their team lose possession, as well as risking being red carded if they run out to challenge an opponent but foul them or handball a shot by mistake. Goalscorers Some goalkeepers have scored goals. Other than by accident when a long kicked clearance reaches the other end of the field and evades the opposing goalkeeper with the aid of strong winds and/or unexpected bounces, this most commonly occurs where a goalkeeper has rushed up to the opposite end of the pitch to give his team a numerical advantage in attack, leaving his own goal undefended. As such, it is normally only done late in a game at set-pieces where the consequences of scoring far outweigh those of conceding a further goal, such as for a team trailing in a knock-out tournament. Some goalkeepers, such as Higuita, Rogério Ceni, Hans-Jörg Butt and José Luis Chilavert, are also expert set-piece takers. These players may take their team's attacking free kicks or penalties. Rogério Ceni, São Paulo's goalkeeper from 1992 to 2015, has scored 132 goals in his career, more than many outfield players. Equipment and attire Goalkeepers must wear kit that distinguishes them clearly from other players and match officials, as this is all that the FIFA Laws of the Game require. Some goalkeepers have received recognition for their match attire, like Lev Yashin of the Soviet Union, who was nicknamed the "Black Spider" for his distinctive all-black outfit; Klaus Lindenberger of Austria, who designed his own variation of a clown's costume; Jorge Campos of Mexico, who was popular for his colourful attire; Raul Plassmann of Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and his all-yellow outfit; and Gábor Király for wearing a pair of grey tracksuit bottoms instead of shorts. Although it was initially more common for goalkeepers to wear long-sleeved jerseys, recently several goalkeepers, such as Gianluigi Buffon, have also been known to wear short sleeves. Most goalkeepers also wear gloves to improve their grip on the ball, and to protect themselves from injury. Some gloves now include rigid plastic spines down each finger to help prevent injuries such as jammed, fractured, and sprained fingers. Though gloves are not mandatory attire, it is uncommon for goalkeepers to opt against them due to the advantages they offer. At UEFA Euro 2004, Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo famously took off his gloves during the quarter-final penalty shoot-out against England, knowing he was the next taker for his side. He then went on to save Darius Vassell's penalty using his bare hands before scoring his own kick to win it for Portugal. Though rare, goalkeepers are permitted to wear visored headgear (such as a baseball cap) to minimize glare from bright sunlight, or a knit cap to insulate from cold weather, at any time if they elect to do so. After recovering from a near-fatal skull fracture that he had sustained in 2006, Petr Čech wore a rugby-style scrum cap during his matches for the rest of his playing career. Careers and injuries Goalkeepers have a very physically demanding job. They are the only players allowed to use their hands, except for throw-ins. Because of this, goalkeepers are often injured during breakaways, corner kicks, and free kicks since they put their bodies on the line. Several famous goalkeepers have been injured in ways their counterparts could not possibly sustain. For example, Petr Čech received a head injury after colliding with another player during a 2006 game. A couple of months later he debuted wearing a rugby-style headpiece. However, some goalkeepers manage to avoid injury and continue to play, many not retiring until their late 30s or early 40s. Notably, Peter Shilton played for 31 years between 1966 and 1997 before retiring at the age of 47. In general, goalkeepers can sustain any injury to which their outfield counterparts are vulnerable. Common lower and upper extremity injuries include cartilage tears, anterior cruciate ligament tears, and knee sprains. On the other hand, goalkeepers rarely fall victim to fatigue-related injuries, such as leg cramps, pulled hamstrings, and dehydration. Shoulder injuries can be caused by heavy contact with the ground and can cause significant long term injuries as loss of the range of motion can cause a complete inability to do their job. Vedran Janjetovic suffered such a contact injury playing in an A-League match on 25 January 2019 after diving to make a save. After playing nine games on painkilling injections he underwent experimental surgery that required a two and a half year recovery and caused him to miss two entire seasons. Records Goalkeepers are crucial in penalty shoot-outs. The record for most penalties saved in a shoot-out is held solely by Ugandan, Denis Onyango. He saved five penalty shootout kicks to help his club, Mamelodi Sundowns edge Cape Town City 3–2 on penalties at the MTN 8 tournament in South Africa in October 2021. Second spot is shared by Helmuth Duckadam of Steaua București in the 1986 European Cup Final against Barcelona, and Ciarán Kelly for Sligo Rovers against Shamrock Rovers in the 2010 FAI Cup Final, both of whom who saved all four penalties faced. Ray Clemence holds the record for the most clean sheets in the history of football, with 460 in more than 1000 official matches Stefano Tacconi is the only goalkeeper to have won all official club competitions for which he was eligible. Goalkeeper Ned Doig, who spent most of his career with Sunderland, set a 19th-century world record by not conceding any goals in 87 of his 290 top division appearances (30%). Rogério Ceni has scored the most goals for a goalkeeper, having recorded 131 goals through free kicks and penalties across his 23-year career. Tony Read and José Luis Chilavert are the only goalkeepers to score a hat-trick (three goals in a game), with all three goals coming from penalty kicks. Gianluigi Buffon is the only goalkeeper to have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year Award. Oliver Kahn holds the record for most UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper and Best European Goalkeeper Awards, with four. Iker Casillas holds the record for most appearances by a goalkeeper in the FIFPro World11 and in the UEFA Team of the Year, as well as most IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper Awards, alongside Buffon and Manuel Neuer, winning the award for five consecutive years between 2008 and 2012. Casillas holds the record for the most clean sheets in UEFA Champions League history. At the international level, Dino Zoff has remained unbeaten for the longest period of time, whilst Walter Zenga holds the record for longest unbeaten run in a FIFA World Cup tournament at 517 minutes. Gianluigi Buffon, Fabien Barthez and Iker Casillas hold the record for fewest goals conceded by a winning goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament at two each. Buffon is the only World Cup–winning goalkeeper not to have conceded a goal in open play throughout the entire tournament, one goal having resulted from an own goal after a free kick, the other from a penalty. Fabien Barthez and Peter Shilton hold the record for most clean sheets in World Cup matches, with ten each. Mohamed Al-Deayea holds the record for most international caps by a male goalkeeper, with one 178 official appearances for Saudi Arabia. Hope Solo of the United States holds the record for most international caps by a female goalkeeper, with 202 appearances. Pascal Zuberbühler holds the record for fewest goals conceded by a goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament, and also went a record five successive matches at an international tournament without conceding a goal. He did not concede a goal in 463 minutes of World Cup play against France, Korea, and Togo—making Switzerland the only team in the history of the tournament not to concede a goal in normal time. Tim Howard holds the record for most saves made in a FIFA World Cup match, with sixteen against Belgium in the round of 16 of the 2014 tournament. Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Adidas Golden Ball for the best player of the tournament in a World Cup doing so in 2002. Lev Yashin is the only goalkeeper to have won the Ballon d'Or, given to the best player of the year. In 2021, Gianluigi Donnarumma became the first goalkeeper to win the player of the tournament award at UEFA Euro 2020. Gianluca Pagliuca of Italy became the first goalkeeper to be sent off in a World Cup finals match, dismissed for handling outside his area against Norway in 1994. His team went on to win 1–0 and reached the final before losing to Brazil in a penalty shoot-out, in which Pagliuca became the first goalkeeper ever to stop a penalty in a World Cup Final shoot-out. Iker Casillas holds both the record for fewest goals conceded in a UEFA European Championship (only one in 2012), and the record for longest unbeaten run at a European Championship, beating the previous record held by Dino Zoff. He also holds the records for most international clean sheets (102) by a male goalkeeper, beating the previous record held by Edwin van der Sar (72), and became the first goalkeeper in history, male or female, to keep 100 clean sheets at international level in 2015; he also shares with Hope Solo the overall men's and women's record for most international clean sheets. Buffon holds the record for most minutes without conceding a goal in European Championship qualifying matches at 644. On 26 February 1983, Pat Jennings became the first player to make 1,000 senior appearances in English football. In the 1986 World Cup, held in Mexico, he was turning 41, making him the World Cup's oldest-ever participant at the time. In 1976, PFA awarded him the Players' Player of the Year award making him the first goalkeeper to ever receive this accolade. Highest transfer fees Prior to the 21st century, goalkeepers generally commanded far lower transfer fees than outfield players; as of 1992 the highest transfer fee paid by a British club for an outfield player was £2.9 million but the record for a goalkeeper was less than half that figure at £1.3 million. , the most expensive goalkeeper of all time is Kepa Arrizabalaga, following his 2018 €80 million (£71 million) transfer to Chelsea from Athletic Bilbao. See also Awards Best European Goalkeeper FIFA World Cup All-Star Teams Golden Glove awards IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper The Best FIFA Goalkeeper UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper Award Other Association football positions List of goalscoring goalkeepers List of most expensive association football transfers List of outfield association footballers who played in goal Notes References External links Goalkeeping Association football positions Association football terminology Association football player non-biographical articles
5348271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company%20union	Company union	A company or "yellow" union is a worker organization which is dominated or unduly influenced by an employer and is therefore not an independent trade union. Company unions are contrary to international labour law (see ILO Convention 98, Article 2). They were outlawed in the United States by the 1935 National Labor Relations Act §8(a)(2), due to their use as agents for interference with independent unions. However, company unions persist in many countries. Some labour organizations are accused by rival unions of behaving as "company unions" if they are seen as having too close or congenial a relationship with the employer or with business associations, and even if they may be formally recognized in their respective jurisdictions as bona fide trade unions, they are usually rejected as such by regional and national trade union centres. In a study of one such organisation, this form of company union was observed to rarely or never strike, exert relatively little energy in resolving individual workplace disputes, and undercut other unions by bargaining for well beneath industry-standard terms, and was characterised thus: "[...] an accommodationist, or 'company,' union—an opportunistic, pariah organization that allows employers who would otherwise face a 'real' union (i.e., traditional, militant) a convenient union-avoidance alternative." International law A "company union" is generally recognized as being an organization that is not freely elected by the workforce, and over which an employer exerts some form of control. The International Labour Organization defines a company union as "A union limited to a single company which dominates or strongly influences it, thereby limiting its influence." Under the ILO Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98) Article 2 effectively prohibits any form of company union. It reads as follows: National laws France The first yellow union in France, the Fédération nationale des Jaunes de France ("National Federation of the Yellows of France") was created by Pierre Biétry in 1902. The yellow color was deliberately chosen in opposition to the red color associated with socialism. Yellow unions, in opposition to red unions such as the Confédération Générale du Travail, rejected class struggle and favored the collaboration of capital and labor, and were opposed to strikes. According to Zeev Sternhell, the yellow union of Biétry had a membership of about a third of that of the Confédération Générale du Travail, and was funded by corporate interests. Moreover, also according to Sternhell, there were close relationships between Pierre Biétry and Maurice Barrès and the Action Française, making the yellow union of Biétry a precursor of fascist corporatism. During the Nazi occupation of France, unions were banned and replaced by corporations organized along the fascist model by the Vichy Regime. The labor secretary of Philippe Pétain's administration from 1940 to 1942 was René Belin. After the war, René Belin was involved in 1947 with the creation of the Confédération du Travail indépendant (CTI), renamed (CGSI) in 1949 as the original acronym was already used by Confédération des Travailleurs intellectuels. The movement was joined by former members of the Confédération des syndicats professionnels français, a union created by François de La Rocque in 1936. The CGSI declared that it was formed by "des hommes d’origine et de formation différentes [qui] se sont trouvés d’accord pour dénoncer la malfaisance de la CGT communisée" (men of different origins who agreed to denounce the malfeasance of the communist CGT). CGSI developed mostly in the automobile industry, for instance in the Simca factory of Poissy. In 1959, the CGSI became the Confédération Française du Travail (CFT), led by Jacques Simakis. It was declared a representative union on January 7, 1959, but the decision was overturned by the State Council on April 11, 1962, following a lawsuit by the Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens (CFTC) based on the funding of CFT by companies. In 1968, it organized demonstrations for the "freedom to work" to oppose the strikes organized by the CGT. In September 1975, Simakis resigned and denounced the links of CFT with the Service d'Action Civique. On June 4, 1977, a commando formed by members of the CFT-Citroën opened fire on strikers at the Verreries mécaniques champenoises in Reims (then directed by Maurice Papon) in a drive-by shooting, killing Pierre Maître, a member of the CGT. Two other members of the CGT were injured. Following this incident, the CFT changed its name into Confédération des Syndicats Libres (CSL). In the continuity of the company union of Biétry, the CSL is in favor of the association of capital and labor, is opposed to Marxism and collectivism, and denounces the French Communist Party as a civil war machine. The number of adherents of CSL was never published, but in professional elections, it obtained from 2% to 4% of the votes. In October 2002, the CSL disappeared as a national union as a result of lack of funds. It called its supporters to join the Force Ouvrière union in the professional elections. In the automobile industry, the CSL remains as the Syndicat Indépendant de l'Automobile (Independent Automobile Workers' Union). United States Company unions were common in the United States during the early twentieth century, but were outlawed under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act § 8(a)(2) so that trade unions could remain independent of management. All labor organizations would have to be freely elected by the workforce, without interference. In 1914, 16 miners and family members (and one national guardsman) were killed when the Colorado National Guard attacked a tent colony of striking coal miners in Ludlow, Colorado. This event, known as the Ludlow massacre, was a major public relations debacle for mine owners, and one of them—John D. Rockefeller Jr.—hired labor-relations expert and former Canadian Minister of Labour William Lyon Mackenzie King to suggest ways to improve the tarnished image of his company, Colorado Fuel and Iron. One of the elements of the Rockefeller Plan was to form a union, known as the Employee Representation Plan (ERP), based inside the company itself. The ERP allowed workers to elect representatives, who would then meet with company officials to discuss grievances. In 1933 the miners voted to be represented by the UMW, ending the ERP at Colorado Fuel and Iron. Company unions, however, continued to operate at other mines in Pueblo, Colorado and Wyoming, and the ERP model was being used by numerous other companies. (The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was organized in part to combat the company union at the Pullman Company.) In 1935, the National Labor Relations Act (also known as the Wagner Act) was passed, dramatically changing labor law in the United States. Section 8(a)(2) of the NLRA makes it illegal for an employer "to dominate or interfere with the formation or administration of any labor organization or contribute financial or other support to it." Company unions were considered illegal under this code, despite the efforts of some businesses to carry on under the guise of an "Employee Representation Organization" (ERO). In the mid-20th century, managers of high-tech industry like Robert Noyce (who co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel in 1968) worked to rid their organizations of union interference. "Remaining non-union is an essential for survival for most of our companies," Noyce once said. "If we had the work rules that unionized companies have, we'd all go out of business." One way of forestalling unions while obeying the Wagner Act was the introduction of "employee involvement (EI) programs" and other in-house job-cooperation groups. One company included them in their "Intel values," cited by employees as reasons why they didn't need a union. With workers integrated (at least on a project level) into the decision-making structure, the independent union is seen by some as an anachronism. Pat Hill-Hubbard, senior vice-president of the American Electronics Association, said in 1994: "Unions as they have existed in the past are no longer relevant. Labor law of 40 years ago is not appropriate to 20th century economics." Author David Bacon calls EI programs "the modern company union". In 1995, pursuant to a report from the Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations, Republicans in the U.S. Congress introduced and voted for the Teamwork for Employees and Managers Act of 1995 (known as the "TEAM Act"). The bill would have weakened federal regulations against employer establishment and control of employee involvement programs. Although the bill indicated that EI plans should not be used specifically to discredit or prevent union organization, trade unions in the United States vehemently opposed the bill. Jim Wood, an AFL–CIO leader in Los Angeles, said the "Team Act actually would take us backward to the days of company unions." President Bill Clinton vetoed the bill on 30 July 1996. Calls to legalize company unions are rare, but New York University law professor Richard Epstein, in an opinion piece published in The Wall Street Journal on September 11, 2018, called for the repeal of Section 8(a)(2) of the NLRA. China Trade unions in the People's Republic of China are often identified as government unions, by virtue of their frequent close relationship with national planning bodies. Although market reforms are changing the relationship between workers and the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (China's sole national trade federation), critics such as U.S. presidential candidate and activist Ralph Nader maintain they are "government-controlled with the Chinese communist party turning them into what would be called 'company unions' in the U.S." Russia In many Post-Soviet states, including the Russian Federation, the economic collapse of the early 1990s brought a sharp decline in labor activity. As a result, official union structures often function as de facto company unions. Japan Company unions are a mainstay of labor organization in Japan, viewed with much less animosity than in Europe or the United States. Unaffiliated with RENGO (the largest Japanese trade union federation), company unions appeal to both the lack of class consciousness in Japanese society and the drive for social status, which is often characterized by loyalty to one's employer. Hong Kong The Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (HKFTU), as both a political party and a federations of different trade unions in Hong Kong, has been adapting a political stand which are mostly inclined to the Hong Kong and Beijing Government. Therefore, HKFTU is sometimes classified as a company union, and a Pro-Beijing political party. Mexico In the 1930s, unions in Mexico organized the Confederation of Mexican Workers (Confederación de Trabajadores de México, CTM). The state of Nuevo Leon, however, coordinated its workers into sindicatos blancos ("white unions"), company unions controlled by corporations in the industrialized region. Guatemala In 1997, the government of Guatemala received a loan for 13 million USD from the World Bank to privatize its seaport, electrical grid, and telephone and postal services. Canada Post International Limited (CPIL), a subsidiary of Canada Post, and its partner International Postal Services (IPS), was contracted to manage the privatization process. In anticipation of union resistance, CPIL-IPS agents reportedly used company unions, along with bribery and death threats, to ensure a smooth transition. Company unions are also prevalent among the maquiladoras in Guatemala. Theory Supporters of independent trade unions contend that company unions face a conflict of interest, as they are less likely to propose large-scale pro-worker changes to employment contracts—such as overtime rules and salary schedules—than independent unions. At least one economist advances the idea that in the first part of the 20th century, many companies were hesitant to adopt the company union model for fear that it might lead to support for an independent trade union. A 2002 World Bank publication cites research from Malaysia and India which produced conflicting results as to the wage differential provided by trade unions compared to company unions. Malaysia saw improved wages through independent unions, while India did not. The authors indicate the latter "may reflect the specific circumstances that prevailed in Bombay at the time of the study." Marcel van der Linden states that company unions are "heteronomous trade unions that never or rarely organize strikes" and are mainly established to "keep 'industrial peace' and prevent autonomous trade unions." Proponents of company unions claim they are more efficient in responding to worker grievances than independent trade unions. Proponents also note that independent trade unions do not necessarily have the company's best interests at heart; company unions are designed to resolve disputes within the framework of maximum organizational (not just company) profitability. For example, economist Leo Wolman wrote in 1924: "[T]he distinction ... between trade unions and other workmen's associations is frequently a vague and changing one. What is today a company union may tomorrow have all of the characteristics of a trade union." In their wide-ranging 2017 study of the Canadian company union CLAC, geographer Steven Tufts and sociologist Mark Thomas draw a distinction between multiple categories of organisation commonly called "company unions", arguing that it is a mistake to regard the company union phenomenon as purely or essentially pro-business and anti-worker (or necessarily beholden to any specific business), and that rather they should be seen as occupying one end of a spectrum of possible relationships between business and labour: the "accommodationist" end. A defining feature of "accommodationist" or company unionism is that it "seek[s] compromise with employers and capital in the first instance", that is to say, it holds a priori that workers are not generally in competition with employers, and should not organise to take action in despite of, or demand significant concessions from, employers in order to achieve better employment conditions. They "explicitly advocate for collaborative relationships with employers and disparage conflict as a means of achieving gains for workers from the outset." Though all trade unions do in fact compromise with employers as a matter of arriving at collective agreements, the accommodationist attitude more broadly, and the company union as a specific adoption of that attitude, maintains that workers should not exert any strictly independent collective agency with regard to their employment. This insistence against the legitimacy of independent worker agency often extends beyond the confines of the workplace, and company or accommodationist unions often seek to dispute the legitimacy of the trade union movement as a political movement at large. This brings them into conflict with traditional trade unions in multiple ways; because these aim to organise workers democratically at their jobs in order to pursue their own collective self-interest, as distinct and separate from the interests of the employer; and doubly because traditional trade unions often view workers' struggles as interrelated with broader social-political struggles, and encourage unionised workers to see themselves in solidarity with one another and with broader struggles for justice in society. In particular, because accommodationist or company unions therefore have no intrinsic means of contesting for the rights and wellbeing of workers beyond what the employer is simply willing to offer (since they don't believe in striking for demands), and beyond what the law already provides for or guarantees (since they don't believe that unions should campaign or lobby for political change or mount legal action), this conflict with "real" unions is not merely ideological, but necessarily practical as well: accommodationist unions organise in direct opposition to existing autonomous trade unions, and generally seek to expand by raiding their shops and locals, with the often explicit goal of supplanting them as the "official" or preferred union recognised by the employer to represent workers, thus setting themselves up as eventual company unions proper. This aggressive practice they then rationalise via recourse to the same accommodationist theory and rhetoric: according to the logic of accomodationism, traditional militant trade unions can be said to have no one but themselves to blame if an employer would rather bargain with a company union than with one which organises worker power to fight for gains. See also US labor law UK labour law Employers Group, which, as the Merchants and Manufacturers Association, promoted company unions in California Notes References Aidt, Toke and Tzannatos, Zafiris. Unions and Collective Bargaining: Economic Effects in a Global Environment. Washington, D. C.: The World Bank. . Online at World Bank Publications. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Bacon, David (n.d.). "The New Face of Unionbusting". Online at David Bacon Photographs & Stories. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Berman, Edward (1935). "The Pullman Porters Win". The Nation. Vol. 141, No. 3659, p. 217. Online at the New Deal Network. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Bessemer Historical Society (n.d.). "Colorado Fuel and Iron - Historical Outline". Online at the Bessemer Historical Society. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Coats, Stephen (1991). "Made In Guatemala: Union Busting in the Maquiladoras". Multinational Monitor. Volume 12, Number 11. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. "Colorado Fuel and Iron Corp. — Company History" (n.d.). Baker Library Historical Collections. Online at the Harvard Business School. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Democratic Leadership Council (1997). "The TEAM Act". Talking Points, July 24, 1997. Online at the Democratic Leadership Council. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Hatsuoka, Shoichiro (1982). "Review Article: Organised Workers & Socialist Politics in Interwar Japan". Japan Quarterly, No. 1, January–March 1982. Online at the Global Labor Institute. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. International Labour Organization (2005). "Company union". ILO Thesaurus 2005. Online at the International Labour Organization. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. La Botz, Dan (2007). "Santiago Rafael Cruz, Labor Organizer For U.S. Union, Killed In Mexico". Mexican Labor News & Analysis. Vol. 12, No. 4. Online at United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Nader, Ralph (2004). "Wal-Mart Ways". November 28, 2004. CommonDreams. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Reid, Joseph D. Jr. (1982). "Labor Unions and Labor Management: 1900-1930". Online at Business and Economic History Online. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Riddell, John (2005). "Review: David Mandel’s ‘Labour After Communism’: Auto Workers and their Unions in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus". International Viewpoint, IV365. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Skinner, Michael (2006). "Post-Colonial? Canada Post and the privatization of Guatemala". October 6, 2006. Online at The Dominion. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Smith, Jim. "TEAM Act threatens labor". Online at L. A. Labor News. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. United States Congress (1935). National Labor Relations Act. United States Code, Title 29, Chapter 7, Subchapter II. Online at the National Labor Relations Board. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. Wolman, Leo (1924). The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923. J. J. Little & Ives Company. Online at Google Book Search. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. ja:企業別労働組合
5348351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate%20%28drink%29	Mate (drink)	or maté ( , Spanish: , Portuguese: ) is a traditional South American caffeine-rich infused herbal drink. It is also known as or , and ka’ay in Guarani. It is made by soaking dried yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) leaves in hot water and is traditionally served with a metal straw () in a container typically made from a calabash gourd (also called the ), but also made from a cattle horn () in some areas. A very similar preparation, known as , removes some of the plant material and sometimes comes in tea bags. Today, mate is sold commercially in tea bags and as bottled iced tea. was consumed by the Guaraní and Tupi peoples. Its consumption was exclusive to the natives of Paraguay, more specifically the departments of Amambay and Alto Paraná. It is the national beverage of Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay and is also consumed in the Bolivian Chaco, Brazil, Northern and Southern Chile, and Syria, where it was brought from Paraguay and Argentina by immigrants. Accessories The metal straw is known as a or and is traditionally made of silver. Modern straws are typically made of nickel silver, stainless steel, or hollow-stemmed cane. The functions both as a straw and as a sieve. The submerged end is flared, with small holes or slots that allow the brewed liquid in, but block the chunky matter that makes up much of the mixture. A modern design uses a straight tube with holes or a spring sleeve to act as a sieve. The container the is served in is also known as . It is commonly made from calabash gourd but may also be made out of other materials. History was first consumed by the indigenous Guaraní who live in what is now Paraguay, southeastern Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, and was also spread by the Tupí people who lived in neighbouring areas. After, it was commercialised to part of southern Brazil and northeast Argentina, mostly some areas that were Paraguayan territory before the Paraguayan War. Therefore, the scientific name of the yerba-mate is Ilex paraguariensis. The consumption of yerba-mate became widespread with the European colonization in the Spanish colony of Paraguay in the late 16th century, among both Spanish settlers and indigenous Guaraní, who consumed it before the Spanish arrival. Yerba consumption spread in the 17th century to the Río de la Plata and from there to Peru and Chile. This widespread consumption turned it into Paraguay's main commodity above other wares such as tobacco, cotton and beef. Aboriginal labour was used to harvest wild stands. In the mid-17th century, Jesuits managed to domesticate the plant and establish plantations in their Indian reductions in the Argentine province of Misiones, sparking severe competition with the Paraguayan harvesters of wild strands. After their expulsion in the 1770s, the Jesuit missions — along with the yerba-mate plantations — fell into ruins. The industry continued to be of prime importance for the Paraguayan economy after independence, but development in benefit of the Paraguayan state halted after the Paraguayan War (1864–1870) that devastated the country both economically and demographically. Brazil then became the largest producer of . In Brazilian and Argentine projects in late 19th and early 20th centuries, the plant was domesticated once again, opening the way for plantation systems. When Brazilian entrepreneurs turned their attention to coffee in the 1930s, Argentina, which had long been the prime consumer, took over as the largest producer, resurrecting the economy of Misiones Province, where the Jesuits had once had most of their plantations. For years, the status of largest producer shifted between Brazil and Argentina. Today, Argentina is the largest producer with 56–62%, followed by Brazil, 34–36%, and Paraguay, 5%. Uruguay is the largest consumer per capita, consuming around 19 liters per year. Name The English word comes from the French and the American Spanish , which means both and the vessel for drinking it, from the Quechua word for the calabash gourd used to make it. Both the spellings "maté" and "mate" are used in English. The acute accent indicates that the word is pronounced with two syllables, like café (both maté and café are stressed on the first syllable in the UK), rather than like the one-syllable English word "mate". An acute accent is not used in the Spanish spelling, because the first syllable is stressed. The Yerba Mate Association of the Americas points out that, in Spanish, "" with the stress on the second syllable means "I killed". In Brazil, traditionally prepared is known as , although the word and the expression "" (bitter mate) are also used in Argentina and Uruguay. The Spanish means "rough", "brute", or "barbarian", but is most widely understood to mean "feral", and is used in almost all of Latin America for domesticated animals that have become wild. The word was then used by the people who colonized the region of the Río de la Plata to describe the natives' rough and sour drink, drunk with no other ingredient to sweeten the taste. Culture has a strong cultural significance for both national identity and society. Yerba is the national drink of Paraguay, where it is also consumed with either hot or ice cold water (see tereré); Argentina; and Uruguay. Drinking is a common social practice in all of the territory of Paraguay and parts of Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, southern Chile, and eastern Bolivia. Throughout the Southern Cone, it is considered to be a tradition taken from the Paraguayan Guaraní and drank by the or , terms commonly used to describe the old residents of the South American , , or Patagonian grasslands, found principally in parts of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southeastern Bolivia, southern Chile and southern Brazil. Argentina has celebrated National Mate Day every 30 November since 2015. Parque Histórico do Mate, funded by the state of Paraná (Brazil), is a park aimed to educate people on the sustainable harvesting methods needed to maintain the integrity and vitality of the oldest wild forests of in the world. is also consumed as an iced tea in various regions of Brazil, originating both from an industrialized form, produced by Matte Leão, and from artisanal producers. It is part of the beach culture in Rio de Janeiro, where it is widely sold by beach vendors; the hot infused variation being uncommon in the area. Preparation The preparation of is a simple process, consisting of filling a container with yerba, pouring hot, but not boiling, water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the , which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves. The method of preparing the infusion varies considerably from region to region, and which method yields the finest outcome is debated. However, nearly all methods have some common elements. The beverage is traditionally prepared in a gourd vessel, also called in Spanish and (= gourd) in Portuguese, from which it is drunk. The gourd is nearly filled with , and hot water, typically at , never boiling, is added. The drink is so popular within countries that consume it, that several national electric kettle manufacturers just refer to the range 70 to 85 °C on its thermostat as "mate" temperature. The most common preparation involves a careful arrangement of the within the gourd before adding hot water. In this method, the gourd is first filled one-half to three-quarters of the way with . Too much will result in a "short" mate; conversely, too little results in a "long" mate, both being considered undesirable. After that, any additional herbs (, in Portuguese ) may be added for either health or flavor benefits, a practice most common in Paraguay, where people acquire herbs from a local (herbalist) and use the as a base for their herbal infusions. When the gourd is adequately filled, the preparer typically grasps it with the full hand, covering and roughly sealing the opening with the palm. Then the is turned upside-down, and shaken vigorously, but briefly and with gradually decreasing force, in this inverted position. This causes the finest, most powdery particles of the to settle toward the preparer's palm and the top of the mate. Once the has settled, the is carefully brought to a near-sideways angle, with the opening tilted just slightly upward of the base. The is then shaken very gently with a side-to-side motion. This further settles the inside the gourd so that the finest particles move toward the opening and the is layered along one side. The largest stems and other bits create a partition between the empty space on one side of the gourd and the lopsided pile of on the other. After arranging the along one side of the gourd, the is carefully tilted back onto its base, minimizing further disturbances of the as it is re-oriented to allow consumption. Some settling is normal, but is not desirable. The angled mound of should remain, with its powdery peak still flat and mostly level with the top of the gourd. A layer of stems along its slope will slide downward and accumulate in the space opposite the (though at least a portion should remain in place). All of this careful settling of the ensures that each sip contains as little particulate matter as possible, creating a smooth-running mate. The finest particles will then be as distant as possible from the filtering end of the straw. With each draw, the smaller particles would inevitably move toward the straw, but the larger particles and stems filter much of this out. A sloped arrangement provides consistent concentration and flavor with each filling of the mate. Now the is ready to receive the straw. Wetting the by gently pouring cool water into the empty space within the gourd until the water nearly reaches the top, and then allowing it to be absorbed into the before adding the straw, allows the preparer to carefully shape and "pack" the 's slope with the straw's filtering end, which makes the overall form of the within the gourd more resilient and solid. Dry , though, allows a cleaner and easier insertion of the straw, but care must be taken so as not to overly disturb the arrangement of the . Such a decision is entirely a personal or cultural preference. The straw is inserted with one's thumb and index finger on the upper end of the gourd, at an angle roughly perpendicular to the slope of the , so that its filtering end travels into the deepest part of the and comes to rest near or against the opposite wall of the gourd. It is important for the thumb to form a seal over the end of the straw when it is being inserted, or the air current produced in it will draw in undesirable particulates. Brewing After the above process, the may be brewed. If the straw is inserted into dry , the must first be filled once with cool water as above, then be allowed to absorb it completely (which generally takes no more than two or three minutes). Treating the with cool water before the addition of hot water is essential, as it protects the from being scalded and from the chemical breakdown of some of its desirable nutrients. Hot water may then be added by carefully pouring it, as with the cool water before, into the cavity opposite the , until it reaches almost to the top of the gourd when the is fully saturated. Care should be taken to maintain the dryness of the swollen top of the beside the edge of the gourd's opening. Once the hot water has been added, the is ready for drinking, and it may be refilled many times before becoming (washed out) and losing its flavor. When this occurs, the mound of can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the for additional refillings and is called "" (reforming the mate). Etiquette is traditionally drunk in a particular social setting, such as family gatherings or with friends. The same gourd (/mate) and straw () are used by everyone drinking. One person (known in Portuguese as the , , or , and in Spanish as the ) assumes the task of server, which most of the time is the house owner in family gatherings. Typically, the fills the gourd and drinks the completely to ensure that it is free of particulate matter and of good quality. In some places, passing the first brew of to another drinker is considered bad manners, as it may be too cold or too strong; for this reason, the first brew is often called (). The possibly drinks the second filling as well, if they deem it too cold or bitter. The subsequently refills the gourd and passes it to the drinker to their right, who likewise drinks it all (there is not much; the is full of yerba, with room for little water), and returns it without thanking the server; a final or (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough. The only exception to this order is if a new guest joins the group; in this case the new arrival receives the next mate, and then the cebador resumes the order of serving, and the new arrival will receive theirs depending on their placement in the group. When no more tea remains, the straw makes a loud sucking noise, which is not considered rude. The ritual proceeds around the circle in this way until the becomes (washed out), typically after the gourd has been filled about 10 times or more depending on the used (well-aged is typically more potent, so provides a greater number of refills) and the ability of the . When one has had one's fill of mate, they politely thank the , passing the back at the same time. It is impolite for anyone but the cebador to move the bombilla or otherwise mess with the mate; the cebador may take offense to this and not offer it to the offender again. When someone takes too long, others in the round ( in Portuguese, in Spanish) will likely politely warn them by saying "bring the talking gourd" (); an Argentine equivalent, especially among young people, being ("it's not a microphone"), an allusion to the drinker holding the for too long, as if they were using it as a microphone to deliver a lecture. Some drinkers like to add sugar or honey, creating or (sweet mate), instead of sugarless (bitter mate), a practice said to be more common in Brazil outside its southernmost state. Some people also like to add lemon or orange peel, some herbs or even coffee, but these are mostly rejected by people who like to stick to the "original" mate. Traditionally, natural gourds are used, though wood vessels, bamboo tubes, and gourd-shaped , made of ceramic or metal (stainless steel or even silver) are also common, as are vessels made from cattle horns. The gourd is traditionally made out of the porongo or fruit shell. Gourds are commonly decorated with silver, sporting decorative or heraldic designs with floral motifs. Some gourd mates with elaborated silver ornaments and silver bombillas are true pieces of jewelry and very sought after by collectors. Contaminants Research found both cold- and hot-water extractions of commercial yerba-mate products contained high levels (8.03 to 53.3 ng/g dry leaves) of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (i.e. benzo[a]pyrene). Other properties is a rich source of caffeine. On average, tea contains 92 mg of chlorogenic acid per gram of dry leaves, and no catechins, giving it a significantly different polyphenol profile from other teas. According to Argentine culture in part promoted by marketers, the stimulant in is actually a substance called (named after the drink). However, analysis of the active chemicals in mate has found that does not exist. Legendary origins The Guaraní people started drinking in a region that currently includes Paraguay, southern Brazil, southeastern Bolivia, northeastern Argentina and Uruguay. They have a legend that the Goddesses of the Moon and the Cloud came to visit the Earth one day. An old man saved them from a (jaguar) that was going to attack them. The goddesses gave him a new kind of plant, from which he could prepare a "drink of friendship" as compensation for his actions. Variants Another drink can be prepared with specially cut dry leaves, very cold water, and, optionally, lemon or another fruit juice, called . It is very common in Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. After pouring the water, it is considered proper to "wait while the saint has a sip" before the first person takes a drink. In southern Brazil, is sometimes used as a derogatory term for a not hot enough . In Uruguay and Brazil, the traditional gourd is usually big with a corresponding large hole. In Argentina (especially in the capital Buenos Aires), the gourd is small and has a small hole and people sometimes add sugar for flavor. In Uruguay, people commonly walk around the streets toting a and a thermos with hot water. In some parts of Argentina, gas stations sponsored by producers provide free hot water to travelers, specifically for the purpose of drinking during the journey. Disposable sets with a plastic and straw and sets with a thermos flask and stacking containers for the yerba and sugar inside a fitted case are available. In Argentina, (boiled mate), in Brazil, , is made with a teabag or leaves and drunk from a cup or mug, with or without sugar and milk. Companies such as Cabrales from Mar del Plata and Establecimiento Las Marías produce teabags for export to Europe. Travel narratives, such as Maria Graham's Journal of a Residence in Chile, show a long history of drinking in central Chile. Many rural Chileans drink mate, in particular in the southern regions, particularly Magallanes, Aysén and Chiloé. In Peru, is widespread throughout the north and south, first being introduced to Lima in the 17th century. It is widespread in rural zones, and it is prepared with coca (plant) or in a sweetened tea form with small slices of lemon or orange. In some parts of Syria, Lebanon and other Eastern Mediterranean countries, drinking is also common. The custom came from Syrians and Lebanese who moved to South America during the late 19th and early parts of the 20th century, adopted the tradition, and kept it after returning to Western Asia. Syria is the biggest importer of yerba-mate in the world, importing 15,000 tons a year. Mostly, the Druze communities in Syria and Lebanon maintain the culture and practice of mate. According to a major retailer of in San Luis Obispo, California, by 2004, had grown to about 5% of the overall natural tea market in North America. Loose is commercially available in much of North America. Bottled is increasingly available in the United States. Canadian bottlers have introduced a cane sugar-sweetened, carbonated variety, similar to soda pop. One brand, Sol Mate, produces glass bottles available at Canadian and U.S. retailers, making use of the translingual pun (English 'soul mate'; Spanish/Portuguese 'sun mate') for the sake of marketing. In some parts of the Southern Cone they prefer to drink bitter mate, especially in Paraguay, Uruguay, the south of Brazil, and parts of Argentina and Bolivia. This is referred to in Brazil and a large part of Argentina as – which also an archaic name for wild cattle, especially, to a horse that was very attached to a cowboy—which is understood as unsweetened mate. Many people are of the opinion that should be drunk in this form. Unlike bitter mate, in every preparation of , or sweet mate, sugar is incorporated according to the taste of the drinker. This form of preparation is very widespread in various regions of Argentina, like in the Santiago del Estero province, Córdoba (Argentina), Cuyo, and the metropolitan region of Buenos Aires, among others. In Chile, this form of preparation is widespread in mostly rural zones. The spoonful of sugar or honey should fall on the edge of the cavity that the straw forms in the yerba, not all over the mate. One variation is to sweeten only the first preparation in order to cut the bitterness of the first sip, thus softening the rest. In Paraguay, a variant of is prepared by first caramelizing refined sugar in a pot then adding milk. The mixture is heated and placed in a thermos and used in place of water. Often, chamomile (, in Spanish) and coconut are added to yerba in the gumpa. In the sweet version artificial sweeteners are also often added. As an alternative sweetener, natural (Stevia rebaudiana) is preferred, which is an herb whose leaves are added in order to give a touch of sweetness. This is used principally in Paraguay. The gourd in which bitter is drunk is not used to consume sweet due to the idea that the taste of the sugar would be detrimental to its later use to prepare and drink bitter mate, as it is said that it ruins the flavor of the . Materva is a sweet, carbonated soft drink based on yerba mate. Developed in Cuba in 1920, and produced since the 1960s in Miami, Florida, it is a staple of the Cuban culture in Miami. Notes See also Black drink Mate con malicia (Chilean beverage) Ilex guayusa (caffeinated beverage made from another holly tree) List of Brazilian dishes Mate de coca Club-Mate Materva Guayakí Yaupon References Bibliography Claude Lévi-Strauss (1955), Tristes Tropiques (1973 English translation by John and Doreen Weightman) New York: Atheneum Herbal and fungal stimulants Herbal tea Latin American cuisine Syrian cuisine Tea culture Argentine drinks Brazilian drinks Chilean drinks Paraguayan drinks Uruguayan drinks IARC Group 2A carcinogens Yerba mate drinks Hot drinks Druze culture Indigenous cuisine of the Americas Cuisine of South Brazil
5348493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary%20treatment	Secondary treatment	Secondary treatment (mostly biological wastewater treatment) is the removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) from sewage or similar kinds of wastewater. The aim is to achieve a certain degree of effluent quality in a sewage treatment plant suitable for the intended disposal or reuse option. A "primary treatment" step often precedes secondary treatment, whereby physical phase separation is used to remove settleable solids. During secondary treatment, biological processes are used to remove dissolved and suspended organic matter measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). These processes are performed by microorganisms in a managed aerobic or anaerobic process depending on the treatment technology. Bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, and organic short-chain carbon molecules from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent) while reproducing to form cells of biological solids. Secondary treatment is widely used in sewage treatment and is also applicable to many agricultural and industrial wastewaters. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems, and as aerobic versus anaerobic. Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters, constructed wetlands, bio-towers, and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. The fixed-film principle has further developed into moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBR) and Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS) processes. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, which is an aerobic treatment system, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms (bacteria and protozoa) able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Constructed wetlands are also being used. An example for an anaerobic secondary treatment system is the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. Fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems. Most of the aerobic secondary treatment systems include a secondary clarifier to settle out and separate biological floc or filter material grown in the secondary treatment bioreactor. Definitions Primary treatment Secondary treatment Primary treatment settling removes about half of the solids and a third of the BOD from raw sewage. Secondary treatment is defined as the "removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and suspended solids. Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of conventional secondary treatment." Biological nutrient removal is regarded by some sanitary engineers as secondary treatment and by others as tertiary treatment. After this kind of treatment, the wastewater may be called secondary-treated wastewater. Tertiary treatment Process types Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems A great number of secondary treatment processes exist, see List of wastewater treatment technologies. The main ones are explained below. Fixed film systems Filter beds (oxidizing beds) In older plants and those receiving variable loadings, trickling filter beds are used where the settled sewage liquor is spread onto the surface of a bed made up of coke (carbonized coal), limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic media. Such media must have large surface areas to support the biofilms that form. The liquor is typically distributed through perforated spray arms. The distributed liquor trickles through the bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains also provide a source of air which percolates up through the bed, keeping it aerobic. Biofilms of bacteria, protozoa and fungi form on the media’s surfaces and eat or otherwise reduce the organic content. The filter removes a small percentage of the suspended organic matter, while the majority of the organic matter supports microorganism reproduction and cell growth from the biological oxidation and nitrification taking place in the filter. With this aerobic oxidation and nitrification, the organic solids are converted into biofilm grazed by insect larvae, snails, and worms which help maintain an optimal thickness. Overloading of beds may increase biofilm thickness leading to anaerobic conditions and possible bioclogging of the filter media and ponding on the surface. Rotating biological contactors Constructed wetlands Suspended growth systems Activated sludge Activated sludge is a common suspended-growth method of secondary treatment. Activated sludge plants encompass a variety of mechanisms and processes using dissolved oxygen to promote growth of biological floc that substantially removes organic material. Biological floc is an ecosystem of living biota subsisting on nutrients from the inflowing primary clarifier effluent. These mostly carbonaceous dissolved solids undergo aeration to be broken down and either biologically oxidized to carbon dioxide or converted to additional biological floc of reproducing micro-organisms. Nitrogenous dissolved solids (amino acids, ammonia, etc.) are similarly converted to biological floc or oxidized by the floc to nitrites, nitrates, and, in some processes, to nitrogen gas through denitrification. While denitrification is encouraged in some treatment processes, denitrification often impairs the settling of the floc causing poor quality effluent in many suspended aeration plants. Overflow from the activated sludge mixing chamber is sent to a clarifier where the suspended biological floc settles out while the treated water moves into tertiary treatment or disinfection. Settled floc is returned to the mixing basin to continue growing in primary effluent. Like most ecosystems, population changes among activated sludge biota can reduce treatment efficiency. Nocardia, a floating brown foam sometimes misidentified as sewage fungus, is the best known of many different fungi and protists that can overpopulate the floc and cause process upsets. Elevated concentrations of toxic wastes including pesticides, industrial metal plating waste, or extreme pH, can kill the biota of an activated sludge reactor ecosystem. Sequencing batch reactors One type of system that combines secondary treatment and settlement is the cyclic activated sludge (CASSBR), or sequencing batch reactor (SBR). Typically, activated sludge is mixed with raw incoming sewage, and then mixed and aerated. The settled sludge is run off and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the headworks. The disadvantage of the CASSBR process is that it requires a precise control of timing, mixing and aeration. This precision is typically achieved with computer controls linked to sensors. Such a complex, fragile system is unsuited to places where controls may be unreliable, poorly maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent. Package plants Extended aeration package plants use separate basins for aeration and settling, and are somewhat larger than SBR plants with reduced timing sensitivity. Membrane bioreactors Membrane bioreactors (MBR) are activated sludge systems using a membrane liquid-solid phase separation process. The membrane component uses low pressure microfiltration or ultrafiltration membranes and eliminates the need for a secondary clarifier or filtration. The membranes are typically immersed in the aeration tank; however, some applications utilize a separate membrane tank. One of the key benefits of an MBR system is that it effectively overcomes the limitations associated with poor settling of sludge in conventional activated sludge (CAS) processes. The technology permits bioreactor operation with considerably higher mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration than CAS systems, which are limited by sludge settling. The process is typically operated at MLSS in the range of 8,000–12,000 mg/L, while CAS are operated in the range of 2,000–3,000 mg/L. The elevated biomass concentration in the MBR process allows for very effective removal of both soluble and particulate biodegradable materials at higher loading rates. Thus increased sludge retention times, usually exceeding 15 days, ensure complete nitrification even in extremely cold weather. The cost of building and operating an MBR is often higher than conventional methods of sewage treatment. Membrane filters can be blinded with grease or abraded by suspended grit and lack a clarifier's flexibility to pass peak flows. The technology has become increasingly popular for reliably pretreated waste streams and has gained wider acceptance where infiltration and inflow have been controlled, however, and the life-cycle costs have been steadily decreasing. The small footprint of MBR systems, and the high quality effluent produced, make them particularly useful for water reuse applications. Aerobic granulation Aerobic granular sludge can be formed by applying specific process conditions that favour slow growing organisms such as PAOs (polyphosphate accumulating organisms) and GAOs (glycogen accumulating organisms). Another key part of granulation is selective wasting whereby slow settling floc-like sludge is discharged as waste sludge and faster settling biomass is retained. This process has been commercialized as Nereda process. Surface-aerated lagoons or ponds Aerated lagoons are a low technology suspended-growth method of secondary treatment using motor-driven aerators floating on the water surface to increase atmospheric oxygen transfer to the lagoon and to mix the lagoon contents. The floating surface aerators are typically rated to deliver the amount of air equivalent to 1.8 to 2.7 kg O2/kW·h. Aerated lagoons provide less effective mixing than conventional activated sludge systems and do not achieve the same performance level. The basins may range in depth from 1.5 to 5.0 metres. Surface-aerated basins achieve 80 to 90 percent removal of BOD with retention times of 1 to 10 days. Many small municipal sewage systems in the United States (1 million gal./day or less) use aerated lagoons. Emerging technologies Biological Aerated (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF) or Biofilters combine filtration with biological carbon reduction, nitrification or denitrification. BAF usually includes a reactor filled with a filter media. The media is either in suspension or supported by a gravel layer at the foot of the filter. The dual purpose of this media is to support highly active biomass that is attached to it and to filter suspended solids. Carbon reduction and ammonia conversion occurs in aerobic mode and sometime achieved in a single reactor while nitrate conversion occurs in anoxic mode. BAF is operated either in upflow or downflow configuration depending on design specified by manufacturer. Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBRs) typically requires smaller footprint than suspended-growth systems. Design considerations The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defined secondary treatment based on the performance observed at late 20th-century bioreactors treating typical United States municipal sewage. Secondary treated sewage is expected to produce effluent with a monthly average of less than 30 mg/L BOD and less than 30 mg/L suspended solids. Weekly averages may be up to 50 percent higher. A sewage treatment plant providing both primary and secondary treatment is expected to remove at least 85 percent of the BOD and suspended solids from domestic sewage. The EPA regulations describe stabilization ponds as providing treatment equivalent to secondary treatment removing 65 percent of the BOD and suspended solids from incoming sewage and discharging approximately 50 percent higher effluent concentrations than modern bioreactors. The regulations also recognize the difficulty of meeting the specified removal percentages from combined sewers, dilute industrial wastewater, or Infiltration/Inflow. Process upsets Process upsets are temporary decreases in treatment plant performance caused by significant population change within the secondary treatment ecosystem. Conditions likely to create upsets include toxic chemicals and unusually high or low concentrations of organic waste BOD providing food for the bioreactor ecosystem. Measures creating uniform wastewater loadings tend to reduce the probability of upsets. Fixed-film or attached growth secondary treatment bioreactors are similar to a plug flow reactor model circulating water over surfaces colonized by biofilm, while suspended-growth bioreactors resemble a continuous stirred-tank reactor keeping microorganisms suspended while water is being treated. Secondary treatment bioreactors may be followed by a physical phase separation to remove biological solids from the treated water. Upset duration of fixed film secondary treatment systems may be longer because of the time required to recolonize the treatment surfaces. Suspended growth ecosystems may be restored from a population reservoir. Activated sludge recycle systems provide an integrated reservoir if upset conditions are detected in time for corrective action. Sludge recycle may be temporarily turned off to prevent sludge washout during peak storm flows when dilution keeps BOD concentrations low. Suspended growth activated sludge systems can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film trickling filter systems that treat the same amount of water; but fixed-film systems are better able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems. Wastewater flow variations may be reduced by limiting stormwater collection by the sewer system, and by requiring industrial facilities to discharge batch process wastes to the sewer over a time interval rather than immediately after creation. Discharge of appropriate organic industrial wastes may be timed to sustain the secondary treatment ecosystem through periods of low residential waste flow. Sewage treatment systems experiencing holiday waste load fluctuations may provide alternative food to sustain secondary treatment ecosystems through periods of reduced use. Small facilities may prepare a solution of soluble sugars. Others may find compatible agricultural wastes, or offer disposal incentives to septic tank pumpers during low use periods. Toxicity Waste containing biocide concentrations exceeding the secondary treatment ecosystem tolerance level may kill a major fraction of one or more important ecosystem species. BOD reduction normally accomplished by that species temporarily ceases until other species reach a suitable population to utilize that food source, or the original population recovers as biocide concentrations decline. Dilution Waste containing unusually low BOD concentrations may fail to sustain the secondary treatment population required for normal waste concentrations. The reduced population surviving the starvation event may be unable to completely utilize available BOD when waste loads return to normal. Dilution may be caused by addition of large volumes of relatively uncontaminated water such as stormwater runoff into a combined sewer. Smaller sewage treatment plants may experience dilution from cooling water discharges, major plumbing leaks, firefighting, or draining large swimming pools. A similar problem occurs as BOD concentrations drop when low flow increases waste residence time within the secondary treatment bioreactor. Secondary treatment ecosystems of college communities acclimated to waste loading fluctuations from student work/sleep cycles may have difficulty surviving school vacations. Secondary treatment systems accustomed to routine production cycles of industrial facilities may have difficulty surviving industrial plant shutdown. Populations of species feeding on incoming waste initially decline as concentration of those food sources decrease. Population decline continues as ecosystem predator populations compete for a declining population of lower trophic level organisms. Peak waste load High BOD concentrations initially exceed the ability of the secondary treatment ecosystem to utilize available food. Ecosystem populations of aerobic organisms increase until oxygen transfer limitations of the secondary treatment bioreactor are reached. Secondary treatment ecosystem populations may shift toward species with lower oxygen requirements, but failure of those species to use some food sources may produce higher effluent BOD concentrations. More extreme increases in BOD concentrations may drop oxygen concentrations before the secondary treatment ecosystem population can adjust, and cause an abrupt population decrease among important species. Normal BOD removal efficiency will not be restored until populations of aerobic species recover after oxygen concentrations rise to normal. Temperature Biological oxidation processes are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 °C and 40 °C, the rate of biological reactions increase with temperature. Most surface aerated vessels operate at between 4 °C and 32 °C. See also List of wastewater treatment technologies Sanitation References Sources Aquatic ecology Environmental engineering Pollution control technologies Sewerage Sanitation Sewerage infrastructure
5348809	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cividade%20de%20Terroso	Cividade de Terroso	Cividade de Terroso was an ancient city of the Castro culture in North-western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, situated near the present bed of the Ave river, in the suburbs of present-day Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal. Located, in the heart of the Castro region, the cividade played a leading role in the early urbanization of the region in the early 1st millennium BC, as one of the oldest, largest and impregnable castro settlements. It was important in coastal trading as it was part of well-established maritime trade routes with the Mediterranean. Celtic and later Carthaginian influence a well-known, it was eventually destroyed after the Roman conquest in 138 BC. The city's ancient name is not known with certainty but it was known during the Middle Ages as Civitas Teroso (The City of Terroso). it was built at the summit of Cividade Hill, in the suburban area of Terroso, less than 5 km from the coast, near the eastern edge of modern Póvoa de Varzim. Beyond the main citadel, three of Cividade de Terroso's outposts are known: Castro de Laundos (the citadel's surveillance post), Castro de Navais (away from the citadel, a fountain remains to this day), and Castro de Argivai (a Castro culture farmhouse in the coastal plain). Cividade de Terroso is located just 6,3 km from Cividade de Bagunte both in the North bank of the Ave river. History Settlement The settlement of Cividade de Terroso was founded during the Bronze Age, between 800 and 900 BC, as a result of the displacement of the people inhabiting the fertile plain of Beiriz and Várzea in Póvoa de Varzim. This data is supported by the discovery of egg-shaped cesspits, excavated in 1981 by Armando Coelho, where he collected fragments of four vases of the earlier period prior to the settlement of the Cividade. As such, it is part of the oldest Castro culture settlements, such as the ones from Santa Luzia or Roriz. The city prospered due to its strong defensive walls and its location near the ocean, which facilitated trade with the maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean Sea, mainly during the Carthaginian rule in the South-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Viriatus murdered and Revenge Trade eventually attracted Roman attention during the Punic Wars and the Romans had learned of the wealth of the Castro region in gold and tin. Viriathus led the troops of the Lusitanian confederation, which included several tribes, and hindered the northward growth of the Roman Republic at the Douro iver, but his murder in 138 BC opened the way for the Roman legions. The citadel and the Castro culture perished at the end of the Lusitanian War. Some of Viriatus fighters may have sought refuge in the North. These with Grovii and Callacian tribes and following Celtic ways, with their women, wanted revenge for the death of Viriatus. They attacked the Roman settlements in Lusitania, gaining momentum with the support of other tribes along the way, reaching the south of the Peninsula, near modern Andalusia. Endangering Roman rule in large stretches of Hispania. Roman conquest Decimus Junius Brutus was sent to the Roman province of Hispania Ulterior to deal with it and led a campaign in order to annex the Castro region (of the Callaeci tribes) for Rome, which led to the complete destruction of the city, just after the death of Viriathus. Strabo wrote, probably describing this period: "until they were stopped by the Romans, who humiliated them and reduced most of their cities to mere villages" (Strabo, III.3.5). These cities included Abobriga, Lambriaca and Catania. Lambriaca allied with Rome but rebelled following regional pressure as they were perceived as traitors in the region. It led the rebellion but after months of siege, it asked for mercy as the siege left the city without provision of supplies. All of coast was occupied by the Celts. In Conventus Bracarensis, where the Romans would establish the Augustan citadel of Bracara, there were also the Grovii and the Heleni of Greek origin. The Grovii dwelt on the coast near the rivers "Avo" (the Ave river), Celadus, Nebis, Minius and the Oblivion. The Laeros and the Ulla rivers were in the North reach of this people. The notable citadel of Abobriga or Avobriga, was probably located near the mouth of the Ave River, as its name suggests. According to Pomponius Mela, it was located near Lambriaca, in the lands of the Grovii. A hint which could help to identify Celtic Lambriaca is that it had two areas with cliffs and very easy access from the other two sides. The important city of Cinania was rich, its inhabitants had several Luxury goods but kept their independence due to the city's strong defensive walls, and despise for Rome. Brutus wished to conquer it before leaving Iberia and not leave that conquest for other officials. He planned a siege. The Romans used catapults to destroy the city's walls and invade the citadel, but the inhabitants resisted the attempted Roman assaults, causing Roman casualties. The Romans had to withdraw. The Canadians used a tunnel, used for mining, for a surprise assault on the Roman camp destroying the catapults. Nonetheless, Appian mentioned two battles led by Brutus, in which women fought alongside the men, both ended in a Roman victory. Archaeological data in Cividade de Terroso and tribesmen's Last Stand behavior, which included their children in one of those battles, highlight the barbarity of the conquest. The last urban stage under the Roman mercy policy Roman mercy is recorded by the establishment of Brutus's peaceful settlements. Sometime later, the Cividade was rebuilt and became heavily Romanized, which started the cividade's last urban stage. Upon return, Brutus gained an honorific Callaecus on the fifth day before the Ides, the festival of Vesta in the month of Junius. A celebrated milestone refers that Brutus victories extended to the ocean. Brutus is also referred by Plutarch as "the Brutus who triumphed over Lusitania" and as the invader of Lusitania. Citadel exodus The region was incorporated in the Roman Empire and totally pacified during the rule of Caesar Augustus. In the coastal plain, a Roman villa that was known as Villa Euracini was created, hence it was a property of a family known as the Euracini. The family was joined by Castro people who returned to the coastal plain. An early fish factory and salt evaporation ponds were built near the new villa, and a later one with a cetariæ and a housing complex, with one of those buildings dating to the 1st century. The Romans built roads, including Via Veteris, a necropolis and exploited the famed local mines, that became known as Aqualata. From the 1st century onward, and during the imperial period, the slow abandonment of Cividade Hill started. An 18th century legendary city In the Memórias Paroquiais (Parish Memories) of 1758, the director António Fernandes da Loba with other clergymen from the parish of Terroso, wrote: This parish is all surrounded by farming fields, and in one area, almost in the middle of it, there is a higher hill, that is about a third of the farming fields of this parish and the ancient say that this was the City of Moors Hill, because it is known as Cividade Hill. The Lieutenant Veiga Leal in the News of Póvoa de Varzim on May 24 of 1758 wrote: "From the hill known as Cividade, one can see several hints of houses, that the people say formed a city, cars with bricks from the ruins of that one arrive in this town." 20th century archaeology Cividade was later rarely cited by other authors. In the early 20th century, Rocha Peixoto encouraged his friend António dos Santos Graça to subsidize archaeology works. In 1906, excavations began on June 5 with 25 manual workers and continued until October, interrupted due to bad weather; they recommenced in May 1907, finishing in that same year. The materials discovered were taken to museums in the city of Porto. After the death of Rocha Peixoto, in 1909, some rocks of the citadel had been used to pave some streets in Póvoa de Varzim, notably Rua Santos Minho Street and Rua das Hortas. Occasionally, groups of scouts of the Portuguese Youth and others in the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, made diggings in search for archaeology pieces. This was seen as archaeological vandalism but continued even after the Cividade was listed as a property of Public Interest in 1961. In 1980, Póvoa de Varzim City Hall invited Armando Coelho to pursue further archaeology works; these took place during the summer of that year. Result were used for Coelho's project A Cultura Castreja do Norte de Portugal. Archaeological surveys led by the same archaeologist resumed in 1981, leading to the discovery of a grave and tombstones, which helped to comprehend the funerary rituals; housing, yards and walls were also surveyed, which were the main focus for the 1982 archaeological surveys along with the recovery of Decumanus street (East-west). Archaeology works resumed in 1989 and 1991. The city hall purchased the acropolis area and constructed a small archaeological museum in its entrance. In 2005, groups of Portuguese and Spanish (Galician) archaeologists had started to study the hypothesis of this cividade and six others to be classified as World Heritage sites of UNESCO. The Rede de Castros do Noroeste, the Northwestern Castro Network, was established in 2015 grouping the most important sites in Northern Portugal including Cividade de Terroso but also Cividade de Bagunte, Citânia de Sanfins, Citânia de Briteiros, Citânia de Santa Lúzia and a few other sites. Defensive system The most typical characteristic of the castros is its defensive system. The inhabitants had chosen to start living in the hill as a way of protection against attacks and lootings by rival tribes. The Cividade was erected at 152 metres height (about 500 feet), allowing an excellent position to monitor the entire region. One of the sides, the north, was blocked by São Félix Hill, where a smaller castro was built, the Castro de Laundos from the 2nd century B.C., that served as a surveillance post. The migrations of Turduli and Celtici proceeding from the South of the Iberian Peninsula heading North are referred by Strabo and were the reason for the improvement of the defensive systems of the castros around 500 BC. Cividade de Terroso is one of the most heavily defensive Castro culture citadels, given that the acropolis was surrounded by three rings of walls. These walls were built at different stages, due to the growth of the town. The walls had great blocks without mortar and were adapted to the hill's topography. The areas of easier access (South, East and West) possessed high, wide and resistant walls; while the ones in land with steep slopes were protected mainly by strengthening the local features. That can easily be visible with the discovered structures in the East that present a strong defensive system that reaches 5.30 metres (17 feet 5 inches) wide. While in the Northeast, the wall was constructed using natural granite that only was crowned by a wall of rocks. The entrance that interrupted the wall was paved with flagstone with about 1.70 metres (5 feet 7 inches) of width. The defensive perimeter seems to include a ditch of about 1 metre (3 feet 3 inches) of depth and width in base of the hill, as it was detected while a house was being built in the north of the hill. Urban structure The acropolis was surrounded by three rings of walls, and within those walls, diverse types of buildings existed, including funerary enclosures, which are extremely rare in the Castro culture world. At its peak, the acropolis had 12 hectares (30 acres) and was inhabited by several hundred people. In the archaeological works carried through the beginning of the 20th century, the Cividade seemed to have a disorganized structure, but more recent data suggests instead an organization whose characteristics stem from older levels of occupation, which had been ignored during the first archaeological works. Each quadrant of the town is divided into family nuclei around a private square, which are almost always paved with flagstone. Some houses possessed a forecourt. Stages The Cividade had urbanization stages. Archeologists identified three stages: An early settlement stage with huts (8th-9th century — 5th century BC), a second stage characterized by urbanization and fortification with robust stonework (5th century — 2nd century BC) and a Roman period stage (2nd century BC — 1st century AD). During the early centuries, small habitations were built with vegetable elements mixed with adobe. The first stonework started in the 5th century B.C., this became possible due to the iron peaks technology. A technology that was only available in Asia Minor, but that was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by Phoenician settlers in the Atlantic Coast during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. Buildings during this period are, characteristically, circular with diameters between 4 and 5 meters and with walls 30 to 40 cm thick. The granite rocks were fractured or splintered, and placed in two lines, with the smoothest part heading for the exterior and interior of the house. The space between the two rocks was filled with small rocks and mortar of large sand grains creating robust walls. In the last stage, the Roman one (starting in 138 – 136 B.C.), following the destruction by Decimus Junius Brutus, there is an urban reorganization with use of the new building techniques and changes in shapes and sizes. Quadrangular structures started appearing, replacing the typical Castro culture circular architecture. The roof started being made out of "tegula" instead of vegetable material with adobe. During this stage, stonework used in home construction was quadrangular; the project of two stone alignments remained, but rooms were wider and filled with large sand grains or adobe and rocks of small to average size, resulting in thicker walls with 45–60 cm. Family settings The family settings, having four or five circular divisions, encircle a flagstone paved yard where the doors of the different divisions converged. These central yards had an important role in family life as the area where the daily family activities took place. These nuclei would be closed by key, granting privacy to families. The building interiors of the second stage, prior to the Roman period, possessed fine floors made of adobe or large sand-grains. Some of these floors were decorated with rope-styled, wave and circle carvings and motifs, especially in fireplaces. In the Roman-influence stage, these floors had become well-taken care of, being denser and thicker. Streets The family settings were divided by narrow roads with some public spaces. The two main streets had the typical Roman orientation of the Decumanus and Cardium. The Decumanus was the city's main avenue that slightly followed the wall to the East for the West and slightly curved for Southwest from the crossroad with the Cardium (North-South street), the later reaches the entrance of the citadel. The exterior access was fulfilled by a slight descending reaching the way that is still used today to enter in the town. These main roads divided the settlement in four parts. Each one of these parts had four or five family settings. In some areas of the city, vestiges of sewers or narrow channels had been discovered; these could have been used to channel rain water. Culture The population worked in agriculture, namely cereals and horticulture, fishing, recollection, shepherding and worked metals, textiles and ceramics. Cultural influences arrived from the inland Iberian Peninsula, beyond the ones proceeding from the Mediterranean through trade. The Castro culture is known by having defensive walls in their cities and villages, with circular houses in hilltops and for its characteristic ceramics, widely popular among them. It disappears with the Roman acculturation and the movement of the populations for the coastal plain, where the strong Roman cultural presence, from the 2nd century BC onwards, is visible in the vestiges of Roman villas found there where, currently, the city of the Póvoa de Varzim is located (Old Town of Póvoa de Varzim, Alto de Martim Vaz and Junqueira), and in the parishes of Estela (Villa Mendo) and near the Chapel of Santo André in Aver-o-Mar. Cuisine The population lived mainly from agriculture, mainly with the culture of cereals such as wheat and barley, and of vegetables (the broadbean) and acorn. The concheiro found in the Cividade showed that they ate raw or cooked limpets, mussels and Sea urchins. These species are still broadly common. Fishing must not have been a regular activity, given the lack of archaeological evidence, but the discovery of hooks and net weights showed that the Castro people were able to catch fish of considerable size such as grouper and snook. Barley was farmed to produce a kind of beer, which was nicknamed zythos. Beer was considered a barbaric drink by the Greeks and Romans given the fact that they were accustomed to the subtleness of wine. Acorn was smashed to create a kind of flour. Pickings wild plants, fruits, seeds and roots complemented the dietary staple; they also ate and picked wild blackberries, dandelion, clovers and even kelps. Some of these vegetables are still used by the local population today. The Romans introduced the consumption of wine and olive oil. The animals used by the Castro people are confirmed by classical documents and archaeological registers, and included horses, pigs, cows and sheep. There was a cultural taboo against the eating of horses or dogs. There is little evidence of poultry during the Castro culture period, but during the period of Roman influence it became quite common. Although there is only fragmentary evidence in the Cividade, hunting must have been a part of everyday life given that classic sources, such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder describe the region as very rich in fauna, including: wild bear, deer, wild boars, foxes, beavers, rabbits, hares and a variety of birds; all of which would have been valuable food sources. Handicrafts Castro ceramics (goblets and vases) evolved during the ages, from a primitive system to the use of potter's wheels. However, the amphorae and the use of the glass only started to be common with the Romanization. These amphorae, essentially, served for the transport and storage of cereals, fruits, wine and olive oil. Many of the ceramics found in the Cividade de Terroso had local characteristics. Pottery was seen as a man's work and significant amounts were found with great variety, showing that it was a cheap, important and accessible product. However, the city's ceramic structure are practically identical to the ones found in other castros of the same period. The decoration of the vases was of the incisive type (decoration cut into the clay before firing), but scapulae and impressed vases also existed; adobe lace, in rope form, with or without incisions are also found. Drawings in "S", assigned as palmípedes, are frequently found in engraved vases, these could be printed with other printed or engraved drawings. Other decorative forms, that can appear mixed and with diverse techniques, include circles, triangles, semicircles, lines, in zig-zag, in a total of about two hundred of different kinds of drawings. Weaving was sufficiently generalized and was seen as a woman's duty and was also progressing, especially during the Roman period; some weights of sewing press were found and sets of ten of cossoiros. The discovery of shears strengthened the idea of the systematic breeding of sheep to use their wool. Numerous vestiges of metallurgic activities had been detected and great amounts of casting slags, fibulae, fragmented iron objects and other metals remains were discovered, mostly lead, copper/bronze, tin and perhaps gold. Gatos (for repairing ceramics), pins, fibulae, stili and needles in copper or bronze, demonstrating that the work in copper and its alloys was one of the most common activities of the town. The iron was used for many every-day objects, some nails were found, but also hooks and a tip of a scythe or dagger. Near the door of the wall (in the southwest of the city) a workshop was identified, given that in the place some vestiges of this activity had been found such as the use of fire with high temperatures, nugget and slags for casting metals, ores and other indications. Goldsmithery contributed for Póvoa de Varzim being a reference for proto-historical archaeology in North-western Iberian Peninsula. Namely, with the finding of some complete jewellery: the Earrings of Laundos and the articulated necklace and earrings of Estela. In the proper Cividade, some certifications of works in gold and silver had been collected by Rocha Peixoto. In all the mountain range of Rates, the ancient mining explorations are visible: Castro and Roman ones, given that these hills possessed the essential gold and silver used for jewellery production. In 1904, a mason while building a mill in the top of São Félix Hill, in the vicinity of the smaller Castro de Laundos, found a vase with jewellery inside, these pieces had been bought by Rocha Peixoto that took them to the Museum of Porto. The jewellery was made using an evolved technique, very similar to ones made in the Mediterranean, namely with the use of plates and welds, filigree and granulated. Religion and death rituals Religious cults and ceremonies had the objective to harmonize the people with natural forces. The Castro people had a great number of deities, but in the coastal area where the city is located, Cosus, a native deity related in later periods to the Roman god Mars, prevailed to such an extent that no other deities popular in the hinterland were venerated in the coastal region where Cosus was worshiped. Some cesspits, for instance organized as a pentagon, adorn the flagstone of the Cividade, their function is unknown, but may have had some magical-religious function. The funerary ritual of the Cividade was probably common to other pre-Roman peoples of the Portuguese territory, but archaeological data are very rarely found in the Castro area, excepting at Cividade de Terroso. The ritual of the Cividade was the rite of cremation and placing the ashes of their dead in small circular-shaped cesspits with stonework adornment in the interior of the houses. In later periods, the ashes were deposited in the exterior of the houses, but still inside of the family setting. In 1980, the discovery of a funerary cist, and an entire vase, and fragments of another one without covering, evidences breaking. This vase was very similar to another found in São Félix Hill, this last one with jewels in its interior, assuming that these jewels had the same funerary context. Trade The visits of Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans had as objective the exchange of fabrics and wine for gold and tin, despite the scarcity of terrestrial ways, this was not a problem for Cividade de Terroso that was strategically located close to the sea and the Ave River, thus an extensive commerce existed via the Atlantic and river routes as archeological remains prove. However, one land route was known, the Silver Way (as named in the Roman Era) that started in the south of the peninsula reaching the northeast over land. The external commerce, dominated by tin, was complemented with domestic commerce in tribal markets between the different cities and villages of the Castro culture, they exchanged textiles, metals (gold, copper, tin and lead) and other objects including exotic products, such as glass or exotic ceramics, proceeding from contacts with the peoples of the Mediterranean or other areas of the Peninsula. With the annexation of the Castro region by the Roman Republic, the commerce starts to be one of the main ways for regional economic development, with the Roman merchants organized in associations known as collegia. These associations functioned as true commercial companies who looked for monopoly in commercial relations. Museum facility In the entrance of the town there is a small museum with facilities that are intended only to support the visit to the Cividade itself, such as pictures, representations and public toilets. It is a small extension of the Ethnography and History Museum of Póvoa de Varzim, located in Póvoa de Varzim City Center, where the most relevant artifacts are kept. Although the city is protected by fences and a gate near the museum, the entrance to the city is free. References Análisis Ponderal de Los Torques Castreños External links João Aguiar - Uma Deusa na Bruma, Edições Asa - Historical novel about the Cividade de Terroso (Póvoa de Varzim) Cividade Terroso Populated places established in the 9th century BC Landmarks in Póvoa de Varzim Buildings and structures in Póvoa de Varzim Museums in Póvoa de Varzim Archaeological museums in Portugal 9th-century BC establishments 1st-century disestablishments Populated places disestablished in the 1st century Properties of Public Interest in Portugal
5348831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Lorenzo%20Nuovo	San Lorenzo Nuovo	San Lorenzo Nuovo is a small town and comune in the province of Viterbo, in the Latium region of Italy. It is an agricultural center producing potatoes, olive oil, garlic, onions, cereals and grapes. A second source of revenue is tourism. Geography The town is located on the northern side of Lake Bolsena's crater rim. It dominates the lake basin on one side and the valley of the Acquapendente on the other side, at the crossing of the ancient Via Cassia (now state road 2) and the via Maremmana (state road 74). Neighbouring cities are Acquapendente, Bolsena, Castel Giorgio, Gradoli and Grotte di Castro. The rock known as "Sasso della graticola" is placed to mark the border with Bolsena and Castelgiorgo. The rock bears initials S L on the side facing San Lorenzo Nuovo. San Lorenzo Nuovo is famous for the harmonious symmetry and linearity of its streets, due to Francesco Navone. History The old village Originally inhabited by the Etruscans, after the Roman conquest San Lorenzo was elected municipium and prefecture. According to tradition, the inhabitants had asked for protection from the heavens during the 5th-century AD invasions of the Vandals; on the feast of Saint Apollinare, a dense fog came down and the invaders spared the town. In 771–772, refugees came here from Tiro, a small centre placed on the hill of Civita (later "Svignata"), when the original Etruscan town of Grotte di Castro was destroyed by the Lombards under king Desiderius. It was in this area, according to Roman Martyrology, that Saint Christina of Bolsena would have been martyrized. Before 1774, the old village of San Lorenzo alle Grotte was located in the lowlands closer to Lake Bolsena than the current village. This ancient hamlet was named after the numerous surrounding caves (grotte). Due to its location along the Via Cassia, in a central position for the interests of Orvieto, Viterbo and Sovana, San Lorenzo alle Grotte had been always of strategic importance and was contended for by local noblemen and the Church. In 1113 the area was donated to the Church by Matilda of Canossa, countess of Tuscany. The same area was sacked by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI in 1186. The opposition of Pope Celestine III, mediated by the bishop of Sovana, to the direct interference of the bishops of Orvieto over this area is recorded in a document dated 28 June 1183. Towards 1265, together with neighbouring lands (Grotte di Castro, Latera, Gradoli, Bisentina island), the area became part of the province of Val di Lago, ruled by the Republic of Orvieto for a short time. The next year, San Lorenzo took part in the Ghibellines expedition against Martana Island and other Guelphs centres but the next year it renewed its obedience to the Church. In 1294, San Lorenzo and other centres of Val di Lago, professed submission to Orvieto. It was the beginning of a series of disputes with Pope Boniface VIII. Orvieto, once excommunicated and placed under interdict, stopped any action contrary to the Church. This was not the intention of San Lorenzo, claiming actions against Orvieto. On 20 March 1298, Boniface VIII ordered to stop all hostilities and let Orvieto's army occupy the castle of San Lorenzo. Although returned to Orvieto's jurisdiction, the centres of Val di Lago resisted paying their tribute for three years. In 1315, San Lorenzo was involved in the fights between Orvieto and the papal legate Bernard of Cluny, being defeated at Montefiascone by Guittuccio of Bisenzio. In 1318, San Lorenzo supported with 25 infantries Orvieto against Ugolinuccio de' Neri of Montemarano. In 1354, in the presence of Gil Alvarez De Albornoz, all villages of Val di Lago confirmed their submission to Orvieto. In 1359, the Republic of Orvieto was abolished and Cardinal Albornoz brought San Lorenzo again under the jurisdiction of the papacy. In 1527, the landsknechts, on their way to Rome, burnt San Lorenzo, Bolsena and Montefiascone. An agreement was achieved between San Lorenzo and Grotte di Castro about rights and duties of land owners residing in their respective territories. In the early 1630s, a painting of a view of San Lorenzo was produced by the visiting Flemish painter Bartholomeus Breenbergh. Known as a pastoral landscape with a citadel, an engraving by the Swiss engravers Balthasar Anton Dunker and Robert Daudet is the inverse image of Breenbergh painting. The new village The new town was built in 1774. The area of San Lorenzo alle Grotte was rather unhealthy, as acknowledged by the marble frame kept in the central square of the new town. People were affected by malaria and other epidemics, and trade had ceased. Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Braschi, future Pope Pius VI, at the time when he was apostolic treasurer, after the many failures in trying to decontaminate the area, induced Pope Clement XIV to take the decision to move all homes from the hollow, unhealthy areas by the lake to a higher and more liveable place, in order to be safe from the frequent floods which hit the plains. An area was identified on a wide upland in the vicinity of the old village (in a location named Gabelletta) and next brought on mandate of the Reverend Apostolic Chamber. Initially, with a signed document dated 3 June 1772, Pope Clement XIV commissioned the work of reconstruction to architect Alessandro Dori and then to architect Francesco Navone, who designed a sort of ideal city according to urban planning canons of his time. Once Pope, Pius VI made efforts to have the works completed and entrusted to Cardinal Guglielmo Pallotta, vice apostolic treasurer, the carrying out of the works. The original route of Via Cassia was modified, leaving the old village completely isolated. Water was brought and the village of San Lorenzo Nuovo was founded. The parish, the central square, the Governor's Palace (then Palazzo Comunale), and a few buildings housing about 300 people were in place in 1777. As a sign of gratitude, two years later the citizens created and put on view a marble frame in memory of the saviour and founder of the new town. On 22–23 February 1798 on his way to Florence as prisoner of the French, Pius VI had the opportunity to stop by San Lorenzo Nuovo for an address to the population. On 10 August 1929, a memorial stone was placed on the house of family Pacetti, to commemorate the visit of the prisoner pope. Bands of Giuseppe Garibaldi's followers crossed into the Papal States in September 1867 and came into fights with the Papal Zouaves. On the territory of San Lorenzo Nuovo, Monte Landro was the theatre of the defeat of Garibaldi's men. In May–June 1944, in the course of World War II, San Lorenzo Nuovo suffered aerial bombardment by Allied forces, with numerous casualties and substantial damages. In April–May 2006, to celebrate 500 years in the line of duty a group of veteran Swiss Guards marched from Switzerland, stopping in San Lorenzo Nuovo on their way to Rome. Main sights Piazza Europa Road Cassia, over the tract between Acquapendente and Bolsena, at km 124, crosses through an octagonal square, just in front of the parish church of San Lorenzo Martire. This is the centre of San Lorenzo Nuovo, Piazza Europa, a wide square regarded as an interesting example of 18th century urban planning. The artist Francesco Navone adopted an innovative technique meant to create the plan of the new town in the style of Copenhagen Amalienborg square. A sign of the originality of Navone's project was also the uniformity of the buildings. Little differences can be noticed between the nobles' and the common people's houses, the only exception being San Lorenzo Martire, which stands out of the other buildings for its considerable height. Collegiate church of San Lorenzo Martire The height parish church of San Lorenzo Martire dominates Piazza Europa. Surrounded by numerous ex-voto, a crucifix is kept in its fine chapel. It is a 12th-century Byzantine statue made of polychrome wood. On 12 October 1778 it was escorted in a solemn procession from the old village to the new church. The crucifix has been venerated ever since. Two mannerist canvases of Jacopo Zucchi, representing the Ascension and Resurrection are housed in the church. Originally constructed by Cardinal Aragona for his private chapel in Vatican, they were donated to the town by Pope Pius VI in 1777. Behind the altar, a painting by the Filippo Bracci depicts the Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence and Saint Apollinare with the Virgin Mary and child (1779). Remains of Saint Apollinare, the town's co-patron, together with the ones of Saint Lawrence and Saint Stephen, were supposedly found in ancient altar and re-entombed in the sepulcher donated by Acaste Bresciani to the new altar in 1938. The Triumph of Saint Lawrence in the apse of the church is a tempera paint composition of Testa (1940). Valuable artworks are preserved in the parish buildings. An example is the San Carlo Borromeo signed by the Italian painter Tommaso Aloysio Juvarra (1809-1875). Church of Capuchin Fathers The church of Capuchin Fathers, is a single nave building with three lateral chapels on each side. Corso Umberto I, ideally equivalent to the Royal street of Copenhagen, is a straight street connecting Piazza Europa to the church of Capuchin Fathers. The church was completed in 1784, and dedicated to a Capuchin friar, Saint Seraphim of Montegranaro. The interiors were finely decorated by the Sicilian Capuchin friar, painter and littérateur, Fidelis of San Biagio (1717–1801). He painted: Immaculate Conception with Saint Seraphim of Montegranaro, Saint Francis receiving stigmata, martyrdom of Saint Fidelis of Sigmaringen, ecstasy of Saint Lawrence of Brindisi, Sacred Family with Saint Felix of Cantalice, martyrdom of Saint Joseph of Leonessa. The painting representing the blessed Bernard of Corleone was lost during World War II. At present, the church is dedicated to the Assumption of Mary. Built in the early 18th century, it was part of a convent of the Capuchin Fathers until 1810, when all religious orders were suppressed by Napoleon I. In 1997, the church housed a photo exhibition depicting the history of the Shroud of Turin. Church of Torano The neighbouring areas feature the noticeable church of Torano, probably built after an Etruscan temple (Tyranus ager). The Virgin Mary "Turan" was honored here, named after the Etruscan goddess Turan (ruines of an Etruscan worship area were found close to the church). The building has a simple gabled facade in whose frieze stands the dedication: VIRGINI DEIPARAE DICATUM ("DEDICATED TO THE VIRGIN MOTHER OF GOD"). The only entrance door is flanked by two small windows, from which, even when the church is closed, visitors can take a look inside for a prayer or to leave a flower on the windowsill. In the eye of the pediment there is a stained glass window with the image of the Madonna. The rustic bell tower is made of tufa ashlars. Inside, the hall is plastered in white, the arches of the side chapels are in excellent handmade red tuff and the presbytery is decorated with floral motifs and architectural elements in faux marble. The nave is covered by a sail vault; the presbytery, instead, by a cross vault. From the polychrome stained-glass window of the oculus of the apse, where the monogram of Mary's name surmounted by a royal crown stands out, a warm and dazzling light enters on sunny days. The church houses a Umbrian-Latin school fresco of the Virgin Mary on the throne, with the sweetest face and the blessing Christ Child naked on his mother's knees and a carnation to the right, dating back to the 15th century (likely 1475). The Holy Trinity (top part) and the holy martyrs Agata and Apolonnia are also painted in the same fresco (valuable work by an artist of the 16th century. From the tympanum, the Holy Trinity blesses the pilgrims. Based on the memories of his Lordship Acaste Bresciani, the church is probably the remainder of an ancient Benedictine monastery. Half-size small, it was expanded in 1875 thanks to Reverend Eugenio Licca and donations and voluntary works by the population. The current face of the sacred building is mainly due to the work carried out in 1986 by the parish priest Pompeo Rossi. The Florentine terracotta floor and the buttresses supporting the vaults were made, the bell tower was consolidated, the apse walls were decorated (Ennio Luzzi, died on 30 October 1999) and a new basalt altar was consecrated with a terracotta frontal by Mario Vinci (died on 20 November 2018), depicting the Nativity of Mary. The feast of Our Lady of Torano is celebrated on 8 September. Godmothers of the feast are the "Ladies of Torano", three 16-year-old girls who are elected every year on Ascension Day by lot. Church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago Near to the lake, between San Lorenzo Nuovo and Bolsena, are ruins of the church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago (destroyed by the earthquake of 30 May 1563). The area, also known as "Civita di Grotte di Castro", was used until 1799 to host the yearly celebrations of Saint John the Baptist on 24 June. The octagonal church, dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, was rebuilt in 1563 by the architect Pietro Tartarino, an apprentice of Alberto da Sangallo. Stuccos by Ferrando Fancello are no longer present here. Park of the Grottoes It is known with this name (Parco delle Grotte) a vast area covering over most of the ancient settlement of San Lorenzo alle Grotte (and a small area of the commune of Grotte di Castro). The area extends northwards from the Lake Bolsena borders up towards the Vulsini volcanic caldera margin. The minimum elevation is at above sea level (lake border) and the maximum at on (Monte Landro), with a difference in level of . The zone is characterized by the presence of several grottoes and cavities excavated in the tuff. The biggest one is of regular shape, with a length of about . Two visit centres are meant to be located in the park: centre San Lazzaro along the Via Cassia at km 122, and centro Paese Vecchio near the ancient village. The Park is part of the Territorial Museum of Lake Bolsena, supported by Lazio Region and Viterbo Province. The Brigands' path During the 19th century the area across Latium, Umbria and Tuscany marked the southern border of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and, since 1861 the Kingdom of Italy and the States of the Church. The area included woodlands such as Selva del Lamone and Monti di Castro, with isolated caves and small rivers out of the main roads. Several brigands used to live here. One of the latest brigands of northern Latium, in action at the end of the 19th century when the area became part of the Kingdom of Italy, was Fortunato Ansuini. He was as cruel as anybody else. The most influential brigand of the zone was Domenico Tiburzi, who was called Domenichino, and was known as the King of Lamone, or the Robin Hood of Maremma. He always refused to come into alliance with Ansuini because he considered him no more than a common outlaw. Born at Norcia in 1844 from a family of farmers, Ansuini was forced by parents to work as a stonemason. He killed a man in a tavern and was sentenced to 11 years in prison in Rome. In May 1866, together with three jail-mates, he escaped through a drain. The fugitives left Rome and chose Maremma as a secure place for their furtiveness. Here, their new life had a start, made of robberies and racketeering to get weapons, bullets, and money. The gendarmes were on their traces and forced them to continuously move from one place to another, without capturing them for a long time. The soldiers could identify them with the help of a spy, and caught them while banqueting inside a cave. The outlaws surrendered soon. In April 1890, Ansuini was locked up in the fort Filippo II to the Monte Argentario. Again, he arranged for an escape together with other captives. Breaking off the chains that were keeping them blocked, they went out through the window with the help of bed sheets. The next night the brigands stormed a shepherd house near Capalbio, tied up the shepherds and raided food, money, weapons, and bullets. The bloodthirsty brigand Damiano Menichetti was part of the group. He came soon into close alliance with Ansuini, whilst the others left them. Several anecdotes are known about Ansuini. He liked to mock the gendarmes, leaving signed fliers in the same restaurants where he used to eat. Once he went elegantly dressed to Bassano in Teverina and entered the barracks of carabinieri in the name of a trade man on travel from Milan. On his request, he had an escort of two gendarmes, for personal protection during his journey. At the end he asked the two men to deliver a flyer to their commander. It came about that the commander expressed all his anger when he read the paper with the signature of Ansuini. The phenomenon of brigandage was close to being extinguished. Ansuini disappeared after a fight with carabinieri. Menichetti was captured after killing the brigadier Sebastiano Preta, and died in prison. The Brigands' Path is an historical hiking trail that follows in the footsteps of some of Italy's infamous notorious figures. It is a trail that links the Tyrrhenian Sea (area of Vulci) to the Apennine mountains of central Italy. A trail is marked in the area across Onano, Grotte di Castro, Gradoli and San Lorenzo Nuovo where the adventures of Ansuini and other brigands set their stage. Events Sagra degli Gnocchi Firstly introduced in the 1970s as a celebration of potato as the main local agricultural produce, the Gnocchi's Festival (in Italian, Sagra degli Gnocchi) is a typical mid-August event in San Lorenzo Nuovo. The town's main square is transformed into a large, open-air restaurant where the visitors can taste potato gnocchi, and other typical local recipes such as pigskin beans, tripe, and roasted sausages. A special atmosphere is created by liscio and rock orchestras in the context of cultural, sporting and religious (patron saint day and Assumption of Mary) events. Sanlorenziadi The term 'sanlorenziadi' (literally Olympic games of San Lorenzo Nuovo) refers to non-professional sporting and game competitions opposing the "yiellows" (from the colour of the contrade 'Pergolino', located eastern side from Via Cassia) to the "blues" (from the colour of the contrade 'Convento', located western side from Via Cassia). The town's central square is the main site of public games. Discontinuously taking place since the 1980s (1984, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1994, 1995), sanlorenziadi is a typical summer event. Originated from the long lasting tradition of football match Pergolino-Convento (since 2000 memorial "Antonio Cimpella"), it consists of an array of sporting competitions combined with popular games. A magnificent inaugural happening precedes the games, which attracts visitors and spectators. The summer 2007 games (21 July – 5 August), won by Pergolino, were organized by the local cultural association 'Scacciapensieri'. Sanlorenziadi edition 2008 (18 July – 3 August), jointly organized by 'Scacciapensieri' and 'Associazione Culturale Giovani Laurentini', was also won by Pergolino. As well, Pergolino won edition 2009, organized by 'Associazione Culturale Giovani Laurentini', and edition 2010. The 2011 edition was not played and was the occasion of an 'old glories' football match (won by Pergolino). Convento won the 2012 edition. 17 January, Saint Anthony the Abbot Yearly celebration of Sant'Anthony the Abbot is a typical farming feast, characterized by blessing of the animals, distribution of faba bean soup, show of chariots and animals, and snack with anchovies, Saint Anthony "biscuit" and wine. 24 June, Saint John Baptist The fair of Saint John is a popular event whose origin dates back to 1563, when allegedly St. John the Baptist appeared in front of a farmer requesting to rebuild a church on the spot where ruins of an earlier church had stood. The population met the request and the above-mentioned church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago, San Lorenzo Nuovo, a ruin now, was built. This yearly fair commemorating this event goes on the entire day of 24 June all around the central square. The 2020 edition was particular in that the need to comply with anti-covid regulations made it appropriate to identify a different location than usual: the location of Vignolo was considered the most suitable for size, logistics and landscape and 1624 entrance tickets were issued. Until the 19th century, the same fair had been having place near lake Bolsena, in the area of the church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago. 10–11 August, Saint Lawrence Martyr San Lorenzo Nuovo was named after the patron Saint Lawrence, martyr. Every year, on 10 August a solemn procession marks the highlight of the occasion according to a longstanding tradition. Moving from the parochial church, the procession carries the statue of the Saint through the village streets. The next day, a traditional fair takes place. 15 August, Assumption of the Virgin Mary The Assumption of Mary is celebrated every year by a procession in which the statue of Mary is carried from the church of Capuchin Fathers in the neighbour streets. 8 September, Virgin Mary "Turan" "Madonna di Torano" is celebrated every year according to a secular tradition. On 8 September, the so-called "Ladies of Turan" protagonize the event. They are three 16-year-old girls selected as godmothers of the feast. In the morning, they use to take off until they reach the rural church of Turan (about 1.5 km away from the centre). In the afternoon, convivial events take place in the area of the church. 14 September, Exaltation of the Holy Cross According to an ancient popular tradition, the wooden crucifix dating back to the 12th century and housed in the parochial church is object of deep veneration. Every year a religious procession is celebrated on 14 September (feast of the Very Holy Cross), but it is only every 15 years (probably since 1787) that a solemn procession takes place on the same day carrying the cross through the village streets finely decked for the occasion. This procession, celebrated in memory of the transfer of the statue from the old village to the parochial church of the new municipium (12 October 1778), is joined by the people, the representatives of the local authorities, the local band, the SS. Crocifisso Brotherhood, the flag-wavers with a parade of the historical cortege. An array of events, collectively known as "Festone" (Big Feast), span over the summer months with traditional feasts and other forms of merriment. The Festone was lastly celebrated in 2012. In 2000, on the occasion of the Great Jubilee, both civil and religious authorities took the decision for an exceptional procession, out of the habitual festivities. Famous citizens Lorenzo Cozza, friar Minor, cardinal and theologian Acaste Bresciani, Roman Catholic priest and author See also Fanum Voltumnae Gianni Bellocchi Leonardo Ambrosini {30 June 1974 – 23 February 2008} Edith Fischhof Gilboa {Israeli writer interned in San Lorenzo Nuovo during World War II} References Amministrazione Comunale, Associazione Pro Loco, Festone 1997, XXa Sagra degli Gnocchi, 1997. Comunità Montana Alta Tuscia Laziale, Il sentiero dei briganti, guida 2006. Munari Mario, San Lorenzo Nuovo – Storia della fondazione 1737–1774, Grotte di Castro, 1975. Richter Ulf – Monte Luana, Il Fanum Voltumnae: misterioso "cuore" dell'antica Etruria. Antikitera.net. Roethlisberger Marcel, Bartholomaeus Breenbergh (1600–1659). The Paintings, Berlin, 1981. Scuola Media Statale San Lorenzo Nuovo, San Lorenzo ricorda. 1945–1995, 50 anni dalla fine della guerra, 1995. External links Official website Comuni Italiani website Tourism page Lake Bolsena Mountain Community "Alta Tuscia Laziale" Tusciaweb International Association Via Francigena Associazione Culturale Giovani Laurentini Facebook \| San Lorenzo Nuovo Facebook \| San Lorenzo Nuovo Youth Committee for Marco Bottarini Viterbo

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